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Crisis communication for tourism destinations in the new media environment

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Crisis communication for tourism destinations in the new media environment

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Content CRISIS COMMUNICATION FOR TOURISM DESTINATIONS IN THE NEW MEDIA ENVIRONMENT by Rayana Pharaon A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS (STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS) May 2012 Copyright 2012 Rayana Pharaon ii Dedication This thesis would not have been possible without the perpetual support and encouragement of my mother and sister. Thank you for always pushing me towards my dreams. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my thesis committee chair, Kjerstin Thorson, for helping me keep on track and stay motivated from the very first step all the way through to the completion of this thesis. I would also like to thank my committee members Jennifer Floto and Matthew LeVeque for all their valuable feedback and assistance. In addition, I want to thank my interview sources for their time and useful insight. iv Table of Contents Dedication ii Acknowledgements iii List of Figures v Abstract vi Introduction 1 Chapter One: Tourism Overview 3 Chapter Two: Crisis Management 7 Chapter Three: How Social Media is Changing Crisis Communication 13 Chapter Four: Traditional and New Media Working Together in a Crisis 19 Chapter Five: Case Studies 21 Chapter Six: Social Media Benefits for Tourism Destinations 40 Chapter Seven: Adding to the Chaos of Crises in Tourism Destinations 42 Chapter Eight: Crisis Communication Planning for the Future 43 Bibliography 53 Appendices 58 Appendix A: Diagram of Faulkner’s Disaster Management Framework 58 Appendix B: In-person Interview with Gabriel Kahn 59 Appendix C: Email interview with Mark Benthien 64 Appendix D: Phone interview with Carol Martinez 67 v List of Figures Figure 1: Inbound Tourism by Purpose of Visit, 2010 3 Figure 2: US Social Network Users, by Site, 2009-2013 13 Figure 3: The Role of Social Media in the Tourism Sector 15 Figure 4: Visit Japan Twitter Feed, March 2011 23 Figure 5: Visit Japan Tweet, March 2011 24 Figure 6: Prime Minister of Japan’s Twitter Feed, March 2011 27 Figure 7: I LOVE NY Twitter Feed, August 2011 31 Figure 8: NYC Mayor’s Office Twitter Feed, August 2011 32 Figure 9: Visit London’s Twitter Feed, August 2011 36 Figure 10: UK Prime Minister’s Twitter Feed, August 2011 37 Figure 11: A Graph showing the Number of Followers/Fans of each Tourism Bureau 39 vi Abstract This paper examines the shift from traditional media to new media in tourism destinations that might be hit by crises by closely looking at examples of tourist destinations that have faced crises in the last year, as well as looking at a tourism disaster management framework and what would need to be altered given the new media environment. The purpose of the study is to examine how social media was used by the chosen case studies during their times of crisis, and concludes with recommendations on how destinations could effectively use social media in the future. The key issues discussed in this paper include how social media is changing crisis communication, how traditional and new media are working together in a crisis, and crisis communication planning for the future. The principal conclusion was that education needs to be at the forefront of any crisis plan, while synchronization, content, language and tone all play an important part in effective crisis engagement. Research Methodology Qualitative primary research was carried out and consisted of three interviews with public relations and communication professionals to form a basis for understanding the subject. Interviewees included Gabriel Kahn, former Los Angeles bureau chief for the Wall Street Journal and current University of Southern California Professor, Mark Benthien, Director for communication, education and outreach for the Southern California Earthquake Center, and Carol Martinez, VP of communication at LA INC. Interviewees provided insight into the various fields of tourism, crises and the change in media. vii A content analysis was also carried out to investigate how the three chosen case studies destinations dealt with their crises on their social media platforms. The performance of the tourism bureaus of London, New York and Tokyo as well as the Twitter feeds of the Prime Minister of Japan and London and New York Mayor’s Office were examined to compare tone, content, language and use of hashtags during their crises. Secondary research included news articles, books, journals, websites, blogs, Twitter and Facebook pages. 1 Introduction Social media as a means of communication has become relevant now more than ever for providing news, images and video from millions of people worldwide about thousands of topics. These media channels reach viewers on a variety of Smartphones and technological devices that have almost become the standard among millions globally. People expect continual information and updates 24/7. Outlets such as Facebook and Twitter have led to consumers engaging with companies on a personal level like never before. Whereas brands used to be able to stand behind a fence when consumers had issues, they have now been catapulted into the forefront and are expected to engage and respond in a timely manner to consumers’ questions and concerns. Social media plays a role with travelers, not only when they are potentially deciding on a destination to travel to, but also at a time of crisis to disseminate important information. It is only recently that Tourism Bureaus have had to integrate social media into their crisis communication plans. More people that didn’t used to have to be aware of using social media for crisis communication, are having to become familiar with how to use it effectively. This paper examines the shift from traditional media to new media in tourism destinations that might be hit by crises by closely looking at examples of tourist destinations that have faced crises in the last year, as well as looking at a tourism disaster management framework and what would need to be altered given the new media environment. The vast size and speed of social media means there is no longer a controlled message reported via traditional media outlets during a time of crisis. Now 2 more information than ever is available to interested parties around the globe, but tourist destinations may also suffer when false information and panic concerning local disasters spread like wildfire throughout the web. On the other hand, social media has also been used to make a positive impact during times of crises and disaster to help raise awareness and funds, as well as to reconnect friends and family. Research was carried out to provide guidance to public relations professionals working on crisis communications, specifically in the tourism sector. Three interviews were conducted with professionals in the crisis and tourism fields. This paper reports on a content analysis comparing the performance of tourism bureaus of London, New York and Tokyo as well as the Twitter feeds of the Prime Minister of Japan and London and New York Mayor’s Office to compare tone, content, language and use of hashtags during times of crises that have occurred in the last year. The author analyzed how each of these entities managed their social media during their various crises, what worked and what didn’t, and concludes with recommendations for crisis planning for tourism destinations for the future. The overarching finding was that education needs to be at the forefront of any crisis plan, while synchronization, content, language and tone all play an important part in effective crisis engagement. 3 Chapter One: Tourism Overview Tourism has experienced continued expansion and diversification over the past six decades, making it one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world (UNWTO). An ever-increasing number of destinations are investing in tourism development, turning modern tourism into a key driver of socio-economic progress through the creation of jobs and enterprises, infrastructure development and the export revenues earned (UNWTO). Tourism is hugely important to the global economy, with international tourism receipts reaching approximately $919 billion in 2010, up from $851 billion the year before (UNWTO). Between January and April 2011 destinations worldwide recorded 268 million international tourist arrivals, some 12 million more than the 256 million registered in the same period in 2010 (UNWTO). From statistics gathered from UNWTO’s inbound tourism highlights report 2010, the pie chart below shows that tourism for leisure purposes is the most common reason for travel, making up 51% of inbound tourism. Figure 1. Inbound Tourism by Purpose of Visit (2010) 4 Communications such as advertising and public relations are important to the industry because tourism itself is an intangible experience. Effective communication is the only way that tourism marketers can offer tangible cues to customers about those intangible experiences (George). According to the research firm eMarketer, the total ad spending on the U.S. market will double in 5 years and account for $50 billion in the United States alone (Tourism-Review) which again is a huge investment in, and important to the economy. In addition to advertising, public relations is not only vital when promoting a destination, but is key to putting a crisis communication plan together, so that it is as prepared as possible for crises, minimizing economic impact and maximizing human safety. Tourism is among the largest employers in most countries. Its contribution to employment is estimated at 6-7% of the overall number of jobs worldwide, both direct and indirect (UNWTO). Encouraging travel increases consumer and business confidence, as well as strengthening two-way trade and promoting export income (World Economic Forum). Competition in the market for international travel is high in the global marketplace with hundreds of billions of dollars at stake (Tourism Economics). Due to the fragile economy, the majority of people are unable to take vacations and those that do are picking their destinations very carefully. This results in increasing competition among tourism entities. International tourism is particularly susceptible to an array of crises. They range from natural disasters to man-made incidents. One key driver is climate change, which 5 has had unpredictable effects in different regions. Statistically, travel and tourism accounts for approximately five percent of global carbon dioxide emissions, and transportation of tourists to and within destinations account for 75 percent. Researchers believe that these changes will not only affect the atmosphere and the sea, but also alter the whole geology of the Earth (McKie). A link between climate change and natural disasters and their frequency is often made. However, climate scientists have been reluctant to make this direct link, but predict that climate change will lead to a frequency of extreme weather conditions (EurActiv). Higher expectations and reluctance of tourists today also play an important role in the tourism environment. Consumers are increasingly more savvy and expect high quality, service and value. Whether they are domestic or international, these travelers are more educated, informed, demanding and experienced than they have been any other time (Kozak & Baloglu). External factors, which can often be unpredictable, have a huge impact on the industry every year, not only making it extremely fragile, but also demanding appropriate and adaptable measures to minimize damage. A crisis can mean economic destruction to a location heavily dependent on tourism. For example, Japan faces a recovery and reconstruction bill of at least $180 billion, or 3 per cent of its annual economic output (Waki). After 2011’s Hurricane Irene, the estimated damage cost to New York is up to $45 billion, “increasing the chances of a double-dip recession” (Duell). Unfortunately, natural disasters are unpredictable and therefore cannot be avoided. 6 Even if the short-term outlook for the global Travel and Tourism sector is considered promising, tourism destinations will continue to face increasing volatility of traveler demand caused by short-term shocks such as economic downturns, oil price hikes, environmental regulation, currency fluctuations, pandemic outbreaks, terror attacks, and political turmoil (World Economic Forum). The last year has seen the hospitality sector emerge from a period of significant challenge and considerable change worldwide, and has impacted different regions in a variety of ways (World Economic Forum). There is a huge choice of destinations and offerings around the world at the best of times, so when there is a crisis at any one of these destinations, it is highly likely to push potential tourists elsewhere. 7 Chapter Two: Crisis Management Defining crises and disasters The majority of scholars believe that crises are self inflicted or man-made in nature whilst disasters are sudden, unpredictable, catastrophic events regarded as natural in nature. A number of scholars in the field have attempted to define the term “crisis” and “disaster” and differentiate the two. Crisis and disaster are becoming more and more commonplace globally in most recent years, meaning it is more crucial than ever that PR plans are in place, should a crisis occur. The complex nature of these events means that there is still a lot of research to be done into the field. The urgency and speed of dealing with an incident is also a fundamental point in many of the definitions and suggests that crises may be surprises, which is why a proactive approach to crises needs to be taken (Ritchie). Crisis Management Crisis management prevents or lessens the negative outcomes of a crisis and, thereby, protects the organization, stakeholders, and industry from harm (Coombs, 2007). The aim of crisis management is to restore normality to an organization and to protect its reputation, brand value, finances and market share (Barton). Crisis management is relevant to the service industry as crises and disasters affect an organization’s ability to serve its customers. Ignoring crises management jeopardizes the recovery of the service industry (Martin). 8 No organization or tourism destination is immune to crises, and therefore they should learn as much as they can about crisis management and prepare as much of a thorough and multi-faceted crisis plan as possible (Coombs, 2012). While a crisis may have negative outcomes to the destination and the people, organizations and industries that reside there, crisis management is the most effective measure that can help reduce that impact, by providing recommendations for properly handling them (Coombs, 2012). We know from countless cases that communication is key to these efforts. Because the majority of crises that affect tourist destinations are unforeseeable and sudden, crisis management will involve making decisions on the spot, often while the crisis is unfolding, and these decisions will be made while key pieces of information are lacking and stress and panic are setting in. Therefore, it cannot be emphasized enough that preparing a solid crisis communication plan will put the destination in the best position to respond to and mitigate the situation at hand. According to Coombs (2007) crisis management is a set of four interrelated factors: 1) Prevention – these are the steps taken to avoid crises, although in the case of a natural disaster to affect tourist destinations, this is very difficult. 2) Preparation – this includes the crisis management plan, detecting crisis vulnerabilities, selecting and training a crisis management team and spokespersons, as well as creating a crisis portfolio, which is vital to any tourism destination, and should include a social media crisis plan. 9 3) Response – the application of the crisis plan. The response of the organization is made hugely public during a crisis, and is not only reported on all media platforms, but also critiqued for years to come. 4) Revision – the evaluation of the response measures taken, and what was handled well and badly during its response. A crucial component for crisis management is planning. It is important for plans to be flexible as crises and disasters are by nature unpredictable and unique (Evans and Elphick; Lawn). In fact, poor strategic choices made in the present may lead to crises and disasters in the future (Martin). For example, not assessing all current communication platforms that need to be utilized and continuously maintained during a crisis, could lead to additional crises. Education is also key; not only educating employees about the plan itself, but finding ways to educate the public on basic safety measures they should take and events to raise awareness. Mark Benthien, Director of communication, education and outreach for the Southern Calfornia Earthquake Center explains, “not enough people are engaged and active in preparing for a crisis, and this is worrisome.” The local governments associated with tourism destinations need to place more emphasis on public education for crisis-prone places. Some destinations such as the Caribbean and Southeast Asia have a history, and are much more aware of certain natural disasters that could occur, so although they may not know when it will happen, they need to place an emphasis on the education that the public needs to prevent the maximum damage being done. 10 The crisis management plan should give detailed instructions about the evacuation and notification of guests, debriefing the media, emergency medical procedures and trauma counseling to name but a few (Barton). The scope of the crisis management plan varies dependent on the situation at hand, but in the case of a crisis in a tourism destination, communication to both the people in the immediate and surrounding areas as well as to the media is vital, as people will depend on these channels for information. These days, the plan also needs to include a detailed social media strategy, which will be discussed later. During the preparation stage, like after any crisis, lessons can be learned from other crises that have occurred in other destinations. Strategic public relations practitioners can ascertain what was done right and wrong, then apply those lessons accordingly to the current crisis communication plan. In the case of new media, social media needs to be carefully monitored, including what was released by the tourism bureaus and governmental organizations in that destination, as well as watching people’s reactions: were people complaining that there wasn’t enough information being released? Was anything that was particularly good/bad released via social media that could either be replicated or avoided in the future? Have there been official updates or only those being “tweeted” or texted? 11 Tourism Disaster Management Framework Analysis Next, the author will examine Faulkner’s Tourism Disaster Management Framework (TDMF) (Appendix) and use it to analyze which elements were best utilized by the destinations discussed in the case studies section. The criteria used to select an appropriate tourism framework to analyze was primarily how relevant it was to the tourism industry as a whole. Faulkner’s framework was the first specifically designed for the tourism industry (Ritchie et al.). In addition it is regarded as the most advanced tourism framework available (Prideaux) and was therefore viewed as the “model” framework against which other frameworks were compared. Faulkner researched the previous disaster management literature and, more importantly, the sociological responses from communities and organizations and the implications these responses had for disaster strategies (Faulkner). Therefore, by examining all these different aspects he was able to develop a framework that was both holistic and balanced and which placed a heavier emphasis on the health and welfare of victims as well as the importance of media communication. The framework encompasses three interrelated components: the stage of the event, disaster management responses, and ingredients of the disaster management strategies. It is possible to apply the framework to a wide range of disaster and crisis situations and this can be regarded as its major strength (Prideaux). However, a main criticism of the model is that it shows crisis moving in an orderly fashion, when in fact, 12 the stages often occur simultaneously. Another criticism is that the framework does not pay sufficient attention to communication early enough in the process. Having examined the effects of 9/11 terrorist attacks on Australian tourism, Prideaux (2003) believed that had a framework such as the TDMF been in place in Australia in 2001, the negative effects of its tourism industry could have been mitigated. Modifying the TDMF, Prideaux (2003) added three additional suggestions to the “elements of the disaster management responses” and two to the “principal ingredients” column thereby, adapting it to large-scale crises and disaster management. This emphasizes the TDMF’s core strength: its in-built flexibility and the ease with which it can be adjusted depending on the situation at hand (Prideaux). The literature suggests much overlap and interlinking between crises and disasters. The effective management of crises and disasters, in the form of clearly laid out instructions, should help organizations prevent and cope with the shock event. Both generic and tourism-specific crisis and disaster management frameworks have been developed to facilitate smooth and rapid recoveries. The TDMF appears to be the most holistic and flexible model available for tourism crisis management, and as long as it is adapted and reviewed regularly, it will be a useful framework in the majority of crises that occur. Social media needs to be integrated into the framework, as it much more important now than when the framework was devised, which will be looked at more closely in the next section. 13 Chapter Three: How Social Media is Changing Crisis Communication In the past few years, social media has completely changed the landscape for communication, and more specifically, crisis communication. People expect to constantly be updated and interacted with via these platforms. In 2011, the total number of active users on all social networking sites globally had risen dramatically across all age segments. Within the US, 63.7% of Internet users currently use social networks on a regular basis, amounting to nearly 148 million people, with usage remaining strong and showing no signs of declining (Williamson). Facebook tops Google for weekly traffic in the U.S. (Qualman) showing the vast usage of the social media site. Figure 2 shows the continued increase in Twitter and Facebook users in the US by year. Figure 2. US Social Network Users, by Site, 2009-2013 The two most popular social networking sites are Facebook and Twitter. While Facebook is focused on connecting friends and family in a more storybook environment, Twitter is for posting short status updates and photos to all one’s “followers” who can 14 include complete strangers. Facebook is a much more personal platform where major amounts of photos and videos can be uploaded and maintained, whereas Twitter is much more focused on the short-term, in-the-moment updates that people want to share in that second. Twitter updates can include multimedia links to sites such as YouTube, Flickr etc depicting images and video showing elements of a crisis as they develop in real-time. Due to their popularity and importance, the author will be analyzing these two social media platforms for the case studies. The statistics on the effectiveness of social media to communicate a message are clear: it is essential for all businesses to incorporate various social networking platforms too. “Companies no longer have a choice on whether they do social media, the question is how well they do it,” explains Erik Qualman, author of Socialnomics. The huge importance of social media’s ecology and companies needing to pay attention to what is being talked about in relation to them, positive or negative is shown by the statistic that 90% of consumers trust peer recommendations online, with only 14% trusting advertisements (Huffington Post). Pioneers in social media (such as Dell, Ford and Starbucks) are now integrating the tools into all facets of business, including crisis management (Knight). A recent global survey indicated only 29% of companies even have a social media policy. This is a very dangerous position for a company to be in (Knight). It shows that few destinations have included social media as part of their strategic communications framework. Social media plays an important role in the tourism industry. Figure 3 shows how tourism boards, hotels, airlines and travel retailers all depend upon social media for their 15 brand awareness, promotion, loyalty, customer service, last-minute and real-time sales, and most importantly, for their crisis management. It is important that destinations do not just view their social media outlets as mere self-promotion platforms, but must embrace the relations that can be formed and maintained via them. Social media is continuing to expand, and needs to be integrated for maximum benefit in the tourism landscape, but more importantly in the crisis communication plans of these destinations. Source: Euromonitor International Figure 3. The Role of Social Media in the Tourism Sector. Next, we will examine how recent advances in technology, such as mobile devices and their cameras, have led to an increase in social information sharing. 16 The Role of Social Information Sharing in Crises As mobile devices continue to advance technologically, social media usage has increased astronomically. Consumers are now able to access these sites whenever and wherever they may be. Whereas before people had to wait until they were at a computer to access social media, the large majority of mobile devices now prove that it can be accessed 24 hours a day. As early as 2010, a Pew study showed that 70% of adult Internet users access the Internet with more than one device, which includes accessing social media sites from mobile phone devices (Pew Research). Pew Research compiled other statistics to show just how impactful mobile devices and mobile internet capabilities are, with three-quarters (75%) of teens and 93% of adults ages 18-29 having a cell phone. Pew Research emphasizes that understanding a person’s technological environment is now a vital clue in understanding how that individual uses the internet, connects with others and accesses information (Pew Research). According to the study, teens and adults own between 3 – 4 gadgets in the form of cell phones, laptops, mp3, tablets etc (Pew Research) leading to endless opportunities for them to access social media and Internet sites. With mobile device makers moving toward higher quality cameras and larger- lensed models more people are fully dependent on their mobile devices for the majority of their communications. According to data from retail analysts NPD the percentage of photos taken on smartphones has gone from 17 per cent in 2010 to 27 per cent in 2011, because their cameras’ performance rivals that of compact camera models. Sales of point-and-shoots decreased by 17 per cent in the same period (Waugh). 17 Liz Cutting, imaging analyst at NPD explains “Consumers who use their mobile phones to take pictures and video were likely to do so instead of their camera when capturing spontaneous moments.” Further highlighting how much people have become dependent on their mobile devices, she adds “There is no doubt that the smartphone is becoming ‘good enough’ much of the time; but thanks to mobile phones, more pictures are being taken than ever before” (Waugh). The speed and technological advancements are relevant to crises as these “spontaneous moments” include times of crises and disaster when the unexpected occurs and the person wants to document what is going on in the moment via her or his smartphone. These images are then shared through texts and various social media platforms and are often some of the first images shown on news reports, preempting reporters who are en route, for example images of the 2009 US Airways Hudson plane crash which broke first on Twitter. Social Media’s Effect on Travel Today, people’s opinions are shared openly via the various social media platforms/opinion pages. These can sometimes be wrong and/or harmful. The fact that anyone with a computer or mobile device with Internet access can post whatever content he or she wishes has led to a world of self-publishers, or so-called “citizen journalists” which although may be liberating, also means the message being communicated can’t be controlled. 18 The unbelievable speed and volume of social media has taken on a realm of its own; within seconds messages/images can be sent to millions of people around the world, even as the crisis is happening. If a negative message/image is shared, it can cause further damage to the destination; however, social media also offers huge advantages explained by Wang & Pizam (2011), “The role of the Internet and social media in disseminating updated information following a crisis is critical. The social media have become one of the most effective ways to convey messages to the general public in the event of a crisis.” The need for regular up-to-date information is vital in connection to tourist destinations, its regulators/government and the public. The huge significance of social media for tourism destinations can also be seen as social networks and review sites are the most popular go-to hubs of consumer-generated content that people rely on before choosing/booking a destination. For instance, in a recent online travel-booking poll the results showed that 29% of consumers consider positive reviews online as the most likely factor to lead them to make a booking (Digital Visitor). 19 Chapter Four: Traditional and New Media Working Together in a Crisis Now that social media has become such a staple in everyday lives, it has also altered the landscape for PR professionals working in crisis communication. People now more than ever before rely on one another for information and news, with half of Americans claiming to rely on the people around them to find out at least some of the news they need to know (Pew Research). This heavy reliance on others has shifted from when people used to go directly to a traditional media source such as a newspaper or television broadcast to find out information. Although during times of crises social media has shown its advantage in speed of information and images from the scene, it is still important that these images and information be verified by legitimate traditional news sources, before being spread across the globe. Therefore, new media is unlikely to take over traditional media anytime soon; instead they both need to complement one another. Traditional media should still be utilized to contextualize and verify what is being released on public platforms. Twitter serves as more of a breaking news outlet with an immediate need: sharing breaking information. Tweets, which are brief updates of 140 characters or less, tend to adopt a more inclusive tone of community, a sense of users taking on the role of advocates for one another and for the Twitter platform itself (Pew Research). This sense of community clearly plays a vital part during crises when people turn to one another for help and information. People want to engage and share opinions with one another on 20 current affairs, which pushes people away from becoming solely reliant on traditional media. Social media has had a major effect on breaking news such as crises. Traditional media outlets used to dedicate crews to the coverage of these events, which would, in turn, net the first images and information viewers would receive from the scene. Now, many images come from peoples mobile devices, and editors and news directors carefully scour the web picking out images and verifying them before deciding what to use for their broadcasts and front covers (Kahn). Social media has also meant that a controlled message through media is no longer applicable. For example, when a high-speed train crashed in China, official information sources did not report about the incident, and it was only after the micro- blogging site Weibo was overwhelmed with messages about it that they succumbed (Kahn). As social media sites continue to evolve, their impact on news information and citizens’ relationship to the news will, too. The adaption between new and traditional media will also continue to evolve, as content sharing continues to move forward on various platforms and outlets (Journalism.org). 21 Chapter Five: Case Studies As governments and tourism bureaus keep their crisis communication plans confidential, it is difficult to discuss exactly what could be improved. Therefore, the closest we can get to analyzing their social media plans, or lack thereof, is by observing what actions each took on their social media pages after a crisis occurred in their destination. The following case studies were chosen to analyze recent crises in which social media played an important role for their crisis communication. The author chose to compare the tone and language, hashtags and content of the social media tourism bureau pages of London, New York and Tokyo as well as the Twitter feeds of the Prime Minister of Japan and London and New York Mayor’s Office, as their level of influence on the public is comparable. Case Study #1: Japan Tsunami Background: On March 11, 2011, a tsunami caused devastation to the North East area of Japan. It was triggered by an 8.9 earthquake, the most powerful to ever hit the country. Over 8,500 people were confirmed dead. For weeks after all eyes were watching the crisis unraveling at the nearby Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant as workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, with several hydrogen explosions occurring. It was referred to in traditional and social media as the largest nuclear disaster since Chernobyl. In the aftermath, Japan’s mobile phones were unusable as there was a huge demand on the network providers due to people desperately trying to contact family and friends. Facebook and Twitter became two of the main ways people were able to contact one 22 another. Social media was not only employed during the crisis for communication purposes, but also for raising relief funds. The Red Cross surged as a trending topic on Twitter to collect $10 donations, and by March 16 2011, $2.6 million of the $47 million USD raised was via their text-message donations. Another vital tool that was utilized during the crisis was Google’s People Finder app technology. It was first launched in response to the Christchurch earthquake in New Zealand in February 2011. It is an interactive database that allows users to search for missing people online, or submit information regarding people that are injured or missing. At one point there were more than 7,200 records being tracked on the site, and were made available in both Japanese and English (Olivarez-Giles). Resources such as Google People Finder, and links to aid sites, as well as social media outreach, are changing crisis communication in a more fundamental way than ever (Benkoil). Those involved in relief efforts utilized Twitter to post information such as emergency phone lines for non-Japanese speakers, tsunami alerts, altered train schedules and lists of shelters for those made homeless (Huffington Post). “Social networks have brought out the best in people, not only encouraging them to take action but also supporting them in those efforts to bring relief to the victims of this catastrophe” explains Brad Shimmin, analyst at Current Analysis (Huffington Post). Of the three cases the author examined, Japan’s official tourism Facebook page, Visit Japan, was by far the most informative and engaged with its audience during and after the disaster. Officials posted over 30 times to their Facebook page from March 11 – 30, often posting several times a day. They distributed the same consistent information 23 on their Twitter feed (Figure 4) as their Facebook. Their posts were a mixture of content between informative links to sites with up to date news such as: “For our overseas visitors traveling Northeastern Japan & their surrounding areas including Tokyo who have internet access and are reading this post, please click this link for some useful information: www.jnto.go.jp” March 11, 11:11. “For those who are trying to locate someone, or if you have information about someone that you would like to share, please visit the Google Crises Response site at: www.google.co.jp/intl/en/crisesresponse/japanquake2011.html” March 11, 15:27. Figure 4. Visit Japan’s Twitter Feed, March 2011 24 The overall tone on their Twitter and Facebook platforms is calm, gentle and appreciative. They post several times thanking everyone for their support, which matches the Japanese culture of conveying a collected appearance and keeping panic at a minimum. The language used throughout is suggestive rather than action oriented. For example, they employed phrasing such as “For those who are trying to locate someone..” and “For overseas visitors.. click here for useful info.” They used hashtags in the majority of their tweets, including #Japan, #Tsunami, #Travel and #Earthquake, which all would have been regular in conversations happening on Twitter at the time, and therefore meant they were part of these conversations and could ensure people were getting correct and consistent information. The content was a mixture of general thanks to people for their continued support, re-tweets of information from airlines, links to how people could help, and fundraising events. They also took time to thank specific people for their kind words (Figure 5) which shows their true appreciation and responsiveness. Overall, the content that was being released was relevant and helpful to both of their audiences: residents of Japan and visitors. Figure 5. Visit Japan Tweet, March 2011 The main problem facing Japan was the Fukushima nuclear plant and lack of information that was being output in regards to it. It was noted by reporters alike that 25 information was scarce during the unfolding crisis. Immediately after the tsunami struck, attention focused on the effect it would have on the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant. Tokyo Electric Power Company officials (Tepco) released an unclear message, “A big sound and white smoke” were recorded near Reactor number 1, and the matter “was under investigation” (Tabuchi, Belson and Onishi). Conflicting reports, ambiguous language and the inability to confirm some of the most basic facts led Japanese press and public to suspect that officials were withholding crucial information about the risk associated with the Daiichi plant (Tabuchi, Belson and Onishi). As the crisis intensified in the following days, uninformative conferences and briefings were held, at a time when Japan needed a strong and unified leadership front. Instead its weak governing system was exposed. The conflict-averse culture that is present in Japan plays a role in this lack of information straight-talk during a crisis. Information about the status of the reactors was kept under wraps by officials to perform political damage control. This stems from major sensitivity to radiation sickness in connection to the atomic bomb attack in 1945, which is still a deep wound they carry from the past, and to try and contain panic. The lack of communication between Tepco and government officials was blurred. While the public felt angered at the government for not releasing accurate information, the government argued that it was, in fact, Tepco officials who were failing to keep them informed of the unfolding situation. In a public outburst Prime Minister Naoto Kan said “What in the world is going on?” in response to power company officials for not informing the government of the two explosions that occurred. Kuni 26 Yogo, a former nuclear power planner at Japan’s Science and Technology agency, says the government and Tepco “try to disclose only what they think is necessary, while the media, which has an antinuclear tendency, acts hysterically, which leads the government and Tepco to not offer more information” (Tabuchi, Belson and Onishi). According to a report in the New York Times, the government decided to limit the flow of information about the reactors to the public as they concluded too many briefings would distract Tepco from its task of bringing the reactors under control, according to a senior nuclear industry executive (Tabuchi, Belson and Onishi). The overall feeling from the international community after this crisis was that the government’s crisis communication response was inadequate (Alfant and Sato). Despite members of Japan’s tourism bureau trying their best to keep the public as informed as possible throughout the crisis, they, too, suffered from the information shortage between the government and Tepco. The language barrier caused further confusion and miscommunication. For example, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano announced that the workers from the plant were being moved “to a safe place,” which foreign reporters interpreted as Tepco staff were leaving the plant. This led to global headlines claiming the plant had been abandoned, when, in fact, staff had briefly taken cover indoors at the plant, not exited it. Further fueling the feeling of instability and lack of trust in the government has been the parade of prime ministers: four in less than four years. Susumu Hirakawa, a professor of psychology at Taisho University, points out “The mistrust of the government and Tepco was already there before the crisis, and people are even angrier 27 now because of the inaccurate information they’re getting” (Tabuchi, Belson and Onishi). Featured below are excerpts from the Japanese Prime Minister’s Twitter feed. What stood out most on the feed was that they were trying to use Twitter as a blog and not stick to the 140 character format, so there was one tweet after another that started with “(Cont)” and after a while it got very confusing trying to follow what content was being released. If the content was difficult to follow by a researcher looking back on it and taking time to read through, it definitely would have been impossible to follow at the time of the crisis when people are in a panic and trying to gather information quickly. Figure 6. Prime Minister of Japan’s Twitter Feed, March 2011 28 The lesson learned from this is that public relations practitioners need to know and understand the platforms they are using, and how to communicate effectively on them. In this case, trying to release statements or paragraphs of information should have been done via url shorteners, such as “bit.ly” links or Twitter’s “t.co”, instead of endless tweets. The language and tone is abrupt, as they were clearly using the feed for one-way communication rather than to converse. There were a few spelling mistakes throughout the Twitter feed, which appeared unprofessional, and because most of the information was being translated straight from Japanese to English, some of the words got lost in translation, further causing confusion among the feed. In addition, hashtags weren’t used during the tweets at all. One of Twitter’s main advantages is that people can use hashtags to keep updated and in the loop of certain conversations that are happening. Hashtags help organize the conversations and make it easier to search and find tweets related to the hashtag of that event. In relation to Faulkner’s TDMF, Japanese government officials did a inefficient job of the “Action” element in monitoring and communicating, as well as the “Recovery” element. This was mainly because they did not want to cause panic, but instead angered the public and potentially put their safety at risk. 29 Case Study #2: Hurricane Irene Background: Hurricane Irene was a category 3 Atlantic hurricane that caused major flood and wind damage along its journey past the Caribbean and up the East Coast of the United States in August 2011. Irene was downgraded to a tropical storm as it approached New York. Despite this downgrade, the aftermath of destruction that was left along her path was large and there were more than 50 deaths. In this case, social media led real people to find out very important, life-changing information: “For me, the best piece of information I gleaned from social media was to keep my son’s inhaler near him at all times because as the hurricane gets closer, asthmatics may have a tougher time breathing” shared Diane Danielson, principal consultant with DKD Media Strategies. Although most homes and businesses were left without power after the storm, people were still able to stay in touch and up-to-date with information via social media on their Smartphones. Some power companies such as Easton Utilities in Maryland, used their Facebook page to keep customers informed about outages and restoration times. The Red Cross invested time and money into training “digital volunteers” to monitor online social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter during the crisis. To back their reputability, they were awarded certification badges by Twitter so that recipients knew they were legitimate. These steps become very important and relevant to people at a time of crisis, as they want help and information from people they can trust. Most recently, the Red Cross has set up a social media “control room” with Radian6, 30 which is a platform that helps companies listen, track, monitor and engage across all social media platforms. The New York City Office of Emergency Management (OEM) continually updated its Facebook page with weather reports, city evacuation plans, mass transit news and even tips on how to report the damage done to your property. Now, OEM is hosting National Preparedness Month Kick-off events in Manhattan, the Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens and Staten Island. The Weather Channel launched Weather Channel Social via Twitter. The company has created 220 custom local Twitter feeds for cities with populations of 100,000 or more through its social integration. The New York tourism bureau Facebook page, ILOVENY, took a very different approach from Visit Japan. ILOVENY simply posted one entry to its wall: “NY and hurricane Irene: keep up to date on NY state closings, cancellations and rescheduled events on the Twitter account” August 26, 2011. The bureau disseminated information through its Twitter page. The author believes that in the interest of keeping as many people as informed as possible, bureau officials should have been posting equally to their Facebook and Twitter pages, even if it is exactly the same information. For the content on their Twitter feed (Figure 7) they haven’t made any helpful links available to their followers, and rather just mentioned openings and closures. This lack of thorough information would have led people to look elsewhere for information, which should not be the case for the tourism bureau of such a major city. 31 Figure 7. I Love New York’s Twitter Feed, August 2011 The New York City Mayor’s office did a great job offering up-to-date content and numbers the public found helpful (Figure 8). Communicators used the hashtag #Irene in almost every post they made and throughout their conversation to ensure consistency. They gave the distinct impression of being present in the conversations 32 taking place about Irene. They re-tweeted announcements from “Notify NYC” and “NYPD News” which were very useful to its audience. Figure 8. NYC Mayor’s office Twitter Feed, August 2011 The language is simple and to the point, and the tone is informative and cautionary. For example, they posted “Stay off City beaches” and “Stay inside,” which were important warnings as the hurricane approached. People would have been checking these outlets regularly for updates on the hurricanes movements, so overall they did a good job of consistently outputting information when they had it. 33 Although the New York tourism bureau and Mayor of New York’s Twitter feeds did an excellent job of being consistent and informative when disseminating information in a timely manner, their approach on Facebook was not adequate. Considering they have 369,452 Facebook fans versus 94,682 Twitter followers, a wiser strategy would have been to post on Facebook, or equally to both platforms. In relation to Faulkner’s TDMF, they were good in the “Prodromal” phase of placing warning systems to alert the public via their social media platforms, as described earlier. In the “Emergency” phase they made emergency numbers and locations available to their audience on a regular basis through their Twitter feeds. In both these cases, they needed to ensure their crisis communication plan included all of their social media platforms and not just their Twitter feeds. 34 Case study #3: London Riots Background: On August 6 th 2011, a peaceful march was held in honor of Mark Duggan, following his fatal shooting by police on August 4 th . The shooting angered friends, family, and the community. The march soon escalated into a full-blown riot in Tottenham, North London. The following days were filled with chaos as the riots spread to boroughs throughout London. It quickly became clear that this was a crisis, as riots then reached out to other major cities around England, including Bristol and Manchester. The riots were unprecedented with heavy looting and arson attacks. The Prime Minister had to cancel his vacation, as well as all police leave. Parliament was recalled on August 11 th to discuss what action to take. Thousands of people were arrested and charged, with no room in the prisons for the escalating number of looters. Millions of British pounds in damage was done, with some companies going out of business. Social media was apparent in both a positive and negative way during this time. The initial gathering of people that resulted in the first riot had been arranged via Facebook. Tweets about an attempt to target Sunday’s Hackney Carnival were spotted by police and the event was abruptly cancelled (McKie). Following the riots, police spent time and resources surveying social media platforms for arranged gatherings that were likely to break into violence. Others across London took to the social media outlets to organize large-scale cleanups of the neighborhoods affected. The @RiotCleanup Twitter page amassed more than 50,000 followers in fewer than 10 hours (Banks), and was used to consistently 35 broadcast cleanup locations and times. Furthermore, to catch and prosecute looters, someone set up a Tumblr account named “Catch a Looter” which accepted and posted photos of looters. The London tourism bureau Facebook page, Visit London, again was not as informative as it could have been. There was only the following post: “Helpful numbers and information on staying safe in London in light of recent incidents” with a link posted on August 9. Although they did not output very much information, Visit London communicators were very good at responding to people’s questions on the page, answering within the same hour, and engaging with their audience that way. Interestingly, they did not post anything on the day the riots broke out, and notably the users were answering each other’s questions, more so than on any of the other pages. It should be pointed out that they were much more informative on Twitter; however, similar to their Facebook page, they did not post anything until August 9 th , 3 full days after the initial havoc. While their approach may have been to not draw further attention or cause panic among their followers, this was a bad idea and they should have instead taken the same approach as the tourism bureau of Japan by accepting that a crisis had occurred and keeping people as informed and assured as possible with up-to-date links. On August 9 th they finally started outputting information (Figure 9) regarding useful advice and numbers to help to stay safe in London. From a communications 36 perspective, especially for such a popular tourism destination, the author thinks that this time lapse of nothing being said between the 6 th and 9 th only reflects poorly on them not providing sufficient information to people in the city, as well as potential visitors. Figure 9. Visit London’s Twitter Feed, August 2011 The tone and language used throughout their social media was conversational and straightforward, although there was a lack of action-oriented language, which would have been more appropriate for this kind of crisis as it was started by troublemakers and 37 therefore residents and visitors alike would want to be comforted that action was being taken against the people behind the violence. The content being released was helpful and included numbers and links, but again there was a lack of hashtags being used during the conversation, which means they wouldn’t have been part of the live conversations going on at the time, or be able to ensure the correct information was circulating. The following figure shows the Prime Minister’s Twitter stream from the riot timeframe: Figure 10. UK Prime Minister’s Twitter Feed, August 2011 38 After reviewing the Prime Minister of the UK, David Cameron’s Twitter page, during the riots there is clear and effective communications being disseminated via the tweets, with the longer articles being available in “tinyurl.com” links. There is good use of the hashtags, which would ensure that an official voice would be present in the conversation surrounding #Londonriots and #Tottenham, which would be important to the public. The Prime Minister also re-tweets a lot of information from other official government sources such as The Home Office, and UK Parliament, which keeps the public informed from several trusted sources. The language and tone of the tweets are clear and action-oriented, which would comfort the public that the appropriate actions and measures are being taken by those in charge of the country. His Twitter feed was an effective outlet for information dissemination during the riots. In relation to Faulkner’s TDMF the government was condemned by the press and public for not putting enough police on the streets when the crisis first started, which meant they lacked in the “Mobilisation” phase of response. The rescue services did a good job of the “Action” element as they carried out evacuation procedures across London in locations where fires were spreading and causing casualties. The police force also did an excellent job of monitoring communication systems, including closely following social media to spot any troublemakers plans. The riots could have an effect on the 2012 Olympics: how much cannot be economically measured right now, but there is no doubt that tourists who might have 39 been unsure about coming, feel scared and cautious about coming to an event that will draw crowds of hundreds of thousands, where potentially anything could happen. Figure 11 shows the importance for bureaus this paper has studied to be consistent when communicating on their social media platforms. The graph shows that each bureau’s Facebook has vastly significant numbers of fans/followers than their Twitter pages, and they, therefore, need to be releasing the same information to both. This is highlighted in the case of the New York tourism bureau’s Facebook page which only posted one entry to their wall and focused more on their Twitter feed, when in fact there are 369,452 people following them on Facebook, compared to their 94,682 Twitter followers. Figure 11. A Graph showing the Number of Followers/Fans of each Tourism Bureau 40 Chapter Six: Social Media Benefits for Tourism Destinations As mentioned earlier, social media can be used in the simplest of ways to maximize the benefit. Social influencers who have thousands of followers/listeners on Twitter and through their blogs can have a major impact at times of crises or when calling for help. There has been various data that suggest that social media supports critical information distribution activity among members of the public (Palen). Within hours of the earthquake in Japan there were over 1,200 Tweets per minute from Tokyo. This kind of user data reinforces just how much social media is an essential global tool in both times of peace and immense crisis (Ogilvy). Texting played a fundamental role in fundraising. Charities such as the Red Cross, Save the Children and the Salvation Army carried out their donations by text campaigns and were highly visible on their Twitter pages, which raised millions of dollars. Separate from monetary giving, social media is a fantastic source that lets groups of people organize and communicate in a straightforward manner. Social media is chosen by people as it is a fast and practical way to connect people, especially when using a phone is not an option due to those routes of communication being cut off. Google’s Crisis Response page has done an incredible job of keeping people up- to-date in a variety of ways. Some of these include links to People Finder, Alerts and status on electric power companies, government agencies, U.S. State Dept and Embassy resources, transit status for trains, buses and flights, shelter information, health information, translations, missing people and emergency phone numbers, as well as maps and satellite imagery. Google did an incredible job of posting up their Crisis 41 Response page as swiftly as possible, which would have helped millions of people with vital contact information and links, which could all be found in one straightforward place. Alongside Google People Finder was the Red Cross’s Family Links, which helps locate and verify people’s condition during a disaster, proving a vital tool to those desperate to find out the situation of friends/family at a critical time after a crisis. Organizations and charities did an excellent job of not only releasing as much useful information as possible, but also raising money for the disaster areas. Such high emotion comes along with such disasters that people want to go a step further than simply tweeting and share their stories. Facebook served this purpose, as people were not limited to 140 characters, and wanted to share their real experiences as well as connecting with loved ones. Facebook was a platform that people felt they could come to open up about their thoughts and feelings with during/after a crisis, to people they felt they shared a connection with. 42 Chapter Seven: Adding to the Chaos of Crises in Tourism Destinations Although social media platforms may not be the trigger of crises such as the London Riots, they have proven to facilitate in adding to the chaos. Trouble-seekers saw the opportunity for using social media sites and their vast reach as places to organize mass gatherings, whose impact and reach would not have been possible without access to these tools. Initially, police did not make the link that groups were using social media for this purpose. Once a connection was made police worked closely with the social media platforms and mobile networks to pinpoint the people causing/organizing trouble and clamped down on them. However, a criticism was that it took them too long to monitor these people, and those who were determined simply made new Twitter and Facebook accounts to cause trouble. Although not meaning to be malicious, people can sometimes get information wrong during a crisis and then go on to spread this information out to hundreds, if not thousands of people via social media. This incorrect information can then spread like wildfire causing panic and unnecessary stress. With this in mind, USC Annenberg Professor Gabriel Kahn explains “the way social media works is that the ability to verify something quickly is also much greater, so I think it’s a mixed bag and ultimately we’re better off for having access to that kind of information.” Therefore, although misinformation can spread quickly via social media, other people on these platforms also have the opportunity to disprove the information just as hastily. It really is up to the observer to distinguish the authenticity of the information they are seeing. 43 Chapter Eight: Crisis Communication Planning for the Future As mentioned previously, crises in tourism destinations are often unpredictable and nearly impossible to prevent; however thorough crisis communication plans for destinations can be prepared. One such a crises that is being prepared for is the California earthquake that is inevitably going to occur in the future, and the author shall look into how social media and technology is being used in assisting with the overall crisis plan by CrisisConnection. California earthquake California is a leading tourist destination, but it suffers from the stigma of the “possible” earthquake. Through the following case study we can see how technology and social media is planning to be integrated into a pre-crisis communication plan. The largest earthquakes in California occurred between 1857 and 1994 and have varied from magnitude 6.6 to 7.9. Social media did not exist and thus played no role in the earthquakes listed. One of the last major earthquake’s to hit Northern California was in 1906, over 100 years ago, killing over 3,000 people and leaving 225,000 homeless. One of the last major earthquake’s to hit Southern California was in 1857, over 150 years, rupturing the fault from Central California to San Bernadino (Southern California Earthquake Center). Although the San Andreas Fault is likely to be the source of our largest earthquakes to come, hundreds of other faults throughout Southern California could also cause damaging earthquakes to the region. 44 According to researchers and geologists, it is only a matter of time before an earthquake strikes southern California with devastating consequences. The first public product of the Multi-Hazards Demonstration Project was the ShakeOut Earthquake Scenario published in May 2008. It simulates a 7.8 magnitude earthquake scenario, which served as a scientifically credible basis of the largest earthquake drill in US history. It studied the effects this earthquake would have including the direct physical impacts, to the long-term, social, cultural, and economic consequences (USGS). The scenario has identified key strengths and vulnerabilities in southern California’s readiness for major earthquakes, which has launched discussions that are the first step toward addressing problems. CrisisConnection is a project that is being carried out by the Homeland Security Advisory Council and the Annenberg Innovation Lab at the University of Southern California. Its plan is to provide a fast and easy way for citizens and emergency responders to exchange crucial information during a disaster. The system works by connecting the Internet and mobile devices. For example, during an earthquake, citizens can use their mobile phones to send a photo of a fallen tree or telephone pole blocking a street. The app automatically uploads the photo onto a map that pinpoints its whereabouts through geo-location, and the person fills out other crucial details on a form, such as whether or not people on the scene require medical care. The benefits of the system are that is allows the authorities to get a quicker and more detailed idea about a developing situation, allowing citizens to locate the resources 45 they need and relief efforts can move swiftly forward as the public can pinpoint how/where they can help. With regards to media and news organizations, the system would ensure that they receive real-time information and, thus, report essential and accurate information during the unfolding crisis. In the event of an earthquake or wildfire, the system allows emergency responders to get a quick, birds-eye view of what is happening on the ground, as they are documented by the public and shared with all. Another huge advantage of the system is its ability to connect people with the resources and services they would need during a crises. Its database is preloaded with everything from supermarkets to hospitals and gas stations. The database is dynamic and can be adjusted to accommodate a changing situation and changing needs. By using the geo-location on most phones, the system can guide someone in need of fresh water to the nearest market etc. It also helps people exchange resources. For example a bulldozer from a construction site may be needed to move debris from an earthquake site. The construction manager could use the system to inform the authorities of what equipment he has available, and from here the authorities would be able to locate him, view the incident map and direct him to where he is most needed. Important official alerts could be pushed out to peoples mobile devices, and would also have a people-finder function, helping people locate one another. Each crisis brings about a new set of issues, and CrisisConnection can be adapted to the needs of different situations. CrisisConnection would be a huge advancement in the 46 communication, mobile and social media stratosphere as it would help millions of people during a time of crisis in a variation of ways. It is vital to continue reviewing crisis management plans with a careful yet critical view, in order to see if the model needs adjusting or revision dependent on the change in media and technological environment at that time. The fast pace that social media has entered and dominated so much of our lives proves just how quickly channels of communication change and so crises communication needs to adapt accordingly. In the case of political disturbances, social media needs to closely be monitored and the necessary actions taken to prevent troublesome group gatherings etc. The Metropolitan police in London did a good job of scanning social media to look out for and defuse any further potential violence; however a whole social media scanning team should be brought in at such times, as to ensure that valuable police time and resources are not being wasted. It is clear that to protect the reputation, as well as the people and economy of any tourism destination, a clear crisis communication plan needs to be put into place and communicated regularly to all levels of staff within an organization so that if the unthinkable happens, everyone is conveying a clear and consistent message. If any changes or updates are made to the crisis communication plan, then this should not be overlooked as a minor change, and appropriate meetings need to be held to inform employees of these changes. Further emphasizing that social media should no longer be an add-on to crisis communication plans, and should instead play a major role, Gerald Baron and Dr John 47 “Pat” Philbin explains “When you plan for things that might go wrong, you also need to plan for the role that social media will play and how its involvement will impact your reputation.. Realistic drills are the best way of evaluating the readiness of an organization to respond to an actual crisis” (Baron and Philbin). After a crises or disaster has passed, it is the job of the recovery public relations to replace negative images and associations of a destination with positive ones. In addition, it is important to rebuild the tourists’ trust in the tourism product in order to encourage them to visit once again. Crisis communication is important for limiting the effects of negative media coverage, both traditional and new, and protecting the image and reputation of a destination (Ritchie et al.). Tourists need to be reassured and encouraged to travel, through clear and consistent communications from the destinations travel bureaus. Communication plans that were used beforehand have to be altered given the new circumstances to convey a return of peace and stability to the affected region. After examining the case studies, steps that need to be added to Faulkner’s (2001) Tourism Disaster Management Framework are suggested below. It is vital after a disaster or crises that information is made widely available to the public and media on a variation of platforms, as their target audiences will be spread out on several of these, and it is important none of them get left out. These steps should be added to Faulkner’s TDMF: Immediate phase • Immediate communication with media and public. • Be open and honest. 48 • Send out messages concerning sympathy. • Send out clear and consistent information across all social media platforms that will help the public. • Attend scheduled informative/press events. • Create valuable communications/content that are easily shareable. Long-term phase • Create information center and hotline to communicate with the public and press. • Organize press conferences and develop press kits. • Host special events and invite influential figures to campaign to welcome tourists back. • Ensure all social media sites are up-to-date and are responsive to public. • Invite travel agents and journalists to destinations. Pre-crisis Education is important in saving lives, and not enough people are prepared on what to do should the worse happen. One way to help in creating awareness of how to be prepared for crises through social media is for the government to make Facebook and Twitter pages such as JapanSafety or LondonSafety and use this page solely for educational and safety tips. So that people would become aware of the pages, the Prime 49 Minister and Mayor, as well as each destinations tourism bureau should re-tweet from it so that followers from those pages would become familiar with the platforms. The advantages of setting these pages up pre-crisis is that they would be established as trusted and credible sources, so that people would make use of them before, during and after crises. Such elements that should be featured on these pages are local events in and around the cities that will help educate citizens, such as free CPR lessons or safety presentations being put on by fire stations, town halls etc. The pages would also give a helpful safety “tip of the day” which would be as simple as posting up a picture and list of contents of a earthquake kit you should have at home, or important numbers/websites you should save in your phone/put on your fridge for use at the time of a crisis, as you may not be able to find them at the time. Another way to garner attention and followers/fans would be to partner with influencers. An example could be someone like Ashton Kutcher who has a huge following of all ages, as well as other influencers. The main aim of the educational program would be to get as many people from as many ages to join and be educated and engaged on a daily basis. Crisis Engagement As was evident in the case studies, there are several elements that need to be addressed when communicating through social media during and after a crisis. 50 Synchronize - Hashtags that relate to the incident should be made immediately following a crisis and used consistently throughout your posts on Twitter. This will ensure that you are keeping track and being involved in the conversations happening. It seems fairly obvious, but during a time of crisis, there should be a crisis response team not only available to answer phones at any call centres that have been set up, but also to respond and release information on social media 24/7. It was evident in the case studies that there were time lapses in responses and updates, which should not be the case. Content, Language and Tone - Content is the most important element of crisis engagement. What you are outputting to the public needs to be appropriate and useful, otherwise it is completely pointless releasing information. In the case of the Prime Minister of Japan’s Office (PMJO) Twitter feed, although the content is all important, it needs to be presented in a clear format, with url shortener links rather than a dozen tweets after one another that are “(Cont)” and confusing to the reader. The language used also needs to be clear and simple. Big words that some people may not understand would confuse the audience and again could lead to people not comprehending the information they are being told. In the case of PMJO again, there should have been a translator on site to ensure that the announcements being given in Japanese were correctly translated into the appropriate English words. Some of the direct translations did not make sense, and having a professional translator to help would have been useful to the overall content. 51 Despite crisis being a time full of panic and chaos, there is no excuse for spelling mistakes on your social media, which again was seen various times on the PMJO twitter page, for example “simultanous interpretatoion” on 16 March, appeared unprofessional and proof-reading the tweets before sending them would have avoided this. In the case of London, the author thinks the Prime Minister’s Twitter feed should have released more images of the police on the streets, when there were. This would have served two purposes, one is that it would hopefully deter troublemakers as they would have a visual reminder of what was up against them, and it would serve as a comfort to residents and visitors in the city that the police are out in force, which there weren’t enough of when the riots first started. Consistency between all social media platforms is important. As we saw in the case of the New York Tourism Bureau, one can’t assume the same people that are your fans on Facebook, also follow you on Twitter, so telling them to “keep up to date on NY state closings, cancellations and rescheduled events on the Twitter account” is not appropriate. At the time of a crisis, it is acceptable to post the exact same information to both platforms to ensure your information is consistent and reaching as much of your audience as is possible. The majority of countries realize that tourism is vital to their economy and flourishment of the destination and thus huge amounts of money and resources are spent on the investment and marketing of these places. These bureaus need to be established and visible on various social media platforms if they wish to engage and ultimately attract people to their destination, including before, during and after a crises. To engage 52 with an audience, bureaus can’t just make accounts on social media and hope that is enough, they need to release engaging material, conversation starters, all in relation to the destination, and then once a conversation has begun, they must continue to be a part of it and answer any pending questions. Unpredictable changes in the environment, both natural and political, represents an on-going problem for the tourism industry, especially to those countries that rely on it for economic support. It is clear that social media has kept hundreds of thousands of people informed during a time of crisis and uncertainty. Social media will continue to evolve to not only keep people connected, but also as informed as is possible when crises occur, potentially saving a lot lives. 53 Bibliography Alfant, Michael and Sato, Kumi. “With The World Looking On, Japan Needs To Speak Out.” The Holmes Report. 19 April 2011. 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Evans, N. and Elphick, S. “Models of Crisis Management: an Evaluation of their Value for Strategic Planning in the International Travel Industry.” International Journal of Tourism Research 7.3 (2005) : 135-150. Web. 21 November. 2011. Faulkner, B. “Towards a framework for tourism disaster management.” Tourism Management 22.2 (2001) : 135-147. Web. 27 September. 2011. George, Babu. “Communication Skills for Success: Tourism Industry Specific Guidelines.” AngloHigher. 2011. Web. 15 January 2012. <http://www.anglohigher.com/magazines/viewpdf_mag/97/38>. George, Elisabeth. “Social media in times of crisis following the #JapanQuake.” Ogilvy blog. 20 April 2011. Web. 25 May 2011. <http://blog.ogilvypr.com/2011/04/social-media-in-times-of-crisis-following-the- japanquake/>. Google. Google crisis response. N.d. Web. 1 August 2011. <http://www.google.com/crisisresponse/japanquake2011.html>. Huffington Post. “Twitter, Facebook Become Vital During Japan Earthquake.” 16 March 2011. Web. 22 August 2011. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/11/twitter-facebook-become- v_n_834767.html>. Journalism.org. “New Media, Old Media.” 23 May 2010. Web. 5 January 2012. <http://www.journalism.org/node/20621>. Kahn, Gabriel. Personal Interview. 13 December 2011. 55 Knight, Kip. “Fun Facts To Know and Tell About Social Media: 2011.” Social Media Executive Seminars. 1 June 2011. Web. 25 August 2011. <http://www.socialmediaexecutiveseminars.com/blog/kip-knight/fun-facts- know-and-tell-about-social-media-2011>. Kozak, Metin. and Baloglu, Seyhmus. “Managing and Marketing Tourist Destinations: Strategies to Gain a Competitive Edge.” 2011. Web. 2 December 2011. <http://books.google.com/books?id=DVBfgrWe5IYC&printsec=frontcover&sou rce=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>. Lawn, J. “Crisis Management is a matter of Planning.” Food Management 41.5 (2006) : 10. Web. 25 May 2011. Lenhart, A., Purcell, K., Smith, A., Zickuhr, K. “Social media & mobile internet use among teens and young adults.” PewResearch. 3 February 2010. Web. 5 August 2011. <http://web.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2010/PIP_Social_Media_and _Young_Adults_Report_Final_with_toplines.pdf>. Martin, C., L. “Blending Services and Crises: A Few Questions and Observations.” Journal of Services Marketing 19.5 (2005) : 346-350. Web. 1 December. 2011. McKie, Robin. “Climate change: melting ice will trigger wave of natural disasters.” The Guardian. 5 September 2009. Web. 25 September 2011. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/sep/06/global-warming-natural- disasters-conference>. NASA.“Global Climate Change: Causes.” N.d. Web. 5 August 2011. <http://climate.nasa.gov/causes/>. Ogilvy. “Social media in time of crisis following the Japan quake.” 20 April 2011. Web. 25 May 2011. <http://blog.ogilvypr.com/2011/04/social-media-in-times-of-crisis- following-the-japanquake/>. Olivarez-Giles, Nathan. “Google deploys Person Finder after Japan earthquake, tsunami leave hundreds dead.” Los Angeles Times. 11 March 2011. Web. 23 April 2011. <http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/03/google-deploys-person- finder-after-japan-earthquake-tsunami-leaves-hundreds-dead.html>. Palen, Leysia. “Online Social Media in Crisis Events.” Educause. N.d. Web. 12 December 2011. <http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/EQM08313.pdf>. 56 PewResearch. “New media, old media.” 23 May 2010. Web. 1 September 2011. <http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1602/new-media-review-differences-from- traditional-press>. Prideaux, B. “The Need to Use Disaster Planning Frameworks to Respond to Major Tourism Disasters: Analysis of Australia’s Response to Tourism Disasters in 2001.” Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 15.4 (2003) : 281-298. Web. 2 Sep. 2011. Qualman, Erik. “10 WOW social media statistics.” Socialnomics. September 2011. Web. 15 December 2011 . <http://www.socialnomics.net/2011/06/07/10-wow-social- media-statistics>. Ritchie, B., W., Dorrell, H., Miller, D. and Miller, G., A. “Crisis Communication and Recovery for the Tourism Industry: Lessons from the 2001 Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreak in the United Kingdom.” Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 15.2 (2003) : 199-216. Web. 26 Aug. 2011. Southern California Earthquake Center. “SCEC Overview, Participants, and Documents”. N.d. Web. 15 January 2012. <http://www.scec.org/>. Tabuchi, Hiroko., Belson, Ken., and Onishi, Norimitsu. “Dearth of candor from Japan’s leadership.” New York Times. 16 March 2011. Web. 12 May 2011. <http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/17/world/asia/17tokyo.html?_r=1&pagewant ed=all>. Tourism Economics. “A Blueprint To Discover America.” N.d. Web. 21 January 2012.<http://www.tourismeconomics.com/docs/Blueprint_to_Discover_America. pdf>. Tourism-Review.com. “Crisis: opportunity for travel destinations.” 11 July 2011. Web. 5 September 2011. <http://www.tourism-review.com/travel-destinations-turn- crisis-to-opportunity-online-marketing-in-tourism-industry-news3001>. UNWTO. “From Davos to Copenhagen and Beyond: Advancing Tourism’s Response to Climate Change.” 2009. Web. 26 August 2011. <http://sdt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/fromdavostocopenhagenbeyondunwto paperelectronicversion.pdf>. UNWTO “UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2011 Edition.” N.d. Web. 12 January 2012. <http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights11enhr_1.pdf>. UNWTO. “Why Tourism.” N.d. Web. 26 July 2011. <http://unwto.org/en/content/why- tourism>. 57 USGS. “Earthquake.” N.d. Web. 22 October 2011. <http://urbanearth.gps.caltech.edu/earthquake/>. USGS. “ShakeOut Scenario.” N.d. Web. 15 January 2012. <http://urbanearth.gps.caltech.edu/shakeout/>. Waki, Natsuko. “Analysis: Japan disaster costs seen at least $180 billion.” Reuters. 14 March 2011. Web. 25 September 2011. <http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/14/us-japan-economy-costs- idUSTRE72D60V20110314>. Wang, Youcheng., Pizam, Abraham. “ Destination Marketing and Management: Theories and Applications.” Google Books. 2011. Web. 12 January 2012. <http://books.google.com/books?id=wfkDgc4KnOMC&printsec=frontcover&so urce=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>. Waugh, Rob. “Death of the point-and-shoot camera? Smartphone cameras now take 27 per cent of pictures. Daily Mail. 23 December 2011. Web. 15 January 2012. <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2078020/Death-point-shoot- Smartphone-cameras-27-cent-photos.html>. Williamson, Debra. “US Social Network Usage: 2011 Demographic and Behavioral Trends.” eMarketer. March 2011. Web. 12 February 2012. <http://www.emarketer.com/docs/eMarketer_US_Social_Network_Usage- 2011_Demographic_and_Behavioral_Trends.pdf>. World Economic Forum. “Travel and tourism competitiveness.” N.d. Web. 1 August 2011. <http://www.weforum.org/issues/travel-and-tourism-competitiveness>. 58 Appendix A: Diagram of Faulkner’s Tourism Disaster Management Framework (2001) 59 Appendix B: In-person Interview with Gabriel Kahn, USC Annenberg Professor, on 13/12/11 1) Could you tell me more about CrisisConnection? Sure, the project for me grew out of my experience as a Los Angeles bureau chief for the Wall Street Journal here, and I was trying to think how we would cover an earthquake as a newspaper and though we had a good number of reporters for our newspaper, 12, there was such a large geographical area to cover in the event of an earthquake, that I was not convinced that I would be able to deliver the kind of coverage the paper would expect in a timely fashion. So, When I got here I thought what if we have a system where we had a crowd source reporting too, so people could start sharing details of what was happening to them in their locale, so that everyone could view it and that would help news organizations understand the scope of an event where damage was concentrated, emergency responders would be able to better determine how they could deploy their scarce resources, and people who could not use traditional emergency systems such as 911 because they’re overloaded, would still be able to explain their situation or predicament. So that’s what we tried to do there, there are a lot of other systems that do things that are similar. One thing that we’ve also tried to do is create a platform that would lower the barriers for people to offer help to each other, so that instead of waiting for the fire department or FEMA or some other government agency to coordinate a response, individuals would be able to say “I have a heavy-duty tow-truck” “I have a crane, or a 60 shovel” depending on what’s needed, and can see where those tools might be best used in their area or “I’m a nurse and I can stitch people up” or something like that and would be able to use this platform to offer up their own help, so that’s the basis of the project. 2) Has social media changed the way journalists get their information? I think its completely evolving, so its difficult to say what it is right now, because its still in evolution, and it depends on the type of story and the type of publication, the type of article, so obviously where social media has had the biggest effect is in breaking news. So don’t forget that large news organizations used to have teams devoted to covering breaking news, the way that they cover that is changing rapidly because for example in the London Bombings, some of the first images that came out were from peoples cell phones while they were still in the subway, and those were put up on Tumblr, or Flickr or Twitter, so that everybody could see them. Then its upto to the mainstream news organizations to try to contextualize that, do their job of verification, so there is some sort of sense that there’s not just speed but accuracy to this, and put that out there. There was recently a shooter on Hollywood and Vine, and so again some of the first reports that came out of that were from Twitter, so some news organizations simply scraped the relevant Twitter feeds, and put them in a way so that they made a little bit of sense. Those are two ways in which traditional media and social media work together, because again, a Tweet is kind of like a meme, in itself it doesn’t necessarily have a lot of significance, it does need context and it does need verification. 61 3) Is social media changing the relationship between journalists and spokespeople? One thing that it does is it allows Spokespeople to get their word out on their own terms, it doesn’t block the press from commenting on that or interpreting that differently, but it does allow Spokespeople to have more control over their message and they’re not reliant on the press to distribute that message in the way that they once were. 4) Do you think social media has simplified or complicated the crisis line of communication? Well, that depends on the nature of the crisis, and I don’t know if I have any clear understanding of that. You have to keep in mind that in past crises, there’s been plenty of misinformation and confusion and rumor and all the rest. Certainly, information can spread more quickly over social media, and that does present the potential for misinformation to spread quickly, but the way social media works is that the ability to verify something quickly is also much greater, so I think it’s a mixed bag and ultimately we’re better off for having access to that kind of information. 5) Do you think social media has increased panic during times of crisis or is a comfort to people? I haven’t seen any episode where its increased panic or been the equivalent of yelling fire in a crowded theatre, there may be one that I’m not aware of. I mean again, the thing about even though this information can spread really quickly, other people who might 62 have contradictory information or might be able to debunk something have the same opportunity to do that, and quickly. 6) Do you think enough tourist destinations are utilizing social media well enough? I remember when there was the bombings in Bali, and that pre-dated social media as we now use it. I think whether it’s a tourist destination or its not, any organization that wants to smartly use social media to distribute accurate information, or trustworthy information, or information that comes from an official source, now have the ability to do that, and that can only be good. 7) Is it positive or negative that a controlled message through media is no longer the case during times of crises due to the fact anyone can release their message (via social media)? It sort of depends, I mean again so look at the earthquake in Japan, the government was not doing a great job of releasing information in a timely fashion, in a way that was credible to people. And if you look at issues in China, a high-speed train crash, official information sources, which in China really mean quite a lot, were not reporting anything about this incident until Weibo the micro-blogging service was flooded with messages about it. So, in the case certainly the crowd-sourced social media was more accurate and forced change among the official, traditional media. 63 8) What do you think is next for crisis communication? Considering Facebook didn’t exist 5 years ago and look at it now, I can’t imagine that it’s going to be the same now as it will be 5 years from now. What I do think is next is in the official dome there is a greater, more articulated strategy for trying to use social media to again, get out crucial information, whether that’s pushing out messages to peoples cell phones, whatever it is, but again I see that as positive. In this country where institutions are held to a certain degree of accountability, not necessarily the way that they are in China or Japan. So, for example, if there was a tornado warning, or if there’s an earthquake, now authorities have the ability to more quickly and rapidly distribute their information, which then the public can make of it what they want, but at least they have it out there. 64 Appendix C: Email interview with Mark Benthien, Director for Communication, Education and Outreach for SCEC, on 1/26/12 1) Could you tell me more about your role at SCEC? I am Director for Communication, Education and Outreach for the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC), a research center funded by the National Science Foundation and U.S. Geological survey with over 60 participating institutions and headquarters at the University of Southern California (USC). I communicate earthquake knowledge to end-users and the general public in order to increase earthquake awareness, reduce economic losses, and save lives. To do this I: 1) Coordinate productive interactions among SCEC scientists and with partners in science, engineering, risk management, government, business, and education; 2) Manage activities that increase earthquake knowledge and science literacy at all educational levels; 3) Lead efforts to improve earthquake hazard and risk assessments; and 4) Promote earthquake preparedness, mitigation, and planning for response and recovery. Many of these efforts are in coordination with members of the Earthquake Country Alliance, a private-public partnership of organizations that provide earthquake information and services, for which I serve as Executive Director. In this role I am the lead organizer of the Great California ShakeOut, a new annual earthquake drill with 65 millions of participants throughout the state. I am also working with many other regions around the world that are replicating the ShakeOut. 2) In what ways do you use social media there? - Do you update your Facebook and Twitter pages with the same/different information. Our only active use of social media recently is for the Great California ShakeOut. Twitter is used for announcements, registration milestones, and to highlight monthly participant email updates (linked to a webpage version). Close to ShakeOut Twitter is used to make sure people are aware of resources, and participant tweets are retweeted/mentioned to encourage more people to “tweet their drill”. Facebook is used to encourage more in-depth discussion among participants, announce new resources, highlight participant drill stories, and more. 3) Does your Facebook and Twitter accounts attract different audiences? We haven’t analyzed this. I imagine there are people who follow both, but neither have too many followers (twitter: 3001, fb: 5641). 4) Do you think enough people are educated well enough/prepared on what to do in the event of a crisis? No… certainly not enough people. Many may think they know what to do but may not, as the crisis may be different from what they’ve experienced in the past. That is why our emphasis at SCEC is to provide education to people of all ages, not enough people are engaged and active in preparing for a crisis, and this is worrisome. Education is key and needs to be integrated into more plans. 66 5) Do you think social media has simplified or complicated the crisis line of communication? Pro: individuals are able to report their status instantly and this information is being used as field reporting of emergencies (people trapped in buildings in Haiti/Christchurch) as well as analysis of shaking levels (for earthquake science and emergency management). 6) Do you think social media has increased panic during times of crisis or is a comfort to people? I think the net benefit is a comfort, in terms of their experience of “knowing more” about the situation and access to communicating their situation “directly.” 7) Is it positive or negative that a controlled message through media is no longer the case during times of crises due to the fact anyone can release their message (via social media)? Positive: faster situational awareness without waiting for media, and without media filtering. Negative: rumors and false information can spread fast and unchecked, and be difficult to correct. 8) What do you think is next for crisis communication? Technology is needed to communicate instantly across all mediums/platforms, not just via text, social media, or tv/radio, but all. Along with this must be public education for how to understand that messages in different timeframes have different levels of accuracy. 67 Appendix D: Phone interview with Carol Martinez, VP of communication at LA INC, on 2/6/12 1) Could you tell me more about your role at LA INC? VP of communication, I oversee journalists and organize the appropriate messaging for consumers and visitors. 2) Please could you explain why communication is important to the tourism industry? Now more than ever, there is more competition to get tourists to come to your destination. Before LA didn’t have to try very hard as people would automatically choose to come here and spend money. The key element is to spread word of the destination and let people know why they should visit your destination. We are lucky in that LA has so much to offer between cultural offerings, endless restaurants and stores, as well as wonderful beaches, but there is still plenty of competition out there. 3) During these financially difficult times, do you think more residents from LA are treating it as a tourist destination rather than going abroad? Yes, we can see that more regional visitors are treating LA as a vacation destination. Again, there is so much on offer here that it is understandable that instead of having to get on a plane and incur travel costs to vacation elsewhere, they would take this time to enjoy their own city. Although despite these tough times, in 2011 we saw international visitation grow significantly. 68 4) Have you seen a shift in the channels you are using for communication (from traditional to new media)? Yes, there are more blogs and real-time communication than ever before. Our owned media would include our visitors guide, which is where we can control the information and message, however due to the huge rise in earned media channels, such as blogs, we can’t control the message but as long as we are open and honest, that’s all that matters. 5) Do you think enough tourist destinations/bureaus are communicating effectively enough, especially during/after a crises? I don’t have enough background to make conclusions, but there are some cases where they have come out after a crises and said everything is fine and encouraged people back, when waiting a while would have been more appropriate. It’s an important job for the communications team to really assess the situation and not try to bring people back until it is safe to do so and people’s confidence has been rebuilt. 6) Are there any statistics you have that stand out in relation to communication and tourism etc? We know that a destination recovers faster from a natural disaster than a man-made one. New York after September 11 is an example of a destination that took a long time to recover due to the nature of the crisis. 69 7) What is important to remember when communicating to visitors/potential visitors? Telling them the truth. You need to be aware and available to your audience, as well as answering their questions, which will build confidence in your messaging. The challenge is that before you used to give your material to print reporters who would spend a lot of time researching and producing an accurate piece. Now that there are so many blogs and voices, this careful research doesn’t happen, so incorrect information is then put out there, which can be harmful to the destination. 8) Is there anything else you would like to add? Here at LA INC we have a thorough crisis communication plan ready for many different situations. The huge importance in new media and having to respond in real time has never been more relevant and important to all tourism bureaus. Communication has become so vast that the whole world knows nearly everything that happens, due to the ability of people having flip-cams and smartphones readily on them. A difficulty is that international tourists don’t always understand the geography of LA and assume that if there are earthquake tremors in Encino that downtown must be shut down. The only thing we can do about this is ensure our owned media informs people of the reality, so that we correct any false perceptions or information that is out there.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This paper examines the shift from traditional media to new media in tourism destinations that might be hit by crises by closely looking at examples of tourist destinations that have faced crises in the last year, as well as looking at a tourism disaster management framework and what would need to be altered given the new media environment. The purpose of the study is to examine how social media was used by the chosen case studies during their times of crisis, and concludes with recommendations on how destinations could effectively use social media in the future. The key issues discussed in this paper include how social media is changing crisis communication, how traditional and new media are working together in a crisis, and crisis communication planning for the future. The principal conclusion was that education needs to be at the forefront of any crisis plan, while synchronization, content, language and tone all play an important part in effective crisis engagement.

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Creator Pharaon, Rayana (author)

Core Title Crisis communication for tourism destinations in the new media environment

School Annenberg School for Communication

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Strategic Public Relations

Publication Date 05/06/2012

Defense Date 05/06/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag crisis communication,new media environment,OAI-PMH Harvest,tourism destinations

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Thorson, Kjerstin (committee chair), Floto, Jennifer D. (committee member), LeVeque, Matthew (committee member)

Creator Email rphar@hotmail.co.uk,rpharaon@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-33274

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