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The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Central in the Oeste Region

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The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Central in the Oeste Region

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Content Running head: PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS AT ESCUELA CENTRAL IN THE
OESTE REGION
by
Ricardo Esquivel
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Ricardo Esquivel
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 2
DEDICATION
It is with a humble heart that I dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Rebecca
Pollorena, for her unwavering and unconditional love and support. At a very young age my mom
taught me the value of hard work and discipline and the importance of pursuing an education. I
witnessed her persevere through many challenges to provide my siblings and me greater
opportunities. She came to the United States with a goal, and she did not stop until she had
reached her desired outcome. Not only am I inspired but I am also proud and thankful beyond
words.
I also dedicate this work to my brothers, Edgar and Irvin Pollorena. They have inspired
me more than they realize. Their acceptance, love, and encouragement have always been a
source of inspiration. I believe that they can attain whatever they put their minds to, as our
mother did for us, thereby providing their families and children with endless opportunities. They
are watching.
This dissertation is also dedicated to my mentors: Brian Johnson, Kriste Dragon, Dr. Ref
Rodriguez, Dr. Nik Orlando, and Dr. Mike Escalante. These strong leaders have guided my
career and have unequivocally believed in my ability to do what I love—to lead and support the
capacity of others. Each has modeled strong, courageous, and inspiring leadership and I have
become a stronger person as a result. I thank my special friends and cousins for their valuable
support through my graduate school journey. The late dinners, special meals, the words of
wisdom, and the unique journeys are memories forever embedded in my heart.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My dissertation team members have proven to be strong leaders in their own right and I
am inspired by their work. I especially thank Denise Harshman, my partner, for her strong work
ethic, support, and guidance.
A very special acknowledgement goes to my dissertation chair, professor, and mentor,
Dr. Michael Escalante, who has been nothing but supportive. His vision and quest to improve
communities around the world have enhanced the leadership of many educational leaders who
have been fortunate enough to be part of his amazing dissertation group. The experience and
content learned through this journey will be applicable for years to come.
Finally, thanks to Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. Her personal anecdotes and words of wisdom
guided our work to the finish line. Her wisdom and support made this process attainable by all
members of the research group.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9

Chapter 1: Introduction 10
Background of the Problem 11
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 13
Research Questions 14
Significance of the Study 14
Definition of Terms 15
Organization of the Dissertation 17

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 18
Globalization 19
Economics and Politics 22
Education and the Global Achievement Gap 24
Costa Rica 27
Background and History 27
Economic and Political System 29
Impact of FDI and MNCs 30
Educational System in Costa Rica 33
The National Program for Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) 36
Twenty-First-Century Skills 39
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
and Project-Based Learning (PBL) 41
Educational Leadership 43
Teacher Leadership 44
Professional Learning Communities 46
Professional Development 47
Change Process 50
Establishing a Sense of Urgency 51
Creating the Guiding Coalition 52
Developing a Vision and Strategy 52
Communicating the Change Vision 53
Empowering Employees for Broad-Based Action 53
Generating Short-Term Wins 54
Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change 54
Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture 55
Summary of the Literature Review 55

Chapter 3: Research Methodology 57
Research Team 59
Sample and Population 60
Participants 60
Case Study Overview: Escuela Central and Escuela Universitaria 62
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 5
Instrumentation 63
Observations 63
Interviews 64
Surveys 66
Data Collection 67
Data Analysis 67
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness 69
Limitations and Delimitations 69
Ethical Considerations 70
Chapter Summary 70

Chapter 4: Study Results 72
Case Study Overview: Escuela Central 73
Case Study Overview: Escuela Central 75
Theme 1: Leadership Matters 75
Theme 2: Vision and Strategic Planning 80
Theme 3: Recognition and Feedback 83
Summary Discussion for Question 1 87
Research Question 2, Results, and Framework 88
Theme 1: Teacher Collaboration 88
Theme 2: Scientific Integration 90
Summary Discussion for Question 2 94
Research Question 3, Results, and Framework 94
Theme 1: Vision and a Prerequisite of Resources 95
Theme 2: Training and Ongoing Professional Development Essential 100
Theme 2: Training and Ongoing Professional Development Essential 105
Research Question 4, Results, and Framework 105
Theme 1: The Scientific Method as a Thinking Process in All Learning
Experiences, Such as PBL 106
Theme 2: A Focus on Soft Skills and Backward Planning 109
Summary Discussion for Question 4 112
Chapter Summary 112

Chapter 5: Discussion, Recommendations, and Conclusions 113
Research Question Overview 116
Synthesis of Findings 117
Implications for Practice 122
Recommendations for Future Research 124
Conclusion 125

References 127
Appendices
Appendix A: Summary of the Research Proposal 135
Appendix B: List of Research Sites 136
Appendix C: Recruitment Letter 137
Appendix D: Observation Protocol 138
Appendix E: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 144
Appendix F: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 146
Appendix G: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 148
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 6
Appendix H: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 150
Appendix I: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 152
Appendix J: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 154
Appendix K: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 158
Appendix L: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 162
Appendix M: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 166
Appendix N: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 170
Appendix O: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 174
Appendix P: Consent Form 178

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Study Participants 61
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Number of companies established per year by selected high-technology sectors 30
Figure 2: Framework for 21st-century learning 39
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 9
ABSTRACT
The single most important factor in improving and sustaining a country’s economy is its
education system. In the past 3 decades, multinational corporations have invested in Costa Rica,
which has focused on improving its education system, particularly to develop students who will
acquire 21st-century skills and foundational knowledge in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics. Government policies require all schools to participate in the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT), with a goal of equitable engagement by all
students. The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders and
government and business in implementation of and participation in the PRONAFECYT in
primary schools in Costa Rica. The study examined leadership practices and the role of school
leaders in development, implementation, and the overall impact of PRONAFECYT initiatives.
The principle finding from comprehensive analysis was that leadership is integral to the
success of the PRONAFECYT from all sectors in Costa Rica—government, business, and
education. These partnerships have given Costa Rican students access to tools and opportunities
to prepare to be competitive, knowledge- and technology-ready citizens. Other findings
highlighted the need for greater access to resources, training, and professional development and
ongoing leadership development for all stakeholders in the school system. The vision established
by Costa Rica has been a catalyst for positive change in education. With continued support by
the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Science, Technology and Telecommunications, as
well as private agencies such as the Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency, the hope is for
greater collaboration among all major corporations to ensure that Costa Rica continues to attract
foreign direct investment and serve as an example for other countries to adapt similar policies
and practices.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 10
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The single most important lever in improving and sustaining urban communities is
education. In many communities across the United States, students’ socioeconomic status and
racial identity have historically predicted their level of educational achievement and the
likelihood of graduating from college (Orfield, Siegel-Hawley, & Kuscera, 2011). The concept
of globalization sheds light on an opportunity gap existing among schools, particularly urban
schools, in countries around the globe. The demand for a competitive, innovative, and global
workforce hinges on the state of schools and how responsive schools are to the shift in skill sets
required for the 21st century (Wagner, 2012).
For many countries, globalization has played a key role in determining the path of
change. Costa Rica has rapidly advanced and seeks to provide a skilled labor force to meet the
demands of multinational corporations (MNCs). Intel, for example, has made direct contributions
to the country’s educational system, providing hubs of innovation, modern laboratories, and
initiatives focusing on innovative science, technology, mathematics, and engineering (STEM;
World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). Costa Rica’s economic transformation, as well as education
initiatives, provide perspectives related to globalization and the direct relationship between
education and economic growth and sustainability today.
Leadership is about vision, yet leadership is equally about establishing a climate where
the truth is heard and the brutal facts are confronted (Collins, 2001). Kotter (2012) noted, “The
central issue is never strategy or structure. [It] is always about changing the behavior of people”
(p. 33). Nevertheless, the globalized economy is creating more hazards and more opportunities
for everyone, forcing organizations to dramatic improvements in order to compete and survive
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 11
(Friedman, 2007; Kotter, 2012; Wagner, 2008). Leadership, therefore, is also about ensuring
organizations are focused on focused bold outcomes for students.
Background of the Problem
Both individuals and countries benefit from education (Spring, 2008). For countries, the
potential benefits lie in economic growth and development of shared values that underpin social
cohesion (Spring, 2008). However, in order for individuals and countries to benefit from the
quality of life afforded through a high-quality and competitive education, it is important to
address the global achievement gap persisting among schools today (Friedman, 2007; Wagner,
2008). Solving the equity social issues around the world will be necessary to achieve the
economic returns of satisfying employment overtime and prosperity among all people.
Only about one third of U.S. high school students graduate ready for college today, and
the rates are much lower for poor and minority students (Wagner, 2008). Moreover, 40% of all
students who enter college must take remedial courses (Wagner, 2008). In order to earn a decent
wage in today’s economy, most students will need to obtain at least some postsecondary
education (Wagner, 2008). It is important to note that, in the next 25 years, nearly half of the
projected job growth will be concentrated in occupations associated with higher education and
skill levels (Wagner, 2008).
The achievement and opportunity gap can be described as a crisis and, if countries such
as the United States continue to perform at the same rate as in the past decade, unemployment
rates will rise and the health of the country’s economy will suffer (Friedman, 2007; Wagner,
2012). A country’s long-term economic health is dependent on creating more innovation.
Globalization has influenced Costa Rica to make political and societal decisions that support
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 12
economic prosperity. Costa Rica’s economic and political shifts in the past 3 decades have been
guided by the principles of globalization.
Eliminating educational inequities among Costa Rican schools, as well as raising the bar
for all students in Costa Rica to have an opportunity to participate in the National Science and
Technology Fair, will require bold and courageous leadership at every level of the school system.
Leaders should be aware of the forces shaping the global market place today (Friedman, 2007).
Whether at a teacher or principal or a system level, leader change in practices require bold,
courageous leadership. Louis and Kruse (1995) identified the supportive leadership of principals
as one of the necessary human resources for restructuring staff into professional learning
communities (PLCs). Schools serve as a country’s equalizers, and a country’s economy and
societal prosperity depends on equitable educational outcomes with standards that ensure that
high school and university graduates are prepared for the global workforce. Leadership at every
level of the school system will require courage, vision, and a global awareness to lead the next
generation of entrepreneurs, innovators, and leaders.
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed
in an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education
system must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has
necessitated a change in the skills that students must develop to compete in an increasingly
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 13
global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer
competing with other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation but rather are
competing with schools around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et
al., 1999). Since its independence and abolition of its military forces, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian society to a high-technology hub of innovation in
Latin America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract foreign direct investment (FDI), which have included tax incentives and investments in
infrastructure, as well as changes to the educational system (Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development [OECD], 2012).
In order to continue to attract FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools
that produce knowledge and conceptually based workers with skills in STEM, in addition to
essential 21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). However, according to Americas
Society and Council of the Americas (2011), 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish
secondary school. Moreover, to ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017 for all students, including
those in rural and poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must ensure that all
students have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based educational outcomes in all
schools (CINDE, 2013a).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders in
implementation and participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
(Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) in primary schools in
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 14
Costa Rica. The study examined leadership practices and the role of school leaders in
development of PRONAFECYT initiatives. Moreover, the study explored how schools may have
restructured their educational programs by focusing on shared leadership and teacher training.
This qualitative study will continue the dialogue focused on globalization and the educational
and economic implications for countries in the 21st century. Costa Rica’s historical and
economic landscape focused on developing STEM initiatives will support the study’s purpose of
addressing the research questions.
Research Questions
The following research questions were developed collaboratively by the research team to
understand the role of educational leaders in implementing PRONAFECYT in primary schools
in Costa Rica.
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less-
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
Significance of the Study
Costa Rica’s government and the Ministry of Public Education (MEP) have established
policies designed to outpace the globalization trend. Costa Rica has made clear transformations
at the economic level and attributes its partnerships and focused innovative education to the
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 15
economic growth that the country has experienced. While every country is unique, the leadership
required to ensure such changes and interdependence between an educated populace and the
economic stability of a country is not unique and can directly influence the leadership practices
at any level, from government, business, or education. Globalization has often presented itself as
a catalyst to change. Wagner (2008) suggested a need to develop 21st-century skills in order to
adjust to the changes resulting from the impact of globalization.
This case study serves to illuminate leadership practices and the direct implications of
leadership on how stakeholders respond to the growing need for 21st-century skills and a focus
on STEM practices, beginning at the primary level. The PRONAFECYT is one initiative to
guide the country toward economic prosperity. The MEP is focused on primary grades, as
participation and general investment are much more prevalent at the secondary levels. The
findings of this study provides insight regarding processes that schools have used to implement
21st-century skills, project-based learning (PBL), and STEM practices to advance a culture
founded on innovation, creativity, and leadership to fulfill the jobs of today and the future.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined as they are used in the dissertation:
Foreign direct investment (FDI): Direct investment by a company in another country.
Investment is produced by either buying a company in the target country or by expanding
operations of an existing business in that country.
Global achievement gap: The gap between what the best suburban, urban, and rural
public schools are teaching and testing and what all students need to succeed as learners,
workers, and citizens in the global knowledge economy (Wagner, 2008)
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 16
Globalization: The process of interaction and integration among the people, companies,
and governments of nations; a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by
information technology (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008)
Ministry of Public Education (MEP): The MEP in Costa Rica is a world leader in
providing quality and accessible education to children in K–12 public education. The MEP’s
mission is to promote development and consolidation of an exceptional education system that
provides access to quality education to the entire population. Education is centered on personal
development and promotion of a Costa Rican society united through opportunity and social
equality (MEP, 2013a).
Multinational corporation (MNC): An enterprise operating in several countries and
managed from one country. Any company or group deriving one quarter of its revenue from
operations outside of its home country is considered a MNC. A MNC is a large corporation that
both produces and sells goods or services in various countries and often has a social
responsibility and commitment to improve the host country’s education system.
National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT): Entity that
establishes guidelines for participation in Costa Rica science and technology fairs. The program
includes all students from preschool, primary school, and high school. The objective is to
stimulate creativity and promote a scientific and technological culture, starting with development
of scientific thinking and knowledge and development of students’ skills and abilities in science
and technology as a stimulus to the new generations of Costa Ricans (Valencia-Chacon, 2011).
Project-based learning: A classroom approach in which students actively explore real-
world problems and challenges and acquire deeper knowledge. Teachers serve as facilitators to
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 17
guide and mediate student thinking to reach a final project that is student centered (Capraro,
Capraro, & Morgan, 2013).
Twenty-first century skills: The following essential skills of the knowledge-based global
economy: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and
leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective
oral and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter 1 provided an overview and purpose of the study, including a statement of the
problem, the research questions, the significance of the study with implications for readers, and
the definition of key terms. Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature related to the history and
impact of globalization on schools and presents several frameworks to gain a broad perspective
on the leadership required to drive key changes in schools and school districts. Specifically, the
conceptual frameworks presented throughout the chapter are (a) Kotter’s (2012) change process,
(b) Bolman and Deal’s (2003) framework on reframing organizations and leadership, (c)
Wagner’s (2008) framework on 21st-century skills, and (d) the framework on STEM PBL
developed by Capraro et al. (2013). Chapter 3 describes the methodology utilized in the study,
including research design, sampling and population, instrumentation, the processes for data
collection and analysis, and ethical considerations. Chapter 4 will present data results, as well as
analysis of the data with regard to each research question and conceptual framework. Chapter 5
will summarize the findings, conclude the study, and present implications for future research and
recommendations for current educators and leaders around the globe.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 18
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In many urban cities throughout the world, students’ socioeconomic status and racial
identity have historically predicted their level of educational achievement and the likelihood of
graduating from college. This type of de facto segregation has led to formation of low-
performing schools in low-income neighborhoods and high-performing schools in high-income
neighborhoods (Orfield et al., 2011). Globalization sheds light on segregated conditions as the
demand for a competitive, innovative, and global workforce increases. This literature review
describes globalization as an impetus for change to ensure educational and economical
prosperity. The chapter reviews Costa Rica’s history as an example of a country whose policies
and reform efforts are geared toward preparing students to engage in the global workforce, while
highlighting achievement gaps and barriers among schools.
To achieve overall economic and educational prosperity, at the macro level or micro
level, school and district leaders serve as change agents. The literature review describes how the
research classifies leadership. Schools, as institutions, have the potential to serve as change
agents and ensure equal access to high-quality schools, which are a fundamental right that all
children deserve, regardless of socioeconomic or ethnic background (Martin, Karabel, & Jaquez,
2005).
In this review, globalization history and the history of Costa Rica are examined through
the lens of transformative leadership, spanning decades of history and more recent globalization
forces that have shifted educational priorities. In addition, 21st-century skills and their
relatedness to national science fairs in Costa Rica are examined as strategies to produce a more
skilled workforce. The review highlights several professional development models in support of
high-impact teaching and positive learning results. Change toward high-performing schools will
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 19
not occur on its own. Interrupting the status quo and facilitating change necessitate courageous
leadership; therefore, the literature review ends by reviewing the change process and
implications for educational leaders who plan to lead reform efforts.
Moreover, the literature review demonstrates gaps in the literature, such as the role of
educational leaders across the MEP and the necessity to eliminate educational inequities among
schools in Costa Rica with a vision for all students to attain high-quality, STEM, and PBL
experiences. Leadership at every level of the school system will require courage, vision, and a
global awareness to lead the next generation of entrepreneurs, innovators, and leaders.
Globalization
Globalization makes it possible for people to interact on a global scale and has shaped the
way business and corporations facilitate and compete for business (Friedman, 2007). This section
defines globalization and its historical economic and political origins while providing insight on
how globalization has shaped the urgency for higher-quality schools by closely examining the
impact of the global achievement gap (Wagner, 2008).
In today’s workforce more people are able to collaborate and compete in real time with
more people from different parts of the world and on more equal footing than at any previous
time in the history of the world (Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2008). For people to be speaking and
collaborating with peers on different continents and for business transactions to be taking place
in different parts of the globe is globalization, according to Friedman (2007). Chanda (2008)
traced globalization back thousands of years when villages were no longer villages but
prospering towns and cities and began with invention of devices that allowed people to continue
to grow and diversify goods and services. Chanda (2008) described homo sapiens as an
anatomically modern mammalian species that has voluntarily spread itself out to every corner of
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 20
the globe and begin what is known as globalization. Globalization stems, among other things,
from a basic human urge to seek a better and more fulfilling life; it is driven by many actors who
can be classified as traders, preachers, adventurers, and warriors (Chanda, 2008). Both Chanda
(2008) and Friedman (2007) described globalization as the process by which the experience of
everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, can foster a standardization of
cultural expressions around the world.
The history of globalization dates back to the time when Columbus set sail, which opened
trade between the Old World and the New World, until around 1800 (Chanda, 2008). The key
agent of change, the dynamic force driving the process of global integration, was how much
power one’s country had and how creatively the country could apply a level of creativity. Here,
religion or imperialism or a combination of both inspired countries and governments to tear
down walls and bring the world together, driving global integration. During the time period 1800
to 2000, the second era of globalization, the key agents of change were multinational companies
that would eventually serve global markets and labor, spearheaded first by the expansion of the
Dutch and English joint-stock companies and the Industrial Revolution (Friedman, 2007).
During this same time period (1800 to 2000) were the birth and maturation of a global economy
due to the spread of the telegraph, telephones, personal computers, satellites, fiber-optic cable,
and the early version of the World Wide Web (Chanda, 2008; Friedman, 2007). The current era,
or the flat-world platform, of globalization begins around the year 2000, with agents of change
rooted in the power of individuals to collaborate and compete globally (Chanda, 2008; Friedman,
2007). In this new era of globalization, every person now must ask where he fits relative to
global competition and opportunities and how she can collaborate with others globally
(Friedman, 2007).
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 21
While Friedman (2007) described major political events, innovations, and companies that
have converged to give way to the current era of globalization, Zakaria (2012) explained three
power shifts over the past 500 years that have fundamentally changed the distribution of power
and have reshaped international life: politics, economics, and culture. The first of three shifts was
the rise of the Western world, producing modernity in the areas of science, technology,
commerce, and capitalism, which also gave rise to the political influence of nations of the West.
The second shift was the rise of the United States to be the most powerful nation since imperial
Rome. The United States dominated global economics, politics, science, and culture, leading to
the current shift that Zakaria (2012) described as “the rise of the rest.” During this time, countries
around the world began to experience economic growth. According to Zakaria (2012), in 2010,
85 countries (30 in Africa) grew at a rate of 4% or more; in 2006 and 2007 that number was 125.
In spite of growing prosperities around the world, there are still hundreds of millions of people
living in desperate poverty and inequities in educational outcomes around the world (Zakaria,
2012). Moreover, the global growth observed is giving rise to a global order where countries are
direct players in an international system (Zakaria, 2012). The emergence of people onto the
international system from China, India, Russia, Eastern Europe, Latin America, and Central
America has led to these people being able to compete more equitably with cheaper and more
readily available work flow tools than ever before (Friedman, 2007; Zakaria, 2012).
The literature provides compelling evidence of the interconnectedness of people around
the world and the impact of science and technology on a country’s economy, politics, and
business sectors. Varied historical perspectives from Friedman (2007) and Chanda (2008) help to
frame the meta-analysis of this study, particularly in understanding the global shifts that have led
to formation of practices in Costa Rica in keeping up with competition with greater efficiency
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 22
and impact. Costa Rica’s PRONAFECYT serves as an example of the direct impact on the
country’s educational system in working toward a skilled workforce, which the literature points
out as an imperative shift in response to globalization.
Economics and Politics
Political powers are shifting in all aspects of life, including industrial, financial,
educational, and cultural aspects. Globalization influences a country’s economy and heavily
relies on its ability to join in the global marketplace and compete globally. Moreover,
globalization has begun to shift policies and practices toward priorities that support a country’s
trajectory toward economic and social prosperity. Globalization has also influenced nations to
ensure global competitiveness. Nations once in economic peril, particularly developing
countries, continue to emerge and outperform recently developed countries (Zakaria, 2012). A
country’s economy and societal landscape is dependent on policies and practices that move
toward priorities and place a nation on equal footing with other countries. Countries that were
once believed to be in the shadows are now occupying new roles in the global system (Friedman,
2007; Zakaria, 2012). In 2008, India and Brazil defied the United States at the Doha trade talks,
Russia attacked and occupied parts of Georgia, and China hosted the most expensive Olympic
Games in history; 10 years earlier, none of these four countries would have been powerful
enough to act as it did (Zakaria, 2012).
The strategies that governments use to respond to globalization vary by country.
According to Friedman (2007), everyone seeks economic growth but nobody wants change.
Friedman (2007) stated that individuals need a strategy for coping with the flattening world. It is
interesting to observe how countries drive economic reform agendas and their unique strategy. In
most cases, decisions related to reform efforts are political and based on a specific culture. For
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 23
example, the World Bank Group, the world’s largest funder of education, has made educational
improvement its main driver in regions where it will contribute most to the economic
development (Spring, 2008). After the 1997 collapse in Thailand, Thai leaders sought new
educational policies that would support the economy; as a result, human capital school policies
to form global education superstructures were adopted, translating into the National Education
Act of 1999 (Spring, 2008). Other countries, such as Costa Rica, have made choices about how
government and policies would determine their economic stability in the wake of globalization
over the past 20 years (OECD, 2012).
While one perspective centers globalization on economic growth and prosperity, others
view globalization as toxic due to nationalism and outsourcing of jobs and local resources, which
have significantly impacted job creation in particular countries around the world (Chanda, 2008).
These perspectives and others derail globalization efforts. However, more and more outsourcing
in years to come will continue to limit opportunities unless nations focus policies on ensuring
that this is possible. In addition, critics coined the term glocalization as a description of the
adoption of borrowed policies and losing one’s indigenous culture or a homogenizing of
products with cultural contents (Chanda, 2008; Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008).
Further research claims globalization has widened the gap between the rich and poor and
has inequitably helped the rich to become richer (Chanda, 2008; Spring, 2009). The gap between
rural and urban areas has widened in developing countries that have tried to integrate with the
global economy, emphasizing that the group falling most behind are the uneducated rural poor
(Chanda, 2008). Similar achievement gaps can be observed in American schools today or across
large urban cities. It is imperative to focus on ensuring that everyone, regardless of racial/ethnic
identities or socioeconomic status, has an opportunity to receive an excellent education in order
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 24
to excel and compete with peers around the globe. Education is the primary equalizer for
communities and serves as a lever by which policies can support all children in driving the future
economy of a region, state, or country.
Education and the Global Achievement Gap
Spring (2008) claimed that both individuals and countries benefit from education. The
benefits for individuals lie in general quality of life and in the economic returns of sustained,
satisfying employment. For countries, the potential benefits lie in economic growth and the
development of shared values that underpin social cohesion (Spring, 2008). However, in order
for individuals and countries to benefit from the quality of life afforded through a high-quality
and competitive education, it is important to describe how the global perspective, or as Wagner
(2008) and Friedman (2007) described it, “the global achievement gap,” is addressed in schools
today and what will be necessary to achieve the economic returns of sustained, satisfying
employment over time.
Bringing the global achievement gap to the fore provides a clearer picture of the
consequences for countries not to rise to the economic challenges and focuses on countries that
have already begun the process of making dramatic changes through the lens of education
reform. Wagner (2008) defined global achievement by looking at the gap among what the “best”
schools in the United States are teaching relative to what all students must acquire to succeed in
the global economy. Only about one third of U.S. high school students graduate ready for college
today, and the rates are much lower for poor and minority students (Wagner, 2008). Moreover,
40% of all students who enter college must take remedial courses (Wagner, 2008).
In order to earn a decent wage in today’s economy, most students will need to obtain at
least some postsecondary education (Wagner, 2008). It is important to note that, in the next 25
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 25
years, nearly half of the projected job growth will be concentrated in occupations associated with
higher education and skill levels (Wagner, 2008). According to Wagner (2008), the 70%
graduation rate in the United States is well behind that of countries such as Denmark (96%),
Japan (93%), Poland (92%) and Italy (79%). Clifton (2011) noted that, by 2040, China will
become the new leader of the world due to its economic power and strong educational backbone.
Friedman (2007) labeled this gap as a crisis and argued that, if countries such as the
United States continue to perform at the same rate as in the past decade, unemployment rates will
rise and the health of the country’s economy will suffer (Wagner, 2012). Today, many skills are
not only centered on collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creativity but are also
rooted in innovation, with a particular focus in STEM (Wagner, 2012). While other countries are
making changes to ensure greater focus on these subjects, the United States is quickly falling
behind. In contrast, in the mid-1900s, Russia launched Sputnik and the U.S. government focused
on educating young people to become scientists and engineers, which was later intensified by
John F. Kennedy’s goal to establish a space program (Friedman, 2007). The literature noted
Shirley Ann Jackson, the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from MIT and later to be
appointed by President Clinton to chair the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (Friedman,
2007). This time period marked a place in history explaining why America thrived as a leading
global enterprise. The Internet explosion in the late 1900s was another example of innovation
and entrepreneurism that helped America to win what Clifton (2011) described as the job war.
The students of color pursuing STEM fields following Jackson have slowly diminished leading
to a shortage threatening the economic welfare and security of American because of global
competition for people with these skills in science and engineering (Friedman, 2007; Wagner,
2012).
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 26
The long-term health of the U.S. economy and a full economic recovery are dependent on
creating far more innovation with a focus on STEM preparation, social innovation, and
entrepreneurship (Wagner, 2012). Both Clifton (2011) and Wagner (2012) stressed that
innovation and entrepreneurship through individuals will serve as the economic engines for
countries. Wagner (2012) took this further by listing the skills that individuals will need:
effective critical thinking and problem solving, collaborative skills across diverse networks, an
ability to adapt to new and different situations, effective oral and written communication, and a
level of curiosity and imagination that sees beyond one’s visual periphery. Globalization brings
to the fore how much more advanced nations around the world are leading in relation to the
United States, for example, and how rapidly the global landscape is changing. A country’s
economy and social welfare is dependent on societies making the necessary changes to keep
pace. Schools serve as the country’s equalizer, ensuring that the skills highlighted by Wagner
(2012) and Friedman (2007) are fortified across all students and members of society equitably.
The study is designed to identify the role of educational leaders in implementation of and
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The literature emphasizes
a new landscape and a shift from a knowledge-based workforce to a more innovative and
technology-based workforce, altering the trajectory of communities to keep up with global
demands. Globalization provides a framework for understanding the big picture related to the
relevance of developing programs such as the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica and studying how
these initiatives are aimed to close the global achievement gaps that exist in certain schools
around the world.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 27
Costa Rica
A country’s long-term economic health is dependent on creating more innovation
(Clifton, 2011; Wagner, 2012). Globalization has influenced Costa Rica to make political and
societal decisions that support economic prosperity. Costa Rica’s economic and political shifts in
the past 3 decades have been guided by the principles of globalization. Since its independence
and the abolition of its military, Costa Rica has placed its primary focus on education in pursuit
of a generation of skilled and innovative workers (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30
years, Costa Rica has adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian society to a high-technology
hub of innovation, initiating actions designed to attract FDI. Innovations have included tax
incentives and investments in infrastructure, as well as changes to the educational system
(OECD, 2012). Yet, there remains a global achievement gap. According to the OECD (2012),
innovation such as patent activity in Costa Rica is low. While foreign enterprises have carried
out more complex and knowledge-intensive activities, the country is still far from the patent
performance not only of emerging economies but also of Latin American countries that have a
well-known modest record in patenting. Therefore, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent
on schools that produce knowledge and conceptually based workers with skills in STEM, in
addition to essential 21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Costa Rica’s shifts are
a product of globalization in which individuals are required to think globally to thrive in the new
“flat world” (Friedman, 2007).
Background and History
Costa Rica lies between Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south. Costa Ricans
(Ticos) are proud of their culture and traditions and lead a life of social equality. Ticos is the
name that Costa Ricans have given themselves based on their use of particular words ending in
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 28
tico and a way to represent their amicable and hospitable ways (Biesanz et al., 1999). Costa Rica
is described as a peaceful nation, one that continuously seeks to avoid conflict and disorder and
settles disagreements peacefully through dialogue and compromise (Biesanz et al., 1999). Costa
Ricans use humor, charisma, and even a disappearing act to avoid letting a conflict get the better
of them (Biesanz et al., 1999).
With a 96% literacy rate, Costa Rica’s progressive culture is known to have more
teachers than law enforcement officers, more biological reserves than cities, and an undying
dedication to social programs (Biesanz et al., 1999). Costa Rica’s convictions related to social
equality span Costa Rica’s history, such as establishment of free, tax-subsidized education as a
Constitutional right in 1869, elimination of the death penalty in 1882, and dissolution of the
national army in 1949 (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Between 1502 and 1560, Costa Rica was inhabited by Spanish expeditions when
Columbus explored it in 1502 and conquered part of the indigenous population. Costa Rica was
administered as a Spanish province until achieving independence in 1821. Today’s remaining
indigenous people are virtually unseen, as many of them prefer to stay within the confines of
their reserves. The Costa Rican labor force consists largely of common laborers and farmers to
specialized professionals (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Early policies related to military and education seemed to have foreshadowed the
country’s response to globalization. Costa Rica’s history contrasts from a labor market
specialized in farming and banana chip production to an industrialized nation known for
renewable energy and ecotourism, as well as its ability to attract multinational technology
corporations around the world (OECD, 2012).
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 29
Economic and Political System
Except for military leadership by Tomás Guardia from 1870 to 1882, Costa Rica
possesses one of the most democratic governments in Latin America. An elected President and
the Council of Government comprise Costa Rica’s political system. The President appoints
governors who oversee the seven provinces: Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limon,
Puntarenas, and San José. The seven provinces are divided into 81 counties and 421 districts
(OECD, 2012).
The National Liberation Party (PLN) and the Social Christian Unity Party (PUSC) create
barriers between political party lines in Costa Rica. The PLN leans toward welfare-state
liberalism, while the PUSC is more progressive and conservative and generally supports business
interests. The PLN traditionally holds a majority in the Legislative Assembly, while the
Presidency alternates every 4 years, often switching between candidates from the two rival
parties (OECD, 2012).
Costa Rica declared neutrality after a civil war in 1949, and interim President “Don
Pepe” Figueres subsequently abolished the national army. Not having a military is believed to
have contributed to real democracy (Biesanz et al., 1999). Today, the security of the nation is
overseen by a heavily armed National Guard and civilian police force. Peace and harmony are a
large part of the national mindset; thus, issues are usually resolved by consensus and
compromise (Biesanz et al., 1999; Palmer & Molina, 2004). The abolition of the military force
increased government efforts to ensure economic welfare. In the 1970s, rising oil prices, falling
international commodity prices, and inflation hurt the economy (CINDE, 2013a). Efforts have
since been made to reduce reliance on coffee, banana, and beef exports. Today, Costa Rica is
recognized as having one of the most stable political systems in Latin America, with free and
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 30
compulsory education, a robust health care system, and an open economy based on FDI as the
catalyst for economic reform (OECD, 2012).
Reform efforts have included a move to an export promotional model based primarily on
trade liberalization (OECD, 2012). As a result, fiscal incentives such as the Export Processing
Zone have allowed companies to import products and equipment tax free for multiple years
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Companies have also received a generous subsidy equivalent to 10% of
the value of their exports. Incentives and these reform efforts have supported Costa Rica’s
objective to diversify the country’s agricultural exports from heavy dependence on coffee and
bananas (OECD, 2012). The economic and political shifts in Costa Rica have made education a
top investment through economic and political reforms, placing Costa Rica on the global
competitive edge (CINDE, 2013a; Friedman, 2007).
Impact of FDI and MNCs
Since the late 1980’s Costa Rica has shifted to rely on export services in high-technology
manufacturing and services. Figure 1 shows the growth of high-technology MNCs in Costa Rica.

Figure 1. Number of companies established per year by selected high-technology sectors.
Source: Why Invest Costa Rica? by Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency, 2013b,
retrieved from http://www.cinde.org
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 31
In addition, the country has experienced a stable economy as evidenced by their rising
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and falling poverty rates (OECD, 2012). Targeted FDI
has served as the strategy for economic and political transformation in Costa Rica (Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001). A major contributor to the strategy has been the Costa Rican Investment Promotion
Agency (CINDE; OECD, 2012; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). CINDE is a private, nonprofit agency
responsible for attraction of FDI to Costa Rica (CINDE, 2013a). The agency was founded in
1982 and has been responsible for establishing hundreds of companies in the country. In addition
to attracting FDI, CINDE has played an essential role in determining a strategy geared toward
the electronics sector that would later prove successful for the country (OECD, 2012; Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001).
According to OECD (2012), FDI has also acted indirectly to improve education and
training and has fostered a culture of learning to improve the business sector. Foreign companies
or MNCs in Costa Rica have recently been upgrading their businesses toward more knowledge-
intensive activities, such as software design, medical devices, advanced technologies, and clean
technologies. Intel Costa Rica, for example, has had an important manufacturing and research
presence in Costa Rica since 1997 (OECD, 2012). Among its products, Intel Costa Rica
assembles and tests microprocessors, designs electronic circuits, and provides financial services
for the entire corporation. The company is also actively committed to giving back to the
community, focusing contributions on education and the environment (Intel, 2014). The
company has invested an average of 1 million U.S. dollars annually to support local education
programs focused on three areas: elementary and high school education, higher education, and
education in the community.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 32
Intel’s contributions have included donations of computers and establishing model
classrooms where teachers can use technology resources to increase the focus on teaching
mathematics and science. The partnership with Intel has created more than 2,800 jobs and a
growth in high-technology exports spanning coffee beans and bananas (Biesanz et al., 1999;
Intel, 2014). Intel Costa Rica’s economic impact has provided additional FDI for the country
(Intel, 2014). There are also specialized programs such as the Intel Teach Program to help
teachers to integrate technology in their classrooms to enhance student learning. In Costa Rica,
the Intel Teach Program is coordinated in collaboration with the MEP. Training is available for
teachers in all regions of the country, including those in very remote one-room schoolhouses.
More than 50% of K–12 teachers in Costa Rica have participated in this program since its start in
2001 (Intel, 2014).
While Costa Rica’s FDI has greatly enhanced the country’s economic landscape, the
OECD (2012) makes the case for greater opportunity in growth and development in the country.
Although the country produces relatively good-quality graduates, there exists a gap between
graduates of specialization and the skills required by industry. Costa Rica’s doctoral graduates
stand out in their preference for the social sciences. As noted by OECD (2012), of the 93
doctorates granted in Costa Rica in 2000-2002, 92 were in the social sciences. This trend
recently began to reverse: by 2007-2009, Costa Rica had more than doubled the number of
doctorates awarded, including more in technology-related disciplines (more than 18% in medical
sciences, 3% in agricultural sciences, and less than 2% in natural sciences). Still, it granted no
doctorates in engineering and computer sciences (OECD, 2012). The country has introduced new
undergraduate programs to improve the quality and quantity of its skilled labor force through
grants for technical and university studies in partnerships with Intel, as noted above, as well as
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 33
PROCOMER (Division of Local Linkages at the Foreign Trade Corporation of Costa Rica), the
Ministry of Foreign Trade (COMEX), and the Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Telecommunications (MICITT) to aid in identification and implementation of strategies to
enhance skills demand and supply. The union of these three organizations provides Costa Rica
guidance in monitoring the country’s progress toward meeting the workforce demands of the
MNCs. COMEX and PROCOMER support CINDE’s efforts to utilize strategically the resources
of the current MNCs, as well as find ways to attract additional FDI, including high-technology
FDI (Bamber, Fernandez-Stark, Gereffi, & Guinn, 2014).
Educational System in Costa Rica
The literature highlights how these incipient efforts should be strengthened in the areas of
high-technology FDI. This section examines the role of educational partners in advancing Costa
Rica’s FDI and strengthening its partnerships with MNCs.
The first public school in Costa Rica, Colegio de San Luis Gonzaga, emerged in 1869 in
the city of Cartago. Since the abolition of the military in 1948, Costa Rica has been one of the
few countries without a military, allowing it to direct expenditures once used for armed forces to
education. The country’s commitment to education is reflected in its Constitution (Costa Rica’s
Constitution, 2012), which requires that the government allocate a minimum of 8% of its GDP
annually to education. Consequently, it is not surprising that Costa Rica boasts the most
advanced and highest-quality education system in the region (Biesanz et al., 1999).
The MEP is charged with administration of the Costa Rica educational system and
oversees all public schools and licenses all private schools in Costa Rica. The President of Costa
Rica appoints the Education Minister, who oversees the various levels of the MEP. Appointed in
May 2014, Sonia Marta Mora Escalante is the active Education Minister in Costa Rica (MEP,
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 34
2015). The MEP is comprised of several levels of school government. For instance, the political
level oversees the major divisions of the school system and the delegation level is charged with
the equity and efficiency of technical schools, scholarships, and inclusive educational model
(MEP, 2015). An obligatory and free education system, as well as a governmental focus, has
translated into a literacy rate for Costa Ricans of 96%, marked above the average for Central
America and the Caribbean (87.2%), as well as above the average for South America (about
90.8%; MEP, 2013b). The United Nations Human Development Report ranked the Costa Rican
education system as the highest in Latin America and 21st in the world (United Nations
Development Programme, 2011).
Costa Rica’s schools run from February to December and have one of the shortest school
years in the world at 176 days (Biesanz et al., 1999). Schools in poor areas are typically
overcrowded and compensate by shortening their daily schedule into two 5-hour shifts, limiting
the instruction that students receive (CINDE, 2013a). Primary education is compulsory between
the ages of 6 and 13 and is attended by most children in the country. Secondary education leaves
pupils two choices of specification: academic (5 years) and technical (6 years) schools. Both
types of institutions enable students to acquire high school diplomas qualifying them for tertiary
education at universities.
The educational system is divided into four unique cycles. The primary grades, typically
the first 9 years of a child’s education, are comprised of the first two cycles. Cycle 1 includes
Grades 1–4, Cycle 2 includes Grades 5–6, and Cycle 3 includes Grades 7–9. Cycles 2 and 3 are
mandatory for all citizens. Cycle 4 is voluntary and includes Grades 10–12. Cycles 1 and 2
provide students with instruction in Spanish, mathematics, social studies, and science and are
considered part of primary school. Cycles 3 and 4 are considered part of secondary education. In
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 35
Cycle 3, all students take Spanish, English, French, mathematics, social studies, religion, civics,
science, and electives for 24 hours per week (Biesanz et al., 2009; CINDE, 2013a). There are
113 technical high schools in Costa Rica. In 2012, 78,719 students were enrolled in 52
specialties in three main areas of expertise: services, industrial, and agriculture (CINDE, 2013a).
Specialties include accounting, architectural drawing, banking and finance, computer
programming, electromechanics, electronics, graphic design, industrial electronics, industrial
maintenance, network informatics, precision mechanics, and software development informatics,
among others.
Students take an additional test to earn a high school diploma (bachilerato) at the
conclusion of the 12th grade. Costa Rica has 59 universities for students to pursue tertiary
education, as well as several universities and institutions offering professional training, including
specialized institutions related to STEM (CINDE, 2013a). Costa Rica’s investment in higher
education with the support from MNCs has yielded substantial benefits. Universities produce not
only highly trained individuals sought after by the MNCs but also entrepreneurs with the ability
to develop their own companies, particularly in high-technology areas (OECD, 2012). However,
as noted by OECD (2012), there is still room to expand the postsecondary opportunities for
Costa Ricans and increase the level of private investment to support the country’s innovation-
related needs.
The MEP introduced programs to guarantee widespread knowledge in computer sciences
and English as a second language (ESL) to keep the Costa Rican youth and workforce on par
with international standards. ESL in particular is a main focus. The Ministry hopes to get 25% of
high school graduates to C1 level of skill (“competent user”) and all others to at least basic levels
of comprehension in the years to come. Including both public and private schools, 85% of
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 36
students at the primary level attend English classes throughout Costa Rica. The National English
Plan was put in place to enhance the country’s need to be English proficient to comply with the
increasing demand for human capital with English language proficiency (MEP, 2015). Costa
Rica has a goal of 100% literacy by 2017 (MEP, 2015). In addition to broad-scale policies,
schools are provided with autonomy to alter curricula and instructional practices while being
held accountable for excellence.
The literature highlights current gaps in achievement observed in rural schools, a limited
number of doctoral programs, particularly in STEM fields, and a secondary graduation rate. In
2006, of the 89,000 17-year-olds, only 36,000 were in school (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008).
Furthermore, the education system in Costa Rica has fallen and there appears to be a disconnect
between what is happening in primary and secondary schools based on the expectations at the
university level despite the country’s 96% literacy rate (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). In order to
circumvent the gap in primary and secondary schools, the current study will explore instructional
practices in schools that support student engagement and participation in national science fairs in
Costa Rica.
The National Program for Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
Reaching a literacy rate of 100% by the year 2017 while strengthening relationships with
MNCs and national agendas and policies centered on systematic practices that continually raise
STEM awareness for the country of Costa Rica are top priorities to securing economic
sustainability. Costa Rica believes that, if all students acquire skills in inquiry and research,
along with analytical skills, they will raise their raise social responsibility and promote
leadership and innovation to support the country’s economy through new discoveries and
processes (MICITT, 2013). The University of Costa Rica, whose primary priority is to produce
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 37
agents of change, supports the PRONAFECYT and shares the same vision as the Costa Rican
government (MICITT, 2013). Bencze and Bowen (2009) supported science fair initiatives as
they claimed that scientific investigations and invention projects may serve to broaden and
deepen students’ scientific and technological literacy.
In collaboration with the National Science Fair Commission and the MICITT, Intel
promotes student interest in science, mathematics, and technology careers. Intel also supports 20
regional science fairs, as well as the annual Engineer Fair and the annual National Science and
Technology Fair for elementary and high school students. Intel sponsors the first- and second-
place winners at the National Science and Technology Fair to attend the Intel International
Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) each year. Sixty-five students have represented Costa Rica
at ISEF since 1998, some winning awards and honors. These events are described as positive
educational phenomena, particularly because student-led projects have been de-emphasized in
schools (Bencze & Bowen, 2009).
The ISEF is considered the largest college science and engineering fair in the world. It
involves more than 1,500 students from more than 60 countries. As many as 7 million high
school students around the world have developed original research projects and presented their
work at local science competitions with the hope of participating in the Intel ISEF. According to
Intel, only the best and brightest make it to local, regional, state, and national competitions
(Bencze & Bowen, 2009).
Costa Rica relies on exposing students to cutting-edge research and student-centered,
open-ended environments in science and technology (Bencze & Bowen, 2009). In September
2013, the Costa Rican MEP decreed a comprehensive reform to the PRONAFECYT by
promoting planning, exhibition, presentation, and discussion of the work, studies, and projects
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 38
developed by students (MICITT, 2013). These discussions would be used to create an action plan
to further science education in schools throughout the country (MICITT, 2013). The
PRONAFECYT is an opportunity to develop 21st-century skills and hone in on essential skills
such as collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creativity. The learning
opportunities are intended to be educational experiences for students at all levels in the education
system, from preschool to primary and secondary school. The goal is to engender scientific
thought at an early age that will carry through the secondary levels and career (MICITT, 2013).
In order to participate in national science and technology fairs, teachers facilitate inquiry-based
lessons intended for students to produce projects based on investigations that will have a social
impact while utilizing the scientific inquiry process.
Studies associated with science fairs have been found to be critical of them. For instance,
Bunderson and Anderson (1996) and Haney, Czerniak, and Lumpe (1996) claimed that science
fairs are mandatory, thereby affecting student participation and general attitudes toward science.
Others have highlighted the competitive nature that may interfere with innate curiosity and
intrinsic motivation from the scientific process and subject matter (Bencze & Bowen, 2009).
Literature on science fairs is relatively rare; however, based on ISEF’s success and Costa Rica’s
involvement with science fairs, it is clear that learning outcomes are much richer with varied
learning outcomes. Although Costa Rica has a good educational system and is increasing the
quality and supply of training, it is imperative for Costa Rica to remain competitive in the global
market, which requires a more knowledge-centered development focus (OECD, 2012). Costa
Rica has a critical deficit of doctorates in the scientific and engineering field. Costa Rica can
eliminate its knowledge and skill and innovation gap through teacher and student mobility
(OECD, 2012). In order to address the innovation gap, science fairs offer schools the opportunity
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 39
to develop, implement, and celebrate 21st-century skills, foundational skills to partake in high-
technology innovation.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Today’s world is increasingly diverse, globalized, and technologically rich. Individuals
must be able to communicate, collaborate, and adapt to the social, economic, and political issues
nationally and globally in order to excel in the 21st century. The main components of the 21st-
century skills are represented in Figure 2 through a holistic view of 21st-century teaching and
learning that combines a discrete focus on 21st-century student outcomes (a blending of specific
skills, content knowledge, expertise, and literacies) with innovative support systems to help
students to master the multidimensional abilities required of them in the 21st century and
beyond. The key elements of 21st-century learning are represented in the graphic and
descriptions that follow.

Figure 2. Framework for 21st-century learning. From Framework for 21
st
Century
Learning, by Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009, retrieved from
http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-framework

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 40
Learning and innovation skills focus on the four C’s: creativity, critical thinking,
communication, and collaboration. Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) describes creativity
as thinking on a wide spectrum, including working creatively with others and implementing
ideas in creative ways. Critical thinking refers to effective reasoning, systems of thinking, ability
to make judgments and decisions, and solve problems. Communication includes skills such as
developing strong and articulate written and oral skills to collaborate effectively and respectfully
with others, whether in homogeneous or heterogeneous settings. Life and career skills focus on
the ability of students to adapt to various situations, take initiative and have self-direction, have
social and cross-cultural skills, be productive members of society, and be held accountable to
produce results, as well as to lead responsibly. Information, media, and technology skills aim to
develop literacy to access, evaluate, utilize, and manage information while enabling the
individual to analyze and create media products by applying technology effectively (Partnership
for 21st Century Skills, 2009).
Wagner (2008) claimed that the achievement gap between middle-class students and
urban schools and between higher-performing public schools is fueled by economic, social,
political and technological changes over the past 2 decades. Moreover, in order to engage as
citizens in the new “flat world,” students will require 21st-century competencies (Friedman,
2007; Wagner, 2008, 2012). Wagner’s (2008) survival skills or skills for innovators are aligned
with the perspective of the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009). These seven skills are
described as fundamental skills that students need for careers, college, and citizenship: (a)
critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and leading by
influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurialism, (e) effective oral and
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 41
written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination.
The seven survival skills for the 21st century are integral to success in a competitive
world; however, Wagner (2012) noted that the world has undergone major changes since 2008,
when the seven survival skills were published. Thus, for long-term economic health, a focus on
innovation is essential. Wagner (2012) extended his claim by asserting that, in order for
individuals to be prepared for high-wage and high-skilled jobs, they must graduate from high
school prepared for college and earn postsecondary degrees in STEM-related fields.
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
and Project-Based Learning (PBL)
To facilitate change and support the next generation of STEM innovators, this section
describes the type of focus as it relates to STEM and PBL classrooms, as well as the leadership
necessary for equitable innovative learning across all schools in Costa Rica.
In 2009, President Barack Obama noted that the United States led the world’s economies
in the 20th century because it led the world in innovation. President Obama continued by stating
that innovation is how the country will ensure a high-quality life in the 21st century, especially
as the competition is keener and the challenge is greater. Costa Rica has shared a similar vision
in establishing itself as a world leader in innovation. The rate of progress in the 21st century
demands a significant shift in educational values and strategies. If this shift is not achieved in
time, the young minds of tomorrow will be ill equipped to deal with the challenges to come and
be at a loss when expected to keep pace with innovation (Clifton, 2011). Costa Rica’s economy
and continued FDI depend on a production of postsecondary graduates equipped with 21st-
century skills that STEM PBL promotes.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 42
PBL is an innovative approach to learning with methods critical to success in the 21st
century and dating back to 19th-century work by Francis W. Parker, John Dewey, and William
H. Kilpatrick (Capraro & Slough, 2013). PBL is a student-driven, teacher-facilitated approach to
learning engaging students in interdisciplinary experiences to collect and analyze information,
make discoveries, and present results (Bedi, Ćorić, & Samardžija, 2011; Bell, 2014). Capraro
and Slough (2013) affirmed that PBL provides contextualized, authentic experiences necessary
for students to scaffold learning and build conceptual understanding in all disciplines. Both
STEM and PBL support development of critical thinkers who will be more likely to succeed in
postsecondary institutions where the skills are essential (Capraro & Slough, 2013).
The literature notes that STEM PBL makes content accessible, raises the level of
engagement and curiosity among students, and facilitates a process whereby students learn from
each other (Capraro et al., 2013). These components allow students to develop soft skills or 21st-
century skills while accessing core subject matter. The integration of these components allows
for positive, engaging learning environments with tangible and real-world problems to solve.
According to Burlbaw, Ortwein, and Williams (2009), challenges exist in PBL. The
challenges span from management concerns, level of rigor, to little or no direction from the
teacher or facilitator. Curriculum theorists and educational leaders have therefore become
concerned about the lack of direction and purpose of PBL methods. Further criticism of PBL
methods has included the motivation and appropriateness of the application of particular methods
to academic subjects with ill-defined understandings for what makes up a project (Burlbaw et al.,
2009).
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 43
Educational Leadership
Eliminating educational inequities among Costa Rican schools and supporting all
students to have an opportunity to participate in the PRONAFECYT will require bold and
courageous leadership at every level of the school system. Friedman (2007) stated that, to lead in
a supportive way, leaders at every level should be aware of the flat world. In other words, leaders
should be aware of the forces shaping the global market place today. Friedman noted that
Chinese politicians are scientists and engineers making up an intelligent bureaucracy (Friedman,
2007). While Friedman was not advocating that leaders or politicians hold science degrees, he
made the case for leaders to be aware in order to lead with purpose. Whether by a teacher,
principal, or a system-level leader, changes to established practices require courageous
leadership. Louis and Kruse (1995) identified the supportive leadership of principals as one of
the necessary human resources for restructuring staff into PLCs.
Bolman and Deal (2003) devised a four-frame model for understanding organizations and
leadership within organizations. They suggested that every individual has personal and preferred
frames to use to gather information, make judgments, determine behavior, and explain behavior.
The four frames are as follows: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. A structural
leader makes changes based on structural elements within the workplace, as well as strategy,
implementation, and adaptation. Changes in structures are best applied when outcomes are clear
and when there is little uncertainty or ambiguity. A leader who operates through the human
resource frame is focused on people. This leader emphasizes support, encouragement, and
professional development and tailors support based on employee needs. The human resource
frame or a focus on people’s needs is successful when an organization’s culture or morale is a
factor in the organization’s success. Fullan (2008) encouraged leaders to love their employees by
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 44
growing organizations through a customer service mindset that enables employees to learn
continuously and to find meaning in their work and with the organization as a whole. Leaders
who lead through Bolman and Deal’s political frame facilitate change by dealing with interest
groups with varying needs and desires. The political frame also entails building coalitions,
negotiation, and bargaining conflicts of limited resources and compromising. A symbolic leader
focuses on vision and inspiration to lead people and organizations.
Bolman and Deal’s frames can be used at the planning or reform stage on large or small
initiatives. A combination of the four perspectives is nearly always warranted when
implementing a change initiative. In education, the structural frame tends to be emphasized more
often than others, particularly at school sites, for example, organizing the school, creating new
programs, purchasing new technology or curriculum, thereby neglecting the other three frames.
Distributive leadership, as noted by Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005), ensures that other
team members are involved in the change process to balance the frames, particularly if a
principal is not as strong in one or two of the frames, so that the team is equipped to address all
needs and aspects of the change initiative. Fullan (2008) referred to this as capacity building that
entails leaders investing in the development of individual and collaborative efficacy of a whole
group or system to accomplish significant improvements.
Teacher Leadership
In 2006, the Chicago Tribune reported evidence that low-income students or minority
student who had sub-par teachers 2 years in a row might never recover. If, on the other hand, a
failing student has excellent teachers 2 years in a row, she may catch up to her peers (“Why
Good Teachers Matter,” 2006). Bambrick-Santoyo (2012) supported the claim made by the
Chicago Tribune with a host of research suggesting that the decisive determinant of whether
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 45
students will learn is not school technology or building logistics but the presence or absence of
high-quality instruction. Marshall (2005) asserted that quality of instruction is the single most
important factor in student achievement. Marzano, Frontier, and Livingston (2011) noted that
achievement in classes with highly skilled teachers was better than student achievement in
classes with less-skilled teachers. The literature suggests that leadership at the teacher and
principal level will be the difference between effective and ineffective classrooms and schools.
School leaders have the responsibility to leverage not only their leadership skills but also
the leadership skills of their teachers. The human resource frame places people at the center of
the organization, and ensuring that their basic needs are met and that they have the tools to
become successful becomes a school leader’s priority (Bolman & Deal, 2003). According to Lee,
Sachs, and Wheeler (2014), teacher leaders emerge when they are committed to attaining and
remaining at the top of their profession while investing energy in staying informed and
increasing their skills. Danielson (2007) described a distinguished teacher as one who seeks
professional development opportunities and engages in continuous cycles of inquiry. Teacher
leaders or “teacherpreneurs” have the potential to raise achievement for students and inform
fellow teachers, policy makers, and the community about actions that make the most difference
in classrooms and in schools (Lee et al., 2014).
In addition to creating a culture of inquiry, leadership roles for teachers also promote
teacher leaders. Drago-Severson (2004) defined distributive leadership as the act of extending
support and encouraging teachers to challenge their growth and overall development, particularly
in the area of leadership. Particular roles might encourage teachers to experience an impact
beyond their classroom walls to colleagues in the school building or schools in the community.
These experiences invite teachers to share authority and expertise as they work toward creating a
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 46
community, enriching practice, and developing change individually and as a team (Drago-
Severson, 2004).
Teacher leaders promote school changes that are sustainable by influencing colleagues to
work in cooperative teams. Spillane, Hallett, and Diamond (2003) conducted 84 teacher
observations at elementary schools and found that the teachers could develop other leaders
through conversations and interactions in the workplace. The researchers concluded that those
teachers became leaders because of exposure to cultural, social, and human resources necessary
to lead in a school despite lack of formal leadership training. The opportunity to enhance
initiatives in schools and systems, such as STEM PBL, through teachers can have positive and
lasting effects on the overall outcome.
Through PLCs, DuFour, Eaker, and DuFour (2005) provided educators with what
Bolman and Deal (2003) would describe as a structural and human resource opportunity to
ensure teacher leadership by promoting a culture of professional inquiry among colleagues.
DuFour et al. (2005) described PLCs as environments in which educators share curriculum,
effective instructional strategies, and assessment results so the school community can accomplish
its goals. With a focus on capitalizing on teachers as professionals, their actions facilitate the
process of school improvement as they serve in the capacity of teacher leaders (DuFour et al.,
2005; Lee et al., 2014).
Professional Learning Communities
A PLC can be an important and very productive school-based initiative that provides for
a sustained STEM PBL culture among other school-wide initiatives. Often, PLCs have
stakeholders from across the continuum, but it is just as common for school-based PLCs to have
representation from a more limited set of stakeholders (Capraro & Slough, 2013). The PLC is
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 47
seen as a powerful staff development approach and a potent strategy for school change and
improvement (DuFour et al., 2005).
Rosenholtz (1989) factored the teacher work place into the discussion about teaching
quality, asserting that teachers who felt supported in their own ongoing learning and instructional
practice felt more efficacious and were more committed to their work than teachers who did not
receive the same level of support. Specifically, the type of support that increases teacher efficacy
in meeting the needs of students includes teacher collaborative networks, two-way cooperation,
and opportunities for extended roles in the workplace. Further, Rosenholtz (1989) found that
teachers with a high sense of their own efficacy were more likely to adopt new classroom
behaviors and more likely to stay in the profession.
McLaughlin and Talbert (1993) confirmed Rosenholtz’s findings by suggesting that,
when teachers have opportunities for collaborative inquiry and the learning related to it, they are
able to develop and share outcomes from their experience. Darling-Hammond (1996)
recommended shared decision making as a factor in curriculum reform and the transformation of
teaching roles in some schools. More recent research by DuFour and Eaker (1998) suggests that
learning communities under the PLC umbrella embrace efficiency, mutual interests, an emphasis
on relationships, shared ideals, and a strong culture.
Bold initiatives require bold leadership. Louis and Kruse (1995) identified the supportive
leadership of principals as one of the necessary human resources for restructuring staff into
PLCs.
Professional Development
Nothing in a school has more impact on students in terms of skills development, self-
confidence, or classroom behavior than the personal and professional growth of teachers (Barth,
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 48
1990). Providing high-quality STEM PBL learning experiences for all students and encouraging
practice for students to access national and international science fairs equitably and pursue
postsecondary opportunities in STEM-related careers raises teacher preparation and development
as a priority. The National Research Council (NRC) Teacher Preparation Panel (NRC, 2011)
concluded that the relevant body of work on what instructional opportunities are most valuable
for mathematics teachers was largely descriptive and did not identify causal relationships
between specific aspects of preparation programs and measures of prospective teachers’
subsequent effectiveness. The report drew similar conclusions about the preparation of science
teachers.
Research highlights some effective programs in preparing teachers for mathematics and
science fields. Wilson (2011) pointed to the following features associated with more effective
teacher preparation: (a) more courses required for entry or exit in their chosen content area (e.g.,
mathematics or science), (b) a required hands-on culminating or research project of work done
with students, (c) close monitoring and oversight of the student teaching experiences, (d) a focus
on providing candidates with practical coursework to learn specific practices, (e) ample
opportunity to learn curriculum, and (f) teaching experience at the grade level and in the subject
area.
The focus on content expertise becomes a major consideration in ensuring that STEM
classrooms have a clear articulation throughout the grades, pointing to a disparity among
elementary and secondary teachers, particularly those teaching in high-income communities.
Wilson (2011) pointed to additional research by the Teacher Education and Development Study
in Mathematics that suggested that future elementary and secondary school teachers in high-
achieving countries had more opportunities to learn tertiary-level mathematics (geometry,
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 49
continuity, and functions) and school-level mathematics (functions, calculus, probability and
statistics, and structure) than did elementary teachers in other countries. Questionnaires included
questions about opportunities to learn, beliefs about mathematics, teaching and learning,
mathematics content knowledge, and mathematics pedagogical content knowledge. There is a
growing need to focus on teacher preparation as it relates to content specificity in all grade
levels, especially elementary mathematics and science.
In addition to content knowledge and expertise, ongoing professional development with a
focus on adult learning theory may translate into instructional practices supporting STEM and
PBL pedagogy. Constructive-developmental theory and theories of adult learning offer tools for
understanding and reviewing leadership practices and models of teacher development that can
inform a school’s or school system’s practice in supporting teacher growth (Drago-Severson,
2004; Kegan & Lahey, 2001). For instance, successful STEM instructional strategies require
students to engage in collaboration, apply learning through simulating, and assume an authentic
role in the authentic learning community (Auyeung, 2004; Maor, 2003).
The constructive-development theory focuses on a person as an active meaning maker of
experience, considering both interpersonal and internal experiences. In other words, it is the idea
that people construct knowledge or make sense of the reality in which they live. The
constructive-development theory also honors learning over time based on developmentally
appropriate lifelong processes. The constructivist approach raises awareness about process and
differentiation as individuals shape conclusions based on life experience and prior knowledge
(Brooks & Brooks, 1999; Drago-Severson, 2004). Consequently, the constructive-development
theory is supported and reinforces constructivist-teaching practices.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 50
Learning is a complex process that defies the linear measurement and accountability
(Brooks & Brooks, 1999). What students and adults know consists of internally constructed
understandings of how their worlds function. Therefore, the quality of the learning environment
will consist of how facilitators seek and value a learner’s point of view, challenge a learner’s
suppositions, posit problems of emerging relevance, and build learning experiences around large
concepts through a quest of inquiry, understanding, and ongoing questioning (Brooks & Brooks,
1999).
Leading professional development by tuning into how adults learn best not only ensures
that adult investment in the learning experience is maximized, but it provides ways in modeling
how STEM and PBL classrooms should be facilitated. Moreover, supporting adult learning
theory offers support in managing the complexities of life in the 21st century, especially in terms
of college and life preparation for adults and students (Drago-Severson, 2004).
Change Process
Equitable engagement in STEM and PBL across all schools in Costa Rica will require
change. Higher participation rates in national science fairs in Costa Rica will also necessitate
change in structural, instructional, and (in some cases) adult mindsets. Change may look
different from school to school; however, disrupting what Elmore (2000) called a “buffer” or a
protective barrier protecting constructive scrutiny of instruction and the supervision of
instruction is a step in the right direction. Raising graduation rates, achieving 100% literacy rate
by 2017, and greater participation in STEM fields will require interrupting the status quo in
many schools across the country.
Leadership is absolutely necessary to carry out necessary change (Louis & Kruse, 1995).
Collins (2001) posited that leadership is about vision; yet, leadership is equally about
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 51
establishing a climate where the truth is heard and the brutal facts are confronted. Nevertheless,
the globalized economy is creating more hazards and more opportunities for everyone, forcing
organizations to make dramatic improvements to compete and survive (Friedman, 2007; Kotter,
2012; Wagner, 2008).
There are powerful macroeconomic forces at work, forcing organizations to improve the
quality of products and services (Kotter, 2012). Furthermore, change efforts in many
organizations are disrupted by mistakes or errors, slowing down or impeding the change
necessary to maximize productivity and achieve positive outcomes in the new global economy
(Collins; 2001; Friedman, 2007; Kotter, 2012). Kotter (2012) provided an eight-step process for
change management in any organization: (a) establishing a sense of urgency, (b) creating the
guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and strategy, (d) communicating the change vision, (e)
empowering employees for board-based action, (f) generating short-term wins, (g) consolidating
gains and producing more change, and (h) anchoring new approaches in the culture. Kotter
(2012) suggested that, for change to be successful, 75% of a company’s management team must
support the change. Moreover, change is not easy and the eight-stage process of creating change
is necessary.
Establishing a Sense of Urgency
Establishing a sense of urgency is the first step in disrupting the status quo with a strategy
to engage in extensive collaborative dialogue regarding the market and competitor environments.
In any organization, some team members perform above and beyond baseline expectations to
achieve significant change. Nonetheless, the true barrier becomes complacency. Consequently,
little urgency mitigates the necessary momentum to charge forward with the momentum to
achieve positive outcomes as an organization. Team members must believe and operate with a
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 52
collective sense of urgency. It is not uncommon for companies or organizations to have
employees with their own way of doing business or their vision for how the organization can
move forward. Additional sources of complacency include the absence of a major and visible
crisis, low expectations for performance or standards, inadequate feedback on performance, or
excessive positivity from senior management (Kotter, 2012).
Creating the Guiding Coalition
The next step for change involves building a coalition. Visible support from strategic
stakeholders within the organization is necessary for change to happen by encouraging a
collaborative team spirit to create momentum and building on the sense of urgency. Believing
that change emanates from a single individual is a dangerous misconception. Transformative
change is arduous and necessitates a group of people to yield sustainable, long-term change. This
requires a decision-making guiding coalition comprised of employees who have established a
shared trust and collectively share a sense of urgency to restructure, reengineer, or retool a set of
strategies (Kotter, 2012).
Developing a Vision and Strategy
Next, all members of the organization should be familiar with the organization’s vision
for inspiring leadership (Kotter, 2012). An organization’s vision grounds team members on
purpose and conveys the reason for change. It is not uncommon for organizations to attempt
change efforts through authoritarian or micromanagement strategies. Kotter (2012) affirmed that
change leaders must use every means at their disposal to communicate the vision constantly,
along with plans and key strategies in support of the vision. Vision describes the future with
some implicit or explicit reasons why employees should strive for that future (Kotter, 2012).
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 53
Vision sets direction and helps employees see beyond their perceived future, thereby motivating
them to take action in the organization’s direction in fast and efficient ways (Kotter, 2012).
Communicating the Change Vision
Creating a vision that describes the future is effective only when leaders communicate the
change vision clearly and comprehensibly to most team members. A shared understanding of a
vision can serve as a catalyst for transformative change. Factors that impede communicating the
change vision include limited intellectual capabilities among employees or human resistance to
change (Kotter, 2012). Nonetheless, the former steps become essential in building toward the
eight-step process for change. In this case, it is essential for the guiding coalition to invest time
in discussing all alternatives for a vision, including how this will affect employees, and outlining
the barriers associated with change vision to support a transformative vision. Kotter (2012)
suggested that change vision remain focused, jargon free, and repetitive with various methods to
communicate and model over time.
Empowering Employees for Broad-Based Action
Friedman (2007) and Kotter (2012) affirmed that environmental change demands
organizational change. In order for change to happen, as many people as possible must believe in
the change and know how to assist in the change process. Team members will not assist or
cannot assist if they feel defeated or unable to partake in the organization’s change initiatives.
Kotter (2012) encouraged organizations to identify the main obstacle, such as structures, skills,
systems, and supervisors, so employees can be empowered for broad-based action. The greatest
obstacles identified by Kotter (2012) are associated with resource allocation, management,
professional development, and communication. Training or professional development is integral
to a changing high-technology economy. It is necessary for organizations to identify
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 54
performance gaps to provide the right level of training or support and empower employees.
Performance gaps are most frequently attributed to three causes: knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Providing necessary
support aligned to the organization’s vision will provide leadership to mobilize an organization
toward needed changes.
Generating Short-Term Wins
Kotter (2012) advised that early tastes of victory or short-term wins in the change process
provide people with a clear sight of what the realized vision will be like and to recognize and
reward team members who made the initial victory possible. Short-term wins are visible to a
large number of employees, they are comprehensible, and they are directly connected to the
change effort (Kotter, 2012). Short-terms wins provide team members with evidence that
initiatives and early effort are working. This level of confidence breeds focus and urgency.
Celebrations can enhance an organization’s morale and motivation. Motivation refers to the
intrinsic desire to reach a desired outcome, thereby influencing direction, focus, persistence, and
overall quality of the learning behaviors (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010;
Clark & Estes, 2008). Moreover, short-term wins create a stronger coalition of believers who
were originally nonbelievers or nonsupporters for greater momentum in the change process
(Kotter, 2012).
Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change
Consolidating gains and producing more change is the seventh step in leading an
organization toward change. Transformative change takes time, particularly among systems of
organizations. While celebrating team members and honoring short-term wins is important, it is
essential to keep momentum going and build on the urgency that helped to achieve the short-
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 55
term wins (Kotter, 2012). Kotter (2012) noted that irrational and political resistance to change
never fully dissipates. Early-stage success can easily revert to practices that necessitated change
in the first place. It is important to remember that change is highly interdependent with systems
and can take many years with many people involved. The guiding coalition will use consolidated
gains and push forward faster, engaging in more complex projects to yield greater change
(Kotter, 2012).
Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture
Kotter (2012) provided the final ingredient for sustainable change. Change is embedded
in the new way that business is conducted in an organization’s culture. The value and attribution
of an employee is examined as having the potential to positively affect culture and achievement
(Rueda, 2011). Culture refers to an organization’s behavior and shared beliefs among a group of
people (Kotter, 2012). Cultures cultivated by shared values are important goals for an
organization because these shape behavior integral to the change process. More important, new
sets of behavior or practices producing the necessary gains will support sustainable, long-term
change. Kotter (2012) suggested that the first step in a major transformation is to alter the norms
and values that will shape an organization’s behaviors and overall culture over time. In other
words, mindsets and behaviors take time, and believing that culture is the first step in the change
process may lead an organization down the wrong path.
Summary of the Literature Review
Leadership serves as the catalyst for change. Costa Rica has led transformative change
through leadership spanning decades of historical context and globalization forces that have
shifted educational priorities. The review of the literature describes globalization’s impact on
Costa Rica and its educational system. The future economy of countries such as Costa Rica
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 56
depends on their future generation of leaders, innovators, and work with 21st-century skills.
Through a historical reference of Costa Rica and its changes in educational policies, this
proposed research study will focus on STEM and PBL implementation in various schools across
Costa Rica through the lens of leadership to determine how these educational practices support
equitable engagement and participation in national science fairs. The literature identifies gaps in
the research, such as the role of educational leaders across the MEP in the equitable participation
of students in national science fairs across the country. Schools serve as a country’s equalizers,
and a country’s economy and societal prosperity depend on equitable educational outcomes with
standards that ensure that high school and university graduates are prepared for the global
workforce. Leadership at every level of the school system will require courage, vision, and a
global awareness to lead the next generation of entrepreneurs, innovators, and leaders.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 57
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Chapter 2 presented a review of existing literature associated with the historical and
economic impact of globalization, Costa Rica history, and the modern school system with key
partnerships with MNCs. Frameworks were identified to guide the study’s methodology with a
strong focus on leadership as a key lever to influencing systemic and transformational change.
The literature and frameworks presented by Bolman and Deal (2003), Capraro et al. (2013),
Kotter (2012), and Wagner (2008) provide a strong basis for leadership, pedagogy, and change
practices aligned with 21st-century and STEM initiatives.
The purpose of this study is to identify the role of educational leaders in implementation
of and participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study
examined leadership practices and the role of school leaders in development of PRONAFECYT
initiatives. This qualitative study will contribute to the dialogue focused on globalization and the
educational and economic implications in countries in the 21st century. Costa Rica’s historical
and economic landscape focused on developing STEM initiatives will support the study’s quest
in addressing the research questions.
This chapter describes the research design, research team, population, and
instrumentation use to collect the information necessary to address the study’s research
questions. It is divided into 10 sections. The first section provides an overview of the chapter and
restatement of the problem. The second section describes the research team and the roles and
responsibilities of its members. The third section describes the sample population and explains
how participants were chosen. The fourth section deals with instrumentation used to gather data.
The fifth and sixth sections describe the process of how data were gathered and analyzed. Within
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 58
these sections, the University of Southern California (USC) Institutional Review Board (IRB)
process is reviewed, as well as the ethical considerations in conducting research.
In order to move beyond the judgment of what one sees and examine the effects of
empirical data and analysis, an evaluative and qualitative design strategy was utilized by the
research team (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). A qualitative researcher, as defined by Merriam
(2009), attempts to research not only what people are experiencing but also how they interpret
these experiences. Therefore, this study utilized a qualitative research approach to address four
research questions.
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less-
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
The research team chose a qualitative methodology due to the rich, descriptive nature of
that study design (Merriam, 2009). The aim of this case study was to engage in observations,
interviews, and surveys to triangulate information from primary schools and identify the
significant results that may emerge from the data (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). Specifically,
the impact of leaders on teachers and teachers on students will be noted through classroom
observations and interviews with various stakeholders, including business partners and
government officials. The researcher in this study served as the primary instrument of data
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 59
collection, performing an inductive investigation of what is carefully observed (Merriam, 2009).
The unique perspective and experience gathered from a variety of stakeholders served as a
valuable ingredient in gaining broad context to the level and quality of participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT.
There are three types of qualitative case studies: historical and observational, intrinsic
and instrumental, and multisite (Merriam, 2009). The study in Costa Rican primary schools was
approached from a multisite case study perspective. Interviewing and surveying stakeholders
from the business and education sectors and visiting primary schools yielded data from multiple
sites or cases (Merriam, 2009). A conceptual framework supported the team in identifying
commonalties and trends during the coding and analysis portions of the study (Maxwell, 2013).
Research Team
The principal investigator and supervisor for the study is Dr. Michael Escalante from the
USC Rossier School of Education. The study team was comprised of 18 co-investigators and
current graduate students, candidates for the degree Doctor of Education at the USC Rossier
School of Education. The team was paired early in the summer of 2014 to ensure that each pair
included at least one bilingual Spanish speaker to overcome language barriers. Each pair visited
six primary schools, along with two other pairs of co-investigators, where they interviewed
students, teachers, and the principal. Each pair conducted classroom observations. The MEP
served as an integral partner in guiding the study’s focus based on contextual and programmatic
needs in Costa Rican schools. In addition to supporting the focus of the case study, the MEP has
enabled research members to strategize methodology based on school geography.
The research team devoted several months to conducting research on Costa Rica—its
history, economy, education system, and culture—and engaged in deep conceptual research on
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 60
globalization and the connections between a country’s education and economy. Engaging in
research and learning about Costa Rica’s rich history, context, and goals has provided a basis for
a focused case study.
Sample and Population
The case study included students, teachers, school directors, government officials, and
business leaders. In order to administer surveys, facilitate interviews, and conduct observations
Dr. Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft first met with the Director of Educational Programs at the
MEP and the department of science and technology to learn about the country’s needs and areas
of focus and to present a summary of the research proposal (Appendix A). Through initial
conversations with the ministry, a focus on primary schools was necessary because the MEP
wants to determine why elementary schools are not as active or why there appears to be a lack of
investment with regard to science initiatives. Purposeful sampling was used to identify research
sites and participants for the study (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). As a result, 18 primary
schools inside and outside of San José were selected (Appendix B). Alicia Porras, Vice Minister
of Education and Nathalie Valencia, Director of PRONAFECYT, assisted in selection of 18
primary schools. All schools were selected based on various levels of science fair
implementation. Outside of school sites, co-investigators administered surveys and conducted
interviews with regional science fair directors and representatives of CINDE, MICITT, MEP,
and the Costa Rican government. A recruitment letter was provided to all participants
(Appendix C). Table 1 provides a complete list of participants.
Participants
The sample population for this study consisted of elementary school students, primary
education teachers and school directors, PRONAFECYT science coordinators, university faculty,
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 61
Table 1

Study Participants

Name Title Affiliation Survey Interview

Alicia Porras Vice Minister of Education MEP
Nathalie Valencia Director of PRONAFECYT MICITT
Vanessa Gibson Service Sector Manager CINDE
Mary Helen Bialas Former Employee Intel
Dr. Alicia Vargas Director, Teacher Training Program UCR
Paula Céspedes Regional Science Fair Director San José Oeste
Patricia Arias Regional Science Fair Director Occidente
Jose Sanchez Regional Science Fair Director San Jose Central

Note. MEP = Ministerio de Educación Publica, CINDE = Costa Rica Investment Promotion
Agency, MICITT = Ministerio de Cienca, Technología y Telecommunicaciones, UCR =
Universidad de Costa Rica, PRONAFECYT = National Program Science and Technology
Fair.

The two schools, Escuela Universitaria and Escuela Central, were the focus schools for the
study. Teachers and directors from Escuela Central who participated in interviews were Sarai
Montalvan (fifth grade), Luz Amaya (first grade), Jennifer Moreno (fourth grade), Maria
Jauregui (sixth grade) , Iliana Quintero (fifth grade), Mirna DeSantiago (first grade), and Elisa
Vargas (Science Coordinator). Also interviewed were Ricardo Lopez, Assistant Director of
Escuela Central; Director Jose Morales was not available for interview but completed a director
survey. The following teachers and directors from Escuela Universitaria were interviewed: Jorge
Lopez (Director), Theresa Gutierrez (Science Coordinator), Monica Salazar (fifth grade), Dionna
Oviedo (Elementary Assistant Director), and Manuel Gonzalez (Secondary Assistant Director).
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 62
More than 150 completed surveys were collected from students at both schools, as well as more
than 50 surveys from faculty.
The following government officials were interviewed: Javier Cambronero, Deputy of the
Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica and former educator; Alicia Vargas Porras, Academic
Deputy Minister of MEP of Costa Rica; Lander Perez Barrantes, Legislative Counsel and West
Regional Science Advisor; Nathalie Valencia Chacon, National Coordinator of the
PRONAFECYT within the MICITT; and Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice Minister of MICITT.
The following business leaders were interviewed: Vanessa Gibson, Director of Corporate
Development and Investment Climate for CINDE; Mary Helen Bialas, Senior Program Manager
for the Council for Promotion of Competitiveness of Costa Rica; Maria Santos Pasamontes,
research coordinator for the State of Science and Technology Innovation for Costa Rica; and
Omar Dengo, founder of the Omar Dengo Foundation.
The following higher education personnel were interviewed: Hugo Navarro, director of
the School of Technology Education at the Costa Rica Institute of Technology; Jesus Hernandez,
professor at the School of Technology Education at the Costa Rica Institute of Technology;
Alejandrina Mata Segreda, Dean of the School of Education of the UCR.
Case Study Overview: Escuela Central and Escuela Universitaria
This study presents findings from Escuela Central and Escuela Universitaria in Region
Nacional of Costa Rica. The research group was divided into three groups of six people each.
Each smaller research team was assigned a specific region in which to conduct research. Three of
the 27 regions in Costa Rica were included in this research study.
Region Nacional included six primary schools, consisting of both Cycle 1 (Grades 1–3)
and Cycle 2 (Grades 4–6). Two of the six schools also included Cycle 3 (Grades 7–11). While
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 63
collecting data from schools, surveys were administered to Cycle 2 students, Cycle 1 and Cycle 2
teachers, and school site leaders. Classroom observations were conducted at all six sites for all
primary grades; teachers and administrators participated in semiformal interviews following a
common protocol for all schools.
This study focuses on Escuela Central, a primary school located outside of San José,
Costa Rica, in a highly populated industrial community comprised primarily of immigrants from
Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Colombia. With approximately 500 students (26 to 32 students per
classroom), the school offers Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 (first through sixth grades). Among the 500
students who attend Escuela Central, more than 80% qualify for free or reduced-priced lunch.
Instrumentation
The primary instrument in this study was the researcher (Creswell, 2013; Merriam,
2009). The researcher utilized observations, interviews, and surveys to collect as much
descriptive information as possible (Creswell, 2013; McEwan & McEwan, 2003; Merriam,
2009). In order to cast a wide net and collect as much data as possible, the research team
collaborated to create and refine the research instruments. Observation and interview protocols
and survey instruments were vetted with various literature sources before submitting them to the
USC IRB for approval, which was also done collaboratively.
Observations
Observation protocols were utilized to gather information on the participants’ behavior in
their particular environment (Appendix D). Observations occurred at school sites, noting the
discourse and behavior between teacher and student, student and student, and teacher and
teacher. Because the study is intended to raise awareness about educational outcomes and
instructional practices, classroom observations were essential components to the study (Merriam,
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 64
2009; Patton, 1987). Because the research questions addressed the impact of educational leaders
on teaching and learning in relation to science fair initiatives, the observation protocol focused
on student work product, collaboration among students and faculty, academic discourse among
students, and technology as it relates to STEM integration across subject areas. Creswell (2013)
and Patton (1987) suggested using an observation protocol so that the research team would be
able to record information that might prove difficult for respondents to discuss. Therefore, the
protocol allowed the researcher to rate the particular categories using a Likert-type scale, along
with a section to record additional information. The observation protocol was aligned to the
frameworks outlined in the study: Wagner (2008), Capraro et al. (2013), and Bolman and Deal
(2003).
Interviews
Interviews were used to collect data from various stakeholders: school directors, teachers,
students, business partners, and government officials (Appendices E through I). All interview
protocols have been translated to Spanish to ensure two-way communication between the
interviewer and interviewees. The interview protocols range from six to nine open-ended
questions, depending on the respondent group. The interview protocol consists of questions
designed to collect information regarding student preparation in PRONAFECYT and the amount
of collaboration and resources available for classrooms to ensure that students participate in the
PRONAFECYT. Respondents spoke to the degree of PRONAFECYT implementation at their
school site as outlined in the study’s research questions. Interviews allowed investigators to
expand on information that was sought in surveys or observations. Surveys allowed for
triangulation of the data to give a broader perspective on the problem with greater credibility to
the findings (Creswell, 2013; McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 65
The research questions were designed to understand perceptions from several groups of
stakeholders (Patton, 1987, 2002). Given the unique and differing impact of school directors,
teachers, parents, students, business partners and government officials on science fair
implementation, individual semistructured interviews were conducted to collect information
about experiences and belief systems related to PRONAFECYT participation and level of
engagement (Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). Interview questions were open
ended and aimed at eliciting descriptions of experiences, behaviors, beliefs, and general feelings
regarding students’ college readiness (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 1987). Focus groups might have
provided additional data; however, probing and elaborating would have been difficult in a larger
group setting (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). Another drawback to conducting focus groups
would have been the influence of colleagues on one another based on answers given for
particular questions (Patton, 1987, 2002). Because teachers are asked about their beliefs, this
could have been a sensitive topic for some teachers to elaborate in the presence of colleagues.
Therefore, given the importance of understanding perceptions and probing for greater context, an
interview was the data collection method of choice for the research questions in this study.
There were a few additional details to consider regarding the interview process.
According to Fink (2013), interviewers should emphasize the importance of every question and
remain flexible while interviewing. The interviews were semistructured and guided to allow
investigators to focus on a set of essential questions and alter the order of questions for each
respondent (Patton, 1987). According to Patton (1987), an interview guide or protocol provides
autonomy to thoughtfully ask and probe questions at various points of the interview to garner
flexibility, given the different experiences of stakeholders with interviews. Participants are more
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 66
often willing to elaborate on ideas and share additional anecdotes than are students when
questions are clear and focused (Creswell, 2013; McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
Surveys
Survey data were collected from school directors, teachers, students, business leaders,
and government officials to gauge perceptions of diverse stakeholders (Fink, 2013). In addition
to interviews, the research team designed a survey protocol (Appendices J through O) using
ordinal scales to gather information regarding the role of school directors and implementation of
PRONAFECYT. The surveys were guided by several frameworks: Kotter (2012), Bolman and
Deal (2003), Wagner (2008), and Capraro et al. (2013). Ordinal scales are easy for the researcher
to use and interpret results, especially with forced choices (Fink, 2013). Omitting “neutral” or
“undecided” options on the survey ensures that respondents choose a category thoughtfully,
thereby limiting vague responses with possibility for generality (Fink, 2013). The surveys were
tested with current and former Costa Rican administrators to verify validity of research
instruments (Fink, 2013).
Research questions were focused on gathering perceptions through qualitative data
techniques (Creswell, 2013; McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Administering a survey maximized the
use of time on other parts of the study, such as teacher interviews at several primary school
locations. Surveys also have drawbacks. Creswell (2013) noted that probing and follow-up
questions are not possible with surveys. For the purposes of this qualitative data collection
method, a survey was the most efficient way to generalize among the participants from a variety
of positions, school site to government (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 1987, 2002).
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 67
Data Collection
Survey, interview and observation data were collected from personnel at the Costa Rican
school sites, the MEP, local businesses, and government offices. Due to the collaborative nature
of the study, data were shared among team members for in-depth analysis. The following points
have been identified by Creswell (2013) as good ethical practices and will be followed during
data collection, analysis, and interpretation: (a) protect anonymity of individuals, roles, and
incidents, (b) keep data in a safe location, (c) resolve issues of data ownership prior to data
collection, (d) debrief to check for accuracy of the data, and (e) anticipate repercussions of
conducting research on certain audiences and be careful not to misuse results to the advantage of
any one group.
The research instruments were written to limit bias toward specific responses based on
position (e.g., teacher, parent, and student), ethnic group, gender, sexual orientation, age, or
disability. All instruments were available in Spanish and English. Interviews were conducted in
person and in a private, neutral setting and in the language most comfortable to the interviewee
(Merriam, 2009; Patton, 1987). Researchers recorded all interviews only after the interviewees
provided signed consent (Appendix P). Observation protocols have been designed to ensure that
information is collected regarding the environment. Thus, researchers took and shared notes after
each classroom/school visit. Data were reviewed and triangulated to validate conclusions reached
during the analysis portion of the study (Creswell, 2013; McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
Data Analysis
Data collected in this study were analyzed collaboratively, as well as individually. To
analyze these data, Creswell’s (2013) six-step model for data analysis was used: (a) organize and
prepare data, (b) read through data and identify general ideas, (c) code the data for a detailed
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 68
analysis, (d) categorize the data into themes for analysis and generate a description, (e) describe
how the themes will be represented in the qualitative narrative, and (f) interpret the data and
provide a detailed interpretation of the lessons learned.
Creswell (2013) affirmed that interviews must be transcribed and the data should be
organized to prepare for the second step in the six-step model. The data that were gathered
during the interviews were recorded and transcribed. Not only do the protocols for the interview
have each question broken down into category by type of participant; the questions were tagged
according to the research question that they addressed and with which framework they were
associated. Once the data were transcribed, the team collaboratively read through all data and
discussed trends and possible themes from the data. This procedure is in line with Creswell’s
second step for data analysis. The third step of Creswell’s (2013) model will require the team to
utilize a computer software, Dedoose. During this step, data were categorized and labeled, a
process referred to as first cycle coding, in order to determine the possible codes to be included.
After codes are identified, a second cycle of coding will allow for coding of patterns that emerge
from the data (Lichtman, 2014). Coding is a form of early and continuing data analysis (Miles,
Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). Once the coding took place, a description of the setting, people,
categories, or themes was generated. This study used the frameworks previously discussed to
establish the themes of PBL and leadership and change processes. The fifth step in analyzing the
data will be to determine how the themes will be represented. Creswell (2013) noted that
researchers often use visuals, figures, or tables to represent data. The coding process provides a
structure by which to organize and make sense of the data. The final step in this process is to
interpret the data and provide meaning. Creswell (2013) described this as the process of sharing
what lessons were learned in the process of collecting and analyzing.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 69
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness
Various frameworks for ensuring a rigorous, credible and trustworthy study will be
employed during data collection and analysis. One of the key criteria is internal validity, in
which the researcher seeks to ensure that the study measures what it is actually intended to
measure (Merriam, 2009). Triangulation, or the use of different methods—interviews,
observations, and surveys—served as the major data sources in the qualitative study (Merriam,
2009; Patton, 1987). Triangulation methods ensure rich descriptive studies to confirm emerging
findings (Merriam, 2009). A detailed account of both teacher and school director experiences
through interview protocols and observations were collected. These instruments help to
contextualize the study and determine the extent to which their situations match the research
context and whether or not findings can be transferred. This researcher reflected often during the
process of collecting data, recognizing personal bias and assumptions that could affect the
findings. The researcher noted questions and trends to identify trends in personal thinking as they
corresponded to data collection and emerging findings (Merriam, 2009).
Limitations and Delimitations
The research team has made particular assumptions regarding the study. It is assumed
that the surveys and observation and interview protocols will provide the necessary information
to address the research questions. It is assumed that 21st-century skills and STEM integrated
education create a strong knowledge-ready worker prepared for the global market. It was
essential to keep these assumptions in mind to guide the research process while remaining
thoughtful about assumptions and threats to validity during the process of collecting and
analyzing information.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 70
The research team traveled from Los Angeles, California, to San José, Costa Rica, for a
10-day study. The distance and the limited time spent in Costa Rica served as limitations of the
study. The limited time may have affected the amount of data collected. Pairs of investigators
traveled together between sites. Sites varied in distance and posed unexpected challenges in
collecting data.
The primary language spoke in Costa Rica is Spanish; therefore, language is another
potential limitation to the study. Language and terminology as facilitated during each phase of
the data collection process served as limitations in 100% two-way access between researchers
and participants.
Ethical Considerations
Qualitative research in this study aimed at in-depth understanding of participant
perceptions, beliefs, and actions related to participation in national science fairs. As noted by
Merriam (2009), the researcher’s values and ethics guide practices for a study. This study
focused on participant perceptions, which can be a vulnerable position when being interviewed
and observed, especially by individuals from a different country. Researchers carry personal
experiences and biases that drive thoughts and actions; however, it was imperative for
researchers to identify biases in order not to jeopardize the validity of findings (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam, 2009). Therefore, this study considered the following ethical considerations: teachers’
right to privacy, notion of informed consent, overall protection, and IRB training (Merriam,
2009).
Chapter Summary
The chapter reports the research methods that were employed in the dissertation study
and provides a framework to identify the role of educational leaders in implementing and
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supporting participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The chapter
describes how various instruments—surveys and observation and interview protocols—provided
data focused on addressing the study’s research questions. The literature review and the
frameworks selected guided the researchers during the analysis portion of the research.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 72
CHAPTER 4: STUDY RESULTS
Costa Rica has advanced rapidly in its efforts to provide a skilled labor force to meet the
demands of MNCs. Intel, for example, has made direct contributions to the country’s educational
system, providing hubs of innovation, modern laboratories, and initiatives focusing on innovative
STEM (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). Costa Rica’s economic transformation, as well as its
education initiatives, provides perspective on globalization and the direct relationship between
education and economic growth and sustainability today.
The purpose of this study was to identify the role of education leaders in implementation
of and participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The researcher
examined leadership practices and the role of school leaders in development of PRONAFECYT
initiatives. This qualitative study will add to the body of literature focused on globalization and
the educational and economic implications for countries in the 21st century. The following
research questions were used to guide the study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less-
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the PRONAFECYT affected instructional practices?
The case study on Escuela Central is discussed. Results related to each research question
are discussed, using data from the literature review, interviews, survey, and observations. Each
research question is presented in relation to the frameworks discussed in Chapter 2. The chapter
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 73
is concluded in a summary of the key results related to the research questions and the purpose of
study.
Case Study Overview: Escuela Central
This study presents findings from Escuela Central in Region Nacional of Costa Rica. The
research group was divided into three groups of six researchers each. Each small team was
assigned a specific region in which to conduct research. This study is focused on Region
Nacional.
Region Nacional included six primary schools offering both Cycle 1 (Grades 1-3) and
Cycle 2 (Grades 4-6). Two of the six schools also included Cycle 3 (Grades 7-11). While the
group in which this research was a member collected data from six schools, the reported study
primarily focused on Escuela Central. A second school is introduced to discuss the second
research question during that portion of this chapter. In order to collect data from Escuela
Central, surveys were conducted with Cycle 2 students, Cycles 1 and 2 teachers, and school site
leaders. Classroom observations were conducted and teachers and administrators participated in
semiformal interviews based on a common protocol for all schools.
Escuela Central is a primary school located outside of San José, Costa Rica, in a highly
populated industrial community comprised primarily of immigrants from Nicaragua, El
Salvador, and Colombia. With approximately 500 students (26 to 32 students per classroom), the
school offers Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 (first through sixth grades). Among the 500 students who
attend Escuela Central, more than 80% qualify for reduced-priced lunch and the majority are
immigrants from Nicaragua, El Salvador, or Columbia.
The school’s educational philosophy focuses on having students learn through hands-on
projects and experiences that make the learning process tangible and relevant. Constructivist
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 74
teaching methods were observed consistently through classroom observations and conversations
with teachers and students. Students are organized in small cooperative groups and use their
senses to make scientific observations and formulate hypotheses as young as in first grade. There
is a strong sense of family and community. Upon entering the school the co-investigators were
immediately greeted by the science coordinator and welcomed by various other members of the
school. The co-investigators were escorted to the school’s quad located in the center of the
school, where a schoolwide assembly was in session, led by the school’s director, José Morales.
The students sang and chanted, and laughter was eminent as students and staff members engaged
in this weekly schoolwide ritual. This particular day was focused on honoring the male—a
sentiment focused on conveying values and principles for the young boys and girls at the school.
As the investigators listened and participated, they noticed various posters and announcements of
other student-centered evening events, such as a theatrical play celebrating learning. The school
engages in ongoing festivals that celebrate culture and provide students with a sense of identity
and belonging. Informal celebrations occur weekly, in which the children sing, chant, and
reinforce the school’s core values: love, gratitude, forgiveness, and community.
Escuela Central’s nurturing school culture promotes a belief in students and families. The
school facility symbolically embraces a positive school culture by buildings that wrap around the
main courtyard where students play, adults interact, and the school community gathers for a
variety of events that promote family. The safety and socioemotional well-being of the children
is evident. The specific activities focused on family and community result in a school that
embraces the whole child, ensuring that students are not only able to perform academically but
are also developing into thoughtful, caring, and empathetic citizens. A positive school culture is
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 75
integral to the success of any school, and the culture at Escuela Central provides a basis for the
themes that emerged across the research questions in this study.
Research Question 1, Results, and Framework
Research Question 1 was, “What is the role educational leaders play in implementing the
Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
initiative?” The purpose of this question was to determine the impact of perception of leadership
on educational initiatives. This section discusses three themes that emerged from the data. First,
educational leaders play a pivotal role in the success of the PRONAFECYT and leadership at
every level of the system. The second theme extends the significance of leadership and is
focused on vision and strategic planning. All initiatives require stakeholder investment and a
careful plan. This directly connects with the change process described by Kotter (2012). The
third theme in this section centers on recognition—the ability to celebrate the positive changes
attributed to human capital related to participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Theme 1: Leadership Matters
The first significant theme that emerged from the data was that leadership is integral to
success in any organization or system. The presence or lack of leadership is usually recognized
as a lever, either promoting or impeding positive results. The PRONAFECYT has created access
points for all children across schools in Costa Rica to participate in scientific inquiry, research,
and investigation. This initiative is the result of a strategy for economic prosperity and global
sustainability. The literature review established the importance of leadership. Friedman (2007)
noted that, to lead in a supportive way, leaders at every level should be aware of the “flat world.”
In other words, leaders should be aware of the forces shaping the global market place today.
Louis and Kruse (1995) affirmed leadership as absolutely necessary to carry out necessary
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 76
change. Nevertheless, the leadership necessary to promote changes and interdependence between
an education populace and economic stability can be directly influenced by the leadership
practices at any level—government, business, and the school site. Leadership also entails setting
a strategic vision and communicating the strategic initiatives and investing others in the process.
This type of leadership is integral to the change process in any type of organization. The theme is
support by results of the surveys and interviews that describe the impact of leadership at various
levels (government, business, and school), noting a clear trend regarding the significance of
individuals who embrace various leadership qualities, as noted in the literature, and how these
qualities affect the PRONAFECYT.
Implementing scientific initiatives and ensuring equitable participation in the
PRONAFECYT is a “child’s educational right,” according to Escuela Central’s assistant
principal. Eliminating educational inequities among Costa Rican schools and supporting all
students to have an opportunity to participate in the PRONAFECYT will require bold and
courageous leadership at every level of the school system, as demonstrated by the assistant
principal.
At Escuela Central, the school director and assistant director play a critical role in
investment related to PRONAFECYT. Eighty-eight percent of teacher survey responses strongly
agreed or agreed that teachers require support from the director in order to implement the
PRONAFECYT. Seventy-seven percent of teacher survey responses strongly agreed or agreed
that the school director communicates the importance of essential skills and habits and the
overall impact on student engagement and PRONAFECYT participants. Leadership exists not
only at the top; leadership is also about building the capacity and leadership potential of others.
Approximately 83% of teacher respondents strongly agreed or agreed that they are directly
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 77
involved in decision making related to scientific projects and the culmination of school-site
competitions.
Similarly, teacher and director interview results highlighted the importance of leadership.
Strong leaders often seek or identify other leaders on the team. In this case, the directors
identified the science coordinator, a former and current teacher who assumes the leadership role
to serve as the liaison between the school and the region. The assistant director described the
leadership capacity and structure at Escuela Central:
The link with the regional council is our science coordinator who also teaches. She is the
general coordinator of the school and the one that is the link between us and the general
director’s office. She is in charge of bringing back all the information and updates
required for the school. This information is shared in monthly or bimonthly meetings as a
faculty.
The director stated,
Leadership is about inspiring others to act and to lead around initiatives that make a
difference in the lives of others. The school director above has a vision for how to
facilitate PRONAFECYT initiatives through teachers who are passionate and have a
strong rapport with the faculty and community.
The science coordinator described leadership and the importance of the PRONAFECYT.
The comment illustrates the capacity entrusted to faculty to care for specific initiatives while
acknowledging the hardships or financial limitations that students may have at home.
Nonetheless, the science coordinator underscored the importance of embracing these challenges
and focusing on the importance of innovation and scientific inquiry:
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 78
We have a classroom process with the support of the teachers because over here we are in
a community where a lot of the kids do not have the support of their parents because they
work or because someone else takes care of them and in reality—to try to motivate them
to have that desire to investigate, to conduct research to innovate—so then we do that
here in the classroom.
The science coordinator takes a very active role at the school site. The science
coordinator was the first to greet the researchers at the entrance of the school, then introduced
them to the school directors and other school site team members. Initially, I assumed that the
science coordinator was perhaps the director or assistant director; she not only takes a very active
role on behalf of the school but cares deeply about the PRONAFECYT. Her leadership made this
possible.
Interviews with government and business officials not only conveyed the importance of
leadership but emphasized the need for greater leadership. These outcomes underscore the results
at the school site. Mary Helen Bialas, Senior Program Manager at Consejo para Promocion de La
Competividad, seeks to study policies to improve the country’s economy by building
international relationships with partners and seeking to invest in the country in the areas of
technology, science, and education. According to Bialas, business leaders (or, as she described
them, the private sector) are leading development of employment opportunities and enhancing
the country’s economy. Thus, there is a greater need for the private sector to collaborate with the
government and education regarding policies to support each other’s efforts. Because the private
sector is driving the country’s economy, it is important for educators to evaluate educational
outcomes continually in order to match and exceed the expectations of the global work force.
Consistent evaluation requires leadership. Bialas stated that public schools, namely universities,
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 79
are key partners in this conjoined effort, particularly in leading efforts to strengthen the sciences
and mathematics.
Vanessa Gibson noted that the country’s goals must take full advantage of the people,
developing capabilities of human talent to create core values in the longer term. Vanessa Gibson,
like Bialas, wondered who is leading to move PRONAFECYT goals and efforts forward. The
business and government sectors do not appear to be talking to one another to strengthen policies
that propel the country forward, according to Gibson. Leadership matters and is important for the
country as a whole to succeed.
Government officials have a different sense of how goals are coordinated among agencies
and how leadership supports these efforts. According to Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice Minister at
the MICITT, the government has a national development plan in which goals related to science
and technology are articulated and that define the path forward to achieve economic prosperity.
The primary leaders in this work include the MEP appointed to develop capacities of teachers to
support individual student achievement. Yet, Soto stated that business leaders are necessary to
exert pressure for changes to permeate initiatives at the primary levels of education.
Congressman Javier Cambronero Arguedas noted that there are various actors—civil
actors, political and scientific actors—who are charged to transfer their knowledge to the
national environment, generating internships to transfer essential skills. Interview and survey
results collectively underscored leadership as a lever in implementation and success of the
PRONAFECYT. Distributive leadership, as noted by Marzano et al. (2005), ensures that all team
members are involved in the change process and are equipped to address all needs and aspects of
initiative collectively.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 80
This first theme acknowledges the importance of leadership from a variety of sectors—
business, government, and education—and the impact of each sector on success of the
PRONAFECYT. The preponderance of interview and survey data demonstrated that strong
leadership will elevate efforts by the country to strengthen STEM initiatives but will also require
synergy among all leaders across the country.
Theme 2: Vision and Strategic Planning
The second theme related to the importance of vision and strategic planning. Among the
schools visited in Costa Rica, their visions for PRONAFECYT and strategy differed. The
Escuela Central assistant director shared a vision that all students deserve to participate in an
integrated STEM-based curriculum. Their strategy is for students to engage in inquiry-based
lessons throughout the school year; the end-of-year school site-based science fairs become a
natural culmination of the school year. School directors and teachers at Escuela Universitaria
also facilitate a culminating project but their strategy is not anchored in an imbedded curriculum.
Internalization and purpose of the PRONAFECYT can be interpreted from the following survey
results. At Escuela Central, 44% of the teachers strongly agreed that the director shares the
purpose and urgency of the PRONAFECYT. This is compared to 33% of the teachers at school
Escuela Universitaria. Communicating the purpose and connecting STEM and PBL-based
initiatives at the school site directly affects investment by members in any organization. Seventy-
two percent of the teachers strongly agreed or agreed that there is a vision related to
PRONAFECYT at the school site, compared to 46% at Escuela Universitaria.
As noted by Kotter (2012), all members of the organization should be familiar with the
organization’s vision for inspiring leadership. An organization’s vision grounds team members
on purpose and conveys the reason for change. Kotter (2012) affirmed that change leaders must
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 81
use every means at their disposal to communicate the vision constantly, along with plans and key
strategies in support of the vision. Vision describes the future with some implicit or explicit
reasons that employees should strive for that future (Kotter, 2012). Vision sets direction and
helps employees to see beyond their perceived future, thereby motivating them to take action in
the organization’s direction in fast and efficient ways (Kotter, 2012).
A teacher at Escuela Central described the science fair process:
The science fair is very important, has always been very important. That is at a national
level because a lot of the projects even travel to the exterior to represent our country. We
do it at a very small scale but they do know that a very good project goes to the circuital
and it will achieve success and recognition within the institution that is the feedback,
basically. They know that this project can transcend, right? Here in our country there are
projects that have gone even to the exterior to represent Costa Rica. Another important
thing is to stimulate their desire to learn a science. We have for instance in colleges, we
have the Institute of Technology, right? We have specialized universities with careers
like medicine and that helps a lot because it’s a little seed that is sowed in the students so
in the future they will want to be doctors and scientists and work at a technological level.
That is the reason this technology fair is so important.
Teachers at Escuela Central embraced the purpose of science fairs and described why
these exposures to science fairs and the scientific process at a young age are important for
students. The response above provides a perspective of the connections between classrooms and
experiences that may extend to the national level. Most important, these experiences have a
direct impact on college and career. The vision is vital for success.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 82
In government and business, the vision and strategy as they relate to the success of
PRONAFECYT are unclear. In fact, Vanessa Gibson from CINDE, attested, “Everything
happens in their own stage, not necessarily at long-term strategy or not necessarily strong
development of a system.” Gibson was unclear about the strategy, for example, as it relates to
national science fair winners:
No one even tracks who they are, where they’re coming from, should we follow through
and send them abroad for an undergraduate at some high league university anywhere in
the world? The perception is that there is not a single strategy beyond participating.
It is interesting that MICITT has a National Plan of Technology and Telecommunications
aimed at creating human resources focused in the field of science and technology, as reported by
Nathalie Valencia and Carolina Vasquez. Both clearly conveyed a goal that affirms that, in order
to have economic development, it is necessary to create an economy based on knowledge and to
promote the capital or human resources in the country. The business sector, represented Mary
Helen Bialas and Omar Dengo, also conveyed a focus on supporting human development
through education to create an innovation-based society and the overall projection of how to
improve policy to improve the education system. Furthermore, Maria Santos Pasamontes stated
that the goal is to increase financial growth and to decrease unemployment, therefore focusing on
the human resources to address areas of science and technology by way of the educational
system.
Clear vision grounded in purpose that inspires an organization toward positive outcomes
should be clear and influence any particular community. It is not clear how much the vision of
the ministry and the country is influencing the leadership of school directors and in turn the
leadership of teachers. Interviews with both business and government leaders emphasized the
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 83
importance of education to support the skill sets of citizens and the goals and vision aligned
across the board. The misalignment emerged in strategy. Various groups have unique ways of
accomplishing an educated populace that will enhance the country’s economy. This
misalignment creates a challenge for schools who may also have differing understandings about
the overall strategy and whose vision and purpose may be unclearly conveyed. Creating a vision
that describes the future is effective only when leaders communicate the change vision clearly
and comprehensibly to most team members. A shared understanding of a vision can serve as a
catalyst for transformative change (Kotter, 2012).
Equitable access and participation are a large part of Costa Rica’s vision for a sustained
and competing global market. Having a vision of how students will benefit from PRONAFECYT
is integral to investment and overall engagement in the scientific process. As noted by the school
director at Escuela Central, it is a student’s right to engage in PRONAFECYT and the scientific
process.
Theme 3: Recognition and Feedback
Change may look different from school to school; however, disrupting what Elmore
(2000) called a “buffer” or a protective barrier protecting constructive scrutiny of instruction and
the supervision of instruction is a step in the right direction. Costa Rica has ambitious goals that
include raising graduation rates, achieving a 100% literacy rate by 2017, and increasing
participation in STEM fields. A theme related to feedback and recognition is closely tied to
improvement and change to meet ambitious and necessary organizational goals (Louis & Kruse,
1995). This theme is presented in a discussion of survey and interview results from teachers at
both Escuela Central and B, as well as a discussion of interviews with business leaders, related to
their perceptions of the culture of feedback in Costa Rica.
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More than 90% of the teachers interviewed at both Escuela Central and Escuela
Universitaria noted that they were seldom recognized for their work with students on local,
regional, or national science fairs. A first-grade teacher at Escuela Central noted, “That’s part of
our job. The director motivates us and he’s grateful, but as far as getting some type of outside
motivation, there is none.” A fourth-grade teacher at Escuela Central explained,
Recognized? I don’t think of it as being recognized. It is just more of a commitment
between the teacher and the student to make a commitment but not just doing a fair but so
students can learn and get motivated. But as far as motivation, in reality there’s isn’t
much, in the teacher themselves, because students are generally motivated, I don’t know,
with an award, congratulations, a prize, etc. but as for the teachers it rarely happens.
Similar sentiments were noted by most teachers in their interviews.
The following is an excerpt from the transcripts of interview with a fifth-grade teacher at
Escuela Universitaria. The teacher was asked to describe how teachers are recognized for their
efforts with respect to the application for the PRONAFECYT
Teacher: I love myself and I congratulate myself; there are none.
Interviewer: Explain.
Teacher: Very little. I mean, the committee does send a thank you, but it’s more like a
thank you for participating and that’s it.
Kotter (2012) advised that early tastes of victory or short-term wins in the change process
provide people with a clear sight of what the realized vision will be like and to recognize and
reward team members who made the initial victory possible. Short-term wins are visible to a
large number of employees, they are comprehensible, and they are directly connected to the
change effort (Kotter, 2012). Short-terms wins provide team members with evidence that
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 85
initiatives and early effort are working. This level of confidence breeds focus and urgency.
Celebrations can enhance an organization’s morale and motivation. Motivation refers to the
intrinsic desire to reach a desired outcome, thereby influencing direction, focus, persistence, and
overall quality of the learning behaviors (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010;
Clark & Estes, 2008). Moreover, short-term wins create a stronger coalition of believers related
to the country’s vision for PRONAFECYT and will therefore ensure a stronger connection at
school sites.
The school director at Escuela Universitaria noted the need for the MEP to ensure greater
incentives:
At the end, when they have the award ceremony, they also recognize the colleagues.
They get a certificate for the labor that they provided during the process. Yes, it would be
interesting if, maybe, within the study that you are doing, one recommendation that you
give our government, to the Ministry of Public Education, is for the colleagues that
incorporate themselves in this process, which they give more incentives than what they
are receiving.
The school director acknowledged a need for teachers to be recognized for their efforts
beyond the school site. This level of recognition might acknowledge a teacher’s commitment and
hard work while providing teachers with broad perspectives that span their region and country.
The PRONAFECYT has a significant purpose; in order to not lose site of the purpose behind the
science initiatives, the government should recognize how schools are contributing to a highly
skilled and competitive workforce.
In addition to receiving positive reinforcement, interviews also suggest that feedback or
healthy criticism, as a way to improve practices, is not necessarily part of the culture in Costa
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 86
Rica. Collins (2001) posited that leadership is about vision; yet, leadership is equally about
establishing a climate where the truth is heard and the brutal facts are confronted. In the case of
Costa Rica, there is a perception among various business leaders that, while the country is very
innovative and creative, the country is not known to take bold risks nor known to be direct with
feedback as it relates to risks or overall improvement. Vanessa Gibson from CINDE noted,
“We’re not risk takers . . . very timid in terms of their approach and not that aggressive in setting
up the right policies.”
While interviews with government officials did not indicate a lack of feedback, the
school sites shed light on the feedback and accountability from the school director. A clear vision
is fostered by the school director or the leader of the organization and invests constituents to
believe in the direction and work toward the new reality, so to speak. Teachers at both schools
demonstrated a sense of caring about their students. School directors also conveyed a sense of
care for their teachers and the school community as a whole. However, from the dynamics
observed at both school sites and after listening to the perspectives of business leaders, feedback
is not prevalent in the school culture. If feedback is not prevalent or does not address areas for
continued improvement, the result is stagnant effort. Seventy-seven percent of teachers surveyed
at Escuela Central strongly agreed or agreed that the school director seeks feedback from
teachers on implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Conversely, 86% of the teachers at Escuela
Universitaria strongly agreed or agreed that the school director elicits feedback from teachers.
Interview data from both schools either noted similar trends or posited the science fair
coordinators as the primary support providers. While feedback was elicited, there was minimal
mention of school directors providing feedback to provide greater outcomes.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 87
Rosenholtz (1989) factored the teacher work place into the discussion about teaching
quality, asserting that teachers who felt supported in their own ongoing learning and instructional
practice felt more efficacious and were more committed to their work than teachers who did not
receive the same level of support. Specifically, the type of support that increases teacher efficacy
in meeting the needs of students includes teacher collaborative networks, two-way cooperation,
and opportunities for extended roles in the workplace. Further, Rosenholtz (1989) found that
teachers with a high sense of their own efficacy were more likely to adopt new classroom
behaviors and were more likely to stay in the profession.
Summary Discussion for Question 1
The importance of leadership that embraces a world culture that has shifted in the past 3
decades necessitates a vision and strategic plan to stay competitive with the global society
(Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kotter, 2012). As previously discussed, Research Question 1 reflected
the following three results that embrace the importance of visionary and strategic leadership.
First, leadership is necessary to promote change at the micro and macro scales of a system.
Second, in order to promote positive leadership, a vision and strategic plan understood by all
stakeholders is necessary to adopt a common language and a cohesive focus toward a shared
vision for what is possible, in this case for the human capital in Costa Rica. Third, change is not
easy and requires thoughtful processes to ensure that goals are realized. Feedback and
celebrations are not only essential characteristics to any organization undergoing change; the
ability to drive humans toward change requires leaders to listen carefully to those trends either
contributing or inhibiting change and provide feedback and celebration, where appropriate. All
three of these themes addressed the research question, “What is the role educational leaders play
in implementing the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
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(PRONAFECYT) initiative?” Survey responses, observations, and interview data that were
synthesized and analyzed were triangulated to provide validity to the findings.
Research Question 2, Results, and Framework
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less-successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?” The MEP helped to direct the researchers’ focus on their need and
overall goals. According to the ministry, there are differences in practices between primary and
secondary schools regarding the level of participation in the PRONAFECYT. Among primary
schools there appeared to be a few differences in practices. Primary schools establish the
foundation for children; their motivation and their overall investment related to careers in science
and technology starts here. The results in this section emerged by comparing Escuela Central and
Escuela Universitaria. This section discusses two themes that emerged from the data. First,
teacher collaboration is integral to participating in the PRONAFECYT with fidelity. Second,
scientific integration supports a culture that reinforces the importance of science and technology
as it relates to critical thinking by all persons in schools. Data related to the second research
question led to understanding some of the practices that are unique to successful schools, with an
aim to ensure more equitable practices across all primary schools in Costa Rica.
Theme 1: Teacher Collaboration
Teacher collaboration is an emerging theme at Escuela Central and Escuela Universitaria.
In teacher survey results at Escuela Central, 94% strongly agreed or agreed that teachers work
together to plan and organize for the PRONAFECYT, compared to 88% at Escuela Universitaria.
Observation trends at both schools noted teacher leadership and collaboration among grade
levels. A strong indicator of teacher collaboration was the science coordinator, who also serves
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 89
as a classroom teacher. In addition to facilitating ongoing, structured discussions throughout the
school year, the science coordinator closely communicates with the school director and helps to
orchestrate site-based initiatives such as the PRONAFECYT. Interviews with directors at both
sites noted that specific science coordinators are charged to communicate information from the
central region to the school site. For instance, the assistant director at Escuela Central noted,
We have four tutors in the school. One is for Spanish, one is for Science, the other is for
Math and the last one is for Social Studies. This third tutor, the science tutor is the link
with the regional council. She is in charge of bringing back all of the updates required for
the school. So then they share all of the information in a personnel meeting with the
teachers from the school. We generally establish a monthly or bimonthly meeting with
the school and they are provided with all of the support and innovations that they require
in order to work in the school at that moment.
The director at Escuela Universitaria explained,
The department of natural science, the colleague that is identified from this specialty, she
helps us coordinate the secondary school part. And in primary school, they’re colleagues
that have experience in managing the fairs. And they do it through a committee.
The directors organize calendars and meeting schedules for teachers to collaborate on
PRONAFECYT initiatives. Both schools facilitate collaboration with other teachers who take on
leadership roles. From observations and interviews, collaboration appears to be grounded in
logistical and operational needs, such as schedule, deadlines, and resources. A shared decision-
making framework related to the PRONAFECYT was evident in both the interview and survey
results. While coordinators also provide training, ongoing planning and development focused on
instructional strategies with two-way feedback at the peer level appear to be an area of growth.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 90
Marshall (2005) asserted that quality of instruction is the single most important factor in student
achievement. The literature also discusses PLCs as support for achievement by students.
Darling-Hammond (1996) recommended shared decision making as a factor in
curriculum reform and transformation of teaching roles in some schools. DuFour and Eaker
(1998) suggested that learning communities under the PLC umbrella embrace efficiency, mutual
interests, an emphasis on relationships, shared ideals, and a strong culture. The literature
suggests that leadership at the teacher and principal levels will be the difference between
effective and ineffective classrooms and schools. School leaders have the responsibility to
leverage not only their leadership skills but also the leadership skills of their teachers. The
human resource frame places people at the center of the organization, and ensuring that their
basic needs are met and that they have the tools to become successful becomes a school leader’s
priority (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
According to Lee, Sachs, and Wheeler (2014), teacher leaders emerge when they are
committed to attaining and remaining at the top of their profession while investing energy in
staying informed and increasing their skills. Danielson (2007) described a distinguished teacher
as one who seeks professional development opportunities and engages in continuous cycles of
inquiry. Teacher leaders or “teacherpreneurs” have the potential to raise achievement by students
and to inform fellow teachers, policy makers, and the community about actions that make the
most difference in classrooms and in schools (Lee et al., 2014).
Theme 2: Scientific Integration
The soft skill of critical thinking is an essential skill in integrating the scientific process
in schools. Participation in national science fairs requires authentic experiences to consistently
engage students in soft skills, as well as critical thinking. This study was designed to understand
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 91
the role of schools in advancing a country’s work force. Instructional practices must consistently
match needs to keep up with a competitive world today. This theme is supported by data from
interviews and observations with business, government, and site-based educators.
At the government level, integrated and applied science is critical to the success of the
PRONAFECYT. According to Patricia Arias, Regional Science Director,
We know that we need our youth to study engineering, to study science and to be
investigators. Our education system has been very aligned with the mechanical aspect, so
we want to modify this in order to accomplish an economic growth. We have to
encourage the innovation skills in children and in adolescents so that this results in a
society based on innovation, in a desire to research—which is very important—instead of
being mechanized, which is what has happened to us.
Patricia Arias added, “If we want our teenagers to have an employment in 10 years time,
they should not only study physics as such, but they should study physics applied to innovation
through medical tools.”
Maria Santos Pasamontes, CONARE representative, shared: “So then this in the next
decade in the following 20 years could signify important deficiencies in the professional areas of
agricultural science.” Both provided an outlook into the future necessitating graduates of the
school system to be adept in the integrated sciences. These needs as currently experienced by the
business sector have major implications for the education system.
The integration of science or scientific thought from the perspective of school directors
and teachers follows with a focus on how practices differ among higher-performing schools.
Observations at Escuela Central were conducted in kindergarten, first-, second-, fourth-, and
fifth-grade classrooms. Observations at Escuela Universitaria included third-, fourth-, and fifth-
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 92
grade classrooms. Observations at Escuela Central included cooperative groups; in Escuela
Central classrooms were arranged in rows, with minimal student collaboration observed. Student
work at Escuela Central evoked scientific symbols, illustrations, and interpretations anchored in
scientific inquiry. Minimal student work was displayed or visible at Escuela Universitaria.
Escuela Central classroom observations engaged students in conceptual thinking and
observation, particularly in the first three grades of primary school. Constructivist teaching
methods were apparent at Escuela Central.
Less successful schools perceive the science fair as a form of compliance and teachers are
given directives to ensure that students participate; however, teachers do not see value in the
scientific process and traditional teaching methods are observed in classrooms. School Site C
received information related to the PRONAFECYT in June. The director was observed providing
teachers with details related to the fair with little context, purpose, or direction. Teachers had
many questions and were concerned about time and overall logistics. The school director at
School Site C noted that it is the responsibility of the teachers to invest and engage students in
the science fair process. This leadership style and collaboration between the school director and
teachers differed from the overall approaches observed at Escuela Central and Escuela
Universitaria.
When prompted about specific teaching practices that ensure achievement and access in
science fairs, a first- and second-grade teacher from Escuela Universitaria noted,
I encourage research the most. I teach science as well as math. So there’s a lot of research
involved in science. I give them a lot of different projects and I encourage them to do
research, I don’t do the project for them. I combine, in include the parent, the teacher and
the student so they can become persons capable of investigating – it’s like as we say here
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 93
in Costa Rica, I give them the cane and teach them how to fish but I won’t give them the
fish. I like them to do research and they bring to the class different things they have
researched, they show me, they ask me what I think, and of course I read it, I review it, I
correct some of it and then I give them other ideas on how to do it but all the same, as
long as they do the research.
The literature notes that STEM PBL makes content accessible, raises the level of
engagement and curiosity among students, and facilitates a process whereby students learn from
each other (Capraro et al., 2013). These components allow students to develop soft skills or 21st-
century skills while accessing core subject matter. The integration of these components allows
for positive, engaging learning environments with tangible real-world problems to solve.
Research and scientific inquiry takes place not only in science and mathematics
classrooms. A first-grade teacher at Escuela Central said,
Generally, in the schools a lot of research is developed in subjects such as Spanish. The
study plan has changed in order to adapt at a state level for science and for social studies.
The student has to be constantly researching. We no longer hand them finished products
but they are in charge of researching and asking.
Successful schools perceive the science fair as a way of thinking that should exist outside
of the fair itself; it is embedded in the school’s culture. Culture emanates a sense of care and
possibility for all stakeholders, coupled with high expectations. The science coordinator at
Escuela Central described the school’s involvement as a classroom process with support by the
teachers
because over here we are in a community where a lot of the kids do not have the support
of their parents because they work or because someone else takes care of them and in
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 94
reality—to try to motivate them to have that desire to investigate, to conduct research to
innovate—so then we do that here in the classroom. It is like a free project where they
can present several experiments.
Summary Discussion for Question 2
Today’s society demands the proficiency and ability to utilize 21st-century skills and
STEM to be productive and efficient in the workforce. Nevertheless, it is important that the focus
on primary education also shift to meet these demands and support the students to prepare them
for the knowledge-based workforce. The two themes supported the idea focused on in Research
Question 2. The first theme established that collaboration is essential to develop a culture that
focuses on development of 21st-century skills (collaboration, communication, and inquiry-based
learning) and access to STEM to remain globally competitive and meet the demands of today’s
global society. The second theme established that a focus on scientific integration at all grade
levels and in all subject areas supports sustainable and systemic growth in the quality and
implementation of 21st-century skills and STEM throughout the grades as students gain
proficiency and receive equitable access to the PRONAFECYT. Data were analyzed utilizing
Wagner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century skills and the work of Capraro et al. (2013) and
triangulated with the use of surveys, observations, and interviews to establishing validity of the
findings.
Research Question 3, Results, and Framework
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs?” The 21st century has presented both opportunities
and challenges for business, government, and education. Students who graduate high school
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 95
must be equipped with essential 21st-century skills in order to compete in today’s work place
with proficiency in the areas of literacy, mathematics, science, and technology. Research
Question 3 was designed to explain how both school and system leaders perceive 21st-century
skills and how the PRONAFECYT may support student attainment of these essential skills.
Theme 1: Vision and a Prerequisite of Resources
Costa Rica has established policy that requires every school to participate in the
PRONAFECYT. The policy is supported by a vision in which Costa Rica serves as a global
partner attracting FDI to drive up the country’s economy in return for a qualified work force, a
strategic location, an excellent business climate, robust utilities infrastructure, and quality of life.
Costa Rica ranks among the top countries in Latin America to attract FDI, as evidenced by the
growth in companies and employment in advanced manufacturing and a focus on life sciences,
engineering, and technology. Awareness of 21st-century skills among business, government, and
school leaders as shown in survey results conveys a clear awareness of soft skills or 21st-century
skills. Among the business and government officials surveyed, 100% strongly agreed that they
were familiar with soft skills such as critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and imagination. All school directors surveyed
were familiar with soft skills. All government and business leaders, as well as school directors,
surveyed strongly agreed or agreed that school site leaders convey the importance of soft schools
and their impact on student achievement. Survey and interview data highlighted the perception
among officials and school leaders related to the correlation between soft skills and
PRONAFECYT. The effect of this level of leadership on teachers and students was reflected at
Escuela Central, where 83.3% of teachers and 78.0% of students strongly agreed or agreed with
the proposition. Similar trends were noted in the responses to survey questions seeking to
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 96
understand the correlation between soft skills and participation in the national science and
technology fair.
Interviews provided greater insight about embracing a vision of PRONAFECYT and its
impact on achievement. Wagner (2008) suggested that seven skills are essential for students to
compete in a global economy. It is evident that culture embraces soft skills as a prerequisite to
succeed in today’s workforce. Therefore, to equip schools with soft skills, leaders have created a
system requiring the use of soft skills, beginning in primary schools, with opportunities to apply
the experience to the outside world for greater applicability and relevance. The PRONAFECYT
provides students with real-world application while applying the soft skills essential to compete
in today’s economy.
While there is a shared understanding about soft skills and how these skills are developed
over time among stakeholders, resources to provide equitable access to science fair initiatives are
not consistent for all students, particularly students from economically disadvantaged
backgrounds. Additional need for resources emerged as a theme in the study. At Escuela Central,
56% of participating teachers indicated that they strongly agreed or agreed that their school has
the resources to facilitate science fair initiatives. In other words, more than half of the teachers
perceived that they did not have adequate recourses to facilitate teaching and learning in
classrooms. Teacher interviews supported these survey trends; leader interviews at various
levels, from school site to government, conveyed a similar sentiment related to available
resources.
When asked to describe how resources were obtained, the assistant director at Escuela
Central said,
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 97
Each teacher plans activities and we raise it. There are donations too and the school, the
administration, the principal also contributes with a part according with the national
school material budget. We make a checklist and we buy the expensive things like for
example the cardboard for their presentations, paper, those things are bought by the
school, is also paid for by the school and the other specific things in the experiment, that
is covered by each teacher along with other contributions that they can get, being
donations or in some cases contributions in the same groups. Sometimes they raise
money in order to get what they need for the fairs.
However, teachers reported having minimal resources and stated that resources are
typically obtained at the expense of teachers or students and donations from parents. When asked
how school directors obtain resources, a first-grade teacher stated,
It’s a mystery. That is an unsolved mystery. No, no, through donations, it generally works
through donations or asking the groups to contribute. It is mostly through donations, our
principal has several connections with companies here and there. I have worked in other
schools where it is more difficult so then the fair is very simple and basic. But basically
yes, donations.
Deputy of the Legislature Javier Cambronero was asked to explain his understanding of
the resources funneled from the government to schools to participate in the PRONAFECYT. He
replied,
In this case the Ministry of Public Education provides support and the injection of
resources is not very big. That is why there is a need for a law of the Republic which
forces the investment in this type of processes. Currently, most of the expenditure is
financed by the education center, by the teachers who use their own money to make
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contributions, and from the parents of those children who are participating in the process.
The contribution is very small and it should be increased.
According to Deputy Cambronero, resources supporting the PRONAFECYT initiative across
schools are limited and there is a need to increase the amount of support and resources provided
to schools. As teachers noted above, the deputy also acknowledged that resources for the
PRONAFECYT are provided by individual teachers and their school site.
Legislative Council member Lander Perez Barrantes confirmed a lack of financial
resources for all public schools to comply with the PRONAFECYT initiative:
The government makes an effort but it will never meet the needs out there, we have many
limitations on the issue of laboratories and trained staff to do research, not all schools
have done laboratory, or schools, and not all teachers are prepared for the research part.
Observations in classrooms included projects through color, paint, construction paper,
and trifold display posters. However, state-of-the-art laboratories or equipment were not
observed in classrooms. In order to produce skilled workers, students must be exposed to and
interact with science and technology tools as a highly skilled labor pool expects.
Barrantes confirmed a lack of resources as a whole:
As we are a poor country, it would be helpful to be able to use the resources provided by
other institutions for labs, for specialists, because not all the schools have trained
professionals or labs as part of their infrastructure. So, that would be a good way to
maximize the resources.
Vice Minister Alicia Vargas related to the resources allocated to schools:
We have some money assigned, some financial support assigned to the scientific fairs. I
don’t think it is very much because mainly they are supported by other, I mean, as far as
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the ministry of education is concerned, but they have also the support of the ministry of
science and technology.
Funding and resource allocation from various agencies toward the PRONAFECYT
appear to be misaligned and limited. Mary Bialas, Senior Program Manager for the Council for
Promotion of Competitiveness of Costa Rica, agreed that funds from government agencies and in
the private sector are not aligned:
Everyone seems to have their program and project. The problem is coordinating the
efforts. There seems to be money out there assigned to it by the government but it’s not
always coordinated to be most effective. I think that is one of our biggest challenges right
now is how we get this coordination between the various agencies.
Alejandrina Mata Segreda, Dean of the School of Education of UCR, was asked how the
university provides public schools with the resources to compete in the PRONAFECYT.
We invest a lot of money; we have a budget, right? We have a budget of how much? It’s
just that if we took into account what the university invests in a budget of how much . . .
infrastructure, teachers, and transportation. I have no idea; we can’t measure how much
the university puts in infrastructure in the human resources involved in the fair but we
invest a lot of money but, besides that, we don’t give more money. The ministry of
education gives some money in the human resources, in the facilities, the infrastructure,
etcetera. So, we don’t know how much money we invest in that.
This is further evidence that resources in terms of funding are misaligned and will
continue to perpetuate a perception of inequitable distribution of resources among schools,
limiting the PRONAFECYT to fulfill its intended outcome.
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In order for Costa Rica as a country and the diverse profit and nonprofit entities to thrive
and achieve the country’s vision, adequate resources are integral and must be a shared priority
among all stakeholders and leaders. Kotter (1996) stated that team members in any organization
must be empowered with adequate support and resources to succeed. Interview responses from
system and site leaders suggest a need for clearer understanding about the type of resources to
facilitate the PRONAFECYT processes equitably. In order for all students to participate
equitably in national science fairs and for Costa Rica to realize its vision, leaders will have to
embrace the challenge as a collective unit and create systems and structure to ensure adequate
resources across schools as supported by the structural frame described by Bolman and Deal
(2008).
Theme 2: Training and Ongoing Professional Development Essential
There is an area of focus on instructional leadership to support teacher growth toward
PBL and 21st-century skill teaching and learning. Training is provided; however, most training is
facilitated by site coordinators who are also teachers. The teacher leadership practice observed is
a commendable lever toward positive change; however, the data did not capture the principal
leader as part of the training process. Moreover, survey results supported the finding related to
the importance of training, while interview and observation data illuminated a need for leaders to
be more hands on with science and technology fair instructional initiatives. As noted by Bolman
and Deal (2008), a leader must be able to lead, support, guide, and inspire those around him or
her. According to survey results, the leaders of Costa Rica are heading in that direction through a
vision but are not explicit about their actions as they relate to their work with teachers and their
professional development. Lander Perez Barrantes stressed that people development is a key way
to maximize resources:
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As we are a poor country, it would be helpful to be able to use the resources provided by
other institutions for labs, for specialists, because not all the schools have trained
professionals or labs as part of their infrastructure. So, that would be a good way to
maximize the resources.
While the country must align its resources to provide equitable tools for successful
participation in PRONAFECYT at all schools, a key resource is the development of people who
work in these schools. The development of capacity in professionals is one of the most vital
resources that leaders can ensure in their organizations. Moreover, teacher training and ongoing
development are essential components to support teachers as they prepare and equip students
with 21st-century survival skills (Wagner, 2008). Schools that effectively prepare students with
21st-century skills create innovative approaches in STEM PBL, as these approaches promote
student-centered and hands-on learning experiences that lead to high engagement and increase
curiosity in students (Capraro & Slough, 2013).
Investing in human capabilities requires leadership that will consider the long-term
benefits for the organization. Bolman and Deal (2008) stated that long-term and consistent
training is needed to develop human capital. A human resource-oriented school system
understands that training must occur with consistent support and resources for teachers to
implement science fair initiative successfully.
Training and professional development must extend beyond relying solely on the science
coordinator. The assistant director at Escuela Central described the science coordinator for both
the first and second cycles as the liaison between the ministry’s regional office and overall
teacher training and preparation.
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A first-grade teacher at Escuela Central described her specific development:
In my case, there are two things, the science coordinator offers a course on how to
develop these research plans and aside from that I love to read. We have been studying
the rules constantly here in school and at home. We study the rules to see how far you
can go in a few things. The computer class teacher has taught us about the APA format. I
mean it’s a situation where the personnel is offering feedback so you can pass it on to the
students so they can improve their presentations.
Further analysis shows that teacher training is not sufficient to meet the demands of the
global market place and meet long-term goals for the PRONAFECYT. Teacher survey results at
Escuela Central related to teacher training indicated that 61.1% of the teachers strongly agreed or
agreed that they received training to prepare students for competition related to PRONAFECYT
participation. A similar trend was noted regarding the training related to teacher facilitation of
soft skills, where 61% strongly agreed or agreed that they had received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom. According to the science coordinator, teachers receive a
digital manual on how to facilitate the PRONAFECYT. Informational training trusts shared
understanding on the delivery and execution of real-world projects with the integration of soft
skills.
Valencia-Chacon, National Coordinator of the PRONAFECYT, described the need to
improve teaching training and development in schools across Costa Rica:
The Ministry of Science and Technology also provides the resources for the organization
of the National Science Fair together with the contribution provided by the University of
Costa Rica. Therefore, we can say that there are resources for the organization at regional
and national level but we still have a lot to do at school level, not only regarding financial
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resources but also to strengthen the training processes. At the MICITT we consider that
we have to work harder regarding the training process of the teachers so that they get to
know and to understand what research implies so that they can enhance these processes
as a valuable tool for their students’ learning process.
The National Research Council (NRC) Teacher Preparation Panel (NRC, 2011) provides
a relevant body of work on what instructional opportunities are most valuable for mathematics
teachers; however, it is largely descriptive and does not identify causal relationships between
specific aspects of preparation programs and measures of prospective teachers’ subsequent
effectiveness. Research highlights some effective programs in preparing teachers for
mathematics and science fields. Wilson (2011) pointed to the following features associated with
more effective teacher preparation: (a) more courses required for entry or exit in their chosen
content area (e.g., mathematics or science), (b) a required hands-on research project of work
done with students, (c) close monitoring and oversight of the student teaching experiences, (d) a
focus on providing candidates with practical coursework to learn specific practices, (e) ample
opportunity to learn curriculum, and (f) teaching experience at the grade level and in the subject
area.
A greater degree and consistency in training is necessary. Professional development is
more than teacher-led training and more than building a robust series of workshops led and
facilitated by various entities. Professional development and capacity building are about strong
leadership that provides oversight with a consistent culture of feedback. Shifting the role of the
director and assistant director to embrace instructional leadership as the primary role of leading a
school will also ensure equitable outcomes toward the vision that Costa Rica has for its labor
force. Feedback and development are also about developing leaders at the site level and system
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level so that all understand the importance of feedback and its purpose in improving outcomes
for students.
Vanessa Gibson, Director of Corporate Development and Investment Climate of CINDE,
pointed out that Costa Rican culture is too passive and that such passivity is an impediment to
improving the PRONAFECYT and creating innovators for the country:
From my perspective, our local entrepreneurship capabilities are still in the embryonic
state because we are not necessarily the most entrepreneurship-oriented culture. We still
lack in a lot of what, probably, in countries would have been a success story with the type
of linkages opportunities that are there. Our local companies, especially indigenous local,
you know, they are trying to export, or just trying to survive in market, they are very shy
in terms of business risk. . . . It’s a matter of, let’s say, cultural differences, one.
Structural foundations, two. Three, that we’re still lacking in terms of how fast our local
economy is pursuing the global market and so on.
Professional development is ongoing and, while current practice relies on teacher-led
training, the results also point to a need for more instructional leadership with respect to the
training that teachers receive on their instructional practices and their results. The theme
emerging from this study related to professional development expands understanding of
professional development to include feedback and coaching as a lever to build capacity and
create a culture of continuous growth. Teachers, government, and business leaders noted the
importance of and need for more training and professional development. The success of the
PRONAFECYT relies strongly on a highly developed and skilled teacher force.
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Summary Discussion for Question 3
The data collected indicated that 21st-century skills are a priority shared by both business
and government leaders across Costa Rica. Although the indicators were positive in terms of the
future’s workforce, there is room for improvement, as recognized by many of the interviewed
participants. Awareness of gaps in the pathway toward progress is extremely beneficial with
regard to developing more effective action plans to respond to gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
Costa Rican school system is focused on development toward meeting the needs of the global
society; with the visionaries from various sectors of the political, corporate, and school-site
realms, this result is becoming more and more tangible for the near future. As expressed by
Bolman and Deal (2008), it is important for leaders to understand all elements of leadership that
create the best balance for decision making. These elements are structural, human resources,
symbolic, and political perspectives when addressing various situations.
The findings for Research Question 3 were analyzed utilizing Bolman and Deal’s
perspective as well as Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills. The first theme for this question
established that schools are in need of resources during the initial stages of the PRONAFECYT
implementation, as well as aligning expectations, such as periodic assessments, that will meet the
demands of today’s global market. The second theme identified a focus on the development of
teachers and teacher leadership training to support sustainable and systemic growth in the quality
and implementation of the PRONAFECYT at school sites. The data related to Research Question
3 corroborated the findings via surveys, observations, and interviews.
Research Question 4, Results, and Framework
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican National Program
of Science and Technology Fairs affected instructional practice?” Costa Rica has made a bold
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statement about what all students in Costa Rica deserve: experiences at every grade level that
exposes students to the sciences, mathematics, and technology through the PRONAFECYT.
Such participation and experience have the potential to change instructional practices outside of
the science fair. Research Question 4 was designed to understand what practices have emerged
from schools participating in annual science fairs.
Theme 1: The Scientific Method as a Thinking Process in All Learning Experiences, Such
as PBL
The scientific method as a thinking process and its importance have emerged as a positive
consequence of participation in the PRONAFECYT. The teaching culture at Escuela Central has
embraced a shift of instructional practices aligned with Wagner’s 21st-century survival skills.
Interview and observation data support these results. A fifth-grade teacher described her
preparation:
We work by units, by trimester, we develop that study plan in the classrooms and It is
oriented in the case of the sciences we work by areas, biology, physics, chemistry,
ecology, depending on the – the unit that we are working on.
The assistant director at Escuela Central noted a few of the challenges and their
“workarounds”:
We have some difficulties because we have students from very vulnerable areas. So then
we have to make students find, to like what they are doing because many times, why do I
have to research? Why do I have to do this? Why do I have to do that? So then we have
to wake that researcher spirit in the entire population and we have to work with them. We
work a lot from the classroom so they can slowly take out, why this thing and why the
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other. What are the advantages and disadvantages of an investigation? So then we make a
list of pros and cons and they can see what is better for them.
A teacher at Escuela Central mentioned,
We work a lot on research. We work on brainstorming inside the classroom. We also
work with some proprietary techniques like discussions, forums, round tables where
students discuss and analyze, they all share their point of view and the teacher works.
This work is very limited because they can’t spend so much time doing that because if
after that they don’t have the materials to do the evaluation that is needed.
School directors are focused on having students access the right information and having
the skills to analyze it. The ability to analyze and discern information to meet the challenges of
the 21st century is a critical skill (Wagner, 2008). The science coordinator at Escuela Central
mentioned the following related to the science fair process and the integration of scientific
inquiry:
When it comes to the science fair process, in the first cycle we just work with
presentations, the second cycle works with presentations and written paper. I mean in the
same class they can work on a scientific project because they make surveys, they ask
questions, because this is a process used in colleges.
Instructional practices observed and gleaned from interviews clearly pointed to evidence
supported by STEM PBL. Capraro and Slough (2013) stated that STEM PBL is a much-needed
form of education that will expedite student opportunities to acquire 21st-century skills. The
STEM PBL includes a variety of project formats such as speeches, presentations, and models.
Much of STEM PBL involves student-centered instruction and real-world issues. When asked to
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describe the instruction and overall pedagogical approach of the school, a fourth-grade teacher
explained,
In terms of technology, the area in science in particular is applied as well in Spanish
lessons. It’s something that has changed and has somewhat improved and therefore it’s
rather motivating. This focus makes learning much more meaningful, more interesting,
and increases motivation.
A fifth-grade teacher supported a focus on science:
We work by units, by trimester, we develop that study plan in the classrooms and it is
oriented in the case of the sciences we work by areas, biology, physics, chemistry,
ecology, depending on the unit that we are working on.
When asked to report the frequency with which teachers help students to learn about the
scientific method through science and technology activities, 93.5% strongly agreed or agreed that
this is a consistent practice across the school.
Costa Rica has taken the position that, if all students acquire skills in inquiry and
research, along with analytical skills, they will raise their raise social responsibility and promote
leadership and innovation to support the country’s economy through new discoveries and
processes (MICITT, 2013). UCR, whose priority is to produce agents of change, supports the
PRONAFECYT and shares the vision with the Costa Rican government (MICITT, 2013).
Today’s world is increasingly diverse, globalized, and technologically rich. People must be able
to communicate, collaborate, and adapt to the social, economic, and political issues nationally
and globally in order to excel in the 21st century. This theme describes the instructional practices
that have resulted from the PRONAFECYT and the alignment to STEM PBL and 21st-century
skills, as supported by the literature.
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Theme 2: A Focus on Soft Skills and Backward Planning
The skills imbedded in the local, regional, and national science fairs have enabled
teachers to facilitate teaching and learning that focus on soft skills. To achieve full
implementation and successful long-term effects, teacher and school leader planning must
consistently focus on the final outcome, working to create opportunities in classrooms, such as
student-to-student collaboration, oral presentations, and experiential learning. This level of
planning and awareness is aligned with Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills, particularly
in critical thinking, collaboration, and effective oral and written communication.
According to teacher survey results, 77.8% of the teachers strongly agreed or agreed that
the PRONAFECYT has increased student-to-student collaboration. The results indicate that a
clear majority of the teachers at Escuela Central perceive the PRONAFECYT as a means by
which their students collaborate successfully, as aligned with the 21st-century survival skills.
Collaboration and additional survival skills were described by the school’s assistant director:
Our students have to adjust to the global dynamic of the society. And how do they adjust?
Through the processes of the teaching and learning that they receive. From the phase of
the mother and baby, the transition that is primary school and the continuation that they
give in secondary school. So, the science fairs programs strengthen part of the identity;
part of the formation of the student with what he does daily. We have to adjust ourselves
to come into the future. We live in the present but we need to prepare for the future,
mainly in the technological part.
The value of soft skills and their relevance to the real world are embraced by the faculty
as a means to ensure alignment with instructional planning. A first-grade teacher said,
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In many, many ways, mainly in the area of academics where they are incentive to keep
going, to be better, to do research, to check the Internet, to feel that they’re the best in the
group, the best in their classroom. And the teacher also tells them that they’re doing great
and they should keep going. They benefit a lot because they feel like they’re scientists,
they think they’re investigators. And also emphasize that we don’t award the best or the
wining project but we also reward them with a thanks and showing their projects on the
very same day of the fair and the vote that is given. This is truly an important question,
because get very inspire, they get inspired when it comes time to present their project.
A fifth-grade teacher commented,
I believe that it is something that opens your mind. It’s trust, it’s to feel that I can make it.
That my limits go far beyond what they have always told me at home or from what I can
see in my parents. It’s to believe that I can achieve things. That is the most important
thing, in this institution specifically. In other institutions we can think that they have won
prizes, even money because of the experiments that they do, going to other countries to
present what they have invented, right? Because it has been extremely recognized. A
little while ago some boys in Cañas, for example they made an experiment where they
recharged a cell phone by walking and they are very interesting discoveries, right? They
are very interesting and lovely discoveries. I think that the feeling of success helps a lot
in students.
The assistant director also noted,
Okay, it benefits them in the sense that it makes them more critical and reflexive
students. They are thinking students, they can make a decision and also it lets them know
that there is always a proof and an error in everything you do in life. And there is a
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consequence. There is always a consequence, whether it is affirmative or not so
favorable. We usually eradicate the word “negative” we use the word “favorable” in that
moment. Because science evolves and as it moves forward what today is not favorable,
possibly in 3 months or in a year, 6 years, that is going to be beneficial or prejudicial and
it is not a steady thing. There is not an absolute truth in the moment, but that it is
temporary and momentary according to the specific needs of the moment it was requested
and of what is being investigated along with the variables included.
Similarly, a third-grade teacher said, regarding the importance of soft skills, that
I am going to answer that question not as a teacher but as a mother. My daughter
participated in the fair, my daughter has always participated just like my oldest son. My
daughter participated in all of the levels she reached nationals. And this has given her
confidence. She made a presentation in front of people from the entire country, regardless
of their position, reporter, president, the minister, it didn’t mind. She made the
presentation for everyone she was like a fish in the water. She was in her element. So
then they take that with them. It also generates—the ones that are already scientists by
nature this is something that they feel passionately for.
Teaching students the importance of and helping them to acquire effective oral and
written communication skills, as well as the ability to think critically, and collaborate with a
diverse group of students are among the most important skills that students must embrace in the
21st century (Wagner, 2008). The theme describes how participation in the PRONAFECYT has
shifted priorities and instructional methods across Escuela Central. The awareness emerging
from such practices is aligned to the greater vision and purpose for participation in science fairs
at the local, regional, and national levels.
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Summary Discussion for Question 4
The data indicate that PBL and STEM integration are a gateway toward successful
implementation and PRONAFECYT results. The first theme for this question established that the
scientific method as a thinking process in all learning experiences, such as PBL, is an integral
component of PRONAFECYT implementation. The second theme indicated that there was a
focus on a strong recognition of soft skills as a result of science and technology fair initiatives
such as the PRONAFECYT. The data that were collected, analyzed, synthesized, and utilized for
Research Question 4 corroborated the findings via surveys, observations, and interviews.
Chapter Summary
The chapter reports the results obtained through the research methods employed in this
study: participant surveys, observations, and a comprehensive analysis of all interviews. These
results demonstrated the progressive vision of Costa Rica’s education system, as well as the
perspectives of the stakeholders. The overall idea is that Costa Rica’s education system is
embracing a world culture view (Spring, 2008) and addressing all of the demands of today’s
global society so that their graduates are empowered with the necessary skills to compete in the
current labor market. These skills include both STEM knowledge and skills and 21st-century
skills such as collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and more, as described by Wagner
(2008). Most important, leaders were identified as a principle lever for change in supporting a
progressive vision while assessing current needs to continue their development and improvement
as a human workforce and continued path toward lifelong learning (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Although the partnership by business, government, and educational leaders is a work in progress,
as identified in this study, the impact of PRONAFECYT on teaching and learning and the
potential to realize the country’s economic and educational goals are commendable.
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders in
implementation and participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The
study examined leadership practices and the role of school leaders in development of
PRONAFECYT initiatives. The first two chapters presented an overview of the study and
explained the historical background of Costa Rica’s economic changes and the new focus in
education from a rural, agrarian society to a high-technology hub of innovation in Latin America.
Chapter 3 described the methodology, design, and population used by the researcher. Chapter 4
presented the themes or results based on analysis and synthesis of the data, leading to this
chapter, which offers findings and recommendations and provides a conclusion for the study.
The next few sections give an overview of the previous chapters and then presents
recommendations based on the findings encompassing the topics of globalization, PBL, 21st-
century skills, and how leadership serves as the guidepost for systemic change.
The first chapter described globalization as a pivotal lever in determining the path toward
changes in Costa Rica. The demands of MNCs resulting from global changes lead to a highly
competitive and changing environment throughout the world and provide insight regarding why
countries such as Costa Rica have identified strategies to embrace the demands of a global
society. The intent of this study was to identify the significance of leadership and the changes in
education as a result of the changes observed in business and government. The central purpose of
this study was to understand the impact of globalization on educational leadership and the
development of 21st-century skills in primary schools by way of PRONAFECYT initiatives.
The literature review in the second chapter provided a foundation for understanding the
concepts of globalization, education, leadership, and soft skills, all with a focus on Costa Rica. It
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outlined current policy and changes that have helped Costa Rica to meet global demands through
MNCs and the PRONAFECYT with a direct impact on the future work force in Costa Rica. The
PRONAFECYT was integral in pushing the Costa Rican education system forward so students
could develop as inquiry-based, critical thinkers with a strong foundation in scientific thought
and exposure to technology. The literature review identified four frameworks that were utilized
to analyze the collected data. The focuses of the frameworks were globalization, the types of
leadership, change leadership, and 21st-century or soft skills.
Globalization was viewed through Spring’s (2008) and Friedman’s (2007) perspectives,
presenting a variety of factors that have shifted the world into a singular globalized culture where
people are more connected today than at any point in history and challenged to communicate,
collaborate, and compete. The literature describes the various factors shaping globalization and
the results of such phenomena. The literature review provides a strong foundation to explain
many of the educational and business strategies employed by Costa Rica.
Leadership was viewed through Bolman and Deal’s (2008) and Kotter’s (2012)
perspectives. Bolman and Deal’s framework focuses on four elements of leadership vital to the
success of a leader: human resource, political, structural, and symbolic frames. They contended
that the optimal form of leadership is one that uses a blend of all four categories. All four frames
were utilized in analyzing the data and determining the findings in this study. The literature
describes the change among organizations over the past 2 decades. Change includes engineering,
strategizing, downsizing, and/or cultural renewal projects due to the macroeconomic forces at
work globally. Major change efforts, as described in Costa Rica, requires leaders who are astute
to the causes for failed organizations in order to navigate an organization at any scale through
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scalable change with positive outcomes. Leadership is at the heart of the study; without
leadership, major change efforts are not possible.
Capraro and Slough (2013) affirmed the third framework—STEM PBL, which describes
teaching and learning contextualized in authentic experiences necessary for students to build
conceptual understanding in all disciplines. STEM and PBL both support development of critical
thinkers and other essential soft skills described by the fourth and final framework.
Wagner’s (2008) framework was used to focus on innovation and the elements that will
change the world. A global perspective was also discussed, providing evidence of gaps among
the stronger schools in America compared to schools in other countries. Wagner summarized
seven survival skills, also referred to as soft skills, as necessary to close skill gaps: “critical
thinking and problem solving,” “collaboration across networks and leading by influence,”
“agility and adapt- ability,” “initiative and entrepreneurialism,” “effective oral and written
communication,” “accessing and analyzing information,” and “curiosity and imagination” (p.
67). All four of these frameworks were utilized in Chapter 4 to support data collection, data
analysis, and the synthesis process in establishing findings for this case study.
Chapter 3 described the design of the study and its limitations and delimitations. The
research team traveled from Los Angeles, California, to San José, Costa Rica, for a 10-day visit.
While the days were strategically organized to gather all pertinent information, the distance and
the limited time spent in Costa Rica served as limitations to the study. Regional teams of
investigators traveled together to the sites. Sites varied in distance and posed unexpected
challenges in collecting data. The primary language spoken in Costa Rica is Spanish, which
served as another potential limitation to the study. Language and terminology as facilitated
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during each phase of the data collection process served as limitations, since half of the research
team did not speak Spanish.
The research team collaborated to establish survey, observation, and interview protocols
to triangulate the collected data, as seen in the appendices. The triangulation also included the
three levels of interviews: business, government, and school site, which included teachers,
coordinators, and school leaders. The methods were employed at two school sites to understand
the impact of globalization and PRONAFECYT on the school sites in Costa Rica. Overall, the
data consisted of eight interviews, responses to 12 teacher surveys at the case study site (Escuela
Central), and 76 surveys administered to students. Observation data collected were in seven
classrooms at Escuela Central.
Global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing environment for
countries throughout the world. Societies are now more interconnected and interdependent than
ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed in an increasingly
interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education system must occur
(Biesanz et al., 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has necessitated a change in the skills that
students must develop to compete in an increasingly global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring,
2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer competing with other school systems in the
same city, state, or even nation but rather are competing with schools around the world (Wagner,
2008).
Research Question Overview
In Chapter 4, the four research questions were addressed based on the data collected
through surveys, observations, and interview questions. The data were collected during a 10-day
visit to school sites, as well as through interviews with business and government leaders,
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political leaders, and school site leaders. This study was designed to address four research
questions and to suggest best practices and recommendations that could be generalized to other
school systems globally. The recommendations are based on the findings related to the following
four questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less-
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
Synthesis of Findings
This study examined the role of educational leaders and teachers in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative. Data were collected pertaining to each research question.
Data trends were analyzed and synthesized to establish findings based on patterns and common
themes found in surveys, observations, and interviews. Nine research findings emerged from the
data. A discussion of findings are presented in response to the four research questions.
Research Question 1 was designed to understand the role of educational leaders in
implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative; this research question produced three
findings. The first finding related to leadership matters. Leadership has been an important lever
in instituting the conditions for change in Costa Rica in the past 30 years. Leadership at every
level (business, government, and education) has been noted to have positive correlations to
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growth and success. Leaders were interviewed regarding their roles in their field and particular
situations, as noted by Bolman and Deal (2008) and Fullan (2014). This finding is supported by
the work of Marzano et al. (2005), who stated that shared responsibilities are necessary to
facilitate growth. Strong leadership inspires a vision and mobilizes initiatives, such as the
PRONAFECYT, driving innovation and practices intended to improve societal and economic
conditions for all citizens. Globalization plays a role in determining the conditions necessary to
achieve the aspirational vision described by Friedman (2004). Moreover, Kotter (1996) asserted
that change is necessary and that strong leaders must lead through factors that will ensure
positive outcomes. The PRONAFECYT is implemented but leadership will be necessary to build
a more robust culture with greater investment and involvement at Escuela Central, and other
schools, to realize the country’s vision.
The second finding reflects the importance of a vision and a PRONAFECYT strategic
plan to be clearly established and communicated. Business leaders who were interviewed noted
confusion regarding the direction of the PRONAFECYT, particularly as it relates to contestants
and winners and their career trajectories. Business participants wondered whether anyone
followed students to learn about their career interests in order to work backward strategically to
ensure that science fair initiatives are reaching intended goals set by the MEP, government, and
business partners. Strategic planning is integral to investing constituents, as described by Fullan
(2014) and Kotter (1997). The majority of business partners who were interviewed wondered
who is leading the process to realize the true impact for the PRONAFECYT. Also, greater
collaboration between business and the ministry is necessary strategically align to the
PRONAFECYT with the needs noted by the business sector.
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The third finding was that greater recognition among educators is essential to bolstering
the culture of continuous feedback, as supported by Kotter (1996). The PRONAFECYT process
appears to be disseminated from the ministry to regions to school sites and staff. The findings
indicate a rote process that calls for clearer criteria for success, along with a cycle of feedback to
enhance productivity by educators and students. Business leaders claimed that Costa Rica
possesses a culture of complacency and a demeanor of being too nice or emphasizing feedback
and noted that healthy criticism is not a lever for growth in the country. Observation, as well as
interview patterns with school leaders and teachers, support a perception of minimal feedback for
continued growth. Recognition beyond the school site is almost nonexistent. Teachers stated that
they engage in the work as part of what they love to do. Site leaders appreciate their efforts;
however, the ministry or the government does not necessarily recognize teachers.
The second research question was a comparative question designed to understand the
practices at less successful schools. Escuela Central and Escuela Universitaria served as the two
comparative schools in this study. This research question produced two findings. The first
finding centers on teacher collaboration among grade levels, subject areas, and within the school.
Collaboration was evident in both schools; however, Escuela Central has a more robust and
organized collaboration structure, as evidenced in teacher interviews and classroom observations.
Escuela Central has clearly articulated practices as early as kindergarten. Practices include
cooperative learning, scientific inquiry and investigation, and student artifacts stressing the
importance of mathematics and science. The leadership at both schools noted the importance of
collaboration; however, the leadership at Escuela Central described the systems with rationale
and purpose behind the school’s collaborative structure, as supported by Capraro et al. (2013)
and Kotter (1997). By contrast, observations and interviews at Escuela Universitaria
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 120
demonstrated a greater degree of traditionally configured classrooms, with minimal evidence of
student-centered scientific processes. This finding describes how distributive leadership and
practices vary from one school to another and shows that system-level leadership is necessary to
ensure consistency and equitable learning experiences from school to school.
The second finding focuses on a school culture celebrating scientific thought processes
and ensuring a scientific integration throughout every subject and grade level, starting at the
beginning of the school year. This is different from following the scientific process in science
and mathematics classes solely or engaging in scientific processes only once in the year due to
the PRONAFECYT. Observations and interviews at Escuela Central demonstrated a focus on
scientific observations in the early grades and a focus on connecting observations to a cycle of
inquiry, starting in the second grade. Scientific thinking and hands-on learning experiences
provide students with autonomy, supporting students’ investment in science and mathematics, as
well as the process to examine real-world problems as described in the literature by Capraro et
al. (2013).
The third research question was designed to understand the ways in which leadership has
equipped schools with the soft skills necessary to participate in the PRONAFECYT. This
question produced two findings. Interviews and observations confirmed that the schools are
implementing science fair initiatives as outlined by the ministry; however, there appears to be a
theme related to a lack of resources to ensure equitable participation by all students throughout
Costa Rica. Depending on a school’s socioeconomic status, resources vary. Teachers purchase
materials with school funds, which are limited, their own funds, which is not sustainable, or from
parents, which might not be equitable or sustainable. Teachers must teach differently if students
are to learn develop soft skills and become the problem solvers of tomorrow (Wagner, 2012). In
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 121
order for teachers to teach with 21st-century soft skills in mind, teacher support and resources are
integral to success over time.
The second finding for this research question focuses on ongoing professional
development for educators. Schools disseminate information and teachers plan together but a
plan related to professional growth was not observed. In order for the PRONAFECYT to be
successful, students must think critically and engage with diverse constituents to develop 21st-
century soft skills. These learning experiences require professional development, training, and
adult learning to mimic the same level of teaching and learning required in classrooms. The
finding noted shifts in 21st-century learning outcomes, with training led by the science
coordinator. In order to raise achievement, a culture of professional learning is required by all
instructional staff—site leaders, coordinators, and teachers. Training and information-based
professional development will not sustain efforts or build capacity among educators over time.
The fourth research question examined the impact of PRONAFECYT on teaching and
learning in classrooms. The first of the two findings highlights constructivist teaching methods
and PBL as supported by the literature. PBL and constructivist teaching practices allow students
to explore their learning utilizing their prior learning and personal experience to construct
understanding rather than serve as passive learners in the process. The second finding describes
the importance of soft skills and their role in projects and long-term instructional planning.
Interviews and observations captured information related to a greater degree of student
collaborating, answering questions, and being allowed to investigate problems. Inquiry-based
learning provides students with opportunities to refine soft skills and support their interest in
mathematics and science initiatives as students progress through school. While the first finding
highlights the practices that support soft skills, the second finding illustrates the importance of
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 122
purposeful planning among grade levels and across grade levels to enhance learning outcomes
for all students in a specific school. Escuela Central stressed the importance of early exposure;
the director noted that the PRONAFECYT is a student’s right and emphasized that students
deserve to engage in scientific processes year round, not necessarily at the end of a school year.
Implications for Practice
Findings validated the notion that partnerships by education, business, and government
can result in positive changes that support the vision of a country addressing the needs of the
21st century. As in the United States, an educated and competitive populace is an important
indicator of a country’s economic outlook. Partnerships by leaders in government, business, and
education have dramatically shaped what is possible in Costa Rica for the past 3 decades. These
partnerships did not just happen overnight; rather, they required visionary and courageous
leadership, as well as careful planning.
Thus, the first recommendation is to create a coalition of leaders across sectors to discuss
trends in the job market and their implications for the various sectors. Continuous and regular
meetings will decrease the question posed by many, “Who is leading the process?” What are the
results?” “Is anyone doing anything with the results?” If PRONAFECYT is to continue shaping
reform efforts, it will require everyone’s careful attention, evaluation, and overall celebration.
The coalition might be synonymous with various national groups in America such as Jobs for the
Future, The Pahara and Aspen Institutes, and other such agencies focused on bringing together
leaders from diverse sectors, thereby gaining perspective and insight while expanding lines of
communication for further action on short- and long-term goals.
Second, it is recommended that the country elevate efforts in recognizing all teachers and
all school leaders for their focus and attention on PRONAFECYT. Recognition should illuminate
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 123
the impact of each adult on students, families, communities, and the country. Every stakeholder
in Costa Rica should understand why the country values initiatives in science, technology, and
mathematics and how PBL and 21st-century practices will support the country to prosper as a
whole. Incentives that feed people’s souls are levers to systemic change. The success of
PRONAFECYT will be based on the people on the front line, such as students, teachers, and
school leaders.
Third, the findings point to a need to raise the level of accountability measures to align
the PRONAFECYT with initiatives around the globe. Assessment systems currently in place
appear to be outdated and are not measuring the skills or knowledge required be successful with
the PRONAFECYT; therefore, it is recommended to alter the assessments or performance tasks
and systemize them by region to create formative opportunities for educators to reflect on the
teaching and learning practices necessary to be successful in the 21st century. Adjusting
assessment system will also disrupt the current culture to speed through timelines in order to
fulfill PRONAFECYT expectations. The school system should seek focused attention on the
practices that will have the best outcomes for all students.
Fourth, feedback and courageous leadership will continue to encourage feedback for
growth and success over time. Research findings point to evidence of a country afraid to push
boundaries and engage in difficult conversations. It is recommended to examine professional
learning expectations systematically and outline the goals and the practices that are desired by
the country. Measuring progress against goals over time will help leaders to raise questions about
practices and specifically replicate the practices that are yielding positive outcomes. These
practices will require people to facilitate difficult conversations from time to time; however, the
conversations should never be focused on the individual but rather on the specific actions with
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 124
clear purpose and intent. This level of focus on professional growth will also support a culture
that celebrates ongoing innovation, professional growth, and learning.
Recommendations for Future Research
The findings in this study strongly suggest that leadership is integral to the success of any
initiative in either the public or private sector and a close partnership among business,
government, education, and other social enterprises. Although there are polices in place for
participation in the PRONAFECYT, an opportunity gap remains in schools in urban
communities who might lack the resources that are available to more affluent communities. To
increase the validity and implications of this study, a comparative study between schools in
urban communities with limited resources, studying the strategies that schools are putting in
place to navigate financial, social, and cultural barriers will be necessary. The study should
highlight the leadership implications and specific initiatives supporting positive outcomes. These
findings would provide compelling evidence and advance the dialogue about what is possible in
urban communities. All schools are capable of facilitating positive change.
Because leadership can serve as a strong lever for positive change, the second research
area could target government and policy in Costa Rica. Focusing on leaders who enact scalable
political and controversial change would extend this study by examining the exact barriers and
skills required to undertake a political climate in any type of government. Because this study
engaged directly with school site stakeholders, it would be necessary to spend as much time with
political leaders, examining policy briefs and its history and future prospects to determine the
type of leader who will make impactful change, particularly for those in urban communities.
The jobs of the future will continue to change the landscape of businesses, schools, and
government. This study used several frameworks to describe the impact of globalization, 21st-
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 125
century skills, and the principles of courageous leadership. While the literature in this study
helped to frame the problem, it is important to continue to navigate current research examining
these practices in order to scrutinize and evaluate results and outcomes. The 21st century will see
various changes from generation to generation; keeping pace with research and altering status
quo will be essential. Therefore, further research might step into the future and underscore the
future implications for business, government leaders, and educators alike.
Conclusion
Globalization and leadership have had an impact on the education system by embracing
the world culture view and incorporating soft skills as defined by Wagner’s (2008) framework to
meet the demands of a competitive global market (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). The overall
conclusion drawn from the data that were collected and analyzed is that changes continue to
occur in the Costa Rican education system and primary schools are critical partners in supporting
students who are curious and who utilize the type of thinking that will create a clear pathway as
students mature and enter secondary school. The results from interviews, observations, and
surveys indicated that business and government leaders are taking an active role in shaping the
country’s future.
Based on the scope of the data collection and analysis, the country has a strong
foundation for continued growth and success. A continued focus on the impact of globalization
and ensuring systems of continuous growth will positively affect the schools in Costa Rica.
Everyone has the platform to lead and leadership exists at every level. Fostering a concern for
leadership and creating a synergy among all levels of government, business, and education will
provide a greater degree of momentum to support the PRONAFECYT. It will also support an
increase in knowledge-ready workers for the Costa Rican labor market. This qualitative study
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 126
advances the dialogue on globalization and the educational and economic implications for school
systems in the 21st century.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 127
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PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 135
APPENDIX A
Summary of the Research Proposal

USC Rossier
School of Education
March 1, 2015

Summary of the Research Proposal: Globalization has resulted in increased competition among countries
for economic growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s
competitiveness. In the educational system, changes have been made to increase development of student
competencies in the STEM areas, one of those changes being mandated participation in the National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT). Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity
in the levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the PRONAFECYT initiative at
individual school sites.

Goals of the Research: The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will identify the role of
school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Also, the study will
explore how schools may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of
leadership and teacher training.

Brief Description of the Methodology: Interviews of leaders: School Director interviews will typically
last about 30 minutes. In the past, interviews were longer only when the director wanted to talk more
about the school—which is great!

Teacher surveys: There will be no teacher interviews, just a short survey. Last year we put it online so
teachers could complete it before our students arrive. For those with limited Internet access, we had paper
surveys for them when we arrived.

Classroom observations: Classroom observations are about 10 minutes per room unless the Director or
teacher wants our students to stay longer.

Most of our students are subdirectors or directors or hold higher positions, so they understand the pressure
on school directors and are very respectful of their time and the time of their teachers. We do not want to
be an interruption or imposition. We are very grateful for the time that people spend with us and are
humbled by the high quality of academics that we see in Costa Rican schools, particularly with respect to
the science fairs.

Thank you for your assistance.

Sincerely,
Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft
Michael Escalante, Ed.D. Oryla Wiedoeft, Ed.D.
Executive in Residence Adjunct Assistant Professor
USC Rossier School of Education USC Rossier School of Education

University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Suite 1004B, Los Angeles, California 90089-1234
! Tel: 213 740 3711! Fax: 213 740 3553
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 136
APPENDIX B
List of Research Sites

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 137
APPENDIX C
Recruitment Letter

DATE

Dear XXX,

On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following
questions will be addressed:

1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?

2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to our
study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 through June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you
have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 138
APPENDIX D
Observation Protocol

School:

Grade Level: Total Students:
Teacher:

Observer(s):

Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School Directors communicate with teachers.
2. School Directors are visible in the classrooms.
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF are
apparent (process).

4. Evidence of student projects is related to the
implementation of the NSTF. (outcome)

5. The school has resources to prepare students for
the NSTF.

6. Teacher collaboration is evident.
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity,
and imagination).

8. Training and professional development are
evident.

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 139

9. Other
Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School directors communicate with
teachers.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
2. School Directors are visible in
classrooms.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 140
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF
are apparent (process).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
4. Evidence of student projects is related to
the implementation of the NSTF (outcome).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 141

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
5. The school has resources to prepare
students for NSTF.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
6. Teacher collaboration is evident. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 142

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills
(critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability,
analysis, curiosity, and imagination).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
8. Training and professional development is
evident.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 143

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
9. Other 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Observation Checklist
Capraro
(STEM PBL)
Wagner
(Soft Skills)
Observed
Student Group Work/Collaboration X X
Discourse and Questioning
(student-student, teacher-student)
X
Student Work
Student Engagement X X
Computers in the Classroom X
Student Centered X X
STEM Integration Across Content Areas X

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 144
APPENDIX E
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 145

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provocan los directores retroalimentación con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran que todos los estudiantes participen en el PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtienen los directores de escuelas los recursos necesarios para participar en
la PRONAFECYT?

5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos en lo que respecta a la
aplicación de la PRONAFECYT?

6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.

7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?

8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utiliza para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 146
APPENDIX F
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate for the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the
PRONAFECYT?
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 147

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?
2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación con respecto a la aplicación de el
PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtiene los recursos necesarios para participar en la PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros en su escuela para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado sus maestros para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para
el PRONAFECYT?

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 148
APPENDIX G
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. What are your country’s goals for economic growth and creating an innovation-based
society?
2. How are the goals coordinated among the various governmental agencies?
3. Based on your perception, who are the key leaders in developing an innovation-based
workforce?
4. How does the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
support the national goals of developing an innovation-based workforce?
5. What role(s) do educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT?
6. How does government policy encourage PRONAFECYT participation?
7. Does the government provide schools with resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, what kind of resources are provided? If no, what would those
resources be?
8. Does the government recognize schools and/or regions for successful participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, please describe.
9. What is the government’s vision for implementation of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) in Costa Rican Schools?
10. What skills should schools promote to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT?

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 149

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cuáles son las metas de su país para el crecimiento económico y la creación de una
sociedad basada en la innovación?
2. ¿Cómo son estas metas coordinadas entre las distintas agencias gubernamentales?
3. En base a su percepción, ¿quiénes son los líderes clave en el desarrollo de una fuerza
laboral que está basada en la innovación?
4. ¿Cómo apoya el Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT) a los
objetivos nacionales en el desarrollo de una fuerza laboral que está basada en la
innovación?
5. ¿Qué función(es) desempeña(n) los líderes del sistema educativo en la aplicación del
PNFCT?
6. ¿De qué manera la política del gobierno fomenta la participación en el PNFCT?
7. ¿El gobierno proporciona a las escuelas con los recursos necesarios para participar en el
PNFCT? Si es así, ¿qué tipo de recursos se proporcionan? Si no, ¿cuáles serían esos
recursos?
8. ¿El gobierno reconoce a las escuelas y/o regiones por su participación en el PNFCT? Si
es así, por favor describa como lo hace el gobierno.
9. ¿Cuál es la visión del gobierno para la integración de la ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y
matemáticas en el plan de estudios de las escuelas en Costa Rica?
10. ¿Qué habilidades cree usted que las escuelas deben promover para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PNFCT?
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 150
APPENDIX H
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How has your child been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do School Directors elicit parent feedback to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do School Directors acquire resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT?
5. How are students recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices does your child’s teacher use to prepare him/her for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have you been trained to help your student(s) to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 151

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se ha preparado su hijo/a para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación los directores de escuela con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?
3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?
4. ¿Cómo obtiene los directores de escuelas recursos necesarios para participar en la
PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los estudiantes por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros de su hijo/a en su escuela para
preparar a los estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?
9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado usted para ayudar a su estudiante (s) prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 152
APPENDIX I
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Grade:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How did you get ready for the science fair project?
2. How does your teacher make sure everyone participates in the science fair?
3. How do you get all the things you need for your science fair project?
4. Are you rewarded for participating in the science fair? If so, how are your rewarded?
5. How does participation in the science fair help you?
6. How do your teachers get you ready for the science fair?

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 153

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo te preparas para el proyecto de feria de ciencias?

2. ¿Cómo se asegúra su maestro de que todos participen en la feria de ciencias?

3. ¿Cómo obtienes todo lo que necesitas para tu proyecto de ciencias?

4. ¿La escuela los recompense or celebra por su participación en la feria de ciencias? Si
es así, ¿Cómo celebra la escuela?

5. ¿Cómo te ayuda la participación en la feria de ciencia?

6. ¿Cómo te preparan los maestros para la feria de ciencias?

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 154
APPENDIX J
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. The School Director plays a critical
role in ensuring that teachers imple-
ment the National Programs of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
" " " " "
2. Teachers need support from the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
" " " " "
3. The School Director elicits teacher
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
4. The School Director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
5. I provide opportunities for students
to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my regular instruction.
" " " " "
6. I utilize project-based learning
(PBL) in my teaching.
" " " "
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
8. My school has adequate resources
that allow me to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
" " " " "
10. My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
" " " " "
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 155

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
" " " " "
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
" " " " "
14. Teachers at my school work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my
classroom.
" " " " "
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
18. There is a positive culture at my
school regarding the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
19. The School Director communicates
the goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
20. Teacher training was useful in
preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
" " " " "
23. There is a high level of participation
in the PRONAFECYT at my school.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 156
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No
estoy

seguro

1. El director de la escuela tiene un papel
crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(PNFCT).
" " " " "
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
" " " " "
3. El director de la escuela solicita
retroalimentación de los maestros para
mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
" " " " "
4. El director de la escuela comunica el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
" " " " "
5. Yo ofrezco oportunidades a mis
estudiantes para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de mi
enseñanza regular.
" " " " "
6. Yo utilizo el aprendizaje basado en
proyectos (ABP) cuando doy clase.
" " " " "
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a mis
estudiantes en la competencia de la
PNFCT.
" " " " "
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes
que me permiten preparar la
competencia estudiantil en la PNFCT.
" " " " "
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación,
capacidad de adaptación, análisis,
curiosidad e imaginación).
" " " " "
10. El director de la escuela comunica la
importancia de las habilidades
sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
" " " " "
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 157

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No
estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan
habilidades sociales a través de la
participación en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
12. He recibido capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
" " " " "
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en mi aula.
" " " " "
16. Maestros en mi escuela reciben la
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
" " " " "
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre
el PNFCT.
" " " " "
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
" " " " "
19. El director de la escuela comunica los
objetivos de participación en el
PNFCT.
" " " " "
20. La capacitación de maestros fue útil
para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PNFCT.
" " " " "
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
" " " " "
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en mi escuela.
" " " " "
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 158
APPENDIX K
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

1. School Directors play a critical role in
assuring teachers implement the
National Science and Technology Fair
(PRONAFECYT). " " " " "
2. Teachers need the support of the school
Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
" " " " "
3. I elicit student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT .
" " " " "
4. I communicate the purpose and urgency
of the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
5. My teachers provide opportunities for
their students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.

" " " " "
6. My teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
" " " "
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare teachers and students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
8. My school has adequate resources to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
" " " " "
10. I communicate with teachers about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
" " " " "
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 159

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
" " " " "
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
" " " " "
14. Teachers at my school work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at my school.
" " " " "
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
18. There is a positive culture at my school
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
19. I communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
20. My teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
" " " " "
23. There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT .
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 160
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
" " " " "
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar
el PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
" " " " "
3. Yo solicito retroalimentación de los
estudiantes para mejorar la
implementación del PNFCT.
" " " " "
4. Yo comunico el propósito y la urgencia
del PNFCT.
" " " " "
5. Mis maestros ofrecen oportunidades a sus
estudiantes para participar en proyectos
de investigación científica o ingeniería
como parte de enseñanza regular.
" " " " "
6. Mis maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan
clase.
" " " " "
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a los maestros y
estudiantes en la competencia del
PNFCT.
" " " " "
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes para
preparar la competencia estudiantil en el
PNFCT.
" " " " "
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
" " " " "
10. Yo comunico la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil con mis
maestros.
" " " " "
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 161

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en
el PNFCT.
" " " " "
12. He proporcionado capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el aula.
" " " " "
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en mi escuela.
" " " " "
14. Los maestros en mi escuela trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
" " " " "
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en mi escuela.
" " " " "
16. Mis maestros reciben la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
" " " " "
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre el
PNFCT.
" " " " "
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
" " " " "
19. Yo comunico los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
20. Mis maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
" " " " "
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
" " " " "
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 162
APPENDIX L
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
" " " " "
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
" " " " "
3. School Directors elicit student feed-
back to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of my regular
instruction.
" " " " "
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
" " " "
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
" " " " "
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 163

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
" " " " "
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
" " " " "
14. Teachers in this region work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at schools in
my region.
" " " " "
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
" " " " "
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
" " " " "
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools in my region.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 164
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen
un papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
" " " " "
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
" " " " "
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes
para mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
" " " " "
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y
la urgencia del PNFCT.
" " " " "
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades
para participar en proyectos de
investigación científica o ingeniería.
" " " " "
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando
dan clase.
" " " " "
7. Las escuelas están provistas con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos
suficientes para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colabora-
ción, comunicación, capacidad de
adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
" " " " "
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
" " " " "
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 165

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habili-
dades sociales a través de la participa-
ción en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en
el aula.
" " " " "
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
" " " " "
14. Los maestros de mi región trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse
para el PNFCT.
" " " " "
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en las
escuelas de mi región.
" " " " "
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad
de liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
" " " " "
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
de esta región sobre el PNFCT.
" " " " "
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
" " " " "
19. Los maestros y los directores de las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
" " " " "
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
22. Los maestros y administradores
reciben capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
" " " " "
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en las escuelas de mi
región.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 166
APPENDIX M
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
" " " " "
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
" " " " "
3. School Directors elicit student
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.
" " " " "
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
" " " "
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
" " " " "
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
" " " " "
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 167

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
" " " " "
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
" " " " "
14. Teachers at my local schools work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at the schools
with which I work with.
" " " " "
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
" " " " "
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
" " " " "
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools I work with.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 168
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT).
" " " " "
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar el
PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
" " " " "
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes para
mejorar la implementación del PNFCT.
" " " " "
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y la
urgencia del PNFCT.
" " " " "
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades para
participar en proyectos de investigación
científica o ingeniería.
" " " " "
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje basado
en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan clase.
" " " " "
7. Las escuelas están provistas con formación
y entrenamiento adecuado para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos suficientes
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
" " " " "
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
" " " " "
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
" " " " "
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 169

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
" " " " "
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
" " " " "
14. Los maestros en las escuelas con las que
colaboro trabajan juntos para planificar
y prepararse para el PNFCT.
" " " " "
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en las escuelas con las que
trabajo.
" " " " "
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
" " " " "
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
con las que trabajo sobre el PNFCT.
" " " " "
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
" " " " "
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
" " " " "
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
22. Los maestros y administradores reciben
capacitación anual sobre las directrices
del PNFCT.
" " " " "
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en las
escuelas con las que trabajo en el
PNFCT.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 170
APPENDIX N
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

1. My child’s school director plays a
critical role in assuring teachers
implement the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
" " " " "
2. My child’s teachers need the support of
the School Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
" " " " "
3. My child’s school director elicits
student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
4. My child’s teachers communicate the
purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
5. My child’s teachers provide me oppor-
tunities to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my child’s regular instruction.
" " " " "
6. My child’s teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
" " " "
7. My child’s school is provided with
adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
8. My child’s school has adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
9. My child is familiar with soft skills (i.e.
critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
" " " " "
10. My child’s teachers communicate the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on my child’s achievement.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 171

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

11. My child developed soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
12. My child’s teachers have shared how
they have integrated soft skills in the
classroom.
" " " " "
13. My child’s participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized at my
school.
" " " " "
14. My child’s teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my child’s
classroom.
" " " " "
16. My child’s teachers are given the
leadership capacity to make decisions
about projects for the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
18. There is a positive culture at my child’s
school regarding the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
19. Teachers and the Director at my child’s
school communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
20. My child’s teachers receive useful
training that assist to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare my child for the
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "
22. My child’s teachers share
PRONAFECYT guidelines with me.
" " " " "
23. My child participated in the school’s
PRONAFECYT.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 172
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
tiene un papel crítico en asegurar que
los maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
" " " " "
2. Los maestros de mi hijo/a necesitan el
apoyo del director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
" " " " "
3. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
solicita retroalimentación de los estudi-
antes para mejorar la implementación
del PNFCT.
" " " " "
4. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
" " " " "
5. Los maestros de mi hijo/a ofrecen
oportunidades para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de la enseñanza
regular.
" " " " "
6. Los maestros de mi hijo/a utilizan el
aprendizaje basado en proyectos (ABP)
cuando dan clase.
" " " " "
7. La escuela de mi hijo/a está provista con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
8. La escuela de mi hijo/a tiene recursos
suficientes para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
9. Mi hijo/a esta familiarizado/a con
habilidades sociales (e.g. pensamiento
crítico y resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación, capacidad
de adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
" " " " "
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 173

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

10. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican la
importancia de las habilidades sociales
y su impacto en su rendimiento
estudiantil.
" " " " "
11. Mi hijo/a desarrolla habilidades sociales
a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
" " " " "
12. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
cómo integran habilidades sociales en el
aula.
" " " " "
13. La participación de mi hijo/a en el
PNFCT se reconoce en su escuela.
" " " " "
14. Los maestros de mi hijo/a trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
" " " " "
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en el aula de mi hijo/a.
" " " " "
16. Los maestros de mi hijo/a reciben
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
" " " " "
17. Existe una visión sobre el PNFCT en la
escuela de mi hijo/a.
" " " " "
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en la escuela de mi hijo/a.
" " " " "
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
" " " " "
20. El director de la escuela y los maestros
de mi hijo/a reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
" " " " "
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
que prepara a mi hijo/a para el PNFCT.
" " " " "
22. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
las directrices del PNFCT conmigo.
" " " " "
23. Mi hijo/a participo en el PNFCT de su
escuela.
" " " " "
PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 174
APPENDIX O
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. n/a " " " " "
2. n/a " " " " "
3. n/a " " " " "
4. My teachers talk about why we are
doing science fair projects.
" " " " "
5. My teachers often help me learn
about the scientific method through
science and technology activities.
" " " " "
6. My teachers have us work on group
projects where we solve problems
and work together.
" " " " "
7. My teachers help me get my science
fair project ready.
" " " " "
8. My school has all the things I need
to help me with my science fair
project.
" " " " "
9. I know about soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
" " " " "
10. My teachers talk about the import-
ance of soft skills and how they will
help me do well in school.
" " " " "
11. I can improve my soft skills when I
do projects for the science fair.
" " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 175
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. n/a " " " " "
13. My school rewards students who
participate in the science fair.
" " " " "
14. n/a " " " " "
15. n/a " " " " "
16. n/a " " " " "
17. People at my school enjoy getting
ready for the science fair.
" " " " "
18. n/a " " " " "
19. n/a " " " " "
20. n/a " " " " "
21. n/a " " " " "
22. n/a " " " " "
23. n/a " " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 176

Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo
En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. " " " " "
2. " " " " "
3. " " " " "
4. Mis maestros hablan del por qué
estamos haciendo proyectos para la feria
científica.
" " " " "
5. Mis maestros a menudo me ayudan a
aprender del método científico por
medio de actividades de ciencia y
tecnología.
" " " " "
6. Mis maestros nos asignan proyectos de
trabajo de equipo donde colaboramos
para resolver problemas.
" " " " "
7. Mis maestros me apoyan para que mi
proyecto esté listo para la feria
científica.
" " " " "
8. Mi escuela tiene todo lo que necesito
para mi proyecto de la feria científica.
" " " " "
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
" " " " "
10. Mis maestros hablan de la importancia
de las habilidades sociales y de su
impacto en mi rendimiento como
estudiante.
" " " " "
11. Mejoro mis habilidades sociales cuando
participo en la feria científica.
" " " " "
12. " " " " "
13. Mi escuela recompensas a alumnos que
participan en la feria científica.
" " " " "
14. " " " " "
15. " " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 177

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

16. " " " " "
17. La gente de mi escuela disfrutan la
preparación para la feria científica.
" " " " "
18. " " " " "
19. " " " " "
20. " " " " "
21. " " " " "
22. " " " " "
23. " " " " "

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 178
APPENDIX P
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation
in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

PARTICIPATION IN THE PRONAFECYT 179
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities,
ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social
Work, omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District
Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College,
rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The single most important factor in improving and sustaining a country’s economy is its education system. In the past 3 decades, multinational corporations have invested in Costa Rica, which has focused on improving its education system, particularly to develop students who will acquire 21st-century skills and foundational knowledge in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Government policies require all schools to participate in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT), with a goal of equitable engagement by all students. The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders and government and business in implementation of and participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study examined leadership practices and the role of school leaders in development, implementation, and the overall impact of PRONAFECYT initiatives. ❧ The principle finding from comprehensive analysis was that leadership is integral to the success of the PRONAFECYT from all sectors in Costa Rica—government, business, and education. These partnerships have given Costa Rican students access to tools and opportunities to prepare to be competitive, knowledge- and technology-ready citizens. Other findings highlighted the need for greater access to resources, training, and professional development and ongoing leadership development for all stakeholders in the school system. The vision established by Costa Rica has been a catalyst for positive change in education. With continued support by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Science, Technology and Telecommunications, as well as private agencies such as the Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency, the hope is for greater collaboration among all major corporations to ensure that Costa Rica continues to attract foreign direct investment and serve as an example for other countries to adapt similar policies and practices.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Esquivel, Ricardo (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Central in the Oeste Region

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/25/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag equity,Globalization,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,PRONAFECYT,soft skills

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Verdugo, David (committee member)

Creator Email mresquivel@gmail.com,ricardoe@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-243663

Unique identifier UC11277011

Identifier etd-EsquivelRi-4377.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-243663 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-EsquivelRi-4377.pdf

Dmrecord 243663

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Esquivel, Ricardo

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA