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The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Abraham Lincoln in the Coastal Region

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The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Abraham Lincoln in the Coastal Region

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Content Running head: ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON PARTICIPATION IN THE COSTA
RICAN NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS
AT ESCUELA ABRAHAM LINCOLN IN THE COASTAL REGION
by
Fernando Marquez
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016
Copyright 2016 Fernando Marquez
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 2
Dedication
I am so grateful to my parents, Rosa and Guadalupe, for the high expectations that they
have had for me. Their selflessness to always make education a priority has allowed me to
accomplish my dream of becoming a doctor. I understand and appreciate all of the sacrifices
made for me, mamá.
I thank my Sanecki family, Mike and Donna, for all their support throughout the program.
Those trips to pick me up at the airport, the treats after class, and their encouraging words made it
possible for me to start the program while living in Arizona. I could not have managed the
commute and maintained my sanity without their help.
Marissa and Matt are the best sister-in-law and brother-in-law I could ever have asked for.
Their kindness and generosity made this journey possible.
My sister Lisa set an example by being the first college graduate I ever knew. She helped
pave the road for me to go to college and achieve a doctoral degree. I have always looked up to
her.
I sincerely appreciate the time and sacrifices that my wife Kara made for me to complete
the doctoral program and to finish this dissertation. I thank her for being my biggest fan and for
encouraging me to continue working on my dreams.
I am glad that my son Diego came into my life while I was in the program. I hope that my
example will one day show him that he can accomplish his goals through work and dedication. I
love you, mijo!
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 3
Acknowledgments
First of all, I would like to thank Dr. Escalante for his vision and leadership in leading the
team of 18 doctoral students to conduct research in Costa Rica. This project helped to broaden
my perspective on how education is connected to the economy at large. I also thank Dr. Garcia,
Dr. Sheehan, and Dr. Verdugo for serving on my dissertation committee. It is truly an honor to
have Dr. Verdugo, my high school principal when I was a student at El Rancho High School, be
part of my committee. I would also like to thank Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft for her support as the
thematic group worked to design the study. A big thank you goes to my mentor, Dr. Jeff Wil-
liamson, who encouraged me to start the doctoral program.
I would also like to acknowledge all of my colleagues at USC who were part of the
weekend cohort. The camaraderie and learning that we shared made my 400-mile commute to
class a breeze. Finally, to Team Costa Rica 2016: I could not have completed this dissertation
without all their help. From the weekend writing sessions at Arcadia High School to the laughs
we shared in Costa Rica, I thank them! As someone very special to me once shared the words of
a Sinatra song, “The best is yet to come.”
Fight On!
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Background of the Problem 11
Globalization 11
Costa Rican Educational System 11
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Courses and Project-Based
Learning (PBL) 12
Leadership 12
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 14
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations 15
Delimitations 15
Assumptions 16
Definition of Terms 16
Organization of the Study 17
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 18
Globalization 18
Brief History of Costa Rica 22
Government 22
Economy 24
Education 26
MNCs and FDI in Costa Rica 29
Twenty-First-Century Skills 32
Instructional Practices 34
STEM 34
PBL 35
National Science and Technology Fairs 37
Professional Development 37
Theoretical Frameworks 39
Leadership 39
Change 41
Pedagogy 42
Summary of Literature Review 43
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 44
Frameworks 45
Research Design 46
Research Team 46
Sample and Population 46
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 5
Instrumentation 50
Surveys 50
Interviews 51
Observations 52
Data Collection 52
Data Analysis 53
Ethical Considerations 53
Chapter Summary 54
Chapter Four: Research Results 55
Participants 55
Results for Research Question 1 59
Leadership Matters 60
Communicating a Vision and Strategic Plan 65
Recognition and Sustainable Positive Culture 69
Results Summary for Research Question 1 74
Results for Research Question 2 74
Parental Involvement 75
Teacher Leadership 81
Results Summary for Research Question 2 85
Results for Research Question 3 85
Training and Professional Development 86
Prioritizing Instruction 91
Results Summary for Research Question 3 97
Results for Research Question 4 97
Scientific Method and Inquiry Practices 98
Student Collaboration 101
Results Summary for Research Question 4 103
Chapter Summary 104
Chapter Five: Discussion 106
Purpose of the Study Restated 107
Research Questions 107
Summary of Findings 108
Research Question 1 109
Research Question 2 110
Research Question 3 111
Research Question 4 113
Implications for Practice 114
Recommendations for Future Research 115
Conclusions 116
References 117
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 122
Appendix B: Summary of the Research Proposal 123
Appendix C: List of Research Sites 124
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 6
Appendix D: Consent Form 125
Appendix E: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 127
Appendix F: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 129
Appendix G: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and
Spanish Versions 131
Appendix H: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 133
Appendix I: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 135
Appendix J: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 137
Appendix K: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 141
Appendix L: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 145
Appendix M: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 149
Appendix N: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 153
Appendix O: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 157
Appendix P: Observation Protocol 161
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 7
List of Tables
Table 1: School A1 Survey Data Regarding Research Question 1 61
Table 2: School A1 Survey Data Regarding Research Question 2 76
Table 3: School A1 Survey Data Regarding Research Question 3 87
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Percentages representing Coastal Region teachers’ beliefs regarding Research
Question 1 62
Figure 2: Percentages representing School A1 and Coastal Region teachers’ and students’
beliefs regarding Research Question 1 67
Figure 3: Percentages representing beliefs of School A1 teachers, students, and parents
regarding Research Question 1 as related to student recognition 70
Figure 4: Percentages representing Costa Rican Coastal Region parents’ beliefs regarding
Research Question 2 77
Figure 5: Percentages representing Costa Rican Coastal Region teachers’ beliefs regarding
Research Question 2 82
Figure 6: Percentages representing Costa Rican Coastal Region teachers’ beliefs regarding
Research Question 3 and soft skills 88
Figure 7: Percentages representing Costa Rican Coastal Region teachers’ beliefs regarding
Research Question 3 and PBL 92
Figure 8: Percentages representing beliefs of teachers, students, and parents at School
A1 regarding Research Question 4 as related to scientific inquiry 99
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 9
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify the role that Costa Rican educational leaders
play in implementing the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional
de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) initiative. The study provides an examina-
tion of leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at
various primary school sites as a means to identify key components of the successful implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. This study applied three theoretical frameworks from
academic literature to identify instructional and leadership practices in Costa Rican schools as
they relate to the PRONAFECYT. Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal’s framework guided leader-
ship analysis; John Kotter’s work provided a framework for change practices; and the work of
Robert Capraro and his colleagues provided a lens to explore instructional practices.
Costa Rican school leaders, government officials, business partners, teachers, students,
and parents were interviewed and surveyed for this study. The findings indicated that a cohesive
vision that is communicated to all school-level stakeholders would lead to higher levels of par-
ticipation in the PRONAFECYT by primary schools. Developing 21st-century skills in coordi-
nation with STEM and PBL also increases participation in the PRONAFECYT. This study
benefits the Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education and the Ministry of Science, Technology,
and Telecommunication as they create programs to develop 21st-century skills that focus on
having the country compete in the global knowledge economy.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Globalization, which includes the exchange of commerce, ideas, and, notably, educa-
tional practice, has created an increasingly interconnected world (Ritzer, 2011). One result of
globalization is the rise of multinational corporations (MNCs), which has occurred over the last
half century. MNCs operate in countries that feature the most favorable environment for a
business to succeed. One such condition that fosters MNC growth in a country is the supply of a
qualified labor force. Countries that can meet the labor demands of MNCs are able attract
foreign direct investment (FDI). Through FDI, countries can improve the economic circum-
stance of their citizens. Maintaining FDI viability requires that the next-generation labor force be
trained with the skills needed to compete in a global 21st-century marketplace.
Over the last 30 years in Costa Rica, MNCs have helped to transform the economy from
an agriculture-dependent system to one that is knowledge based (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Companies’ choice to invest in Costa Rica has been based on the human capital that is available
to meet the knowledge-based needs of FDI. Nevertheless, increased competition from other
countries for FDI has led to a need for knowledge-intensive workers in Costa Rica (Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2012). As a result, government and
education leaders have been tasked with preparing the next generation of the labor force with
21st-century skills.
This study focused on the educational policy changes that have taken place in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization. Specifically, the study provides an investigation into the changes at
the primary school level due to the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) initiative.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 11
Background of the Problem
Globalization
World societies are now more interconnected and interdependent than ever before
(Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). The term globalization describes the flow of information in
education, politics, and economics across the globe (Ritzer, 2011). Technology has been a
catalyst in the spread of information, which allows national economies to become interwoven.
Further, through FDI, countries that were once isolated due to their size or other limiting circum-
stances are now able to engage in the world economy. As noted, continued participation in the
global economy requires that educational practices prepare the next generation of knowledge-
based workers (Spring, 2008).
Costa Rican Educational System
One of the most appealing factors for an MNC to invest in Costa Rica is the country’s
educational system. Since 1869, Costa Rica has provided free and compulsory education, and the
country has a 96% literacy rate. Further, Costa Rica invests 6% of its GDP in education, thus
guaranteeing a baseline funding level that is attractive to MNCs (Costa Rica Investment Promo-
tion Agency [CINDE], 2013).
In response to the needs of MNCs, Costa Rican political leaders have created policies to
move education toward 21st-century skills. One such policy is Law 7169, which requires all
schools to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT (Intel, 2014). Other programs that
meet the demands of MNCs include students’ having the opportunity to attend technical schools.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 12
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Courses and Project-Based Learning
(PBL)
STEM courses that use PBL provide the foundation for the development of 21st-century
skills such as critical thinking and collaboration (Capraro, Capraro, & Morgan, 2013). In a PBL
framework, students complete projects that are rooted in real-life problems. The PRONAFECYT
initiative, which involves STEM PBL, provides a means to develop such skills.
Capraro et al. (2013) contended that STEM PBL aids in the development of critical
thinking skills, which are essential for college. As such, the PBL instructional approach can be
extended to a variety of subjects. A true PBL framework provides for the integration of multiple
subjects that emphasize cross-curricular, problem-solving skills. The freedom to tackle a prob-
lem from multiple viewpoints promotes student engagement while developing 21st-century skills
(Capraro et al., 2013).
Leadership
Leadership is an important factor for success in organizations, particularly ones that are
undergoing change (Kotter, 1996). The PRONAFECYT initiative is a change that requires a
certain type of leadership. Kotter contended that a successful change process is achieved by
following an eight-step approach: (a) establishing a sense of urgency, (b) creating the guiding
coalition, (c) developing a vision and strategy, (d) communicating the change vision, (e) empow-
ering broad-based action, (f) generating short-term wins, (g) consolidating gains and producing
more change, and (h) anchoring new approaches in the culture.
Success leadership also can occur through an understanding of Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
four-frame approach. These authors presented four frames or lenses through which leadership
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 13
can be perceived or expressed: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. Using this
approach, leaders can frame or reframe a problem as a means to address it.
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). For a nation to succeed in an ever increasingly interconnected global economy,
changes to the local economy and education system must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz,
1999; Friedman, 2007). Specifically, students need to develop 21st-century skills to compete in
an increasingly global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008), and educational systems must
foster such skills.
Since its independence and the abolishment of its military in 1859, Costa Rica has placed
its primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the 30 years prior to 2015,
Costa Rica has adapted and transitioned from a rural, agrarian society to a high-tech hub of
innovation in Latin America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated
actions designed to attract FDI that have included tax incentives and investments in infrastructure
as well as changes to the educational system (OECD, 2012).
To continue attracting FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools to
produce knowledge- and conceptual-based workers with STEM skills in addition to essential
21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In this regard, to ensure a 100% literacy
rate by 2017, all students must be guaranteed equitable educational access to rigorous, project-
based educational outcomes in all schools (CINDE, 2012). Nevertheless, according to Americas
Society and Council of the Americas (2011), 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish
their secondary school experience.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 14
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the role that educational leaders play in imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study provides an examination of leadership prac-
tices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at various school sites as a
means to identify key components of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initia-
tive.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Significance of the Study
School leaders around the world are challenged with preparing students to meet the
workforce demands of the 21st-century, which are driven by the economic pressures of globaliza-
tion. Countries such as Costa Rica that rely on FDI for economic growth and sustainability are
under greater pressure to prepare their students with 21st-century workforce skills. As such,
programs to promote STEM and 21st-century skills have been implemented in Costa Rica.
School leaders should benefit from the findings of this study in terms of gaining insight into
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 15
leadership and instructional practice at other schools in Costa Rica. In addition, the Ministry of
Public Education (MEP) should benefit from the study through the identification of leadership
and instructional practices that bring about the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative at the primary school level across the country.
Limitations
The following were limitations to this study:
1. Primary data collection in Costa Rica was limited to 10 days.
2. The distance from Los Angeles, California, to San José, Costa Rica, prevented the
researchers from making multiple trips to collect data.
3. Communication had the potential to be an issue because not all members of the
research team were fully bilingual.
4. All participating schools were primary schools within a few hours’ drive of the San
José metropolitan area. As such, the findings are not generalizable to all schools in Costa Rica.
5. Validity and reliability of the study were based on the reliability of the data collection
instruments.
Delimitations
The following delimitations applied to this study:
1. Schools chosen for the study were from a list provided by the MEP. Contact and
coordination between the research team and the schools were facilitated by the MEP.
2. Study participants were limited to those who consented to participating in an inter-
view or survey.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 16
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made:
1. That school leaders who participated in the study provided truthful information, and
2. That classroom observations were genuine and not staged to present instructional
practices to highlight the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined:
FDI: Investment by a company in a country outside of the company’s home base (Fried-
man, 2007).
Globalization: Increased economic interdependence among nations. It refers to the
movement of people, ideas, customs, and products across international borders (Spring, 2008).
MNCs: Companies that operate in more than one country and are typically large corpora-
tions that produce goods or services in different countries.
PBL: A learning framework that is guided through a problem-solving approach. Stu-
dents’ learning is driven by projects that are cross-curricular and can incorporate STEM con-
cepts, language arts, social studies, and art (Capraro et al., 2013).
STEM: The integration of science, technology, engineering, and math in a curriculum
based on the idea of educating students in these four disciplines, using an interdisciplinary and
applied approach.
Twenty-first-century skills: The essential skills that are needed to compete in a global
economy (Wagner, 2010). These skills include critical thinking and problem solving, collabora-
tions across networks, leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative, and
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 17
entrepreneuralism, effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing informa-
tion, and curiosity and imagination.
Organization of the Study
The dissertation is comprised of five chapters. Chapter 1 provided an overview of the
study: an introduction, background of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, sig-
nificance of the study, limitations, delimitations, assumptions, and definition of terms.
Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature on the effects of globalization in economies
and education, instructional practices of STEM and PBL, 21st-century skills, and leadership and
change practices. The chapter also includes a history of Costa Rica as it pertains to politics,
economics, and education as well as the three theoretical frameworks that formed the basis for
this study: leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2008), change process (Kotter, 1996), and instructional
practices in STEM and PBL (Capraro et al., 2013).
Chapter 3 presents the research methodology that was used in this study. Included are a
discussion of the appropriateness of a qualitative approach and the details of the method of
inquiry, along with a discussion of the instrumentation that was used to the collect data, the
procedures to analyze the data, and the sample and population.
Chapter 4 presents the research findings from the data collection. Also included is an
analysis of the data with regard to each specific research question. The final chapter, Chapter 5,
presents and summarizes the findings of the overall study and provides implications for future
research.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 18
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Globalization has ushered in an era in which markets and national economies transcend
local borders (Friedman, 2007). Competition fueled by globalization has placed certain demands
on the labor force, such as the need to acquire 21st-century skills to compete in a global economy
(Spring, 2008). Countries such as Costa Rica, which vie for economic opportunities from FDI,
must adapt their labor force to market conditions (OECD, 2012), and the preparation of
knowledge-based workers often involves changes to a country’s education policy. One change to
Costa Rican educational policy has been the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The literature presented in this chapter supports the need for Costa Rica’s
PRONAFECYT in terms of students developing 21st-century skills. The first section concerns
globalization and its impact on education. The second section provides a brief history of Costa
Rica’s political, educational, and economic systems. The third section focuses on 21st-century
skills, and the fourth concerns the educational practices that facilitate the implementation of such
skills. These practices include an emphasis on STEM classes, PBL, the Costa Rican national
science fairs, and professional development. The final section presents the three frameworks that
serve as the foundation for this study: Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework, Kotter’s
(1996) best practices for change, and STEM and PBL approaches developed by Capraro et al.
(2013).
Globalization
The term globalization drives policy changes in various areas. In order to gain a better
understanding of globalization for this study, the definitions that are provided by Friedman
(2007) and the World Bank (2012) used. According to the World Bank, “globalization refers to
the growing interdependence of countries resulting from increasing integration of trade, finance,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 19
people, and ideas in one global marketplace” (p. 1). It is under the backdrop of what Friedman
referred to as the flattening of the world whereby nations compete in a global economy.
In a more detail perspective, Friedman (2007) categorized globalization into three differ-
ent eras. Globalization 1.0 was an era that lasted from 1492 when Columbus set sail, opening
trade between the Old World and the New World, until 1800. Countries exploring the globe
spearheaded this first era. Globalization in this era shrank the world from a size large to a size
medium. Globalization 2.0, Friedman claimed, was an era from 1800 to 2000. Multinational
companies piloted this second era of globalization and shrank the world from a medium size to a
small size. The third era, Globalization 3.0, Friedman asserted, began around the year 2000 and
shrank the world from a size small to tiny, thus creating a flat surface. Individuals collaborating
and competing shaped Globalization 3.0.
However, Chanda (2007) contested that globalization is a much older phenomenon.
Globalization is something that sprang from the early movement of humans out of Africa around
the globe. Economic principles that are considered the cornerstone of globalization today were
part of a second phase. Commerce and globalization were transformed by the advent of the ship.
Transportation is what created optimal conditions for the formation of the first MNCs. Adding to
transportation, the rapid exchange of information accelerated the rate of globalization. The
microchip is what Chanda proclaimed has driven the information revolution to power modern
globalization.
In reconciling the perspectives of Chanda (2007) and Friedman (2007), it is clear that
globalization has brought economies closer together. Through globalization, local economies
that have actively participated in the shift have transformed into modern. information-producing
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 20
nations. Developing a qualified labor force that can flourish in a global economy stems from a
nation’s education system (Spring, 2008).
While globalization is most often associated with economics, the impact is farther
reaching. These changes trickle down to other sectors in a country. Nations’ education systems
are now connected by the competition to produce a qualified labor force that can meet the
demands of globalization (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008; Zakaria, 2011).
In terms of education, Spring (2008) defined the globalization of education as worldwide
discussions, processes, and institutions affecting local educational practices and policies. These
practices influence the curricular choices that departments of education make across the globe.
Global education rankings, as measured by institutions such as the OECD, carry substantial
weight when making education policy decisions. Competing under fixed criteria leads to biases
toward the dominant culture.
Globalization in education is biased toward Western culture. For example, Zakaria
(2011) illustrated that most of the top universities in the world are located in the United States.
Specifically, of the top 50 universities, over 27 are located in the United States. Having only 5%
of the world’s population, the United States dominates higher education. This disparity is
attributed to the relatively large investment that the United States makes in higher education.
The United States invests 2.6% of its GDP in higher education compared to 1.2% in Europe and
1.1% in Japan (Zakaria, 2011). Not only is there a Western bias, but also Spring (2008) affirmed
that the globalization of education imposes an economic and political benefit for wealthy nations
that comes at the expense of the world’s poor.
Although there exists a bias toward wealthy Western nations in the globalization of
education, there are several models of education that Spring (2008) pointed to that are more
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 21
sensitive to the local culture. In an economic education world model, education is an investment
for the future of the nation’s economic workforce and development. The economic education
world model is characterized by learning English, using skill-based instruction that is measured
by standardized tests, and educational success that is measured by growth and development.
Spring’s progressive education model is characterized by active learning based on student
interest. The local languages are honored, and social justice is the benchmark for success. A
religious education world model emphasizes the study of religious texts, emphasizes instilling
moral and ethical standards in a spiritual context, and rejects secularism. The final model of
education in a global context that Spring proposed is the indigenous education world model.
Under this model, education reflects the local culture; native language is used for instruction, and
the curriculum is based on indigenous traditions.
Whether a particular country chooses to focus on Western education, local traditions, or a
combination of both, it is competing in a global knowledge economy that is dependent on skills
that shift labor resources from blue-collar to white-collar jobs. In a global context, postsecondary
education is one of the most influential in determining economic factors in productivity (Spring,
2008). Benchmarks of a successful education system rooted in globalization include several
principles that define the parameters of a knowledge economy, as defined by the World Bank
(Spring, 2008): literacy skills, learning in different groups, and instructional practices.
There is a history of countries that have failed to adapt educational practices to the
demands of globalization. Zakaria (2011) pointed to the decline of the British Empire as an
example of failing to adapt in a global economy. He suggested that the educational system
should be focused on history and literature rather than the sciences, which are key for growth. In
essence, the British Empire failed to produce students capable of innovative thought.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 22
Education policy decisions are now framed under a global context. Global organizations
such as the World Bank and the OECD impact the local education system through their resources
and rankings. With the World Bank being the largest funder in education, nations wishing to
compete in a globalized marketplace are forced to consider the educational model by which they
teach their citizens (Spring, 2008). Countries such as Costa Rica attempt to stay relevant in a
global economy by seeking to develop a qualified, knowledge-based labor force.
Brief History of Costa Rica
Because this study takes place in Costa Rica, it is valuable to have an understanding of
the country. This section presents information on the country’s government, economy, and
educational system.
Government
Costa Rica gained its independence from Spain in 1821. For 2 years after gaining inde-
pendence from Spain, Costa Rica joined the Mexican Empire along with other Central American
states. When the Mexican Empire dissolved, Costa Rica joined other Central American nations
to form the United Provinces of Central America. During this period, from 1823 to 1838, Costa
Rica elected Juan Mora Fernandez as the first head of state. During his time in power, an elite
class of coffee barons began to develop (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
Costa Rica became a fully independent country in 1838, after which it began to benefit
from the exporting of coffee. From 1850 to 1890, coffee exports accounted for as much as 90%
of the country’s export earnings. Initially, only the Central Valley in and around San José reaped
the benefits of the coffee trade, but agricultural growth and the coffee-processing business
eventually benefitted the entire country. In particular, the coffee barons benefitted because they
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 23
controlled the credit, purchase price, and processing facilities that, in effect, enabled them to run
the country (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
The coffee boom shaped early government power structures in Costa Rica. In 1847, José
Maria Castro Madriz was elected the first president of Costa Rica. During his 2 years in office,
he sought to regulate businesses but the coffee barons overthrew him. After Madriz was ousted,
Juan Rafael Mora was president for the next 10 years. Mora was a coffee baron who used his
influence and political power to expand the coffee agriculture business. He privatized land to the
benefit of the bourgeoisie and solidified the Central Valley as the foundation of Costa Rica.
Mora was eventually ousted in a coup in 1859 (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
A decade after Mora lost power, Costa Rica General Tomas Guardia became president by
appointment by the Constitutional Assembly. Under Guardia’s government, Costa Rica enacted
progressive reforms in education, military policy, and taxation. Notably, Article 78 of Costa
Rica’s Constitution of 1871 made schooling free and mandatory. Guardia also broke up the
agricultural monopoly held by the coffee barons at the time. His strategy involved encouraging
the planting of banana crops in the Caribbean lowlands for export to the United States (Palmer &
Molina, 2004).
Costa Rica moved from a monocrop to a duocrop export nation. Another strategy to
develop the banana business was to use the failed commuter railroad as a way to export bananas
to the United States. Bananas were transported on the railroad to the Province of Limon for
export. Due to its geographical location, Limon became an agribusiness center. In 1871, the
United Fruit Company began to gain influence in Costa Rican politics and government (Palmer
& Molina, 2004).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 24
Costa Rica experienced power struggles that included multiple presidential coups and
uprisings by banana workers, for the half century after Guardia’s death in 1882. The tension
culminated in the 44-day Costa Rican Civil War, after which, in 1944, a new constitution was
adopted. The modern government that was established by the constitution gave women and
Blacks the right to vote, nationalized banks, banned the Communist party, and established presi-
dential term limits (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
In the 1980s, Costa Rica faced pressures from a sharp economic decline and threats from
regional instability in Central America. Luis Alberto Monge was elected to the presidency in
1982 and began to implement strict programs in the face of the nation’s sharp, 5-year economic
decline. Following Monge, in 1986, Oscar Arias Sánchez became the Costa Rican president.
Sánchez helped to end civil wars in El Salvador and Nicaragua. For his efforts, Sánchez was
awarded the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize. His popularity with the Costa Rican people led to his
subsequent election as president in 2006. In 2010, Laura Chinchilla was elected president. The
current president, elected in 2014, is Luis Guillermo Solís (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
Economy
Understanding the change that Costa Rica has made from an agrarian economy to a
modern economy is important to this study (OECD, 2012; Palmer & Molina, 2004). Economic
change was fostered through changes in educational policies and governmental leadership. The
need to develop a national science fair originated from the country’s economic needs.
Costa Rica has moved from a nation providing primary goods to an economy at the
forefront of advanced manufacturing in Latin America fueled by FDI (OECD, 2012). This is
evidenced by the fact that over the last half century, Costa Rica has shifted from an agriculture-
dependent economy that relied on coffee and banana exports to a high-tech exporter. Between
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 25
1970 and 1979, coffee and banana exports accounted for over 65% of the country’s total exports
(OECD, 2012). While the two cash crops provided employment, they limited Costa Rica’s
economic growth. Under these market conditions, the nation’s economy was at the mercy of
external price shocks.
Before arriving at a knowledge-based economy, Costa Rica followed an import substitu-
tion model to displace imports by national industries from the 1950s to the 1970s (OECD, 2012).
Along with import substitution, a global economic downturn characterized the 1980s as a lost
decade throughout Latin America (OECD, 2012). In 1983 Costa Rica met the economic chal-
lenge by establishing CINDE, a private, nonprofit organization. CINDE served as the first
investment promotion agency in Latin America and provided Costa Rica with a branding strategy
to potential investors (Cordero & Paus, 2008). Prominent Costa Rican business leaders with the
support of the Costa Rican government and grant funding from the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) created CINDE (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). What CINDE
offers investors is support from preinvestment to aftercare services once the agency has invested
in the Costa Rican economy (OECD, 2012). Originally CINDE aimed to attract agriculture and
unskilled labor FDI. However, with the passing of the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) in the early 1990s, Costa Rica began to lose its competitive advantage in the unskilled
manufacturing sector (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In 1993 CINDE developed a strategic plan to
attract investment in the electrical, electric, and telecommunication sectors. This strategy aimed
to maximize skilled labor that Costa Rica could supply to potential investors at a relatively low
cost.
CINDE has become highly sophisticated and diversified over the last 30 years. The
agency has helped Costa Rica move from just a few exported products to other Central American
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 26
countries to more than 4,000 products to 145 countries (OECD, 2012). CINDE makes a con-
scious effort to promote a positive brand name for Costa Rica throughout the world (Trejos,
2013). In addition, CINDE has ushered in economic industrial changes that range from very
simple activities to more complex ones that use high technology and sophisticated human capital
(CINDE, 2013). A sign of a changing economy within Costa Rica is that since 1999, information
technology (IT) and IT-enabled services have continued to increase while agriculture has de-
creased when measured by total percentage of gross national product (GDP; CINDE, 2013).
One of the pillars of Costa Rica’s economic development has been trade liberalization,
which has allowed exports to surpass its 30% ratio of GDP in 1980 to a 37% rate in 2012
(CINDE, 2012). This trade liberalization has been followed by a series of structural changes that
have led to a productive transformation, diversification of the economy, and a higher level of
investment.
Education
Education in Costa Rica has been woven into the fiber of the nation since 1869, when it
was made free and compulsory (Palmer & Molina, 2004). The Colegio de Senoritas was founded
in 1889 with the constitutional mandate to educate the citizens of Costa Rica. The goal of the
Colegio was to train schoolteachers for a new public education system. Not only have teachers
played an important part in educating the children of Costa Rica, but they also have played a role
in shaping the country’s politics. For example, female educators and normal school students led
an uprising to overthrow the coffee baron, Federico Tinoco Granados, from the presidency in
1919 (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
Costa Rican public education is a nationalized institution under the authority of the MEP,
which controls everything from supplies to curriculum. The leader of the MEP is the education
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 27
minister, who is appointed by the president. As of May 2014, Sonia Marta Mora Escalante has
been the education minister. One of her responsibilities is to head the Superior Council of
Education, the organization that makes decisions related to policy and curriculum (Biesanz et al.,
1999).
Labor costs account for 98% of the MEP’s budget (Biesanz et al., 1999). To provide
sufficient resources to guarantee universal access to quality education, the government is consti-
tutionally required to allocate at least 8% of the country’s GDP to educational programs annually
(CINDE, 2012). Secondary education is funded at the same level as the rest of Latin America, in
which the ratio of expenditure per student to GDP per capita is 15% (OECD, 2012).
The Costa Rican school system is divided into cycles that cover multiple grades. The first
9 years of a student’s education is divided into three cycles (Biesanz et al., 1999). Cycle 1
includes Grades 1–3; Cycle 2, Grades 4–6; and Cycle 3, Grades 7–9. The first two cycles are
considered primary schooling, during which all students take Spanish, math, social studies, and
science. Cycle 3 (Grades 7–9) is considered secondary school. When students make the transi-
tion to secondary school, they are placed in either an academic school or a technical school. All
students in Cycle 3, regardless of school track, take the following subjects: Spanish, English,
French, math, social studies, religion, civics, science, and electives. Academic secondary schools
prepare students for college by awarding a diploma after Grade 11. Technical schools prepare
students for service, industrial, or agriculture jobs. Some parts of the country, however, offer
students only a technical school option (Biesanz et al., 1999). In their last year of study, students
are required to pass a test on all subjects that were taught during their secondary schooling.
Passing the comprehensive exam yields a bachilerato, which is required for admission to univer-
sities. Despite having two secondary schooling tracks, 20% to 30% of students do not finish
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 28
secondary school (Americas Society & Council of the Americas, 2011). Secondary enrollment in
Costa Rica at 89% is lower than the percentage of other OECD countries (OECD, 2012).
Costa Rica’s school year runs from February to December. Despite the fact that the
school year encompasses 11 calendar months, Costa Rica has one of the shortest school years in
the world at 176 days. In addition, school is frequently canceled for sporting events, teacher
meetings, holidays, and festivals (Biesanz et al., 1999). Because schools in poor areas are over-
crowded, they have a shortened day schedule that is broken up into two 5-hour shifts (CINDE,
2012). Even with such a short school year, Costa Rica has a 96.1% literacy rate, and the quality
of education is ranked 21st in the world (United Nations, 2014).
Higher education offerings in Costa Rica include 59 universities, five of which are public
and the rest privately owned and managed (CINDE, 2012). The UCR leads in annual enrollment
among higher education institutions. High enrollment at UCR relative to other universities in
Costa Rica is due, in part, to the range of degrees offered and the number of career choices
(CINDE, 2014). UCR, founded in 1842, is considered one of the best universities, public or
private. At UCR, tuition is charged on an 11-point scale according to income, and approximately
1 in 4 students pay nothing to attend the university. Throughout Costa Rica, the state, not student
tuition, pays most of the cost for a 4-year public university education. Overall, higher education
is well funded in Costa Rica, at 37% GDP per capita, as compared to the rest of Latin America
(OECD, 2012).
One of the challenges at the higher education level in Costa Rica has been the lack of
advanced degree programs in science and technology. Prior to 2014, the country did not have
any PhD courses in engineering or electronics. Most of the PhDs awarded by Costa Rican
universities are in the social sciences (OECD, 2012).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 29
A new initiative to position Costa Rica as an economically viable and attractive location
for FDI is the National English Plan. The plan was put into place as a response for the country’s
need for citizens to be proficient in English, and the goal is for 100% English literacy by 2017.
Within the scope of the plan are the review and implementation of programs and educational
methodologies, including educating and to training teachers. Training and education programs
are offered for all levels of students and professionals. The National English Plan also includes
the offering of professional certifications for different levels of English proficiency (CINDE,
2012).
Costa Rica faced a threat to its educational prominence in the 1980s due to falling sec-
ondary school enrollment rates. The 1980s are considered a lost decade for education in Costa
Rica. One educational policy of the 1980s to increase school enrollment and graduation rates
was to install computer labs in schools. The objective was to help students with the general
learning process, not just to learn technical skills. By the end of the 1990s, Costa Rican second-
ary school enrollment rates eventually recovered to pre-1980s levels. An unintended conse-
quence of the computer lab policy was a new generation of citizens who had developed computer
technical skills. These newly acquired skills proved to be a windfall to the country’s economic
development in the 21st-century (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Costa Rica’s commitment to education and its graduates who can speak English and work
in technical fields have made it an attractive location for foreign investment. Both of these
factors are a result of educational policy and practices in the country.
MNCs and FDI in Costa Rica
MNCs have had a history of involvement in Costa Rica since the time that the country
was a primary goods exporter. More recent FDI by MNCs in Costa Rica have been in the
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 30
knowledge-based economic sectors. For example, in 1982, the top two exported goods were
coffee and bananas. In contrast, by 2012, the top two exported goods were components for
microprocessors, along with precision and medical equipment. According to the World Bank
(2012), 40% of all exports from Costa Rica are considered high-tech exports, which is the highest
percentage in all of Latin America.
Costa Rica is an attractive location for MNCs to invest in due to the country’s long-
standing democracy and stable macroeconomic environment in Latin America (OECD, 2012).
Geographically, its location in the center of the Americas, along with access to shipping ports on
two coasts, adds to the benefit of MNCs that choose to invest in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2013).
Most jobs that were created from 2005 to 2011 were a result of FDI from U.S.-based invest-
ments, but FDI capital expenditures during that period fluctuated from over a dozen countries
(OECD, 2012). FDI in Costa Rica reached $2.46 billion in 2013 (CINDE, 2013). Overall, FDI
has contributed greatly to Costa Rica’s development by fostering export diversification and
business capabilities as well as creating more and better jobs (OECD, 2012).
Ushering in FDI has been accomplished by the work of CINDE, along with a few other
government entities. The Costa Rican Ministry of Foreign Trade (COMEX), and the Foreign
Trade Promotion Agency of Costa Rica (PROCOMER; Costa Rica’s trade promotion agency)
have played a role in attracting FDI. COMEX has promoted a competitive business climate for
export promotion, and PROCOMER has fostered the quantitative and qualitative growth of
exports by providing flexibility within the usually rigid rules of the Costa Rican state (CINDE,
2013). These agencies have worked to promote FDI that, in turn, has contributed greatly to Costa
Rica’s development. The collaboration has fostered export diversification and upgrading,
creation of more and better jobs, and the accumulation of business capabilities (OECD, 2012).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 31
The incentives to invest in Costa Rica not only involve geographic location and a quali-
fied labor force but also economic advantages. One of the most significant reasons that MNCs
have to invest in Costa Rica is the Free Trade Zone (FTZ) throughout the central valley (CINDE,
2013; OECD, 2012). Some of the benefits of the FTZ include complete tax exemptions for
importing raw materials and equipment, along with no local sales tax, export taxes, or excise
taxes. As noted, FDI has led to the increased exportation of goods and services, which has
increased 13 times over the last 30 years. As of 2013, exports reached almost 40% of the Costa
Rican GDP (CINDE, 2013) and constitute the main source of new job creation in Costa Rica.
While job creation has been fueled by MNCs, most jobs are, in large part, in high-technology
FDI. This sector is responsible for most of the changes in Costa Rica’s export industry (CINDE,
2013). As a result of high-tech, knowledge-based FDI, Costa Rica’s economy has increased the
number of value-added services from 12% in 1999 to 48% in 2011 (CINDE, 2013).
The three main FDI sectors in Costa Rica are advanced manufacturing, services, and
medical devices. All of these sectors require employees to have a high-technology skillset. As of
2012, MNCs in the three major sectors, including Intel, Hewlitt Packard (HP), Procter & Gam-
ble, Baxter, and IBM, employ over 66,000 people (OECD, 2012).
Currently, the FDI climate of Costa Rica has limited research and development along
with little innovation in the private sector. When compared to other FDI-intensive economies,
Costa Rica ranks low in trademark applications, meaning that limited innovation is occurring in
the country. This is an indicator for an economy on the move to the next level of FDI. Countries
are considered to be in a horizontal, selective, or systemic approach with respect to attracting
FDI. A horizontal approach is one in which the country does not prioritize FDI and is simply
looking to increase FDI and create jobs. Selective FDI countries are those looking to increase
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 32
FDI in certain business clusters or sectors; systemic FDI countries are characterized by wanting
to create skilled jobs and increase national technology (OECD, 2012).
Within the three approaches to attracting FDI described by the OECD (2012), Costa Rica
is in the selective category. More innovation and the creation of skilled jobs are what will place
Costa Rica with competing FDI countries, such as Malaysia and Ireland, in the selective category.
Moving to the next vertical category of FDI will require the development of 21st-century skills
by the next generation of Costa Rica’s labor force.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Increased competition for FDI in a global economy has led to the demand for new skills
from the labor force. These skills are referred to as 21st-century skills or soft skills (Friedman,
2007; Voogt & Roblin, 2010; Wagner, 2010, 2012). Identifying, cultivating, and applying 21st-
century skills are essential for the continued development of Costa Rica’s economy.
According to Wagner (2010), students in the 21st century must be proficient in the fol-
lowing seven survival skills: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration across networks
and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurship, effective oral
and written communication skills, the ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and
imagination. Proficiency in the survival skills allows students to participate in a global knowl-
edge economy.
Friedman (2007) contended that new jobs will require people who can synthesize dispa-
rate information. People who have been trained to synthesize will be able to create from materi-
als and ideas that would not be thought of as going together. A function of 21st-century skills is
not just the ability to see and understand complexity but being able to explain it with simplicity.
These people are leaders who think, communicate, collaborate, and execute ideas. By the very
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 33
nature of Friedman’s idea of 21st-century skills, people are able to solve problems. Solutions to
complex problems are quick to develop and are targeted never to have the problem reoccur.
In addition to Friedman (2007) and Wagner (2010, 2012), Voogt and Roblin (2010) have
found 21st-century skills to include elements of collaboration, communication, literacy in infor-
mation and computer technology (ICT), developing social competence, and critical thinking.
However, Voogt and Roblin differed from Friedman and Wagner (2010, 2012) because they
asserted that the core of 21st-century skills is ICT. Voogt and Roblin argued that ICT is the
reason for 21st- century skills and the tool to develop new skills. Implementing 21st-century
skills requires different assessments. These assessments not only monitor the implementation of
the skills but also evaluate student outcomes in terms of 21st-century skills.
Developing these 21st-century skills involves programmatic structures that integrate
academic and real-world learning. Rogers-Chapman and Darling-Hammond (2013) asserted that
linked learning in schools fosters 21st-century skill development. The concept of linked learning
is to integrate classroom learning with real-world applications. This goal is accomplished by
having high school students complete career-based theme paths that place them in work-based
learning within the labor force while they are still in school. In addition to gaining 21st-century
job skills, students who participate in linked learning programs are more likely to attend college
(Rogers-Chapman & Darling-Hammond, 2013).
Wagner (2012) also claimed that developing 21st-century skills goes beyond adding more
classroom seat time. Transforming the culture of an education system yields students who can
innovate and apply 21st-century skills. These new learning environments develop in students
qualities of perseverance, experimentation, and calculated risk, in addition to critical thinking.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 34
Identifying 21st-century skills is an essential element for competition in a global econ-
omy. Creating student learning environments that foster critical thinking, problem solving,
adaptability, solid communication skills, real-world application, and ICT literacy are key. In
addition, having the ability to practice new skills in a real-world context augments student
learning and 21st-century skill development (Rogers-Chapman & Darling-Hammond, 2013).
Creating an educational system that develops 21st-century skills through policy and practice is
important for Costa Rica’s renewed success in developing a knowledge-based economy.
Instructional Practices
Costa Rica’s competitiveness in a global economy is dependent upon the supply of a
skilled knowledge and conceptually based labor force in the country. To this end, this section
concerns the instructional practices that foster such a labor force. For students, these practices
include STEM, PBL, and participation in the Costa Rican National Science Fairs. For teachers
and administrators, it involves professional development.
STEM
Costa Rica’s competitiveness in a global economy is dependent upon the supply of a
skilled knowledge and conceptually based labor force in the country. STEM jobs are the corner-
stone to sustaining economic growth in Costa Rica (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The development
of STEM skills begins in primary schools.
The STEM area is a critical point of emphasis in schools. Holbrook (2008) contended
that the demand in the labor market for qualified candidates to fill new and innovative STEM
jobs is not being met by the current supply. With the flattening of the globe due to globalization,
STEM is an economic necessity for countries to remain competitive in a global economy.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 35
According to Breiner, Harkness, Johnson, and Koehler (2012), students who complete
STEM programs are provided with an immense benefit by having the opportunity to solve real-
world problems. Schools that emphasize STEM subjects are able to produce students that
become proficient users of integrated technology. Subsequently, students with a STEM foun-
dation are prepared for the rigor required to excel in STEM college majors. Successful STEM
schools prepare students for professional life beyond school by including internships and job
shadowing. Professionals in high-tech and scientific fields also mentor students in well- de-
signed STEM schools.
Student learning that is focused on STEM has a positive influence on the Costa Rican
economy (Breiner et al, 2012; Holbrook, 2008). Tertiary educational opportunities are abundant
for students who have developed an academically rigorous skillset. The benefit to emphasizing
STEM in the primary grades carries over into the labor market. (Breiner et al, 2012). A comple-
ment to STEM is the concept of project-based learning opportunities.
PBL
Providing a PBL structure for students will develop skills in Costa Rica’s children and
continue to provide a qualified labor force for knowledge- and conceptual-based jobs. These
skills are directly related to postsecondary success; however, they can carry further into the labor
market. The researchers in this study were specifically interested in the fusion of STEM and
PBL, or STEM PBL, because of the ramifications for the Costa Rican economy.
According to Capraro et al. (2013), the STEM–PBL process develops critical thinkers
who are more likely to succeed in postsecondary institutions where these skills are essential. The
PBL method, which has roots in agriculture and industrial arts education, extends its founda-
tional theory to a multitude of integrated subjects. With Costa Rica’s agrarian history, the PBL
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 36
historical foundation is important to note. The multisubject integration and cross-curricular
connections actively engage students in developing critical problem-solving skills.
Moreover, Capraro et al. (2013) contended that the loosely defined tasks in STEM PBL
give students the freedom to come up with diverse solutions to solving a problem. While these
solutions may be diverse, the outcome is well defined before undertaking the learning odyssey.
Rich and detailed learning occurs by following a defined outcome model for students.
Bedi, Coric ´, and Samardžija (2011) declared that students develop creative skills such as
problem solving, critical thinking, and visualization while engaged in a PBL approach. Bedi et
al. found that students develop coping skills, such as motivation and creativity, to handle unfore-
seen problems in a project. These skills then transfer into postsecondary academics and profes-
sional situations.
Bell (2010) asserted that in addition to developing critical thinking skills, students using a
PBL approach outperformed their peers in standardized tests. Besides the learning outcomes as
measured by a standardized test, Bell also noted that students make real-world connections that
promote problem solving and higher order thinking skills from a PBL approach. Students are
able to retain more information because they are learning from doing and building on their
background knowledge with PBL.
Students who are afforded the opportunity to use PBL develop problem-solving and
critical thinking skills that are crucial to postsecondary success. The connections that students
make in a PBL environment make use of real-world applications to increase engagement. In
addition, students are presented with the opportunity to develop 21st-century skills in a STEM–
PBL system. Providing a structured framework to apply STEM PBL is possible in Costa Rica by
way of the PRONAFECYT initiative (Capraro et al., 2013).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 37
National Science and Technology Fairs
In 2004, the Costa Rican MEP issued a national decree that made institutional science
fairs mandatory (Intel, 2014). The objectives of the science fair program are to stimulate creativ-
ity and to promote a scientific and technological culture. This process starts with the
development of scientific thinking and knowledge by developing students’ skills and abilities in
science and technology. The PRONAFECYT is a stimulus to the new generations of Costa
Ricans through the demonstration and discussion of research projects designed by students.
According to Bencze and Bowen (2009), participating in science fairs can increase students’
technical and scientific literacy skills. These skills are important to succeed in an economy, such
as Costa Rica’s, with highly involved scientific process and products. Participation in a national
science fair also highlights the positive aspects of scientific and technical career pathways for
students.
While there are numerous benefits to participating in a national science fair, Bencze and
Bowen (2009) pointed to the issue of access for student participation as a drawback. They found
that students who succeed in national science fairs are from advantaged and well-resourced
backgrounds. With the national decree in Costa Rica, the question of access to participation in
the national science fair is not apparent (Intel, 2014).
Professional Development
Using a STEM–PBL approach to develop students’ 21st-century skills calls for changes
in educational leadership approaches. Wagner (2010) contended that there is a need to focus on
the quality of teacher preparation and continuing professional development. Teachers need to be
prepared, through professional development, for the instructional demands that accompany a
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 38
change in educational focus, and educational leaders need to build teacher capacity by planning
for professional development in the new area.
Teacher preparation programs present a broad range of topics that are not aligned with the
realities that teachers face on the job (Wagner, 2010). New teachers move into the classroom by
taking the required coursework and passing a test that requires only memorization. Wagner
(2010) noted that new teachers need to identify competencies that lead to the development of
21st-century skills in students. These skills include critical thinking and problem solving, col-
laborations across networks, leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and entre-
preneurialism, effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing information,
and curiosity and imagination. Assessment of the competencies that Wagner (2010) identified
involves lesson plans, videotapes of classroom experiences, and student work.
Once in the field, teachers refine their skills through professional development. Teachers
benefit from professional development that is supportive, job embedded, instructional focused,
and ongoing (Hunzicker, 2011). However, professional development alone is not a solution to
build teacher capacity. Teacher development should be the process by which multitudes of
learning solutions are presented. These development opportunities should be systematic, need-
based approaches that include job embedded learning while allowing for collaboration among
colleagues (National Research Council, Committee on Highly Successful Schools or Programs
for K–12 Education, 2011). Specifically focused on 21st-century skills, professional develop-
ment requires an assessment of teacher skills to build a systematic approach.
A higher level of professional development requires more peer interaction among teach-
ers. To provide collaboration, DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and Many (2010) advocated for
professional learning communities (PLCs). PLCs are centered on improving student outcomes
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 39
through a collective and collaborative effort. In a PLC, professional development is aligned to
the evidence of what will most benefit students (DuFour et al., 2010).
Theoretical Frameworks
This section presents the three theoretical frameworks that were drawn from the literature
and that formed the foundation of this study. Leadership was understood through Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) four-frame model; organizational change processes were organized through
Kotter’s (1996) eight-step model; and pedagogical approaches were codified by the STEM and
PBL learning approaches developed by Capraro et al. (2013).
Leadership
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), organizational leadership and management can be
examined through four distinct frames: a structural frame, a human resource frame, a political
frame, and a symbolic frame. The frames provide a lens that leaders can use to understand the
organization and solve problems. Effective organizational leaders are able to move, or reframe,
the organization along the different frames.
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) structural frame is characterized by an organization’s bureau-
cracy. Leaders operating within the structural frame focus on the operational architecture of the
organization, goals, and operation efficiency and abide by a chain of command. These leaders
demonstrate a focus on implementation while following a defined implementation approach to
problem solving. Structural reframing involves a leader moving toward attending to relation-
ships between structure and environment. The shift toward structural reframing involves clarify-
ing goals, which are then achieved by focusing on tasks, facts, and logic.
The human resource frame emphasizes the interconnection between people and the
organization (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Organizational leaders who succeed in the human resource
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 40
frame believe in people and communicate that belief. These leaders empower others while being
visible and accessible in the organization. At the root of the human resource frame is under-
standing people through valuing relationships and feelings. Leaders supporting and empowering
people in the organization through participation and openness are the hallmark of human
resource reframing. People begin to be at the heart of an organization while it is reframing.
There is also an alignment of individual and organizational goals to serve the best interests of
both.
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) political frame is marked by the power and interest structure
within an organization. The political frame treats conflict, resources, and power in an economic
model in which each is scarce. Those with access to power benefit from an organization operat-
ing in a political frame. Effective political leaders are clear about what they want and can get.
These leaders assess the distribution of power and are able to build links to key stakeholders in
order to negotiate for what they want. Reframing into the political frame involves leaders recog-
nizing the political reality of the organization and taking on the conflicts that are associated
within that structure. Leaders moving toward the political frame build a power base and use the
power carefully within negotiations.
The symbolic frame involves the shared meaning that is created within an organization’s
culture (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Within this shared meaning, myths and rituals are established
that are unique to the organization. Leaders who operate in the symbolic frame can tell stories
and hold the attention of others to communicate a vision. Symbolic leaders shape an organiza-
tion’s culture and lead by example. Reframing into the symbolic frame involves the leader
becoming a student of the organization’s culture. Knowing more about the culture can yield a
more articulate and inspirational vision. Passion about the organization’s mission is also evident
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 41
when reframing into the symbolic frame. An understanding of these four frames can help leaders
improve the organization, while also being able to bring about change to solve problems (Bolman
& Deal, 2008).
Change
Understanding the components of effective organizational change was important to this
study. Kotter (1996) identified common mistakes that organizations make while attempting to
bring about change. These mistakes include (a) allowing too much complacency, (b) failing to
create a sufficiently powerful guiding coalition, (c) underestimating the power of vision, (d)
undercommunicating the vision, (e) permitting obstacles to block the new vision, (f) failing to
create short-term wins, and (g) neglecting to anchor changes firmly in the corporate culture. To
prevent or counteract these mistakes, Kotter developed an eight-step approach to change manage-
ment. These eight steps provide leaders with guidelines for implementing organizational change.
Central to Kotter’s model is that high-quality leadership, not just management, drives the change
process:
1. Establish a sense of urgency.
2. Create the guiding coalition.
3. Develop a vision and strategy.
4. Communicate the change vision.
5. Empower broad-based action.
6. Generate short-term wins.
7. Consolidate gains and producing more change
8. Anchor new approaches in the culture. (p. 23)
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 42
Successful implementation of the model is accomplished by deliberately following each
step in a linear sequence. The first four steps weaken the status quo, while steps five to seven
introduce new practices. The final step grounds the change as part of the organization’s culture
(Kotter, 1996).
Pedagogy
The work by Capraro et al. (2013) sets the stage for an updated approach to the delivery
of curriculum in schools. Specifically, learning is centered on a problem-solving methodology.
With students needing to develop 21st-century skills, the problem-based learning approach that
Capraro et al. (2013) proposed foster the development of such skills in students. Problem-based
learning along with STEM PBL were used to frame this study’s line of inquiry.
Students solving several problems in which the outcome is defined, as outlined by
Capraro et al. (2013) with respect to STEM PBL, yet the tasks to accomplish the goal are not
explicitly given. While completing these STEM–PBL tasks, it is implied that students will
demonstrate their mastery of the various STEM subjects. Students’ learning is relevant to the
goal that they are trying to accomplish in the scope of the project. The cross-disciplinary ap-
proach that is inherent in STEM PBL draws student interest by fostering connections to real-
world applications.
While students are benefactors of using the STEM–PBL approach, teachers and adminis-
trators are required to shift from past practices. School administrators leading a STEM–PBL
approach need to establish a system of collaboration with their staff and provide the resources for
the program. Success is dependent on the evaluation of the program’s implementation. Teachers
making the change to a STEM–PBL approach are required to shift from disseminating
knowledge to coaching students in the learning process. This shift also calls on teachers to pose
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 43
questions that peak students’ imaginations. Perhaps the most difficult piece for teachers is that
the control of the learning environment is shared with students (Capraro et al., 2013).
Summary of the Literature Review
Globalization, which started as an economic force, has affected education by dictating the
outcomes, such as the development of 21st-century skills, which lead to an economically
prosperous nation. Making education a national priority for Costa Rica has been influential in
the country’s development from an agricultural-based economy to one that is knowledge based.
In such a knowledge-based economy, those who enter the labor market must be able to problem
solve and collaborate while using technology. Costa Rica is striving to train the next generation
of knowledge workers by providing a structure for skill development through the
PRONAFECYT initiative. In addition, educational leaders have been tasked with building
teacher capacity through pedagogical shifts to STEM and PBL. In this regard, this chapter
presented the frameworks that guided this study: Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of lead-
ership, Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change process, and the STEM–PBL approach developed by
Capraro et al. (2013) .
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 44
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT by primary schools in Costa Rica. Globalization has re-
sulted in the need for students to learn 21st-century skills as a way to remain competitive in a
knowledge-based economy (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). In this regard, Costa Rica has made
changes in the educational system; specifically, student competencies in the STEM areas are
being developed through mandatory participation in the PRONAFECYT. This research was a
joint effort between the University of Southern California’s (USC) Rossier School of Education,
the Costa Rican MEP, and the Costa Rican Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommuni-
cations (MICITT).
This chapter is divided into eight sections. The first section concerns the frameworks
used to guide this study. The second section focuses on the research design. The third section
describes the research team, including roles and responsibilities, and the fourth section provides
an explanation of how the sample was chosen from the population. The fifth section concerns
the instruments used to collect data. The sixth section focuses on the data collection process; the
seventh section provides the data analysis plan. The eighth section presents the ethical consider-
ations of the study, and the chapter concludes with a summary. Following is a restatement of the
research questions:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 45
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Frameworks
Three theoretical frameworks were used for this study: Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four
frames of leadership, Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change process, and the STEM–PBL approach
developed by Capraro et al. (2013).
Bolman and Deal (2008) presented four frames of leadership: structural, human resource,
political, and symbolic. These four frames served as lenses through which to view and under-
stand the role that leadership plays in the PRONAFECYT. Of specific interest was how local
educational leaders can affect a school’s participation in the science fair. This framework relates
to Research Questions 1 and 3.
Kotter (1996) provided an eight-step process essential to organizational change. Kotter’s
framework was used to determine how change process affects the successful implementation of
the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rican primary schools. This framework relates to Re-
search Questions 2 and 4.
The instructional practices related to STEM PBL are part of the pedagogical framework
of Capraro et al. (2013). This framework was used to determine the success of participation in
the PRONAFECYT by primary schools, based on their instructional practices. This framework
also relates to Research Questions 2 and 4.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 46
Research Design
This study utilized a qualitative approach to address the research questions. Qualitative
methods were chosen for this study because they were the most appropriate for the type of
inquiry posed by the research questions. Qualitative methods allow the researcher to focus on the
meaning of descriptive phenomena. By using a qualitative design, the researcher is able to gain
an insider perspective into an organization (Merriam, 2009).
Within qualitative research, there are several approaches to conducting a research study.
Creswell (2009) noted that qualitative research can be characterized into ethnography, grounded
theory, case studies, phenomenological research, and narrative research. Case studies explore a
topic in a bounded system (Merriam, 2009). This research used a case study approach because
the data were collected within a bounded system—Costa Rican schools.
Research Team
The research team was led by Drs. Michael Escalante and Oryla Wiedoeft of the USC
Rossier School of Education. This dissertation group was 18 USC doctoral candidates. The
group began meeting in July 2014, and initial research was conducted for a literature review and
presented by partner pairs in fall 2014. The group met two to three times a month to collaborate,
integrate goals, and plan for the study design. Due to the collaborative nature of this thematic
group process, some level of similarity may be present among dissertations.
Sample and Population
Initial contact for this study was made in March 2015 via email between the USC Rossier
School of Education (see Appendices A and B), Drs. Escalante and Wiedoeft, Alicia Porras of
MEP, and Nathalie Valencia of MICITT. MEP and MICITT representatives have indicated that
secondary schools in Costa Rica are producing STEM-ready graduates. They voiced concern,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 47
however, about participation in the PRONAFECYT at the elementary school level. As such,
purposeful sampling of elementary education leaders and teachers was used (Creswell, 2009;
Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). In addition, the sample consisted of political,
corporate, and high-level education leaders as a means to gain a comprehensive perspective.
The process for making contact with research participants occurred via email, contact
letters, and telephone calls. Individual research team members worked with the regional science
coordinators from MEP to make contact with their assigned schools prior to departing for the
Costa Rica data collection trip. The purpose of the initial email contact was to introduce them-
selves and to explain the purpose of the research study. A follow-up email and letter with
consent information and a survey link were distributed in early June 2015.
Following is a description of the individuals who were interviewed:
1. Mary Helen Bialas. Ms. Bialas is the Senior Officer of Projects and Programs at
Consejo de Promoción de la Competividad (CPC). Prior to working at CPC, she worked as the
Academic Relations and Education Programs Manager for Intel in Costa Rica. Her goal is to
promote and develop innovative STEM educational opportunities for the children of Costa Rica.
2. Nathalie Valencia Chacón. Ms. Chacón is the director of the Costa Rican National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs with the MICITT. She is the coordinator of the
PRONAFECYT as well as other projects that promote science and technology in education in
Costa Rica. She was originally a biology teacher and made the transition to her current position
after one of her students won the National Science Fair and qualified for the Intel International
Science and Engineering Fair (IISEF). As the teacher of such a successful student, she was then
provided with the opportunity to participate in programs for science teachers at IISEF.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 48
3. Alejandrina Mata-Segreda. Dr. Mata-Segreda is the current Dean of the School of
Education at the University of Costa Rica (USR). From 1971 to 1984, she served as a preschool
teacher. Dr. Mata-Segreda then became a professor in the School of Education of UCR. Through
the years, Dr. Mata-Segreda has held various positions at UCR, ranging from professor to coor-
dinator to director. In 2006, Dr. Mata-Segreda became the Vice Ministra Academica in Edu-
cacion for the MEP. Dr. Mata-Segreda returned to UCR as the Decana for the Education
Department, a position that she previously held from 1996 to 1999.
4. Alicia Eugenia Vargas Porras. Dr. Porras is the current Vice Minister of Education
for the MEP. Prior to this position, she was the Director of the Institute for Research in Educa-
tion at UCR and worked as a researcher for several years. She earned a Doctorate in Education at
UCR. Dr. Porras has been a lecturer and speaker at various academic events in Europe, Latin
America, and Africa.
5. Sylvia Ugalde. Since March 2014, Mrs. Ugalde is the current Consul General of
Costa Rica, based in Los Angeles, California. She has jurisdiction over the states of Alaska,
Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyo-
ming. Prior to this position, Mrs. Ugalde served in the London Consulate office, where she
worked on multilateral commercial matters. She earned a master’s degree in business adminis-
tration (MBA) from the University of Texas.
6. Vanessa Gibson. Mrs. Gibson is currently the Aftercare Director for CINDE, in
charge of providing guidance to companies throughout the installation process. Her department
oversees the coordination of several public-private partnership projects and programs that aim to
improve the investment and business environment of Costa Rica. Mrs. Gibson is a trained
economist from UCR.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 49
7. Hugo Navarro. Mr. Navarro is currently the Director for the School of Technical
Education at the Instituto Technológico de Costa Rica (ITCR). Prior to this position, he was the
Director of the School of Construction Engineering at ITCR. Mr. Navarro holds a bachelor’s
degree from ITCR and a master’s degree in science (MS) in civil engineering from New Mexico
State University.
8. Sonia Mora Escalante. Dr. Escalante is the Costa Rican Minister of Education. She
was a Fulbright scholar at the University of Pittsburg and earned a Doctor of Letters from the
University Paul Valery in France.
9. Isabella Roman. Ms. Roman is currently the Director of Estado de la Nación. Prior
to this, she served as a researcher and chapter coordinator for Estado de la Nación. She holds a
degree from UCR.
10. Paula Céspedes. Ms. Céspedes is currently the Regional Science Fair Director for the
San José West Region of MEP.
11. José Sanchez. Mr. Sanchez is currently the Regional Science Fair Director for the
San José Central Region of the MEP.
12. Patricia Arias. Ms. Arias is currently the Regional Science Fair Director for the San
José Central Region of the MEP.
School sites were chosen based on the recommendation of the MEP and MICITT (Appen-
dix C). All 18 school sites were primary schools within a 2-hour driving radius of San José,
Costa Rica. Approximately half of the schools have performed well at the PRONAFECYT,
while the other half have had challenges.
Due to the limited research time in Costa Rica, the 18 research team members were
divided into three teams of six researchers. Each research team visited six schools; however, one
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 50
researcher was in charge of data collection at each primary school. Observation, interviews, and
surveys were conducted at each school. The school leaders were interviewed, while teachers
were issued a web-based survey questionnaire to complete. A small number of teachers were
interviewed at each school site to help validate the survey data. Printed versions of the surveys
were available for those with limited Internet access. In addition, campus and classroom obser-
vations were conducted at each school. A recruitment and consent letter (Appendix D) was used
to gain consent from the various research participants at the different school sites.
Instrumentation
As noted, the study used survey questionnaires, interviews, and observations to gather
data. The data collection methods and items were based on the three theoretical frameworks.
Instrument design began in January 2015 with the creation of survey questionnaire items. The
questions were then refined based on how well they aligned with the research questions. The
thematic group created interview and observation protocols in the spring of 2015. These proto-
cols were continually revised to maximize their alignment with the research questions. The
reason for having three data collection methods was to have the ability to triangulate the data.
According to Maxwell (2013), collecting data from different sources not only enables triangula-
tion but also minimizes the risk of researcher bias and increases study validity.
Surveys
A well-designed survey includes clear directions that enable research participants to
self-administer the questionnaire (Fink, 2013). In addition, survey questions must align to the
study’s research questions. Pilot testing the survey allowed the research team to ensure the
clarity of each question and to determine the time that it would take respondents to complete the
survey (Fink, 2013).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 51
The research team used six different survey questionnaires with similar protocols. Survey
questionnaires were developed for teachers (Appendix E), school directors (Appendix F),
government officials (Appendix G), business partners (Appendix H), parents (Appendix I), and
students (Appendix J). All of the surveys included closed-ended questions that were answered
using a Likert-type scale. Participants were able to select from strongly agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree, and not sure for each survey question.
Interviews
Interviews allowed the research team to gain a perspective into what could not be directly
observed, such as feelings, thoughts, and intentions (Patton, 2002). The research team used a
semistructured interview protocol to determine the role that educational leaders play in the
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. A semistructured interview protocol allows
researchers the ability to gain deeper insight than in a structured approach, while also providing
for some flexibility (Merriam, 2009).
When creating the interview protocol, the research team relied on Patton’s (2002) guide-
lines for meaningful questions. Patton presented six types of questions that can be asked of
participants in a qualitative research study: (a) experience and behavior, (b) opinion and value,
(c) feeling, (d) knowledge, (e) sensory, and (f) background and demographic. These questions
were piloted to refine their clarity and thereby to improve the interview protocol. Interview data
were collected using one of five protocols. Separate protocols were developed for teachers
(Appendix K), school directors (Appendix L), government officials and business partners (Ap-
pendix M), parents (Appendix N), and students (Appendix O).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 52
Observations
The research team created an observation protocol to assess leadership and instructional
practice related to the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. Observations allowed
the research team to view and record behavior in a natural context (Merriam, 2009). The obser-
vation protocol captured the physical setting, participants, activities and interactions, conversa-
tions, and other subtle factors. All of these are elements that Merriam (2009) recommended as
observable data. The observation tool (Appendix P) included eight items, answered on a Likert-
type scale, about primary classrooms. In addition, each item included a section for more descrip-
tive researcher notes.
Data Collection
Researchers traveled to Costa Rica in June 2015 for 10 days of data collection through
surveys, interviews, and observations. As noted, the researchers gathered data from political
leaders, business partners, school directors, teachers, students, and parents. Political leaders,
government officials, and business partners were interviewed and surveyed about their percep-
tions of effective STEM–PBL instruction in the selected primary schools of Costa Rica. Teach-
ers were surveyed, interviewed, and observed in terms of their instructional practices and beliefs
in regard to STEM–PBL instruction as it relates to preparing students for the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Parents were interviewed and surveyed on their beliefs about STEM–PBL instruction
in their child’s primary school.
As noted, the purpose of using three methods of data gathering was to be able to triangulate the
results, i.e., to crosscheck findings from surveys, interviews, and observations to support conclu-
sions, which minimizes researcher bias (Maxwell, 2013). The surveys and interviews allowed
political leaders, business partners, school leaders, teachers, and parents to provide their own
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 53
perceptions of STEM PBL as it relates to the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative. Observa-
tions allowed researchers to witness firsthand how STEM PBL is implemented in primary
classrooms. The surveys provided data to support findings and conclusions on the implementa-
tion of STEM PBL in Costa Rican primary schools. All of the data was used to address the
research questions.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted on both collective and individual levels. The thematic
group developed common codes to analyze the data. Data were accessed and analyzed by all
thematic group members using Dedoose, a qualitative data analysis software application that
provides rich, detailed analysis. The data analysis was based on Creswell’s (2009) six-step
approach: (a) organize and prepare data for analysis; (b) read through all the data; (c) begin
detailed analysis with a coding process; (d) use the coding process to generate a description of the
setting or people as well as categories or themes for analysis; (e) advance how the description and
themes were represented in the qualitative narrative; and (f) make an interpretation of the data by
answering the research questions.
Ethical Considerations
All members of the research team participated in the Institutional Review Board (IRB)
process, which included completing the Collaborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI). The CITI
online modules informed research team members about the ethical considerations of conducting
research with human subjects. All members completed four CITI modules and earned a com-
bined score of at least 80% on the training assessments. All data collection instruments were
cleared by USC’s IRB. Completing the IRB process ensured that all aspects of the study met
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 54
ethical standards and did not cause harm to the participants. All of the research participants were
also provided with a consent form to acknowledge their participation in the study (Appendix D).
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the methodology that guided the research for the qualitative case
study conducted in Costa Rica by the research team. Included in the chapter were a discussion of
the frameworks that underlie the study, the research design, the sample and population, instru-
mentation, data collection, and data analysis. The design of the study allowed the research team
to determine the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative
in Costa Rica as well as to examine the leadership practices, instructional strategies, and profes-
sional development practices at various school sites as a means to identify key components of
successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Although collaboration was essen-
tial to the design of this study, each research team member was responsible for his or her own
data analysis and presentation.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 55
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Chapter Four provides results for this study that explored the leadership practices of edu-
cation leaders in Costa Rica as they relate to the PRONAFECYT. The results were analyzed
through frameworks presented in Chapter Two. Leadership was analyzed using the context of
Reframing Organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008), effective change process (Kotter, 1996), and
STEM–PBL instructional practices (Capraro et al., 2013).
The purpose of this study was to identify the role that education leaders play in imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rican primary schools. The study provided an
examination of leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development
practices at various school sites as a means to identify key components of successful implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The following research questions guided the study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Participants
The participants in this study were government officials, business leaders, university
faculty members, school site leaders, teachers, parents, and students. This section provides an
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 56
overview of the survey participants and the interviewees to provide some context for the data that
were collected.
A total of seven government officials were interviewed: Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice
Minister of the Costa Rican MICITT; Dr. Alicia Eugenia Vargas Porras, Vice Minister of Aca-
demic Affairs for the Costa Rican MEP; Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the Costa Rican
National Science Fair Program at the MICITT; Patricia Arias, Regional Science Director for the
Costa Rican MEP; Javier Francisco Cambronero, Assemblyman in the Costa Rican legislature;
Lander Perez Barrantes, education advisor to Assemblyman Cambronero and former Regional
Science Director for the Costa Rican MEP; and Sylvia Ugalde Fernández, Consul General of
Costa Rica stationed in Los Angeles, California. All of the interviews, with the exception of
Mrs. Ugalde’s, were conducted in Costa Rica.
Four business leaders were interviewed for this study: Mary Helen Bialas, Senior Officer
of Projects and Programs at Consejo de Promoción de la Competitividad; Vanessa Gibson,
Director of Corporate Development and Investment Climate for CINDE; Natalia Zamora, Direc-
tor of Education for the National Information Technology Program with the Omar Dengo Foun-
dation; and Maria Santos Pasamontes, biologist and science researcher with Estado de la Nación.
All of the business leader interviews were conducted in Costa Rica.
Four university faculty members who were interviewed from two Costa Rican public
universities. At the ITCR, two faculty members were interviewed: Hugo Navarro Serrano,
Director of the School of Technical Education; and Jesús Hernández Araya, professor at the
School of Technical Education. Two faculty members were interviewed at the UCR: Alejandrina
Mata, Dean of the Faculty of Education; and Luis Andres Loria Calderon, Science Fair
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 57
Coordinator at the UCR. All of the university interviews were conducted at their respective sites
in Costa Rica.
Data were collected from a total of 18 primary schools in Costa Rica. School data were
comprised of interviews, observations, and surveys. Research teams were clustered in three
groups of six researchers, with each researcher being assigned as the lead point of contact at one
school. One group focused on schools in the eastern region of the San José area; a second group
investigated six schools in the western region of Costa Rica; and a third group collected data
from schools in the center of San José, known as the Coastal Region. As such, the focus for this
data analysis consists of data obtained from the six schools in the Coastal Region. The interview
data collected from the six Coastal Region schools included the following participants: six school
directors, nine teachers, six parents, one social worker, one psychologist, one school counselor,
and four school site science fair coordinators.
Survey data from the six San José Coastal Region schools included a total of 394 student
surveys, 85 teacher surveys, 49 parent surveys, and six school administrator surveys. Schools in
the region were identified as A1, B1, A2, B2, A3, and B3. This coding was to indicate that
Schools A1 and B1, A2 and B2, and A3 and B3 were part of an initial pairing of schools assigned
by the MEP to the research team for comparison; however, analysis across all schools in the
Coastal Region is included in this chapter for a deeper level of understanding. All students who
were surveyed are in Cycles 1 and 2. The specific breakdown of students who participated in the
survey from the Coastal Region was as follows: 66 from School A1, 63 from School B1, 38 from
School A2, 126 from School B2, 57 from School A3, and 44 from School B3. Teacher survey
responses from the Coastal Region were as follows: 17 from A1, 15 from School B1, 16 from
School A2, 14 from School B2, 12 from School A3, and 11 from School B3. Parent surveys
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 58
from the Coastal Region were from only five schools in the region: 26 at School A1, four at
School B1, 10 at School A2, two at School B2, and seven at School A3.
This data analysis focused on School A1 to answer Research Questions 1, 3, and 4. Data
from School B1 were used as a comparison to answer Research Question 2, and data from all six
Coastal Region schools were used to support themes that emerged from the study. School A1,
the largest school in the San José Coastal Region with over 1,800 students, had survey responses
from 66 students, 17 teachers, 26 parents, and one administrator. There was no 100% participa-
tion rate from all groups at the school. Interview participants for School A1 included two
teachers and one school director. At School B1, the only parochial school in the San José Coastal
Region visited by the research team, had survey responses from 63 students, 15 teachers, four
parents, and one director responded to the survey. Interviews at School B1 included two teach-
ers, one science coordinator, three parents, and the school director. School B1 is also unique in
the Coastal Region because the school shares a campus with one of the premier science and
technology high schools in Costa Rica. Both Schools A1 and B1 are located a few miles south of
downtown San José in the Alajeulita section of the city.
Primary school officials who were interviewed for this study were the following: Mario
Avila, School Director at School A1, had been at the school for nearly 10 years as the lead
administrator. Two sixth-grade teachers, Alfonso Romero and Felipe Perez from School A1,
were interviewed to support the survey findings. Alfonso Romero is a sixth-grade math and
science teacher at School A1 and had been at the school for 16 years. Mario Avila had been a
sixth-grade Spanish and social studies teacher at School A1 for 2 years but had been a teacher for
over 5 years.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 59
School officials from School B1 in the Coastal Region were also interviewed and in-
cluded in this data analysis. Elena Cruz, the current School Director, has been at School B1 for
15 years: 8 years as a teacher and most recently 7 years as a school administrator. School B1 has
a dedicated Science Fair Coordinator, Rosa Fernandez, who was interviewed for the study; she
also works as the student registrar at School B1. One first-grade teacher, Maria Ramirez, and a
second-grade teacher, Sofia Zamora, at School B1 were interviewed. Both had been at School B1
for over 5 years, with Ms. Ramirez having been there for 8 years and Ms. Zamora for 10 years.
Three parents from School B1 were interviewed: Wendy Melendez, Viviana Molina, and
Anthony Nava, who were all parents of fourth graders at the school.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What role do educational leaders play in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” The purpose of Research Question 1 was to examine
leadership practices across different levels on the implementation of the Costa Rican National
Decree 31900 to promote science and technology education. In addition, Research Question 1
explored the perceptions of various stakeholders on the effectiveness of local educational leaders.
The aim of this question was also to understand whether leaders had a sense of purpose related to
the promotion of scientific and technological development.
The data analysis revealed three themes:
1. Leadership matters when implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative;
2. Leadership vision and strategic planning guide schools as they comply with the
PRONAFECYT initiative; and
3. Recognition and a sustainable positive culture from a leader determine the level of
participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 60
These themes emerged from analysis of the survey and interview questions. Table 1
presents a summary of School A1 teacher and parent responses to survey questions focused
answering Research Question 1. The responses were analyzed by examining trends between
teacher and student responses to develop themes that could be triangulated with the interview and
observation data.
Leadership Matters
Leadership matters on primary school participation in the PRONAFECYT. Surveys,
interviews, and observation data showed that educational leaders made a difference on the par-
ticipation level in the PRONAFECYT by a primary school. Data from Costa Rican government
officials, business leaders, university faculty, educational leaders, parents, teachers, and students
were collected. The results supported Kotter’s (1996) change framework in that successful
leaders are able to create and communicate a vision.
Survey data from 85 teachers were used to support the result that school leadership
matters in the implementation of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative. Teachers in the
Coastal Region overwhelmingly agreed that the school leader has played an important role in
implementing the PRONAFECYT; 18% of teachers surveyed agreed and 70% strongly agreed
that the school director played a critical role in the implementation of the science fair initiative
(see Figure 1). This finding was also supported by teachers at School A1, where 88% surveyed
also agreed or strongly agreed that the school director plays an important role in the nation’s
science fair program.
Interview data from all groups supported the concept that leadership matters on the par-
ticipation of primary schools in the PRONAFECYT. This feeling was shared by teachers, school
administrators, government officials, university faculty, and parents. Interview data will first be
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 61
Table 1
School A1 Survey Data Regarding Research Question 1
Teachers Parents
Survey question (N = 17) (N = 26)
1. The School Director plays a critical role in assuring teachers implement
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
Strongly agree 12 13
Agree 3 10
Disagree 1 0
Strongly disagree 1 0
Not sure 0 3
2. Teachers need the support of the School Director to fully and effectively
implement the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 8 14
Agree 5 11
Disagree 1 0
Strongly disagree 1 0
Not sure 2 1
8. My school has adequate resources that allow me to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 7 10
Agree 4 6
Disagree 5 4
Strongly disagree 1 2
Not sure 0 4
16. Teachers are given the leadership capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 4 12
Agree 7 5
Disagree 1 4
Strongly disagree 1 0
Not sure 4 5
17. There is a schoolwide vision for the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 4 8
Agree 7 9
Disagree 2 3
Strongly disagree 1 0
Not sure 3 6
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 62
Figure 1. Percentages representing Coastal Region teachers’ beliefs regarding Re-
search Question 1. A1 teachers, N = 17; Coastal Region teachers, N = 85.
Table 1 (continued)
Teachers Parents
Survey question (N = 17) (N = 26)
18. There is a positive culture at my school toward the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 3 7
Agree 7 9
Disagree 4 3
Strongly disagree 1 1
Not sure 2 6
19. The School Director communicates the goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 6 10
Agree 8 9
Disagree 0 1
Strongly disagree 1 1
Not sure 2 5
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 63
presented from university and government officials, followed by interview data from other
participants.
The ITCR is one of Costa Rica’s premier universities that trains the nation’s next genera-
tion of science and technology leaders. ITCR has been a partner for the PRONAFECYT initia-
tive since its inception. Hugo Navarro, Director of the School of Technical Education at ITCR,
was asked about the role educational leaders play in implementing the national science fair
initiative. Mr. Navarro replied:
You see the leaders—well, in any area or field they are very important. But if we talk
about education, the principals or directors of colleges or educational centers are very
important, because that leadership is going to have a great impact in the students, right?
So then that will define in a lot of students, their career choice. This kind of leadership
that is focused on science and technology will define if a student is a lawyer or is an
engineer.
Further insight regarding the important role that local educational leaders play in imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT initiative was offered by a business partner, Mary Helen Bialas,
who is currently the Senior Officer of Projects at Programs at Consejo de Promoción de la Com-
petitividad. Her opinion was that local educational leaders are the key to a primary schools
participating in the PRONAFECYT initiative:
If the principal does not agree, doesn’t want to do the work, doesn’t want to do that, then
it dies. Unfortunately, all those kids in that school don’t have the opportunity to partici-
pate and it becomes a tradition in that school not to participate.
Government officials echoed the opinion that school leaders matter in the implementation
of the PRONAFECYT initiative. When Alicia Vargas, Vice Minister of Academic Affairs for
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 64
the Costa Rican MEP, was asked about the importance that educational leaders play in imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT, she shared:
The educational leaders—actually what all this, the fairs are developed at the schools, so
the linkage, the support between the educational leaders and the people who are organiz-
ing also this National Program of Science and Technology Fairs have to be very strong.
Actually at the schools is where the initial activities take place. For example, the organi-
zation of the institution of fairs, and also the preparation of the children and the young
people, the high school students, all those since are organized and prepared by the institu-
tions by the educational leaders.
Dr. Vargas made it clear that educational leaders are key in having schools participate in the
PRONAFECYT.
MICITT officials also shared that school leaders make a difference in implementing the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the Costa Rican National
Science Fair Program at the MICITT, felt that school principals are difference makers for partici-
pation in the PRONAFECYT:
A principal who is committed, a principal who empowers his teachers makes a difference
—and we have been able to notice that in the visits we made to the different schools.
Teachers who are leaders, who are committed, empowered, who are acquainted with the
process, and who motivate their students since early stages is something critical.
In her interview, Ms. Chacón also referenced leadership from teachers to be a factor in the
success of a school’s participation in the science fair process. In Ms. Chacón’s view, leadership
in a primary school is not exclusive to the director.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 65
Other government officials also recognized the importance that local leadership plays on
the participation of primary school students in the PRONAFECYT. Consulate General Sylvia
Ugalde Fernandez shared the following regarding the importance school leadership has on
student participation:
A very important roll, because obviously, the kids will not participate if they’re not
organized in their school. The educators in the school should focus on organizing that
program in their particular school so that the kids participate. Otherwise, they’re closing
the doors to those kids early on. They’ll probably have the opportunity later, down the
line, in high school, university, or whatever, to come in contact with this field. But if the
educators offer this opportunity early on, the sooner the better.
Ms. Ugalde Fernandez felt that the earlier a student is exposed to the sciences, the better off he or
she will be in the future. This early exposure in the sciences is based on the organization of the
school leader.
The local school perspective on the importance of educational leadership in the
PRONAFECYT was collected by survey response data, which were also validated through
interview responses. For example, the principal at School A1 referenced the importance of his
role in the science fair process. A1 School Director Mario Avila noted, “My role is also to
guarantee that the projects are carried out accordingly. We are fortunate to have a group of
people who are very good and strongly committed with the institution.”
Communicating a Vision and Strategic Plan
Sharing a vision and strategic planning are positively related to participation in the
PRONAFECYT T. Surveys and interview data showed that communicating a guiding vision and
purpose were positively related to participation in the PRONAFECYT. This theme was also
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 66
presented in Kotter’s (1996) change framework for leaders with respect to creating and communi-
cating a vision for change. Supportive data were triangulated between surveys and interviews
from Costa Rican government officials, higher education leaders, business partners, teachers,
parents, students, and primary school directors. Survey data in Table 1 highlighted the perception
of teachers and parents through the results of Survey Question 19. Based on the survey results,
82% of teachers at School A1 agreed that the school director communicated the goals for partici-
pating in the PRONAFECYT. Parent survey data were in alignment with the teacher responses,
as 73% of parents agreed that the school director communicated the goals of science fair partici-
pation.
Student data further supported the theme of communicating a vision and strategic plan to
build a coalition for change. Figure 2 illustrates teachers’ and students’ perceptions based on
survey data from school A1 and compares it to the results of the six Coastal region schools. Over
80% of students surveyed from the region and school A1 agree that the school director communi-
cates the purpose for the science fair. This is consistent with the result of teachers from school
A1, where over 80% agree that the school director communicate the purpose of the
PRONAFECYT.
The survey results could be linked to the perceptions of higher level government and
business officials in Costa Rica as expressed in their interviews. For example, Mary Helen
Bialas, a business official, shared the following regarding communicating a vision and strategic
planning for the science fair process on a macrolevel:
It’s the most important thing to move forward. The council I work with is a group of
businessmen who work with the government. A group of businessmen, and we have
within the council also universities represented. It’s actually a council that is . . . We even
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 67
Figure 2. Percentages representing School A1 and Coastal Region teachers’ and
students’ beliefs regarding Research Question 1. A1 students, N = 66; Coastal Region
students, N= 358; A1 teachers, N = 17; Coastal Region teachers, N = 85.
have some government people on the boards, on the different commissions that work on
these areas.
Their vision is definitely . . . This is number one. Number one with changing
policy, current policy, to prove that the businesses and innovation is ongoing right now. I
found cases that are extremely interesting where you have young people who they left
Costa Rica to start their business. They’re starting it in the United States. They’re starting
it in Europe. They’re doing it in other places.
Further insight revealed that Ms. Bialas believed that the government along with the private
sector will lead in the development of skills that students will need to compete in the global
economy. Ms. Bialas felt that there is a connection between the private sector and the public
agencies in establishing a cohesive vision and purpose for the national science fair:
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 68
The best way we can do that is by getting the private sector involved and not just letting
the universities produce the type of scholar that they have been producing over the years
for the past economies, but trying to get them involved in understanding the new needs
and where the country is going.
At the school level, having a local vision and strategic plan in place also directs the
resources of the school toward participation in the PRONAFECYT process. For example, the A3
School Director, Julieta Barbosa, in the Coastal Region shared:
The annual work plan is to write in one document all—I’ll show it to you, all the projects
of the coming year. They are planned. Here there isn’t—I can’t tell you that there is this
improvisation. It can’t exist because they put a pact in the annual work plan—everything
you’re going to need. First, what you’re going to need. What you’re going to do. So it’s
then one document so that they prepare the money and since February that we start, then
we began with the science fair.
This information is relevant to School A1 because both schools were serving a similar student
population. At Ms. Barbosa’s school, teachers are deliberate in the planning and process of the
science fair. For example, they have a contact person who is in charge of coordinating the
science fair efforts for the school. The primary contact for the science fair is a liaison between
the school and the MEP so that the PRONAFECYT can be implemented with full fidelity at the
school. The Director shared the following regarding the specialized position:
The person in charge, Maria Bolivar—she begins with commissions. We form commis-
sions. One is in charge of decoration. Another one is in charge of the attention to the
invites. They form like 10 commissions for attention, and they make a panel of judges of
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 69
people that come from another place. None of the judges is from the school, and they
prepare that 3 months in advance.
The interviews supported the theme of a vision that is in tandem with strategic planning.
The A3 School Director shared that in addition to her idea of the science fair, the school has a
system in place to support teachers and students in the science fair. At the school there is one
teacher facilitator who coordinates the school’s science fair.
Recognition and Sustainable Positive Culture
Recognition and having a sustainable positive culture in place influences participation in
the PRONAFECYT. Survey and interview data supported Kotter’s (1996) change framework in
which the wins of an organization are celebrated in an effort to create a lasting change within the
organization. Government officials, teachers, school leaders, and business partners shared
through interviews and surveys that recognition has encouraged participation in the
PRONAFECYT. Figure 3 illustrates the results, which show that 71% of teachers, 85% of
students, and 81% of parents felt that students are recognized for their efforts in the science fair.
The school-level program of building a culture of recognition was in line with what high-
level government officials felt regarding recognition. In an interview, Costa Rican Assemblyman
Javier Cambronero commented that student and teacher recognition will foster the development
of the PRONAFECYT. He shared the following regarding recognizing teachers and students for
their efforts in the PRONAFECYT:
No, we are in debt. This is a great weakness. We need to have a framework that enables
the encouragement and reward of the good things that are being done. At the end of the
way there is recognition, but we don’t think it’s enough. In this sense, we go back to the
original idea—we believe that the program as such needs to be permanent, and for that we
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 70
Figure 3. Percentages representing beliefs of School A1 teachers, students, and
parents regarding Research Question 1 as related to student recognition. Teach-
ers, N = 26; students, N = 66; parents, N = 26.
need it to become a law of the Republic. Currently, it’s a simple decree which is an
inferior legal rule and which can be subject to the fluctuations of the whims of politicians
who might think that this is not something necessary.
Mr. Cambronero’s statement demonstrated that there is an understanding at the governmental
level that providing consistent recognition to teachers and students in the PRONAFECYT can
strengthen participation. He felt that the government can provide a systemic structure to recog-
nize science fair participants at all levels.
While some recognition is in place at the national level of the science fair, Nathalie
Valencia Chacón from the MICITT concurred with the thoughts shared by Assemblyman
Cambronero. In terms of recognition and rewarding teachers, Ms. Chacón noted:
In terms of the ministries, at institutional level there is recognition for the teachers and for
the students who win the national process. The Ministry of Science and Technology
provides the trophies and certificates for all the participants in the regional science fairs,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 71
but I think we can work harder in the teachers’ recognition and especially from the Minis-
try of Public Education. I think it would be very important to work on that aspect, in
order to reward the teachers and the principals, the supervisors and the science consul-
tants, through a public recognition—not only the material awards are important but also a
public recognition is important. That is something all the institutions that participate in
the program can strengthen. We do it publicly, but I think we could do something more to
motivate the teachers, since they are the ones who have this valuable and important task.
Ms. Chacón’s quote recognized the important effect that recognition has on the level of participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT. Her statement was aligned to what Assemblyman Cambronero
shared, as both felt that more could be done by the Costa Rican government to provide a system
of recognition for teachers and students.
Business partner, Mary Helen Bialas, held a similar point of view. Ms. Bialas shared the
following regarding recognition of schools for the science fair process:
No. I don’t believe so. Yes, the ministers go to the national fair award ceremony. Yes,
they hand out the awards to the kids, but having a recognition program for schools that are
science based or that are oriented towards science or general, they have not.
Again, Ms. Bialas also felt that more could be done to provide recognition to those who partici-
pate at high levels in the PRONAFECYT.
The survey data were confirmed by school officials, who also echoed a similar perspec-
tive in their interviews. While students are recognized for their work, teachers and parents are
not always part of that system in terms of recognizing their efforts. For example, Mario Avila,
the A1 School Director, shared the following:
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 72
We have a project at circuit level where the most outstanding teacher from the institution
is rewarded. We organize a ceremony together with all the other institutions of the area
where we reward them. Things have varied because at first this was only for teachers, but
now it has been extended to any employee, regardless of the work they do. If he stands
out in some way, he will receive a reward.
That is a very interesting aspect. It’s part of motivating and rewarding people for
their efforts, because some people go beyond their normal obligations, either because they
stay longer at school or because they treat the parents and the students very well; and
besides being something positive, it is a way of reducing the burden upon the principals’
shoulders. When the parents and the students are happy, it’s amazing for us.
In addition to Mr. Avila’s point, other school leaders held a similar perspective. B1
School Director, Elena Cruz, added:
Well, as a school we do not have an established incentive program. We don’t have any-
thing planned or systematized. We would have to work on that because that does not
exist. As a matter of fact, I was speaking to some of my colleagues that are new in the
institution.
Government and business partners proclaim the importance of building a system to
recognize teachers and students at every level of the science fair. What they shared in their
interviews highlighted some areas for improvement in teacher recognition. Teachers agreed that
they were not generally recognized for the science fair. In their interviews, teachers shared that
the process is part of their job and they are rarely rewarded. For example, Alfonso Romero,
sixth-grade teacher at School A1, stated, “It’s part of our job, as I told you, and what we said in
the beginning.”
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 73
This sentiment was echoed by Sofia Zamora, a second-grade teacher: “We are not recog-
nized because it is a part of our job. It’s like it’s part of the evaluation, so then there isn’t a rec-
ognition for the teachers—there is for students but not for the teachers.” A similar message was
relayed by the science coordinator, Rosa Fernandez:
Okay, we provide them with an awarding ceremony and that comes 15 days after the fair,
and we do that with all the students. We name the first places in each level; we have the
first, second, and third place in each level; and we also have journalists during the fair
process. And there is a lot of excitement in a national level too, in regard to the fair
results, which are not completely published but some of the photographs—the most
important and relevant in each part.
Teachers frequently mentioned that the science fair is part of their job because they do not
receive extra compensation or recognition for their efforts. Parents also expressed their thoughts
regarding recognition and student participation in the science fair. Parents felt that student
recognition determines student interest levels in the science fair. Anthony Nava, parent of a
fourth-grade student, mentioned the following in his interview:
Yes, for the little ones this is very important, to win the science fair, or being recognized
regardless of the fact that they won second or third place. It is still very important and
they support each other, meaning that if the winner was from my group, then they all
congratulate each other—they support each other. The kids like it a lot.
In summary, the triangulation of surveys and interviews provided evidence that a system
of recognition and a sustainable positive culture are catalysts to promote the PRONAFECYT in
Costa Rican primary schools. Government officials recognized that this is an area that could be
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 74
improved from a macrolevel. In addition, teachers felt that there is no system in place to recog-
nize their efforts in promoting the science fair with their students.
Results Summary for Research Question 1
Leadership practices in Costa Rican primary schools are an indicator of student participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT. Government policy, such as the Costa Rican National Decree 31900
to promote science and technology, impacts practices at the local school level. The response to
such policy was varied with respect to different schools and schooling levels; however, there
were some commonalities that could be extracted from these levels.
The data analysis revealed three themes: First, leadership matters on the participation of
primary schools in the PRONAFECYT. Second, communicating the vision, or purpose, of the
PRONAFECYT by the school leader impacts the level of participation at the school. Third,
recognition of students, parents, and teachers is not consistent at all levels of the PRONAFECYT.
The finding from these themes was that the response to national policy in Costa Rica to promote
the sciences in primary schools is dependent on the local educational leader. Systems for recog-
nition and purpose can be strengthened by higher level government officials.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” The purpose of Research Question 2 was to pinpoint specific teaching prac-
tices that impacted participation in the PRONAFECYT. Although the practices were examined
from a STEM–PBL lens, the findings revealed two common themes: (a) parental involvement in
the science fair process at the primary schools and (b) leadership from a teacher’s level. All of
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 75
the survey results related to Research Question 2 from teachers and parents at School A1 are
included in Table 2.
Parental Involvement
Survey and interview data demonstrated that stakeholders felt that parental involvement
was positively related to student participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative. Schools with
high participation in the science had purposeful opportunities for parental involvement through-
out the science fair process. The findings supported Kotter’s (1996) second step in the change
framework of having a guiding team for change. In addition, Bolman and Deal’s (2008) frame-
work was also supported by the findings. The idea of creating partnerships with parents by
building alliances is aligned with the political frame.
Interview data also supported the concept that parental involvement matters on the
participation of primary schools in the PRONAFECYT. This feeling was shared by teachers,
school administrators, government officials, university faculty, and parents. This is the case in
spite of the fact that parents felt that the school did not adequately provide adequate resources to
prepare students for the PRONAFECYT. According to survey data, only 61% of parents at
School A1 agreed or strongly agreed that the school provided adequate resources to students for
the science fair. This opinion was consistent with the feelings of parents throughout the Coastal
Region. At a regional level, only 42% of parents agreed or strongly agreed that the school
provided adequate resources for participation in the science fair (see Figure 4).
Interviews with parents at Schools A1 and B1 corroborated the survey data. For example,
Wendy Melendez, a parent of a School B1 student, shared:
What happens is that all of the projects are self-managed—they all come up with their
own resources. Meaning that the groups have to obtain the resources. In case that—for
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 76
Table 2
School A1 Survey Data Regarding Research Question 2
Teachers Parents
Survey question (N = 17) (N = 26)
3. The School Director elicits teacher feedback to improve implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 8 12
Agree 5 7
Disagree 1 3
Strongly disagree 1 1
Not sure 2 3
4. The School Director communicates the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 7 8
Agree 8 8
Disagree 1 6
Strongly disagree 1 1
Not sure 0 3
5. I provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as part
of my regular instruction.
Strongly agree 7 13
Agree 10 8
Disagree 0 1
Strongly disagree 0 1
Not sure 0 3
14. Student participation in the PRONAFECYT is recognized throughout
my school.
Strongly agree 3 7
Agree 10 10
Disagree 1 2
Strongly disagree 1 2
Not sure 2 5
20. Teacher training was useful in preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 4 9
Agree 6 10
Disagree 0 1
Strongly disagree 2 1
Not sure 5 5
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 77
Figure 4. Percentages representing Costa Rican Coastal Region parents’ beliefs
regarding Research Question 2. School A1 parents, N = 26; Coastal Region parents, N
= 50.
Table 2 (continued)
Teachers Parents
Survey question (N = 17) (N = 26)
21. There is a curriculum plan to help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 6 7
Agree 6 9
Disagree 2 1
Strongly disagree 1 1
Not sure 2 8
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 78
example, we needed, what can I tell you—to take water samples, we needed a special
device. We [parents] either had to buy it or build it.
Viviana Molina, another parent at School B1, had a similar opinion regarding the level of par-
ental involvement in the PRONAFECYT:
The same thing with the presentation. I mean the posters, whatever you have to do—that
also comes from our own resources. In a second stage, for example, us that have passed
to the next stage, we are working on a project where the local government has become
involved, along with the institution and a couple of private companies. Then we start to
work on a project where the resources come entirely from the parents, but that the local
government, the institution are both going to contribute with something. But that is only
for the projects that make it to the regional fair, to the second stage.
As part of the joint interview, the first parent added, “The parents are the ones in charge of pro-
viding the money for that.”
The A1 School Director, Mario Avila, provided further insight into the PRONAFECYT
process at the school. He realized that parents play an important role in a student’s participation
in the science fair process. In the beginning of the process, he revealed that “the parents are the
ones who contribute with whatever the students need.” In addition to providing material re-
sources, parents and families also provide assistance to students as they develop their ideas. Mr.
Avila also shared:
Another aspect is that most of the projects—it is true that the families have to make a
contribution, but there is high percentage of parents who actually do the work. I don’t
think that is correct. On the other hand, through the use of technology and the Internet,
we are not providing the students with the traditional scientific method to investigate,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 79
where they can pose a problem and possible solutions to that problem, where they can
verify it and draw their own conclusions.
I always tell my companions that all the students should be given the chance to
participate, no matter how simple the project might seem. “This is too simple.” Well,
that’s what he can do because maybe he doesn’t have the skills or the support from his
parents, so although the project is simple, it’s the best he can do. We have to give him the
chance to present his project; otherwise, we would be telling him that he’s not capable of
doing it.
Government officials also echoed the sentiment that parents play an important role in a
child’s participation in the PRONAFECYT. Vice Minister of Education, Alicia Vargas, stated
that “most of the experiments are done by the students with the participation of the parents, with
the support of the parents.” The importance of parental involvement was also a point that
Nathalie Valencia Chacón from the MICITT shared in her interview:
I also believe that the parent’s role is very important. They motivate and support their
kids in the development of different processes that empower them in a better way regard-
ing their learning. So, I believe that education leadership is fundamental for the success
not only for the PRONAFECYT but also for the development of the country. Therefore,
principals are important, teachers are important, parents are important; but I also believe
that one of the main components in the fairs are the regional science consultants who
manage to strengthen the fairs’ process and carry the message, which is to see the process
of science and technology fairs as a learning process and not as a competition.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 80
Director Elena Cruz at School B1, which has had long-term participation in and success
with the PRONAFECYT, also felt that parents play an important part in the success of a child’s
participation in the science fair:
We don’t to all of the work in class because the kids need more direction. So then there is
a lot of work at home with the parents. They are invested in this role. So then in the first
PTA meeting, we make the groups, and the PRONAFECYT coordinator offers training
for the parents.
School B1 actively involves parents in the science fair process. Parental; involvement is not a
direct classroom activity; however, School B1 has a system to train parents to provide support to
their children in preparing for the science fair. Rosa Fernandez, Science Fair Coordinator at
School B1, shared the following regarding the integral part that parents play in the science fair
preparation:
The written report is very difficult to develop for small children. They don’t understand
the meaning of the word “objective,” so we work with their parents this part of the project
or with their families, their uncles, grandparents, depending on each family structure. We
include uncles, nephews, grandparents—sometimes we include older siblings, cousins—
and then we offer training sessions for them and during these training sessions. We do
two sessions every 3 months to teach families about how to develop this report, how to
support students in the research process, and how to make a report book, so this is an
integrated process where family is included and children and teachers work together.
This is something completely integrated—the purpose is there—parents should be inte-
grated into the education process of their children.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 81
Ms. Fernandez’s comments were based on the written report for the science fair, which indicated
a commitment from School B1 to have parents work alongside teachers to foster high-quality
student work.
In summary, the triangulation of interviews and surveys provided evidence that parental
involvement in the teaching and learning process is a practice that distinguishes schools based on
their participation in the PRONAFECYT. All levels of government and school officials who
were interviewed referenced the role played parents in students’ participation in the
PRONAFECYT. While some stakeholders saw parent involvement as a means to gather material
resources to participate in the fair, successful schools had a different perspective on parental
roles. School B1, which is a model school for science fair outcomes, viewed parents as an
academic resource to support students in the science fair. As such, School B1 offered workshops
for parents and families to develop pedagogical foundations to promote science inquiry in their
children.
Teacher Leadership
Teacher leadership matters with respect to primary school participation in the
PRONAFECYT. Surveys, interviews, and observation data demonstrated that having a teacher
leader at the school site made a difference in the participation level of a primary school in the
PRONAFECYT. Data were collected from stakeholders at the government, business, and local
educational levels—including parents, teachers, and students. The data supported Kotter’s
(1996) change framework by having a structure that removes obstacles and empowers people to
move forward. Additionally, Bolman and Deal’s (2008) structural frame and human resource
frame were supported by the data. The structural frame was supported in schools that had a
teacher leader on the campus by altering the traditional structure in which only the school director
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 82
Figure 5. Percentages representing Costa Rican Coastal Region teachers’ beliefs
regarding Research Question 2. A1 teachers, N = 17; Coastal Region teachers, N =
85.
was the leader. In terms of the human resource frame, teacher leaders on a campus provide
support and training for others at the school.
Survey data from 85 teachers were used to support the finding that teacher leadership
made a difference in the implementation of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative at the
primary school level. Teachers in the Coastal Region agreed that they were afforded opportuni-
ties to be leaders in the school for the PRONAFECYT. Survey results indicated the 60% of
teachers in the Coastal Region strongly agreed or agreed that they were given leadership capacity
to make decisions about the science fair (see Figure 5). At School A1, 65% of teachers strongly
agreed or agreed that they were given leadership capacity for decision making related to the
science fair.
While these teacher leaders support the school’s effort in coordinating and planning the
local science fair, their presence provides additional benefits to the school sites. The survey and
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 83
interview data indicated that the level of teacher planning and collaboration within the schools
was increased at sites having a teacher leader in place. The findings also supported the concept
of DuFour et al. (2010) regarding teachers engaging in PLCs.
Interview data suggested that schools that have had success in implementing the
PRONAFECYT have a teacher leader on campus. Nathalie Valencia Chacón of the MICITT
provided the following insight when asked about the role of educational leaders in preparing for
the science fairs:
I think that is one of the key components for the development of the PRONAFECYT.
Leadership can be exercised by the different persons involved in the education commu-
nity. A principal who is committed, a principal who empowers his teachers makes a
difference, and we have been able to notice that in the visits we made to the different
schools. Teachers who are leaders, who are committed, empowered, who are acquainted
with the process, and who motivate their students since early stages is something critical.
While Ms. Chacón did make mention of the school principal as being a leader on the campus, she
felt that leadership is a shared responsibility. Ms. Chacón’s opinion was that those teachers who
take the lead improve student participation.
Another government official, Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice Minister of the MICITT,
spoke on the effect of teacher leadership: “We think that we need that all teachers become leaders
because the education model we hold . . . [no] longer hold, if you’re talking about innovation.”
Her view was that all teachers need to provide leadership to move Costa Rica toward economic
prosperity.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 84
School site interviews provided further insight into the role that teacher leaders have on
the school science fairs. School B1 Director, Elena Cruz, discussed how teachers play a role in
leading the science fair through a collaborative process:
Our colleague is the coordinator, and there are also a few teachers that are in charge of
training other teachers. Our colleagues are in constant communication with this commit-
tee—for example, if we have doubts about accepting a subject or not, or also if the parents
have any questions.
Ms. Cruz shared that it is on ongoing process of collaboration between teachers: “They all help
each other to sort these things out. At the beginning of the year when we have personnel training,
the general training [is] about all of the internal process that will take place during the year.”
Another school site director, Julieta Barbosa of School A3, spoke on the importance of
teacher leadership and collaboration on the science fair:
They had no choice but to do it, because there was a complaint on behalf of the teachers
and educators that were questioning how could you have science technology, innovation,
and creative science programs in the schools but with zero research. But that’s something
that we’re working on, because you can create any program but the teacher’s mentality is
what makes the difference.
She went on to add, “One more thing, there’s something important that we need to take note.
With the technology and science fair, the agent of changes is the teacher.”
The observation data provided further evidence that teacher leadership makes a difference
on the level of schoolwide participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative. At Schools B1, A2,
B2, and A3, a single teacher took the lead to coordinate the local science fair. At Schools B1 and
A3, this was the teacher’s assigned job duty, while at Schools A2 and B2, a classroom teacher
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 85
took on an adjunct duty to fill the role of a local school coordinator. Schools B1, A2, and A3
have had past success at the regional science fair level. Observations at Schools A1 and B3 did
not yield any finding of a local science fair coordinator.
In summary, the triangulation of surveys, interviews, and observations provided evidence
that teacher leadership made a difference on participation in the PRONAFECYT at primary
schools.
Results Summary for Research Question 2
An analysis of data derived from teacher surveys, school observations, interviews of
various stakeholders, and a literature review resulted in two clear themes for Research Question
2. Teacher practices across Costa Rican schools differed depending on a multitude of factors.
The different factors in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT were analyzed for six
schools in the Coastal Region of San José. As measured by participation in the PRONAFECYT,
the data analysis revealed that teacher practices at successful schools differed from teacher
practices at less successful schools with respect to (a) the level of parent involvement that was
actively sought out by teachers and faculty at a school and (b) having teacher leaders who moved
forward with implementing the science fair at the school. It was evident across the different
school sites that parents were involved in the science fair; however, the level of involvement
varied by school.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” The purpose of Research Question 3 was to determine whether teachers and
students have an understanding of 21st-century skills, as categorized in Wagner’s (2010) survival
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 86
skills. An additional purpose of this research question was to determine how educational leaders
are building capacity to achieve 21st-century competencies in their teachers and students.
The findings for Research Question 3 revealed two common themes: (a) that training and
ongoing professional development positively impacts the development of 21st-century skills and
(b) that prioritizing instructional efforts in the schools brings to light 21st-century skills. All of
the survey results related to Research Question 3 from teachers and parents at School A1 are
included in Table 3.
Training and Professional Development
The survey and interview data indicated that school leaders planned to equip students and
teachers with the 21st-century skills that are necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT.
School leaders planned to build 21st-century skills by providing ongoing training and profes-
sional development. The thought of building capacity relates to Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
concept of prioritizing the skills that people bring to an organization through operating in the
human resources frame. However, plans to provide training do not always carry forward into
actual implementation of the training.
The first step in identifying 21st-century skill training and professional development
opportunities for teachers was to measure the level of the understanding of 21st-century skills.
According to the survey data from School A1, where 17 teachers were surveyed, 94% agreed or
strongly agreed they were familiar with 21st-century skills (see Figure 6). These responses were
consistent with the findings from the Coastal Region where 85 teachers were surveyed and 86%
agreed or strongly agreed that they were familiar with the principles of 21st-century skills.
Survey data also revealed that teachers and school leaders did not feel that they received
adequate training to prepare students to participate in the PRONAFECYT. At School A1 only
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 87
Table 3
School A1 Survey Data Regarding Research Question 3
Teachers Parents
Survey question (N = 17) (N = 26)
6. I utilize project-based learning (PBL) in my teaching.
Strongly agree 5 10
Agree 7 5
Disagree 2 6
Strongly disagree 0 2
Not sure 3 3
7. I am provided adequate training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 4 10
Agree 3 6
Disagree 5 4
Strongly disagree 3 2
Not sure 2 4
9. I am familiar with soft skills.
Strongly agree 8 11
Agree 8 8
Disagree 0 2
Strongly disagree 0 2
Not sure 1 3
10. My School Director talks about the importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
Strongly agree 9 9
Agree 6 10
Disagree 1 4
Strongly disagree 1 2
Not sure 0 1
11. Students develop soft skills through participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 8 11
Agree 7 6
Disagree 0 5
Strongly disagree 1 0
Not sure 1 4
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 88
Figure 6. Percentages representing Costa Rican Coastal Region teachers’
beliefs regarding Research Question 3 and soft skills. School A1 teachers,
N = 17; Coastal Region teachers, N = 85.
Table 3 (continued)
Teachers Parents
Survey question (N = 17) (N = 26)
12. I have received training on how to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
Strongly agree 5 10
Agree 2 9
Disagree 6 3
Strongly disagree 3 1
Not sure 1 3
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved student collaboration in my
classroom.
Strongly agree 3 6
Agree 10 11
Disagree 2 2
Strongly disagree 1 1
Not sure 1 6
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 89
41% of teachers surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that they received adequate training for the
science fair. This finding was consistent with the sentiment of teachers in the Coastal Region,
where 43% of teachers surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that received adequate training.
School director responses echoed the teachers with respect to receiving adequate training to
prepare for the PRONAFECYT. Specifically, in the Coastal region, three of the six school direc-
tors surveyed disagreed that they received adequate training, while one strongly agreed and two
agreed with the question.
Interview data from university and government officials provided a different perspective
that also validated survey data from the schools. At the university level, the thought was that
teachers were receiving the training to have an understanding of 21st-century skills. Hugo
Navarro, Director of ITCR’s School of Technical Education, stated the following regarding
training future school leaders: “We provide them with the pedagogic information and other type
of information in order to make teachers that are successful at teaching.” The training from the
school director to the teacher is through a funneled-down perspective.
At the governmental level, Ms. Chacón of MICITT viewed the training and professional
development that is offered to schools as a valuable resource for the participation in the
PRONAFECYT. In her opinion, the MICITT is providing support to all 27 MEP regional areas
in Costa Rica:
The government, in the case of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Telecommunica-
tions, provides resources for the organization of the 27 regional science and technology
fairs. The Ministry of Public Education provides the human resources, the teachers, the
consultants, the supervisors, who are involved in the organization. This year we have
managed that the Ministry of Public Education provides resources for the national
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 90
process. The Ministry of Science and Technology also provides the resources for the
organization of the National Science Fair together with the contribution provided by the
University of Costa Rica.
Therefore, we can say that there are resources for the organization at regional and
national level but we still have a lot to do at school level, not only regarding financial
resources but also to strengthen the training processes. At the MICITT we consider that
we have to work harder regarding the training process of the teachers so that they get to
know and to understand what research implies so that they can enhance these processes as
a valuable tool for their students’ learning process.
In her view, training provided to teachers is an area in which the government can improve in
order to benefit the overall level of the PRONAFECYT. Professional development support is a
coordinated effort between the government and the Costa Rican universities.
Interview data obtained from teachers and school leaders also revealed that there was
intent to provide training; however, this intent did not lead to training. Teacher interviews indi-
cated commonalities with the government officials because they felt that more training could be
provided for the science fair process. It was not only the amount but also the type of focused
training that should be offered, School A1 teachers argued. For example, Alfonso Romero,
science teacher, shared the following regarding the training that is received by teachers for the
science fair: “In the science . . . if they get us together as teachers to receive training—for exam-
ple, in experiments and in the ways of seeing science—not really, it’s too little.”
In summary, the triangulation of surveys and interviews from Costa Rican university
faculty, government officials, business partners, and school site personnel provided strong evi-
dence that there is a need for teacher training and professional development around the
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 91
PRONAFECYT initiative. The evidence showed that teachers had an understanding of the
different components that comprise 21st-century skills, as defined by Wagner’s (2010) survival
skills. However, teachers’ knowledge of 21st-century skills was not being used in practice to
support students as they developed their own 21st-century skills through the science fair process.
Prioritizing Instruction
Surveys, interviews, and observation data demonstrated that schools in which instruc-
tional efforts were prioritized on developing students with 21st-century skills had better prepared
students to participate in the PRONAFECYT. The instructional priorities around STEM and
PBL, which develop 21st-century skills, are those that resulted in greater participation in the
PRONAFECYT. This focus is in line with the concepts that Capraro et al. (2013) presented for
student development of skills that could be considered 21st-century skills.
According to the survey data from School A1, where 17 teachers were surveyed, 70%
agreed or strongly agreed that they utilize PBL in their classrooms (see Figure 7). This finding
was consistent with findings from the Coastal Region in which 87% of the 85 teachers surveyed
agreed or strongly agreed that they used PBL in the classroom. Both survey findings were signif-
icant because, as Capraro et al. (2013) affirmed, PBL is a pedagogical methodology to build 21st-
century skills. Figure 7 illustrates the point that teachers believed that they were engaged in an
instructional practice to promote soft-skills for the science fair.
The interview data also suggested that prioritizing instruction promoted participation in
the PRONAFECYT, which results in the development of 21st-century skills. Interviewees
expressed that an instructional focus around STEM and PBL promoted participation in the
PRONAFECYT. For instance, government officials understood that participation in the
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 92
Figure 7. Percentages representing Costa Rican Coastal Region teachers’ beliefs
regarding Research Question 3 and PBL. A1 teachers, N = 17; Coastal Region
teachers, N = 85.
PRONAFECYT provides students with preparation in 21st-century skills. However, there was
an understanding that resources must be provided to make STEM a priority in Costa Rican
schools. Assemblyman Javier Cambronero shared the following regarding resources and instruc-
tional priorities for the PRONAFECYT:
The program is good. We have great expectations for it to be even better. This is neces-
sary to have more injection of resources, and we don’t see it as an expenditure but as an
investment that will enable us to have in the short and medium term more scientists and a
more extensive range of possibilities in the field of science and investigation, earth
science, space science, biomedical technology, nano technology. We are proud to have
two of our public universities very well ranked at a world level. Such is the case of the
University of Costa Rica, the Technological Institute of Costa Rica.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 93
Assemblyman Cambronero viewed the science fair to be an investment in Costa Rica through
developing 21st-century skills in students. He also felt that the PRONAFECYT is a mechanism
to train more scientists and engineers in a country where the arts and social sciences have
dominated (OECD, 2012). The assemblyman shared the following regarding prioritizing science
instruction:
However, we believe that the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs sup-
ported by MICITT and the Ministry of Education must be enacted to become a law of the
Republic, associated to the possibility that the chemistry, physics, and biology “Olym-
pics” [national fairs] which are held in Costa Rica and which allow to discover talented
people who in the 4th and 5th year of the high school show a strong inclination towards
physics, chemistry, or biology, so that the government can concentrate more resources in
these students so that we can see the benefits in the short and medium term in the field of
science, technology, and innovation. Why? Because Costa Rica is a country strongly
marked by social sciences. Here the arts are very important. It is a good thing that we
have educators, lawyers, and company administrators, but it’s not enough. We want to be
a country that goes hand in hand with science, technology, and innovation to be able to
give a qualitative leap towards development.
Working to prioritize instruction to focus on STEM was a view that another government
official shared. Mr. Lander Perez, education advisor to Assemblyman Cambronero, shared the
following in his interview regarding the role that the PRONAFECYT plays in prioritizing
instruction:
Our country has always favored the arts instead of sciences. An evidence of that is that
when you find students who are very well trained in natural or exact sciences, they leave
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 94
the country. There is a brain drain; there are very important people working abroad. I
think that the most important thing is to try to find the mechanisms so that with the
assistance of the government, students want to study science and are willing to innovate
and to do something different. Especially we should promote the passion for science
from very early stages with processes like the fairs, but also with subject curriculums that
can make them think, analyze, try to explain why things happen and how they can solve
different problems in the community.
His sentiments were in line with what Assemblyman Cambronero shared. Promoting and
prioritizing the science fairs at all levels will encourage more students to study those disciplines
in college.
Interview data from the schools also supported the theme that an instructional focus
encourages participating in the science fair to promote the STEM fields. At School B1, participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT was mandatory for all students. Accountability measures to ensure
that all students participate in the science fair are part of the school’s student policy handbook.
B1 School Director, Elena Cruz, shared the following in her interview:
It is included in the internal regulation. Participation is mandatory. The process, up to the
class presentation, it is all mandatory. So then in the internal regulation it is established
as such. Even in the internal regulation there is an annex containing the student manual.
The internal regulation is like our legal side—it also validates us before the MEP. We
give this to the parents at the beginning of the year so they all know it. But also they
have—like I told you in the beginning, they have a Spanish class evaluation. We grade
the log as an extra credit homework. And the written paper is graded also in their science
class as part of the criteria. So then they don’t have a choice—they have to participate. In
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 95
the institutional fair, since we have to select three projects, some decide that they don’t
want to go to the institutional fair. Then we have to think if we are going to accept the
reasons that they are giving us why they don’t want to participate. But the first stage is
mandatory.
What this means is that classrooms that have a core in STEM and PBL can more easily meet the
requirements to participate in the science fair.
Observations conducted at the schools in the Coastal Region reinforced the concept that
having a schoolwide instructional focus in PBL or STEM promoted the development of 21st-
century skills by participating in the PRONAFECYT. In School A1, for example, there was a
focus on health, fitness, and cultural development. The school was hosting several Zumba events
for parents and students. School Director Mario Avila shared that there was a high rate of obesity
in the region (interview, June 19, 2015). His priority was to encourage family exercise in an
effort to reduce the school’s student obesity rate. There were also signs that the school empha-
sized cultural development through the arts. In the school office, there was a trophy case that
contained 16 awards (trophies and plaques), seven of which were earned by the school band for
various parade presentations and nine were earned by the school’s folkloric dance group. There
were no awards for the science fair in the trophy case. The lack of awards in terms of the
PRONAFECYT echoed what the School Director mentioned regarding focusing on health and
fitness. Visual arts were also emphasized at the schools, as evidenced by the student-created
mural that decorated all exterior walls of the campus that faced a main playground.
However, there were also signs that the school was promoting 21st-century skills and
PBL through means other than the PRONAFECYT. There were computer labs that were ob-
served as part of a campus tour. Two of the computer labs were dedicated to language
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 96
development; another was a general use lab to promote technology literacy skills. The language
labs were marked by five murals dedicated to the languages that could be learned in the lab: (a)
an English mural with images and the flags from the United States and Great Britain; (b) a
Chinese mural with dragons, a lotus flower, a giant panda, and the Chinese Flag; (c) a Portuguese
mural with images from Brazil and Portugal along with the respective flags of each country; (d) a
French mural with the Eiffel Tower, the Arc de Triomphe, a mime, and the French flag; and (e)
an Italian mural with pasta, pizza, the Colosseum, a Ferrari race car, the leaning tower of Pisa,
and two Italian flags. It can be argued that 21st-century skills were being taught in the school via
concepts of collaboration across networks and effective oral and written communication based on
Wagner’s (2010) list of survival skills.
In addition to the language labs, there were signs that the School A1 was promoting 21st-
century skills development. The school had a peacock, several geese, a rooster, and three hens in
an enclosed courtyard. School Director Avila shared that these animals were at the school so that
students could learn about them from observation and not just from textbooks (interview,
June 19, 2015). Additionally, the school had a hydroponic garden for students to use as they
learned about plants and the environment.
In summary, the triangulation of survey, interview, and observation data produced
evidence that having a system in which leaders prioritized instructional measures for STEM and
PBL improved students’ development of 21st-century skills. These skills are a major component
in supporting participation in the PRONAFECYT. Observation data were most compelling in
uncovering the development of 21st-century skills in primary schools. School B1 in the Coastal
Region was found to have an accountability system that guided the development of 21st-century
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 97
skills to increase participation in the PRONAFECYT, while School A1 fostered 21st-century
skills via other campus programs unrelated to the PRONAFECYT.
Results Summary for Research Question 3
An analysis of data from teacher surveys, school observations, interviews of various
stakeholders, and a literature review resulted in two clear themes that emerged for Research
Question 3. As a result of policy implementation by the Costa Rican legislature through the
PRONAFECYT, school leaders have made decisions that impact primary school participation in
the program. The data analysis revealed that site and system leaders equip their students with the
21st-century skills that are needed for the science fair by (a) training teachers through profes-
sional development opportunities and (b) prioritizing the instructional focus of the schools. It
was evident across the different levels of government and schools that professional development
opportunities were available for teachers in the science fair and inquiry process. However, these
trainings were not always obtained by all schools because of hurdles, real or perceived, by the
school leaders.
Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practices?” The purpose of Research Question 4 was to examine instruc-
tional practices in primary school classrooms. Specifically, the focus of the instructional prac-
tices was on STEM PBL with regard to 21st-century skills. Data were analyzed through the PBL
framework of Capraro et al. (2013). The findings for Research Question 4 revealed two common
themes: (a) integration of the scientific method and inquiry practices across the curriculum and
(b) enhancement of 21st-century skills through increased student collaboration.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 98
Scientific Method and Inquiry Practices
Surveys and interview data showed that participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
has led to an integrated approach of the scientific method and inquiry practices across the
curriculum. Teachers’ instructional practices have included the use of the scientific method and
further inquiry skill development as a result of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The concept of
including a systematized method for including inquiry-based learning in the curriculum relates to
the idea of to Capraro et al. (2013) with respect to making STEM and PBL drivers for instruction.
According to survey data from School A1, where 17 teachers were surveyed, 100% strongly
agreed or agreed that they used scientific inquiry principles as part of their regular instruction.
Eighty percent of the 66 students surveyed at School A1 responded that they strongly agreed or
agreed that the scientific method and inquiry skills were used in class. This finding was also
consistent with parents at School A1, where 81% of those surveyed strongly agreed or agreed that
their children had the opportunity to engage in scientific inquiry at school using the scientific
method (see Figure 8).
Interview data from government officials validated the survey results. MEP Vice Minis-
ter Alicia Vargas shared that the fairs develop scientific inquiry and investigation skills in
students:
These type of fairs also give the students the opportunity to develop their own way of, not
only of inquiry, but also of dealing with a problem. There are other skills such as self-
esteem and self-improvement, which are very important also for them.
Another government official, Nathalie Valencia Chacón of the MICITT, shared the following
regarding inquiry skills students gain through the participation in the PRONAFECYT:
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 99
Figure 8. Percentages representing beliefs of teachers, students, and parents at
School A1 regarding Research Question 4 as related to scientific inquiry.
Teachers, N = 26; students, N = 66; parents, N = 26.
Regarding students there are many skills, not only in the scientific and technological field
but also the development of scientific thinking, creativity, communication, the compre-
hensive development. . . . In my experience with students in the fair process, I think that
the most valuable thing was not the competition itself but it was to see students with
special education needs motivated by a subject—how he committed himself and how he
managed to communicate with other people to make a presentation of what he had
learned.
Ms. Chacón went on to share that the structure provided by the PRONAFECYT enables the
promotion on inquiry in the classroom: “It familiarizes them with science and technology through
the inquiry-based process.”
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 100
Interview data collected at the school sites in Costa Rica also validated the survey results
related to the use of inquiry and scientific method in the classroom. During his interview, School
A1 School Director, Mario Avila, shared the following regarding the scientific method:
Together with its basic elements: posing the problem, formulating hypothesis, verifying
and drawing conclusions. What for? To form them so that they will be able to cope with
their life, which I believe is the most important thing. It would be great to have a
scientific or someone who is inclined to study science graduate from this school, but our
role is to prepare the young students for life, so that they can succeed in life. I think that if
we are able to accomplish that, we would be able to accomplish many other things.
Mr. Avila acknowledged the importance of having teachers use the scientific method as a way to
develop problem-solving skills with their students.
Another perspective from school site interview data included the use of the scientific
method as a way that curriculum has changed due to the PRONAFECYT. In an interview,
Alfonso Romero, science teacher at School A1, shared that the science fair has helped put theory
into practice by way of the scientific method:
There’s no application. So, for example, this test I did—we’re seeing the steps for the
scientific method. So I explain to the students and give them a lot of examples: historic
examples on how it was used the scientific method and how it’s used now—and what
comes in the objective of the science program is that they recognize the steps of the
scientific method in a text. So we give them an example of small pieces and, “Tell me
what’s scientific step is used here.” That’s what I do. I tell them, “Look, what I want is to
give it to you and you do the scientific method.” The scientific method because we use
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 101
the scientific method all the time, and it’s not only to do science but the regular life, for
the ordinary life.
Mr. Romero believed that the benefits of using the scientific method are farther reaching than
traditional science concepts.
Student Collaboration
Survey and interview data demonstrated that through participation in the PRONAFECYT,
students were able to apply 21st-century skills in a collaborative context that extended beyond the
school curriculum. Students worked on gaining sponsorship to develop their science projects.
As such, they had to exhibit an entrepreneurial spirit to acquire the material resources they sought
for their projects. This theme was supported by Wagner’s (2010) survival skills to develop 21st-
century competencies.
Several survey questions confirmed that student collaboration had increased in primary
school classroom. When teachers at School A1 were asked whether student collaboration had
increased in their classroom based on the PRONAFECYT, 70% strongly agreed or agreed that it
had (see Table 3). Students were surveyed on their familiarity with collaboration and the use of
21st-century skills in their classroom. Student survey results from School A1 indicated that 67%
of the 66 students surveyed had an understanding of the soft skills, or 21st-century skills. Par-
ents’ survey data also indicated that collaboration has increased at School A1 as a result of the
PRONAFECYT (see Table 3). Survey results found that 65% of the parents surveyed felt that
collaboration had increased at the school.
Government officials realized that acquiring resources for the science fairs is an area of
concern. One way that schools and students can work around this potential barrier is to seek
resources from outside agencies, and students worked to gather these outside resources in
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 102
collaboration with other classmates. Lander Perez Barrantes, education advisor to Assemblyman
Cambronero, shared the following in his interview regarding combining resources in an entrepre-
neurial way:
As we are a poor country, it would be helpful to be able to use the resources provided by
other institutions for labs, for specialists, because not all the schools have trained profes-
sionals or labs as part of their infrastructure. So, that would be a good way to maximize
the resources. The government helps in the sense that the processes of science and
technology fairs are carried out with the participation of our most valuable human re-
source, the students, and obviously with the teachers who assist them along the different
stages such as classroom, institutional, regional, circuit, and at national levels.
While Mr. Perez’s comments were more directly tied to the use of resources for the fair, students
receiving support in a collaborative structure were included in his statement.
Evidence of student collaboration was also uncovered through interviews with school site
personnel. Science Coordinator Rosa Fernandez shared the following regarding student collabo-
ration in the PRONAFECYT:
It is very beneficial in many ways, not only in the development of scientific skills but also
in the teamwork, where the student learns he can’t work alone in the world. He/she
requires other people to do it, so we encourage values of cooperation; solidarity; moral
values such as family, respect to others, support from family members. I mean the benefit
is an integral benefit. We provide students with tools to develop their skills, for example,
in the descriptive part, and also how to do a daily book and understand the process in the
scientific part, each one in their level—but they develop many other skills, for example,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 103
expose them to a community and we teach them to contribute, even when they are small
kids.
Ms. Fernandez understood the value that the science fair had on building a cooperative learning
environment for students. She added that students extended their learning of the soft skills by
being members of a collaborative team:
They don’t need to be adults to become a productive part of society; they can be produc-
tive even if they are small. We teach them responsibility. They have to present their
projects on time; they get help from their relatives; but they have to review their work
constantly because they can’t hurry up at the end. So we teach them responsibility in that
sense, and we help them to see a broader perspective from the world they have. We invite
them to make tours and visit universities, specialists in the field they have chosen, so they
can open borders for themselves. They go outside from their own community and look
for a wider world from the one they know.
Observation data also supported the theme of increased student collaboration as a result of
the PRONAFECYT. Student desks in classrooms at School A1 were clustered in groups of two
and three students. This layout (as opposed to having students sitting in isolation) helped create
an environment that encouraged student talk and discussion to foster collaboration.
In summary, the triangulation of surveys, interviews, and observations provided evidence
that student collaboration in primary schools had been enhanced by participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Results Summary for Research Question 4
An analysis of data was conducted that included data gathered from the literature review,
student surveys, parent surveys, teacher surveys, interviews, and school-level observations that
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 104
yielded two themes. As a result of participation in the PRONAFECYT, primary classroom
practices in Costa Rica include an integration of inquiry and the scientific method. In addition,
there has been an increase in student collaboration, which serves to extend the development of
21st-century skills.
Chapter Summary
Data from surveys, interviews, and observations were analyzed to address the four
research questions developed by the research team. Data were analyzed through the three guiding
frameworks for this study. The work of Bolman and Deal (2008) was used to understand
different leadership frames in Costa Rican primary schools as they pertained to the
PRONAFECYT initiative. The work of Kotter (1996) provided a lens to analyze the change
process that educational leaders have undertaken to implement the PRONAFECYT. The work of
Capraro et al. (2013) provided a framework for understanding the pedagogical shifts by Costa
Rican primary schools to develop STEM and PBL. As a result of the data analysis, a total of nine
themes emerged.
Analysis of the data related to Research Question 1 revealed three themes:
1. Leadership matters in the participation of primary schools in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT;
2. Communicating the vision, or purpose, of the PRONAFECYT by the school leader
impacts the level of participation at the school; and
3. Recognition of students, parents, and teachers was not consistent at all levels of the
PRONAFECYT.
All three themes aligned with Kotter’s (1996) framework as it pertains to leading change in an
organization.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 105
Research Question 2 also brought out two themes:
1. Parental involvement in the science fair process influenced the level of student par-
ticipation in the fair; and
2. Teacher-level leadership in a primary school is a factor that affects the collaboration
among teachers in a school to promote and plan for the PRONAFECYT.
Analysis of Research Question 3 demonstrated two themes:
1. Providing teacher training and ongoing professional development positively impacts
the development of 21st-century skills; and
2. Prioritizing instructional efforts in schools brings to light 21st-century skills.
Research Question 4 also provided two major themes:
1. The science fair has increased integration of the scientific method and inquiry prac-
tices across the curriculum; and
2. There is an enhancement of 21st-century skills through student collaboration as a
result of participating in the PRONAFECYT.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 106
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Globalization, which includes the exchange of commerce, ideas, and, notably, educational
practice, has created an increasingly interconnected world (Ritzer, 2011). One result of global-
ization is the rise of MNCs, which has occurred over the last half century. Over the past 30 years
in Costa Rica, MNCs have helped to transform the economy from an agriculture-dependent
system to one that is knowledge based (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Companies’ choices to invest in
Costa Rica have been based on the human capital that is available to meet the knowledge-based
needs of FDI. However, increased competition from other countries for FDI has led to a need for
knowledge-intensive workers in Costa Rica (OECD, 2012). As a result, Costa Rican government
and education leaders have been tasked with preparing the next generation of the labor force with
knowledge- and conceptual-based workers with STEM skills in addition to essential 21st-century
competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). This study focused on the educational policy changes
that have occurred in Costa Rica as a result of globalization. Specifically, the study provides an
investigation into the changes at the primary school level due to the PRONAFECYT initiative.
This dissertation was divided into five chapters. Chapter One provided an overview of
the study that included an introduction, background of the problem, purpose of the study, re-
search questions, significance of the study, limitations, delimitations, assumptions, and definition
of key terms.
Chapter Two provided a review of the literature on the effects of globalization on econo-
mies and education, instructional practices of STEM and PBL, 21st-century skills, and leadership
and change practices. The chapter also included a history of Costa Rica as it pertained to politics,
economics, and education. Details regarding the three theoretical frameworks that formed the
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 107
basis for this study—leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2008), change process (Kotter, 1996), and
instructional practices in STEM and PBL (Capraro et al., 2013)—were presented in the chapter.
Chapter Three presented the research methodology that was used in this study. Part of the
argument included the appropriateness of a qualitative approach for the study and the details of
the method of inquiry. This chapter included a discussion of the instrumentation that was used to
the collect data, the procedures to analyze the data, and the sample and population.
Chapter Four presents the research findings from the data collection. Also included
in Chapter Four was a detailed analysis of the data with respect to each specific research ques-
tion.
Chapter Five presents a conclusion for the study that summarizes the findings of the
overall study. Also included in the chapter are possible implications for practice as well as
recommendations for future research.
Purpose of the Study Restated
The purpose of this study was to identify the role that educational leaders play in imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT initiative in the Costa Rican primary schools. The study provided
an examination of leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development
practices at various school sites as a means to identify key components of successful implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the research team as the research team explored
the role that educational leadership plays in promoting STEM and 21st-century skill development
through the PRONAFECYT initiative:
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 108
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Summary of Findings
Through the analysis of survey, interview, and observation data gathered as part of the
study, nine themes emerged:
1. Leadership matters on the participation of primary schools in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT.
2. Communicating the vision, or purpose, of the national science fair program by the
school leader impacts the level of participation at the school.
3. Recognition of students, parents, and teachers is not consistent at all levels of the
PRONAFECYT.
4. Parental involvement in the science fair process at the primary school level influences
student participation in the fair.
5. Leadership at the teachers’ level helps to coordinate efforts for the science fair in
primary schools.
6. Providing teacher training and ongoing professional development positively impacts
the development of 21st-century skills.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 109
7. Prioritizing instructional efforts in schools brings to light 21st-century skills.
8. There is an increased integration of the scientific method and inquiry practices across
the curriculum.
9. Students’ knowledge of 21st-century skills is enhanced through student collaboration
when participating in the PRONAFECYT.
Research Question 1
What role do educational leaders play in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative? Data obtained through surveys, interviews, and observations revealed three themes for
Research Question 1: (a) that leadership matters on participation in the PRONAFECYT at the
primary school level, (b) that establishing and communicating a vision for the PRONAFECYT
impacts student participation, and (c) that there is a lack of a system to recognize students and
teachers in the science fair program. The aim of Research Question 1 was to discover the impact
that educational leaders have on implementing a national policy initiative at the primary school
level.
Through their interviews and survey responses, various Costa Rican stakeholders, includ-
ing government officials, business partners, university faculty, primary school leaders, primary
school teachers, students, and parents demonstrated the belief that school leadership matters.
Data supported Kotter’s (1996) framework that leaders are able to form a coalition and maintain
a vision for change. The understanding is that a school leader can make the difference between
participation in and follow-through of the PRONAFECYT at the local level.
Survey and interview data from various stakeholders also demonstrated that Costa Ricans
believe that understanding and communicating the purpose for the PRONAFECYT is crucial for
the success of the science fair at the primary school level. This finding supported Kotter’s (1996)
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 110
system for implementing a change by creating and communicating a vision. While the
PRONAFECYT is a national policy, being able to understand the rationale behind this initiative
provides the local educational leader with a solid foundation on which to communicate the
vision.
Data obtained through surveys, observations, and interviews also suggested that the
successful implementation of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT is contingent on the system of
recognition that is in place. Kotter (1996) affirmed that celebrating successes leads to sustained
change. While there are examples of recognition provided to students that win regional and
national fairs, there is no equitable system for recognition at the school level.
In summary, the data supported the concept that school-level leadership determines a
primary school’s level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. Various data col-
lected for this study also indicated that a cohesive purpose for the PRONAFECYT that is com-
municated at all levels from government to schools, school leaders to teachers, and teachers to
students. This communication is a factor in the participation levels for the science fair program.
In addition, a system of recognition for teachers and students in the PRONAFECYT is instru-
mental in increasing the level of participation for primary schools in the process.
Research Question 2
How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT? Through
data analysis of interviews, surveys, and observations, it was evident that parental involvement
influenced student participation in the PRONAFECYT. Teachers influence this practice through
purposefully engaging parents in the science fair process. These data supported Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) framework of building alliances with different stakeholders through operating in
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 111
the political frame. Additionally, the theme of parental involvement was supported by Kotter’s
(1996) framework of having a guiding team for change.
Another emerging theme was that teacher leadership improved a school’s participation in
the PRONAFECYT. The data supported Kotter’s (1996) change framework by having a struc-
ture that removed obstacles and empowered people to move forward. Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
framework of the structural and human resource frames was also supported by the data. One of
the key characteristics of teacher leaders was that these leaders are science teachers who help to
coordinate the science fair at the school and act as liaisons between the MEP and the school site
In summary, the data supported the concept that higher levels of parental participation
within a school positively influenced higher levels of student participation in the
PRONAFECYT. While parental participation is not a direct classroom practice, it is a practice
that was fostered in collaboration with teachers at the school. A practice that was more directly
tied to the classroom that emerged from the data was that of teacher planning and collaboration.
The data revealed that higher levels of teacher collaboration and planning positively influenced
student participation in the science fair. Another influence in a school’s science fair participation
was the availability of a teacher leader at the school to coordinate the local science fair program.
Research Question 3
How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT? This question
was designed to elicit familiarity with 21st-century skills and an understanding of how these
skills play a role in the PRONAFECYT. While measuring the understanding of 21st-century
skills was a focus of the question, leadership was also measured based on the capacity building
that has been carried out to develop 21st-century skills. Data analysis for this research question
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 112
revealed two emergent themes: (a) that providing teacher training and professional development
positively influences the development of 21st-century skills and (b) that prioritizing instructional
efforts in 21st-century skills leads to student development of those skills.
Data obtained through surveys, interviews, and observations suggested that providing
ongoing teacher training positively impacts the development of 21st-century skills. While
teachers are familiar with 21st-century skills, there was a gap between identifying the skills and
applying them for the science fair. This finding was supported by Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
framework regarding prioritizing the skills that people bring to an organization through operating
in the human resources frame. The data revealed that there are opportunities for school site
leaders to obtain the training to build capacity in applying 21st-century skills; however, the fact
that the training that is offered is provided by different government agencies presents obstacles.
The second theme identified was prioritizing the curricular focus at the school to equip
students with the 21st-century skills they need to achieve success in the PRONAFECYT. Data
revealed that the focus of the school determines student participation in the science fair. While
teachers may have the knowledge of 21st-century skills, the school’s focus plays an important
part. The data supported the framework of Capraro et al. (2013) of developing STEM and PBL
skills by making them a primary driver in the curriculum.
In summary, the data supported the notion of having training that can be easily accessed
and available to primary schools for the PRONAFECYT. While training is currently available
and offered by MICITT, MEP, and the UCR, there is a lack of understanding by site leaders with
respect to acquiring the resource. In addition, prioritizing 21st-century skills though STEM PBL
is an important mechanism to achieve the national goals established by policymakers for the
PRONAFECYT.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 113
Research Question 4
How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices? This question was designed to elicit data on any programmatic changes that have
occurred through the PRONAFECYT in primary schools. It was evident that there was an
understanding by educators that there must be a focus on scientific principles in order to have
students participate in the PRONAFECYT. Data obtained through survey, interview, and
observation data analysis revealed two themes for Research Question 4: (a) that the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT has increased integration of the scientific method and inquiry across the curricu-
lum and (b) that participation in the PRONAFECYT enhances the development of 21st-century
skills through student collaboration.
An increase in the integration of the scientific method and inquiry across the curriculum
was evident in survey and interview data. Data supported the idea of Capraro et al. (2013)
regarding making STEM and PBL drivers for instruction by including a systematized method for
including inquiry-based learning in the curriculum. This theme was strongly supported by
teacher survey data in which 100% of teachers surveyed at School A1 strongly agreed or agreed
that they used the scientific method and inquiry in their class. Student survey data also echoed
teacher sentiments in that 80% of those surveyed responded favorably to using the scientific
method and inquiry skills at school.
The second theme identified was an awareness of student collaboration in conjunction
with the development of 21st-century skills. It was found that when students lacked the resources
they need to participate in the local science fair, a sense of entrepreneurship guided collaborative
groups of students to seek these resources from outside agencies. Collaboration was also evident
in school observation data based on the physical layout of the learning spaces. This theme
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 114
mirrored Wagner’s (2010) survival skills to develop 21st-century competencies, in which the
learning of this skills is not bound by a physical location, such as a school.
In summary, data supported the notion that the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT has success-
fully influenced curricular changes in primary schools. These changes are focused on the devel-
opment of inquiry and scientific reasoning. An added component to the changes has included
more student collaboration to foster 21st-century skills.
Implications for Practice
Analysis of the data validated the positive impact of globalization on the educational
development of Costa Rica. This study provided evidence that national educational policy in
response to the demand for a knowledge-ready workforce has influenced instructional practices.
One of the strategies that Costa Rican policymakers have used to promote a labor force that is
equipped with 21st-century skills has been the PRONAFECYT. Through the PRONAFECYT,
the skills that Wagner (2010) considered to be essential in the 21st century are being developed in
Costa Rican primary schools ((i.e., critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and
leadership, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurship, effective oral and written
communication skills, the ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagina-
tion, are being developed in primary schools).
This study also found that effective local, or site-based, educational leaders have a very
positive impact on the development of 21st-century skills of students through the
PRONAFECYT. For example, school leaders who understand the vision of the national policy
regarding the PRONAFECYT are able to build capacity with their teaching staff to promote 21st-
century skills in students. These school leaders are also able to garner parental support to work in
collaboration with teachers to develop inquiry and scientific skills in students.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 115
Another finding from this study is that changes to a system of instruction, which focuses
on STEM principles, requires a cohesive development of teacher talents. While there are re-
sources available to provide professional development for teachers and school directors, data
showed that these resources are inconsistent across schools in a designated MEP region. The
data analysis found that systematizing capacity building in STEM principles across the various
governmental agencies yielded better outcomes for students, as measured by participation in the
PRONAFECYT. Schools that prioritized scientific inquiry and understood the process of
procuring resources had higher levels of student participation in the science and technology fair.
Recommendations for Future Research
One suggestion for future research is to investigate the leadership practices of directors
and teachers in other parts Costa Rica as related to national education policy initiatives. This
study focused on leadership and curricular practices in the San José area. Further insight can be
gained by understanding the response that leaders in other parts of Costa Rica have to the
PRONAFECYT as it pertains to the development of 21st-century skills.
Future research could also be conducted on other national educational initiatives in Costa
Rica. This separate study could be to measure educational leaders’ response to those initiatives,
specifically identifying the traits that mark successful implementation of the initiative. The goal
of this study would be to provide feedback to educational policymakers on the mechanisms that
they can use to support leaders in ensuring that policy is successfully implemented.
Finally, this study can be replicated in another country that is vested in attracting FDI
from MNCs, as reported in OECD (2012). The objective would be to identify the success that
policies have had in developing students’ 21st-century skills—specifically, examining the impact
that school leaders have on this task.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 116
Conclusions
Costa Rica has embraced globalization over the last half century (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
The country has implemented policies in an effort to continue economic development within the
context of globalization. The findings suggested that developing a labor force equipped with
essential 21st-century skills for competition in the global economy is being accomplished through
policy. In addition, the findings indicated that the implementation of national educational
policies, such as the PRONAFECYT, is successful based on the abilities of local education
leaders at the school site.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 117
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ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 122
Appendix A
Recruitment Letter
DATE
Dear XXX,
On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following ques-
tions will be addressed:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to
our study.
Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 and June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you have
any questions.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Students
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 123
Appendix B
Summary of the Research Proposal
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 124
Appendix C
List of Research Sites
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 125
Appendix D
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NONMEDICAL RESEARCH
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 126
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu
Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District, pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities, ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social Work,
omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College, rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu;
mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-
0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 127
Appendix E
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 128
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 129
Appendix F
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 130
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 131
Appendix G
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and
Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 132
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 133
Appendix H
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 134
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 135
Appendix I
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 136
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 137
Appendix J
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 138
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 139
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 140
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 141
Appendix K
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 142
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 143
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 144
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 145
Appendix L
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 146
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 147
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 148
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 149
Appendix M
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 150
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 151
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 152
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 153
Appendix N
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 154
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 155
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 156
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 157
Appendix O
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 158
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 159
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 160
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 161
Appendix P
Observation Protocol
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 162
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 163
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 164
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 165
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE PRONAFECYT 166

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify the role that Costa Rican educational leaders play in implementing the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) initiative. The study provides an examination of leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at various primary school sites as a means to identify key components of the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. This study applied three theoretical frameworks from academic literature to identify instructional and leadership practices in Costa Rican schools as they relate to the PRONAFECYT. Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal’s framework guided leadership analysis

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Asset Metadata

Creator Marquez, Fernando (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Abraham Lincoln in the Coastal Region

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/18/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,Costa Rica National Science Fair,Educational Leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,PBL,STEM

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Verdugo, David (committee member)

Creator Email fernando@marquezsolutions.com,fmarquez@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-231278

Unique identifier UC11277337

Identifier etd-MarquezFer-4274.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-231278 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MarquezFer-4274.pdf

Dmrecord 231278

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Marquez, Fernando

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA