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Balancing work and family: how female superintendents succeed at work and life

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Balancing work and family: how female superintendents succeed at work and life

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BALANCING WORK AND FAMILY: HOW FEMALE SUPERINTENDENTS

SUCCEED AT WORK AND HOME

by

Julie Olesniewicz

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2012

Copyright 2012 Julie Olesniewicz

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful for my entire family for all of their love, patience, and understanding
throughout this process. My husband has been my rock, and my children, the inspiration.
My entire family has shown much strength and understanding by allowing me to achieve
my goal. Additionally, I am thankful for so many friends, both old and new, who have
helped throughout this process. Thank you to my fellow Trojans, Rosemary, Tracy, and
Amy for sharing books, experiences, and motivational speeches when needed. Thank
you to Kimberly for your patience, wisdom, editing skills, and shoulder to cry on when
necessary. I am grateful to the other members of my thematic dissertation group, whom I
will never forget. We shared laughter and tears, and I learned from each of them.
I would also like to express my deep gratitude for my dissertation chair, Dr. Kathy
Stowe. She guided me and pushed me—not just with my dissertation, but in many aspects
of my work and life as well. She was a mentor and a friend. Additionally, I’d like to
thank my two committee members, Dr. Darline Robles, and Dr. Courtney Malloy, for
their feedback and support of my dissertation.
Last, but not least, I would like to thank the three superintendents who opened
their work environments, homes, and lives for the study of women leaders seeking
balance in their lives. This dissertation would not have been possible without all of the
incredible people in my life.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Abstract viii

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 1
Background of the Problem 1
Statement of the Problem 8
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Questions 10
Significance of the Study 11
Limitations of the Study 12
Delimitations of the Study 12
Definition of Terms 13
Organization of the Study 14

Chapter Two: Literature Review 15
Introduction 15
Historical Context 16
Women Struggle for Equity and Social Justice 17
Women’s Roles in Education and the Superintendency 20
Social Role Theory 22
Societal Expectations 23
Internal Barriers: Self-Efficacy 25
External Barriers: The Glass Ceiling 26
Gender Stereotypes 29
Leadership 31
Balance in Work and Life 37
Support Systems and Other Strategies for Maintaining 41
Balance in Work and Life
Mentoring Women Leaders 44
Summary of the Literature 46

Chapter Three: Methodology 48
Introduction/Purpose of the Study 48
Research Questions 48
Research Design 49
iv
Sample and Population 50
Overview of Participants 51
Theoretical Framework 52
Data Collection 53
Instrumentation 54
Data Analysis 56
Ethical Considerations 58
Summary of Methodology 59

Chapter Four: Findings, Analysis, and Discussion 60
Participants 62
Research Question One Results: Challenges 65
Lack of Time for Family, Friends, and Self 66
Effects of Responsibility 76
Internal and External Barriers 78
Analysis and Discussion for Research Question One 81
Research Question Two Results: Support Systems 83
Spouse and Family Support Makes All the Difference 84
Professional Support Systems 86
Analysis and Discussion for Research Question Two 90
Research Question Three Results: Strategies 92
Defining Balance as a Family 93
Planning 95
Building Relationships 98
Mental and Physical Health 100
Analysis and Discussion for Research Question Three 103
Summary of Findings 105

Chapter Five: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusion 106
Introduction 106
Purpose of the Study 107
Summary of Findings Related to How Female Superintendents Balance 108
Implications for Practice and Policy 111
Recommendations for Further Research 112
Conclusion 114

References 116

Appendices
Appendix A: New Subject Recruitment Sheet 121
Appendix B: Interview Protocol for Superintendents 122
Appendix C: Types of Interviews 124
Appendix D: Interview Protocol for Referral 125
Appendix E: Activity Log Questions 126
v
Appendix F: Workplace Observational Checklist 127
Appendix G: Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions 128
Appendix H: Information Sheet 131

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Participation Overview 62
Table A1: Types of Interviews 124
Table A2: Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions 128

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework 53
Figure 3.2: Creswell’s Model for Qualitative Data Analysis 58

viii
ABSTRACT

Women leaders in education struggle to balance work and family life.
Historically, this struggle has stemmed from attempts to manage societal expectations of
balancing work and family. In managing these expectations, women leaders face many
challenges, which have made it difficult to maintain home responsibilities and deal with
increasing demands at work. For women, these dual responsibilities sometimes make it
seem impossible to find the balance they seek in their lives. Although they have made
great strides in the past century, women fill only 18% of the superintendencies in this
country—even though they dominate in numbers within the classroom. There are women
successfully finding balance; however, what is not clearly known are the support systems
and strategies that assist with this success in both the family and work domains.
The primary purpose of this study was to identify support systems and strategies
that allow women in leadership positions—specifically the superintendency—to maintain
balance in work and life. The secondary purpose of the study was to identify the
challenges that exist in society and the field of education that have prevented many
women from achieving leadership positions in education while maintaining balance in
work and family life. This valuable information can better prepare women as they aspire
to leadership positions and defy societal expectations, finding success in both career and
family life. Using interviews, activity logs, observations, and artifacts, this qualitative
study investigated three female superintendents balancing the constant work demands
with husbands and children at home.
1
CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Background of the Problem
Women leaders in education have long struggled to balance work and family life.
Historically, this struggle has stemmed from attempts to manage societal expectations of
balancing work and family, which are intertwined with traditional social roles and gender
stereotypes. In managing these expectations, women leaders face many challenges and
internal and external barriers such as lack of support at work and at home, which have
lead to work-family conflicts (Loder, 2005; Shakeshaft, 1989; Young & McCleod, 2001).
These challenges have made it difficult for women to maintain home responsibilities and
deal with increasing demands at work, in short, making it tough for them to find the
balance they seek in their lives. For purposes of this study, “balance” is defined as
meeting and fulfilling the demands of personal and professional life and satisfying one’s
needs, values, priorities, and demands. Many women see balancing work and life as an
impossible task, and end up choosing between the two (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010).
Factors forcing women to make this choice go back many years.
For decades, women have fought for equity with a passion for justice and social
change (Astin & Leland, 1991). Although women have come a long way since the
Feminist Movement in the 1970s, society still has predetermined expectations for and
limitations on women. According to Baumgartner and Schneider (2010), society can
limit the vision of what individuals can achieve based on perceptions and reality. In this
2
case, perception refers to the views that others impose on a woman’s personal
circumstances and capabilities. In reality, women have many personal choices to make
with regard to seeking leadership positions. Both perceptions and realities create
challenges for women. Loder (2005) has argued that society’s cultural views about time
and gender roles must change in order for women to find success at balancing work and
family. Her study showed that society still expected women to maintain all of their
domestic responsibilities such as childcare and housecleaning while meeting the
increasing demands of an educational leader. If women choose to enter the workforce,
the expectation is that they will manage a career and family, or choose between the two
(Gordon & Galloway, 2008). Not only have women continued to struggle with an
expectation that has not been equally imposed on men, but they have also had to
overcome challenges to reaching the top positions in educational leadership
(Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010).
Research has shown many of the challenges that women face in aspiring to
leadership roles in education; however, women continue in their efforts to overcome
these challenges while attempting to find balance in work and life. Almost four decades
after the women’s movement, women have only moved to the half-way point in
organizations in this country; most are stuck in middle management and make less money
than men (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). For example, women hold 50% of all management
and professional positions in the United States; however, they only represented 2% of
Fortune 500 chief executive officers in 2006 (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). The research
has found that internal and external barriers are challenges preventing women from
3
moving past middle management positions. Internal barriers have been described as
personal barriers in which the individual needs to make changes related to such issues as
values and self-efficacy (Shakeshaft, 1989). Women have faced external barriers in the
form of societal stereotypes and organizational structures (Shakeshaft, 1989).
Organizational barriers emerge as women rise to the top and attempt to balance work and
family; these barriers have been referred to as the “glass ceiling” effect.
The glass ceiling is an inexplicable, artificial barrier that has stymied the
advancement of many women in their administrative careers, despite their qualifications,
and has meant that women have experienced discrimination and differential treatment
simply because of their gender (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Lyness & Thompson,
2000; Scanlon, 1997). The glass ceiling effect has been so prominent that it has been the
subject of studies by Fortune 500 companies and federal and state governments.
Although some women have managed to break the glass ceiling in terms of promotions,
they still seem to be paid less and criticized more than their male colleagues (Northouse,
2007).
Along with the glass ceiling, societal stereotypes have created major obstacles for
women. Gender bias comes in the form of stereotypes that society and culture place on
men and women (Gordon & Galloway, 2008). The social structure assigns many gender
roles to both males and females at birth (Vasquez-Guignard, 2010). According to
Vasquez-Guignard (2010), these societal pressures force women to give up their own
aspirations to focus on the roles they are expected to fill, such as mother, caretaker, and
homemaker. Historically, men have had a negative attitude toward women executives.
4
Women have been thought of as weak, overly emotional, and lacking the skills needed to
lead an organization, unless they imitate male characteristics of leadership (Trinidad &
Normore, 2005). Critics have asserted that leadership roles, such as the superintendency,
are masculine positions and that women lack the adequate leadership characteristics to do
such jobs (Astin & Leland, 1991; Cabezas, Killingsworth, Kensler, & Brooks, 2010).
Yet women who lead their organizations with democratic and participative behaviors
have been found to be more favorable than men by their subordinates. Nonetheless, good
leadership skills are not enough to ensure success in an organization; women need
additional support from organizations in their pursuit of a balance that is not always
available and seems often to be lacking within organizations.
Some organizations have explored ways to support women by offering incentives
such as child/elder care options, flexible work schedules, opportunities to work from
home, mentoring programs, and part-time employment. When women have
organizational support, they have job satisfaction and are more committed to their
organizations (Marcinkus, Whalen-Berry, & Gordon, 2007). At the same time, women
need to find support systems at home to assist in balancing work and family; however,
research shows that women do not get the same spousal support that men receive (Young
& McCleod, 2001). The lack of support at work and home can cause great conflict for
women.
Work-family conflict leads to job and life dissatisfaction. Women face competing
values that create frustration and stress (Perrewe & Hochwarter, 2001). Many times, this
stress affects the health of these individuals. Hansen (1991) has found that employed
5
mothers of preschool aged children had poorer mental health than other employed
women. Women have not found success in offsetting their increased responsibilities at
work with decreased obligations at home—a compensation that is not expected of men
(Loder, 2005). All leaders tend to experience “role overload,” which affects marriages
and conflicts with family responsibilities (Hansen, 1991; Myers & Ginsberg, 1994).
Losing women from the workforce because balancing has become too difficult has
consequences for the productivity of human capital in our organizations (Marcinkus et
al., 2006).
Family and home responsibilities present challenges to women achieving
leadership positions in education (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Myers & Ginsberg,
1994). But women who have support systems in place at home and at work have found
success at balancing work and family life. Family and spousal support is important to
managing family care responsibilities; however, research has shown that many women
lack these much-needed support systems at home (Young & McCleod, 2001). At work,
support can be a factor in a woman’s decision to aspire toward educational leadership
positions and can be critical to maintaining balance in work and life (Baumgartner &
Schneider, 2010; Young & McCleod, 2001). Such support can come from role models,
mentors, and networks.
Although female role models, mentors, and networks are proven support systems
that have a powerful impact on women’s effort to balance work and life, they seem to be
lacking in the field of education (Wrushen & Sherman, 2008). Many women leaders
seem to lack the time to mentor—and many choose not to mentor. “Queen Bee
6
Syndrome” has been described as a phenomenon in which women who reach the top
enjoy being one of the few women of influence (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Searby
& Tripses, 2006); therefore, they do not take any responsibility for mentoring other
females or help them attain their leadership potential. Historically, men have also
prevented women from excelling (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). Baumgartner and
Schneider (2010) have cited many studies in which men maintained negative attitudes
toward women leaders over the years. Conrad and Poole have found that many women
are given “token” management positions without power or influence in the organization
(as cited in Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010, p. 560). These attitudes are known as “old
boys” attitudes (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010).
Traditional “good old boy networks” and “boys clubs” have long excluded
women and kept them from developing as leaders, which has essentially prevented them
from breaking the glass ceiling (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2008; Searby & Tripses,
2006). These networks are full of people with a great degree of experience and quality
leadership skills that could effectively be used as models; however, women are not
accessing the very support systems they need to tap into one of the highest positions in K-
12 public education: the district superintendency.
Women superintendents face many challenges in maintaining balance in work
and family, such as stress, time management, and responsibilities at home. Increasing
stress levels and demands on time make it very difficult for superintendents to find
balance (Grogan, 1996). Glass and Franceschini (2007) have reported that almost 60% of
superintendents in 2006 reported high stress levels. Stress is caused by many factors:
7
lack of funding, the No Child Left Behind act (NCLB), community demands, negative
media, and board relations (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Brunner and Grogan (2007)
have found that women superintendents experience more stress than male superintendents
because of the challenges presented by managing time between work and family.
Aspiring women leaders in education see partnering, mothering, and homemaking as an
impediment to becoming a superintendent (Grogan, 1996). Many see the job as
unworkable or impossible due to the increased accountability measures in education.
Since No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was enacted in 2001, the role of educational
leaders in our public school system has changed dramatically. Traditionally,
administrators acted more as managers than instructional leaders. The current
expectation is that they manage both roles in order to increase test scores and proficiency
levels. According to Glass and Franceschini (2007), superintendents are responsible for
instructional leadership, fiscal management, community relations, board relations,
personnel management, and operations management. Superintendents see lack of
funding as the biggest problem with NCLB (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). The challenge
is in reaching proficiency levels that are themselves deeply affected by socioeconomics
and students with special needs. Even prior to NCLB, administrators were experiencing
burnout and emotional exhaustion, and many stated that they were not planning on
remaining in their positions for the length of a career (Whitaker, 1996). Lower-level
administrators see the increase in responsibilities that superintendents face, and have
shied away from aspiring to the position. Brunner and Grogan (2007) found that 60% of
the women in district office positions had no aspiration to become a superintendent
8
(Ottino & Brunner, 2009). Baumgartner and Schneider (2008) found that women simply
believed that they had to choose between work and family; they cannot do both. This
belief is evidenced by the fact that only one in five public school superintendents is a
woman (Gordon & Galloway, 2008). Therefore, the struggle continues for women
seeking to overcome the challenges and obstacles to balancing work and family life at a
time when their skills and knowledge are most needed in educational leadership.
Statement of the Problem
Some evidence has shown examples of women in educational leadership positions
finding success in balancing work and family life; however, the research has indicated
that women overwhelmingly continue to struggle in finding a balance. Historical
influences have created societal expectations of women and created long-embedded
social roles and gender stereotypes that have created many challenges for women.
Family and home responsibilities have been identified as barriers to women achieving
leadership positions in education as well as being the cause of work-family conflict
(Young & McCleod, 2001). In her study, Morris (2002) found that almost 70% of
women cited personal and family responsibilities as the largest barrier to finding success
in their careers.
Although women have made great strides in the past century, society’s cultural
views on time and gender roles have placed unfair expectations of women (Loder, 2005).
Internal and external barriers such as values, self-efficacy, societal expectations and
stereotypes, and organizational structures have presented obstacles to women seeking to
achieve leadership positions and have made it more difficult for them to find and
9
maintain balance in work and family. Research has shown that women leaders have
more stress and less spousal support than men (Brunner & Grogan, 2007; Young &
McCleod, 2001). Marriage is seen as a barrier for women, but not for aspiring men
(Pigford & Tonnesen, 1993). For instance, many women put their careers on hold while
their spouses aspire toward leadership positions, believing that their own aspirations will
place strain on the relationship (Grogan, 1996). Many women see balancing work and
life as an impossible task, and end up of choosing between the two, leaving a
disproportionately low number of women represented in educational leadership roles like
the superintendency (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Gordon & Galloway, 2008;
Young & McCleod, 2001).
Currently, women fill only 18% of the superintendencies in this country, even
though they dominate in numbers within the classroom (Brunner & Grogan, 2007).
Grogan (1997) has posited this finding as evidence of women being seen in terms of
traditional viewpoints that have historically favored men. Although female role models,
mentors, and networks have proven to have a powerful impact on helping women balance
work and life, they seem to be lacking in the field of education (Wrushen & Sherman,
2008). In addition, increasing stress levels and time make it very difficult for
superintendents to find balance among all domains because educational administration,
partnering, mothering, and homemaking require large investments of time (Grogan,
1996).
Very little research has been dedicated to women in high educational leadership
roles balancing work and family life. There are women finding success with balance;
10
however, what is not clearly known are the support systems and strategies that assist with
this success in both the family and work domains. The research has begun to move past
gender issues to focus on the leadership skills, support systems, and strategies that must
be in place for women to succeed; however, women still struggle to balance work and
family.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this case study was twofold. The primary purpose was to identify
support systems and strategies that have allowed women in leadership positions ,
specifically the superintendency, to maintain a balance between work and life. The
secondary purpose of the study was to identify the challenges and barriers that exist in
society and the field of education which have prevented many women from achieving
leadership positions in education while maintaining balance in work and family life. This
valuable information can better prepare women as they aspire to leadership positions and
defy societal expectations by successfully balancing career and family.
Research Questions
This study will focus on the following research questions in order to provide
answers to the stated purpose of the study:
1. What challenges do female superintendents face in balancing work and family
life?
2. What types of support do female superintendents perceive to be helpful in
achieving balance in work and family life?
11
3. What strategies do female superintendents employ to balance work and family
life?
Significance of the Study
This study was designed to contribute to the body of research in the field of
educational leadership by examining the historical context of women in leadership
positions balancing work and family as well as by considering current women leaders in
the field, the challenges they have faced, and the support systems and strategies they have
used to successfully navigate both roles. Much of the research has focused on the
barriers and gender inequalities women face, but little has been offered to women in the
way of strategies for overcoming barriers and maintaining balance in work and family.
In identifying these support systems and strategies, as well as the challenges that exist,
we can better prepare women in their aspiration toward positions like the
superintendency.
This study will offer women a better understanding of how to balance work and
family life while aspiring and maintaining leadership positions in education such as the
superintendency. They will have knowledge of the support systems and strategies that
need to be in place in order to find success at balancing both domains while leading our
schools. There is a growing shortage of leaders in education, and women can help fill
this void if they can manage to find balance in their lives and are enlisted by
organizations. Women make up more than half the nation’s population and are
surpassing men in their employment rate (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). It would be
irresponsible to ignore or discourage their much-needed leadership in our public schools;
12
with support systems and strategies that allow women to balance both work and life,
women can play a vital role in filling these leadership positions.
Limitations of the Study
The limitations of any research study must be identified and discussed as
background for the analysis of findings and their meanings. The most notable limitation
in case study research is small sampling, which prohibits generalization of the findings.
This case study only looked at three female superintendents.
Due to the qualitative methodology of this study, the researcher assumed that all
participants answered honestly and candidly to all questions during the interview;
however, there is no way to guarantee that all participants were open and honest in their
answers. The same limitation applies to colleagues and family members of the
participants, who were also interviewed.
A further limitation of the study was the time constraints. This study was
conducted over an eight-week period, which did not allow for longitudinal data to be
collected. Longitudinal studies allow the researcher to track repeated observations of the
same variables over long periods of time. Eight weeks only gave the researcher a
snapshot of one point in the participant’s year.
Delimitations of the Study
The delimitations of this study were determined by a group of doctoral candidates
who were focusing on similar case studies. Interviews and documentation were collected
and analyzed from participants who met the criteria established by the researcher. The
selection criteria included female public school superintendents in Southern California
13
who were married with children. In addition, each participant was charged with a
different sized school district: small, medium, and large. The demographics of the school
districts varied and were not comparable.
A significant delimitation of the study was that all participants were successful
public school superintendents. For the purpose of this study, success was measured by
having achieved and maintained the position of public school superintendent for a
minimum of two years while balancing both work and family.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined as follows:
balance: meeting and fulfilling the demands of one’s personal and professional life while
aligning with one’s needs, values, priorities, and demands
external barrier: an obstacle outside of one’s control
glass ceiling: an unexplainable and artificial barrier that has halted the advancement of
many women and minorities through their administrative careers despite their
qualifications
internal barrier: personal barriers that an individual needs to change
mentor: influential people who significantly help others reach their major life goals
support systems: a person (or persons) who has a strong interest in the success of an
individual and a willingness to provide assistance to help ensure that success
transformational leadership: relating to female values developed through socialization,
such as relationship building, communication, collaboration, census building, and
influence
14
Organization of the Study
This study contains five distinct chapters. Chapter One consists of the statement
of the problem and the purpose and significance of the study. Chapter Two provides a
review of the literature as it relates to the disproportionately low number of women in
leadership positions in education, and their struggles to maintain balance in work and
family. Chapter Three explains the methodology of the study. Chapter Four offers an
analysis of the data collected from interviews and observations of the participants and
findings of the study. Chapter Five offers conclusions, implications, and suggestions for
future research on this topic.

15
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction
Women in leadership roles have struggled to balance work and family life
throughout history. They face many challenges, such as societal expectations, internal
and external barriers, and lack of support at work and home, which have led to work-
family conflicts (Loder, 2005; Shakeshaft, 1989; Young & McCleod, 2001). These
challenges have made it difficult to maintain home responsibilities while dealing with
increasing demands at work. Many women see balancing work and life outside of work
as an impossible task, and end up choosing to fulfill their roles away from work. This
choice results in a disproportionately low number of women in educational leadership
positions such as the superintendency (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010).
The purpose of this case study was twofold. The primary purpose was to identify
support systems and strategies that have allowed women in leadership positions such as
the superintendency to balance work and life. The secondary purpose of the study was to
identify the challenges that exist in society and in the field of education that have
hindered many women from achieving leadership positions in education while
maintaining balance in work and family life. This valuable information can be used to
better prepare women as they aspire to leadership positions and seek to balance career
and family.
16
Both current and landmark readings provided the basis for this literature review.
In order to understand why many women struggle to find a balance between work and
home, several areas of the literature needed to be synthesized. First, the historical context
of the women’s movement and women in the superintendency will be reviewed to
address the struggles of gender equity in society. Second, the effect of societal
expectations placed on women will be reviewed. The internal and external barriers that
these expectations have posed for women, including the “glass ceiling,” will be
addressed. Third, leadership and women’s leadership styles will be examined. The final
section of this chapter synthesizes the research on women attempting to find and maintain
balance; that section also identifies the strategies and support systems that women have
found helpful.
Historical Context
For more than 100 years, women have fought for equity, attempting to defy the
societal expectations that have been placed on them in the form of social roles and gender
stereotypes. In 1940, Eleanor Roosevelt stated, “In government, in business, and in
professions there may be a day when women will be looked upon as persons. We are,
however, far from that day as yet.” Despite the numerous accomplishments women have
made over the years, the fight for justice, social change, and equal opportunity continues
to this day (Astin & Leland, 1991). This section explores historical and current literature
that covers a timeline of the women’s movement through history, beginning with the
Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 through women’s roles in education.

17
Women Struggle for Equity and Social Justice
The women’s movement is rooted in a passion for social justice and change
(Astin & Leland, 1991). It took 40 years of lobbying and fighting by dedicated women to
gain voter equity in this nation. Prior to the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution in 1920, which granted women the right to vote, society was only interested
in supporting the rights of men (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). In 1923, the National
Woman’s Party proposed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which required the law to
treat men and women equally; however, it took almost 50 years for Congress to pass the
amendment , which signified what women’s roles in American society were at the time.
The next step in the Women’s Movement was to gain equity and social justice in
the workplace. In 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) established minimum
wage without regard to sex (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). The FLSA established fair labor
standards in employment, which protected all people from detrimental working
conditions that affected the standards of living necessary to maintaining health,
efficiency, and the general well-being of workers. However, disparities such as unequal
pay continued in both the workplace and the educational domains, which led to further
legislation (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
A catalyst in the women’s movement began during the Civil Rights era of the
1960s with women fighting to bring about change on behalf of women. Astin and Leland
(1991) have called these women “instigators” because they were change agents for
women. They brought attention to inequalities in both the workplace and in fields of
education by initiating programs, organizations, and legislation such as Catalyst, Feminist
18
Press, and Executive Order 11246, which had to do with affirmative action. Almost 30
years after the Fair Labor Standards Act, President John F. Kennedy created the
Committee on Equal Employment in 1961 to ensure that projects funded by federal
money have employment practices free of racial bias. In 1963, Congress passed the
Equal Pay Act ensuring equitable wages, regardless of race, color, religion, national
origin, or sex (Blount, 1998; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII) addressed women’s employment rights
by allowing them to file grievances for sex discrimination in the workplace. However,
acts of discrimination continued due to holes in the legislation and to the lack of
enforcement by the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (EEOC) (Blount,
1998; Brunner & Grogan, 2007). In 1965, under President Johnson, affirmative action
was enforced by Executive Order 11246, which demanded that government contractors,
including colleges and universities, comply with standards of equal employment
opportunity for minorities or lose federal funding. In 1967, Executive Order 11246 was
amended to include gender. Soon after, the Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare ordered employers to establish affirmative action programs for women as well as
minority groups.
The change in educational programs began as early as 1958, with higher
education institutions developing new ways for women to enter and stay in professional
preparation programs. This movement shined a light on ways for universities to respond
to the needs of women and to assist in tearing down the organizational barriers that have
traditionally kept women from participating equally (Astin & Leland, 1991). Women’s
19
centers and committees were formed at universities to address women’s issues. These
types of resources at the university level led to an interdisciplinary field, referred to as
Women’s Studies, which are programs that recognize the history of women as well as the
issues women face today. This field is recognized at more than 500 universities today.
In 1972, Title IX of the Education Amendments was developed to end sex discrimination
in institutions of higher education. The Women’s Educational Equity Act of 1974
designated funds for researching and correcting discrimination based on sex in the
education system (Blount, 1998; Brunner & Grogan, 2007).
Instigators took their issues and ideas to the national forum. In 1972, so many
women’s organizations existed that the Federation of Organizations for Professional
Women was developed to link all of the smaller women’s professional groups. In 1973,
the American Council on Education (ACE) opened an office of Women in Higher
Education and developed the Commission on Women to continue efforts at improving
and addressing opportunities for women at the college level (Astin & Leland, 1991).
While the fight continued for equity in both domains, some groups also addressed
women in their struggles to balance work and family life. Catalyst was an organization
developed in 1962 to address the frustrations of women who had had children before they
had established their careers, and how their skills were wasted after their children had left
home. Currently, Catalyst is the leading nonprofit member organization expanding
opportunities for women and business. It consults with employers, including school
districts and universities, on the development of policies and practices that help women
balance work and family life (Mattis, 2004).
20
Women’s Roles in Education and the Superintendency
Women entered the male-dominated teaching profession in the 1800s as the idea
of schooling expanded and the stigma of working outside of the home for women began
to diminish (Blount, 1998). Teaching began to be looked upon as a respectable
profession for women; however, resistance to women obtaining a formal education,
working outside of the home, and teaching in schools continued. With expansions in
schooling and men not willing to accept low wages, the number of women teachers
increased. For many years, teaching was considered an acceptable field for women to
have careers in until marriage and children. Still, many female teachers were expected to
end their careers as soon as they became married. Due to a teacher’s short career, many
women did not have the opportunity to move into positions of leadership. By the mid-
19
th
century, men began to feel that teaching was “feminized,” and the profession was
soon considered women’s work (Blount, 1998). At the same time, local and state
officials developed the domain of administration, which had positions held only by men
from the very beginning. With the implementation of administrative roles, teachers
began to lose autonomy, status, and authority to their male supervisors—a dynamic that
resembled the family structures and societal roles that were expected during the late 19
th

century. On this subject, Blount (1998) has stated, “I argue that it was not coincidental
that teachers’ independence and decision-making powers were stripped away just as
women dominated the profession numerically” (p. 37). However, the number of women
teachers continued to increase across the nation. By the turn of the 20
th
century, 70% of
all teachers were women.
21
Despite the historical trends, barriers, and society’s expectations of gender roles,
women have reached the position considered top in educational leadership: public school
district superintendent. In 1909, Ella Flagg Young became the first female
superintendent; her purview was Chicago schools. She stated that women “were destined
to rule the schools,” that “it is women’s natural field, and that she is no longer satisfied to
do the greatest part of the work and yet be denied leadership” (Blount, 1998, p.1).
According to Shakeshaft (1989), Young’s prediction was never achieved. In the early
20
th
century, with the help of the woman’s movement, more females were entering school
leadership positions. The mid-1920s has been referred to as the “golden age” for women
based on the number of women holding leadership positions in education (Blount, 1998).
By 1930, 28% of all county superintendents was women, and women accounted for 11%
of all superintendents in the country (Blount, 1998); however, Shakeshaft (1989) has
denied that real evidence or statistics exists to support these numbers, refuting that there
ever was a golden age for women. After World War II, the numbers began to decline as
the women’s movement lost its steam and men returned from the battlefields to the
workforce seeking educational leadership positions.
By 1980, the number of female local school district superintendents dropped to
less than 1%. Throughout the entire 20
th
century, the number of female superintendents
increased only 5% (Brunner & Grogan, 2007). Shakeshaft (1989) has argued that this
phenomenon is due to “century-old patterns of male dominance had solidified a number
of beliefs about women that both men and women accepted” (p. 39). Grogan (1996) has
argued that the lack of females in the position is a product of “traditional theoretical
22
lenses” and that women are measured against ideals that have served men. The
participants in Grogan’s (1996) study felt that they needed to develop and establish
competencies that have traditionally been stereotyped as masculine in order to obtain the
position of superintendent.
Today, there has been an increase in women aspiring to be superintendents, and
the position seems to be becoming more accessible to them (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
The latest statistics from the American Association of School Administrators show that
21.7% of the superintendents nationwide is female (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011).
Brunner and Grogan (2007) have posited that this increase has been the result of a trend
in research pointing out feminine attributes such as collaboration and being
instructionally focused, an idea that is explored more deeply later in this chapter (Brunner
& Grogan, 2007). Documentation of female representation in the superintendency
continues to be imprecise and inconsistent, but the average growth in numbers has been
0.7%. Although the numbers are much higher than those in preceding decades, women
are still underrepresented in the superintendency. Eagly’s (1987) social role theory was
explored in an attempt to shed more light on the decades of underrepresentation of
women in these types of leadership roles and why they have faced so many challenges as
they have struggled balancing work and home.
Social Role Theory
As this study is concerned with understanding how women balance work and life,
Eagly’s (1987) social role theory was used to foster additional understanding as to why
women struggle to balance these domains. Social role theory looks at sex differences in
23
social contexts, such as interactions between and among individuals, groups, societies,
and economic systems (Dulin, 2007). Sometimes these social systems can create
environments that keep certain people from achieving. Eagly (1987) has expressed a
belief that behaviors result from gender stereotypes and gender role expectations
embedded in our society (Franke, Crown, & Spake, 1997). Eagly has argued that adult
social roles are determined by sex differences in adult social behavior, and that the
structures of society cause men and women to behave in different ways (Dulin, 2007).
Men and women act or perform in certain ways based on what is expected of them by
society. These social roles are very specific in family and work, and Eagly has posited
that these social roles guide behaviors more than gender does itself (Dulin, 2007).
History has created certain societal expectations for women by creating an environment
in which women are expected to fulfill certain gender roles, which has created many
challenges for women in leadership positions as they attempt to find balance at work and
home.
Societal Expectations
Much of the research on women in educational leadership has focused on the
barriers women have faced while aspiring to the principalship and superintendency
(Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011). These barriers stem from societal expectations that have
been developed throughout time in terms of gender roles and stereotypes. Although
women have come a long way from traditional gender stereotyping, signs of the societal
expectations that create internal and external barriers can still be seen today. Some of
these barriers are self-efficacy, the glass ceiling, and gender stereotypes.
24
A major obstacle for women in any professional field has been the societal
expectations developed in a male-dominated society. Using a variety of techniques to
synthesize the research, Shakeshaft (1989) has argued that this barrier or culture has been
created by a male-dominated society and that all barriers that women face can be traced
back to a society that supports a male-dominated structure. Through this system, society
has placed certain expectations on women, such as the assumption that women “take
care” and men “take charge” (Northouse, 2007).
Much of history has portrayed the American culture as male-dominant. Society
has always had a vision of the roles women should play, not only in life, but also in
leadership through gender stereotypes that persist today (Gordon & Galloway, 2008;
Young & McCleod, 2001). Leadership positions are thought of as powerful; however,
society has deemed that women should not possess power (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Bolman and Deal (2008) have stated that “according to this set of beliefs, a powerful
woman is distasteful, unfeminine, and even ludicrous” (p. 353). For a woman to defy this
notion, she must find a way to be powerful and feminine at the same time. Bolman and
Deal (2008) found that ancient fairy tales and modern films project powerful women as
witches and dangerous, unless they are “tamed by a stronger man” (p. 353).
Watson and Hoffman (2004) studied 40 mixed-sex college groups, and found that
women were equally successful as leaders; however, as leaders, the influential women
were still rated significantly lower than men and were also rated as less likable.
Therefore, even great women leaders are still seen as “unlikable” or not as strong as male
leaders simply because of their gender.
25
Schein (1975, 1990) found that both men and women believe that men possess the
leadership characteristics of successful managers and that women do not. Social and
cultural perceptions have suggested that women do not have the masculine conceptions
needed for leadership (Cabezas, et al., 2010). Through research, Northouse (2007) found
that women who self-promote are seen as socially unattractive and less hirable; therefore,
many women choose not to pursue leadership roles because they are aware of society’s
expectations and the costs of defying them, which can, in turn, cause internal barriers.
Internal Barriers: Self-Efficacy
Shakeshaft (1989) has described internal barriers as “those that can be overcome
by individual change” (p. 82). Gender stereotyping and socialization have created
internal barriers for women, such as low self-efficacy, which reflects a belief that in order
to find success, women (not the social culture) have to change. This conceptualization
has established a preconceived notion that something is wrong with women if they do not
find success, therefore, provoking low self-efficacy. Bandura’s (1982) theory of self-
efficacy posits that people behave as a result of their self-perceptions. For instance, if a
woman believes she lacks the skills for a difficult task, she will not try very hard—or
may even avoid the task all together. In contrast, if an individual feels she has the
necessary skills, she will strive to achieve the task at hand. Due to historical/societal
expectations, women have low self-efficacy in career-related behaviors; therefore, they
do not realize their own capabilities and lack the self-confidence to achieve (Hackett &
Betz, 1981). The research on self-confidence has supported the claim that men have
more self-confidence than women and label this as a failure on women. Research
26
focusing on the inadequacies of women has directly created low levels of self-efficacy,
such as decreased self-confidence, poor self-image, lack of motivation, and lack of
aspiration among women.
Shakeshaft (1989) has argued that internal barriers are not a failing of women,
but a product of a society that has created a belief that women actually lack the ability to
do the job. Young and McCleod (2001) have supported the argument that gender role
stereotyping and socialization have made women less likely than men to pursue positions
in leadership because of the internal barriers these characterizations create. These
internal barriers are a mere product of a society that has created major road blocks for
women advancing to educational leadership positions (Shakeshaft, 1989). In addition to
noting internal barriers, researchers have cited external barriers such as the glass ceiling
as challenges for women in leadership positions.
External Barriers: The Glass Ceiling
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), most studies show that women lead at
least as well as men; however, the “glass ceiling” seems to have kept women from high
positions of power within the workplace. The term “glass ceiling” was first introduced in
1986 by two journalists from The Wall Street Journal who published an article in the
“Corporate Woman” column (Northouse, 2007). The “glass ceiling” is an invisible
barrier that has halted the advancement of many women through their administrative
careers, despite their adequate qualifications. This tendency has led to discrimination
against and differential treatment of women simply because of their gender (Baumgartner
& Schneider, 2010; Lyness & Thompson, 2000; Scanlon, 1997). For example, Ragins,
27
Townsend, and Mattis found that women represented more than half of the students in
professional schools such as education and law and close to half in business and medical
schools; however, less than 10% of senior executives in business were women (as cited in
Bolman & Deal, 2008, p. 353). According to Catalyst, women represented less than 2%
of Fortune 500 CEOs in 2002 and approximately 15% of the seats in the U.S. Congress in
2006 (as cited in Northouse, 2007). Women are underrepresented in top leadership
positions in almost every professional field.
Research shows many contributing factors to the glass ceiling (Baumgartner &
Schneider, 2010; Bolman & Deal, 2008). Bolman and Deal (2008) have noted that they
believe the following factors have contributed to and sustained the glass ceiling effect:
gender stereotypes, societal expectations, gender discrimination, and the price women
have to pay while leading an organization. These barriers have continued to keep many
women from achieving success in their careers—but not all women.
Although the glass ceiling has kept many women from leadership positions within
organizations, Baumgartner and Schneider (2010) interviewed seven women who had
broken the professional barrier. Based on a study of the literature, the researchers
focused on six issues that women face when encountering the glass ceiling: the “old
boys” network, balancing work and family, mentors, “Queen Bee Syndrome,” leadership
styles, and personal aspirations for leadership. Many of these issues can be viewed
within the context of educational leadership and the superintendency.
Baumgartner and Schneider (2010) offered strategies to breaking the glass ceiling,
such as making an effort, promoting themselves, being determined, researching
28
opportunities, and gaining education for advancement. Women need to anticipate the
stereotypes that exist and detach themselves from societal stereotypes that equate women
with weakness. Baumgartner and Schneider (2010) found that the women they
interviewed didn’t get offended by the “old boys” network, and the participants suggested
that women try to become part of the group. The women expressed the importance of
mentors and of embracing emotional sensitivity as a positive leadership value. Their
participants stressed the value of determination and of prioritizing critical issues before
pursuing upper management positions. While attempting to balance work and family, six
out of the seven participants in the study had struggled with time management. One
woman felt that there were times she wasn’t doing either job well. Another felt guilty for
sending her children to daycare and another felt that family responsibilities got in the way
of her working overtime and completing job tasks. Difficulty with time management,
family responsibilities getting in the way of work, and feelings of guilt are evidence that
women continue to struggle finding balance in their lives. At times, there may not be any
balance at all; however, some strategies were found to help.
In balancing work and family, Baumgartner and Schneider (2010) identified two
strategies offered by the participants of their study. The first strategy was to establish a
good support system through family, friends, and a spouse who is willing to share the
responsibilities of childcare. The second strategy was to simply choose between work
and family, which has been documented in several other studies (Marshall, 2009). As
one participant stated, “Pick or choose; both cannot be done well” (Baumgartner &
Schneider, 2010, p. 567). A lot of tension is created for women trying to do both well
29
(Young & McCleod, 2001), which could be a factor of their receiving less support than
men while attempting to balance work and life (Myers & Ginsberg, 1994). Marcinkus et
al. (2006) have argued that women do not need to choose as long as they utilize the
complete network of social support that is available to them at work and home. Gender
stereotypes have also been identified as a challenge to women aspiring to leadership
positions as well as to women already in leadership positions attempting to find balance
in work and life.
Gender Stereotypes
Young and McCleod (2001) have identified a crisis in educational leadership, and
questioned why more women were not being utilized to fill these positions. Much of the
research has attributed this dearth of women leaders to gender stereotypes and to the
assumption that men are just better leaders than women (Gordon & Galloway, 2008;
Young & McCleod, 2001). In addition, society has been conditioned to believe that
women are not as capable as men in leading organizations (Bell & Chase, 1993). In a
qualitative study, Young and McCleod (2001) examined the factors that affected
women’s decisions to become educational leaders and overcome gender stereotypes that
stand in the way. Role models and mentors were identified as a major factor for women
entering administration, and almost all participants expressed professional endorsement
as a determining factor. In addition, the study attributed some type of support system as a
major factor in their entering educational administration. Young and McCleod (2001)
found that women who had supportive spouses felt more encouraged to aspire toward
30
leadership positions; however, the married participants did not find much support from
their husbands.
Like Young and McCleod (2001), Hoff and Mitchell (2008) examined gender
factors on the road to educational administration through a mixed-method study of male
and female administrators, which finding many differences between men and women on
the path to leadership. For instance, women in the study had entered into administration
much later than men for a variety of reasons, such as waiting for their children to be
grown. Women also expressed more tension and stress than men due to job demands and
family responsibilities. Men felt that their mentors had given them the “inside track”
with regard to their jobs, whereas women felt that they were only given the “nuts and
bolts” from their mentors and felt more isolated and without networks or support. The
researchers concluded that three factors have a negative impact on women advancing in
educational administration: lack of insider status, lack of support structures, and a
traditional and enduring image that leadership is “masculine.” Hoff and Mitchell (2008)
argued that administrators themselves need to take responsibility for recognizing gender
issues in their field, and take proactive steps to promote equity. Cabezas et al. (2010)
have argued that the discussion of gender issues needs to take place at the university
level.
The need to discuss gender in educational settings was also indicated by Cabezas
et al. (2010), who studied the gender dynamics in educational leadership through doctoral
cohorts and educational leadership programs in a qualitative study. These programs were
believed to have unintentionally caused inequities through their lack of university-level
31
discussion around gender issues. Through their study, the researchers identified
inequities women have experienced in educational leadership such as the unequal
division of labor, lack of female perspective in educational leadership experience, and the
“uncomfortable situations” women are placed in with no tools for addressing them.
Cabezas et al. (2010) have argued that these inequities could be diminished through
engaged conversations on gender between professors and cohorts, shedding light on
gender stereotyping, and allowing women to discuss their experiences in a safe and
supportive environment.
Although societal expectations have created many barriers for women advancing
in their profession, some women have found ways to raise the glass ceiling and tear down
the barriers that exist on their way to leadership positions. With academia bringing
gender discussion to the forefront at universities, men and women are getting an
opportunity to talk about gender in a safe environment with the hope that both will gain
an understanding of the need for change in our society (Cabezas et al., 2010). These
discussions can lead to insight into how men and women lead organizations and into the
similarities and differences in the leadership styles that both genders exemplify. The
gender stereotypes of both male and female leaders are illustrated in this section as well.
However, in spite of gender stereotyping, leadership style has created a strategy for
women in their search to balance both the family and work domains.
Leadership
There is extensive research on leadership and on the necessary qualities of
leadership; there are also many definitions of leadership. Much of the literature describes
32
a leader as someone who embodies certain qualities or characteristics, which enable them
to get others to accomplish a desired task. Northouse (2007) has defined leadership “as a
process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common
goal” (p. 3). He has also argued that intelligence, self-confidence, determination,
integrity, and sociability are necessary leadership traits and characteristics. A leader can
get others to do what needs to be done, in some cases, even when the follower does not
like it. Bolman and Deal (2008) have argued that an effective leader—male or female—
must be able to see and understand multiple perspectives.
Bolman and Deal (2008) have centralized their work on leadership around a four-
frame model: structural, political, symbolic, and human resources. The Structural Frame
is goal-oriented and emphasizes specialized roles and formal relationships. This type of
leader is focused on rules and procedures. The Human Resources frame emphasizes
relationships. A human resources leader sees the organization as a family, and focuses on
the needs, feelings, prejudices, skills, and limitations of the individuals in it. The
Political Frame sees the organization as an “arena” in which interests compete for power.
The Symbolic Frame looks at the organization as a culture with an emphasis on stories,
rituals, and ceremonies. According to Bolman and Deal (2008), leaders can improve an
organization if they can consider their operation through all four of these frames. With
such diverse populations attending and working in American public schools,
superintendents utilize all four of the frames to find success in their districts.
In addition to Bolman and Deal’s model, Glass and Franceschini (2007) have
identified nine essential factors of effectiveness for superintendents: interpersonal skills,
33
a supportive board of education and central office team, school principals, teaching staff,
a personal support system, preservice training, community support, and the support of
elected officials. However, their study also revealed that superintendents ranked all other
characteristics much lower than interpersonal skills. Both male and female
superintendents surveyed in this study felt that their communication and human relations
skills were critical to their positions.
The research comparing male and female leadership styles have found many
similarities as well as differences. Women tend to lead more democratically and men
more autocratically or directly (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Education is one of many
professions that recognizes transformational leadership as important to leading
organizations. Qualities like using effective communication, being honest, having a
positive attitude and the ability to delegate, taking accountability, being participative,
promoting team building, and demonstrating compassion are important to successful
leaders (Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Walline, 2008; Wrushen & Sherman, 2008).
Researchers have looked closely at masculine versus feminine styles of leadership in the
past decade, and out of the many qualities, collaboration has been identified as the one
characteristic most closely linked to women in every study on leadership (Ripley, 1997).
Both the principalship and the superintendency have been well documented as
being “a man’s world.” Most women leaders tend to be found at the elementary level and
in small school districts. Napier and Willower (1990) examined female high school
principals, their perceptions of their jobs, and the interactions they have with males. Fifty
female principals from across the nation participated in a qualitative study. It was found
34
that female principals believed they had to work harder to prove their competence and
that they were judged more critically than men even though they rated their organizations
high with respect to its treatment of personnel. In fact, they felt they were being held to a
higher standard than their male colleagues.
Factors impacting why women decided to pursue educational leadership were
examined by Young and McCleod (2001) in a qualitative study. They found that women
need to be exposed to nontraditional leaders, or they may not choose to go into
educational leadership. These leaders must represent the direction that educational
leadership is moving. Nontraditional leaders typically seek support from and lead
strategic employees who themselves have leadership skills. Another consideration that
Young and McCleod (2001) found was that women need positive role models to inspire
them to pursue educational leadership opportunities. The researchers noted that due to
the lack of women in leadership positions, few role models exist to support potential
future leaders.
Trinidad and Normore (2005) reviewed the literature on ways women lead in
organizations and identified implications for leadership and gender issues in
organizations. The researchers found that women use transformational leadership styles
that are democratic and participative. Trinidad and Normore (2005) defined
transformational leadership as relating to female values developed through socialization,
such as relationship building, communication, collaboration, consensus building, and
influence. Young and McCleod’s (2001) nontraditional leader was also defined as a
transformational leader. These women tend to encourage participation, share power and
35
influence, enhance self-worth, look at the overall good, relate power to interpersonal
skills, and believe in better performance occurs when employees feel good about what
they are doing. However, the researchers also posited that in order to have the
opportunity to implement these leadership styles in greater numbers, gender bias must be
challenged and eradicated from organizations.
After an extensive review of the literature, Northouse (2007) noticed a change in
how society looked at gender and leadership. Traditionally, women have been
considered inferior to men as leaders; however, recent studies have shown a change in
this belief. Women’s leadership style has quickly become associated with qualities
deemed necessary for effective headship. According to the research, the biggest
difference between women and men leaders is that women lead in a much more
democratic style. Northouse (2007) has argued that women are more transformational
than men and that women like to reward effectiveness. Similar to the definition of
leadership, according to Northouse, transformational leadership is one that changes and
transforms people; it is a process in which each person engages with another and creates
connections (Northouse, 2007).
Grogan and Shakeshaft (2011) investigated the failure of the traditional role of
male leadership in education with evidence consisting of data and accountability from the
impact of No Child Left Behind legislation. After an extensive review of the literature,
Grogan and Shakeshaft (2011) argued that conventional organizational structures and
practices used in education had failed. Traditional approaches to leadership have left far
too many students in this country behind, and characteristics of women’s leadership
36
styles should be mirrored by all leaders—not just by women. Grogan and Shakeshaft
(2011) have posited that women generally demonstrate five approaches to educational
leadership: leadership for learning, leadership for social justice, relational leadership,
spiritual leadership, and balanced leadership. Women look for ways to lead through
others and with others in a collaborative style.
Distributive leadership fosters collaboration and interdependence among
organizational members (Gragoan & Shakeshaft, 2011). This subject has become one of
the fastest growing and most popular areas of leadership theory and research (Northouse,
2007). Many superintendents exercise this practice with their entire district. These
leaders move beyond the idea of one leader, and encourage small group interaction, with
vision and participation coming from all individuals. A team of committed people can
address the responsibility of curriculum, instruction, and assessment more effectively
than any one individual (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Much of the research in the past 20 years has made it clear that a leadership style
that incorporates communication, relationship building, interpersonal skills, and a
democratic way of leading can be more successful than traditional transactional or top-
down management. Whether a superintendent adopts Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four
frame mode, Glass and Franceschini’s (2007) nine essential factors of effectiveness, or
transformational leadership style, students in our schools are being left behind, and it is
time to really examine leadership in our schools. If women are to be included in this
process, problems around balance need to be addressed as well. Women still face the
37
dilemma of leading our schools while maintaining balance in work and life. Strategies
and support systems are necessary to their quest for balance.
Balance in Work and Life
Many positions of leadership have required women to make tough choices to
balance family and personal obligations (Gordon & Galloway, 2008). The stress of being
pulled between work and life causes conflict that in many cases has caused women to
quit their jobs or even end their marriages. However, with support systems in place and
strategies being utilized, women can decrease the amount of work-family conflict they
experience and find success in balancing both domains.
Women struggle to ensure that their families do not suffer as a result of their own
career advancement (Shakeshaft, 1989). Positions of leadership have an enormous
workload obligation, which tend to be more demanding for women, who seem to still
carry the responsibilities at home—such as housework and child rearing (Bolman &
Deal, 2008). Due to these demands and responsibilities, women who make quick
advancements in their careers tend to be single, divorced, or one of the few who have
“trophy husbands” who stay at home and help with household responsibilities (Morris,
2002). These struggles have led to work-family conflicts, which leads to stress as well as
to life and job dissatisfaction.
Loder (2005) has stated that the research has focused too much on the barriers that
women face, and not enough on work-family conflicts. She conducted a qualitative study
on the work-family conflicts confronting school administrators. Perrewe and Hochwarter
(2001) have defined work-family issues as interrole conflicts in which work and family
38
domains both receive demands, and that meeting the demands in one domain make it
difficult to meet the demands in the other. Loder (2005) interviewed and surveyed
31female administrators, both Black and White from the precivil rights generational
period and the postcivil rights generational period. Loder found that women
administrators overwhelmingly shoulder the responsibility of the work-family conflict.
Loder (2005) stated, “Overall, women have not been successful in offsetting their
increasing responsibilities in the workplace with decreased obligations on the home
front” (p. 743). Childcare and household responsibilities were identified as major
barriers to the advancement of women in educational leadership roles.
The women in Loder’s (2005) study, both pre- and postcivil rights cohorts, cited
their roles as wives and administrators as playing a major part in the work-family
conflict; however the challenges looked very different between the cohorts. The precivil
rights cohort, many of who were either divorced or widowed, described the challenges
they faced with their husbands’ traditional views on gender roles, which meant they were
expected to stay home. The participants in the postcivil rights cohort felt that finding
time for their spouse was a contributing factor to the work-family conflict as well as to
the physical and emotional toll the job created. These women felt that their daily battle to
negotiate between work and family was simply fruitless. They had had to work very hard
and become very skillful in their strategies to balance the two domains. Loder (2005)
identified some of these strategies such as increasing duration as assistant principals in
order to begin a family and simply putting off marriage and family until after they have
reached their career goal. Once again, the women in the study relied heavily on family
39
and friends for support in daily tasks. Many of the married women from both cohorts
stated the importance of spousal support in their career advancements while balancing
work and family.
Like Loder (2005), Wrushen and Sherman (2008) conducted a qualitative study of
school principals, which also found that educational leaders struggled to find balance in
their lives. Their research addressed the lack of women’s perspectives in the educational
leadership literature. All of the women in the study described a continuous struggle to
balance work and family and the lack of role models for handling both domains. When
one of the participants accepted her principalship, a mentor told her “Honey, this just puts
us closer to the divorce rate.” Another principal had never been married, had never had
kids, and figured that she never would as long as she continued to work in educational
leadership.
Although much of the research has focused on women’s barriers to leadership
positions and their inability to balance both work and family, Cheung and Halpern (2010)
found that many powerful women were, in fact, finding ways to balance both domains.
They wanted to increase understanding of why women rise to the top when they have so
many responsibilities at home. Their model of leadership included relationship-oriented
leadership traits, teamwork and consensus building, and effective work-family interfaces
that women can use to break the glass ceiling. They looked at women in a global context
and compared different cultures in terms of gender and leadership. In their review of the
literature, Cheung and Halpern (2010) found that women were no longer leaving the
workplace to stay at home with their children; however, half of the women leading
40
organizations that year had no children. In fact, 50% of women in the United States
making over $100,000 do not have children. Women with children tend to make less
money than women without children, and women generally make less than men. The
researchers called this “motherhood wage penalty” (p. 183). In short, the research
painted a grim picture for women seeking balance.
However, Cheung and Halpern (2010) focused on women who refused to make a
choice between the two domains. In their qualitative study of 62 women holding
leadership positions and having significant family care responsibilities, they identified
strategies that helped their subjects find success in both work and life. These successful
women became experts at multitasking. They integrated their work with family. For
instance, they took their family on business trips if allowable, kept weekends for family,
and worked after the kids went to bed, if necessary. These women delegated at home as
they would at work, and created satisfaction at home and work by looking at work as an
ally instead of as “the enemy.” In addition, these women defied societal expectations by
redefining their roles as mother and leader to fit their own needs.
As in most of the research, family and spousal support were also identified as an
important factor. Statistics have shown that there are more women than men in midlevel
management positions; the correct support systems could create a funnel to top-level
positions (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). These support systems and strategies can help
women overcome the many challenges in their attempt to find balance in both domains.

41
Support Systems and Other Strategies for Maintaining Balance in Work and Life
Much of the research has stressed the importance of support systems for women
balancing work and life while maintaining educational leadership positions. Although
more and more women are being seen in leadership roles, they continue to be the
providers of daily necessities for their children; in essence, they do the “lion’s share of
parenting work” regardless of their work load (Dufour, Howell, Downey, Ainsworth, &
Lapray, 2010).
Myers and Ginsberg’s (1994) qualitative study investigated gender as well as
marital status to look at the importance of support systems. Support systems were
identified as critical for school administrators, both male and female, while mentorship
was identified as a necessary professional support system. Mentors included colleagues,
supervisors, professors, or others who have knowledge about the organization. A
personal support system can come from spouses, family, friends, and children. However,
males tend to rely on somewhat different support systems than females. The study found
that males received more support from spouses than females in the area of childcare,
emotional support, household assistance, and moral support. Women received almost no
support from their husbands in the area of childcare. Due to the lack of support at home,
Myers and Ginsberg (1994) described women as experiencing “role overload,” which
conflicts with family responsibilities and affects many marriages. Like much of the other
research, women in this study identified family and home responsibilities as barriers to
women’s advancement in education.
42
Marcinkus et al. (2007) concurred with Myers and Ginsberg (1994) about the
importance of support systems for women to maintain a balance. They examined the
social support for midlife women and their attitudes toward the work-family balance.
The researchers, like many others, were concerned with working moms leaving the
workplace because balancing work and family had simply become too difficult, thus
“creating significant consequences for the availability of sufficient and productive human
capital in organizations” (Marcinkus et al., 2007, p. 88). They found that support
systems, both in the workplace and outside of the workplace, were essential to
completing a network of social support for leaders. The suggestion is that policies be
formed in the workplace that increase and encourage social support. In addition, when
women receive support from home, they have more job satisfaction. With this social
network of support, women need to accept assistance so they no longer feel the need to
be “superwoman.”
In addition to support systems, other strategies to help women in their struggle to
find balance have been offered by studies in the past decade. Hansen (1991) conducted a
review of the literature on balancing work and family and identified several strategies
that would help women, such as having a supportive spouse, utilizing supportive
supervisors, increasing efficiency, redistributing chores at home, giving up leisure time,
and planning special parent child-activities.
Gordon and Galloway (2008) conducted a qualitative study of eight female
superintendents in Texas, addressing the barriers women face on their way to the
superintendency and identifying several strategies that worked for the participants in their
43
study; they were taking advantage of a supportive family, assuming quiet persistence,
receiving encouragement from an administrator, networking, and showing determination
and competence. Like most researchers, they concluded that gender equality is an issue
for women and that the barriers are deeply rooted in American culture. If women use
these strategies, as well as others, they can rework the definition of the superintendency
and change it from within.
Family-friendly workplace policies have been identified as important factors that
allow women, especially first-generation students, to balance work and life (Seay, 2010).
Providing care for others was identified as a major obstacle for women that, in fact, has
resulted in a bachelor degree attainment rate of 24% for first-generation students (Seay,
2010). The findings suggested that policies addressing equitable pay for women and
having health insurance options allowing for coverage of elderly parents would assist
first-generation women in obtaining advanced educational leadership positions in higher
education. Although this study focused on first-generation leaders in higher education,
all women have responsibilities at home and could benefit from these policies, regardless
of their professions.
In addition, the research has identified mentoring as a support system essential to
helping women overcome challenges that have been placed on them through societal
expectations. In many cases, mentoring has helped women find the balance they seek in
terms of work and home (Searby & Tripses, 2006; Whitaker, 1996).

44
Mentoring Women Leaders
Mentoring has been identified previously as a necessary support system for
principals and superintendents regardless of their gender—so essential, in fact, that it
warrants further exploration. As stated earlier, educational leaders tend to suffer from
burnout as a result of role overload. Mentors can assist in mitigating role overload by
providing leaders with a support system and a mechanism for collaboration on ideas
(Whitaker, 1996).
Because most of the research has expressed a need for mentors as a support
system for women to break the glass barrier and balance work and life, Searby and
Tripses (2006) analyzed how women develop the capacity to enter into these mentoring
relationships. The researchers studied 14 women at a mentoring conference who either
aspired to be educational leaders or were currently practicing administrators. The
participants took part in a demographics survey, an in-depth journal reflection written
after the conference, and a follow-up survey administered eight months after the
conference. The participants of the study felt that many needs, both personal and
professional, could be met through mentoring; however, they also articulated the risks
associated with mentoring, such as vulnerability and time commitment. After eight
months, only five participants were involved in a mentoring relationship; reasons
included time commitments, not feeling a mentor was needed, or having been assigned to
mentor someone professionally.
Women involved in mentor relationships have many positive things to say;
however, women do not seem to seek out mentors. Through relationships with their
45
mentors, women are able to set goals, “navigate the waters” of their positions, and learn
new things. Searby and Tripses (2006) came to the conclusion that although women felt
they would benefit from mentoring, they had internal conflicts about seeking out mentors,
and there was a lack of women helping other women. In an earlier study, Lee and Nolan
(1998) found that 92.6% of the women felt mentoring was important; however, only 45%
actually had mentors. These studies showed that the “old boys” network benefits and
supports aspiring male leaders; however, women do not have the same type of networks
available to them.
Much has been said about the importance of mentoring; however, there is an
apparent lack of mentors and role models for women, especially mentors who are
themselves balancing work and life. Researchers are finding that many successful
women exclude other women, an act known as the “Queen Bee Syndrome” (Searby &
Tripses, 2006). Some researchers believe that this phenomenon occurs simply because
these women enjoy being one of the few at the top—or because they are used to working
in a structure that has not supported them as women; therefore, they do not feel it is their
duty to support less experienced women.
It is important to focus on the support systems and strategies being utilized today
by successful women in leadership roles; however, more specifically, the research has
made evident that women need to support women. With a lack of role models in
leadership positions, successful women need to search out aspiring women and provide a
support system through mentoring relationships. In addition, the research has been clear
that a married woman must have the support of her spouse in order to manage the work-
46
family conflict. Couples need to work together and share family responsibilities in order
for both to find job and life satisfaction. These support systems and strategies are
necessary for women to overcome challenges that have been created through societal
expectations (Dufur et al., 2010; Marcinkus et al., 2007). Such systems can assist women
in finding balance in both domains.
Summary of the Literature
A thorough analysis of the relevant literature was intended to make connections
between woman’s history and society’s expectations of them and the difficulties they
currently face as educational leaders trying to balance expectations at work and
responsibilities at home. Previous results have made it clear that societal expectations,
the glass ceiling effect, and gender stereotypes have been formidable barriers for woman
advancing in their careers. Though the literature once ignored women’s perspectives in
educational leadership, academia has brought women leaders and their struggles to the
forefront. In the last decade, the literature addressing women and balancing work and
family has increased. Support systems at home and work are essential and may be in the
form of a helpful spouse who assists with home responsibilities or a mentor who assists
with advancement in the workplace. Strategies have been offered, such as integrating
work with home, increasing efficiency, redistributing responsibilities, planning activities
with children, and working in an environment that has family-friendly policies such as
flexible work hours. However, there are still gaps in the research.
Much of the research on balancing work and life has been embedded in research
focused on overcoming barriers to reaching positions like the superintendency; however,
47
there seemed to be a lack of case studies discussing the use of support systems and
strategies for leaders and caretakers. There was clearly a lack of role models that other
women could look at and say, “They are doing it, so can I.” In addition, supportive
women were lacking.
This chapter provided a literature review that included a historical perspective on
the women’s movement and women in the superintendency, the barriers that stood in the
way of advancement for women, and leadership styles of women. Support systems and
strategies that assist women in balancing both work and family life were also discussed.
In this study, additional recommendations will be made for women in terms of
support systems and strategies to help balance work and home life. Chapter Three will
describe the study and the three case study participants, addressing the gap in the
literature by filling a void that currently exists: role models for other women trying to
successfully balance work and home life.

48
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY

Introduction/Purpose of the Study
There has been some evidence of women in educational leadership positions
finding success in balancing work and family life; however, as evidenced by the research,
women overwhelmingly continue to struggle in finding balance. Family and home
responsibilities have been identified as barriers to women achieving leadership positions
in education as well as the cause of work-family conflict (Young & McCleod, 2001). In
her study, Morris (2002) found that almost 70% of women cited personal and family
responsibilities as the largest barrier to finding success in their careers.
This study primarily had two purposes: The primary purpose was to identify
support systems and strategies that have allowed women in leadership positions, such as
the superintendency, to maintain balance in work and life. The secondary purpose was to
identify the challenges that exist in society and the field of education that have prevented
many women from achieving leadership positions in education and maintaining balance
in work and family life. This valuable information can better prepare women as they
aspire to leadership positions and defy societal expectations by finding success in both
their careers and in their family lives.
Research Questions
This study focused on the following research questions in order to provide
answers to the stated purpose of the study:
49
1. What challenges do female superintendents face in balancing work and family
life?
2. What types of support do female superintendents perceive to be helpful in
achieving balance in work and family life?
3. What strategies do female superintendents employ to balance work and family
life?
These questions were developed through a collaborative effort by a thematic dissertation
cohort of seven graduate students. The underlining focus of the cohort was to determine
support systems and strategies that have helped women in educational leadership balance
work and life.
Research Design
The type of research study conducted was qualitative case study research. A
qualitative research design was selected so that the study could adapt to reflect the
development of the study and the findings. Patton (2002) has described qualitative data
as descriptive data through data collection, such as interviews, observations, and
documents. Creswell (1998) has described a case study as an exploration of a case or
cases over time through detailed and in-depth data collection using multiple sources of
information-rich data. Empirical data was gathered through observable information
relevant to the three research questions. Triangulation of the data was achieved through
interviews with participants and with their colleagues and/or spouses. Triangulation
strengthened the study by providing a rich variety of methodological combinations
(Patton, 2002). Participants were asked if they would be willing to allow interviews with
50
a family member and/or a colleague—basically, someone else who sees the dilemmas
that the participant faces while trying to balance work and life. In addition, weekly
activity log documentation, and other documentation such as job descriptions, resumes,
and workplace policies were gathered and analyzed. Using this type of scientific research
of behavioral science, the data was collected and analyzed; conclusions were made and a
hypothesis was generated (Patton, 2002). The findings, gleaned through purposeful
sampling, will contribute to the body of current theories on strategies and support systems
benefitting women leaders in education who are striving to balance work and life.
Sample and Population
According to Patton (2002), purposeful sampling is selecting information-rich
cases strategically and purposefully, an effort that sheds light on the research questions at
hand. The primary focus of data collection was to achieve an in-depth study on what was
happening to the participants in a particular setting and to understand how the
participants were affected by the setting.
Three case studies were conducted for this dissertation. A case study gives the
researcher information for describing an occurrence or trend. After the researcher
identifies details of an occurrence or trend, the researcher can provide an explanation by
identifying relational or causal patterns (Patton, 2002). This study helped the researcher
evaluate the findings and draw possible conclusions for replication. This type of study
may validate findings from the literature review and supply information with which to
extend our knowledge base and draw possible conclusions.
51
The units of analysis in this study were three female superintendents who were
balancing work and home life. All three superintendents were married with children.
They had been superintendents for at least two years in districts in the state of California.
The districts varied in size and demographics. The strategy used to choose these
participants was snowball or chain sampling (Patton, 2002). Patton (2002) has described
this type of purposeful sampling as one in which the researcher has identified “cases of
interest from sampling people who know people who know people who know what cases
are information rich” (p. 242).
Overview of Participants
As mentioned previously, all three case study participants were female public
school superintendents in California. At the time of this study, all three participants were
married and had at least one child or dependent at home, but led very different types of
districts in both size and demographics. One participant oversaw a small district of 2,900
K-8 students attending three elementary and one middle school. She had two older sons,
one still living at home. The second participant was a mother of five who was married to
a judge. She oversaw a medium-sized district of approximately 4,800 K-8 students
contained in five elementary schools and two middle schools. The last participant
oversaw a large K-12 district of approximately 10,086 students attending 11 elementary,
3 middle, and 3 high schools, as well as an Alternative Education Center. She had a
middle school child at home.

52
Theoretical Framework
A conceptual model was created by the thematic dissertation group in order to
serve as a guide for better understanding the societal expectations and challenges women
in leadership positions have faced as they struggle to maintain a balance between work
and home (See Figure 3.1). This framework was developed with Eagly’s (1987) social
role theory in mind, as women have attempted for decades to defy the roles that society
has placed on them. Social role theory looks at sex differences in social context, such as
interactions between and among individuals, groups, societies, and economic systems
(Dulin, 2007). Sometimes, these social systems can create environments that keep
certain people from achieving. Eagly (1987) has expressed a belief that behaviors result
from the gender stereotypes and gender role expectations embedded in our society.
The Conceptual Framework takes into consideration the historical influences that
have shaped society’s expectations of women, which have led to gender stereotypes and
conditioned social roles. Women have long faced many challenges at home and in the
workplace because of the roles that society believes they must play, such as homemaker
and mother. These challenges can be hurdles to success; however, women in leadership
positions have found ways by consulting support systems and strategies to achieve
balance in both work and family domains. As such, this framework served as the
cohort’s basis for constructing research questions, data collection, data analysis, and
interpretation of the data in their inquiry (Merriam, 2009). Figure 3.1, below, shows a
model of the conceptual framework.

53

Figure 3.1. Conceptual framework
(Ed.D. Thematic Group, 2009)

Data Collection
Creswell (2006) has indicated that the following data collection activities may be
important to conducting qualitative research: (a) locating site/individual, (b) gaining
access and making rapport, (c) purposefully sampling, (d) collecting data, (e) recording
information, (f) resolving field issues, and (g) storing data. The instruments used for data
collection were interviews of case study participants, and of their spouse and colleagues,
document review of a weekly activity log, a brief observation of the workplace, and other
documentation such as workplace policies, resumes, and job descriptions. These
Historical Influence
Social Roles
Gender Stereotypes
Societal
Expectations

Work
Domain
Family
Domain
Strategies
Support Systems
Challenges

54
instruments were used over an eight-week period to gather information about how female
superintendents maintain balance in work and life.
Instrumentation
Interview participants were purposefully selected to represent women
superintendents from various districts and backgrounds in order to generalize the
findings. Participants were provided with a New Subject Recruitment Sheet, which
outlined the purpose and design of the study (see Appendix A). The interview of
participants contained 30 open-ended questions that focused on the three research
questions at hand (see Appendix B). In addition to being organized by research question,
the interview questions were organized by subtopics that fell under each research
question and were addressed in the literature review. For instance, under the question
that investigates challenges is a subtopic on barriers, such as “societal expectations” and
“glass ceiling.” After analyzing Patton’s (2002) different types of interviews and the
various people who needed to be interviewed for the study, this researcher determined
that the semistructured open-ended interview would be the best protocol (Appendix C).
From the original protocol for the participants, the thematic cohort chose certain
questions that would provide rich information from the participant’s spouse, adult child,
colleague, or coworker (see Appendix D).
The semistructured interview was chosen because it allowed the researcher to
follow a predetermined sequence of questions, with the flexibility to jump from topic to
topic, if needed. Although there was much flexibility in the interview, having set
questions allowed the researcher to gather specific data from all respondents and to use
55
time efficiently (Patton, 2002). In addition to choosing the type of interview, the
researcher needed to ensure that the essential qualities of an effective interview were in
place. Merriam (2009) has argued for the importance of a rapport developing between
the interviewer and the interviewee, the solicitation of thoughtful questioning, and the
ability to listen with intent.
Two-hour interviews were conducted during the summer at each
superintendent’s district office. Follow-up phone calls were made as necessary to clarify
any pertinent information. All interviews were digitally recorded and stored, even though
the researcher took notes throughout the interview. The interviews were carefully
transcribed and reviewed by the researcher in order to ensure the accuracy of the
findings.
In addition to being interviewed, each participant was supplied with an activity
log to record weekly information that would assist in the gathering of information. The
participants recorded information pertinent to the work-life balance, such insight about
the dilemmas they faced, decisions they made, and the outcomes of either (see Appendix
E). In addition, each participant rated her weekly challenges in order prioritize them and
judge their level of importance. A quick observation of the participant’s work
environment was recorded for a snap shot of the participant’s integration of family and
work as well as for evidence of balance, if any (see Appendix F). According to Patton
(2002), observing the participant’s work environment allows the researcher (a) to better
understand and capture the context of the work environment, giving a more holistic
perspective, (b) to have firsthand experience with the setting, allowing for less need to
56
rely on prior conceptualizations of the environment, (c) to see things that might have
routinely escaped the researcher or participant when relying on an interview alone, (d) to
learn things that the participant might not have been willing to discuss in an interview,
and (e) to draw on personal knowledge during data analysis.
Additional documentation was used to understand the participants’ previous work
experience over time, duties in their jobs, as well as current policies in the workplace that
may have pertained to the work-life balance. This type of documentation can provide the
researcher with information that cannot be observed, such as goals or decisions that are
unknown to the researcher or private interchanges that have taken place within the
organization (Patton, 2002).
Data Analysis
According to Patton (2002), triangulation is the key design consideration in
qualitative research because it strengthens the study by combining different methods.
The research questions guided the data analysis in this multiple methods study, and all
items on the interview protocol were mapped to the research questions (see Appendix G).
Data collected from weekly activity logs and documentation was also analyzed based on
the research questions at hand. It is important to use multiple methods of data collection
in order to compare what the participant says in an interview to fieldwork observations
and documents relevant to women in leadership positions balancing work and life
(Merriam, 2009). Alternative methods of triangulation were considered by the thematic
cohort, but data resources did not apply to this study.
57
After data from interviews and documentation were collected, the researcher
analyzed the data. The researcher reviewed the data with the intent of gaining a deeper
understanding of what the data represented, so that accurate interpretations could be
made. When conducting qualitative research, the researcher must undertake ongoing
reflection of the data, asking general questions throughout the process (Creswell, 2009).
To this end, Creswell’s (2009) six-step model (see Figure 3.2) for interpreting data was
followed throughout the analyzing process, thus: (a) all data were organized by research
question and data source, (b) generalizations were made about the meaning of the data,
(c) categories for the data were established based on subtitles from the literature review
under each research question and data source, (d) data were coded for each research
question, (e) data were represented by several themes for each research question and for
evidence, and (e) data were interpreted from the literature’s perspective, which will be
further explained in Chapter Five. Data collected from the participants were carefully
transcribed, coded, and analyzed for patterns related to the stated research questions.
Interviews were coded and the confidentiality of each study participant was preserved.
The results of the data were analyzed to identify important patterns with the outcomes of
the themes that were revealed from the data collection. As the themes emerged from the
data collection, the researcher was able to use the common themes to draw conclusions
about the participants.

58

Figure 3.2. Creswell’s (2009) model for qualitative data analysis

Ethical Considerations
In order to ensure that all data collected were obtained ethically, the researcher
took many precautions. Because this study involved human subject research, the study
had to be approved by the Interview Review Board (IRB) from the University of
Southern California. The IRB determined that this study was unobtrusive and posed no
physical or psychological threat to the well-being of the participants. All participants, as
well as their family members and colleagues who were interviewed, were volunteers over
the age of 18. The researcher protected each participant, maintaining the anonymity of
59
names and districts with the use of pseudonyms. Information obtained through data
collection was digitally recorded and kept in a secured place. Before any research was
conducted, each volunteer was given an information sheet that provided an overview and
purpose of the study as well as a consent form (see Appendix H).
Summary of Methodology
This chapter outlined and described the methodology used for this study, which
included the following elements: research design, sample and population, overview of
participants, theoretical framework, data collection, instrumentation, data analysis, and
ethical considerations. The information collected from the three female superintendents
provided data for statistical analysis regarding challenges that female superintendents
face in balancing work and life, and the strategies and support systems that help balance
both domains. The next two chapters will discuss the data that was collected and
analyzed, and the implications for women trying to find a work-life balance.

60
CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION

Chapter Four presents the results of the data collected in this study, which sought
to identify support systems and strategies that have allowed female superintendents to
overcome challenges while maintaining balance in work and life. This information can
be used to better prepare women as they aspire to leadership positions and pursue success
in balancing career and family. For this study, “balance” has been defined as meeting
and fulfilling the demands of one's own personal and professional life and aligning these
factors with one's needs, values, priorities, and obligations. Many women view balancing
work and life to be an impossible task that inevitably results in making a choice between
the two (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). With adequate support systems and strategies
in place, women do not have to make a choice between the two domains. For the purpose
of this study, success was measured by having achieved and maintained the position of
public school superintendent for a minimum of two years while successfully balancing
work and family. Qualitative data for the current study were collected through three case
studies using several instruments described in depth in Chapter Three; they are: (a)
Interview Protocol for Superintendents (see Appendix B), (b) Interview Protocol for
Referral (see Appendix D), (c) Activity Log (see Appendix E), (d) Workplace
Observational Checklist (see Appendix F), and (e) various artifacts, such as resumes, job
descriptions, and work policies related to work-life balance, such as vacation time and
leaves.
61
All three case study participants are female public school superintendents in
California. They all have various responsibilities, are married, and have at least one child
or dependent at home, but lead very different types of districts in size and demographics.
Data were collected, interpreted, and analyzed using a process of triangulation in which
multiple sources of information were utilized to support the findings. In order to
maintain and protect the confidentiality of the three superintendents who participated in
the study, they will be referred as Superintendents A, B, and C. In addition, no
identifiable information is reported in the findings of this study.
Through the course of the research, data were gathered and analyzed in an attempt
to answer research questions posed by this study:
1. What challenges do female superintendents face in balancing work and family
life?
2. What types of support do female superintendents perceive to be helpful in
achieving balance in work and family life?
3. What strategies do female superintendents employ to balance work and
family life?
An overview of the participants will be provided. The remainder of Chapter Four
describes the findings of each research question, informed by previous literature on the
topic, and the themes that emerged through analysis within each question. The chapter
presents the qualitative data in response to each research question.

62
Participants

All three of the participants range from late forty to late fifty years of age. All
three superintendents had grown up in environments that encouraged them to work hard
and achieve success. A strong work ethic had been established in all three of the
women’s upbringings. Cumulatively, all three women had begun their careers with no
intention of ever becoming principals, let alone superintendents. They loved teaching
and assumed they would teach forever; however, throughout their careers, others had
seen the leadership qualities in them and had encouraged each woman to aspire toward all
levels of educational leadership. Cumulatively, through interviews and anecdotes about
the observations of their workplace environment, participants provided a snapshot of who
these women leaders are as individuals. Table 1 is a snapshot of the three
superintendents interviewed and the population they serve.
Table 1
Participant Overview
Superintendent Age Children Total
Years as
Superintendent
Size of
District
(students)
Referral
Relationship
Average
Hours
Worked
Weekly
A 53 2 3 2, 900 husband 50-55
B 48 5 2 4, 800 husband 60+
C 58 1 7 10, 086 husband 55+

Superintendent A oversaw a small K-8 school district in California consisting of
2,900 students in three elementary schools and one middle school. She had spent her
entire 22 years in education in her current school district, moving up through the ranks as
63
teacher, assistant principal, principal, and assistant superintendent. She is in her third
year as superintendent. When she married 12 years ago, she, along with her husband, an
elementary school principal, formed a new family with their young sons from previous
marriages, who were ages 23 and 25 at the time of this study; only one son still lives at
home. Superintendent A has ailing parents, and her mother is suffering from dementia
which adds to her home responsibilities. When she is not at home with her family, she is
at work, where the majority of her time is spent.
Superintendent A had created a work environment that made her feel comfortable
and reflected who she is as a person. Her office was filled with home décor, such as
pictures, decorative lamps, and silk flowers. Books, inspirational expressions, and
pictures of her family were evidence of what is truly important to her. The word
“BELIEVE” was spelled out in large letters above her desk. She expressed the necessity
of creating a positive work environment by strategically surrounding herself with positive
people. “Through budget cuts and downsizing, I have maintained confident, respectful
people who have great attitudes” said Superintendent A.
Superintendent B oversaw a medium-sized K-8 district with 4,800 students
attending five elementary and two middle schools. After having spent most of her career
in her current district as a teacher and assistant principal, she left for a few years to serve
as principal in another district. Then life threw her a “surprise baby,” and she left
education for two years to have her youngest son. She returned to her current district as
assistant superintendent of Educational Services prior to being promoted to deputy
superintendent and then superintendent. She has been married to her husband, a judge,
64
for 26 years, and they have five children together, ranging in ages from 10 to 24. Her
two oldest children are currently in law school and living at home, but also staying at the
family’s second home closer to their school. Her two youngest children are in
elementary and high school and are very involved in sports. She had lost her middle son
to a car accident four years ago, which she explained, has had a huge impact on who she
is and the type of leader she has become. He would have been 19 at the time of the
interview.
Who she was as a person impacted her work environment and influenced how she
and her husband had decorated her office. The importance of family was noticeable by
the many photos and artifacts of her children’s accomplishments. She, too, had
inspirational quotations in her office. The words “Believe” and “Be the Change” were
displayed on the walls and shelves and reflected her leadership style. “I’m here more
than I am there, so I have my kid’s stuff around and my husband helped me make it just
the way I wanted it,” said Superintendent B.
Superintendent C joined her current school district in 1975 as a teacher and had
moved up through the ranks, becoming superintendent seven years before the time of the
interview. She oversaw a large K-12 district of approximately 10,086 students attending
11 elementary, 3 middle, and 3 high schools, as well as an Alternative Education Center.
She is married to a man who is retired from a career in education from a nearby
university. They have a middle school child at home, whom they had adopted later in
life. In addition to caring for her son, there had been a time in her life during which she
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had cared for and moved both of her ailing parents into her home. She had since lost
both of her parents.
Superintendent C also wanted her work environment to reflect who she is as an
individual. Her office had many books that illustrated her passion for reading, and
several of them were inspirational in nature. The importance of family was made evident
by several pictures in her office; many were from a family vacation in Hawaii. Although
she had created her office environment the way she wanted, she felt that others might not
think it was “professional” enough because it wasn’t necessarily a formal environment.
“And then I think, just don’t worry about it. It’s just who you are,” expressed
Superintendent C. Superintendent C attributed the relationships that she had built over
the years to help create a work environment that she loved.
The following section will investigate answers to Research Question One, which
focused on the challenges that female superintendents faced in balancing work in life.
The section also discusses challenges they had encountered along the way as they aspired
to the position they currently held.
Research Question One Results: Challenges
Research Question One asked: “What challenges do female superintendents face
in balancing work and life?” To answer this research question, the following section will
analyze the challenges these three female superintendents faced each day and the
challenges they had faced as they sought to achieve their positions. According to the
research, the challenges women face in their attempt to find balance include managing
gender roles and stereotypes that have historically been inculcated in societal
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expectations and handling a lack of support at work and at home (Loder, 2005;
Shakeshaft, 1989; Young & McCleod, 2001). These three superintendents faced the
same societal expectations; however, inconsistent with the literature, they did not lack
support at home. In this particular study, three themes emerged as the researcher
investigated challenges related to the work-life balance: lack of time, effects of
responsibility, and internal and external barriers, such as guilt and gender stereotypes.
Overwhelmingly, all three participants noted the constant challenge of finding time due
to their responsibilities at work and home. At times, they struggle with the internal
barriers that have been created as a result of those responsibilities. Furthermore,
participants reported struggles with gender and ethnicity in their career trajectory.
Lack of Time for Family, Friends, and Self
According to the participants and their job descriptions, managing a school
district required a large amount of time, both physically and mentally. District job
descriptions require leaders to have knowledge of every facet within a district, including
business, budgets, curriculum, teaching practices, and human resources. In addition, they
are the primary contact for the Board of Education, which can require an extensive
amount of time. As the interviewees explained, they were expected to be at numerous
functions within the community, which created endless work hours, stressful situations,
and no time off. The participants stated that these obligations took them away from their
families, creating the largest challenge to finding balance and creating feelings of guilt
and regret. Cumulatively, the superintendents indicated that they had missed out on
family events and quality time with their husbands, children, and other relatives.
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Superintendent C described how the demands of the job required all of her attention, even
when she was away from the office:
This job is 24/7. You never really leave your work. Even on days that you can
get away, there are things that go home with you. I am keenly aware that
sometimes my husband has been speaking to me for 20 minutes, I’m looking at
him intently, and I have no idea what he has said to me. It’s just that my mind is
not there. Not being some place mentally is huge, and nobody ever talks about
that. They think that because you are physically there, you’re ok, but really my
mind can be a thousand miles away and I’m thinking about what I’m going to do
here, what I’m going to do there. That also happens in the middle of the night. It
is the mental stuff that really gets you and weighs on you.

In her activity logs, Superintendent C recalled the work-life balance dilemmas being
centered around the various work related “thinking” and “worrying” issues that
accompanied them at home. “All of these were distractions for me at home and required
a good deal of preparation and thought,” she said. According to her husband, balancing
the personal and professional roles could pose a challenge: “Not letting the setbacks and
concerns that arise professionally impact negatively on her personal life,” he explained.
The thinking and worrying about work-related issues took time away from all
participants, which made it a challenge to balance work and life.
It was evident that the demands of the job took priority and could create
extremely difficult situations in which superintendents had to make certain choices that
would upset the balance. Superintendent A described in her activity log a very difficult
choice she had had to make the previous fall when school had started. Her oldest son was
scheduled to have surgery on his shoulder the same day as the first board meeting of the
year. She knew she needed to be with him, but knew she really had to be at work.
Although both her son and husband assured her that she could miss the surgery, she still
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felt guilty; however, she knew it was necessary to attend the meeting. “I actually had to
make a choice, my family or my work,” expressed Superintendent A. “I really wanted to
be there as a mom, but I couldn’t. Had this been a more serious surgery or illness, I
would not have hesitated to miss work.” Superintendent A was not the only participant
who had faced dilemmas in which she had had to choose work over family. In her
activity log, Superintendent C wrote about an extended family issue that “took a second
seat to my work,” but she was able to be cognizant of the ability to still be a resource to
her family by fielding phone calls and being available when needed. She had to weigh
the issue and prioritize it in terms of importance and where she needed to be. However,
these dilemmas posed challenges to the participants in finding a balance between work
and life.
Even when on vacation, they found themselves unable to escape the job. All three
participants stated that they used very little of their vacation time, and when they did,
they were still working in some capacity. Superintendent A noted that she could not get
away from the job, even on vacation:
For me, it takes about two weeks to be away, just to get the job out of my mind.
You constantly think about it and dream about it. You really can’t relax. This
summer, I took two weeks off. I was on email every day and on the phone talking
to people. All I thought about was why I took the time off, how much I had to do,
and how far behind I was going to be when I got back. I know I need to get away
to be better, but it is so hard when you have so many things to get done.

Also evident in the data was that planning time to spend with family, in an
attempt to find balance, created stressful situations and did not always work out the way
the participant had expected. Superintendent B wrote in her activity journal about taking
one Friday off to go to a conference with her husband. She ended up sick at the
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beginning of the week, which resulted in having to work nights from 1:00 am–4:00 am in
preparation to be away from work for one day. In addition, she ended up working on a
project while away with her husband. Such situations illustrate the challenges that
superintendents had experienced in their attempts to spend quality time with their
families without being preoccupied with work. Even when present physically, they may
not have been present mentally. The time required by the job made it impossible for this
superintendent to enjoy even one day away with her husband.
All three participants expressed that, in the end, their family came first, and that
they must find the work-life balance they were seeking. They had husbands, children,
and even elderly parents that needed time from them; therefore, what little time they had
had to be spent in a very intentional manner. On this subject, Superintendent A stated, “I
have to make a constant effort to make sure that my family has some time with me.”
However, the data have illustrated how difficult that effort can be. These women had all
missed out on important events due to the time requirements of the job. Some of these
events were simple, yet meaningful events, such as soccer games and school functions.
Other events were more profound, such as not being at the hospital for a child’s surgery
or at the bedside during the death of a parent—which will be discussed later in this
section.
Although balance is necessary, time for family was evidently very difficult to find
for a superintendent, which resulted in feelings of guilt. The data showed that there were
days that these women did not see their children very much, or even at all, due to early
morning meetings and late nights. There were very few nights that they had dinner
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together, which the activity logs indicated had placed an emotional toll on the women.
Superintendent B recalled a time that she had been commuting, working 14-hour days,
and missing her children. In her activity log, Superintendent C wrote about this scenario
as a dilemma she faced throughout the week. “I had to plan when I could contact my
son,” she wrote. In her activity log, she recalled how she had justified lost time with
family: “I rationalized that two of the nights I missed dinner, my son had soccer practice
until 7:00,” she wrote. Additionally, she explained that many work related issues took
top priority so she could ensure that these issues did not become bigger problems which
would take additional time away from her family. This rationalization is an indication
that women felt the necessity to justify their absence, because they knew the importance
of being present for their children.
No matter how challenging, the superintendents understood the importance of
time with their family. Superintendent C described how important it was to find time for
her son:
I don’t get to volunteer in his school, but if the teachers need supplies, or there is
an evening or weekend event, I’m happy to help. You need to do whatever it
takes to help your child be successful and to support them. I would not want my
son to fail because of something that I didn’t do, didn’t follow up on, or wasn’t
supportive of him. And that’s always a danger when you know that you are
working and you need to give a certain amount to your work.

“I want to create good memories for him,” stressed Superintendent C. She explained how
important it was to have family around:
One of the things that I really appreciated was having such a great group of my
family around me. It’s simply the best medicine in the world. And I want my son
to have that same sense, and I don’t want my working to impede that. So I’m the
one who has the pumpkin carving and Chili feast every year and I make the
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tamales at Christmas. There are certain traditions that I needed to carry on
because I’m the only girl. I just make these things fit into my schedule.

Cumulatively, the data illustrated that all three superintendents worked hard at creating
time for their families.
Finding the time for balance can be more difficult at certain stages in life.
Superintendent C recalled a time when she had not had much support at home. She had
had to balance her job responsibilities, son, and two ill parents at home, while her
husband was teaching out of town most weekends. With all her responsibilities, and no
assistance from her husband on these weekends, she had little or no time at all for herself.
She had to manage her time extensively to ensure that her job, son, and parents got the
attention they needed. During this period, she stated there simply was not enough time to
ensure balance.
Superintendent B described times in her life when it had been very challenging to
find balance. She has raised five children as she aspired to her current position. That
included a “surprise baby” 10 years previously, which resulted in taking two years off in
the middle of her career. One year, she had one child in college, one in high school, one
in junior high, one in elementary, and one in preschool. Although it was difficult, she
made time to take her youngest to school and found the time to attend both school and
sporting events. She learned just how important it was to find time for family and loved
ones when, four years ago, she had lost her middle son in an accident, which changed her
whole world. She described the time it took to go through a loss like that:
I lost a son. That takes time. It takes time and energy to grieve. I can’t even tell
you how that changed my life completely. It’s different for everybody, but you
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have to give it time. It was a huge challenge when it happened, but it will always
be a challenge.

When asked if this loss made her regret her decision to work, she replied, “Absolutely!”
However, it didn’t make her wish that she had been a stay-at-home mother or had
changed anything in her career; it just contributed to her sense of regret at not spending
more time with her children. “I feel I never took the time to really get to know my son,”
she explained. “After he died, everyone told me all these amazing things about him that I
didn’t even know.” It was evident that the time lost with her son created regret, but had
not halted her career path. She became superintendent two years later. However, the loss
made her realize how important time was and the necessity to overcome the challenges of
seeking that time, especially in terms of fostering relationships:
Everything changes, both for the good and the bad. Being a parent of five and
losing a child makes me more compassionate. And for me, I cannot tell you how
much that impacts your leadership. Losing a child impacts your leadership in a
million ways. I’m a different person as a result of that. It makes me a better
leader. I get to know every employee, their challenges, and their struggles. I
appreciate and love them. Let’s be thankful and grateful for all we do have.

All three superintendents described situations in which family demands and work
demands battled for their time. They had to balance and, in many cases, make choices.
If they could go home, they would. If they could not, they did not, even when the kids
might not have understood. Superintendent C had had recently encountered a situation
with her son involving an event she had to attend on a Saturday. He told her, “You know
what you need to say, you need to tell them that weekends are for family time and you
can’t go.” She had to explain to him that some jobs just do not work that way.
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Extended family demands were apparent in the data, creating another challenge
for superintendents trying to find the time for balance. Both Superintendents A and C
cared for their elderly parents. Superintendent A explained how difficult it was to find
time to spend with her parents, including her mother who suffered from dementia:
Both of my parents are ill. My mother has dementia and you know, we’re just all
concerned about how much longer she’s going to be around. So, I have total guilt
about not being able to spend time with her. If I’m going to go over to see her,
we’re going to meet for dinner. During the work week, I’m just too tired, so I put
it off until the weekend. If something comes up over the weekend, I don’t get to
see them.

In her activity journal, Superintendent A wrote about having to balance a family event
with a work project one weekend. She realized that her only choice was getting very
little sleep so she could do both. The result was frustration. “I met both my family and
work obligations, but at my own expense,” she said. “I was tired and didn’t experience
quality time with my family; I was there, but it was not enjoyable for me.”
It was evident in the data that extended family does not always understand the
time demands of a superintendent. Superintendent C’s elderly parents lived in her home
for several years, and they had difficulty understanding why she worked such long hours.
She described a time during in which she had to sit her mother down and explain to her
the responsibilities of her job, and that she just could not take off work for little things.
She had to prioritize, and when it was important, she made the time to be at home. When
her mother was ill, she was very guarded with her time with her mother. “I emailed my
cabinet and secretary and just let them know that I would be there every minute I could,
but I couldn’t talk about it face to face,” expressed Superintendent C. “I just needed their
support and prayers while I spent this time with my mom.” These experiences illustrate
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the work-life dilemmas that the female superintendents faced as they struggled to find
time to spend with family.
Cumulatively, the participants described regrets when they did not feel that they
had allocated time appropriately. When her father had passed, Superintendent C was
performing one of her superintendent duties which was delivering a speech to students at
the university in her community. She ignored her mother’s warning that day, assuming
that everything would be fine. She explained the effect that it had on her:
I was on stage at the university when my dad died. In the morning, my mom had
said that she was going to call the priest. I thought she was just being safe.
Thank God I didn’t have my phone on me when I was up there. It was on the
chair. When I was done speaking, I was told that my phone had been going off. I
couldn’t get a hold of anyone, so I just left. In the car, my niece told me that my
dad was gone. You know, I still haven’t been able to cope with that one. Since
then, I’ve been asked to speak at the university and I can’t. I just feel myself
standing on that stage, and I just don’t think I can do it. I’m pretty strong, but I
can’t do that one.

All three superintendents recalled feelings of regret for not spending time with
family, and the sacrifices they had made to reach the position of superintendency. “I
have a lot of regret and guilt over the years,” said Superintendent B. “Part of it is because
my husband has been so willing to do a lot.” She illustrated how the use of a nanny
caused feelings of regret, however, necessary it was to her career path:
I remember the days I would come home, and they would cry. They wanted the
nanny. She wasn’t just a baby sitter, she was very much a part of the family. I
couldn’t think of a better person to help raise my children, but there were days
when you come home, and you know babies, they don’t know any better. They
wanted her. And that’s just heart wrenching, but you know that it’s the best thing
for them. If you’re going to be a career mother, you’ve got to be willing to do
that.

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It has been established that finding time for family is a challenge for women in
leadership positions trying to balance work and life. In addition, lack of time to maintain
relationships had cost these women other relationships. Friendships suffered because
there was simply not enough time to cultivate meaningful relationships due to the
demands of the position and demands from family. These women did not see their
friends often and, in some cases, had lost friends outside of work. Superintendent A noted
that she had given up shopping trips with her best friend because she didn’t have the
time. “It is really sad,” she stated. “She has just given up on inviting me because every
time she did, I had to say no.”
Lack of time had created other issues for these superintendents. All three women
in this study described the lack of time for themselves and the opportunity to do the
things they enjoyed such as reading. With a job so exhausting both physically and
mentally, all three superintendents explained how tired they were, which created the
inability to spend time with family and friends as well as finding time for themselves.
Superintendent C explained that she used to read more, but balancing time with her
husband, son, and work had made that difficult. “It just felt like we were tired all the
time,” she stated. “I couldn’t handle the distraction of not being able to get through a
book. I’d read a page and half, and I’d fall asleep.” In addition, two superintendents
stated that they didn’t eat well, and one made it a point to eat healthy. “I rarely go to
lunch. I eat nuts, cheese and crackers to sustain myself through the day,” explained
Superintendent A. As much as they tried to be healthy, they found that it was difficult to
find the time to eat right and exercise. Although finding time for themselves had been
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identified as a challenge, all three superintendents acknowledged its importance and had
implemented strategies to make the time to enjoy the things they loved. Those strategies
will be discussed later in the chapter.
The three superintendents discussed time extensively—it was a definite challenge
for all. Time was occupied by the responsibilities these women had to fulfill. In this next
section, those responsibilities, and the effects of those responsibilities, are discussed in
depth.
Effects of Responsibility
Based on cumulative review of interviews with participants, husbands, and
activity logs, various responsibilities posed challenges in the attempt to balance work and
life for these women. According to Glass and Franceschini (2007), “The superintendent
of schools in America have one of the most responsible and complex roles in modern
society” (p. ix). For instance, a superintendent is expected to be the “top educator in the
community, be understanding, lead educational improvements and change, and run one of
the largest and most complex business in the community” (Glass & Franceschini, 2007,
p. ix). All three superintendents struggled with the responsibilities of the job as well as
with the responsibilities they had at home and to other women as role models. These
responsibilities were also evident in the activity journals. Job responsibilities had
become stressful for all three; they had taken on multiple roles and each had
responsibilities to their families as well as to others. In the end, this sense of
responsibility dominated their time and created stress in their lives.
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Many of their job responsibilities had become very stressful in the current
economic crisis in education. It was evident that current budget issues had created many
challenges for them. Some of these challenges were recent lay-offs, dealing with unions,
fostering morale, creating support and influence at the secondary level, and cutting much-
needed programs. “The budget is the hardest part,” explained Superintendent C. “When
you lay-off people that you’ve known for a long time, it just will never be the same.”
Stress was a direct result of the decisions superintendents were responsible for making,
and this strain could be a challenge for women trying to find balance.
Increased job responsibilities were a result of budget cuts. As they eliminated
positions at the district office, superintendents tended to take on multiple roles.
Superintendent A was going on her third year without an assistant superintendent of
Educational Services. Because she had held this position prior to holding the
superintendency, she took on the responsibilities of that job as well. A superintendent is
ultimately responsible for everything and everyone in a district. Superintendent B
described her sense of responsibility as a superintendent compared to that of a teacher:
It really is just about the responsibility. That’s the only difference between what I
do and a teacher does. The only difference is when you’re a teacher, you’re
responsible for 30. I’m responsible for 5,000. And that’s the difference in pay,
and that’s what keeps you awake at night.

In addition, there was this sense of taking on the responsibility of being a role
model for other women. As a Latina, Superintendent C described the responsibility of
that role:
I had a voice and I had a presence that I needed to use because there were people
who needed role models. When I became a superintendent, I received notes
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telling me what a role model I was and how proud it made them feel. A lot of it is
because you’re a woman. I remember thinking that I have a big responsibility.

Superintendent C explained that it was not just responsibility to the job, but also
responsibility to family:
I am very cognizant of the fact that my parents were the central people in all of
our lives, and they were the ones that connected us to all the rest of the family
such as aunts, uncles, and cousins. And that is weighing on me because I need to
organize it. I think about these things a lot and how I am going to maneuver and
manage and retain those relationships and that feeling. I need to be responsive to
our family so that we stay connected and I understand that it is my responsibility.

According to her husband, she did a good job tending to the responsibilities of her family.
“She is supportive of and involved with friends and family, the underlying assumption is
that providing support is the essence of leadership,” he said. “She does just that with
friends and family.” However, other things were sacrificed for tending to these many
responsibilities. Simple every day things had become a challenge. “Just finding a pair of
shoes becomes a problem,” said Superintendent C. “On the weekends, you have personal
responsibilities and you really do not have time to go shopping.” There is a constant
push and pull between their two roles and the responsibilities associated with those roles.
As a result, female superintendents struggle to find time to do it all. In addition to time
and responsibility, internal and external barriers posed challenges to these women; they
are discussed in the next section.
Internal and External Barriers
Shakeshaft (1989) has described internal barriers as “those that can be overcome
by individual change” (p. 82). External barriers such as gender stereotyping and
socialization have created internal barriers for women such as feelings of guilt and regret.
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Young and McCleod (2001) have supported the argument that gender role stereotyping
and socialization have made women less likely than men to pursue positions in
leadership. Guilt, regret, and stereotyping are internal and external barriers that these
women had faced in their careers while attempting to balance work and life. Feelings of
guilt and regret were previously addressed as a result of not finding time due to the
enormous amounts of responsibilities that these participants held. Stereotyping was an
external barrier Superintendent C had faced growing up and on the job.
Superintendent C had encountered situations where both her gender and ethnicity
had created challenges for her both internally and externally. As a Latina, she had
confronted external barriers that had temporarily caused her to change her course as she
aspired to go to college. She explained:
I went to a Catholic High School. My counselor called me in and asked what I
wanted to do. I told her I wanted to go to college, and she told me that I was not
college material. That was a terrible feeling of an adult having so much power
over you, and a person of the cloth. I never told my parents what anyone said to
me, I just told them I changed my mind and wanted to go to technical school to be
a dental assistant. I was in class for about a week when I realized I don’t know
what the heck I am doing here.

External barriers such as gender stereotyping that have been discussed heavily in
the literature were noted by participants, however, not as prevalent as Superintendent C
(Baumgartner &Schneider, 2010; Bolman & Deal, 2008). Society conditions women to
believe they are not as capable as men in leading organizations (Bell & Chase, 1993).
Some men find it very difficult to deal with strong, intelligent women. Superintendent C
described situations she had dealt with as a new principal:
Being young and Latina was a challenge as a principal. In a field that was
predominately male, I heard some of the remarks. I even heard I was selected
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because I wear a skirt. The female thing comes up a lot. I was young and wanted
to be taken seriously. There were enough older site principals who would make an
issue of it, but I never fed into it, responded to it; I just did my job. I felt I had to
do it better than everyone else. I once worked with another female principal that
came in from the outside. She was smart and had other perspectives and
experiences. The other male principals hated her. At my first principals’
meeting, my superintendent asked my opinion on something. When he left the
room, a male principal leaned across the table and said to me, “You don’t have
anything to say until you have been in this job at least seven years.”

As mentioned in Chapter Two, females have faced these gender issues with men.
One might think that this issue would lead females to support other females, but that is
not always the case. Being female can cause a problem with other female leaders. The
research has shown that many successful women exclude other women, a phenomenon
known as the “Queen Bee Syndrome” (Searby & Tripses, 2006). Researchers have found
that some women feel threatened by other women, and some are simply too busy to help
other women. Superintendent C described what she had seen among women:
People don’t always recognize it or talk about it, but it’s there. There is a division
with women. You know, sometimes we talk about the “good old boys”, and there
were “good old boys” here for a long time. Well, there are “good old girls” as
well. There’s great envy and jealousy, and it’s very unfortunate.

She continued to describe these women as unapproachable, not trustworthy, and
ambitious in a way that is unhealthy for others in their path. She explained her
experiences with these types of women:
I have known or been aware of “Queen Bees” who have shared trials and
tribulations of others that have confided in; or, used the confidence that others
have given them and turned the information into a perceived weakness that gets
shared when these women are seeking to move into different positions.

Instead of supporting each other, these “Queen Bees” are found to be a challenge for
women seeking to obtain leadership positions.
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Being Latina has also posed difficult situations for Superintendent C. “In our
community, we’re predominately Latino; however, I have had Latinos say to my face that
there are just too many Mexicans here!” she explained. “As superintendent, you find
yourself maneuvering through the sexism and the racism.”
Superintendent C also suggested that this idea of balance should not just focus
exclusively on married people or people with children. “Everyone deserves a life
whether you’re single, whether you’re married, or whatever,” she said. “No one has the
right to think that someone else doesn’t have any other obligations because they are
single or they do not have children.” She stated that everyone’s life is unique, even
though it may not be the “typical” life defined by society.
Analysis and Discussion for Research Question One
During the data analysis process of Research Question One, challenges that
women leaders have faced while balancing work and life were uncovered; among them
were lack of time, effects on the mind and body caused by an enormous amount of
responsibility, and internal and external barriers such as feelings of guilt, regret, and
gender stereotypes.
A major theme that emerged in this chapter for all three superintendents was the
lack of time for family, friends, and themselves which was created by the many
responsibilities they held. It was evident that this lack of time was the largest barrier to
finding the balance they were seeking, and had often resulted in feelings of regret and
guilt. There simply are not enough hours in a day to do it all, even though society still
has that expectation of women. Furthermore, the responsibilities that these
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superintendents inherited with both work and family posed challenges to finding the
necessary time to balance work and life. Brunner and Grogan (2007) found that women
superintendents experienced more stress than male superintendents because managing
time between work and family is a challenge. These responsibilities have caused stress
and exhaustion—and many sleepless nights. One of the superintendents mentioned that
no one talked about the mental strain the job had on a person, and that the research had
only touched on the topic. In addition, these women struggled with their responsibilities
at home as well as with the responsibility they felt as role models for other women. It is
imperative that women in leadership positions decry the traditional expectations that have
been placed on them by society in order to alleviate their own expectations. In addition,
through the implementation of support systems and strategies, women can overcome
many of these challenges.
Internal and external barriers were also an emergent theme, focusing on feelings
of guilt, regret, and gender stereotyping. Although, cumulatively, participants witnessed
traditional stereotyping in their careers, two superintendents never felt their gender had
been an obstacle for them. The fact that only one of the superintendents had truly
encountered some of the traditional barriers that the literature discussed raises the
question as to whether gender is the barrier that it once was. One superintendent had
seen evidence of gender stereotyping throughout her career and had faced many
challenges as a Latina. She had even witnessed evidence of the “Queen Bee” syndrome.
Baumgartner and Schneider (2008) found that women simply believed that they
were required to choose between work and family; they could not do both. This belief
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was evident in the fact that only one in five public school superintendents is a woman
(Gordon & Galloway, 2008). However, the fact that the number of women entering
educational leadership positions is increasing could be a sign that traditional external
barriers are diminishing in society, and that women do not necessarily have to choose
between both domains. Some of the traditional barriers are not the challenges they once
were—and not all women feel that their gender has been a barrier. Most concerning is
the fact that the majority of data collected in this study reflected the daily challenges that
women faced while maintaining balance. However, in the end, all three participants
found ways to find success by overcoming those challenges.
Although women may always face challenges while balancing work and life,
identifying current challenges allows women to know what to expect so they can plan
ahead. The next section identifies support systems that need to be in place for women to
succeed in finding the balance they seek.
Research Question Two Results: Support Systems

Research Question Two asked: “What types of support do female superintendents
perceive to be helpful in achieving balance in work and family life?” To answer this
research question, the following section will analyze the support systems that these three
female superintendents used as they tried to balance work and life.
According to the research, both personal and professional support systems are
necessary for both men and women to balance work and life while maintaining
educational leadership positions (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Cheung & Halpern,
2010; Myers & Ginsberg, 1994). Although more and more women are being seen in
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leadership roles, women continue to be the providers of daily necessities for their
children; in essence, they do the “lion’s share of parenting work” regardless of their work
load (Dufur et al., 2010). In this study, all three superintendents had both personal and
professional support systems in place. Personal support came from spouses and family.
Professional support came from a strong cabinet, assistants, networks, and mentors.
Spouse and Family Support Makes All the Difference
Myers and Ginsberg’s (1994) qualitative study found that males received more
support from spouses than females in the area of childcare, emotional support, household
assistance, and moral support. Women received almost no support from their husbands
in the area of childcare. Due to the lack of support at home, Myers and Ginsberg (1994)
described women as experiencing “role overload,” which conflicts with family
responsibilities and affects many marriages. Like much of the other research, women in
Myers and Ginsberg’s (1994) study identified family and home responsibilities as
barriers to women’s advancement in education. Notably, however, in this study, all three
of the superintendents encountered just the opposite. In fact, they all attributed their
success to extremely supportive husbands. Cumulatively, their spouses helped with
childcare, getting kids to and from school, grocery shopping, and even cooking. “I’m
really lucky because my husband is a partner,” explained Superintendent B. “I’m very
lucky to have a husband that is involved in everything.” It was evident in the referral
interviews that the husbands did not mind taking on duties that have been traditionally
considered “woman’s work.” All three husbands stated they enjoy taking their kids to
school and sporting events, and even enjoyed cooking. Superintendent B’s husband
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described his duties as “very busy, but very rewarding and productive.” The couples
worked as equal partners sharing responsibilities at home.
According to Superintendent C, each person in a couple has to do his or her part
to make things work. “It takes both of you to make sure everybody gets done what they
need to get done, because you are a team and you have to work together,” she said.
Superintendent C elaborated on the support she gets from her husband:
My husband is absolutely wonderful. He is a great supporter, and he is very good
at instilling confidence in me when I think there’s none left. He’s also good at
giving me opportunities to see things from another perspective. Even when I
think that he doesn’t know what he’s talking about, he doesn’t get upset.

In addition to helping with the day-to-day activities, these women received
encouragement and praise from their husbands. Superintendent A explained:
I’m very fortunate because he’s an educator also; he’s a principal. So he was the
one who really encouraged me to take this job, and he really understood the time
that I needed to spend at work and he supports me here. He’s really proud of
what I am doing.

In his interview, Superintendent A’s husband expressed his support. “I’m supportive and
flexible, and I encourage her,” he said. “That allows her to do the job she needs to do.”
It was evident that the support these participants received from their husbands was
essential to their finding a work-life balance as superintendents. However, a system of
support from several people is key to finding success at balance (Baumgartner &
Schneider, 2010).
In addition to spousal support, all three women had had additional support from
family members, such as grandparents and older children, through the years. At times,
these couples had to rely on their families for things such as babysitting, doing pick-up
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from school, or even cooking a meal when necessary. All three superintendents had
relatives who lived close whom they knew they could call on when necessary.
Additionally, older children in the home served as a part of the support system because
they, too, could pick up extra duties at home. In addition, the older children understood
their mother’s work obligations, and the participants noted that this support helped to
alleviate the sense of guilt they sometimes experience. Personal support systems helped
these superintendents balance, but not without the combination of the professional
support systems they had in place.
Professional Support Systems
Research has indicated that professional support systems are necessary for both
genders to find success in work and life (Myers & Ginsberg, 1994). Professional support
systems can be found in many places in the education arena, and all three case studies
tapped into many of these systems. All three superintendents discussed the importance of
having a strong, trustworthy cabinet and assistant, a network of colleagues, and mentors.
Strong Cabinet and Assistant. Having a competent, trustworthy cabinet allowed
all three of these superintendents the opportunity to be home with their families when
they were needed. “I have a wonderful staff, so I have tons and tons of support,”
explained Superintendent B. She described her cabinet:
I will tell you that my cabinet, all three of them, are my best friends. They have
the same work ethic, and they work the same as I do. I try to hire people better
than myself, and they are brilliant. They’re not just my team, they are my sisters,
and I love them dearly. They are a huge support.

Similarly, Superintendent A also relied heavily on her assistant and her cabinet:

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I have a wonderful assistant that helps run the entire educational services
department since we don’t have anyone in that position currently. She is my
trusted person, and she is dynamic. There are just three of us in cabinet. We are
very collaborative and work very closely together.

When her mother was dying, Superintendent C was confident that the district was in good
hands, which allowed her to spend much-needed time with her mother during the last
weeks of her life. “I have tremendous confidence in them (cabinet), and my secretary, I
trust perfectly,” she said. “They know exactly what needs to be done, and if there is an
emergency, they’ll call me.” Having people who were competent and trustworthy at the
office allowed her to find balance between work and life during a family crisis, without
having to worry that everything would fall apart at the district. Cumulatively, the
participants credited their colleagues and assistants for being instrumental in their ability
to be successful at work.
Networking. Another professional support system that helped all three women in
this study find balance in work and life was networking. Although female role models,
mentors, and networks are proven support systems that have a powerful impact on
women balancing work and life, they seem to be lacking in the field of education
(Wrushen & Sherman, 2008). However, all three of these women found plenty of
networking support from both female and male educators.
All three superintendents stressed the importance of building a network of people
they could talk with and trust. These women had networks comprised of just women, but
they also benefitted from men in the educational field. Superintendent C felt that a
network was essential:
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You need to be able to talk to people. As a superintendent, you need to be able to
find someone to consult with, someone who understands the role and the job.
There have been a few superintendents that have extended a hand to me, both
male and female. You have to find people that you connect with, can really trust,
and can be candid with.

Superintendent A also described her experiences with networks:

You get a lot of perspective from men, but the best for me are the women groups
that we work with. We have the opportunity to talk to others about the same
kinds of things, and put our heads together. It’s exciting. We go to lunch and just
talk. It’s nice to have the support.

Additionally, Superintendent A found support from the network of friends she had
developed at work. “My friendships are now more work related,” she said. “My social
circle right now is the people at work, and it’s not totally social because you’re always
working on things, great things.”
Superintendent B had a huge network that she relies on: “I have such a network of
people I can call,” she explained. “I learn from everybody and I am so lucky to have
these friendships.” She explained that she stays in touch with many people once she has
met them, interacted with them, or worked with them. “Everyone influences me, and I
learn from them all,” she expressed. These networks of friends and colleagues were a
critical support system for all three superintendents as they attempted to balance work
and life.
Mentors. In addition to networking, having a mentor or a coach had been a
support system for all three superintendents. Several studies identified mentorship as a
necessary professional support system (Myers & Ginsberg, 1994). Mentors can assist in
derailing role overload by providing leaders with a support system and a mechanism for
collaborating on ideas (Whitaker, 1996). Mentors included colleagues, supervisors,
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professors, or others who had knowledge about the organization. All three
superintendents in this study were mentored and continue to be mentored. When they
were in difficult situations that required a lot of time and thought, these women sought
and received support from their mentors. It has been illustrated earlier in this chapter that
superintendents have many responsibilities that can be a mental strain on them, which
makes balancing difficult. Mentors have helped with limiting these situations, in many
cases diminishing them altogether. The superintendents were better prepared, allowing
them to achieve balance in their lives. It is also important to note that all three of these
women discussed being mentored by men as well as by women. They noted that gender
did not matter when seeking a mentor; experience was what mattered.
Superintendent C was encouraged by a male superintendent, but was also
mentored by a fellow female principal as well as a female board member. Superintendent
C recalled learning from this board member:
The Board was mostly men when she came on. I watched her through the years,
and the way she handled herself, the way she spoke to us, and she told us some
very difficult things that none of us really wanted to hear about student
achievement. She handled herself with dignity and grace. I really valued her.

Superintendent C felt that talking to mentors and coaches gave her opportunities to think
and plan ahead:
It doesn’t matter how much training you have had and how much experience you
had, we all benefit from coaching. This can help us think through planning how
to respond to situations from those that have experienced it. It’s important, and I
listen to what people say. I’ve written down phrases that people have said
because I liked how they said it. I recognize that there are skills I am lacking.

Superintendent A had a mentor seek her out. “He helped me from the onset; he
would be pretty aggressive about making sure I called him and that we talked,” explained
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Superintendent A. “He was like a coach, and he just wanted to help me.” Additionally,
she had received support from another female superintendent in a nearby district during
her first years as superintendent. This support allowed her to find success at work which
allowed her more quality time at home.
Although Superintendent B had a large network of both males and females from
whom she had gained insight, she felt she had been truly mentored by the female
superintendent she had worked with for many years. “She was my biggest cheerleader,
and she had confidence in me when no one else did.” This relationship was both
professional and personal to Superintendent B. This mentor had hired her back to the
district as an assistant superintendent when Superintendent B had taken time off to be
with her young son. Other candidates were more qualified, but this mentor believed in her
colleague and knew that she had the skills to be a successful district office employee.
This support system was key to her finding success at work. The right mentors can open
new doors and provide new opportunities for women.
Analysis and Discussion for Research Question Two
During the data analysis of Research Question Two, the support that
superintendents have used to balance work and life are aligned with many elements of the
support systems grounded in the literature reviewed in Chapter Two, except spouse.
Spouse and family, colleagues, assistants, networks, and mentors have been identified as
essential support systems to women leaders balancing work and life. Much of the data
showed the importance of support systems for female superintendents finding balance in
work and life. Those support systems were found both at home and at work.
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A theme of personal support systems emerged during analysis of the research
question. Ultimately, the foundation of personal support came from the husbands and
was further supported by family. In fact, the participants were able to choose anyone for
the referral interview, yet all three women chose their husbands. According to the
research, males receive more support from spouses than females in the area of childcare,
emotional support, household assistance, and moral support. Women received almost no
support from their husbands in the area of childcare (Myers & Ginsberg, 1994). Contrary
to what the research has shown, all three of these women received much of their support
from their spouses. In fact, all three women stressed that their husbands were their
biggest support system. These husbands took on many household and childcare
responsibilities as well as providing emotional support for their wives, which was
essential to their finding balance.
Professional support came from a strong cabinet, assistants, networks, mentors,
and coaches. Networks and mentors have been addressed in research as necessities for
finding success, but these women found them to be necessary to finding balance in their
lives as well. Being able to network with women who were going through the same
things as well as being mentored by women who had walked in their shoes helped them
validate their struggles and find success. Mentoring and networking allowed these
women to gain insight and strategies that served them in their day-to-day lives.
Additionally, strong cabinet members and assistants gave support that allowed these
women to tend to family when they needed to. In the end, family comes first for all three
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women, and knowing the work can be handled in their absence made it easier to tend to
family needs when necessary.
Personal support systems at home allowed these superintendents to focus on the
responsibilities they had at work; the professional support systems allowed all three
women to focus on their family responsibilities as well. Having both personal and
professional support systems allowed these women to find the balance they sought
without having to choose between the two domains. Additionally, all three
superintendents had implemented strategies to assist them in balancing work and life.
These strategies will be addressed in the next section.
Research Question Three Results: Strategies
Research Question Three asked: “What strategies do female superintendents
employ to balance work and family life?” To answer this research question, the
following section will analyze the strategies that these three female superintendents used
to balance work and life; the section will end with an analysis of the results.
Many positions of leadership cause women to make tough choices involving
family and balancing personal obligations (Gordon & Galloway, 2008). The stress of
balancing work and life causes work-family conflict, which has caused women to quit
their jobs or even end their marriages. However, with support systems in place and
useful strategies being utilized, women can decrease work-family conflict and find
success in balancing both domains. Resoundingly, consistent with literature (Cheung &
Halpern, 2010; Perrewe & Hochwarter, 2001), the data provided evidence of their use of
strategies used to navigate their work-life obligations. All three women in this study had
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strategies in place that helped them both at work and home and assisted them in finding
balance. These strategies fall into four themes: defining balance as a family, planning,
relationship building, and staying healthy. The combination of strategies identified
assisted participants to navigate through the challenges and promulgate the balance
necessary to meet the needs at work and home.
Defining Balance as a Family
These three case studies provided insight into the efforts of female
superintendents attempting to balance work and life. How one defined balance as a
family was an additional strategy evidenced in the data.
All three superintendents described balance a little differently, but what was
consistent among all three was that balance is not the same for everyone. All three
participants described balance as “whatever works for an individual and their family.”
Superintendent B described why her balance worked for her:
I think I’m meeting my work life balance because it works for me. But, I don’t
think it always works for my husband or my family. I think you’d get a different
answer from him and my kids. I don’t know that they would tell you that; I think
is what they would tell you is that I work absolutely too much or that’s all I do.
That’s all mom does is work. As a matter of fact, that’s why they do not want to
be educators; they want to be lawyers. However, they also know how much I love
it. I don’t think they regret or resent anything. It works for us.

In his interview, Superintendent B’s husband expressed that he had no doubt where his
wife’s priorities lay. When asked about what mattered most to her, he replied, “Her
family, her husband and her children, I have no doubt.” Superintendent C offered this
advice on balance to her principals:
You have to have a balanced life, and I talk to my principals about having a
balanced life. But, sometimes it’s not in balance, and the best you can do is to
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think about when it’s going to be back in balance, and it will. This job should
never cost you your family. I expect my principals to do a really good job at
work, but I also realize that they are people and they have lives too.

Each of these women defined balance for themselves and for what worked for their
families. They did not worry about what other people thought, only about what worked
for them. This attitude, in itself, is a strategy.
Notably, all three superintendents had low opinions of whether they were actually
finding success at balance; however, the facts showed that they were finding success both
at work and home. They had been superintendents for several years and, at the time of
their interviews, their boards were extremely supportive of the work they were doing—
even during these challenging times. Superintendent C had won the Los Angeles County
Bilingual Director’s Administrator of the Year award and Pepperdine University’s
Superintendent of the Year award. All three women were happily married, and had been
for many years. In fact, all three husbands spoke extremely well of their wives during the
interviews. They were proud of them at home and at their work endeavors. Although
they faced difficulties at times, all three women managed to play active roles in the lives
of their children and carved out a little personal time. Finding success at both work and
home leads to balance. All three women expressed happiness and fulfillment in their
lives, and their husbands were a contributing factor.
All three women were married to leaders themselves—two of them in the field of
education. One husband was a principal, one a dean, and another a judge. Leadership
had been instilled and encouraged in their homes, thus creating a support system instead
of a barrier, which has been traditionally found by women in leadership positions. “I’m
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married to a leader,” said Superintendent B. “He’s a leader in every respect, so I’ve
learned a lot from him.” In his interview, the husband said the exact same thing about his
wife.
In the end, all three women absolutely loved what they did each and every day
and felt they were doing their very best; however, there is no magic formula for balance.
They all felt the need to improve and continue to search for even better ways to balance
both work and life. Superintendent A explained her continued frustration in her activity
log:
I am very lucky to have my husband! He consistently supports me and is there for
our family when I am working. I don’t like the fact that my personal life outside
of work has to be scheduled and that my work often takes priority. But, I love
this job. I need to find ways to better balance work and life.

As these women search for better ways to balance, careful planning has been found to be
a key strategy.
Planning
It was evident that planning was essential to superintendents balancing their work
and home responsibilities. Strategies that fall under the theme of planning are:
organizing, prioritizing, strategizing, and integrating work and family. Essentially,
women need the ability to multitask. Planning requires organizational skills. All three
superintendents stressed the necessity of having a schedule and of being extremely
organized at home and at work—skills all three women had mastered.
With all of the daily events that happen, these women had to be extremely
organized. Even their husbands recognized their organizational skills. “She’s very
organized at work and at home,” explained the husband of Superintendent B. “She’s a
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great strategist.” Likewise, the husband of Superintendent A described his wife as being
“very organized, flexible, calm, and methodical.” He felt that these skills contributed to
his wife’s success at work and home in terms of balancing the two. These superintendents
left nothing to chance as they planned their days. However, the positions they held also
required flexibility, as they never knew what might occur on a given day at work or at
home. They made it a point always to be prepared and scheduling assisted them with this
task.
Part of scheduling is knowing how to prioritize between your professional life and
your personal life; as Superintendent B explained:
You need to know what you value, and that’s family. It would be really easy for
me to spend all night at work if I didn’t know how important it was just to be
around for the kids. So, a lot of times, I’ll just pick up the briefcase and take it
home. I know the importance of being at home.

In her activity log, Superintendent B described one dilemma in which she chose her son
over work after she had been out four late nights at the office and all day Saturday:
On Sunday, I was invited by a school board member to attend a children’s
performance at her church. My secretary is in charge of the performance and the
kids performing are all from our schools. I also know that I have a school board
dinner on Monday night that will keep me out late again. My son has a double
header baseball game in Pasadena. The decision to miss the performance to
watch my son play is an easy one. Both the school board member and my
secretary were very understanding.

In their activity logs, all three superintendents faced dilemmas like the one above,
in which they had to assess the importance of events taking place at work and at home.
They had to prioritize each event and, in some cases, make very difficult decisions.
Strategizing was also evident in all three superintendents’ quest for balance. The
participants had schedules, lists, calendars, and days planned from start to finish. They
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strategized everything from how their day is planned, how they multitask, and how they
can “do it all.” Again, they also expressed the need for flexibility. “I have my day pretty
much planned; however, anything can happen,” said Superintendent A. She expressed
that the initial planning and strategizing alleviated the stress created when things do not
go as planned which helped her to balance both work and life.
These women even strategized around the house figuring out ways to multitask in
any way possible. Having been described as “being able to do it all” by her family
members, Superintendent C explained:
If I’m going to go upstairs, I think, what are seven things I can do in this hallway
to the top of the stairs? You have to know how to juggle. You do what you have
to do. For instance, I have the responsibility of making the tamales for Christmas
Eve since my mother passed away. Due to time constraints, I make them the
weekend of Thanksgiving and then freeze them. That’s how it fits into my
schedule. That’s how I balance.

In addition to organizing, prioritizing, and strategizing, these women found that
they could benefit from integrating their work and family. Recent research has shown
that more women are integrating their work with family when appropriate (Cheung &
Halpern, 2010). All three superintendents utilized this strategy throughout their careers.
Husbands, children, and parents had attended work functions. “Where I can, I strike a
good balance between work and family,” said Superintendent C. “You can have one flow
into the other.” In her activity log, she recalled inviting her son to exercise with her
because she had not seen him very much during the week. She knew she needed to see
him, but that she also needed the time to exercise. Integrating them both was a strategy
that allowed her to find balance in her day.
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As mentioned above, all three superintendents had found strategies that worked
for them both in the work environment as well as at home. Organizing, prioritizing, and
strategizing are key strategies for finding balance, and can be done with schedules, lists,
and calendars. Planning ahead, being flexible, multitasking, and integrating work with
family were additional strategies found in this study. The next section will focus on
workplace strategies with a strong emphasis on relationship building.
Building Relationships
Bolman and Deal (2008) have centralized their work on leadership around a four-
frame model: structural, political, symbolic, and human resource. The Human Resources
Frame emphasizes relationships. A human resources leader sees the organization as a
family, and focuses on the needs, feelings, prejudices, skills, and limitations of the
individuals in it. All three superintendents, as well as their husbands, discussed
relationships at length. As in much of the research, relationships with the people they
worked with came up in discussions of leadership. Additionally, relationships came up in
conversations on mentoring, networking, strategies, and work environment. In this study,
relationship building was a critical strategy used at work by all three women—much
more so than the research addresses.
All three superintendents believed that building relationships as a leader created a
positive work environment for others as well as for themselves. In order to achieve this
positive work environment, they had implemented practices such as personally greeting
every employee in the morning and getting to know their employees. Superintendent B
felt that such encounters were a critical piece of being a leader:
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The strength of my leadership is that people see me as a real person. Everyone in
this district knows my family. That’s what makes me real and credible. Being a
parent of five is part of my leadership. It is who I am. Five most important words
in the world are thank you and I love you. How could anything be more powerful
than when it is sincerely said or genuinely supported by actions?

Superintendent B’s husband also saw the skill of relationship building as a strength and
strategy:
She’s a caring leader. She has qualities that enhance the very difficult cutting
edge decisions that could have blown up in her face, but they didn’t because she
spent hours and hours building those relationships and trust. And that is how I
perceive her everywhere she goes.

In addition, these women strategized to ensure that the right people were in place
in the work environment. “You need to get the right people in the right seats,” explained
Superintendent A. “I keep people that think in a positive way who are confident,
respectful, supportive, and have positive attitudes.” As mentioned previously in this
chapter, having good people who can be trusted is also essential to an effective support
system. Building relationships is key to knowing you can trust the employees.
The strategy of relationship building had created positive work environments for
these women, allowing them to form cabinets and hire assistants with faith and
confidence. Through distributive leadership, these women were able to entrust and
delegate many tasks to their leadership teams, which served their efforts to find balance.
Superintendent A had been empowering her staff for two years, and made distributive
leadership the theme for her district’s leadership retreat the past summer. Instilling
confidence and distributing duties had allowed these superintendents to attend to family
issues when needed, even for great lengths of time. All three superintendents stated that
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although they found it difficult to be away from work, they had all experienced times
when they needed to be home and knew their districts were in good hands.
In addition to workplace strategies, all three women discussed the importance of
finding time for themselves. Strategies for doing so assisted them in their quest for
balance and keeping healthy.
Mental and Physical Health
Although, finding the time to serve one’s personal well-being can be difficult,
cumulatively, the participants made the time to implement this as a strategy to work-life
balance. All three superintendents stressed the importance of finding time for themselves
and doing what they love. “You need to do what ever you can to stay healthy, both
physically and mentally, because there are people depending on you, both personally and
professionally,” explained Superintendent C. Finding time for this commitment is
important to ensuring one’s health.
It was evident that missing family events was, at times, necessary to carving out
time for themselves. In her activity journal, Superintendent B wrote about missing a
professional football game that her entire family attended. She chose to stay home and
work 12 hours straight on a Sunday. Although her family would have liked her to have
attended, she saw this time as an opportunity to catch up on work. As a result, she felt
very productive; the extra time alone had eased her stress, which is essential to a healthy
mind.
Superintendent A calendars one Friday every month to take a personal day. “I get
my nails and hair done regularly, and a facial about four times a year,” she said. “It’s my
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relaxing time. It’s not a lot of time, but I do that for myself.” However, she wrote in her
activity journal about the difficulty of keeping these Fridays blocked out. “It would be so
easy for me to give up my day to accommodate the schedules of others,” she wrote.
“However, I am holding strong and keeping my calendar clear.” That is the only way to
overcome the challenge of finding time to stay healthy.
Many of the activities these women liked to do were simple in nature, such as
reading, decorating, gardening, and just relaxing with family. One superintendent even
identified work as one of those activities. Superintendent B spent her down time at their
beach house and at her children’s sporting events. Although she absolutely made time
for all of her children’s events, she stated that she truly loved to spend her down time on
work. “Like I said before, the honest to God’s truth, whether it’s bad, healthy or not, I
can’t help it, work is my favorite thing to do,” she explained. “It does consume me, but I
love that it consumes me.”
Enjoying their jobs was posited by all three superintendents as important to
staying healthy and balancing. Superintendent B offered this advice:
Love what you do. I will tell you, from the day I started teaching I knew there
was never anything else for me. There is probably nothing I like better than work.
Family and work, those are the two things I love the most and have to balance.
I’m one of the luckiest people in the world.

In addition, all three women acknowledged the importance of eating right and at
the right times of the day; however, they all agreed that this commitment was tough and
that they weren’t all doing it very well on a daily basis. As mentioned previously, one
superintendent discussed eating nuts and skipping lunch on many occasions.
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Superintendent C stressed the important of exercise as one of the strategies for both mind
and body:
I get up at 5:00 am, and I can be at the gym at 5:15. I do it five days a week. I
need that just for stimulation, and I also think it makes for a healthy mind. If you
get some form of exercise it just activates lots of things in your body. I get that
from my dad. When I was a principal, I’d get to work by 6:15, and I finally had to
put that aside. You just have to give something a little, and I really need the
exercise.

For many women, activities like exercising, reading, and relaxing are replaced by
household responsibilities such as cooking, cleaning, and childcare, making balance
difficult to find. In order for these women to find time for themselves as well as for their
families, they had another resource: out-sourcing. All three superintendents had hired
housecleaners and/or nannies to assist them through the years. At the time of this study,
all three had housecleaners who came anywhere from every other week to twice a week.
This support allowed them to spend more time with their families, to do a relaxing
activity, or to exercise when at home—versus cleaning the house, which could take
hours. This strategy has assisted the participants in finding balance at work and home,
but cumulatively, participants noted, in the end, the strategies they used worked for their
families which made them feel successful.
It is important to point out a strategy not evident in this study: district policies and
contractual agreements about vacation time. After a thorough analysis of all three
superintendent interviews and their district’s board policies for employee leave and
vacation benefits, this researcher could clearly see that these women chose not to use the
policies as a strategy to balance work and life. All three districts had policies aligned
with California Education Code laws, which gave them the right to family care and
103
medical leave. As superintendents, they knew they had that right, but again, they
prioritized when to utilize it. Vacation days and sick leave were negotiated into their
contracts. Consistent with Education Code, their sick leave could be carried over, but
only some vacation days. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, none of the
superintendents had utilized many of their vacation days. Superintendent C expressed
that she had negotiated many days into her contract; however, she lost them because she
just could not take that much time off from the job.
Analysis and Discussion for Research Question Three
Throughout the study, participants were intentional in their decisions and efforts
to balance both work and home. Studies in the past decade have offered strategies and
support systems that have helped women in their struggle to find balance (Hansen, 1991;
Gordon & Galloway, 2008). The participants in this study have found success with some
of these strategies—such as taking advantage of a supporting family (spouse) and
networking; however, they have added new strategies.
Defining balance for self and family is critical. Society has placed certain
expectations on women, such as the assumption that women “take care” and men “take
charge” (Northouse, 2007). Once participants were able to decry the need to meet
society’s expectations of a working mother or matched the stereotype of “taking care,”
they were able to focus on what worked for their families. Balance can only be achieved
if both the woman and her family are happy with the routine within their family structure,
and defining balance within that family structure is critical.
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Once balance has been defined, women can implement additional strategies to
help them find success. It was evident that with all of the responsibilities these
superintendents had at work, and the responsibilities at home, careful and strategic
planning was essential to finding a balance between the two. Organizing days with the
use of calendars, prioritizing events, and strategizing every move can make tasks easier
and alleviate unnecessary stress at work and home.
Furthermore, superintendents need to know whom to trust, and whom to count on
at work, and this network can be achieved through relationship building. In turn, when
employees are happy and work in a positive climate, they tend to work harder and be
supportive of the superintendent—thus, allowing the superintendent to get the job done
and find success at work.
Lastly, staying healthy, both mentally and physically, and simply loving the job
were additional factors. Women face competing values at work and home, which creates
frustration and stress (Perrewe & Hochwarter, 2001). Many times, this stress affects the
health of these individuals. Although it is a struggle for women, finding time for
themselves is an essential strategy to balancing both work and life. Exercising, eating
right, and simply enjoying the things one loves to do can alleviate undue stress that
otherwise affects the mind and body. Not finding the time to maintain health can lead to
resentment about responsibilities at home and to job dissatisfaction.
The findings suggested that work-life obligations aligned through the use of
strategies; however, at times, they still collided. The ability to be flexible and navigate
back towards balance was essential to finding the balance needed to be successful. Along
105
with previously identified strategies presented in the literature, these newly identified
strategies can assist women seeking balance in both work and life, decreasing the number
of women who find themselves in situations where they have to choose between the two.
The result will be an increase in the number of women in leadership positions in the field
of education.
Summary of Findings
This chapter provided the results of this study’s completed research, as well as
detailed analysis and discussion of the three research questions based on the literature
discussed earlier in the study. The results offered in this study were based on multiple
data sources, interviews, observations, activity logs, and artifacts, which served to
reinforce the validity of the data. A summary of the findings and implications for
practice are presented in the next chapter, as are recommendations for further research.

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CHAPTER FIVE
IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION

Introduction
There has been some evidence of women in educational leadership positions
finding success in balancing work and family life; however, women overwhelmingly
continue to struggle finding a balance. Women have had to overcome challenges such as
societal expectations and long-embedded social roles and gender stereotypes. In
addition, research has identified family and home responsibilities as barriers to women
achieving leadership positions in education as well as the cause of work-family conflict
(Morris, 2002; Young & McCleod, 2001).
Women dominate the teaching profession numerically; however, they currently
fill only 18% of the superintendent positions in this country (Brunner & Grogan, 2007).
This statistic is evidence that women are still being seen through the traditional lens that
has historically favored men (Grogan, 1997). In addition, responsibilities such as
educational administration, partnering, mothering, and homemaking require large
investments of time, resulting in elevated stress levels and making it very difficult for
superintendents to balance both domains (Grogan, 1996).
Although little research has studied women in educational leadership roles
balancing work and family life, some women are finding success with balance; however,
what remains unclear are the support systems and strategies that assist them in finding
and maintaining balance among all domains. The research has begun to move past
107
gender issues to focus on the leadership skills, support systems, and strategies that need
to be in place for women to succeed; however, women still struggle to maintain a balance
between work and family.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this research was to identify support systems and
strategies that have allowed women in leadership positions, specifically superintendents,
to maintain balance in work and life. The secondary purpose of the study was to identify
the challenges and barriers that have prevented women from achieving leadership
positions in education while seeking to balance the obligations of work and family life.
This valuable information can better prepare women as they aspire to leadership positions
and defy societal expectations by finding success in both career and family.
The findings presented in this study were developed and presented by reviewing
the data collected. Several key findings resulted from this study on female
superintendents balancing work and life and are noteworthy.
This study aimed to answer the following research questions:
1. What challenges do female superintendents face in balancing work and family
life?
2. What types of support do female superintendents perceive to be helpful in
achieving balance in work and family life?
3. What strategies do female superintendents employ to balance work and family
life?
108
This chapter contains a summary of key findings related to the literature, implications for
practice, recommendations for future research, and concluding remarks.
Summary of Findings Related to How Female Superintendents Balance
The purpose of this section is to synthesize the findings after analysis of the data
to elaborate on the meaning of the study. This qualitative study of three female
superintendents provided an opportunity to add to the minimal research on females
leading our school system, the challenges they encounter, and the support systems and
strategies that allow them to balance work and life. Several tools were utilized to
investigate these superintendents, such as participant interviews, referral interviews,
activity logs, observations, and various artifacts, including resumes, job descriptions, and
work policies related to the work-life balance, providing the researcher evidence of
support systems and strategies, as well as offering information about the prevailing
challenges. Triangulation strengthened the study by providing a rich variety of
methodological combinations with which the researcher could verify results of the
interviews. Substantial evidence of challenges, support systems, and strategies emerged
from all three case studies; however, three of them substantially made an impact and
allowed each of these women to have a sense of balance in their lives. First, defining
balance for oneself and family is the initial step towards seeking balance. Women, in
collaboration with their family, need to understand what balance looks like and what
works for them as opposed to society’s definition of balance. Furthermore, having a
partnership with a spouse who assists with the daily family responsibilities such as
childcare, cooking, and cleaning is an essential support system which deifies the literature
109
(Myers and Ginsberg, 1994). Finally, organizing and prioritizing time allowed each of
these women to have a sense of balance in their lives.
All three participants expressed that they continued to seek balance between work
and life and, at times, did not feel that they did an acceptable job balancing the two.
Evidence supports the assumption that these superintendents may not be meeting
society’s expectations or fitting its definition of balance; however, they were meeting
their own definitions of balance by meeting the needs of their own families. In the end,
that was all that mattered to them. Internally, the participants still feel like they have to
“do it all” such as cooking, cleaning, childcare, and work responsibilities because society
has expected that of them for so many years. Women must let go of what others believe
they should do and define balance in collaboration with their own families. No one
definition of balance exists; each woman needs to define it for herself.
Furthermore, it is essential for women to find support at work and at home.
Although support can come from older children, extended family, colleagues, assistants,
and networks, the biggest support is found in a partner which is contrary to what the
research has stated. Myers and Ginsberg’s (1994) qualitative study found that women
received almost no support from their husbands in the area of childcare. In addition,
women in their study identified family and home responsibilities as barriers to their
advancement in leadership. In this study, all three women stressed that their husbands
were their biggest support system, and that they could not do the job without this
partnership. Their husbands took on many household and childcare responsibilities as
well as provided emotional support for their wives. No matter the work demands,
110
whether it was late night or early morning meetings or working from the house, all three
husbands had assisted and encouraged their wives throughout their careers.
Overall, the responsibilities female superintendents shoulder from work and
family require an immense amount of time, which was the largest challenge for all three
participants. They struggled to find time for family, friends, and themselves due to work
responsibilities. However, with strategic planning such as prioritizing both work and
family events and calendaring every minute of the day, female superintendents can find
success at both work and home. Superintendents have to be extremely organized, and
have the ability to strategize their entire day, leaving nothing to chance. Planning ahead,
prioritizing events, keeping a calendar, and being flexible are skills that were found
helpful to these superintendents as they organize their days.
The number of women entering educational leadership positions is higher now
than it has been in the past, and those numbers are increasing. For instance, in 1990, it
was reported that 10.5% of superintendents were women, and they currently fill 18% of
the superintendent positions in this country (Brunner & Grogan, 2007; Grogan &
Shakeshaft, 2011). In addition, the American Association of School Administrators lists
women’s representation at 21.7% of its membership (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011).
However, there is still a disproportionately low number of women superintendents. By
identifying current challenges, studies can help women recognize the obstacles that exist
and how to navigate through them. Women can make the choice to put strategies and
support systems into place that will help them overcome the challenges that
superintendents face in the job today. Instead of choosing between work and life, each
111
domain can compliment the other resulting in more women in leadership positions
achieving the balance they seek.
Implications for Practice and Policy
Our nation is facing extraordinary challenges, and educational leadership is in
crisis (Young & McCleod, 2001). There is a growing shortage of leaders in education,
and there are many qualified women ready to assume those roles. Women make up more
than half the nation’s population and are surpassing men in their employment rate
(Cheung & Halpern, 2010). It would be irresponsible to ignore or discourage their much-
needed leadership in our public schools. Their transformational leadership style and
interpersonal skills have proven to benefit students; however, only one in five public
school superintendents is a woman (Gordon & Galloway, 2008). Although they
dominate the field of education, women continue to be underrepresented and
underutilized in educational leadership roles (Trinidad & Normore, 2005).
It is at the postsecondary level that women need to be educated about the barriers
that exist and how to overcome them. Universities need to look for better ways to
prepare women to maintain both roles and to empower them in their aspirations to
leadership roles in education. Once placed in the work force, women need their
organizations to support them so that they do not feel they must leave their positions in
order to have children or to care for family members. Organizations need to create a
model for women to maintain both work and family. If this effort is not made, this nation
will lose a huge asset for the children in our schools.
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Women can help fill this leadership void if they can manage and transcend the
challenges and barriers and use support systems and strategies to help maintain balance in
work and life. This study was designed to make a contribution to the body of research in
the field of educational leadership by examining current women leaders in the field of
education, the challenges they face, and the support systems and strategies they use to
successfully navigate both domains. Much of the research has focused on the barriers
women face and on gender inequalities, but little of it has offered women strategies to
overcome the barriers and maintain balance in work and family. As a result of
identifying these support systems and strategies, as well as the challenges that exist,
women can better prepare themselves in their aspiration toward positions like the
superintendency, and no longer feel like they must choose one over the other.
Recommendations for Further Research
Findings in this study have raised compelling questions that merit further research.
The following recommendations for future research are based on what could be done to
further understand how women in leadership positions balance work and life and/or what
must be in place in order to maintain that balance:
1. It was coincidental that all three husbands interviewed in this study were
professional, White men. It is possible that race and/or husband’s career choice
could have had a direct impact on the support and encouragement these women
received at home. The comparative exploration of the factors of societal and
cultural expectations and challenges, work-life balance and support received from
female superintendents who are married to men of color and White men, men
113
working in leadership positions, and men working in non leadership positions is
warranted to better understand if any of these factors have a direct impact on the
level of support women receive from their spouse.
2. All three superintendents had different demands placed on them in terms of
balance. For instance, Superintendent C was the oldest woman as well as the only
woman who had encountered historical barriers discussed in the research—such
as gender and ethnicity stereotypes. In addition, she worked in the only K-12
district in this study. Women could benefit from further research on other factors
contributing to the demands that female superintendents encounter, such as issues
related to age, location, and size of district. Furthermore, different superintendent
experiences contribute to the different demands. For instance, the demands on an
elementary superintendent are very different than the demands sustained in a high
school district. The comparative exploration of the factors of female
superintendents of union high school districts, K-12 districts, and elementary
districts is warranted to better understand the demands placed on female
superintendents and the challenges they face.
3. “Queen Bee” syndrome was mentioned in this study and observed by one
participant. Further research on current trends in “Queen Bee” syndrome and its
effect on women attempting to balance work and life could possibly empower
more women leaders to mentor women instead of holding them down. Current
trends might identify the reasons women choose not to mentor or assist other
women in their career paths. In order for women to support other women, we
114
must investigate the challenges for women in leadership positions to engage in
these types of mentoring and coaching relationships. A comparative investigation
of women engaged in mentoring roles and women not willing to participate in
these types of relationships could shed light on these challenges.
Conclusion
Women dominate the field of education; however, women continue to be
underrepresented and underutilized in educational leadership roles (Trinidad & Normore,
2005). They face many challenges in the form of internal and external barriers and lack
of support at work and home, which have led to work-family conflicts (Loder, 2005;
Shakeshaft, 1989; Young & McCleod, 2001). These challenges have made it difficult to
maintain home responsibilities while dealing with increasing demands at work.
Moreover, these challenges make it difficult for women to find the balance they seek in
their lives. Identifying obstacles that women face as well as establishing support systems
and strategies can play a pivotal role in assisting women in aspiring, achieving, and
maintaining leadership roles while balancing work and family.
With the results of this study, women will have a better understanding of how to
balance work and family life while aspiring and maintaining leadership positions. These
support systems and strategies need to be in place in order to find success at balancing
both domains while leading our schools. The hope is that this deeper insight will result in
an increased number of women in leadership positions, such as the superintendency, who
are also balancing work and life. These women can be models for others aspiring toward
115
these positions, and hopefully, women will no longer have to choose between a career
and family.

116
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APPENDIX A
NEW SUBJECT RECRUITMENT SHEET
Dear Participant:

You have been selected to participate in this study due to your professional leadership in
education and a perception of having achieved successful work-life balance. As a
participant in this study, your contribution will assist other women interested in
effectively managing work and family responsibilities.

The purpose of this study is to determine how women leaders in education balance work
and family roles. Societal expectations of women as primary caregivers result in working
women attempting to navigate multiple professional and personal roles. Those who have
attained the highest levels of leadership are tasked with being effective leaders in their
workplace while at the same time successfully maintaining their home life, whether that
means managing a family or assisting relatives.

While there is no one “right way” to negotiate work-life balance, the goal of this study is
to determine strategies that successful women leaders employ to be effective in managing
work and family domains. These strategies should prove instructive for women aspiring
to education leadership positions. This study will also reveal any obstacles that women
may face along the way to achieving a leadership position in the education field, along
with support systems that assist women in overcoming obstacles. The study’s results
should be of interest to both aspiring and current women leaders as they determine how
to effectively integrate work and family roles.

Thank you in advance for your consideration of my request to participate. Your
involvement is critical to the success of this study.

Sincerely,

Name of Co-Investigator

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APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR SUPERINTENDENTS
1. Tell me about your upbringing.
2. Describe your parental and family influence on your career choices.
3. Tell me about your responsibilities at home and at work?
4. How do you describe a typical day?
5. Can we discuss your office environment?
6. I noticed _(photos, drawings, etc.)__ does that connect to your work life balance?
7. How do you spend your free time?
8. What is your definition of work-life balance? To what extent are you meeting
your definition of work-life balance?
9. How did you come to know the skills necessary for balancing your work and
family life?
10. How does your family role impact your role as a leader?
11. What did you give up or let go of to balance the two roles?
a. How did you feel about making these decisions?
12. What has supported your work life balance efforts?
a. How did you access that support?
13. Tell me about the significant individuals who influence you personally and
professionally? How do they contribute to your success?
14. Tell me about the factors that contribute to your success.
a. Outside of work
b. At work
15. What strategies have contributed to success in your career?
16. What factors contributed to your motivation to become a…?
17. What factors led to your role as superintendent?
a. Personal
b. Professional factors
18. Tell me about your career choices, have they changed over time?
19. How long did it take you to obtain your current position? Tell me about the
timeline?
a. Please describe specific experiences
20. What is the same or different about your current position than other positions in
term of work like balance?
a. What were the stressors at different levels?
21. How do you make work a place you want to be?
22. To what extent do you take advantage of work and home policies and resources?
23. What are some challenges you face personally and professionally and how do you
handle them?
24. Please share specific barriers you encountered along each step of your career?
a. Personal
b. Professional
123
c. Organizational
25. How does your role as a leader impact your family role?
26. What strategies do you employ in difficult situations?
27. If you could go back and do it all over again, what if anything would you change?
28. At the end of the day what matters to you most and how do you sustain that?
29. What advice could you offer women for dealing with the same kinds of issues in
their own life?
30. Is there anything you would like to add that I may have missed?

124
APPENDIX C

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

Patton, 2002

Table A1

Types of Interviews
Open-
ended:
Unstructured
Open-
ended:
Semi-
structured
Open-
ended:
Structured
Group Focus
Group
Open-
ended
written
Talking
Diaries
Critical
Incident
Superintendent X X
X X X
Spouse
X

Dependent X
Colleague X

125
APPENDIX D

INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR REFERRAL

1. How long have you known X and in what a capacity?
2. How do you describe typical day for X?
3. How do you think that her family role impacts her role as a leader?
4. What factors do you see contributing to X’s success
a. Outside of work
b. At work
5. What is your perception of her as a leader?
a. Outside of work
b. At work
6. How do you think her role as a leader impacts her family role?
7. What are your perceptions of the challenges X faces personally and
professionally?
8. How do you think X spends her down time?
9. What strategies to you see X using to overcome these challenges?
10. What do you think matters to her most?
11. Is there anything that you would like to add about X?

126
APPENDIX E
ACTIVITY LOG QUESTIONS

(minimum of 5 entries over a 5 week period)

Week 1 - 5

1. a. What work-life balance dilemmas did you encounter this week?

b. On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = lowest priority and 5 = highest priority), how
would you rate each of these dilemmas?

c. What decisions did you have to make related to this/these dilemma(s)?

2. What positive outcomes did you experience related to work-life balance?

3. Any other comments?

Cumulative Reflection

1. Looking back at the work-life balance dilemmas you have experienced over the
past 5 weeks, please list them in order from highest priority to lowest priority.

2. Explain your rationale for rating the dilemmas.

3. Additional comments/thoughts that come to mind after having reviewed your log
entries?

127
APPENDIX F
WORKPLACE OBSERVATIONAL CHECKLIST

Environmental Scan

When conducting an environmental scan, the following question may apply to specific
points of interest:

I noticed ___________, tell me about the significance of this.
□ Pictures of family- who?
□ Pictures on computer screensaver- who or what?
□ Pictures of personal accomplishments (e.g. marathon, awards, etc.)- what?
□ Art from children (if have young children)
□ Personal cards
□ Flowers or other token(s) of affection
□ Souvenirs from vacation(s)- what?
□ Personal keepsakes- what?
□ Duffel bag and tennis shoes in the office for exercise
□ Awards or certificates of recognition
□ Inspirational quotes or artifacts
□ Exercise-related items (weights, yoga band)
Office Activity
□ How many times was she interrupted?
□ How many times did the phone ring? Was it a family member?
□ Did she receive a text and/or text a family member?
□ How many times is she checking her cellular phone or looking at email?
128
APPENDIX G
MATRIX OF INTERVIEW PROTOCOL TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Table A2
Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions
Interview
Questions

Research Q1:
What challenges do
female
superintendents face
in balancing work
and family life?
Research Q2:
What types of support do
female superintendents
perceive to be helpful in
achieving balance in work
and family life?
Research Q3:
What strategies do
female
superintendents
employ to balance
work and family life?
1. Tell me about your
upbringing.
X X X
2. Describe your parental
and family influence on
your career choices.
X X
3. Tell me about your
responsibilities at home
and at work.
X X X
4. How do you describe a
typical day?
X X X
5. Can we discuss your
office environment?
X X X
6. I noticed _________,
does that connect to your
work life balance?
X
7. How do you spend your
free time?
X X X
8. What is your definition
of work-life balance?
X
8a. To what extent are you
meeting your definition of
work-life balance?
X X
9. How did you come by
the skills necessary for
balancing your work and
family life?
X X X
10. How does your family
role impact your role as a
leader?
X X X
11. What did you give up
or let go of to balance the
two roles?
X X X
11a. How did you feel
about making these
decisions?
X X

Table A2, continued
129
12. What has supported
your work-life balance
efforts?
X X
12a. How did you access
that support?
X X X
13. Tell me about the
significant individuals who
influence you personally
and professionally? How
do they contribute to your
success?
X X
14. What factors contribute
to your success at work
and at home?
X X
15. What strategies have
contributed to your
success?
X X
16. What factors
contributed to your
motivation to become a
superintendent?
(personal/professional)
X X X
17. What factors led to
your current role?
X
18. Tell me about your
career choices, have they
changed over time?
X X X
19. How long did it take
you to obtain your current
position? Tell me about the
timeline.
X X X
20. What is the same or
different about your
current position than other
positions in terms or work
life balance? What are the
stressors at each level?
X X X
21. How do you make
work a place you want to
be?
X X X
22. To what extent do you
take advantage of work and
home policies and
resources?
X X X
23. What are some
challenges you face
personally and
professionally and how do
you handle these?
X X X

Table A2, continued
130
24. Please share specific
barriers you encountered
along the way to your
current role.
X

X
25. How does your role as
a leader impact your family
role?
X X X
26. What strategies do you
employ in difficult
situations?
X X X
27. If you could do it all
over again, what, if
anything, would you
change?
X

X
28. At the end of the day,
what matters to you most
and how do you sustain
that?
X X
29. What advice would you
offer women for dealing
with the same kinds of
issues in their own life?
X X
30. Is there anything you
would like to add that I
may have missed?
X X X

131
APPENDIX H
INFORMATION SHEET

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL
RESEARCH

Women in Leadership Positions Balancing Work and Life Balancing Work and
Family: How Women in Leadership Positions Succeed in Work and Home

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to determine how women leaders in education balance work
and family roles. Societal expectations of women as primary caregivers result in working
women attempting to navigate multiple professional and personal roles. Those who have
attained the highest levels of leadership are tasked with being effective leaders in their
workplace while at the same time successfully maintaining their home life, whether that
means managing a family or assisting relatives.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT

You will be asked to answer a series of interview questions concerning your role in work
and family life. You will also be asked to keep an activity log once a week for five
weeks. You will still be able to participate in the study if you opt not to keep an activity
log. Your interview will be digitally recorded; however, if you do not want your
conversation recorded you will still be able to participate in the study. Your personal
office environment may be observed as we are seeking to learn more about the
integration of your work and family life.

132
CONFIDENTIALITY

Your place of employment will be assigned a pseudonym as no identifying information
will be linked back to you. All interviews will be recorded digitally and will be stored on
a password protected computer.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human
Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data.

The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of
research subjects.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Faculty Dissertation Chair: Dr. Kathy Stowe - kstowe@usc.edu

Co-Investigators:

Julie Olesniewicz – olesniew@usc.edu

Hasmig Baran- hbaran@usc.edu

Veronica Chavez- chavezv@usc.edu

Carolyn Stirling- stirling@usc.edu

Sandra Vasquez – vasquezs@usc.edu

Aba Cassell – acassell@usc.edu

Dianna Rangel – drangel@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION

University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier
Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Women leaders in education struggle to balance work and family life. Historically, this struggle has stemmed from attempts to manage societal expectations of balancing work and family. In managing these expectations, women leaders face many challenges, which have made it difficult to maintain home responsibilities and deal with increasing demands at work. For women, these dual responsibilities sometimes make it seem impossible to find the balance they seek in their lives. Although they have made great strides in the past century, women fill only 18% of the superintendencies in this country—even though they dominate in numbers within the classroom. There are women successfully finding balance

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Asset Metadata

Creator Olesniewicz, Julie (author)

Core Title Balancing work and family: how female superintendents succeed at work and life

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/27/2012

Defense Date 03/22/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Balance,Family,female superintendents,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Malloy, Courtney L. (committee member), Robles, Darline P. (committee member)

Creator Email jaolz@mac.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-16039

Unique identifier UC11290551

Identifier usctheses-c3-16039 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Olesniewic-670.pdf

Dmrecord 16039

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Olesniewicz, Julie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA