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Underlying principles for teaching an introductory course in biology on the junior college level

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Underlying principles for teaching an introductory course in biology on the junior college level

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Content UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE IN BIOLOGY ON THE JUNIOR COLLEGE LEVEL A Project Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education by Herbert M. Cohen June 1958 UMI Number: EP49076 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality, of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP49076 Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Bel 'S8 <L(f i 'je»Tfx This project report, w ritten under the direction of the candidate’s adviser and approved by him , has been presented to and accepted by the faculty o f the School of Education in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree o f M a ste r of Science in Education. Date... A dviser Dean TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED . 1 The Problem.......................... 2 Statement of the problem.......... -:2 Importance of the study........... 3 Definitions of Terms Used ............... 4 Organization and Method of Procedure. . . 4 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................ 5 III. OBJECTIVES AND RELATED CONTENT OF AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE 11 IV. METHODS AND PROCEDURES FOR TEACHING BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES ..................... 18 Methods of Instruction............... 18 Types of Courses...................... 21 Formal Class Instruction............. 22 Textbook-recitation method. ...... 23 The laboratory method ................. 24 The demonstration-discussion method . . 26 The problem-project method......... 27 Visual Education...................... 27 Choosing a Text...................... 29 Textbooks.......................... 29 Reference books ....................... 30 _ - Workbooks . . .__________ . . . 30— CHAPTER PAGE V. A TEACHING PLAN.................................32 I Types of Plans.................................34 The psychological approach................. 34 Modified textbook plan......................35 Text-free plan.............................. 36 The assignment.............................. 36 Extracurricular Biology ................... 37 VI. AN EVALUATION PROGRAM...........................39 Objectives........................... 39 Types of Examinations . ......................42 Essay type.................................. 42 Objective types ............... ..... 43 Questionnaire type..........................43 Observational records ................... 43 Validity.................................... 44 Reliability................................ 45 Summary.......................................45 VII. SUMMARY......................................... 46 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................... 52 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Biology in one form or another is taught almost uni versally beginning with the secondary school* but it has not reached any degree of standardization or uniformity. Although most teachers today might agree regarding the general and specific objectives of the course* organization and content differ widely from school to school. It must be recognized that a course such as biology must be developed to meet the needs of less detailed general courses in biology with the idea of achieving greater directness. This stems from the fact that students who take the introductory course in biology belong to two classes: (l) a large number who will not take advanqed courses in the subject* and (2) a small number who expect to do further work in preparing themselves for teaching* research* or the professions. A study was needed in this area to make an analysis of the principles of an intro ductory course in biology on the junior college level that would be satisfactory for these two types of students. John Dewey* in his book Democracy and Education* states: Since the mass of pupils are never going to become scientific specialists* it is much more important that they should get some insight into what scientific method means than that they 2 should copy at long range and second hand the results which scientific men have reached. Students will not go so far, perhaps, in the "ground covered," but they will be sure and intelligent as far as they do go. And it is safe to say that the few who go on to be scien tific experts will have a better preparation than if they had been swamped with a large mass of purely technical and symbolically stated information. In fact, those who do become suc cessful men of science are those who by their own power manage to avoid the pitfalls of a tra ditional scholastic introduction into it.-*- I. THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem. It was the purpose of this study to develop an outline of underlying principles and philosophies of objectives, methods, and evaluation in teaching a general introductory course in biology primari ly for students in junior colleges and universities. It was also the purpose of this study to present the most * modern and widely accepted ideas in the field, such as allowing for flexibility so that the sequence of topics could easily be altered to meet individual needs and prefer ences. Two other points of concern were emphasizing and clarifying basic facts and principles, and an approach to methodology in presenting possible styles and activities to arouse and maintain student interest, making them as meaningful as possible in enhancing their teaching power. ^■John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1955)* P* 256. 3 It was also thought that the application of biology to the students1 everyday activities and interests, such as practical suggestions for personal hygiene, be stressed in the objectives, making the principles of biology applicable to the students themselves. Importance of the study. John Dewey has provided an excellent statement of the principles and philosophies implicit in the word "science.n According to him, By science is meant that knowledge which is the outcome of methods of observation, reflection, and testing which are deliberately adapted to secure a settled, assured subject matter. It involves an intelligent and persistent endeavor to revise current beliefs so as to weed out what is erroneous, to add to their accuracy, and above all, to give them such shape that the dependencies of the vari ous facts upon one another may be as obvious as possible. It is, like all knowledge, an outcome of activity bringing about certain changes in the environment. But in its case, the quality of the resulting knowledge is the controlling factor and not an incident of the activity. Both logically and educationally, science is the perfecting of knowing, its last stage.2 It was felt that an understanding of these princi ples and philosophies would be of some significance to both instructors and students in the future; also, that it would strengthen the position of both in the realization of their goals. This paper offers no more than an attempt to lend itself to a greater freedom of experience in these fields. ^Loc. cit. 4 II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Biology. Biology is the study of both plant and animal forms so as to illustrate the important principles and facts, conclusions, theories, and laws that relate to the science of life. Science. This term is interpreted as meaning any body of exact knowledge or as tested and verified human experience. III. ORGANIZATION AND METHOD OF PROCEDURE The procedure included a review of the literature with regard to the actual philosophies of teaching an introductory course in biology. Data were based upon writings and research studies of general education in science teaching. An investigation was made concerning the teaching of biology as reflected in educational literature — organization and emphasis in courses, methods and pro cedures, and the present-day implications. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Much has been written in recent years on all forms of science programs: methods, procedures, and purposes serving the needs of youth. There were as many different and varied programs as there were colleges which utilized them, but there has been little standardization in any of these areas. A wealth of written material which was of great value was found on many different phases of science teach ing, specifically in the field of biology. The literature concerned in this study had to do with biology being taught on the basis of underlying philosophies and of values of a general education course, including objectives, methodology plans, trends and evaluation. A main source on the presentation of new approaches and methods in the classroom handling of the biological sciences was found in Accent on Teaching edited by French.1 The book is a result of twenty-five college teachers having been assembled by the Committee on General Education of the Association for Higher Education (N.E.A.), to describe in detail both the outlooks and methods employed by them in 1Sidney J. French (ed.), Accent on Teaching (New l^ork:^Hjirpejr_and Brothers, 195^)« _______________ 6 their college teaching. It is a most comprehensive work concerned with improvements in curriculum and instructional techniques. The specific chapter involved, "Biology in Responsi- 2 ble Living" by W. Hugh Stickler, does not deal with the i subject content of a course in biology in general education but with the teaching of biology as it contributes to achieving the goals of general education. Nor is it con cerned with the teaching of technical courses essential to professional training of biologists. According to Stickler, "...we are concerned with teaching general biology to students not planning to major in science, courses that contribute to the studentsf equipment for effective person al and family living and responsible citizenship in a 3 democratic society." Konrad B. Krauskopf made the following statement concerning the place of science in general education: When a student questions the importance of science in his own personal general education program, we commonly try to reassure him by point ing out how large a role science plays in the daily lives of ordinary Americans. By such an answer we do not mean that he should become inti mately acquainted with the multitudinous gadgets with which science has surrounded him, nor that he should do scientific work himself, nor that he should read scientific articles more abstruse 2Ibid., p. 149. 3l o c. oit. 7 than newspapers or magazine reports. What we do mean is that throughout life he will be hearing about new inventions and new theories; that as a voter and taxpayer he will help to decide such currently important questions as whether research should be government supported and whether some kinds of research should be shrouded in secrecy; that as a business man or public official he may be called upon to allocate funds for research., to recommend for or against hiring a scientist, or to discuss problems with a scientist; that he will find his thinking in economics, politics, philoso phy and religion subtly but powerfully influenced by science; and that he will hear much about possible applications of the scientific method to economics and social questions. Because science will influence his life in so many diverse ways, he needs to know something of its methods, its goals, its capabilities and its limitations. In brief, he should have an intelligent appreciation of science, much as he needs an appreciation of art and statesmanship.^ It is pointed out that in reference to biology we need only to listen to the questions of students to find justification for this area in a program of general edu cation. It is conceivable that the students are, for the most part, greatly concerned with the practical application of those things affecting or pertaining to their daily lives and activities. It has been the feeling of many writers in the field of general education that most introductory courses have lost their liberalizing influence. The center of gravity has shifted from student to subject matter. In such cases, ^Konrad B. Krauskopf in Robert D. Miller (ed.), General Education at Mid-Century: A Critical Analysis (Tallahassee, Florida State University, 1950), p. 74. ---------------- ---- --------_ --------------------------------------- ' ------ — --- ““ I 8 an introductory course in biology (botany or zoology) is hot likely to contribute significantly to the goals of general education because it is treated professionally* both technically and specialized.5 Educational literature contains many articles dis cussing the relative merits of different types of intro ductory courses in biological sciences. However* there is much disagreement concerning the type of introductory course which should be given* as well as concerning the subject matter that should be included. The introductory course in biological sciences has been expanded from time to time to include the addition of new instructional material to an already crowded course of study* making mastery of the fundamental principles super ficial and inadequate.^ Some instructors* realizing this danger in a too-comprehensive course* have gone to the other extreme making the course one of very narrow outlook. The field of biology offers many exciting opportuni ties for effective teaching. One not only deals with the materials of the course* but examines* studies* and interprets information first hand. Here* too* is a course that offers the advantage of experimentation with living ^French (ed.)* o]D. cit. * p. 151. ^George E. Nelson* The Introductory Biological Sciences in the Traditional Liberal Arts College (Concord: Rumford Press* 1931 ) . > P» 57 9 organisms. The teacher’s philosophy of general education and his own values will determine his objectives, which in turn will influence his choice of subject matter.7 Consideration must be given to the particular class to be taught in order to present the most significant subject matter in the most effective manner. The teacher must be selective in establishing a functional meaning in the lives of the students. A book that was used quite extensively throughout this study was Methods and Materials for Teaching Biologi cal Sciences by Miller and Blaydes. These authors state: It will no doubt be granted that the biological sciences are on a par with, if not superior to, many other units of the curriculum in potential educational values, and also that they are valua ble only in so far as they are effectively mastered by the student. In defining effective teaching of biology, one must therefore include not only the successful achievement of the units of biological information, but also the judicious selection of learning elements which may con tribute toward the broader purposes of biology instruction in the college curriculum.8 They go on to say that knowledge of facts is the foundation of understanding, the material with which habits of think ing and attitudes are built. Evaluation for the effectiveness of teaching in an introductory course in biology is determined by whether ^French, loc. cit. ®D. G. Miller and G. W. Blaydes, Methods and Materials for Teaching Biological Sciences (New York: 10 objectives are directed toward educational goals, and whether they represent the practices and outcomes that may reasonably be expected from such a course. The Forty-sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education sums up the place of science in edu cation as follows: Science is today on a plane of high significance and importance. It is no longer, if indeed it ever was, a mysterious and occult hocus pocus to be known only to a select few. It touches, influences, and molds the lives of every living thing. Science teachers have a great opportunity and responsibility to make a large contribution to the welfare and advancement of humanity. The intellectual aspects of this responsibility are at least equal in importance with the material. Science is a great social force as well as a method of investigation. The understanding and acceptance of these facts and this point of view and their implementation in practice will more than anything else, make science teaching what it can and should be.9 McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1933), p. 172. " Q ' National Society for the Study of Education, Science Education in American Schools, Forty-sixth Yearbook. Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 19^7), p. 39. CHAPTER III OBJECTIVES AND RELATED CONTENT OP AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE It is not the purpose of this study to prescribe the content of a general education biology course,, for as Nathaniel Cantor observed, "Only fools and fanatics, the one without knowledge and the other without humility, rush in with completed blueprints."1 Nevertheless, a few general observations on the subject of course content will be made. First, there is the important matter of objectives, because the selection and organization of content in biology depend upon these. Objectives are simply goals to guide the. educative process and must be supplemented by properly selected subject matter materials which are media for instruction. Following visits in a large number of colleges and 2 universities, the late Paul Klapper indicated that the greatest impression left upon him was the aimlessness of classroom instruction. The notes of the professor became 1Nathaniel Cantor, The Dynamics of Learning (Buffalo: Foster and Stewart, 1946), p. vii. 2Paul Klapper, Preparation of College Teachers (Washington: American Council on Education, 1950), p. 42. 12 the notes of the student without going through the mind of either. He also claimed that no teacher should go into a classroom without knowing what he wanted to accomplish both immediately (in the day’s lesson) and in the long haul (the entire course). Hence it is essential that the objectives be clear.^ Upon examination of the commonly accepted objectives of science education, it becomes apparent that these ob jectives are quite unattainable in the time that is normally devoted to formal education. For this reason, as well as for practical considerations in regard to teaching, the course should contain a number of compromises. It should be designed to get the best-balanced program of study for the time available. Moreover, the objectives of the course and its scope should be stated clearly, and a time allotment should be made for lecture and for labora tory . Training for a liberal education is quite frequently selected as a goal of college education, while preparation for professional activities, character education, and other aims are also mentioned. Whatever the goal may be, it seems reasonable to expect that the teaching objectives of the biology units be selected to fulfill this leading ^Sidney J. French (ed.), Accent on Teaching (New York: Harper and Brothers, 195^-), pp. 151-52. 13 purpose. The objectives should not be determined merely by comparison with set standards of individual departments of biology, but they should be ascertained by a study of the educational objectives of the college at large. This brings us to the key requisite in the selection of content: The subject matter must have relevance for the student who is perhaps having his last formal ex perience in a class in life science. A new and completely unimagined world has been revealed to us during the past few decades. That is the world in which our students live. It is the world we , would help them understand.^ There can be little doubt that the present methods of selecting subject matter for introductory courses can be greatly improved. Nelson has stated: The objectives of biology courses, since they influence the selection of subject matter, must be carefully examined in the light of the broader purposes of college education, so as to insure the selection of values and meaningful teaching ob jectives. It would seem that these, the in structional materials that will most directly and effectively facilitate the achievement of these objectives, may be selected for the course of study. This procedure will insure the selection of subject matter which will actually contribute toward the goals of college education.5 The traditional biology course usually begins with the concept of protoplasm, discussed in chemical and physi cal terms completely outside the experience of the student. 4Ibid., pp. 152-53. ^George E. Nelson, The Introductory Biological Sciences in the Traditional Liberal Arts College (Concord: Rumford Press, 1931)* PP. 9-10. 14 The course then discusses the concept that protoplasm "is organized into cells with a nucleus at the center." Next comes the rather detailed studies of physiological processes, again discussed in chemical and physical terms which the student may or may not understand. Extensive surveys of the plant and animal kingdoms usually follow. Large portions of these surveys do not interest or benefit the general student. Some courses almost neglect the human body entirely while others may include it, but often only too generally. Topics of intrinsic interest may later be introduced such as heredity and evolution, but by this time the damage has been done. Not all courses may be this bad but the point to be considered is the fact that on careful analysis the student is being taught a multitude of things that do not matter or he is being neglected in many things that do indeed matter.^ it is essential that the curriculum be planned so that the course makes a definite contribution to the things a student should know and be able to do when he leaves school. Not only must the successful achievement of the units of biological information be considered in effective teaching, but also the selection of learning elements that French (ed.), op. cit., p. 153* 15 might contribute toward the broader purposes of instruction in the college curriculum. As viewed by the college at large, effective teaching of biology must include: (l) teaching directed toward fulfilling a well-defined and valid purpose, (2) teaching which selects objectives well calculated to achieve that purpose, and (3) teaching which actually succeeds in staining the objective desired.? All three criteria must be considered. Nelson has compiled what he has considered to be the objectives of a liberal education. In brief, they are: 1. To provide a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of nature. 2. To apply learning toward constructive purposes. 3. To develop the scientific methods of thought. 4. To develop the scientific attitudes of thought. 5. To develop creativeness. 6. To consider the needs of society as well as those of the individual. o 7. To develop the mind in harmonious fashion. While this list is far from complete, it does embrace the more important objectives. It is used here as a standard against which the objectives of teaching in the ?Nelson, o£. cit., p. 2. 8Ibid., p. 18. 16 biological sciences may be checked. Nelson made a tabular statement of the findings from one hundred college catalogs chosen at random relating to the aims of biological courses as they were expressed in the catalogs. They were then classified and analyzed as to their relation with specific educational objectives of a liberal education. They are listed as follows: (1) To give information about fundamental facts, principles, or essentials of the science of life (plant and animal) including the study of structure, physiology, ecology. (2) To survey the plant or animal kingdom or to study types in detail. (3) To show the relation of plants or animals to our welfare, or to show their economic importance. (4) To acquaint the student with the various theories of the biological sciences. (5) To provide a cultural course; to emphasize the philosophical aspects of the subject. (6) To train the student in the use of scien tific methods as applied to biological science. (7) To prepare the student for other related courses.9 The present objectives in the teaching of the intro ductory biological sciences can hardly be considered ade quate for a science course, especially for the only biology course most students will pursue in college. They fail to give sufficient attention to the methodology of science 9Ibid., p. 21. which differentiates it from all other subjects. Biology instruction cannot be considered effective until it con tributes to a higher degree toward values so essential to a liberal education. The introductory courses in the biological sciences are usually included either in the courses of the depart ment of biology or else jointly in the department of botany or zoology. Usually a two-semester course in botany or zoology is offered. Less frequently a one-semester course Ln zoology or botany is offered. A two-semester course in general biology is offered with about the same frequency, while a one-semester course in general biology is offered Least frequently. CHAPTER IV METHODS AND PROCEDURES FOR TEACHING BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES I. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION The methodology of science, the attitudes required in the pursuit of scientific investigation, and the charac ter of subject matter should all be given attention in actual teaching practice. It should be approached from other than the standpoint of just a body of systematized subject matter. Ruth Eckert summarizes the problem of method well: There seems to be no one best method for teach ing courses in general education, nor even any method unique to this field. Rather, the effective teacher selects pertinent methods and materials, combining them into a pattern peculiarly suited to his own talents and objectives. The difference from teaching in conventional courses seems to be primarily one of emphasis, with the teacher in general education giving special stress to the following points: (1) Underwriting a wide range of objectives, in which the cultivation of interests, aesthetic appreciations, and ethical and moral values receives explicit attention. (2) Selecting a few central ideas around which his teaching will be developed, even though this means neglecting many phases of the subject valued by the specialist. (3) Keeping a constant focus on the relevance of these learnings now and later, since most students will have to be convinced of their worth. (4) Extending students’ experiences through the use of audio-visual aids., projects, field experiences, etc., enabling them to gain needed background for understanding the concepts or principles involved. (5) Employing a variety of teaching methods in order to maintain a high level of interest and to aid students who learn in different ways. (6) Putting students in problematic situations designed to develop their skill in analyzing and dealing with real clashes of ideas. (7) Opening new vistas of interest and opportunity, encouraging students to continue their study of these problems, either independently or through formal courses. (8) Giving systematic attention to the problem of integration by helping students to see how various aspects of the subject are related and how these bear on their other studies and nonclass experi ences . (9) Making imaginative efforts through the course to evaluate outcomes, aiding both students and teacher to become more skilled in self-appraisal and to develop an experimental outlook on their problems.1 In an article published some time ago, John Dewey expressed his opinion on the relative value of science teaching as subject matter and method. He said: Thus we come around again to the primary con tention of this paper: that science teaching has suffered because science has so frequently been presented just as so much ready-made knowledge, so much subject matter of fact and law rather than as the effective method of enquiring into any subject matter.... Scientific method represents the only method of thinking that has proved fruitful in any subject--that is what we mean when we call it ^uth Eckert, Current Issues in Higher Education (Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1952) pp. 128-29. 20 scientific. ■ It is not' a peculiar development of thinking for highly specialized ends; it is think ing so far as thought has become conscious of its proper ends and of the equipment indispensable for success in their pursuit.^ The biology teacher has at his disposal a variety of tools to increase the effectiveness of his teaching. Most important is the basic tool of living and preserved material, provided both are adequate in quality and quanti ty, Apparatus and equipment, from simple dissecting sets to top-quality microscopes, are also available. Most recently the emphasis has been on audio-visual materials: lantern slides, charts, models, plastic-embedded organisms, life-cycle demonstrations and films. Animated drawings and stop-motion photography lend themselves to present compli cated principles and processes that are otherwise difficult for the student to conceive. It remains up to the teacher to become familiar with these instructional devices and skillful in using them. No one method is complete in itself; each has its advantages. Probably the most significant and personal experi ence for the student exists when he actually deals with the matter himself; for example, an individual typing his own blood, or viewing an organism such as the amoeba in a laboratory experiment. The experience is again an activity in terms of the interests and abilities of the student. p John Dewey, ’ ’Scientific Thinking,” Science, 31:121. 21 Field work provides the advantage of studying a problem in its natural surroundings, such as an ecological survey. Museums, gardens, and research centers provide sources of field trips. II. TYPES OF COURSES In further pursuing the idea of methodology, it should be realized that no matter how thoroughly a teacher may be grounded in subject matter, he is well aware of a feeling of insecurity in his first attempts to present a course to his classes. Time and repetition usually dispel this, but at the same time, the teacher should not lose sight of the fact that with each new term the work is as unfamiliar to the student as it was the first time it was taught. The problems of the amount of subject matter to be covered as well as the kind must also be considered. Criteria for determining the amount of subject matter might be the content of a textbook, the experience of the student, or the student's needs. Standardization of the work of a course from school to school or from class to class is undesirable. But the amount of subject matter to be covered by any class is something that should be decided by the members of the class. The kind of subject matter may depend upon the location of the school, the makeup of the community, the intelligence of the individuals, their interests and ability 22 to profit from various types of experiences * and the possi bilities of their futures. There should exist a variable program which is sufficiently flexible to meet the needs of its members. However* a deciding factor in any of these cases is the amount of administrative control over the classroom work. Sequence plays an important role in learning. The traditional manner of arranging the subject matter of a text or of a course is the phylogenetic sequence which has been so widely adopted. Other arrangements might be used to better advantage: the subsequent order of arrangement could* in most cases* follow any one of a number of patterns. The most recent tendencies seem to involve the treat ment of biology as a field of science but without losing the social significance which this subject rightfully includes. III. FORMAL CLASS INSTRUCTION Whatever the formally designated course may be* it is an expression of some very general underlying philosophy. Some specific philosophical background is a necessity for intelligent teaching. Of much importance to the success of the type of course are the methods employed in its presen tation. Four groups which include the elements of nearly all other methods or which are* in most cases* modifications of them are: the textbook-recitation method; the laboratory method; the demonstration-discussion method; and the problem-project method.3 The fact remains that the name of the method tells little concerning the value or success of the teaching procedure in any particular class. Too many other factors enter into good teaching for one to be able to classify them under a given method. Textbook-recitation method. In colleges and uni versities the lecture is still the accepted means of imparting information. Though this method is sometimes used in the secondary school, it has been supplemented to a large degree by the assignment of readings in the text book which are then called for in a subsequent period of questioning called the recitation. So widely was this accepted that it became the method of teaching. Much criticism in recent years has been aimed at this method; however, it is still used widely. It is an easy way to teach and allows a great deal of subject matter to be covered in a relatively short period of time. It also gives the teacher less to do in planning and preparing, and relies upon the authority of the author of the text. It is a simple method to follow because the work, in most cases, is already arranged in some logical manner. However, the 3d . g . Miller and G. W. Blaydes, Methods and Materials for Teaching Biological Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 193&) / p. 4l. 24 student* relying on one authority only (the writer of his textbook)* fails to develop a critically analytical atti tude toward his learning.4 Holley* writing during a period when the textbook- recitation method was enjoying wide popularity* points out the advantages of the method: It gives an opportunity for a logical organi zation of the lesson material* which is wanting in a purely reproductive recitation. This is true especially when the outline followed is the product of the effort of the teacher and pupils. When the recitation does nothing but reproduce the list of topics given in the text* it is of little merit. In any of its degrees of perfection* however* this recitation form always emphasizes organization* and that is a point of much merit.5 The value here is that the pupils learn the importance and method of organizing the lesson facts. The laboratory method. Biology is well adapted to the laboratory method. Weston points this out by saying: The primary function of laboratory work as a teaching procedure is to enable the student to learn from the material itself directly* and your function as a teacher is to foster* expedite* facilitate* stimulate, and otherwise aid the im portant process to the utmost of your capacity. One of the strongest advantages of laboratory work is that it enables the student to understand the scientific method and make it part of his intel lectual equipment* to comprehend the method and the fundamental significance of experimentation... that this direct study of the material was the 4Ibid., pp. 41-2. . Holley* The Teacherfs Technique (New York: The Century Company* 1924)*~p. 7 8 . ________________________ 25 original source from which came the content of books* the subject matter of lectures* the substance of group discussions and examinations... this was the source from which came the facts that led to interpretation* concepts* and theories that yielded the fundamental laws and basic truths by which humanity has advanced.6 The laboratory method undoubtedly provides learning by doing. The student is actually able to handle the materials. He learns to follow directions carefully* to perform experiments* record observations and results* summarize data* draw conclusions* and overall* develop certain scientific techniques. If the course is properly developed* the student does much thinking for himself. Curtis^ investigated the effectiveness of the individual method for performing laboratory exercises. He claimed that the manner in which the exercises were carried out determined the effectiveness of the teaching. There are* of course* objectionable features for laboratory use in an introductory course. It can run into expense; the proper amount of time might not be allowed; some students learn more readily by other methods; students are unskilled to begin with; there is no guarantee as to learning problem-solving by this method; and the objectives for the greater majority might have little to do with ^William H. Weston* A Handbook for College Teachers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press* 1950)* p. 110. ^Francis D. Curtis* "Individual Laboratory Work Must Be Retained*" Science Teacher* 17:63-64* April* 1950. laboratory techniques. However, there is a difference between the matter of using a formal laboratory period as a method and using certain laboratory methods in connection with problems, projects, and demonstrations. In the latter sense it is of recognized value and should never be diS- CS pensed with. The demonstration-discussion method.9 The demon stration is designed for two purposes; first, to provide a means of making clear certain parts of the subject matter by objectifying it; and second, doing it with as much economy as possible. It is an old device designed to take the place of the laboratory method. It is the least expensive method of utilizing laboratory activities, it is time saving, it allows all students to see the same oper ation and technique, and the teacher explains each step thus insuring that each pupil sees and interprets all the work in the same manner. On the other hand, it may deprive the student of the laboratory method, such as the handling of materials and the making of his own interpretations. In general, the demon stration method with a well-directed discussion is a rather useful teaching technique. It does not permit a very wide individualization. ^Weston, loc. cit. ^Miller and Blaydes, op. cit., pp. 44-45. 27 The problem-project method,10 A project is really an extended problem or a series of related problems that are the outgrowth of the student's own interests. This is the most difficult method for the teacher* requiring more' planning and effort. It calls for somewhat more materials and equipment and it usually takes a considerable amount of time so as to make it possible to cover only a limited variety of topics. It calls for proper co-ordination in order to present the integrated relationship. The results of this method* when properly executed, more than compen sate for the extra work. No one method should exclude the valuable elements of other methods. Those techniques should be employed which are best suited to the accomplishment of the objectives for that phase of the course. This last method permits the utilization of most of the better features of other methods. ! IV. VISUAL EDUCATION | | Visual education involves any and all means that may be employed in instruction whereby the student learns pri marily by the aid of objects or materials rather than by reading or listening to lectures.11 I The trend in education today is the escape from J verbalism and the return to learning through seeing and j I i ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- j 1QIbid.* p. 45. 11Ibid.* p. 98. I 28 doing. Young people learn to generalize and use the ab stract through experiencing the concrete, and it is in this sense that visual aids play an important role.12 In an introductory course in the biological sciences, as in other courses, there is always the problem of* a great deal of new material. It is important that, in the reali zation of the proper assurance of values, emphasis be placed oft effective methods resulting in both learning and under standing. A most valuable form of visual aid in biology is undoubtedly the living specimen. Other aids are books, film strips, slides, models, chalkboards, pictures, charts, movies, plants and animals, and preserved specimens. Visual aids are used to accomplish four ends: (l) to stimulate interest and thus expedite learning, (2) to aug ment the learning process by providing visual experiences beyond the concepts of words, (3) to increase understanding by relating these experiences to life, and (4) to test for | the application of learning.-^ j i Interest is usually greater in those things which one can readily see or handle. This is especially true if the activity involves learning. It is the concrete experience Dr the thing itself which is interesting, and in no area is this more true than in biology. Living plants and animals hold a natural interest, thus their use as visual aids will ----------- j 12Ibid., pp. 98-99. 13Ibld., p. 99- i 29 ! stimulate interest in their study. With respect to the I second point., it is generally accepted that elementary ! I learning usually proceeds from the concrete to the abstract1 because the concrete represents the object itself, the single experience, while the abstract is the result of many related experiences. The third reason has to do with relating new experiences to life. It has a great deal to do with utilizing and relating past experiences of the student. The fourth use of visual aids is in testing for the application of learning. Although the aid may be used as an illustration or additional explanation, it may also serve as a problem to be solved and as a challenge for further study and discovery. There are certain standards of essential qualities to determine the extent to which visual aids are of value in a learning situation. They depend upon the achieving of objectives through accuracy, relevancy, realism, compre-j hensibility, and interest. j i V. CHOOSING A TEXT1* Textbooks. In most cases, such as in larger city schools, the text is furnished to the teacher without regard for his preference. In smaller schools, it is often the duty of the teacher to recommend a text, since he is 1*Ibid., pp. 110-119. considered a specialist in his field. Unless having done this through previous experience, he will be confronted with the task of examining a number of books and selecting one from among them. Appeal to the teacher, previous training, student interests and experiences, and terminology are a few of the problems involved in making a choice. Among the many criteria or sets of items which have been compiled, the principal criteria generally agreed upon are: subject matter being suitable to the course; organi zation and presentation suitable to the level and interest of the class; reliability of factual contents; clear and appropriate illustrations, graphs, charts, and tables; usl of type and arrangement of material for easy reading; and appearance and cost. All of the above is recommended for an analytical approach in choosing a text. Reference books. At the same time, a reference plan of selected books should be developed with the same set of criteria, which will contribute to the flexibility of the course. The teacher plans the procedure and chooses what shall be done with each part. The students are given freedom with regard to their needs, interests, and abili ties . i Workbooks. With most of the texts on the market in i recent years has appeared a workbook written to accompany j 31 the text. It has been stated that few of them have served » their purpose. They usually consist of questions or blanks, the pages and answers being designated for the student in the corresponding chapters of the text. The workbook should supply him with the kind of information and work as examining materials, recording observations, ex periments, and demonstrations. The work should be biologi- cal material with problematic questions calling for the application of facts learned both from reading and from observations. The workbook should be selected for its own methods. CHAPTER V A TEACHING PLAN John Dewey once stated that "The educator's part in the enterprise of education is to furnish the environ ment which stimulates responses and directs the learner's course.1,1 One of the most important factors in good teaching is careful planning. It seems advisable that a course be laid out in considerable detail, although, as mentioned previously, not to be adhered to so rigidly that there is no room for flexibility in dealing with student choices and individual differences. Proper preparation of objectives, topics, and methods and materials maintains relatedness. It is on this point that the beginner should plan dili gently.2 The program of educational activities in a college should be designed and operated to make an efficient use of time and energy. There must be careful down-the-line planning and organization of instruction— from the curricu lum, to the course, to the individual lesson. Objectives 1John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1955)* p. 212. 2 D. G. Miller and G. W. Blaydes, Methods and Materials for Teaching Biological Sciences (New£ork: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1938), p. 52._________ 33 ! should be established, the Job analyzed, and then appropri-j ate steps taken to accomplish these objectives. Productive student effort should replace repetitive tasks and effective teaching methods should be employed to improve the quality of instruction.3 Regardless of how carefully the planning is done, there should be no "final plan/' since the term invites a static condition. Planning should be a continuous process, with revisions made to take advantage of experience. The college administrative and teaching personnel should be sufficiently sensitive to react quickly to the changing demands of the profession and to the changing needs of society Just as a course syllabus is a guide to teaching, so the preparation of a course outline for students would guide their study. It should not necessarily involve a great deal of extra work. It should show the main topics, text and problem assignments, test dates and suggested reading. This shows the students specifically what they will have to do during the course, and it establishes for them the relative importance of the many different topics. It provides flexibility because it permits the better students to continue on their own initiative. One of the 3pred Morris, Effective Teaching (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950), p. 6. —Jilbid-.,,—p— 7---------- — ... 34 biggest advantages of a course outline is that it teaches the students to plan, systematize, and organize their work, which is an important part of science education.5 The extent to which, a plan is developed depends upon the amount of subject matter and the methods to be employed; in any case, there is a time factor. Generally speaking, one acceptable method in planning is to start with the idea of the whole and to work backwards, dividing the work into sequents or units to include objectives, materials, time of preparation, demonstrations, problems, and evaluation techniques. I. TYPES OF PLANS If the plan has in it all of the above elements, the particular form into which it is arranged should be a matter of convenience. The psychological approach.^ In dealing with students, particularly in fields where the subject content is new, as in an introductory course, care should be exer cised to make use of a psychological approach. A dominant factor in teaching is the ability to ’ ’get the subject matter across”; that is to say, the acquisition of new 5lbid., p. 21. °Miller and Blaydes, op. cit., p. 56. 35 knowledge accompanied by inspiration as well. This approach should lend the student an ability to learn facts, make interesting investigations, and above all, experience a high degree of understanding. Modified textbook plan.^ With some experience, a teacher should be able to plan a course that makes use of textbook and library reference materials in such a manner that these do not serve to determine the content and mode of attack of the course. This is the most valuable use of textbooks. They should be used freely by the students but mostly as references. The beginning teacher often feels that a close reliance upon a text is the best way of es tablishing self-confidence and of insuring a full-rounded content; the result is a text-dominated course. Some books now include previews, self-testing and retesting, and demonstrations and experiments, allowing some digression from the routine recitation method. Some compromise should be made to the effect of certain departures from the text and more class freedom from formal assignment and reci tation. Poorly developed parts should be supplemented with mimeographed material or reference assignments. This plan offers a number of opportunities for bringing in outside materials, for securing individual and ^Loc. cit. 36 group endeavors on special problems, and for greatly j intensifying the interest activity of the class. It is the breaking away from strict adherence to a text. o Text-free plan. This plan is best exemplified by procedures representing key questions of a rather general and problematic nature. This allows the student to "dis cover” in terms of his own endeavors and to formulate his own definitions. The questions are tied in with the ob jectives of the course and are interrelated to one another. Assignments in reading are made to stimulate the class in further individual participation. This approach leads to each segment of the course fitting naturally into another by arousing student inquiry and a concomitant need to probe further. The desired facts are covered, interest is sus tained, and there is an opportunity for a variety of learn ing, individual and group participation, and thinking. 9 The assignment. The principle essential to the homework assignment is that it be clear, definite, and within the abilities of the student. Assignments should arise throughout a course where problems, experiments, demonstrations, and readings require special attention. 8 Ibid., p. 60. ^Ibid., p. 63 II. EXTRACURRICULAR BIOLOGY10 37 A great deal of biology can be obtained by the student from various extracurricular sources. There is a wide range of contacts outside the college classroom which are potential sources of biological information. Such materials exist in periodical literature and daily news papers . The only benefits that can be derived from these fruitful sources are those derived by the student's own desire to utilize them. Without definite suggestions from the instructors, very little outside reading is likely to result. Periodical articles reveal what man is thinking about and doing, and the nature of some of the problems he is compelled to meet; they,are the expression of things that make up his daily existence. Biological articles in magazines emphasize health, a topic not given much attention in a formal biology course; disease and its con- j trol; human physiology; personal hygiene; nutrition; and dietetics. Supplementary biological reading is expected of students at very few colleges. Most students do not know I that most of these periodicals exist. Rather extensive reading of a selected list of books in any particular field ^George Nelson, The Introductory Biological Sciences in the Traditional Liberal Arts College (Concord: Rumford Press, 1931)", p. 57. is an excellent means of securing a broad range of infor mation. Extracurricular sources of biology, possessing excellent opportunities for the development of many of the valid objectives of biology, should be employed in con nection with introductory biology courses. A list of peri odicals would offer a great usefulness in this connection. CHAPTER VI AN EVALUATION PROGRAM1 Regardless of the subject-matter field, the evalu ation program should be based upon the objectives set up for the course. An evaluation program, which should be a part of all teaching procedures, will do three things in particular: (l) it will measure in every sense what tests and examinations are supposed to measure; (2) it will motivate, guide, and inspire the student in the pursuit of his studies; and (3) it will teach him by disclosing to him his strengths and weaknesses, by indicating clearly his degree of progress, by showing him where emphasis needs to be placed, by training him in ways of obtaining more knowledge, and by giving him practice in its application to life situations. The evaluation program, however, is decidedly more complex than the construction and grading of the ordinary test. I. OBJECTIVES As previously stated, there are four major ob jectives for the teaching of biological subjects: the i D. G. Miller and G. W. Blaydes, Methods and Materials for Teaching Biological Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1938) / pp. 68-69. 40 •acquisition of information, the development of methods of thinking, the application of principles, and the formation of attitudes. These objectives consequently may be con sidered valid for an evaluation program which would assist in attaining the objectives as well as in applying proper methods for their attainment. The evaluation program would provide tests and instruments for measuring the kind, amount, and duration of retention of factual information as acquired by students. The program should offer a means of grading and developing reflective or scientific thinking by furnishing the student with problems to solve. As a result, the student should be able to generalize and to make applications to similar scientific problems and to everyday life. His attitude toward the problems of life as well as toward those set up in his field should be modified and altered. Students have a tendency to look upon tests as evil things. Attention has been so concentrated on the un pleasant aspects of tests that their valuable contributions to education are frequently overlooked. Much good would be accomplished if the students and the teacher looked upon them as educational aids rather than as yardsticks. In general, instructors use tests purely for the purpose of establishing grades for measuring learning. The following, suggested by Morris, are some useful purposes which tests serve for the student and the teacher: j Value of Tests to Students 1. Test scores, when properly derived, show the student what progress he is making in the course. He can compare his work with that of other students, as well as with his own previ ous work. 2. Tests identify the parts of the course which the student does not know well enough.. With out tests, students do not know where they are weak. 3. Tests cause the student to review work, which helps him to organize and retain knowledge. Final examinations are particularly valuable to help establish relationships because they give the student a comprehensive view of the subject. 4. Tests give the student practice in the appli cation of fundamental principles to varying problem situations. 5. Tests, when properly constructed, help the student to distinguish between the relevant and the irrelevant. Often students spend as much time on minor details as they do on the important parts. 6. Tests give the student a better conception of the objectives of the course. 7. Tests stimulate the lagging student to make a greater effort to learn. Value of Tests to the Instructor 1. Test scores show the instructor whether or not his presentation of a subject is sufficiently effective to accomplish the objectives of the course, 2. Test scores enable the instructor to compare the effectiveness of different teaching methods. 3. Test scores show the instructor which points he did not make clear, thus enabling him to go back and clarify these points. 4. Test scores enable the instructor to give personal attention and guidance to the students who are experiencing difficulty with the subject. 5. Test scores can be used as a measure to help standardize instruction when there are several sections of the same subject. 4a 6. Test scores may be used as a measure of achievement to determine whether or not the student has learned enough about the subject to satisfy the academic standards of the college.2 The maximum value of tests cannot be achieved unless the tests are properly constructed and the scores properly derived. Unfortunately, there has not been de vised an entirely reliable method to measure educational achievement. Too many variables are involved, among them the human element. There is always the possibility of making improve ments. Recognizing the value of tests to education, it is important to give the methods of testing careful study. i IX. TYPES OP EXAMINATION The question, either oral or written, is almost the universal device for measuring the learning of students. Modifications of the method deal with the type of question, standardization of the question lists, and objectifying the question form. Essay type. The essay type of examination places a premium upon recall, and in some cases upon retention as well. It calls for the student's expression verbally and i 2 / Fred Morris, Effective Teaching (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950), pp. 58-59. o Miller and Blaydes, op. cit., pp. 69”74. 43 ! thus his own exposition. Thought questions are sometimes employed to test the thinking or reasoning powers of the student. It is always a source of difficulty in a poorly answered question to determine just what was measured or how to go about correcting the weakness. Another objection is the extent to which scoring must be subjective. Organi zation and clear expression are usually demanded of the students. Objective types. To avoid indefiniteness of measurement and the effects of the personal equation, the objective examination has resorted to such forms as true- false, multiple choice, matching and completion. The objective forms test the recognition of correctness but allow no opportunity for student expression, and call for very little memory. They supplement other forms for the purpose of broadening the scope of measurement in a minimum of time. The weakness in completion tests sometimes rests in their ambiguity. Questionnaire type. This type of evaluation furnishes information concerning the social and economic status of the student, and can also indicate attitudes. Observational records. These records are merely a set of notations which the teacher makes upon the student. They contain notations concerning the student’s health, 44 | interviews, and progress. Such records, while subjective, are valuable in making an analysis of the student’s person-1 al characteristics and are indispensable in guidance. Each teacher may decide for himself which features i of evaluation are of most immediate advantage to the needs of his situation. The following list is suggested as representing a balance of essentials which would make a good program as it stands. (1) Previous records, including past achievement and intelligence ratings. (2) Socio-economic rating of each student. (3) Pretesting and retesting. (4) Self-testing and self-analysis. (5) Progress rating and analysis by: (a) self- testing versus teacher testing; (b) individual rating checked against class rating. 4 ValidityRuch has defined validity as "the degree to which a test or examination measures what it pur ports to measure." If a teacher has decided that the test should measure certain types of learning such as memory of fact, scientific thinking, and ability to apply principles, then the test must contain questions that are designed to ^G. M. Ruch, Improvement of the Written Examination (Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1924), p. 13. 45 measure these qualities. If questions of each type are included, the test has a degree of validity in its measur ing capacities. Reliability. In addition to being valid, a test must also be reliable. In order to insure reliability, comparability of test attempts have been made to standard ize them on the basis of results obtained from giving them to large numbers of students. III. SUMMARY Evaluation is the process of placing a value on an educational experience. Three major purposes of evaluation are investigations of program effectiveness, improvement of the educational program, and the motivation of students. It is a much broader and more intense process than testing or grading. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY Phenomenal increases in the number of students attending colleges, the addition of new and diverse courses to the various curricula, the construction of new schools and college buildings, are all activities typical of the period. While these evidences of accelerated interest in education are significant from a quantitative point of view, they are no assurance that the quality of the edu cational product has been improved. Whatever merits the recent expansion may possess, it was apparently not inaugu rated for the purpose of improving the character of teach ing or of raising the standard of excellence of school work.1 While the demand for college education has been increasing, interest in the problems of higher education has also become more pronounced. In the light of biology teaching being directed toward, a more complete liberalization of the student, the objectives should be examined with respect to the major objectives of the college. Specific objectives should be ^George E. Nelson, The Introductory Biological Sciences in the Traditional Liberal Arts College (Concord: Rumford Press, 1931)., p. 1. 47 set up with regard to practical application. The funda mental facts of the biological sciences must be synthesized into broader and larger meanings if students are to retain them. Some of the findings of this study reveal the need for reconsidering objectives of biology teaching at the college level. Aims stressed upon principles and generali zations are not always the emphasis in actual practice. Selection of subject matter should possess greater edu cational value than much of the traditional subject matter which has been retained in biology courses.^ Present objectives of biology also fail to fulfill the requirements of a liberal education because they do not l consider biological science from any standpoint other than that of a body of systematized subject matter. The method ology of science and the attitude required in the pursuit of scientific investigation are given little attention.3 Although teaching in the introductory biological sciences has been directed toward the acquisition of infor mation , students have not mastered even the most funda mental facts or principles. Subject matter, rather than intelligent understanding and interpretation, has been largely responsible. It would seem that teachers should concentrate more upon the basic facts and ideas of the I 3Ibid., p. 99. ; Ibid., p. 98. 48 biological sciences, giving adequate attention to the methods by which these facts were developed and emphasizing scientific attitude and encouraging their practical appli cation to constructive purposes.^* The teacher stands in a crucial role, second only to that of the learner, in forwarding the purposes of edu cation. Even the most skillfully devised courses cannot compensate for serious deficiencies in the instructor. He should be broadly trained and socially receptive, and in turn have interest in his students, to guide and stimulate them to new levels. In large part, college education must function to prepare students for.-experience--to furnish them with sound concepts and principles in order to make these experiences intelligible. Knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of i nature is essential to any program of liberal education which strives to orient man in the problems of contemporary life and human and social welfare. Such an education should enable a man to cope with his environment, to select worthy life purposes and to achieve them. The work of instruction should be designed to enable the student to understand and interpret the fundamental facts and general izations of science in the adjustment of an individual to ^Ibid., p. 100. the society of which he is a part. There is no simple j formula. It is, however, a generally accepted principle * that American education provides a most favorable type of learning situation for the greatest number of learners. The question of suiting this program to the interests* abilities* and needs of all students presents a challenge to the wisdom and imagination of the science teacher. Science must be designed to provide a firm foun dation upon which the student can build professional and social competence after leaving college. The selection of the areas of learning and the depth of treatment to be given to each of these is a most difficult task; hence those entrusted with formulating educational policies i should have a clear conception of the true nature of edu cation* a keen sense of values* and extremely good judg ment. Science education is not a flimsy thing. It must be sound in curriculum and course content* in administration | and instruction* and it should be directed toward service to humanity. The science student should have concrete, tangible* usable knowledge, which is organized and systema-j tized to provide the background for straight thinking.^ j In the process of learning fundamental principles* the science student should develop the scientific approach ^Fred Morris* Effective Teaching (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company* Inc., 1950), p. 2. to the solution of practical problems which he will be required to use in his everyday activities. The end product of his education should not be a reservoir of factual information. He should be able to think logically and clearly, to evaluate, to weigh, to discriminate, and to exercise originality and resourcefulness to accomplish his objectives, for he is also a member of organized society from which he derives certain benefits and to which he has certain responsibilities. He should be given some appreciation of the importance of these matters so that he can begin to broaden his outlook while in school. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Cantor., Nathaniel. The Dynamics of Learning. Buffalo, New York: Poster and Stewart, 195^ 296 ppT This book presents a sound basis for teaching pro cedures with respect to the objectives and philosophies of a general education. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1955. 4l8 pp. This book discusses the constructive aims and experimental methods of public education in a demo cratic society with a critical estimate of the theories of knowledge and moral development. Eckert, Ruth. Current Issues in Higher Education. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1952. 185 PP. A presentation of the latest trends in education. This is a useful book in helping the science teacher formulate teaching objectives, methods, and philoso phies. French, Sidney J. (ed.). Accent on Teaching. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. 321 pp. This valuable source discusses the role of the teacher in general education and translates educational theory into classroom practice on the basis that a new formulation of objectives calls for new methods of teaching as well as a different emphasis on subject matter and a change in academic organization. Holley, Charles. The Teacher1s Technique. New York: The Century Company, 1924. 360 pp. A useful book for beginning teachers providing valuable instructional materials. Klapper, Paul. Preparation of College Teachers. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1950. 583 PP. This book/contains a wealth of information for the prospective teacher and discusses objectives, methods, and trends. Miller, David G.> and Glenn W. Blaydes. Methods and Materials for Teaching Biological Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1938. 435 PP. An excellent text which outlines teaching methods, book sources, and practical suggestions for classroom__ 53 techniques with emphasis on laboratory demonstrations and exercises. Miller, Robert D. (ed.). General Education at Mid-Century: A Critical Analysis. Tallahassee: Florida State Uni versity, 1950. 660 pp. Contains a presentation by Konrad B. Krauskopf (esp. p. 74) of the development of the philosophy of general education and the place of science in the student’s own personal general education program. Nelson, George E. The Introductory Biological Sciences in the Traditional Liberal Arts College. Concord, Mass.: Rumford Press, 1931. 135 pp. A contribution of ideas to prospective science teachers discussing adequate objectives and their achievement, examinations, and extracurricular biology. Ruch, G. M. Improvement of the Written Examination.- Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1924. 193 pp. Stresses extent to which courses actually contribute toward valid objectives of teaching through examination. Weston, William H. A Handbook for College Teachers. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950. 272 pp. A handbook for beginning teachers providing valuable instructional materials, methods, and philosophies. B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES Curtis, Francis D. "Individual Laboratory Work Must Be Retained," Science Teacher, 17:63-64, April, 1950. Compares effectiveness of individual demonstration and laboratory methods with respect to the acquisition and retention of factual information. Dewey, John. "Science as Subject Matter and as Method," Science, 31:121 (1910). Particularly emphasizes method of science teaching. C. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS National Society for the Study of Education. Science Edu cation in American Schools. Forty-sixth Yearbook. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947. 306 pp. Complete review of the most important trends in cur riculum objectives and philosophy of science education, j Wtdveezitv of Southern Gai&dCSlI

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Creator Cohen, Herbert M. (author)

Core Title Underlying principles for teaching an introductory course in biology on the junior college level

School School of Education

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Education

Degree Conferral Date 1958-06

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

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Format masters theses (aat)

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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