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Factors influencing the academic persistence of college students with ADHD

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Factors influencing the academic persistence of college students with ADHD

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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ACADEMIC PERSISTENCE OF COLLEGE
STUDENTS WITH ADHD

by

Claudia Alexia Melara

________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2012

Copyright 2012 Claudia Alexia Melara
ii
DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my precious son, Brandon. He is the true
inspiration behind everything that I decide to pursue. His unconditional love, support,
and happy spirit motivate me to keep learning and always put forth my best effort. His
support and the adjustments that we have made together throughout the years, as I
navigated my way through this journey, allowed for this work to be completed.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A special thank you to Derek Ihori who has been an excellent model of hard work and
perseverance as well as a steady source of encouragement. Also, special thanks to my
family and friends who have encouraged me along the way and have been so very
understanding of my limited availability throughout this journey. I would also like to
thank my committee for all of their support and guidance in shaping this work. Finally, a
very special thank you to the participants of this study who openly shared their
experiences so that we may be better able to understand their challenges and successes.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Chapter I: Introduction 1
Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of the Study 4
Significance of the Study 5
Research Questions 5
Methodology 6
Limitations and Delimitations 6
Definition of Terms 6

Chapter II: Review of the Literature 9
Students with ADHD – Overview of Attention Disorders 9
Student Attrition 11
Persistence in the Overall Postsecondary Population 12
Challenges for Students with ADHD 13
Theoretical Framework 17
Social-Cognitive factors 20
Available Institutional Supports for Students with ADHD 25
Student Perceptions of their Postsecondary Experiences 29
Summary 30

Chapter III: Methodology 32
Design Summary 33
Instrumentation 35
Participants and Setting 36
Data Collection and Analysis 37
Limitations and Delimitations 38

Chapter IV: Findings 39
Introduction of Student Participants 39
Table 4.1 Student Demographics 40
Research Question One 41
Behavioral Manifestations 41
Experiences Related to Instruction 44
Experiences Related to Disclosure 45
Experiences Related to Accommodations 46
v
Other Common Themes 49
Comorbid diagnoses 49
Decreased feelings of self-concept and
self-efficacy 49
Feeling overwhelmed 49
Coping strategies 49
Counseling 51
Acceptance of diagnosis 52
Medication use 52
Desire to be successful with minimal supports 54
Determination to obtain a degree 55
Utility value of the degree 56
Community college transfers 57
Employment status 57
Research Question Two 58
Family Support 58
Medication 59
Support from Friends and Peers 60
Support from University-Based Resources 61
Research Question Three 62
Institutional Commitment 62
Social Integration 64
Perceptions of Fit Between Self and Institution 66

Chapter V: Discussion of Results 70
Discussion of Research Questions 70
Research Question One 70
Behavioral manifestations 71
Experiences related to instruction 72
Experiences related to disclosure 72
Experiences related to accommodations 73
Comorbid diagnoses 74
Medication use 74
Feeling overwhelmed 74
Self-efficacy and self-concept 75
Coping strategies 76
Counseling 76
Desire to function with minimal supports 77
Performance goal orientation 77
Utility value of degree 77
Benefit of prior attendance at a community
college 78
Research Question Two 78
Family support 79
vi
Medication 79
Support from friends and peers 79
University-based resources 80
Sense of connection with faculty/staff 80
Research Question Three 81
Institutional commitment 81
Social integration 81
Fit between self and institution 82
Commitment to individual goals 83
Strengths and Limitations of the Study 83
Implications for Practice 85
Recommendations for Further Research 85
Conclusion 86

References 87

Appendices
Appendix A: Institutional Review Board Approval of Study 92

Appendix B: Similarities Between Theoretical Models and
Interview Questions 93

vii
ABSTRACT

Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are at greater
risk for failing to complete their postsecondary educational degrees than their typical
peers. The present qualitative sought to identify factors influencing the academic
persistence of students with ADHD in postsecondary settings. Utilizing direct interviews
with postsecondary students at two four-year universities, the present study found that
family and peer support, medication, counseling, a sense of connection with faculty/staff,
university-based resources, and overall satisfaction with academic and social experiences
are contributing factors to the academic persistence of college students with ADHD.
These findings can be used to guide postsecondary institutions in supporting students
with ADHD. Furthermore, the information gained from this study can be used to assist
students with ADHD in identifying and developing beneficial supports that will
contribute to their success in the postsecondary education setting.

1
CHAPTER I
Introduction
The number of students with disabilities entering postsecondary education in the
United States has grown significantly over the past several years and current data
indicates that approximately 45% of all students with disabilities attend a postsecondary
institution within four years of graduating from high school (Newman, Wagner, Cameto,
& Knokey, 2009). The overall increase in the enrollment of students with learning
disabilities in postsecondary education has been attributed, in part, to the increase in high
school graduation rates of students with disabilities (Allsopp, Minskoff, & LesBolt,
2005).
Current data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) indicates
that learning disabilities are the most common type of disability reported in
postsecondary settings followed by Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) as
the second most common type (NCES, 2011). Further, the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES, 2011) reports that in 2008- 2009, students with ADHD accounted for
18% of the population with disabilities enrolled in postsecondary institutions.
The present study sought to gain information regarding factors that sophomore,
junior, and senior students with ADHD in four-year postsecondary settings perceive as
influential in their academic persistence. A qualitative study was conducted in which the
experiences of students with ADHD in postsecondary institutions were explored via
individual interviews.

2
Background of the Problem
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2011), in 2008-2009,
students with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or ADHD comprised approximately 13%
of the disabled student population attending two-year public institutions and the same
percentage was true for two-year private, not for profit institutions. In comparison, 23%
of the disabled student population at four-year public universities had a diagnosis of
ADD/ADHD while four-year private, not for profit institutions reported that 26% of their
disabled student population had a diagnosis of ADD/ADHD.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a medically recognized disorder,
frequently diagnosed during childhood, with symptoms that often persist into adulthood
(Barkley, 1997; Norwalk, Norvilitis, & MacLean, 2009; Wolf, 2006). Overall, students
with ADHD experience deficits in various executive functions such as working memory,
internalized speech, and self-regulation (Barkley, 1997). Barkley (1997) theorizes that
these deficits lead to difficulty with inhibition of task-irrelevant responses, execution of
goal-directed responses, motor control, task re-engagement after disruption, control of
behavior by internally represented information, and goal-directed persistence. As a
result, academic and social functioning is impacted to varying degrees by these
difficulties.
Research suggests that 35% to 80% of cases diagnosed in childhood will continue
to meet diagnostic criteria for the disorder during adolescence while 49% to 66% will
continue to meet criteria into adulthood (Barkley, Fischer, Smallish, & Fletcher, 2006).
While ADHD symptomatology is problematic across the various age groups, its
3
behavioral expression looks different at different age levels (Barkley, 2002). For
instance, behavioral symptoms such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, and conduct problems
are frequently reported as challenging by parents and teachers of students with ADHD
(DuPaul, Jitendra, Tresco, Junod, Volpe, & Lutz, 2006; Miranda, Soriano, Fernandez, &
Melia, 2008). However, symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity declined with age,
while symptoms of inattention were less likely to decrease (Norwalk et al., 2009).
Statement of the Problem
Educational outcomes appear to be one of the areas affected to the greatest extent
by ADHD (Barkley, 2002). The most recent available statistics from the National Center
for Education Statistics (NCES) indicate that approximately 55% of students who were
identified as having an Other Health Impairment (which included those with a diagnosis
of ADHD) and received special education services while in high school attended a
postsecondary institution within four-years of high school graduation. Approximately
13% of those students attended a four-year institution, 43% attended a two-year college,
and thirty-two percent attended a vocational/technical school. Of those who attended a
postsecondary institution, 28.8% graduated (received a diploma, certificate, or license).
Of those who attended a four-year university, 14.7% graduated with a bachelor’s degree
within four years (Newman et al., 2009). In contrast, the rate of completion of a
bachelor’s degree for students without disabilities within the same time period and frame
was 36.2% (NCES, 2009). Additionally, the percent of students without disabilities
completing a bachelor’s degree from any four-year institution within 6 years from start
was 57.5% in 2007. In contrast, the rate of completion for students who had a previous
4
designation of Other Health Impairment (which included those with a diagnosis of
ADHD), had enrolled in a four-year institution, and had been out of high school for 6
years was 14.7% in 2007 (NCES, 2009). Although specific information regarding
completion rates for students with ADHD could not be found, research conducted by
Schnoes, Reid, Wagner, and Marder (2006) found that approximately 67% of students
with a classification of Other Health Impairment are placed in this category based on a
diagnosis of ADHD. Thus, the data suggests a substantial difference in rates of
completion at four-year institutions for students with ADHD compared to the overall
population.
Given the challenges experienced by students with ADHD, it is important to
consider the impact that these challenges may have on their persistence in postsecondary
settings. These challenges may be exacerbated by the total demands placed on students
in higher education (Wolf, 2006). Further, these challenges place students with ADHD
at-risk for lower academic achievement and lower rates of completion of postsecondary
education than their non-ADHD peers (Barkley, 2002).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to contribute to the literature with regard to factors
that play a role in academic persistence for college students with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) as perceived by those students themselves. While the
bulk of the existing literature informs this topic from a third-person perspective, the
current study aims at informing the topic from the first-person perspective of those who
have this disorder.
5
Significance of the Study
Research indicates that students with ADHD in postsecondary settings continue to
face challenges related to their disability (Barkley, 2002; Barkley et al. 2006; Wolf,
2006). As supported by the existing literature, these challenges have an impact in the
academic functioning of these students and their success in postsecondary settings. The
identification of factors that exert a positive influence in the academic persistence of
students with ADHD in postsecondary settings is important in order to build new and/or
enhance existing supports. However, the existing literature on college students affected
by this disorder and factors involved in their persistence is limited. Therefore, expansion
of the literature base in existence is a current need.
Research Questions
The research questions that were addressed in the present study are the following:
1) What experiences do postsecondary students with ADHD report?
2) What supports have influenced their persistence in a postsecondary setting?
3) How do the experiences reported by college students with ADHD relate to
Tinto’s Model of Institutional Departure (1987, 1993) and Bean’s Student
Attrition model (1980)?

6
Methodology
The research design for this study was qualitative in nature and consisted of interviews of
postsecondary students with ADHD. Criterion sampling was used; therefore, selected
criteria were utilized in order to sample the target population for this study. Interviews
conducted with the participants in this study were semi-structured and contained specific
questions designed to answer the identified research questions. A phenomenological
perspective was utilized for the analysis of findings.
Limitations and Delimitations
There were several limitations to this study. The study only sampled students
from a single private university and a single public university in Southern California.
The findings can therefore not be generalized to other institutions. Further, the sample
only included students who have self-disclosed their disability to Disability Services and
did not include others who may have a diagnosis of ADHD but have not made the school
aware of their status. In addition, the study relied on self-report from participants and
only sampled juniors and seniors pursuing a first-time bachelor’s degree.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of clarity regarding the terms used within this dissertation, the following
relevant terms have been defined:
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – A disorder characterized by
inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are outside of the normal range of
development for an individual’s chronological age (DSM-IV TR; American Psychiatric
Association, 2000).
7
Attrition – The number of students lost from enrollment between two points in time
(IDRA, 2011).
College student – For the purpose of this study, a student attending any postsecondary
institution.
Degree – For the purpose of this study, a first-time bachelor degree or equivalent.
Institutional Commitment – The degree of loyalty regarding membership in a particular
postsecondary institution (Bean, 1980).
Motivation – The process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained
(Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008).
Other Health Impairment – IDEA 2004 defines it as “having limited strength, vitality,
or alertness including heightened alertness to environmental stimuli that, results in
limited alertness with respect to the educational environment that is due to chronic or
acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, epilepsy, a heart condition,
hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and
Tourette syndrome, and adversely affects a child’s educational performance.”
Persistence – For the purposes of this study persistence refers to a student remaining in
school until completion of a first-time bachelor’s degree (Camara, 2003).
Postsecondary institution – For the purposes of this study, postsecondary institutions
are two-year and four-year colleges and universities.
8
Self-concept – Pintrich and Schunk (2002) define it as an “individual’s belief about
themselves in terms of their academic, social, athletic, and personal capabilities and
characteristics.”
Self-efficacy – Schunk et al. (2008) define it as “an individual’s perceived capabilities for
learning and performing actions to a specific degree.”
Self-regulation – The process whereby students personally activate and sustain
behaviors, cognitions, and affect in order to accomplish specific goals (Schunk et al.,
2008.
Universal Instructional Design (UID) – Instructional design that has built-in
accommodations or adaptations that provide access to a wide array of students, both with
and without disabilities.
Utility value – One of four task value beliefs in expectancy-value theory concerning the
subjective beliefs about the usefulness of a task for the individual (Pintrich & Schunk,
2002).

9
CHAPTER II
Review of the Literature
The present literature review will begin with a discussion of an overview of
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the ways in which college students
with this disorder are impacted by this diagnosis. Student attrition in postsecondary
settings and theoretical models that have offered insight into relevant factors influencing
persistence will be presented. Persistence in the overall college population and social-
cognitive factors that influence persistence will be discussed.
Students with ADHD – Overview of Attention Disorders
In order to have a better understanding of ADHD, various theories have attempted
to explain the aspects related to the disorder and how those are at the root of the
behavioral manifestations of the disorder. One of the most recognized theories of ADHD
was developed by Russell Barkley (1997). Barkley argued that deficits in response
inhibition are the core of the behavioral manifestations of ADHD. He theorized that
these deficits create impairment in four vital neuropsychological functions that provide
the foundation for goal-directed persistence and named them executive functions. These
four executive functions are working memory, internalized speech, self-regulation of
affect/motivation/arousal, and reconstitution (goal-directed verbal and behavioral
creativity that follows the ability to analyze and synthesize situations).
Based on Barkley’s model (1997), inhibition deficits affecting these executive
functions result in difficulty with inhibition of task-irrelevant responses, execution of
goal-directed responses, motor control, task re-engagement after disruption, control of
10
behavior by internally represented information, and goal-directed persistence. These
difficulties impact student learning and research indicates that educational outcomes
appear to be one of the most affected areas by ADHD (Barkley, 2002).
Nigg and Casey’s (2005) model involving the neurobiology of ADHD lends
support to Barkley’s model (1997). Their neuroscientific research provides some
clarification regarding the core mechanisms involved in the deficits found in individuals
with the disorder. Their model highlights deficits in higher order behavior, which
involves the ability to mechanically predict events and their timing. Their research
supports involvement of various brain structures such as the basal ganglia, cerebellum,
and prefrontal cortex in cases of ADHD. They identified two circuits in the prefrontal
cortex that are deficient for individuals with ADHD: the frontostriatal and the
frontoneocerebellar circuits. These two circuits must work together in order to monitor
the environment and alter behavior accordingly. Impairment in these areas in individuals
with ADHD results in difficulty with planning and execution of appropriate actions and
displaying adaptive behavior in various situations over time. Difficulties with prediction
of occurrences and timing of occurrences also affect self-control skills that might appear
as poor sustained attention (specifically with multi-step and/or complex tasks), slow
response in rapid decision contexts, difficulty shifting response, and inefficient response
to changing contexts in individuals living with this disorder. In addition, Nigg and Casey
(2005) suggest that there is evidence of impairment in a third circuit, the frontolimbic
loop, which is involved in avoidance-approach behavior related to the emotional
significance of an event. This impairment may make it more difficult for individuals
11
with ADHD to understand, manage, and learn form situations and past experiences.
Despite the challenges associated with a diagnosis of ADHD, the number of
students with this diagnosis, as well as other learning disabilities, who attend
postsecondary institutions, has grown (Newman et al., 2009). This increase in the
enrollment of students with learning disabilities in postsecondary education has been
attributed, in part, to the increase in high school graduation rates for students with
disabilities in recent years (Allsopp, Minskoff, & LesBolt, 2005).
Student Attrition
Student attrition rates refer to the number of students who enroll at an institution
and leave prior to completion of a degree (Tinto, 1975). Attrition in postsecondary
settings constitutes a problem for institutions of higher learning as well as for the
withdrawing students themselves (Leppel, 2002). High rates of attrition may negatively
impact postsecondary institutions in terms of decreased revenue and negative perceptions
of the quality of the institutions’ programs (Kahn & Nauta, 2001).
With regard to impact for students, Kahn & Nauta (2001) and Leppel (2002)
report that abandonment of the pursuit of a postsecondary degree is often associated with
decreased future employment opportunities. Further, they indicate that this setback often
results in a disruption of life plans and the likelihood of decreased future earnings for
those individuals (Kahn & Nauta, 2001; Leppel, 2002). While any college experience is
beneficial in terms of personal gain, the benefits of completing a bachelor’s degree or
higher are particularly large in terms of monetary gain and other benefits obtained
through employment (Baum & Ma, 2007). The National Center for Education Statistics
12
(NCES, 2010) reported that in 2008, individuals with a bachelor’s degree earned 28%
more than those with an associate’s degree, 53% more than those with a high school
diploma, and 96% more than those without a high school diploma. In addition, the non-
monetary benefits gained through a college degree include better health and increased
opportunities for the next generation (Baum & Ma, 2007).
Baum and Ma (2007) highlighted that the societal impact related to level of
education is also measurable. Historically, higher levels of education have been
associated with lower unemployment and poverty rates. Therefore, individuals with
higher levels of education typically contribute more to tax revenues and are less
dependent on government assistance. Further, higher levels of education are correlated
with higher levels of civic involvement including voting and volunteer work (Baum &
Ma, 2007.) Thus, the benefits of higher levels of education to society as a whole appear
to be substantial.
Persistence in the Overall Postsecondary Population
Data involving college persistence can be difficult to understand because of the
way in which post-secondary institutions categorize this information with respect to
different groups. However, despite this variability, colleges typically define persistence
in terms of rates of completion of a first-time bachelor’s degree at their particular
institution (Camara, 2003). Based on this definition, the available data indicates that the
percent of students without disabilities completing a bachelor’s degree from any 4-year
institution within 6 years from start was 57.5% in 2007 (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2009). Further, research estimates that the overall rate of attrition in 4-year
13
postsecondary institutions is between 34% and 60% (Belch, Gebel, & Maas, 2001).
Tinto (1996) indicated that 40% of individuals who begin their studies at four-year
universities fail to earn a degree. In the eight-year period between 1986 and 1994, it was
reported that the rate of postsecondary degree completion by students with disabilities
was 16% and that figure dropped to 12% by the year 2000 (Harris and Associates, 2000).
Challenges for Students with ADHD
Despite the increase in attendance rates, students with disabilities, including
ADHD are significantly less likely to attend and persist at four-year postsecondary
institutions than non-disabled students (Newman et al., 2009). According to the National
Center for Education Statistics (2009), approximately 55% of students who were
identified as having an Other Health Impairment and received special education services
while in high school attended a postsecondary institution within four years from high
school graduation. Research conducted by Schnoes, Reid, Wagner, and Marder (2006)
found that approximately 67% of students with a classification of Other Health
Impairment are placed in this category based on a diagnosis of ADHD.
NCES (2009) indicated that in 2007, 18% of the students above attended a four-
year institution, 47% attended a two-year college, and 33% attended a
vocational/technical school. Of those who attended a postsecondary institution, 28.8%
graduated (received a diploma, certificate, or license. Of those who attended a four-year
university, 14.7% graduated; of those who attended a two-year institution, 26.7%
graduated; and 38.8% of those who attended a vocational/technical school graduated
within four years. Further, NCES (2009) reports that in 2007, the rate of completion for
14
students who had a previous designation of Other Health Impairment in high school
(which included those with a diagnosis of ADHD), had enrolled in a four-year institution,
and had been out of high school for 6 years remained unchanged at 14.7% (NCES, 2009).
Given the challenges experienced by students with ADHD, it is important to
consider the impact that these challenges have on academic persistence in postsecondary
settings. These challenges may be exacerbated by the total demands placed on students
in higher education, which are likely, greater than the demands of high school (Wolf,
2006). Further, these challenges place students with ADHD at-risk for lower academic
achievement and lower rates of completion of postsecondary education than their non-
ADHD peers (Barkley, 2002).
The increased academic rigor of higher education is often a great challenge for
students with disabilities including those with ADHD (Mull, Sitlington, & Alper, 2001).
Mull et al., (2001) suggests that students with learning disabilities often have low
academic skills and lack preparation for the academic work required in postsecondary
settings. However, despite the accommodations that students with disabilities are eligible
to receive, their learning expectations are not modified in postsecondary settings
(Lombardi, Gerdes, & Murray, 2011). Wolf (2006) points out that the heavy academic
load accompanied by the relative little external structure provided in college is very
taxing on students with ADHD. Time management, planning and organizational
difficulties which are part of their impairment in executive functioning become salient
and impose a great obstacle to academic success (Wolf, 2006).

15
In addition to the academic demands in postsecondary settings, the social needs and
functional demands placed on students are exponentially higher in this setting (Friedman,
Rapport, Lumley, Tzepelis, VanVoorhis, Stettner, & Kakaati, 2003). For many students,
the transition and necessary adjustment to the postsecondary setting involves having to
function more independently, having fewer social resources to fall back on than
previously, and needing to form new social networks (Friedman et al., 2003). However,
research suggests that individuals with ADHD have a more difficult time than their
typical peers developing adequate interpersonal relationships and that these individuals
continue to have social impairments into adulthood (Barkley, Murphy, & Kwasnik,
1996).
Friedman et al. (2003) investigated the interpersonal functioning of adults with
ADHD. Their study included 31 adult participants with a diagnosis of ADHD and 32
adult participants without a diagnosis who served as a control group. Self-report of
participants with a diagnosis of ADHD in this study suggested deficits in social-
emotional competence and deficits in self-awareness of the existence of these deficits.
Participants with ADHD indicated significant difficulty regulating their social behavior
and demonstrated expressive deficits in verbal output as well as less attunement to
emotional stimuli than adults without the disorder. While participants in this study
indicated awareness of overall social impairment, they did not demonstrate an awareness
of some specific pieces of social interaction that played a role (i.e. difficulty conveying
emotions, understanding others’ emotions). Further, while they demonstrated awareness
of their struggle with other specific pieces of interpersonal interaction such as difficulty
16
with engaging others in conversation, tactfulness, adjusting behavior according to the
situation, and moderating expressions of strong emotion, this awareness did not lead to
increased self-control.
One key aspect in the development of social adjustment is self-efficacy. One
factor that often influences a student’s level of self-efficacy is his or her level of
academic achievement. Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy as “individuals’ judgments
of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain
designated types of performances” (as cited in Lackaye et al., 2006). Individuals
typically use prior experiences and feedback from others as measures of ability in various
regards. Students with learning disabilities, including those with ADHD, usually have
experienced academic difficulty in many areas as well as negative feedback regarding
their performance. Therefore, their self-efficacy is typically lower compared to non-
disabled peers; this appears to be true even for those students with disabilities who have
experienced some academic success but have had to work harder than their non-disabled
peers in order to experience success (Lackaye et al., 2006). Even when successful in
overcoming some of their academic challenges, these students often need to put forth
more time and effort than their non-disabled peers in order to accomplish the same
academic results. At times, despite adequate effort, they continue to experience academic
failure. These differences in ability and performance influence the self-efficacy of these
students (Lackaye et al., 2006).
Lackaye et al., (2006) found that self-efficacy beliefs have an impact not only on
the academic performance of students with learning disabilities but also on the types of
17
activities and social environments that they select or are accepted into. These choices
appear to be shaped by lower levels of social self-efficacy beliefs, which may be, in part,
a function of lower levels of peer acceptance experienced by these students. Students
with low social self-efficacy make fewer attempts to initiate interaction with peers,
display low levels of participation during social opportunities, and have less confidence
in their social skills. Lower levels of social self-efficacy are likely to negatively impact
academic performance by placing the formation of adaptive social supports at-risk
(Lackaye et al., 2006).
The combination of academic and social challenges experienced by students with
disabilities has an impact on their self-concept. Self-concept relates to the way an
individual thinks of him/herself and their self-worth (Aronson, 2008). Research
indicates that students with learning disabilities display lower levels of global self-
concept than their non-disabled peers. These lower levels of global self-concept have a
negative effect both on academic performance and social competence (Lackaye et al.,
2006).
Theoretical Framework
Contributing factors to college attrition rates have been explained through various
models. Two dominant models that attempt to explain issues related to college
persistence are Tinto’s Integration Model (Tinto, 1975) as well as its updated
Interactionalist Model of Student Departure (Tinto, 1993), and Bean’s Student Attrition
Model (Bean, 1980). Both models emphasize the role of the institutional environment on
student decisions to leave school.
18
Tinto’s Interactionalist Model of Student Departure (1993) claims that in order to
persist in postsecondary settings, students must become integrated into both formal and
informal academic and social systems within the institution. Tinto’s model has its roots
in David Emile Durkheim’s theory of suicide which claims that suicide is more likely to
take place when individuals are not sufficiently integrated into society (Tinto, 1975).
Tinto (1975, 1993) theorized that social conditions similar to those believed to result in
suicide would result in “academic suicide” or college dropout. Tinto’s theory holds that
inadequate social integration in college, evidenced by insufficient interactions with others
and incongruence with the values of the collective system of the institution lead to low
commitment to that system and result in student dropout. Thus, Tinto’s model views
student persistence as an outcome directly related to students’ interactions with their
postsecondary institutions (Kahn & Nauta, 2001).
Tinto’s model, including his update to the original model, suggests that the
interplay between the academic system and the social system that occurs during an
individual’s college experience, greatly influences persistence (Tinto, 1993). Tinto
(1975, 1993) asserts that student characteristics such as family background, personal
attributes, and previous experiences influence college performance as well as interactions
within the system that lead to varying degrees of integration (Tinto, 1975). For many
students, especially for those that commute, this interplay between both systems may
occur exclusively in the classroom, while for others, the classroom may be the gateway to
further socialization experiences with peers (Tinto, 1993).
19
The Student Attrition Model put forth by John Bean (1980) proposes that the
academic and social experiences of students in higher education shape the attitudes and
beliefs of college students toward their academic institution. In turn, these attitudes and
beliefs are thought to shape students’ intentions to remain at an institution and thus,
positive academic and social experiences increase the likelihood of persistence (Bean,
1980; Kahn & Nauta, 2001).
Tinto’s model also suggests that goal commitment and institutional commitment
both play a large role in persistence (Tinto, 1975). John Bean’s Student Attrition Model
(1980) provides further support for the role of institutional commitment in academic
persistence in college (Bean, 1980). Bean’s model (1980) suggests that institutional
commitment is the most important variable related to dropout rates in the college
population both for men and women while past academic achievement and university
GPA were the second most important variables for women and men respectively.
Tinto’s Interactionalist model (1993) sustains that students’ academic
performance provides proof of integration to the formal academic system of the
institution and therefore influences persistence. Bean (1980) also indicated that academic
performance has an impact on persistence and asserted that when academic performance
is poor, it may lead to feelings of frustration and inadequacy. Research has shown that
students who are adequately integrated have available support systems that can offer
comfort as well as academic and social support to lessen these negative feelings (Leppel,
2002). Other important factors for both men and women as found by testing this model
20
were students’ perceptions of their role as repetitive, and the degree to which students
feel they are developing as a result of attending the university (Bean, 1980).
Social-Cognitive Factors
Research indicates that environmental/social influences and individuals’
perceptions of their previous experiences influence social-cognitive variables such as
ability beliefs regarding specific tasks, goals, and affective memories and that these in
turn, influence effort and persistence (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The literature also
suggests that student motivation is greatly influenced by social-cognitive factors such as
self-efficacy, adaptive attributions, control beliefs, level of interest, intrinsic motivation,
and goal orientation (Pintrich, 2003).
Pintrich (2003) suggested that individuals’ motives influencing behavior are
mediated by social-cognitive factors such as goals. Many researchers view cognitive,
motivational, and regulatory processes as factors that are involved in learning and
persistence. Further, the importance of interactions with others and the social context of
individuals and their interactions are highlighted by researchers in the field of education
as important contributors to persistence (Leppel, 2002).
Literature addressing achievement motivation has explored the role of self-
efficacy with regard to academic motivation. Adaptive self-efficacy (an individual’s
belief that they are capable of performing a task to the degree that they are reasonably
able to) has been found to positively impact the level of effort that students put forth and
in turn their resulting performance (Pintrich, 2003). However, an accurate level of self-
efficacy is necessary in order for it to be considered adaptive. While an individual needs
21
to perceive that they are capable of performing a task, their perception needs to be well
aligned with their actual ability and their judgment of ability must be accompanied by
adequate skills (Schunk, 1991).
Feelings of competence or self-efficacy accompanied by an internal locus of
control have been linked to increased intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Therefore, having an environment that supports both self-efficacy beliefs and feelings of
control over one’s academic environment becomes an important part of a successful
academic experience. Pintrich (2003) indicates that increased intrinsic motivation has
been linked to increased academic performance, which in turn has been linked to
increased persistence.
Although self-efficacy is an important variable influencing academic motivation,
it is not the only contributing factor. Kahn and Nauta (2001) found that students’ beliefs,
measured during second semester of college, regarding the consequences of persisting in
their studies and their determination to graduate significantly influenced their decision to
return to college after completion of their first year. In addition, they found that
determination to graduate, which is a performance goal, was also a significant predictor
of persistence into sophomore year.
The role that goal orientation plays in academic motivation is also heavily
discussed in the research literature. Differentiation between goals that are performance
oriented versus those that are mastery oriented has been made and these differences may
have implications regarding motivational, cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes
(Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). The literature suggests that a mastery goal
22
orientation is the most conducive to fostering intrinsic motivation and in turn, academic
achievement and persistence (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). However, some
research has found that performance goals increase academic persistence in the college
population (Kahn & Nauta, 2001; Wolf, 1998). In a study involving 400 freshmen
pursuing a bachelor’s degree in a large public university in the Midwest, Kahn and Nauta
(2001) found that following completion of the first semester of college, students’
decisions regarding returning the following semester were significantly moderated by
their determination to graduate, which constitutes a performance goal. In addition, they
found that their decision to persist was also significantly moderated by the expected
consequences of persisting in college. This suggests that these students expected that
their degree would have a utility value.
In addition to the above discussed constructs, theorists and researchers have
argued that performance and persistence are not only influenced by people’s beliefs about
how well they expect to do on an activity but also by the extent they find value in it
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). With respect to achievement value as it relates to academic
motivation, various components of value such as attainment value, intrinsic value, utility
value, and cost need to be considered. Eccles et al. (1983) defined attainment value as
the importance of doing well on a given task, intrinsic value as the gratification that an
individual gains from engaging in the task, utility value as the fit between the task and the
individual’s future plans, and cost as the effort that needs to be put forth, the emotional
cost, and the level to which engaging in an activity limits access to other activities.
23
In order to enhance motivation and persist in their studies, many college students
make use of both intrinsic and extrinsically based strategies aimed at boosting their value
or interest in the material; these strategies include efforts to tie the material to their own
lives, to the lives of friends or relatives, or to a time and place where knowing the
material could be important (Wolters, 1998). In a study consisting of self-report
measures from 115 college students attending a large Midwestern university, researchers
found that students used self-regulated cognitive, both intrinsically based as well as
extrinsically based strategies that lead to behavior that helped them to focus their
attention, block out distractions, and optimize timing of task completion, in order to
sustain academic effort. Further, students reported cognitive strategies such thinking
about and reminding themselves of their desire to do well on tests and the importance of
achieving good grades in order to maintain academic effort. Thus, the results suggest that
motivation was enhanced by performance goals (Wolter, 1998).
For many students, family plays an important role in their decision to persist in
college and family influence adds to the perceived value of a college degree (Dennis,
Phinney, and Chuateco, 2005). Although both family support and peer support factors
have been heavily discussed in the literature as having an influence on student outcomes,
research indicates that peer support appears to be a stronger predictor of college
outcomes, specifically for minority students. Although family members of minority
students are able to provide emotional support, they are in many cases not equipped to
provide instrumental support in the same way that peer groups are able to (Dennis et al.,
2005).
24
Cultural background and gender appear to have significant differences in outcomes
on various research studies looking at persistence. For instance, Allen (1999) found a
significant motivational effect on persistence for minorities when compared to non-
minorities in his study. In his study, he used self-report measures of 581 freshmen
pursuing a first-time bachelor’s degree at a medium-sized public four-year university in
the Southwest and found that although minority students tend to have parents with lower
educational attainment than non-minorities’ parents, level of parental encouragement and
support had a significant effect on persistence for minority students (Allen, 1999).
Guiffrida’s (2006) research supports Allen’s findings regarding the importance of family
support for minority students. Guiffrida (2006) proposes that minority students,
especially those with collectivist cultural backgrounds, benefit from those familial
connections as they struggle to become integrated into the more individualistic academic
and social environment at most four-year postsecondary institutions. Therefore, he
suggests that Tinto’s model would benefit from adaptations that are culturally sensitive to
this issue (Guiffrida, 2006).
With regard to gender, Leppel (2002) found that some of the factors that influence
persistence do so in different ways for men and women. His study found that having
children has a significantly negative impact on men’s persistence but a significantly
positive impact on women’s persistence in college. With regard to ethnicity, Leppel
(2002) found that being of Black ethnicity raises persistence significantly for women, but
the same is not true for men. However, a significant positive impact on persistence was
found related to the ethnicity variable for both men and women when students were of
25
Asian descent. For some variables, however, the impact on the persistence of men and
women was found to be similar. Age, marriage, and hours worked were found to have a
significantly negative impact on both men’s and women’s persistence while family
income, and (predicted) GPA had a significantly positive impact on both men’s and
women’s persistence. Considering gender, research provides support for Tinto’s model
and validates that persistence is higher for both men and women who are more integrated
into the college experience (Leppel, 2002).
Available Institutional Supports for Students with ADHD
Based on their disability, students with ADHD and other disabilities are entitled to
certain protections under current law (Janiga & Costenbader, 2002; Wolf, 2006).
By law, according to the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), students with
ADHD must be provided supports that will allow them to gain full access to higher
education (Wolf, 2006). Further, in January 2009, the Americans with Disabilities Act
Amendments (ADAA) took effect and included “limits in concentrating, reading, and
thinking” as examples of impairments in major life activities which would make
individuals eligible for protections (Shaw, Keenan, Madaus, & Banerjee, 2010).
Based on the need for services due to disability status, postsecondary settings
offer support services to students. Approximately 25% of students who receive disability
services in postsecondary settings have a diagnosis of ADHD (DuPaul, Weyandt, O’Dell,
Varejao, 2009). However, unlike the federally mandated and highly regulated supports
available in high school through special education laws such as IDEA (Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act), the supports available in postsecondary settings vary across
26
institutions (Madaus & Shaw, 2004). Under ADA, postsecondary institutions that receive
federal funding are required to make reasonable accommodations for students with
disabilities; however, these accommodations as not as well defined as they are through
IDEA (Janiga & Costenbader, 2002).
Lombardi, Gerdes, & Murray (2011) point out that while not all institutions have
the same type or level of services, many of the supports provided include and are not
limited to program modifications, assistive technology, counseling, direct academic
support, strategy training, and interventions designed to strengthen academic skills.
Despite the available services, many disparities exist in the level of support that students
with ADHD and other disabilities have access to and receive in college compared to the
supports that these same students had access to while in high school. These differences
may contribute to adjustment difficulties experienced by students with disabilities in
postsecondary services (Lombardi et al., 2011).
One important difference between high school and postsecondary settings is the
need to self-disclose and self-advocate in order to receive accommodations and/or
support services in postsecondary institutions (Newman et al., 2009; Janiga &
Contenbader, 2002). During the time spent within the public education system, the
responsibility for identifying individual needs, arranging accommodations and providing
supports for students with disabilities resides with the school district; however, this
responsibility shifts from the school district to the students as they transition to a
postsecondary setting (Janiga & Costenbader, 2002). Thus, it is important for students

27
with disabilities, including those with ADHD, to be adequately prepared to take on the
responsibility of self-advocacy in post secondary settings.
Prior to transitioning to postsecondary settings, students with identified disabilities
who have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) receive mandated transition services as
part of their IEP. IDEA mandates that these transition services begin no later than at age
14 and annually thereafter, and specify the transition needs of students and a plan by
which the needs will be met (IDEA, 1997). Once a student has determined that he or she
is able to and is interested in pursuing postsecondary education, the transition plan must
contain components that will ensure that the student is preparing for postsecondary
education as a future goal. Skills such as awareness of appropriate career options, self-
awareness, and the ability to engage in self-advocacy when necessary should be
integrated into transition plans (Janiga & Constenbader, 2002).
Janiga and Constenbader (2002) found that coordinators of special services for
students with disabilities reported little satisfaction with the transition services that were
provided to students prior to their entry into postsecondary settings. Sixty-seven percent
of the 74 special service coordinators that were part of their study indicated that
improvement of self-advocacy skills for incoming students was necessary. Further, 39%
of the participants indicated that the transition services for incoming students should
improve in the area of helping students to better understand their disability and specific
needs in order to be adequately equipped to advocate for themselves.
In addition to prior school preparation to take on the role of self-advocate in a
postsecondary setting, social support from family and peers has been identified as
28
influential in college students’ ability to effectively self-advocate (Lombardi et al., 2011).
In a study consisting of in-depth interviews with 9 undergraduate students identified with
various learning disabilities at a large public university on the East Coast, Troiano (1993)
explored the experiences of students with learning disabilities and the role of their
perceived social supports as it related to their academic experiences. He found that
students with higher levels of social support and are more willing to disclose their
disability status and are better equipped to communicate their needs for accommodations
(Troiano, 2003). Thus, the evidence suggests that social agents exert influence on
students’ self-advocacy.
Other important aspects to consider with regard to the needs of college students
with ADHD are their psychological and pharmacological needs (Byron & Parker, 2002).
Individuals with ADHD frequently have co-morbid disorders such as depression, anxiety,
bipolar disorder, personality disorders, pervasive developmental spectrum disorders
(PDSD), and substance use and abuse disorders (Barkley, 2002; Wolf, 2006). Further,
college students with learning disabilities have been found to report more symptoms of
stress and anxiety than their non-disabled peers, which places them at higher risk for
psychological distress (Wolf, 2006). Thus, college students with ADHD are in need of
multi-disciplinary services in order to fully address their needs.
Parker and Benedict (2002) suggest that four types of services may be most
effective for this population: disability awareness, referrals to diagnostic, medical and
therapeutical specialists in adult ADHD (on and off campus), strategy instruction related
to effective medication management, and coaching that focuses on performance-based
29
deficits rather than skills-deficits (ADHD coaching). Research supports the need for
coordinated efforts both in terms of assessment and intervention for college students with
ADHD (Parker & Benedict, 2002). Coordinated supports are likely particularly
important for students with ADHD who, due to the nature of their impairment, may need
additional support with planning and follow-through.
Student Perceptions of their Postsecondary Experiences
Current research involving accounts of first-person experiences of college students
with ADHD is limited. However, the available data indicates that young adults with the
disorder self-report significant educational and social difficulties (Barkley et al., 2006).
A longitudinal study conducted by Barkley et al. (2006) with 149 young adults with
ADHD between the ages of 19-25, revealed that these individuals reported significantly
lower educational performance and attainment as well as significantly higher levels of
difficulty maintaining and developing close friendships compared to a control group.
Shaw-Zirt, Popali-Lehane, Chaplin, and Bergman (2005) reported similar findings in
their study of 21 undergraduate college students who met criteria for ADHD. Their study
found that these students reported lower levels of self-esteem, social skills, and social-
emotional adjustment to college compared to a control group, as measured by self-report
questionnaires (Shaw-Zirt et al., 2005).
A longitudinal study conducted by Blase et al. (2009) involving 27 undergraduate
college students with ADHD attending a public and a private university in the southeast
United States, measured the association between ADHD and college adjustment over
time via self-report. Overall, their study revealed that college students with ADHD
30
reported higher levels of emotional distress and social concern, lower GPAs, more
concern about their academic performance, and rated themselves as less emotionally
stable in comparison to their peers regardless of gender and ethnicity. This study did not
find a significant decline in college adjustment overtime, however, it provided evidence
that students with ADHD face additional challenges when compared to their non-ADHD
peers and that these difficulties remain stable over time (Blase et al., 2009).
Summary
In summary, students with disabilities including ADHD are increasing in numbers
in postsecondary education (NCES, 2011). However, despite the increase in attendance
rates, students with disabilities, including those with ADHD, are significantly less likely
to persist at four-year postsecondary institutions than non-disabled students (Newman et
al., 2009). In reviewing factors involved in the academic persistence of college students
with ADHD, theoretical models of persistence were examined. Tinto and Bean report that
in the overall college population, persistence is influenced by formal and informal
academic and social institutional interactions and overall institutional integration (Bean,
1980; Tinto, 1975, 1993).
Because of their diagnosis, research has found that students with ADHD often
experience difficulty with behavioral regulation and socialization (Barkley, 2002). The
role of social-cognitive factors such as self-concept and its impact on the interpersonal
functioning of college students with ADHD appears to be significant (Lackaye, 2006).
These challenges place students with ADHD at-risk for lower academic achievement and
lower rates of completion of postsecondary education than their non-ADHD peers
31
(Barkley, 2002). Further, students with ADHD may experience more difficulty than their
non-ADHD peers adequately integrating into postsecondary settings. Based on this
information, further research is needed in the area of persistence of students with ADHD
in postsecondary settings. The following chapter will review the methods involved in the
proposed study to address this important issue.

32
CHAPTER III
Methodology
Student attrition rates refer to the number of students who enroll at an institution
and leave prior to completion of a degree (Tinto, 1975). Attrition in postsecondary
settings constitutes a problem for institutions of higher learning as well as for the
withdrawing students themselves. High rates of attrition may negatively impact
postsecondary institutions in terms of decreased revenue and negative perceptions of the
quality of the institutions’ programs. With regard to impact for students, premature
departure or abandonment of the pursuit of a postsecondary degree is often associated
with academic failure and/or some form of dissatisfaction with the college experience.
Further, this setback often results in a disruption of life plans and the likelihood of
decreased future earnings for those individuals (Kahn & Nauta, 2001).
In 2007, the percent of students without disabilities completing a bachelor’s
degree from any four-year institution within 6 years from start was 57.5%. In contrast,
the rate of completion for students who had a previous designation of Other Health
Impairment in high school (which included those with a diagnosis of ADHD), had
enrolled in a four-year institution, and had been out of high school for 6 years was 14.7%
in 2007 (NCES, 2009). Research conducted by Schnoes et al. (2006) found that
approximately 67% of students with a classification of Other Health Impairment are
placed in this category based on a diagnosis of ADHD. Thus, the data suggests a
substantial difference in rates of completion at four-year institutions for students with
ADHD compared to the overall population.
33
The purpose of this study was to contribute to the literature with regard to factors
that play a role in academic motivation and persistence for college students with
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) as perceived by those students
themselves. The research questions that the present study sought to address are the
following:
1. What experiences do postsecondary students with ADHD report?
2. What supports have influenced their persistence in postsecondary settings?
3. How do the experiences reported by college students with ADHD relate to
Tinto’s Model of Institutional Departure (1975, 1993) and Bean’s Student
Attrition model (1980)?
Design Summary

The research design for this study was qualitative in nature and consisted of
interviews of postsecondary students with ADHD. Institutional Review Board approval
to conduct this study was obtained through the University of Southern California (see
Appendix A). Because this study sought to understand and describe the essence of the
experiences of college students with ADHD, a phenomenological approach was used
(Creswell, 2009). Phenomenology was first used by the German philosopher Edmund H.
Husserl and its application in social science was heavily influenced by others such as
Alfred Schutz, Merleau-Ponty, and Clark Moustakas. It aims to understand the
perceptions and significance of others’ experiences through methods that are as direct as
possible (Patton, 2002). This study aimed at gaining an understanding of the perceptions
34
of lived experiences as expressed by college students’ with ADHD; therefore, utilizing a
phenomenological perspective was useful in finding commonalities within this group.
Criterion sampling was used; therefore, selected criteria (specified in the next
section) were utilized in order to sample the target population for this study (Patton,
2002). Interviews conducted with the participants in this study were semi-structured and
contained specific questions designed to answer the identified research questions in this
study.
The interview questions that were used to answer the research questions were
based on the information obtained from the literature review conducted for this study.
Based on this review, Tinto’s model of Student Departure (1987,1993) and Bean’s
Student Attrition model (1980) are two of the most prominent theories regarding this
topic and therefore will be the theory used as the framework of this study. Most
interview questions are based on the premise of Tinto’s (1975, 1993) and Bean’s theory
(1980), which propose that the institutional interactions influence the level of social and
academic integration achieved by college students which in turn, plays a main role in
college student attrition (Tinto, 1987, 1993).
Factors related to social and academic integration in a postsecondary setting such
as interaction with faculty, social involvement, institutional commitment, student
perception of fit between self and institution, academic performance, level of interest in
the material, as described by Tinto (1975,1993) and Bean (1980) and the extent to which
these apply to students with ADHD in a postsecondary setting were explored. Additional
35
experiences and challenges posed by being a student with diagnosis of ADHD were
investigated.
Instrumentation
For the purposes described above, interview questions were developed following
the theoretical models presented by Tinto (1987,1993) and Bean (1980). Please see
Appendix A for a description of the correlation between the questions and the theoretical
models. The individual interview questions are listed below:
1. What is your major?
2. Tell me about your decision to come to this university.
3. Tell me about your experiences at this university.
4. Did you encounter anything unexpected? If so, tell me about it.
5. Tell me about the courses and what you have thought of them so far - what they
have been like in terms of the material and its delivery.
6. Tell me about any opportunities for interaction with faculty and how often you
interact with them inside and outside of the classroom.
7. Tell me about opportunities for social activities with other students and your level
of involvement.
8. Tell me about your ADHD and how you experience it.
9. Do you feel that having ADHD has impacted you in any way as a student at this
university? If so, how?
10. How have your experiences thus far impacted your motivation to continue at this
university?
36
11. Did you ever consider dropping out or reducing your courseload and graduating
later?
12. How important is it to you to graduate from this particular university as opposed
to others? Why?
13. What do you feel has helped you (people, resources, etc) as a student?
14. What factors/supports, not limited to the ones we’ve discussed, do you consider
influential in your decision to continue at this university?
15. How are you doing academically? What is your G.P.A. at this point?
Participants and Setting

The unit of analysis for this study was students with a diagnosis of ADHD in a
postsecondary educational setting. The sample for this study was derived from two
postsecondary institutions: a private not-for profit four-year research university and a
public four-year university that are both located in Southern California. In 2010, the
private university had 17,500 undergraduate students and 19,500 graduate students for a
total of 37,000 students.

Approximately 2% of the student population has registered with
Disability Services, although the percentage of students with a diagnosis of ADHD is
unclear at this time.

In 2010, the public university had approximately 36,000
undergraduate and graduate students.
The targeted population for the present study was undergraduate students with
ADHD in postsecondary education. I conducted direct interviews with 12 undergraduate
students with this diagnosis. Given that this study sought information regarding factors
that have led to academic persistence, in addition to having a diagnosis of ADHD, one of
37
the criterions for this study was that participants had achieved sophomore, junior, or
senior status at the university, thus demonstrating that they have and continue to persist in
a postsecondary setting. In order to access the targeted population, students with ADHD
who have registered with Disability Services and/or existing Learning Centers for
students with disabilities at both the private and public universities chosen for this study
were the source of the sample for this study.
Participants were included in this study on a voluntary basis. Disability Services
and/or existing Learning Centers for students with disabilities at both universities either
sent an e-mail to all students registered with their center or posted flyers describing the
present study requesting participants. Participants were compensated for their time with
a $25 gift card.
Data Collection and Analysis
Individual interviews were conducted with the participants in this study. These
interviews were audio recorded and later transcribed. All names and identifying personal
information will be kept confidential. Further, participants were assigned pseudonyms in
order to protect their privacy. An interview guide including questions that were aimed at
shedding light into the research questions was utilized (Patton, 2002). This interview
guide also served as an analytical framework for the information obtained through the
interviews and guided part of the coding process. For instance, answers provided by the
participants were coded into the various categories relating to Tinto’s (1975, 1993) and
Bean’s (1980) models as well as other categories related to the diagnosis of ADHD.
38
When developing codes and categories for the information derived from this study, the
researcher looked for convergence and divergence in the data (Patton, 2002).
Substantive significance was determined with respect to the extent that the
findings of this study are consistent with the current literature. In addition, the data was
analyzed for new patterns or themes that became new categories. Pattern matching was
used in order to look at the multiple factors that play a role in academic motivation and in
turn lead to persistence (Patton, 2002).
Limitations and Delimitations
There were several limitations to this study. The study only sampled students
from a single private university and a single public university in Southern California.
The findings will therefore not be able to be generalized to other institutions. Further, the
sample only included students who have self-disclosed their disability to Disability
Services and did not include others who may have a diagnosis of ADHD but have not
made the school aware of their status. In addition, the study relied on self-report from
participants and only sampled juniors and seniors pursuing a first-time bachelor’s degree.

39
CHAPTER IV
Findings
This study sought to contribute to the literature regarding factors that play a role
in the academic persistence of college students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD). This study aimed at informing the topic from the first-person
perspective of those individuals who have ADHD and who were students at a four-year
university at the time that this study was conducted. Participant interviews provided the
data for this study. This chapter will present the information obtained and will outline
themes that emerged during the course of the interviews.
Introduction of Student Participants
A total of 12 undergraduate students attending one of two four-year universities
located in Southern California participated in this study. The first institution was a public
university and the second institution was a private, not-for-profit university. The
researcher contacted the office of disability services at both universities in order to recruit
participants for this study. Participants received information regarding this study through
the office of disability services at their respective university. Eleven participants
interviewed attended one of the participating universities and one of the interviewed
participants attended the second participating university. Six participants were male and
six participants were female. Eight participants identified themselves as Caucasian, two
identified themselves as Hispanic, one identified himself as both Caucasian and Hispanic,
and one participant identified herself as Middle Eastern. Participant ages ranged from 18
to 28 years of age. The mean participant age was 24. With regard to age at the time of
40
diagnosis, five participants reported receiving the ADHD diagnosis while in elementary
school, five reported receiving the diagnosis while in high school, and two reported being
diagnosed after high school. All participants had attained at least junior standing at their
respective university. Seven participants had transferred from a community college and
two participants had transferred from another four-year university. Thus, the majority of
the participants in this study had previously attended another postsecondary institution
and had later transferred to their current setting at the time of interview. Participants
were assigned pseudonyms in order to protect their privacy. See Table 4.1 for a
demographic description of the participants.
Table 4.1
Student Demographics
Participant
Pseudonym
Gender Age Ethnicity University
Standing
Transferred
From Four-
Year
University
Transferred
From
Community
College
Alan B. Male 20 Caucasian Junior No Yes
Bree G. Female 22 Caucasian Senior No No
Carl F. Male 28 Caucasian Senior No Yes
Dale H. Male 24 Caucasian Senior No No
Eddie M. Male 25 Hispanic Senior No Yes
Fred J. Male 26 Caucasian Senior No Yes
Gina S. Female 23 Middle
Eastern
Junior No Yes
Holly Z. Female 18 Caucasian Junior Yes No
Inga T. Female 24 Hispanic Senior No Yes
Jen P. Female 23 Caucasian Junior No Yes
Ken D. Male 28 Caucasian Junior Yes No
Ann S. Female 22 Caucasian Senior No No

41
Research Question One
Research question one asked, “What experiences do postsecondary students with
ADHD report?” Relevant issues related to this inquiry were identified as (a) behavioral
manifestations of participants’ ADHD diagnosis and educational impact of those
manifestations; (b) experiences related to the way that instruction is delivered in their
postsecondary setting; (c) experiences related to disclosure of their disability; (d)
experiences with accommodations received in their postsecondary setting; (e) other
experiences that emerged as common themes.
Behavioral Manifestations
The most commonly reported manifestations of ADHD symptoms in the surveyed
sample were difficulty focusing and sustaining focus during instruction as well as during
study sessions, time management difficulties, forgetfulness, difficulty remaining still,
daydreaming, and difficulty effectively communicating with others. Some students also
reported a tendency to procrastinate.
Difficulty focusing and sustaining focus during instruction was reported to
interfere with learning by most students. Environmental distractions such as people
walking into the classroom, other students’ conversations, and other students turning
pages or typing were reported to be distracting. For instance, Carl F. stated “I have
trouble concentrating…you know, if someone opens the door in the classroom, I’m
always the first one to look, or if a pencil drops, I’m always looking around.” In
addition, Eddie M. stated:
The thing about ADHD is that for some reason you hear everything…In a class
setting, when you’re sitting there trying to focus on a professor, it is horrible
42
because someone would open their backpack and I’d turn, or the hardest thing is
when professors do like the Powerpoint stuff because I’m trying to write down the
Powerpoint and they are talking and I couldn’t distinguish between the two, you
know, so I was trying to focus so hard on one thing that the test would come up
and I would miss a problem but I was in class when they said the answer, you
know, and stuff like that.

In addition to difficulty focusing, many participants reported that they struggled with
sustaining their focus during instruction or when studying. This often necessitated that
they take breaks in order to regain their focus during these activities. For example, Ken
D. stated:
It’s not like a choice or something like that or that I’m being lazy or things like
that, I just can’t. There will be times when I’m studying for something and then
just for some reason I can’t study anymore, it’s like no matter how hard I try, I
can’t absorb anything anymore at that point and I have to you know, get the gauge
back down before I can start studying and that’s always been a problem.

Further, distractions of an internal nature such as thoughts unrelated to the instruction or
the task at hand were reported to interfere with focusing. For example, Dale H. stated:
I’m always thinking about a thousand things except for what I’m supposed to be
and it’s very difficult to be concentrated on the topic at hand, so it’s very difficult
to read books. It’s very difficult to pay attention to conversations or focus on
lectures or in class and stuff like that.

Difficulty with time management was reported as an obstacle that many
participants struggle with during their quest for academic success. Comments such as “I
procrastinate a lot, which makes me feel overwhelmed and stressed,” made by Carl F.,
were frequently stated throughout the interviews conducted for this study. In addition,
forgetfulness was reported to negatively impact the participants’ academic performance
in terms of missed deadlines and/or appointments as well as difficulty remembering
relevant academic material. For example, Bree G. stated:
43
I have to study probably like twice as much as like the normal person; I don’t
remember things, my short term memory is more like…is really all I
remember…The thing that I’ve struggled with the most lately is remembering the
content because there is so much so I’ll be reading and like I just won’t remember
anything but the main points.

Hyperactive symptoms such as difficulty remaining still, high energy levels,
fidgeting, and constant talking were reported by many participants as having a negative
impact on academic performance as well as their ability to effectively communicate with
others. Bree G. described it as “energy that is almost contagious and it’s because you
can’t really focus on one thing for very long and like it has its ups and its downs,” and
Holly Z. described it as:
Heavy on the H; I’m always twitching of some sort, or moving, and if I’m not
moving there is something wrong, or I’m on my pill, and even then I’m still like
picking at my nails or I’m doing something, not only that but when I get really
excited or really into something I start talking faster, I don’t understand it, and
then I have to be like “Calm down!”

Inga T. clearly illustrated some of the communication difficulties associated with
hyperactive symptoms as she stated:
The constant movement, the constant talking, interrupting people, I do that a
lot…Not being able to understand what people are saying, feeling like they were
just talking and you were just like watching them and nothing was going through,
just like everything is silent and you see them but all you see is this [demonstrated
mouth movements] and you have no idea what’s going on.

Some participants also reported daydreaming as occurring frequently and
interfering with attention to academic tasks and productivity. As Alan B. described it, “I
daydream a lot, I guess I’m always thinking about something,” or Bree G.’s description,
“I get sidetracked a lot, I’ll space out and think of something else.”

44
Experiences Related to Instruction
Most participants interviewed indicated overall satisfaction with experiences
related to instruction in their postsecondary setting. Specifically, they reported that
smaller class sizes were beneficial because they made it easier to have helpful classroom
discussions. For example, Gina S. stated:
I’ve been in classes with like 50 people, you know, where you can never talk to
the teacher and you can’t get a discussion going because there’s too many
people…Here it’s so awesome, like in one of my classes I think there is only 12
people and it’s on World War II, which is a class I know a lot about so it’s nice
going into it knowing but learning in more depth.

In addition, participants indicated that instruction that related the material to practical
applications made those courses more understandable and enjoyable. For instance, Eddie
M. stated the following:
The way they deliver the material is awesome. My department, Environmental
Health, is probably one of the best in the nation and they know how to explain
stuff so people understand…they’ve just been doing it for a long time and they
relate it to what we’re gonna be doing in the field as opposed to just here.

Some students reported that instructional design and the way that instruction was
delivered played a role in increasing their ability to focus. In particular, some
participants reported that courses using universal instructional design (UID) assisted them
with maintaining focus. For example, Ann S. stated:
Being in special education, a lot of our professors are really visual and they show
us. We talk a lot about UID strategies so they’ll teach it to us in a way that it’s so
easy to understand because it’s visual.

Two participants emphasized the usefulness of having choices with regard to the
format of the courses to be taken. For instance, the availability of online courses was
45
described as having a positive impact on their educational experience in postsecondary
settings. Fred J. described his experience with online courses as follows:
I can go at my own pace pretty much. I don’t have to worry about getting up and
going to class, so I have enjoyed that and if I get distracted, I get a little bit
distracted and I can come back and everything is right there. So for example,
when a teacher talks in class, if I miss it, I miss it, and because I’m doing
something else in whatever, and I can always go back and ask the teacher but if
it’s right there in front of you, the words, you’re not gonna forget it.

Only two participants indicated dissatisfaction that was directly related to
instruction. Both participants expressed dissatisfaction with what they reported as lack of
clarity regarding the course material and ambiguity with regard to expectations for the
specific concepts that they were required to master, which would therefore be part of tests
and other course assessments.
Experiences Related to Disclosure
The majority of the interviewed participants reported having disclosed their
disability status to both past and current faculty. However, approximately half of the
participants in this study indicated that they disclose their disability status to faculty on a
case-by-case basis. All other participants who disclose their disability indicated that they
do so to all of their professors. Those that disclosed on a case-by-case basis reported
basing their decision to disclose their status on whether or not they felt that they needed
accommodations in particular courses. For example, Fred J. stated:
Usually when I see what the test will consist of and then if I’m like, you know,
definitely I’m gonna need more time and I can’t sit with other classmates and take
it with them because I might look around and not just focus and lose focus then
that’s when I have to definitely discuss it.

46
These students did not ask for accommodations in all courses as a blanket rule, but rather
utilized accommodations only after recognizing a particular need such as the need for
extra-time on tests or the need for a note-taker in the specific courses that the
accommodation was requested for.
All participants who disclosed their disability status to faculty indicated either
overall positive or neutral experiences. Professors were reported to be willing to make
accommodations according to the provisions mandated by law, which were coordinated
through disability services at their respective campuses. No negative experiences when
disclosing to faculty were reported. However, one participant indicated that one of the
professors to whom she had disclosed her disability did not seem very aware of
confidentiality issues and inadvertently embarrassed the student by being too open and
careless when communicating with her regarding the logistics of the accommodations
that she received in her classroom. This participant, Bree G., described her experience as
follows:
It’s like really hard with like my math teacher ‘cause she’s like outgoing
and doesn’t really care if other people see her hand me the notes and sign
my papers so like I saw a bunch of people I knew and she was like signing
it and she’s like “Oh, you forgot the notes I printed you out” and all these
people are like “what?” so it was so embarrassing…I was like “Ah, I don’t
want attention!”…Yeah, it’s ok, it’s not her thing, I don’t hold it against
her.

Experiences Related to Accommodations
Half of the participants interviewed for this study reported having
accommodations provided for them in their K-12 settings after their receiving their
diagnosis of ADHD. None of these participants were able to recall whether their
47
accommodations had been provided through and Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or
through a 504 plan. The other half of the participants interviewed for this study reported
that they did not receive any accommodations in their K-12 settings. Only two
participants in the study reported not receiving accommodations in their postsecondary
settings despite being aware of their right to ask for them. As previously discussed, these
two participants expressed a desire to rely on as little external supports as possible.
The accommodations most frequently reported within their postsecondary settings
were the following: extended time on tests, separate room for testing, breaks during tests,
note-takers, and permission to audio-record lectures. All of the participants who
indicated that they received accommodations reported that the accommodations were
very helpful in addressing their academic need resulting from their disability. The
participants who made use of accommodations predominantly reported extended time on
tests as the most needed and requested accommodation. Dale H. described it as follows:
It’s a major factor in certain classes, like for any classes where I have to write
anything ‘cause like whenever I’m writing anything, or multiple-choice, when I
have to think about multiple possibilities, it’s the most complicated thing, like for
example Biology or something like that where it’s just a simple fill-in the blank or
something like that it’s a lot quicker, but when there is multiple choice or I have
to write something down and express my mind or whatever, it just takes me a
really long time.

For most students who made use of accommodations, their reports indicate that
these made the difference between being able to successfully complete the course or not.
In other words, the accommodations provided access to a postsecondary education that
they would not otherwise have. As Dale H. stated, “For some classes, that’s the only way
I would finish them.”
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Although most participants reported that they received the accommodations
agreed upon by disability services, one participant reported difficulty receiving an
accommodation previously received at another four-year institution and another
participant reported having to strongly advocate for herself in order to receive the
accommodations through disability services. Ken D. reported that he had previously
been allowed the use of crib notes during tests at another university but was having great
difficulty obtaining the same accommodation approved by disability services in his
current setting. Despite this, he indicated that one professor had agreed to allow crib
notes for one exam on a trial basis. Although this concession by his professor was
described as “a step in the right direction” by Ken D., he expressed great frustration with
disability services with regard to this issue. For instance he stated:
For some reason they’re treating me as if I’m a criminal…I’m going “I had this
accommodation at [name of institution] and they had absolutely no problem with
it”… in not so many words, they’re basically trying to title me as a cheater or
something like that.

Bree G. also reported an initial frustrating experience with disability services when
attempting to make arrangements for accommodations. She reported that this initial
negative experience discouraged her from pursuing services until her academic
performance was so low that she had twice failed a required math class, at which time
one of her professors recognized that she was struggling and provided accommodations
despite not having the required paperwork. As a result of experiencing success when
provided with accommodations, she decided to advocate for herself more effectively with
regard to disability services. Her experiences were described as follows:
49
I really didn’t start using the disability center until, well, I had just the worst
experience, they were just extremely rude and like I had all my accommodations
but they weren’t really letting me use them…and the guy wasn’t very nice and I
just didn’t really feel very comfortable there and then I got a D in this math class
that you can’t really even get a C- in it, for a Liberal Studies major you have to
get a C in it, and so I got a D in it and then I took it again and got an F and then I
took it again, and so the third time I took it I got a really good teacher and then I
started taking it like in a testing room and it was so much better and now I’m in
the last math class that I have to take and it’s just like… I went back to the
disability center, got the same horrible guy and just manned up and got my own
room, it was cool.
In fact, half of the participants in this study spoke about the need to self-advocate in a
postsecondary setting. Self-advocacy skills were reported to be necessary in order to ask
for help, obtain services, and obtain needed accommodations. Additional examples are
as follows: Alan B. stated, “The only reason I got the note-taking is because I e-mailed
the professor saying ‘You said there was someone who had signed up [to be a note-
taker].’” In addition, Carl F. stated:
I ask questions and I’m not scared to approach the teacher versus when I was
younger I would be timid and not want to ask a question and I had a fear of being
judged and I had a fear of asking a stupid question; now I’m a more confident that
I can raise my hand and ask a question, or write my teacher an e-mail, or go to the
office hours.

Other Common Themes
Comorbid diagnoses. The majority of participants in this study reported having
comorbid diagnoses. The most commonly reported comorbid diagnosis was anxiety.
Other comorbid diagnoses reported by participants were depression, obsessive-
compulsive disorder, dyslexia, and expressive/receptive learning disorders. These
comorbid disorders posed additional challenges for participants in both their daily
personal and academic lives. For example, many participants indicated that symptoms of
50
anxiety interfered with their ability to concentrate when studying and also negatively
impacted them during test-taking situations. Disorders such as obsessive-compulsive
disorders negatively impacted those who reported having it by making their use of time
less efficient.
Decreased feelings of self-concept and self-efficacy. It was reported by many
that at times the challenges resulting from their diagnoses created decreased feelings of
self-concept as well as decreased self-efficacy. During interviews, many participants
made sporadic comments that reflected a negative view of the self. For example, Inga T.
stated, “Yeah, it’s just a big old mess balled in one person.”
Feeling overwhelmed. In addition to decreased feelings of self-concept and self-
efficacy, many students reported feeling very overwhelmed with their academic load.
Difficulties keeping up with the pace of their courses, especially those that required a
great deal of reading, were reported. Additionally, participants reported spending more
time studying than their non-ADHD counterparts and often feeling like the amount of
time that was spent studying did not necessarily match the grades they received. For
example Eddie M. stated:
Once I got here they expected you to already be at a certain level, and not that I
wasn’t on that level, I just didn’t know how to get myself to that level. I would
study hours and hours, and countless hours and like not sleeping at night and stuff
like that just to pull a C in a class or a B in a class…homework was a little easier
for me just because I would be up all night but it would be ok because I’d get to
finish; where other people spend an hour or two on their homework, I would
spend four or five hours.

Coping strategies. Along with the descriptions of the challenges that they face,
many participants reported various coping strategies that helped them to better cope with
51
and overcome some of their challenges. These coping strategies were in most cases
developed over time by the participants themselves as they gained a better understanding
of their specific areas of weakness. However, in some cases, coping strategies had been
learned within a therapeutic setting as many of the participants reported having received
counseling services at some point in their lives. The strategies that participants reported
were most often used are the following: organizational strategies such as writing lists and
keeping a calendar, positive self-talk, use of clutter-free and distraction-free
environments when studying, and studying with a partner.
Counseling. In addition to helping them gain coping strategies, the participants
who had received counseling services either at school or in a private setting reported
gaining great benefit from counseling. Counseling was reported to have contributed to a
greater sense of well-being and control over their lives. It was reported to have helped
participants to process feelings regarding their learning differences and to have helped
them to problem-solve and make better decisions at key points in their lives. For
example, Inga T. indicated that by allowing her to sort through feelings and possible
career paths, counseling through her private therapist helped her to remain in school. As
Inga T. explained:
Like the second semester I was like “I can’t do this, I’m not someone who goes to
school, it’s not me”…I talked a lot to my therapist about it and he’s all,
“Whatever you want to do,” but we kind of planned everything out and looked at
it from different perspectives and kind of saw that that wasn’t the correct way that
I wanted to go but that there’s always different doors that are open for me to go
to.

52
Inga T. further explained her experience with counseling as follows:
A lot of problem-solving and it’s cool because he doesn’t tell me how to do it but
he puts it all out, but he helps me in a way ‘cause when I look at a problem I see it
all backwards and everywhere, when he sets it up, it’s like everything is set up in
corners and I just have to find the path that I want to choose.

Acceptance of diagnosis. Although most participants appeared to be adequately
adjusted individuals, it was evident that some continued to struggle with coming to terms
with their diagnosis, its implications, and had attained different levels of acceptance. As
Holly Z. stated, “I’ve heard of cases where ADHD goes away and I’ve been trying to
train myself to make it go away, and it’s really, really hard, but I’m doing it…it’s really
hard.” Other participants expressed similar feelings and thoughts regarding their
diagnosis. In reference to receiving the diagnosis, which was given her first year of
college, Inga T. stated:
It gave me a little bit of relief but it also gave me a little bit of kind of anger and
sadness because it’s like, I felt I worked twice as hard as everybody else to get
where I am and I kind of…I’m very spiritual but I don’t want to blame God but
this is like, “Why would you put this on me?” you know, ‘cause it put a lot of
strain on my family, puts a lot more strain on my sister because I got a lot more
attention because of it and it’s like, “Why would you put me through this?”

Medication use. Most participants interviewed reported experience with
prescription medication for ADHD at some point in their academic careers. Their views
on medication and its usefulness were mixed. Slightly more than half of the participants
indicated that they were taking medication for ADHD at the time of the interview.
Slightly less than half indicated that they had previously taken medication but had
stopped at some point prior to the time of our interview. It should be noted that some
53
participants who were taking medication were prescribed medication that targeted
symptoms of ADHD as well as comorbid conditions such as anxiety and depression.
All participants who reported current use of medication for ADHD indicated that
they only take their prescribed medication on days when they attend school and do not
typically take it on the weekends or over the summer. All of these participants also
indicated that they derived great benefit from it and reported that its use allowed them to
be functional within an academic setting. The difference that medication made in their
lives was well illustrated by Eddie M. as follows:
Once I took Adderall I was like “Really? This is what life is like?” you know?
So it was completely different…it’s like your eyes open up, it’s like you
understand things that could have never understood before and it’s just amazing,
everything is amazing…I could definitely, I could get on a schedule whereas
before something small like getting on a schedule or having stuff done…I still
don’t do checklists or anything like that but I know when things are due, I know
when things are due, you know?

However, participants currently taking medications reported some unwanted side effects
such as increased anxiety and subdued emotional states that were described as
problematic. Those who had previously taken medication and then stopped reported
similar side effects although in their cases the side effects of the medication were
reported to be too difficult to manage. These side effects had resulted in stopping the
medication altogether after several unsuccessful trials of various other medications. Carl
F. described his experience with medication side effects as follows:
I’m currently not taking any medication just because I do have a lot of anxiety so
it was making it worse. I probably stopped about three years ago and I tried the
non-stimulant drug Strattera. I was on that for a while and that helped but I
stopped that because I would still get the anxiety, not like Adderall where you get
like the, you know, you lose your appetite… just the side effects of the Adderall
and Strattera, and the yucky feelings I got from it, I just couldn’t handle it
54
anymore, you know, and they tried, you know, giving me like Xanax to offset it,
you know, when I would try and sleep, but it just didn’t work.

During the course of the interviews, three participants disclosed previous
substance abuse problems. These substance abuse problems were reported to have
interfered with personal and academic endeavors. For example, Carl F. stated:
When I left [name of university], the reason why I left was because of substance
abuse problems, not with uppers, with downers, umm, so that’s basically why I
took some time off and worked, I wasn’t lying when I said I had job
opportunities, but I did have to go to rehab.

Two of the participants who reported substance abuse problems related their substance
abuse issues to their diagnosis. For example, Eddie M. stated:
I’ve self-medicated my whole life, like I used to smoke a lot, I used to drink a lot,
I still dip a lot, it was all to calm me down…everything before my actual
medication now would hurt me instead of help me.

Interestingly, one participant, Dale H., who spoke about his difficulties finding a
medication that worked to ameliorate his ADHD symptoms, reported that using
marijuana improved his academic performance. He stated the following:
I always attempted to remedy it with one drug or another but it never quite
worked; I don’t know if it was the dosage or too much or too little or just the
wrong medication but nothing really quite worked until I was in my sophomore
year of college at the university here, I started to smoke a lot of pot and my grades
went from like a 2.0, something like that, to over a 3.0, and like the classes
weren’t getting any easier.

Desire to be successful with minimal supports. A salient theme throughout the
interviews conducted was the participants’ desire to do as much for themselves as
possible and with as little assistance from external supports as possible. This desire was
reflected in the responses obtained from the majority of participants regarding which
supports they had in place at their university setting at the time of interview as well as
55
their statements regarding medication use. Statements such as “I only use the disability
card when I really need something, like ‘Oh, I really need the notes’ but most of them
[professors] don’t know and it’s fine,” stated by Fred J. and “I don’t like special
treatment but I know that if I really need it it’s there…I want to push myself enough
where I don’t need it so I can be as normal as everybody else,” as stated by Inga T., were
made by all participants in this study. However, despite the expressed hesitation by many
to use accommodations, their statements made it clear that accommodations provided
needed access. Fred J., who previously used medication but does not take any
medication currently further explained wanting to succeed without relying on medication:
I used to be on medication and then what I did is I said “I can just learn
to cope with this” instead of having to rely on the medicine to fix me, that’s kind
of what I did, kind of eased into my own transition… I just didn’t like how I felt
like it was controlling me. I just felt that I could be my own person without this
medicine and learn from the others… you could just learn to cope with this…I
finally got to it eventually but it’s not like I beat it or anything…

Determination to obtain a degree. All participants in this study expressed being
determined to attain their undergraduate degree despite the challenges presented by their
disorder. As discussed earlier in this chapter, in addition to the challenges related to their
diagnosis of ADHD, many participants were presented with further challenges that were
related to comorbid diagnoses. Most participants indicated an internal drive to succeed in
a postsecondary setting despite the barriers that needed to be overcome and the
knowledge that they may have to work harder than their non-ADHD counterparts. As
Alan B. stated, “I feel like most people here are really smart and may be smarter than I
am but they’re not gonna work as hard as I am.” Bree G. described her experience as
follows:
56
I feel like struggling just makes you survive but it didn’t really drag me down, I
just persevered in it. It’s kind of inspiring to know that you have all these
obstacles and it doesn’t ever get easier but because you want to do it, you do it.

Similarly, Gina S. stated, “It’s like I’ve worked so hard to get here that I will not settle
for anything less than doing my absolute best and getting my degree.”
The two participants from Hispanic backgrounds indicated that their
determination to persist in a postsecondary setting was heavy influenced by family
factors. They both expressed a longing for their families to feel proud of them. Eddie M.
indicated that being the first one in his family to attend a four-year university was a
strong motivator, which made him feel determined to persist. He stated the following:
I decided not to go the route that the rest of my family is, like construction or
cops, or anything like that, and come to school. I’m the first one to actually make
it to a four-year school and that’s my drive, that’s what keeps me going.

Inga T. reported that she was determined to complete her undergraduate degree in order
to make her parents proud. She described her reasons as follows:
I feel that I have something to give back to my parents, that I have to do this more
for them than doing it for myself ‘cause I feel like they’ve put so much into me
that they deserve something and I feel like that’s the only reason why I’m in
school…I feel that if I get my degree that it would be one of their greatest
achievements, sort of, and I feel like I owe them something for what they’ve
done.

Utility value of the degree. All participants, with the exception of Inga T.,
indicated that an undergraduate degree would have utility value. The value that they saw
in the degree was a motivating force behind their determination to attain it. Most
participants indicated that they needed the degree in order to obtain a specific job while
others expected to apply to graduate programs after receiving their undergraduate degree.
Some participants stated that the current economic climate highlighted the need for an
57
undergraduate degree even more than before. Further, they expressed concern regarding
their ability to compete with other job applicants and become employed in a highly
competitive job market with a high rate of unemployment.
Community college transfers. An additional finding was that over half of the
participants in this study had transferred from a community college into their respective
four-year universities. All of these participants indicated that having attended a
community college was beneficial to their academic attainment. Three of these
participants specifically emphasized that the smaller, closer-to-home environment of a
community college held an advantage for them. Alan B. illustrated these views as
follows:
First of all, like probably going to Junior college was the best thing I ever did…I
don’t think I was ready to come here by myself yet at that point in time. It’s like a
half-way point to like being independent and not quite being independent yet and
I felt like that was a really great bridge in order to like develop myself as a person
and feel out what’s like expected of you and everything is on a different level now
and a little bit harder but in general it’s better because I went to a Junior college.

Employment status. The majority of participants reported having a part-time job
at the time of interview, although some had previously held full-time jobs while in
college. Most participants expressed feeling very overwhelmed in trying to balance their
school and job responsibilities. Further, these participants reported struggling with
having divided attention between their work and school settings. For instance, Carl F.
stated:
I find it much easier if I’m either working or if I’m going to school full-time. And
I find it much easier when I’m going to school full-time. I tend to get real
stressed out and I find it easier when I just have one thing to concentrate on.

58
Gina S. also reflected on this issue as follows:

I’m really thinking about quitting my job. I think people who have these
challenges, even someone like me where I feel like I’ve overcome a lot of them
and gone like a great distance. I feel like doing too much at once is like the worst
thing ‘cause it’s like you already have you know, I already have an issue focusing
and concentrating, even with medicine, it’s not like I can rely on it entirely, so it’s
like you have to limit everything else in order to be able to overcome those and do
well in school.

Jen P. indicated that this challenge balancing more than one responsibility is difficult for
others to understand. She stated:
It’s the hardest thing for me to explain to people, ‘cause people do not understand
that I cannot…I’d rather like not work, and have known this, and have taken 18
units every semester, and just got done rather than like do both at once…it’s so
much more to me, I just can’t focus.

Research Question Two
Research question two asked, “What supports have influenced the participants’
decision to persist in a postsecondary setting?
The specific supports that were most frequently identified by participants as
influential in their decision to continue to persist in a postsecondary setting were family
support, prescribed medication, support from friends, and university-based resources.
Other supports that were less frequently specifically identified as influential were
religion, and private counseling.
Family Support
The majority of participants identified family support as influential in their
decision to remain in a postsecondary setting. In this category, continued parental
support was by far the most influential in these participants’ decision to persist. As Ann
S. stated, “I think that logistically in how I was able to graduate and then attend college,
59
was a lot of help at home with my mom.” Other comments such as Jen P.’s comment of
“I have really good parents, they are super-supportive and no one in my family has gone
to school so they’re really bent on it, like I better finish” were common. However, the
two participants from a Hispanic background indicated that extended family support was
just as influential as that of their parents and carried weight in their decision to persist in
school. Eddie M. indicated that support from his wife has been greatly influential.
Regarding this support he said:
The main person I focus on is my wife…she’s a teacher too and she works at a
school, it’s called an all-inclusive school…she’s a kindergarten teacher there and
she gets a lot of students there that have IEPs and have their own paras and do
their own thing so when she comes home, she’s able to treat me a different way
where the normal person would just get mad because I don’t do something, she
kind of talks to me more about it so…It’s annoying sometimes you know, because
it’s like “I’m not one of your students” but in the end I know that she’s trying to
help me and then I know that in the end, her doing little things like that help me
succeed and have given me confidence.

For Inga T. the support of her Godmother also influenced her decision to continue in
school. She referred to this support as follows:
My Godmother is very proactive on my decisions too, she’s always asking me
what I’m doing and how I’m doing, and she always tells me that she’s proud of
me and she…when I can’t really talk to my mom about decisions that I want to
do, I go to her and she helps me to decide what I should do.

Medication

The availability of medication was reported to have influenced the decision of
many students to persevere in a postsecondary setting. Five participants identified
medication support as instrumental in allowing them to feel more confident in their
ability to succeed in school. For example, Gina S. stated:
60
I started taking Adderall and I feel like it just gave me the ability to sit down for a
second and just stop and I would actually listen to what the teacher said and I
actually found it to be interesting.

Inga T., a participant who had previously dropped out of another four-year university and
later enrolled at a community college prior to transferring to her current postsecondary
institution stated, “I’m on medication now so it’s helping me a lot in my classes and I’m
actually doing a lot better than the two different colleges I went to before.”
Support from Friends and Peers
Four participants indicated that both emotional and academic support from friends
and peers was influential in their decision to persist in a postsecondary setting. For some
participants these supportive friendships were established prior to attending college while
others became friends with college peers while attending a postsecondary setting. With
regard to classes that he found difficult, Fred J. stated, “Those are difficult and I struggle
so I ask my friends to help me, teach me and stuff.” Holly Z. reported that having group
study sessions was extremely helpful. She stated:
Personally I think that the most important thing to me was studying with a group
because when you have ADHD, the best, best thing for you to do is study in a
group of people that are focused on what you’re studying.
However, she cautioned against large groups, which she defined as having more than
three members as she stated, “If you’re trying to do your homework alone, not gonna
happen, ever, period. You have to be in a small group, two to three people is optimal,
maybe one or two, I’d say two is optimal.” She also cautioned against forming groups
with more than one member with a diagnosis of ADHD. She indicated that this was her
recommendation because:
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ADHD people feed off of other people’s energy and off of their focus, and even
then, if there’s too many people in the room, we won’t be focused, if you’re with
one person at a table, and that one person is communicating with you, about the
same thing, you will be in that mindset so you can communicate back, because
ADHD people are like social butterflies, they want to be talking, they want to be
doing this, they want to be doing that.

Support from University-Based Resources

Most participants indicated that support from university-based resources
influenced their decision to persist in a postsecondary setting. All participants who
received accommodations through the disability services center at their university
indentified access to the disability services center on-campus and access to the
accommodations provided through them as a key factor in their decision to persist in
school. For example, Dale H. stated “The opportunities at the department of disabilities
were really helpful…there is always tutors for nearly any class you’re taking to help you
out if you need help…I wouldn’t be able to get by without it.” Two participants
specifically identified university-based counseling services as influential. For example,
Gina S. stated:
I started seeing a counselor in the special services center and that was probably
the best accommodation I could have gotten, just to go to talk to somebody, it
wasn’t like therapy...but it helped me so much, she like guided me.

Two participants mentioned that having access to the university library where they were
able to find a quiet space to study was a helpful resource that allowed them to persist in
school. One participant indicated that a mentoring program that the university offered
was instrumental in her decision to persist. She described one of her experiences with the
mentoring program as follows:
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You got to talk to them about how you’re feeling about school and they help you
with whatever you need and I was taking the CBEST and I have test anxiety and I
didn’t want to go through the process of the CBEST having your own room
because it was like an extreme process and so she just helped me with like dealing
with like “when you’re doing this question think of this, be positive,” that was
helpful.

Another participant reported that the availability of a variety of courses, which could be
interspersed with the required courses for her major, greatly influenced her decision to
continue her enrollment at her postsecondary setting. This participant stated:
Finding different outlets on-campus was helpful; I had classes that I didn’t
necessarily have to take, I took a theater class…It brought some lightness to my
class load and helped me to do stuff that I enjoyed while I did stuff that was a bit
more difficult for me.
Research Question Three
Research question three asked, “How do the experiences reported by students
with ADHD relate to Tinto’s Model of Institutional Departure (1975, 1993) and Bean’s
Student Attrition Model (1980)?” Relevant factors related to this inquiry were identified
as (a) the level of institutional commitment reported by participants in this study; (b) their
level of social integration within their postsecondary setting; and (c) perceptions of fit
between themselves and their postsecondary institution.
Institutional Commitment
Five participants in this study expressed a sense of commitment to their respective
postsecondary institution. One participant indicated that the prestigious name of the
university he attended along with being a legacy student made him feel committed to his
particular university. Two others indicated that their particular experiences in their
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university setting made them feel committed to the institution until completion of their
degree. Bree G. described her sense of commitment to her institution as follows:
I’ve been through a lot here, I mean, I’ve had a whole wild experience from the
sorority through school, through new identities, just like I mean, I feel like when I
graduate and I wear that [institution name] robe, I’ll be excited that I finished here
because of my experience.

When asked how important it was to graduate from their particular institution as opposed
to others, Eddie M. responded:
It’s extremely important. I consider [institution name] one of the best schools out
there and a lot of people just because it’s a local school, they kind of down it a
little but you know, this university to me is huge.

Two participants expressed that their sense of commitment to their postsecondary
institution was rooted in the advantages that they saw in completing their particular
program at their institution. For example, Jen P. indicated an interest in enrolling in a
Masters’ program at the university where she attended and felt that completing her
undergraduate degree at that institution would give her an edge when applying for it.
The remaining participants did not indicate sharing this sense of commitment to any
particular setting. Instead, they reported being committed to completing their
undergraduate degree but not necessarily in their setting at the time of interview. For
example, when asked how important it was to complete his degree at his particular
institution, Dale H. stated:
It’s not important at all, in fact, I’m gonna be possibly getting a job where I might
have to relocate …when they station me they’ll station me wherever they need me
the most and so it might not be anywhere near [name of institution] and so I’m
gonna have to, you know, take classes in my spare time at another place or come
back if I choose to do that.

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In response to the same question, Holly Z. stated, “It’s just important for me to
graduate…it doesn’t matter from where…I just need to graduate with a Bachelor’s.”
Social Integration
With regard to social integration, participants were asked about their involvement
in extra-curricular activities, participation in group activities, and overall social
involvement with peers and faculty.
Ten participants reported continuous opportunities for social interaction with
peers, which had resulted in positive social experiences. Six participants reported
involvement in organized groups within their institution. Examples of the types of
organized groups which participants reported having membership in were a College
Republicans group, an Environmental and Occupational Safety Association, Kinesiology
club, a Rugby team, a school newspaper, and a Council for Exceptional Children.
Involvement in these organizations was described as both enjoyable and important to
those who participated. For example, Jen P. stated:
We do a lot with the community, like with the City of San Fernando, they had a
program, like a fitness program over the summer and they have one going on now
and students go and volunteer their time and get to know like the doctors in the
program, so it’s like neat, the camaraderie and stuff.

Many of the transfer students indicated that they had previously been involved with
organized groups at their community college and subsequently decided to be involved in
organized groups after transferring to their new setting. For example, Inga T. reported
the following experience:
I found out that joining a club at my community college helped out meeting
people so I kind of came here with the intention of meeting people through
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different clubs or something, so I joined the rugby team and I’m helping out with
the newspaper, to help me get settled in and feel more at home.

Of the participants in the study who reported social involvement, four participants
reported ongoing social involvement with peers that occurred in a less structured manner.
These participants indicated frequent social contact with peers that involved getting
together with others to enjoy meals or coffee, to attend seasonal university-sponsored
activities, and getting together for study sessions. Two participants reported frequent
contact and involvement with peers at their dorms and through their sororities. One
participant reported frequent contact with peers at her place of work, which was a lab
within the university. Participants reported that the common denominator in all of these
structured and unstructured social groupings was a common interest between all those
who were involved in the different groups. For some groups, this common denominator
was academic in nature while for others it revolved around non-academic interests. For
example, Jen P. expressed the common denominator within her group as follows:
I got engulfed in this lab and I absolutely love it, everyone is really close and it’s
really nice to be around people that have a specialized focus like I do, they are all
Exercise Phys…so we’re all on the same path, it’s really nice.

As an example of non-academic common interests that have led to involvement with
peers, Dale H. shared the following:
I have a couple of friends that ride motorcycles. I’m a motorcycle rider and
specifically, stunt motorcycles…so basically just from riding our bikes around,
ran into each other…we all go to [name of institution] and we all have stunt bikes
and live across from campus and we always meet up and ride and stuff like that.

With regard to opportunities for social interaction with faculty inside and outside
of the classroom, the majority of participants reported having minimal opportunities for
66
social interactions with professors. Only three participants indicated having ongoing
opportunity for ongoing social contact with professors via university-based organized
groups. However seven participants stated having had a sense of connection with various
faculty members or academic advisors at different points throughout their academic
careers in postsecondary settings. These relationships and sense of connection with
faculty and/or staff were reported to have had a positive effect on their academic
motivation and to have influenced their persistence. For example, Carl F. stated:
I got really close to the head of the department and he passed away like three
months ago unexpectedly, and he had some sort of vision problem and so I would
give him rides to his house sometimes ‘cause he couldn’t drive…When I
transferred in he kind of took me under his wing because I was changing majors, I
was coming into a new school, and we just kind of bonded and he helped me and
he new of my learning disability and we just kind of bonded and he was kind of
like a mentor for me for a while and I like stayed in contact with him, you know,
throughout my time here.

Perceptions of Fit Between Self and Institution
The majority of participants indicated that they felt that their postsecondary
setting at time of interview provided a good fit for them. Only two students indicated
feeling as though their postsecondary setting was not a good match for them. It should be
noted that both participants who indicated not sensing a good fit were transfer students
during their first semester at their respective universities. Further, both students reported
feeling as though their previous setting had provided a good fit. It is possible that
adjustment issues may have played a role as to their feelings regarding fit at the time of
interview.
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Half of the participants indicated that they felt that there was a good fit between
the way instruction was delivered and their individual learning style. For instance, Ken D.
stated:
I like the professors, I like the Geology professors, they’re passionate about their
chosen field, they like explaining things, I like that. I like it when someone
doesn’t have a problem explaining something, I like it when they actually go an
over-explain something ‘cause I guess I sort of jive on their energy, you know, I
can absorb some of that and be like “oh, ok, this goes with this and this goes with
this,” and once it clicks all together I have my aha! moment, I go, “Got it!,” that’s
my big motivating thing right there.

Most of the participants who indicated a good fit between instruction and learning style
stated that class discussions helped them learn the material. Two others indicated that the
availability of the online format for courses was a good way to work around their
attentional difficulties.
The other half of the participants expressed various levels of dissatisfaction with
instruction at the postsecondary level. Three participants indicated that their professors
did not take enough time to thoroughly explain the material and therefore they struggled
understanding concepts. For instance, Holly Z. stated:
There’s a lot of things that I would change if I was a chancellor or something…I
don’t know, it’s just that the teachers half-explain everything, you’re sitting there
like “What are you talking about?”…most of the time they explain it to you and it
goes right over your head… you go home and look up the problems and if I can’t
figure it out I call a friend! Because that’s probably my best chance of ever
understanding the problem.

Two participants indicated difficulty following along while at the same time taking notes
when their professors did PowerPoint presentations in their classrooms. Further, they
indicated that it was challenging to find note-takers for those classes. For example, Carl
F. explained it as follows:
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Part of the problem with the note-taking is that a lot of teachers have slides, and
what they give you is, have you seen, like the paper, the transparency paper and
that’s basically how they work the note-taking system but some people take notes
just on the slide so, it’s hard to find a note-taker because they just take notes on
the slide and if the teacher doesn’t provide the slides online, some professors do
and some don’t, it can become a problem, so I even the other day, I was like when
I went to the disability resource office, I said, for teachers that don’t put their
Powerpoint slides online, it’s hard to find a note-taker, so it might be an idea for
those teachers to provide the slides for the students with disabilities.

Dale H. expressed dissatisfaction with the use of specific types of technology in the
classroom. For instance, he indicated that when clickers were used, the classroom setting
became too overwhelming for him. He described his experience as follows:
The clickers and all that stuff, I really didn’t like that ‘cause it forced me to pay
too much attention to everything. I mostly preferred not to even go to classes or
just to learn on my own ‘cause when I’d be in class, I couldn’t pay attention to
anything so I’d most likely tune out everything while I was in class as much as I
could afford to and then whenever it came time to take tests or whatever, I’d just
cram, go through the books and do it that way.
All of the participants, with the exception of one, indicated that their academic
performance was at least adequate at the time of interview. The majority indicated that
their GPAs had increased over time, especially once they had fulfilled the general
education requirements and began taking courses specifically related to their major.
Many expressed that the general education requirements were more difficult to get
through than the classes that better held their interest which were generally the courses
related to their chosen major. For example, Ken D. described his frustration with this
issue as follows:
Well, in the Geology class I feel pretty good because I like it, I understand it…but
in the GE classes, because I don’t feel why I have to take those classes when I’m
already doing so well in the Geology class, so I’m less motivated to succeed in the
GE classes because to me they feel like a waste of time so I’ve been recently
taking all of the Geology classes, all of the major classes I can and then that way
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in case I lose financial aid, I can go back to a community college and just finish
up all of the little GE things that they want to force me to do…but yeah, I like my
chosen major right now.

The majority of participants reported that their past and current experiences
within a postsecondary setting provided them with motivation to persist until completion
of their undergraduate degree. Most of them expressed feelings of accomplishment and
pride when thinking about how far they had come in the pursuit of an undergraduate
degree. Gina S. described how much her experiences with professors played a role in her
continued motivation to persist in a postsecondary setting as, “So much, in every way,
like, good teachers that don’t just go by the book in how they teach you but…I feel like
some of the teachers really like shook me until I understood, you know.” Other
participants indicated that positive experiences within their postsecondary setting allowed
them to enjoy learning. For instance, Jen P. stated:
Since I started, like since I’ve gotten more involved like with my department, I
like love it, it’s so much fun, then when I do well on a test, that’s…I’m motivated
like when I do well and stuff, and like when I make new friends too.

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CHAPTER V

Discussion of Results
The purpose of the present qualitative study was to investigate factors that play a
role in the academic persistence of students with ADHD attending four-year
postsecondary institutions. The experiences reported by the participants in this study
were examined and compared to the existing literature and several common themes were
identified and explored. Based on the information obtained from the study, possible
applications for practice as well as recommendations for future studies will be discussed.
Discussion of Research Questions
The present study addressed three research questions. Each of these research
questions was examined based on first-person accounts as obtained through direct
interviews with the participants.
Research Question One
Research question one asked, “What experiences do postsecondary students with
ADHD report?” The results of the interviews provide information regarding several
behavioral manifestations of ADHD that contribute to making postsecondary education
challenging, participant experiences related to instruction, experiences regarding
disclosing their disabilities to others, and accommodations that the participants found to
be valuable. Additional themes identified through the interviews included the existence
of comorbid diagnoses, decreased feelings of self-concept and self-efficacy, feelings of
being overwhelmed, the use of coping strategies and medications, the beneficial effect of
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counseling, the desire to function with minimal supports, perceptions of utility value of
an undergraduate degree, and an internal drive to succeed.
Behavioral manifestations. The participants in the present sample reported
experiencing difficulty focusing and sustaining focus during instruction as well as during
study sessions, time management difficulties, forgetfulness, difficulty remaining still,
daydreaming, and difficulty effectively communicating with others. All of these
behavioral manifestations were reported to interfere with learning and social aspects of
daily life within their academic setting. The difficulties reported by the participants in
this study are consistent with what the literature has informed us regarding difficulties
commonly experienced by individuals with a diagnosis of ADHD. For instance,
difficulty focusing and sustaining focus, time management difficulties, and working
memory difficulties related to ADHD have been heavily discussed in the literature and
have been highlighted by Barkley and others as having a neurobiological basis (Barkley,
1997, 2002; Nigg & Casey, 2005). Further, ADHD symptomatology and behavioral
manifestations have been found to negatively impact individuals in academic settings
(Barkley et al., 2006). Additionally, difficulties with effective communication exhibited
by adults with ADHD have been documented in the literature (Barkley et al., 1996;
Friedman et al., 2003). Previous research indicates that individuals with ADHD continue
to display social impairments into adulthood (Friedman et al., 2003). These social
impairments have been found to be related to difficulties with interpersonal functioning
in part due to difficulty communicating effectively with others. Consistent with findings
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by Friedman et al., (2003) the participants in this study displayed communication
difficulties such as talking too fast or interrupting others and were aware of these deficits.
Experiences related to instruction. The majority of participants indicated
positive experiences regarding instruction and the way that the course material is
delivered in their postsecondary classrooms. As research has shown, students who are
satisfied with the formal academic systems of institutions tend to persist in postsecondary
settings (Tinto, 1987, 1993). Particular mention was made of the helpfulness of
professors relating the course material to practical applications and their encouragement
of classroom discussions. Research has found that a dynamic teaching approach that
includes classroom discussions and cooperative learning facilitates learning and increases
student satisfaction (Lau, 2003). In addition, the effectiveness of the utilization of
Universal Design for Learning practices in various classrooms was mentioned by
participants. Further, the availability of online courses that were easy to access
contributed to feelings of overall satisfaction with instruction.
Experiences related to disclosure. The majority of participants reported having
disclosed their disability status to both previous and current faculty. Approximately half
of the participants reported disclosing to faculty on an as-needed basis, that is, only when
they felt the need to request accommodations in particular courses. This is consistent with
research conducted by Hartman-Hall and Haaga (2002), which found that students who
have disabilities that the student perceives as being both global and stigmatizing are less
likely to be willing to seek help. The participants in the present study reported positive
and neutral experiences when disclosing their disability status to professors. Most
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participants indicated that they also disclose their diagnosis to close friends and family
members.
Experiences related to accommodations. Half of the participants in this study
reported having previously received accommodations either through an Individualized
Education Plan (IEP) or a Section 504 plan in their K-12 settings following their
diagnosis of ADHD. Accommodations that the participants in this study received in their
postsecondary settings and which they found helpful were extended time on tests, use of
a separate room for testing, being allowed breaks during tests, note-takers, and
permission to audio-record lectures. Consistent with Trammell (2003) who found that
college students with ADHD benefit from accommodations, participants in this study
were responsive to and benefited from the accommodations provided within their
postsecondary setting. Participants making use of the accommodations outlined above
reported that these accommodations allowed them better access to the course content,
allowed them to demonstrate mastery of the material during testing, and helped them to
successfully complete courses that they would not otherwise be able to complete as a
result of their disability.
It is noteworthy that participants in this study disclosed their disability to
professors on an as-needed basis, only when they recognized the need for a specific
accommodation for a particular course. This is also consistent with Trammell (2003)
who found that college students with ADHD make fewer requests for accommodations
when compared to peers with other learning disabilities.
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Comorbid diagnoses. The literature indicates that ADHD frequently co-exists
with other disorders that affect behavior and performance such as depression, anxiety,
bipolar disorder, personality disorders, pervasive developmental spectrum disorders, and
substance use and abuse disorders (Barkley, 2002; Wolf, 2006). Consistent with the
literature, this study found a high rate of comorbidity of ADHD with other disorders.
Several of the participants in this study reported having an anxiety disorder that resulted
in additional academic challenges. Other comorbid diagnoses reported by participants in
this study were depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, dyslexia, and
expressive/receptive learning disorders, which also were reported to interfere with
academics and daily life. In addition, some participants indicated experiencing previous
substance abuse issues that impacted them in some way.
Medication use. Most participants interviewed reported experiences with
prescription medication for ADHD at some point in their academic careers. Their views
on medication and its usefulness were mixed. While the majority reported benefit from
prescription medication, there were many others who reported unwanted side effects that
outweighed the benefits of taking the medication and had therefore stopped taking it.
Recent research indicates that the benefit of ADHD medication for college students has
not been empirically established (Rabiner et al., 2008; Blase et al., 2009). However, the
majority of participants in this study reported that medication management of ADHD was
greatly beneficial and in some cases necessary to succeed in a postsecondary setting.
Feeling overwhelmed. The majority of participants in this study reported feeling
overwhelmed with their academic load, especially with classes that required a great
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volume of reading. This is consistent with findings from Mull et al., (2001) who found
that the academic rigor of higher education was a great challenge for college students
with ADHD. Further, the participants’ experience is consistent with the literature which
indicates that the combination of a heavy academic load and the little external structure
provided in postsecondary settings poses a greater challenge for college students with
ADHD compared to their non-ADHD peers because it taps directly into the weaknesses
related to their disorder (Wolf, 2006).
Self-efficacy and self-concept. The reports of many participants in this study
supported the literature with regard to decreased feelings of self-efficacy and lower self-
concept for individuals with a diagnosis of ADHD. Although the participants in this
study had attained some success in the postsecondary setting, as evidenced by having
attained at least junior standing, the challenges that they reported experiencing were
described as contributing to decreased levels of self-efficacy. This is consistent with
Lackaye’s (2006) findings indicating that students with ADHD experience feelings of
decreased self-efficacy due to having to put forth greater effort and investing more time
to overcome challenges in order to accomplish the same academic results of non-disabled
peers. Further, this study supported Lackaye’s (2006) findings of low levels of global
self-concept in students with disabilities. Throughout the interviews, participants
expressed many negative comments regarding self-concept. However, unlike findings
reported by Lackaye (2006), the participants in this study did not report few attempts to
initiate social interaction with peers or low levels of participation during social
opportunities that were afforded to them. In fact, many participants reported seeking
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involvement and participating in available social opportunities within their academic
settings.
Coping strategies. Participants in this study reported using some of the strategies
that have been discussed in the literature. Wolters (1998) reported that college students
reported frequently using both intrinsically and extrinsically based strategies aimed at
improving academic performance. Consistent with Wolter’s (1998) findings, participants
in this study reported the use of intrinsically based cognitive strategies such as positive
self-talk. This self-talk included reminding themselves that it was important to achieve
good grades and that they were capable of doing this successfully. Further, extrinsically
based strategies such as the use of clutter-free and distraction-free environments when
studying as well as studying with a partner were reported as being used by participants in
order to block out distractions and increase attention to task.
Counseling. Both private and university-based counseling services were reported
to have helped the participants to process feelings regarding their learning differences,
problem-solve, and to make better decisions. Further, counseling was reported as
influential in the decision to persist in a postsecondary setting. Although the literature on
the outcomes of counseling services for adults with ADHD is scarce, some of the
research has found that cognitive therapy is a useful approach when treating adults with
ADHD (McDermott, 1999). Further, others in the field have found that psychosocial
approaches through counseling services such as educating clients about their disorder,
career counseling, and life coaching are helpful when treating adults with ADHD
(Murphy, 2005).
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Desire to function with minimal supports. Trammell (2003) found that college
students with ADHD make fewer requests for accommodations when compared to peers
with other learning disabilities. This is consistent with the desire expressed by all
participants to function and succeed with the minimal number of supports as possible and
the limited number of accommodations that they reported utilizing. No specific
differences were found between the two participants in this study who chose not to
receive accommodations in postsecondary. One of these participants was female and the
other one male and one had received accommodations in their K-12 setting while the
other had not.
Performance goal orientation. Previous research suggests that a mastery goal
orientation is most conducive to academic persistence (Schunk et al., 2008). However,
others have found that a performance goal orientation has been a significant predictor of
college persistence (Kahn & Nauta, 2001; Wolf, 1998). The experiences reported by the
participants in this study suggest that a performance goal orientation heavily influences
the academic persistence of students with ADHD. The majority of participants indicated
that their goal was to do well enough to obtain their undergraduate degree, which reflects
a performance goal.
Utility value of degree. Most participants indicated that the reason they were
working hard to obtain their undergraduate degree was that they felt that it was valuable
in many respects. They expressed feeling that an undergraduate degree would allow
them to obtain a desirable job. For those who wanted to continue in school, it would
allow them to further their education and eventually get an even more desirable job.
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Thus, the information shared by the participants suggests a performance goal orientation.
This also supports previous research indicating that persistence is influenced by the
extent that individuals find value in the activity (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Benefit of prior attendance at a community college. An unexpected finding of
this study was that the majority of participants in this study had attended a community
college prior to enrollment at their four-year institution. All of these participants
indicated that having attended a community college had been beneficial to their academic
attainment. These participants saw the community college experience as an
advantageous bridge between high school and a four-year institution. No previous
studies were identified addressing students with ADHD in community college settings
and the degree to which attending community college impacts academic persistence in
this population. However, Graham, Greenbaum, and William (1995) found that students
with learning disabilities often attend more than one postsecondary institution including
community colleges. In addition, they found that students with learning disabilities
reported that they often changed institutions due to changes in goals or characteristics of
the institution and reported that the smaller setting of a community college was beneficial
to those students.
Research Question Two
Research question two asked, “What supports have influenced the participants’
decision to persist in a secondary setting?” The results of the interviews indicate that the
specific supports that were most frequently identified by participants as influential in
their decision to continue to persist in a postsecondary setting were family support,
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prescribed medication, support from friends, and university-based resources such as
disability centers, university-based counseling, and libraries. In addition, participants
indicated that having experienced a sense of connection with faculty/staff at some point
in their postsecondary academic career was influential in their decision to persist.
Family support. Consistent with research by Dennis et al. (2005), family support
was identified as playing an important role in the participants’ decision to persist in their
postsecondary setting. The current study specifically identified parental support as very
influential in the participants’ decision to persist in college. Noteworthy was the finding
that both participants in this study from a Hispanic background indicated that the support
of extended family was influential in their decision to persist in college. This is
consistent with research findings indicating that minority students, especially those from
collectivist backgrounds, benefit from familial connections as they integrate to
postsecondary environments (Guiffrida, 2006).
Medication. The majority of participants in this study listed the availability of
medication, which they reported to ameliorate their ADHD symptoms, as influential in
their decision to persist in college. The available research in this area does not indicate a
particular direction with respect to this finding.
Support from friends and peers. The reports of the participants in this study
support research conducted by Dennis et al. (2005), which indicated that peer support
positively influences outcomes for college students. Many participants in this study
reported that support from friends and peers was influential in their decision to persist in
80
their postsecondary settings. This is consistent with Tinto’s (1987, 1993) assertions that
informal social systems are influential in the retention of postsecondary students.
University-based resources. Access to a variety of services through disability
centers including access to accommodations, tutoring, and counseling services were
indentified by participants as being influential in their decision to persist. The
importance of these services in order to provide access to a postsecondary education has
been highlighted in research conducted by Lombardi, et al. (2011) and is supported by the
reports of the participants in this study.
Sense of connection with faculty/staff. The participants in this study reported
minimal opportunities for structured social interactions with professors. However, the
majority reported having had a sense of connectedness with various faculty members or
academic advisors at different points throughout their postsecondary education. These
guidance-focused relationships and sense of connection with faculty and/or staff were
reported to have strongly influenced participants’ persistence in that students felt as
though they had mentors to guide them through their postsecondary years. While there is
limited research regarding mentoring in postsecondary settings, a meta-analysis by
Brown, Takahashi, and Roberts (2010) suggests that mentorships have a positive impact
on students with disabilities. Furthermore, research suggests that mentoring programs in
postsecondary institutions foster higher retention rates (Campbell & Campbell, 1997).
Although only one participant in this study reported participation in a mentoring program
at her institution, it was clear that most participants felt that connections with faculty and
academic advisors were important.
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Research Question Three
Research question three asked, “How do the experiences reported by students
with ADHD relate to Tinto’s Interactionalist Model of Institutional Departure (1993) and
Bean’s Student Attrition Model (1980)?” In responding to this question, participants’
level of institutional commitment, level of social integration, perceptions of fit between
themselves and their institutions, and goal commitment were examined.
Institutional commitment. The data obtained through the interviews suggests
that institutional commitment was a factor that played a role in the academic persistence
of the majority of participants in this study. The majority of participants expressed that
their postsecondary experiences had contributed to feelings of loyalty toward their
institutions and their intention to continue to persist in their particular settings. This is
consistent with Tinto’s (1993) and Bean’s (1980) models, which postulate that
institutional commitment plays an important role on academic persistence in college
students.
Social integration. Additional data suggests that the participants’ level of social
integration likely played a role in their academic persistence as the majority of
participants were involved in both formal and informal social systems within their
universities. Not only were the majority of participants involved in social activities with
peers at their institutions, but they also explicitly identified peer support as influential in
their decision to persist in college. This is consistent with Tinto’s (1993) and Bean’s
(1980) models involving student retention, which postulate that positive social
experiences shape the attitudes of students toward their academic institution and in turn
82
their intentions to remain in those postsecondary settings. Other researchers such as
Belch (2004) emphasize that involvement in social activities allows students the
opportunity to experience a sense of connection to the institution and other individuals
within it, which fosters a sense of community and commitment.
Unlike Tinto’s (1993) and Bean’s (1980) models, which de-emphasize the role of
family support and involvement in favor of university-based support systems, the present
study found that familial supports were reported as important by the participants. Family
support and social supports within the university were both reported as influential in their
persistence and complimentary to each other rather than helpful in isolation. In addition,
Tinto’s and Bean’s models did not address psychological factors such as anxiety or other
comorbid diagnoses as related to college persistence. It should be noted that many
participants had a diagnosis of anxiety and reported anxiety symptoms. Comorbid
disorders such as anxiety are commonly present with a diagnosis of ADHD.
Fit between self and institution. Most participants also expressed feelings of a
having a good fit between themselves and their institutions. Both academic and social
experiences factored into these feelings regarding appropriateness of fit. The experiences
shared by the participants revealed that most of them felt satisfied with their overall
instructional and social experiences within their institutions. Furthermore, at the time of
interview, the majority of participants indicated feeling that their academic performance
was adequate and felt capable of being successful in their postsecondary settings.
Adequate academic performance as well as overall satisfaction and integration in formal
83
and informal academic and social systems were reported by Tinto (1993) and Bean
(1980) as the pillars of retention of college students.
Commitment to individual goals. Tinto’s Interactionalist Model of Student
Departure (1993) also proposed that students’ level of commitment to individual goals
plays a role in academic persistence in college. All of the participants in this study
expressed a high level of commitment to obtain an undergraduate degree. Although the
participants’ reasons for wanting to obtain an undergraduate degree were varied, the level
of commitment that they expressed was strong nevertheless. Further, their commitment to
attaining a degree greatly contributed to their academic persistence and is consistent with
Tinto’s (1993) and Bean’s (1980) models.
Strengths and Limitations of the Study
The present study demonstrated many areas of strength. First, the interview
questions were carefully designed to obtain the greatest level of knowledge regarding
participant experiences in postsecondary settings. Therefore, the information obtained
was rich and detailed, allowing the researcher to gain an in-depth understanding of their
experiences. Second, the qualitative nature of the study allowed the researcher to gain a
depth and breadth of information that would not have been possible in a quantitative
format. Third, the study included students from two different universities, as experiences
may vary from campus to campus. Fourth, an equal number of male and female
participants were identified and interviewed. This is important because male and female
participants may present with different experiences within the postsecondary setting due
84
to varied gender roles and the perceptions of others regarding their disabilities. Finally,
all participants appeared open and willing to disclose their experiences without hesitation.
The present study also demonstrated several areas of limitation. First, the sample
size was limited, as it consisted of only 12 participants, 11 of which were from one
institution and one of whom came from another institution. Therefore, the experiences
described in the study are largely based on one postsecondary setting. Second, the
researcher did not require verification of an ADHD diagnosis, although all participants
appeared honest in their disclosure. Third, although the study was open to sophomore,
junior, and senior students, only students with junior standing or higher were available to
be interviewed. Therefore, the present study may not represent the experiences of
students who are new to postsecondary education, those who are transitioning to
postsecondary education from high school, or those who are graduate students. Fourth,
consistent participant reports of high levels of social interaction may be reflective of
extroverted personality traits. Students with more introverted personalities may be less
likely to volunteer to participate in a study such as this one. Therefore, the participants’
reports regarding social activities may be a reflection of the sample of volunteers rather
than the experiences of a majority of students. A final limitation of the present study was
that a large number of participants had comorbid diagnoses. Therefore, the experiences
of these participants may not be solely related to their ADHD symptoms, as many of the
participants exhibited comorbid anxiety disorders that may have impacted their
perceptions.

85
Implications for Practice
The research obtained provides several implications for practice both for students
and for postsecondary institutions. These implications are listed below:
1. The Disability Services Office (or equivalent) at postsecondary institutions may
wish to develop faculty mentor programs for students with ADHD.
2. Postsecondary institutions may wish to have counseling resources available in
order to assist students with ADHD develop coping strategies.
3. Faculty members should be trained to be sensitive and open about receiving
requests for accommodations by students.
4. Disability Services staff members should be aware that their attitudes, behaviors,
and sensitivity can have significant effects on the comfort level of students who
come to them to request accommodations.
5. Students with ADHD may benefit from being advised to take courses that have a
strong discussion component to their instruction.
6. Students with ADHD should carefully consider which postsecondary institution
they attend, taking into account class sizes, size of the campus, available supports,
and type of instruction emphasized.
7. Students with ADHD may wish to attend institutions that have many social
opportunities.
Recommendations for Further Research
Future studies may wish to include several postsecondary institutions as well as
recruit a larger sample. In addition, future researchers may wish to expand the sample to
86
include freshman and sophomore status students with ADHD. Furthermore, additional
studies may wish to compare the experiences of non-disabled students to those of
students with ADHD in order to differentiate between typical experiences and those that
are related to disabilities. Future researchers may wish to isolate their sample to students
who have ADHD rather than those with additional comorbid diagnoses. Finally, future
studies should explore the degree to which attending a community college impacts
academic persistence in students with ADHD.
Conclusion
Overall, the findings of the present study indicate that family and peer support,
medication, counseling, a sense of connection with faculty/staff, university-based
resources, and overall satisfaction with academic and social experiences are contributing
factors to the academic persistence of college students with ADHD. The results of this
study are consistent with previous research and add to the growing body of literature
regarding the retention of students with ADHD in postsecondary settings. These findings
can be used to guide postsecondary institutions in supporting students with ADHD.
Furthermore, the information gained from this study can be used to assist students with
ADHD in identifying and developing beneficial supports that will contribute to their
success in the postsecondary education setting.

87
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92
APPENDIX A
Institutional Review Board Approval of Study

93
APPENDIX B
Similarities Between Theoretical Models and Interview Questions
Appendix B
Similarities Between Theoretical Models and Interview Questions
Sources of Attrition Interview Questions
1. Academic Performance (Bean, 1980; Tinto,
1975, 1993)
What is your GPA at this point?
2. Informal Faculty/Staff Interactions (Tinto,
1975, 1993)
Tell me about any opportunities for interaction
with faculty and how often you interact with
them inside and outside the classroom.
3. Extracurricular Activities (Tinto, 1975,
1993)
Tell me about opportunities for social activities
with other students and your level of
involvement.
4. Peer Group Interactions (Tinto, 1975,
1993)
Tell me about opportunities for social activities
with other students and your level of
involvement.
5. Student perception of fit between self and
institution (Bean, 1980).
Did you encounter anything unexpected? If so,
tell me about it.
Describe your experiences with the courses that
you have taken so far. What have you liked
best and is there anything that you wish could
have been different?
Do you feel that having ADHD has impacted
you in any way as a student at this university?
If so, how?
How have your experiences thus far impacted
your motivation to continue at this university?
What do you feel has helped you (people,
resources, etc.) as a student?
6. Institutional Commitment (Bean, 1980) How important is it to you to graduate from
this particular university as opposed to others?
Why?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Melara, Claudia Alexia (author)

Core Title Factors influencing the academic persistence of college students with ADHD

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/08/2012

Defense Date 03/26/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic persistence,ADHD,College students,educational psychology,Higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,student retention

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Advisor Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Venegas, Kristan M. (committee member)

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