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An analysis of the selection and training of guiding teachers in an urban teacher education program

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An analysis of the selection and training of guiding teachers in an urban teacher education program

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Content AN ANALYSIS OF THE SELECTION AND TRAINING OF GUIDING TEACHERS IN AN URBAN TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM by Carmen Lizette Lopez A Dissertation Presented to the( FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA( In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION May 2012 Copyright 2012 Carmen Lizette Lopez ii DEDICATON I dedicate this dissertation to my family. Your ongoing support has inspired me to reach dreams I thought were impossible. I will make every effort to continue to make you proud. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who supported and encouraged me throughout this journey. To my mom, I thank you for instilling a love and appreciation for education. Through your example, I have learned that anything is possible. I admire you for being a strong woman who has accomplished so much. To Claudia, thank you for always being there for me and encouraging me to follow my passions. I hope to continue to make you proud. To Carolina, your support has meant the world to me. You have been so patient throughout this process. I truly appreciate the pep talks, the needed distractions, and your encouraging smiles. Your love and thoughtfulness has helped me get through this program with confidence. Thank you my love! To my friends and colleagues, your ongoing encouragement has been immeasurable. Anna, I wouldn t be where I am without you. I am a better scholar and teacher because of you. I appreciate all the time we were able to spend together. Sadly, our tour of coffee shops has ended; however, I now look forward to the play dates our futures hold. I am blessed to have experienced this journey with you, even if it took a bit longer than expected. Fe, thank you for your gentle nudging throughout this process. I would also like to extend my deepest gratitude to my dissertation committee. Dr. Sandra Kaplan, I have admired your work since my freshman year in college. It has been an honor to learn from you. Dr. Reynaldo Baca, your ongoing support throughout so many years has been invaluable. Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores, your guidance and contributions to my dissertation have been essential to my success. Thank you for your patience throughout the past few years. Your advice and guidance is greatly appreciated. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATON ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES viii ABSTRACT ix CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 Background of the Problem 2 Statement of the Problem 9 Purpose of the Study 12 Research Questions 13 Theoretical Framework 13 Importance of the Study 15 Definition of Terms 16 Delimitations of the Study 17 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 18 The Guided Teacher as a Professional 21 Guided Practice Teaching Experiences 21 Selection of Guiding Teachers 25 Benefits of Positive Relationships 28 Supporting Guiding Teachers 33 Professional Development Training 33 Motivating Incentives 37 Summary 38 CHAPTER III: STUDY DESIGN 41 Introduction 41 Design Summary 42 Research Method 43 Sampling and Population 45 Instrumentation 47 Guided Practice Teachers 48 Guiding Teachers 49 School Site Administrator 49 University Placement Coordinator 49 Data Collection 51 Validity and Reliability Issues 53 Ethical Consideration 53 v CHAPTER IV: RESULTS 55 Data Collection 59 Results 59 Results, Research Question #1 60 Former Guided Practice Student Responses 61 Guiding Teacher Reponses 62 University Placement Coordinator 64 Results, Research Question #2 65 Former Guided Practice Teacher Responses 66 Guiding Teacher Reponses 70 University Placement Coordinator 74 Results, Research Question #3 75 Former Guided Practice Teacher Responses 76 Guiding Teacher Reponses 79 University Placement Coordinator 86 Results, Research Question #4 87 Former Guided Practice Teacher Responses 88 Guiding Teacher Reponses 95 University Placement Coordinator 100 Summary of Results 101 CHAPTER V: IMPLICATIONS 104 Background of the Problem 104 Research Questions 106 Overview of Findings 107 Implications 110 Limitations of the Study 112 Next Studies 113 REFERENCES 116 APPENDICES 121 Appendix A: Recruitment Email 121 Appendix B: Study Survey - University Placement Coordinator 122 Appendix C: Study Survey - School Site Administrator 125 Appendix D: Study Survey - Guiding Teacher 127 Appendix E: Study Survey - Former Guided Practice Teacher 130 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Sampling of Questions 48 Table 2: Correlation of Research Questions to Survey Items 50 Table 3: Survey Item Themes 51 Table 4: Awareness of Selection Process 62 Table 5: Guiding Teacher Assignment Methods 63 Table 6: Awareness of Training Documents 66 Table 7: Training at University 67 Table 8: Training at School Site 67 Table 9: Guiding Teacher Training, Observing 68 Table 10: Guiding Teacher Training, Evaluating 69 Table 11: Guiding Teacher Training, Pedagogy 69 Table 12: Documents for Guiding Teachers 70 Table 13: Guiding Teacher Training Sessions at University 72 Table 14: Guiding Teacher Trainings at School Site 72 Table 15: Training of Specific Program Goals 73 Table 16: Scheduled Meetings 76 Table 17: Effectiveness of Communication 77 Table 18: Guiding Teacher Compensation 79 Table 19: Adequacy of Compensation 79 Table 20: Effectiveness of On-Site Communication 80 Table 21: Effectiveness of Electronic Mail Communication 80 Table 22: Effectiveness of Written Communication 81 vii Table 23: Frequency of Meetings 82 Table 24: Other Capacities Offered to Guiding Teachers 83 Table 25: Types of Compensations 84 Table 26: Monetary Compensation 84 Table 27: Adequacy of Compensation 85 Table 28: Effectiveness of Communication 88 Table 29: Formal Evaluations of Guiding Teachers Effectiveness 89 Table 30: Informal Evaluation of Guiding Teachers Effectiveness 89 Table 31: Relationship with Guiding Teachers 90 Table 32: Frequency of Provided Feedback 91 Table 33: Satisfaction of Provided Feedback 92 Table 34: Acceptance of Advice Provided by Guiding Teachers 93 Table 35: Satisfaction of Guidance Regarding Lesson Planning 94 Table 36: Correlation of Pedagogical Practice 95 Table 37: Formal Evaluations of Guiding Teachers Effectiveness 96 Table 38: Informal Evaluations of Guiding Teachers Effectiveness 96 Table 39: Relationship with Teacher Education Program 97 Table 40: Relationships with Guided practice Teachers 98 Table 41: Frequency of Meetings with Guided Practice Teachers 99 Table 42: Frequency of Feedback given to Guided Practice Teachers 99 Table 43: Relevance of Educational Practices 100 Table 44: Summary of Findings 102 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Data Collection Process 44 Figure 1: Participation Matrix 45 ix ABSTRACT In response to a growing trend towards alternative teacher education programs, this study aims to direct the focus on traditional teacher preparation programs. The purpose of this study is to analyze the processes of how classroom teachers are selected, trained, and supported as guiding teachers in one urban teacher education program. The perceptions of guiding teachers by former guided practice teachers from that program are also examined. The first research question explores the processes for selecting guiding teachers who work with the teacher education program. The second research question investigates the training provided for guiding teachers through the guided practice experience. The third question examines the types and frequencies of support given to guiding teachers. The last question considers the perceptions of former guided practice teachers on their guiding teachers. Data was collected via a web-based survey tool. Four groups of participants (former guided practice teachers, guiding teachers, school site administrators, and a University Placement Coordinator) were invited to complete surveys that were reflective of the research questions. Three of the four groups of participants provided data for this study. The data was analyzed leading to the provided recommendations for future research. 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In 2009, the United States Department of Education challenged schools across the nation to show improvement in student achievement. Arne Duncan, the Secretary of Education, introduced Race To the Top (RTT) a program that offered over 4 billion dollars to local school districts that adopted more rigorous standards, created better assessments, and developed effective uses of data programs. Race to the Top also sought to reward excellent teachers and principals who used innovative reforms to improve student achievement. In order to reward excellence in teaching, teacher education programs had to be recognized as key partners in reform. While the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) (Robinson, 2010) acknowledged the opportunity that states had for innovative reform, the organization was concerned that teacher preparation programs, particularly higher education-based programs, are largely ignored in the RTT proposed priorities and that undue emphasis is placed on states developing unproven alternate routes to teacher preparation (Robinson, 2010). A common thread amongst the routes to teacher credentialing is the required field experience, also known as guided practice or student teaching. Through guided practice, teaching candidates develop skills and gain knowledge to effectively teach diverse students the higher level thinking skills needed to be successful citizens (Darling- Hammond & Branford; 2005). Those early teaching experiences provide teachers with core ideas and broad understanding of teaching and learning that give traction on their later development, (Darling-Hammond & Branford; 2005; pg. 3). 2 According to Darling-Hammond (2006), teaching is a profession in which theory is embedded and inseparable from practice. Learning how to think and act in ways that achieves one s intentions is difficult, particularly, if knowledge is embedded in the practice itself (Darling-Hammond, 2006; pg. 37). Guided practice experiences place pre-service teachers in classrooms where they apply what they learned through courses in teacher education programs. Knowing that guided practice is critical in the development of novice teachers, university programs must ensure proper support is provided not only for pre-service teachers but also for guiding teachers (traditionally known as cooperating teachers, with whom they work). During guided practice, candidates apply theory to practice in host classrooms under the supervision of guiding teachers. The relationships between candidates and guiding teachers are essential because they facilitate the balance of theory learned in the classrooms with practical applications in school classrooms (Richardson-Koehler, 1988). In addition, guiding teachers support guided practice teachers in lesson planning, classroom management, and professionalism (Kroll, 1990; Cochran-Smith, 1991; Edwards & Briers, 2000). As important as guiding teachers are to the process of preparing teachers, there is much more to learn about how they are selected, trained, and supported. Background of the Problem Throughout the last century, the expectations of teachers changed dramatically. In the 1920 s, the extent of demands put on teachers consisted mostly of social requirements. For example, teachers were expected to be unmarried and refrain from 3 associating with men. Teachers of this period had curfews between 8pm and 6am and were expected to ask permission to leave their town. Another requirement of teachers was to keep the classroom clean and warm for their students (Cochran-Smith, 2005). The proceeding demands, taken from a 1923 standard elementary teacher s contract, fail to acknowledge the teaching of content or skills to the students. Since then, through legislation and reform, the expectations for teachers changed. As the decades passed, the goals for teaching began to be focused on student learning and achievement. Reform in the 1960 s brought accountability to the forefront. The goal for teacher education programs began its departure from merely training teachers to manage their students, to teaching them pedagogy, the science of teaching. According to Cochran-Smith (2005), this reform inspired by a continuation of the achievement gap, the federal governments increase in its role in education policies, the increase of knowledge of education as a science, and a heightened focus of educational policies via a market approach. Cochran-Smith (2005) refers to a market approach as an ideology that allows for teacher certification to be open to alternative methods. This approach invites competition for certification between traditional schools of education and alternative programs such as Teach for America and residency structures that recruit teacher candidates for their content knowledge and not necessarily for their knowledge of pedagogy (Cochran-Smith, 2005; Koerner, et.al, 2008; Solomon, 2009). The late 1980 s gave way to an increase in accountability evident by federal policies (Cochran-Smith, 2005). Until this time, teacher learning was defined as learning to perform various discrete teaching behaviors identified in research on teaching (Zeichner, 1999). Once it was determined teachers needed a defined set of skills, 4 knowledge, and strategies for enhancing student achievement, education became what Cochran-Smith (2005) labels as a policy problem. An era of outcomes emerged from the 1990 s. In response to higher demands for teacher preparation, the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) moved from an evaluative system directed by standards towards a performance-based accrediting system of multiple assessments of candidates competencies. NCATE is an accrediting body made up of thirty-three national organizations that represent educators, policymakers, and the public. NCATE uses standards developed by the American Association for Colleges of Teacher Education (AACTE), a national professional accrediting agency of teacher education programs, to provide accreditations to teaching programs throughout the United States. Along with standards set forth by NCATE, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act was put into place by the George W. Bush administration in 2002. This legislation was intended to place the responsibility of successfully educating school-aged children in grades kindergarten to twelfth grade on those closest to them including the schools administrators, faculty, and parents. These stakeholders are accountable by test scores from standardized assessments. This legislation provides the following policies that are designed to maintain success in student achievement. Title I. Improving the academic performance of disadvantaged students Title II. Boosting teacher quality Title III. Moving limited English proficient students to English fluency Title IV. Promoting informed parental choice and innovative programs Title V. Encouraging safe schools for the 21st Century Title VI. Increasing funding for Impact Aid Title VII. Encouraging freedom and accountability (www.whitehouse.gov; 2002) 5 Title II (Boosting Teacher Quality) is the focus for this discussion. Title II of NCLB spotlights the processes of recruiting, preparing, and training teachers. In essence, NCLB s Title II aims to establish a high-quality teaching force (www.whitehouse.gov; 2002) where high quality teachers guide all American students towards higher achievement. According to NCLB, qualified teachers are those who meet three criteria. First, teachers must have a bachelor s degree from an accredited higher learning institution. Qualified teachers are also required to hold a full teaching credential along with demonstrating subject-matter competence for whichever core academic subjects they teach. In California, new elementary teachers are required to pass the California Subjects Examination for Teachers (CSET) Multiple Subject. Teachers who have taught more than six years are required to show their subject competency by either passing the CSET or by passing an evaluation process that is established by each state that meets federally established criteria (NLCB Teacher Requirement Guide, 2007). Theoretically, NCLB provides funding for professional development and training that are grounded in scientific research to be sponsored through both the government and school districts in order to ensure that high quality teachers are recruited and retained in public schools across the nation. Title II gives states flexibility to reform teacher certification or licensure requirements along with the ability to reform tenure and merit-based teacher performance systems. Moreover, Title II allows for monetary bonuses for teachers in high-need subject areas and in high poverty schools and districts. NCLB has expectations that 6 teacher quality will improve. This leads to the question, what does NCLB mean for teacher preparation programs? Linda Darling-Hammond (2007) has expressed both praises and criticisms of NCLB policies. She praises the legislation for bringing attention to the historical significance that acknowledges students rights to qualified teachers. In part, NLCB was established in order to hold states accountable to the standards created by the U.S. Department of Education. As the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) originally established in 1994, neared reauthorization in 2001, only seventeen states had received approval of their standards and systems for testing (NCLB Teacher Requirements Resource Guide, 2007). In response, the federal government instituted NCLB to address states accountability in curriculum and the qualification of teachers. However, Darling-Hammond points out that NCLB has many deficiencies. A considerable setback with this policy is that although it demands high-quality teachers, it does not federally support the teacher supply (Darling-Hammond; 2007). In her analysis of NCLB, Darling-Hammond (2007) offers suggestions on how to ensure that all students receive high quality teachers. This research offers the funding of competitive salaries as incentives to recruit high quality teachers. Darling-Hammond also suggests high-quality professional development and mentor programs for new teachers during their first few years of teaching. Furthermore, Darling-Hammond recommends those interested in becoming teachers should be offered scholarships, while veteran teachers should be offered incentives to counteract set the current trend of quality teachers leaving the profession after only a few years in service. She also argues for funding of teacher education schools, such as professional development schools. Darling-Hammond s 7 suggestions offer a revitalization of the structures in which teacher preparation programs are currently organized. In 1995, the Holmes Group, a consortium of deans who saw the need for reform of teacher education programs (Holmes Group, 1995), published a report entitled, Tomorrow s School of Education. This publication finds that professional schools of education provide the following expertise and knowledge to their students: awareness about children and their learning, an understanding of the knowledge needed by the next generation, insight about educational systems and appreciation about culture and young people s learning. Most teacher education programs function under the premise that a person studying to become a teacher must have experience in a classroom prior to taking control of one independently (Goodlad, 1965). Heeding a warning by John Dewey in the early 1900s, not to leave instruction behind on behalf of keeping school , Goodlad (1965) contends that professional laboratory experiences, which are direct experiences in teacher preparation, have two purposes: to develop techniques for use in classrooms and to understand the theories and principles that are the function of education. These experiences, known as student teaching, are a requirement of teacher education programs in California (Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2008). It is an experience where pre-service teachers are placed in classrooms of local schools, either at the elementary, middle or high school level. Through these placements, guided practice teachers can practice the various theories and pedagogies taught through coursework (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). While in host classrooms, guided practice teachers observe guiding teachers, plan lessons, and conduct those lessons using methods 8 and pedagogy learned at their university. Pre-service teachers are supported by guiding teachers as well as by university supervisors. Thus, the three work together to build a well-rounded experience that includes mentorship, guidance, and opportunities for independent practice. The relationships built among this triad are critical during the guided practice teaching experience of teacher credentialing. Communication is essential in building trust among all those involved in supporting guided practice teachers (Fives, et. al., 2006). Specifically, in order for guiding teachers to be effective in directing guided practice teachers, they must receive strategic communication from the university to understand their roles, as guides, within the program. In other words, communication is fundamental to supporting both guided practice teachers and guiding teachers during this significant experience. In addition to observations by guiding teachers, university supervisors also observe guided practice teachers periodically as they are involved in host classrooms. University supervisors are liaisons between universities and school sites (Hsu, 2004). The role of the university supervisor is to document the guided practice teachers progress in planning, classroom management, and professionalism. University supervisors observe guided practice teachers in various settings while they interact with students in classrooms. University supervisors meet regularly with guided practice teachers to discuss the supervisors observations and offer suggestions to improve the guided practice teachers practices (Hsu; 2004). Like university supervisors, guiding teachers are critical to the guided practice process. In fact, Zeichner (2002) considers guiding teachers the key components in 9 determining the quality of guided practice teachers experiences. Zeichner (2002) also found that being a good cooperating teacher is important but it is not synonymous with being a good teacher, (Zeichner; pg. 59). Being a good guiding teacher involves more than providing access to a classroom or modeling lessons. It involves learning how to mentor and understand the complexities of the demanding process. Zeichner (2002) also found the quality of human relationships is important to creating good student teaching placements. Given the critical nature of guided practice teaching experiences, an effort must be made to support all those involved. Statement of the Problem Currently, teacher preparation consists of several routes to becoming certificated teachers across the United States. Each one has different perspectives, requirements, and procedures for preparing teacher candidates. Traditional teacher education programs are university-based programs that blend theory and practice through coursework and guided practice teaching experiences (Darling-Hammond, 2006) with a degree program. There is a current trend towards alternative teacher education programs that include Teach for America (TFA) (Darling-Hammond, 2005), residential intern programs (Solomon, 2009), and the privatization of schools (Ayers & Klonsky, 2006). The goal of TFA is to lower the barriers for entry into teaching. TFA recruits seniors and recent college graduates from top universities across the country that would otherwise not consider teaching. Those who apply to the program commit to teach two years in high- need areas. Unlike traditional teacher preparation programs that require fieldwork ranging from ten weeks to a year s time, TFA requires a five-week summer training 10 program, which includes coursework and guided practice teaching (Glazerman, 2009). Teacher residential programs are highly selective and recruit potential teachers by determining the needs of schools and districts in urban areas (Solomon, 2009). These types of programs place resident teachers in classrooms under the supervision of Mentor teachers during the first year of the program. Resident teachers also participate in classes designed around the needs of schools that are supported by local partner universities as the Residents work towards a master s degree in education (Gatlin, 2009). An urban school district that has seen change in the recent years is the Chicago School District. There, Arne Duncan, former chief executive officer of Chicago Public Schools (CPS), began a reform to privatize education. The goal of CPS is to recruit, develop, and support new schools to meet the diverse needs of the students in the Chicago area. The ultimate goal of CPS is to hold the school accountable to high performance measures (Chicago Public Schools, 2008). In doing so, Duncan is calling for a privatization of education; setting a business-oriented foundation for operators to bid for schools and run them using business models (Ayers & Klonsky, 2006). Proponents for the privatization of education contend that CPS assumes the main obstacles toward higher student achievement are poor teachers, teacher unions, and the local communities (Ayers & Klonsky, 2006). Chester Finn (1999) also agrees with Duncan; he is also an advocate of school reform stemming from outside of traditional teacher education programs. Finn (1999) has written that a common sense approach is needed to boost the quality of teachers in this country. Finn (1999) argues that in order to staff schools with qualified teachers, regulations that control entry into the profession should be lessened. Additionally, he maintains that teachers should be held accountable 11 not by their peers opinion on their performances, but rather by their students academic achievement. Whereas Finn (1999) deems those with degrees in the content area they teach are the most qualified teachers, traditional teacher education programs abide by the belief that teacher candidates must also be provided with meaningful opportunities to learn pedagogy, or methods of teaching. Methods of teaching are particular procedures or sets of procedures, used by teachers to organize the presentation and assessment of information to be learned by students (Darling-Hammond & Bransford; 2005). Along with learning about and practicing effective methods, pre-service teachers must have a strong understanding of the general pedagogies and strategies used in teaching, such as determining groupings and assessments. Content specific pedagogies, or the specific teaching strategies used in a particular content area (Cooney, 1994), are also significant in the preparation of teachers. Through partnerships, both teacher education curriculum and classroom instruction should influence each other. However, according to Zeichner (2002), this is not the case. He contends that university professors who invest time and effort into the professional aspect of education, as opposed to solely research, are given little credit or rewards by higher education institutions. Likewise, classroom teachers who work towards advancement in teacher education do not receive recognition by schools or district supervisors. Zeichner (2002) suggests guiding teachers and university instructors remain ignorant of the principles that underlie their educational philosophies A disconnect between universities and school classrooms has been attributed to the lack of interrelated goals. 12 As Zeichner (2002) argues, establishing high-quality relationships between universities and partner schools is important. However, he found that guided practice teaching programs are regarded with little respect by host colleges or universities (Zeichner, 2002; Kroll, et. al., 1990). It is evidenced that university teacher education programs are under-funded for the type of work they must carry out (Zeichner, 2002). In addition, there is an inverse relationship between time and resources spent by most faculties in ensuring that guiding teachers are adequately prepared to offer the best learning experiences possible for guided practice teachers (Zeichner, 2002). In the research available, the responsibilities of guiding teachers are evident in various roles. Some serve as mentors to guided practice teachers while others invite guided practice teachers into classroom as observers or participant observers. At times, guiding teachers see guided practice teachers as colleagues who help them grow professionally (Koerner, et. al., 2002). Guiding teachers vary in experience, expertise, age, ethnic background, and philosophical beliefs (Rikard, 1990). The differences in characteristics of guiding teachers require considerable consideration from principals at school sites when placing student teachers. In the studies found, information was rarely disclosed about the specific criteria used for selection of those who serve as guiding teachers. Purpose of the Study This study analyzed the expectations university teacher education programs have for guiding teachers. The expectations were used to determine procedures used in selecting 13 guiding teachers, their training, and the types of support given to assist them in best assisting guided practice teachers they hosted in their classrooms. Research Questions The research questions directing this study pertained to the selection, training, and effectiveness of support given to guiding teachers. 1. What criteria and procedures do university school administrators and the school sites use to select guiding teachers? 2. How are guiding teachers educated in order to support guided practice teachers in their classroom? 3. What types of support do guiding teachers receive from the university throughout the field experience? 4. What are the perceptions of guided practice teachers regarding the support they receive from guiding teachers? Theoretical Framework To frame this study, Bandura s social-cognitive theory (Pajares, 2002) was applied. Bandura s (2002) social-cognitive theory is rooted in a view of human [agency] in which individuals are agents proactively engaged in their own development and can make things happen by their actions (Pajares, 2002, pg. 2). This framework emphasized the development of an individual s cognitive, social and behavioral capabilities through the cultivation of their beliefs in order for them, in this case cooperating teachers, to use their abilities effectively to help guide student teachers more appropriately to reach predetermined goals or objectives. 14 Social cognitive-theory (Bandura & Wood, 1989) is comprised of triadic reciprocal determinism. This model joins behavior, cognitive, and personal factors with external environmental factors. The bi-directionality, or the influence of each factor on the other, comes about through master modeling, guided master modeling, and self-efficacy. Master modeling includes four competent processes (Bandura & Wood, 1989): attentional process, representational processes, master modeling and motivational processes. Attentional processes establish what the observations people extract from experiences. Representational processes refer to the information that is retained from the observations noted above. The third process is a behavioral production process which establishes whether or not appropriate actions are taken by the translations of the information observed and retained. The fourth process, the motivational process, emphasizes that people are most likely to adapt to experiences where they produce valued outcomes rather than unrewarded or punishing consequences. Guided master modeling is comprised of three aspects of modeling. First, master modeling refers to the modeling of appropriate skills through general rules and strategies (Bandura & Wood, 1989). Bandura and Wood (1989), convey that skills are to be taught in a generalized manner in order for individuals to be able to react to more than any one given situation. The second component of guided master modeling is guided skilled mastery (Bandura & Wood, 1989). This refers to opportunities given to use that which was modeled previously in situations where individuals may receive corrective modeling to achieve improvements. The last component of guided master modeling is through a transfer program. Once an individual has seen appropriate modeling and has had an 15 opportunity to practice their skills, they should be placed into situations aimed at providing self-directed success. The behavioral and cognitive aspects of Bandura s social-cognitive framework (1989) are linked through personal factors. In order for master modeling and guided modeling to have a significant and positive effect on individuals, one s self-efficacy must be developed. Mastery experiences, effective modeling, social persuasion and an individual s physical state contribute to the development of self-efficacy. Bandura (1989) insists that individuals should have plenty of positive experiences as well as some setbacks when applying modeled strategies in order to develop resilience in their practice. For optimum performance, one s physiological state also comes into play. The stress level of the situation can be indicative of the success of one s future performance (Bandura & Wood, 1989). Through the processes and structures previously mentioned, social-cognitive theory provides a framework in which the effects of social-structural factors connect to organizational performance (Bandura & Wood; 1989). With the proper motivations, positive criticisms, and continuous training of guiding teachers, the experience for guided practice teachers has the probability of being much more significant. Importance of the Study Variability exists in the construction of clinical experiences among university teacher education programs (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). In an ideal situation, guided practice teachers would be placed with guiding teaches who offer consistent purposeful coaching with frequent feedback. In this situation, guiding teachers 16 would offer modeling of the strategies that guided practice teachers learn through their coursework. In addition, guiding teachers would offer guided practice teachers repeated opportunities to practice and reflect on their progress while allowing them more responsibility (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). Unfortunately, depending on how guiding teachers are chosen, the experiences can be passive, whereby the guiding teacher observes from the back of the room without providing constructive feedback. In other situations, guided practice teachers are expected to learn in a trial by fire manner where they are expected to take over a classroom and teach with minimal support (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). Furthermore, the guiding teachers chosen may or may not reflect the universities philosophies of education. Considering the many changes that teacher education programs have recently experienced, certain facets of teacher education programs have gone unnoticed (Darling- Hammond & Bransford, 2005). While there are a multitude of studies on guided practice teachers experiences, there are few studies that focused specifically on guiding teachers. The contribution this study offers to the field of teacher education is a better understanding of rationales used by schools and universities in selecting, training, and supporting guiding teachers. Patterns found in the data offer effective practices to meet the needs of guiding teachers. Definition of Terms Guiding teacher: teacher at a school site that usually assumes responsibility for mentoring pre-service teachers; also referred to as cooperating teacher, master teacher, classroom teacher, mentor teacher, and supervising teacher (Zeichner, 2002). 17 Guided practice teacher: a teacher-candidate who learns to teach through field- based experiences; also referred to as student-teacher or pre-service teacher (Boz & Boz, 2006). University Supervisor or Coordinator: a liaison between a university and a school site, traditionally responsible for observing and critiquing guided practice teachers. University supervisors may take on the role of coach while offering suggestions and assistance in analyzing specific teaching situations (Hsu, 2005). Guided practice teaching: the opportunity for a student teacher to translate theory learned in the university setting into hands-on classroom practice in a regular classroom setting (Hardin, 2005); also referred to as student teaching or field experience. Delimitations of the Study This study took place in Southern California. The structures analyzed from the participating tier-one research university in the study pertained to the state s teacher credentialing guidelines. The findings may not be applicable to university settings outside of California. Delimitations to the study also concerned the rate of participation among invited participants. The survey instrumentation was administered through an on-line host that did not allow for a guarantee that surveys would be completed and submitted for analysis. 18 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Today s schools of education are charged with much more than simply producing highly skilled teachers (Darling-Hammond, Bransford, 2005). According to Darling- Hammond and Bransford (2005), it would be naïve to simply strive to prepare more qualified teachers. Schools of education have the task of communicating the importance of a child s well being, in and outs of the classroom, to those preparing to become teachers. By teaching about how young children react and learn from their environments, the proper pedagogy, and the importance of content selection and content organization, teaching candidates will learn how to provide meaningful learning experiences for children. Knowing how to involve a child s experiences of race, culture, and class through effective teacher education courses will help to ensure that the needs of all children are met in their classrooms (Holmes, 1995). There is a reform movement involving alternative teacher certification methods. Programs such as Teach for America (Koerner, et. al., 2006) and residency programs such as the model in Boston (Solomon, 2009) suggest a departure from traditional teacher education. Programs such as these recruit potential teachers who have strong understanding of content knowledge. However, they are not required to have a strong understanding of pedagogy at the commencement of their teaching assignment. Instead, the programs offer ongoing training throughout their first few years of teaching (Solomon, 2009) to provide this necessary pedagogy. Finn (1999) argues that requirements to teacher licensure should be less demanding. He argues that tests required by licensing programs cannot be depended 19 upon, as the imperfections in [our] test instruments make it unwise to give too much weight to test results in deciding who should be permitted to teach (Finn, 1999, pp. 32). Instead, Finn proposes that teachers should not have to take teacher-training courses. He offers the Catholic private school as an example of successes of unlicensed teachers. As a competitive market, Catholic private schools look to hire the best teachers, whether they are licensed or not. Finn s (1999) arguments are in direct contrast to current legislation such as NCLB (2002). In the wake of NCLB (2002), in order to be labeled as highly qualified teachers, teacher candidates must complete a guided practice teaching experience. To complete the experience, they must be placed with mentors in the form of guiding teachers. Fenton and Rudgers (1988) support the idea that guiding teachers are critical to teacher education. Fenton and Rudgers (1988) suggest that guiding teachers should be more proactive in sharing their knowledge with novice teachers. They mention that guiding teachers must possess knowledge of lesson planning, as well as an understanding of professional standards. Moreover, guiding teachers should be able to communicate frequently with their guided practice teachers to build and maintain a trusting relationship with them. The guiding teacher s role in teacher education is significant. Initially, guided teachers agree to take part in teacher education programs by hosting pre-service teachers in their classroom for a designated period of time (Koerner, et.al, 2002) where guiding teachers serve in several roles. One of those roles is as a mentor to guided practice teachers. They act as personal support as well as models of role development and professional skills. For the university education program, guiding teachers are expected 20 to be pedagogical models that support universities theoretical frameworks and goals for pre-service teachers (Koerner, et.al, 2002). To take a closer look at the roles of guiding teachers, the literature review for this study outlines research concentrated on guiding teachers. This review begins with research-defining characteristics of guiding teachers. From there, procedures are identified in the selection process of guiding teachers. Subsequently, the benefits for building positive relationships between guiding teachers and university personnel are established. Finally, the literature reviewed is concluded with a discussion on how this information affects the field of education. The studies incorporated in this review are of a qualitative nature. The findings originated from large-scale university studies to smaller studies with less than twenty participants. In addition, the studies vary in time frame ranging, from one semester long (ten to thirteen weeks) to two year long inquiries. The research used in this review includes theoretical articles and qualitative studies from the mid-1960 s to the present. Several databases were used in conducting this review. The majority of the studies are on JSTOR while others can be found on ERIC, HOMER, and PROQuest. Numerous keywords/terms were used in narrowing the search including cooperating teacher, supervision, support of cooperating teacher/mentor/ guiding teacher, student teacher supervision, cognitive theory and social cognitive theory. Furthermore, references from select studies and theoretical articles were used to uncover additional sources. As evident in the literature, guiding teachers who participate in university teacher education programs ought to have particular characteristics to ensure the success of the 21 guided practice teachers. These characteristics illustrate an overall depiction of teachers who are willing to teach and to learn with guided practice teachers. Guided teachers have also proven to provide meaningful experiences for guided practice teachers when aided with meaningful support. The literature review is organized according to the themes found in the research. First, a discussion will be provided on the guiding teacher as a professional. Then a review of the literature concerning the selection of guided practice teachers will be analyzed. Following that discussion is an outline of the benefits of positive relationships and the support of guided teachers. These discussions are followed by a focus on the incentives offered to guiding teachers. The Guided Teacher as a Professional For pre-service teachers, guided practice teaching experiences may be the most significant events in the early stages of their teaching career (Rikard, G., 1990; Cochran- Smith, 1991; Koernor, et. al., 2002). During this time, guided practice teachers learn to apply theory learned in university classrooms to practical situations at school sites. At this time in their preparation as teachers, guided practice teachers can purposefully and critically rehearse certain teacher performances (Darling-Hammond & Bransford; 2005, p. 401). Guided Practice Teaching Experiences Throughout this significant experience, pre-service teachers receive support from various supervisors. The people to whom student teachers look for guidance and support are guiding teachers, university supervisors, and university faculty. These three levels of 22 supervision provide the foundation from which guided practice teachers will grow as professionals. Guiding teachers are professionals under whom guided practice teachers study pedagogy and methodology. In general, guiding teachers influence student teachers attitudes and progression while in their guided practice (Hicks, 1969). Scholars are now delving into investigations focusing on guiding teachers as contributors to teacher education programs. In a study conducted at the University of British Columbia, Clarke (2001) surveyed over seven hundred guiding teachers that were involved in a Supervision of Instruction Course that helped to profile information about guiding teachers. Findings from this study indicate that teachers have an elevated sense of professional preparedness. Moreover, the results show that teacher experiences and knowledge base are not used as available resource; however, there is a desire by teachers to provide their expertise. These results indicate guiding teachers possess skills and knowledge that may enhance their services if incorporated into the guided practice teacher s preparation. Qualities found to be prevalent in this study include teaching experience along with having the right personality for working with guided practice teachers. Clarke s (2001) study, however, does not define what the right personality entails. The third criterion mentioned in his study, excellence in teaching, is also undefined. The fourth quality he mentions is that teachers who wish to be guiding teachers should be prepared to work hard in their roles as co-operating teacher(s) (as opposed to viewing the role of a co-operating teacher as an opportunity for a rest or a break from teaching) (2001, pg. 248). Clarke s (2001) study also identifies that guiding teachers were almost twice more likely to hold a master s degree than those teachers who did not take on guiding teacher 23 roles. Of those who did hold master s degrees, most were at the secondary school level. This attribute suggests that teachers who choose or agree to serve as guiding teachers hold continual learning about education as a priority in their professional lives. Although the University of British Columbia does not dictate these qualities, they nonetheless offer a starting point to important qualities that these guiding teachers may hold. Like Clarke (2001), Boudreau (1999), surveyed thirty-six teachers involved in a course focusing on supervision of guided practice teachers. The teachers in this study included elementary and high school teachers with teaching experience ranging from five to thirty five years. The author does not specify in which region the study took place, however, he does mention that ninety percent of the participants taught in urban or suburban settings while the other ten percent of participants taught at small rural schools. The student population at these schools ranged between 200 and 1, 200 students. The goal for Boudreau s study was to determine how guiding teachers define their supervision styles for guided practice teachers and how that relates to reflective teaching. Through his findings, Boudreau (1999) shares five behaviors that define roles of guiding teachers. The first behavior describes guiding teachers who are receptive of the guided practice teacher. This behavior allows guiding teachers to integrate the guided practice teacher into classroom routines as well as school culture. The second behavior denotes guiding teachers who establish positive relationships with guided practice teachers. Guiding teachers who offer professional self-development opportunities account for the third behavior. The fourth behavior suggests that teachers who present organization within guided practice teachers practicum provide a system for planning and setting objectives in meaningful progressions. The last behavior revealed in Boudreau s (1999) 24 study emphasizes an exchange of ideas and feedback. This behavior encourages discussion of successes and failures after guided practice teachers lessons. Findings in Boudreau s (1999) study complement findings found by Kahn (2001). Kahn s study consisted of in-depth interviews with twenty guiding teachers with varying years of experience in secondary school settings. His research allowed for participants to voice perceptions of successful guided practice teaching experiences. Kahn concluded that these particular guiding teachers see themselves as being flexible in terms of allowing opportunities for trial and error experiences by guided practice teachers. Through interviews, he found that guiding teachers perceive themselves as being able to relate with guided practice teachers. Like Boudreau (1999), Kahn found that guiding teachers appreciate the exchange of knowledge and opportunities for mutual learning with guided practice teachers. In his study, Kahn (2001) describes two other findings. The first is a lack of support that guiding teachers felt they received from either the university or the university coordinator. The second finding, much like Clarke s (2001), indicates that guiding teachers did not feel their knowledge was used to the fullest potential. In other words, guiding teachers see themselves as resources that could be utilized more effectively by being more involved in the preparation of pre-service teachers. The studies mentioned (Clarke, 2001; Boudreau, 1999; and Kahn, 2001) lead to similar conclusions: guiding teachers are individuals that value a mutual learning nature of working with guided practice teachers. As well, guiding teachers see themselves as professionals who are eager to share knowledge with pre-service teachers. Although the literature defines behaviors and perceptions of guiding teachers, it falls short of 25 describing the specific criteria that is used to determine who participates as guiding teachers. This inquiry needs to be investigated to facilitate an understanding of the guiding teacher selection process by universities and school administrators. Selection of Guiding Teachers Many teachers across the nation possess characteristics mentioned above to describe guiding teachers. However, not all teachers may be the best choices to host guided practice teachers. Serving as a guiding teacher requires time, expertise, and flexibility in the classroom (Maltas & McCarty-Chair, 2006). Along with responsibilities to their own students, guiding teachers have added accountability placed. Due to such critical responsibilities, it is important to look at methods used in selecting guiding teachers. Research regarding the selection of guiding teachers is minimal. In his study, Clarke (2001) identifies how informal requirements for guiding teachers are employed in the selection process, while Hsu (2005) indirectly speaks to the advantage of selecting guiding teachers who benefit guided practice teachers. A third study explains the benefits of using qualities as collegiality to select guiding teachers (Lemlech & Hertzog, 1999). While Clarke (2001) identified common behaviors of guiding teachers in his extensive study, he also dedicates a portion of his discussion on the selection process at UBC. He states that the location of his study, British Columbia, does not have formal requirements for teachers who wish to participate as guiding teachers in the University of British Columbia (UBC) teacher education program. Through a survey, Clarke (2001) was able to find that the nature of teachers who were active guiding teachers held specific 26 qualities. This particular program employs volunteerism in deciding who is to participate as guiding teachers. Although formal selection processes do not exist at UBC, responses from surveys conducted for data collection report teachers believe principals, school based teams, and universities ought to have varying degrees of responsibility in indicating who is to take part in educating guided practice teachers. Moreover, Clarke (2001) uses this information to call for selection processes that depend on more than volunteerism. In doing so, more responsibility will be given to the profession as a whole. In another study, Shihkuan Hsu (2005) reveals a problem with the guiding teachers selection process. Hsu s (2005) study aimed to describe help-seeking behaviors of guided practice teachers. Hsu s sample included forty guided practice teacher participants at secondary levels from a university in Taipei, Taiwan. Although the initial research question Hsu posed pertained to how guided practice teachers chose to seek assistance from the support system around them, she was able to illustrate the importance of university programs in choosing guiding teachers that will support guided practice teachers. Hsu (2005) reports that some guided practice teacher placements in her study were less than adequate. Guided practice teachers are placed with teachers known to be less qualified and unable to communicate well. Hsu proposes this is done in hopes that the guided practice teachers can provide assistance to those teachers. Consequently, Hsu (2005) found this prompted less support for developing guided practice teachers. Hsu was able to find that guiding teachers were sought out for assistance less frequently than the guided practice teachers peers. This shows a disparity between the guided practice teachers actual experience and the universities expectations of these experiences. 27 Guiding teachers have to be willing to work within the parameters of university s requirements and be able to mentor novice teachers while assuring that all of their students are meeting the set learning goals (Hsu, 2005). While Hsu (2005) touches on some reasons as to why guiding teachers are chosen, there is still a need for studies that focus on factors that influence the selection processes of guiding teachers. Hsu s (2005) study found discrepancies between the university s anticipation of the guided practice teachers observations and the reality of the observations (Boz & Boz, 2006). The results of the study indicate minimal learning by guided practice teachers. The data demonstrates that the guided practice teachers observed similar methodology in both semesters of guided practice due to lack of instructional variety from guiding teachers. Furthermore, the opportunities for learning were diminished because of the personality and training of the guiding teacher (Boz & Boz, 2006; Hsu, 2005). The results indicate that not all guiding teachers had friendly personalities. The majority of student teachers found it difficult to communicate with their mentors. Likewise, Hsu (2005) found that the personalities of guiding teachers affect the learning experiences of guided practice teachers. Four key points regarding factors used to select guiding teachers are positive attitudes, intentional selection, effectual professional development on supervising guided practice teachers, and flexibility. Hsu s (2005) findings support a need to select guiding teachers with approachable demeanors who are motivated and able to contribute to the enhancement of a teacher candidate s knowledge of teaching. This study concludes that guiding teachers personalities are important considerations to be made when selecting teachers who will offer more positive experiences for pre-service teachers. 28 Boz and Boz (2006) and Clarke (2001) found that teachers who hold credentials and volunteer as guiding teachers are no longer enough qualifiers for quality guiding teachers. Boz and Boz (2006), emphasize the importance of meeting certain criteria when selecting guiding teachers. In order for guided practice teaching to be a successful steppingstone on the road to becoming confident teachers, pre-service teachers must be able to develop trusting relationships with people that make up their support system. Moreover, findings state those selected as guiding teachers ought to be motivated to want to assist in the development of pre-service teachers. Similarly, Clarke (2001) asserts that guiding teachers should be individuals who are willing to work with others, who are flexible in terms of planning and who provide positive and constructive criticisms of pre-service teachers. Furthermore, guiding teachers should have opportunities for professional development that would prepare them to work with pre-service teachers. The literature suggests that teacher preparation programs ensure that the selection of guiding teachers is done with careful consideration of individuality and flexibility, working within the parameters of programs missions for producing well-prepared teachers. Benefits of Positive Relationships Positive relationships between guiding teachers, guided practice teachers and university liaisons offer constructive settings where pre-service teachers can learn effective pedagogy alongside those interested in and supportive of their development (Lou & Rikard, 1998). This section of the literature review includes a description of the guided practice teaching triad and how each of the participants affects each other; the 29 efficacy of both guiding teachers and guided practice teachers; how training affects their relationship; and a focus on how guided practice teaching assignments affect the relationship between guiding and guided practice teachers. Field experience is an important element in the development of novice teachers during their teacher preparation experience. This is a component in teacher preparation programs whereby students learn to teach by means of experiences they get in the field (Boz & Boz, 2006, pg. 353). During this time, a triad consisting of the guided practice teacher, guiding teacher, and university supervisor come together to support guided practice teachers in practical implementation of pedagogy taught in methods classes (Lou & Rikard, 2008). At this time, guided practice teachers engage in observations of guiding teachers. Moreover, guided practice teachers engage in preparing and conducting lessons in the guided practice teachers classrooms. Because guiding teachers open their classrooms to guided practice teachers, it is important for strong relationships to be present (Dunne & Bennett, 1997). Fives, Hammon and Olivarez (2006) contribute the level of support received from guiding teachers as vital to guided practice teachers development of efficacy as teachers. Their study focused on factors that contributed to teacher burnout throughout the early stages in their teaching career. The study consisted of forty-nine guided practice teachers participating in both elementary and secondary school settings. The goal of their research was to investigate how efficacy beliefs, burnout and support given by guiding teachers and university supervisors affected guided practice teachers over time (Fives, et.al. 2006). In their study, Fives et.al. (2006) highlight positive relationships between guided practice teachers and guiding teachers as one factor that helps guided practice teachers 30 develop higher levels of efficacy. The results of their study demonstrated that such relationships allow for increased feelings of confidence in abilities associated with instructional practices by guided practice teachers. The results also indicate that strong relationships between guided practice teachers and guided teachers led to more interactions towards a deeper understanding of teaching practices. In addition, Fives et.al (2006), found support provided from guiding teachers is most beneficial when they have been properly trained. According to their study, those guided practice teachers with positive feedback from guiding teachers felt more efficacious about their progress as teachers than those whose guiding teachers did not offer feedback to help improve their practice. After examining their study s multiple questionnaires and surveys, Fives, et.al s (2006) findings concur with Hsu (2005) who found the more positive feedback that guided practice teachers received from guiding teachers, the more successful, or efficacious, guided practice teachers felt. Both studies indicate that there must be a change in the perceptions of how guided practice teachers cope with the stresses of that experience. Moreover, both studies find that relationships developed between the guided practice teachers and guiding teachers must be nurtured to include a level of trust where guided practice teachers know they can seek support and assistance from guiding teachers. Similarly to Fives et.al (2006), Maltas and McCarty-Clair (2006) contribute positive relationships to a decrease of anxiety that accompanies guided practice teachers when beginning at unfamiliar school sites. Their article in the Music Educators Journal offers three suggestions to guiding teachers in establishing positive relationships with guided practice teachers. They suggest that positive relationships can begin by guiding 31 teachers and guided practice teachers by meeting with each other prior to the guided practice teacher beginning his or her observations in the classroom. Guided teachers can also explain the relevant curriculum and school goals that guide instruction. One other suggestion in building positive relationships is to balance correction with praise when observing guided practice teachers. Maltas and McCarty-Clair (2006) echoed findings by Lemlech and Hertzog (1999), investigation of what guided practice teachers learn from guiding teachers. This study involved a social configuration of the guided practice teaching experience. The university studied incorporated paired guided practice teacher assignments. Lemlech and Hertzog note that, in comparison to the one-on-one relationship between guided practice teacher and master teacher, guided practice teachers were paired during clinical practices to develop collegial behaviors of interaction between two guided practice teachers and guiding teachers. In changing the configuration of the assignment, master teachers became team leaders as opposed to mentors or supervisors. Through data gathered by interviews, Lemlech and Hertzog (1999) demonstrated the creation of a collegial environment amongst the three participants. This positive relationship led to more flexibility in terms of allowing guided practice teachers to fulfill certain university criteria. Other dimensions of the experience found as a contributor to the relationship between guided practice teaching pairs and guiding teachers, were the conversations that ensued. Those guided practice teachers that felt as though they had positive relationships with their guiding teachers reported who were great models of teaching. However, according to Lemlech and Hertzog (1999), guiding teachers who were unable to develop positive relationships were viewed as forcing the guided practice 32 teachers to replicate their teaching style. These findings help to understand the important role that communication holds in guided practice teaching experiences. Lemlech and Hertzog s (1999), study was helpful in identifying how positive relationships improved guiding teachers views of themselves as teachers. One participant explained, They make me much more conscious which is a good thing. Something you do every day for the last twenty years you do without thinking and you are blind to areas that need improvement (pg. 8). Another participant adds, Recently my two student teachers have come up with some very innovative ways of teaching that have kind of never occurred to me& I learn a great deal from my student teachers (pg. 8). Lemlech and Hertzog concluded that by utilizing positive pairings, guiding teachers became more objective in reflections and comments about the guided practice teachers. In addition, guided practice teachers and guiding teachers affirmed a rise in level of professional dialogue, reflection and collegiality. In another study, Baker and Milner (2006) also looked closely at relationships developed by paired guided practice teachers and mentors. This study found that mentor teachers experienced several difficulties when balancing two guided practice teachers to supervise. The complications included a sense of being spread a bit thinly at times (pg. 69), as one guiding teacher commented on not having enough time to spend with each guided practice teacher. This dilemma became evident in discussions about finding the time to dialogue with two guided practice teachers as opposed to one. A second complication was that mentors saw the potential for guided practice teachers to distract each other by misinterpreting their advice. A third obstacle was that mentors thought competition and conflict would distract guided practice teachers from the task at hand. 33 In spite of these potential complications, Baker and Milner s (2006) findings suggest that, on average, student teachers who were placed in classrooms along with peers reported they were able to develop more intense professional relationships with mentors. Through the interviews conducted, it was evident these relationships concentrated on teaching and pedagogical improvement rather than on personal matters. There are many factors involved in creating positive relationships between guiding teachers and guided practice teachers. These relationships have to be cultivated by taking the time to properly train teachers on how to build positive relationships. According to literature, guiding teachers need to understand the importance of supporting guided practice teachers developing efficacy to build a platform from which guided practice teachers can continue to grow as contributors to their school and to co-workers. Supporting Guiding Teachers The research in this section is divided into two subsections. The first illustrates support through professional development. The training and expectations of guiding teachers are detailed through various studies. The second subsection introduces motivating incentives for guiding teachers. Incentives in the form of professional acknowledgment, monetary and influence are articulated. The review of the literature will demonstrate the importance of both university and school site support for guiding teachers in their support of pre-service teachers. Professional Development Training As with everything that occurs in classrooms, guiding teachers must have some type of professional development on how to supervise guided practice teachers. The 34 expectations of guiding teachers necessitate clear understandings and explanations early on when they host guided practice teachers in their classroom (Tom, 1975). Professional development for guiding teachers may include training of objectives that need to be met for universities, as well as those necessary to meet in assigned classrooms by guided practice teachers. Training for guiding teachers should focus on how to positively communicate with guided practice teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2006). The literature reviewed offered limited information on teacher education programs that were explicit in the support of guiding teachers. Most studies expressed the importance of supporting guiding teachers while discussing the bigger picture of guided practice teaching. The following describes articles that suggest how guiding teachers have been successfully supported by specific programs. The study that follows the articles describes an example of the successful Clinical Master Teacher Program at the University of Alabama (Stanford, et.al., 1994). In 1975, Alan Tom began his discussion on improving support for guiding teachers. He argued that training for supervising teachers had to be more than lecture sessions. To support his argument, Tom (1975) outlined a number of training materials that would elevate the support given to supervising teachers. Tom (1975) mentioned Systemic and Objective Analysis of Instruction that focused on a developed sequence of training for supervising teachers. The Interpersonal Communications focused on the development of interpersonal skills. The third form of training involved building on relationships between guided practice teachers and guiding teachers. Tom concluded that whatever the training may be for a particular teacher education program, there has to be a 35 conscious decision to integrate more skill based materials that are appropriate to achieve each program s goals. Linda Darling-Hammond (2006) continues this discussion. She too recommends that universities and school faculties engage in communications to inform guiding teachers of expectations set forth by university teacher education programs. She states many programs convey this information through handbooks or manuals given to guiding teachers prior to the commencement of guided practice teaching events; however, it is not a practice in all programs. Other programs offer large group meetings for guiding teachers to discuss strategies and approaches to mentoring pre-service teachers. Darling- Hammond also states that some programs go to the extent of offering guiding teacher workshops or courses that allow guiding teachers, to enhance their own knowledge. These are only a few ways in which universities can support guiding teachers. Darling- Hammond (2006) affirms that in supporting constructive relationships with guiding teachers, opportunities are created and maintained for more in depth conversations concerning educational goals and practices as well as sustaining collegial learning between guiding teachers and university faculty. Another way to support guiding teachers is to offer a more prominent voice in educating pre-service teachers. For example, a significant study by the University of Alabama in 1994 presented the Clinical Master Teacher (CMT) program (Stanford, et. al, 1994; Wilson, 2005) which incorporated several incentives for guiding teachers. This program empowered guiding teachers by having them perform two roles. One role was that of the traditional guiding teacher while the other was that of the university supervisor. This structure enabled guiding teachers, or as they were referred as in this 36 program, Clinical Master Teachers (CMT), to take on the role of university supervisor by being employed as an adjunct professor at the university. The CMTs were then entitled to university benefits. The combination of these roles permitted CMTs to assign grades to guided practice teachers for the work completed during internships at school sites. These grades were legal under Alabama state law because guiding teachers who had been instated as university faculty awarded them. Because CMTs were considered university faculty, they were appointed to the university for the duration of the school year and were paid $250.00 per guided practice teacher they supervised. The support given to CMTs was given by university coordinators who worked with teams of CMTs, as opposed to working with teams of guided practice teachers, as in the traditional triad structure. The research team found this type of support empowered CMTs to take their responsibilities seriously. They also found that this support led CMTs to become more involved with professional responsibilities. These responsibilities included reflecting on their teaching, accepting leadership roles, sharing their expertise with colleagues and attending professional conferences. Stanford et al. (1994), suggest this particular arrangement is logical when considering guiding teachers spend the most time with guided practice teachers. CMTs were in the best position to evaluate guided practice teachers, bearing in mind that they are responsible for assigning the official grades for the course. This arrangement of the guided practice teaching triad has proven (Wilson, 1995) to be confirmed by both guided practice teachers and guided practice teachers. It offered support for guiding teachers in a distinctive way by redesigning each member s responsibilities. 37 Noting the success of the CMT program, why have more university teacher education programs not taken the steps to create programs more aligned to that of the University of Alabama? This study will look at factors that contribute to the support of guiding teachers in universities in Southern California. It will analyze the support as it is intended, offered and ultimately given to guiding teachers in respect to professional development training. Motivating Incentives Aside from professional development, the literature revealed professional acknowledgment, monetary gain and influence also motivate teachers to serve as guiding teachers. In order for guiding teachers to know that they are significant contributors to the education of pre-service teachers, it is important for universities to validate their contributions. With this in mind, Whaley and Wolfe (1984) conducted a study that detailed motivating incentives for guiding teachers. One suggestion they present for motivating guiding teachers is to allow them to carry a distinct title, such as Clinical Professor. Whaley and Wolfe state that having a specialized title can promote the prestige of guiding teachers among their colleagues. Another suggestion for motivating guiding teachers is to make them a part of the decision-making body in regards to the education of guided practice teachers. Often times, decisions made for the guided practice teaching experience are made at the university without any regard to guiding teachers (Whaley & Wolfe, 1984). This 38 incentive would reinforce the expertise teachers have to offer teacher education programs, as well to the field of education. Whaley and Wolfe s (1984) a Cooperating Teacher Attitude Inventory indicates that guiding teachers could be motivated by an increased payment for their service. Agreeing to mentor student teachers takes time and commitment; therefore, guiding teachers deserve to be compensated for that time and work. Although this study surveyed a small portion of all guiding teachers across the United States, the teachers surveyed ranked monetary compensation higher than intrinsic obligations as a means of motivation for working with guided practice teachers. Summary It is important for pre-service teachers to have positive experiences during their guided practice teaching experiences in their credentialing programs. For this reason, guiding teachers who are invested in the development of new teachers can be selected for having certain characteristics that will enhance the experience for themselves as well as for guided practice teachers (Boudreau, 1999; Jobe & Pope, 2002; Clarke, 2001; and Fenton & Rudgers, 1988) The studies in the literature have designated characteristics such as a willingness to guide new teachers in practice, ability to establish positive relationships with others, and a skillfulness in creating organization within guided practice teachers experiences. While considering the characteristics of guiding teachers, the literature recommends ways to support them. One study described a program where guiding teachers volunteer to participate in some capacity in the university teacher education 39 program (Clarke, 2001); while another described a program whose goal may have been more with helping to improve in-service teachers than pre-service teachers (Hsu, 2005). This program chose to place guided practice teachers with perceived weak teachers in order to improve the opportunities of learning for the school children. Still another study proposed an alternate method for selecting guiding teachers. Boz and Boz (2006) studied a program that randomly chose the teachers who would serve as guiding teachers. The literature also exposed benefits to building positive relationships among guiding teachers and guided practice teachers. Fives, et.al. (2006) attribute a higher self- efficacy rating for guided practice teachers whose guiding teachers were seen as individuals who genuinely supported efforts in classrooms, whether it is through positive or constructive feedback. Maltas and McCarty-Clair (2006) credit positive relationships to a decrease in guided practice teacher anxiety; allowing them to perform with more confidence. In an alternate configuration of the triad, Lemlech and Hertzog (1999) enhanced the guiding teachers professionalism through a collegial relationship with two guided practice teachers as opposed to one. As positive relationships are fostered, guiding teachers can develop professional views of themselves. This can have a positive impact on guided practice teachers performance that can aid student achievement. As with any endeavor, communication is the key to a successful experience. This sentiment holds true for student teaching. Communication is important when goals are set that involve groups of people such as those referred to as the triad (Hsu, 2001). One way in which guiding teachers can be supported is through clear communication from the university. The literature revealed several ways to support guiding teachers. Darling- Hammond (2006) recommends that universities engage teachers in communications that 40 inform guiding teachers of their expectations when working with guided practice teachers. Masci and Statko (2202) describe a university structure (ProMAT) that allowed guiding teachers to be a part of university faculty and therefore, had more responsibilities to the teacher education program. In another study, Whaley and Wolfe (1984) propose giving guiding teachers titles, which increases the prestige of the position that they hold in teacher education programs allowing them to see themselves as integral to teacher education programs. The literature review uncovered several characteristics of guiding teachers that have proven to be beneficial in the teaching of pre-service teachers. The literature has also indicated various suggestions of how to support the guiding teacher. However, research that incorporates all aspects of serving as a guiding teacher is difficult to find. There is a void in the literature on teacher education that specifies information about guiding teachers that can be generalized into several distinct areas of the Unites States. Research documenting existing programs processes which may or may not include positive outcomes in selecting or supporting guiding teachers is not revealed in a search of the literature. This type of research would provide the field with considerations regarding the most effective teacher education programs. 41 CHAPTER III STUDY DESIGN Introduction There is a growth in literature regarding teacher education over the past decades to describe the process, the effects, and the benefits of preparing future teachers (Zeichner, 1999). In his 1998 Division K (Teaching and Teacher Education) address at AERA, Zeichner outlines this research, including case studies, conceptual and historical research, and studies of learning to teach, which have allowed more in-depth insights in teacher education. From these studies, Zeichner (1999) concludes that much has been learned about the perceptions of teacher candidates and principals regarding certain university teacher preparation programs. Although his address summarizes how teacher education and student teachers may benefit from the findings, Zeichner (1999) does not reveal literature specifically regarding guiding teachers. A void remains in understanding the support given to guiding teachers within the requirement for teacher credentialing; specifically in the selection, preparation, training and support of guiding teachers. To respond to that void, this study will examine the selection process, preparation, and support given to guiding teachers. To guide this study, the following questions will be asked of the recognized coordinators of guided practice teachers from one university, former guided practice teachers, guiding teachers, and school site principals that have had partnerships with this university. 1. What criteria and procedures do university school administrators and the school sites use to select guiding teachers? 42 2. How are guiding teachers educated in order to support guided practice teachers in their classroom? 3. What types of support do guiding teachers receive from the university throughout the field experience? 4. What are the perceptions of guided practice teachers regarding the support they receive from guiding teachers? These questions will be the foundation for a quantitative study. Survey instruments will be used to collect information from all identified members of the population: university coordinators, former guided practice teachers, guiding teachers, and school site principals. Design Summary This study best fits a quantitative approach rather than a qualitative approach. While qualitative design targets a generally smaller number of subjects and focuses on in depth views of specific inquiries, Patton (2002) identifies quantitative research as appropriate to measure reactions of a larger group of people with a limited set of questions. These measures facilitated the analysis of data. Data collected by standardized methods were used to interpret diverse perspectives on guiding teachers experiences. The collection of relevant information was done through a descriptive approach (McMillan, 2000) that allowed data to be collected at a single point in time via surveys. Through these surveys, trends and relationships were identified and analyzed using this type of research. 43 A study which exemplified a similar approach was conducted by Fives et.al. (2006) as their study concerning burnout of guided practice teachers was also designed as quantitative. In their study, Fives et.al (2006) were able to illustrate findings through correlational analysis and regressions of the data collected. By using a quantitative approach, Fives et.al (2006) were able to analyze the data in a concise manner to indicate that significant increases in efficacy decreased burnout symptoms over time. Research Method This study utilized a deductive approach was taken in this study with questions that were predetermined, based on published literature (Patton, 2002). Although a quantitative approach may have missed factors that are not easily quantified or may oversimplify real-world experiences (Patton, 2002), the use of surveys eased the data collection process and offered a timely turnaround of data for analysis. To administer the surveys, notifications were sent to chosen participants by means of electronic mail. These notifications extended an invitation to participate in an on-line survey hosted by Qualtrics (www.qualtrics.com). (See Figure 1) The five to ten minute surveys were kept open for a period of five months. It was the intention of the researcher to keep the surveys open for a period of two months; however, there was a delay in the rate of participation. 44 Figure 1: Data Collection Process To choose participants, contact was made with the tier-one research university featured in this study. The Career Centers advisors contacted approximately seventy-five former guided practice teachers through their alumni email list-serve. The former guided practice teachers were asked to identify the schools and guiding teachers with whom they worked during their guided practice experience as part of their demographic information. The University Placement Coordinator supplemented the number of surveys sent out to former guided practice teachers by twenty-five to increase the number of participants. She also supplemented the number of guiding teachers and school site administrators invited to the study as there were only thirteen school site administrators identified and it was difficult to locate many of the guiding teachers at the schools identified by the former guided practice teachers. In all, fifty former guided practice teachers were invited to participate in the study through a recruitment letter via email. Seventy-five guiding teachers and forty-five school site administrators also received the initial recruitment letter. This email included the online link to the website. Because the number of surveys collected was smaller than expected, all data submitted was used in this study. Selection of population Invitations sent by email to identified cooperating teachers and school site administrator s Notifications sent by email to former student teachers Survey participation 45 Figure 2: Participation Matrix Sampling and Population The population for this study was taken mainly from a large urban center located in the Southwestern United States. This particular tier-one university was chosen because it has recently undergone changes in its guided practice structure. The biggest difference was the removal of a designated University Coordinator found in the traditional guided practice triad. Instead, guiding teachers from this program have opportunities to communicate directly with university faculty instructing the guided practice experiences. As such, some of the participants in the study reflected on experiences prior to the restructuring of the program while others responses reflect the most recent structure. The target populations for this study were those involved with guided practice experiences. The participants included a placement coordinator from one tier-one university urban teacher preparation program, former guided practice teachers, guiding teachers, and school site administrators. This study incorporated purposeful sampling of participants because it was limited to those who have been involved with guided practice teaching experiences within the last five years with the selected university program. With educational policies Urban Teacher Education Program School Site Administrators Former Guided Practice Teachers Guiding Teachers 75 invitations sent out 45 invitations sent out 150 invitations sent out 19 invitations accepted O invitations accepted 31 invitations accepted 46 changing periodically (Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2008), experiences within the last six years corresponded best with the most current university and teacher licensing requirements. The guided practice teachers were chosen from a pool of university graduates from within the last six years. The university s teacher education Career Placement Office and the University Placement Coordinator sent out a total of one hundred fifty invitations to this participant group. Of those, thirty-one former guided practice teachers submitted surveys. Twenty-one of the guided practice teachers who participated in the study, reflected on experiences prior to the university s restructuring of its teacher education program. Eleven participants responses were based on experiences related to the university s current teacher education program. Their current position and district or school of employment was irrelevant to this study. Teachers who had served as guiding teachers within the last six years were invited to participate in the study as well. Guiding teachers hosted guided practice teachers in their classrooms. They acted as mentors to guided practice teachers while they practiced theory and methodology learned in university courses. Nineteen guiding teachers responded to the survey. In addition, school site administrators were asked to participate in the study. Those under this title included principals, assistant principals, or school coordinators who held the responsibility of selecting the teachers with whom guided practice teachers were placed. Fifty school site administrators identified in the former guided practice teachers surveys and from the University Placement Coordinator s contact list were contacted to participate in the study. After a two-week period of inactivity, the University Placement 47 Coordinator resent the recruitment email. Two weeks following that, it was determined this group of participants was not going to accept the invitation to be a part of the study, therefore, there is no data collected from that participant group. Data from all the surveys submitted were analyzed. A total of fifty-one surveys are presented in this study. Instrumentation For this study, surveys were used to gather data. Surveys were appropriate for this type of study because they allowed standardization of the questions asked amongst the various participants (Cozby, 1997). Surveys also allowed the assurance of anonymity of the participants. Four surveys were developed for this study. Each set of participants was invited to complete a survey with questions focusing on the selection, support, training, or the perception of guiding teachers. Although the questions are similar amongst the surveys, the data gathered illuminated perceptions from the different perspectives of the participants (Guided Practice Teacher Survey, Appendix A; Guiding Teacher Survey, Appendix B; School Site Administrator, Appendix C; University Placement Coordinator, Appendix D). Figure 3 shows a sampling of questions on the four surveys. 48 Table 1: Sampling of Questions Data Sources Purposes Survey Sample Questions Research Support Guided Practice Teacher Identify the perceptions student teachers have of guiding teachers fulfillment of expectations set forth by teacher education programs In what ways did your guiding teacher give you guidance concerning lesson planning? Fives, et. al. (2006) examine the cooperating teachers as environmental factors that influence the stress of guided practice teachers. Guiding Teacher Establish the education offered to guiding teachers by teacher education programs What types of documents were you given outlining the expectations for guiding teachers did you receive from the university teacher education program? Darling-Hammond (2006) states that extensive communication be present between the university and school facility. School Site Administrator Determine how guiding teachers are selected What is the process used to select guiding teachers? Hsu (2005) argues positive guided practice teaching placements are critical for meaningful experiences University Placement Coordinator Define the relationship and expectations for field experiences How often are guiding teachers provided with support from the teacher education program? Darling-Hammond (2006) supports the training of guiding teachers prior to their mentorship with guided practice teachers. Guided Practice Teachers Guided practice teachers from participating universities were invited to complete nineteen item surveys. The first questions were based on research by Fives, et.al (2005) regarding support given to guiding teachers. The next questions called for reflection on 49 the training teacher education program offered guiding teachers (Hsu, 2005). The last questions were based on research by Fives, et.al (2005), Lemlech and Hertzog (1999), and Chochran-Smith (2006) regarding perceptions of guiding teachers. (See Figure 3) (See Appendix A) Guiding Teachers Surveys for guiding teachers consisted of thirty-one questions. Whaley and Wolfe s (1984) research was the basis for questions pertaining to support of guiding teachers. Research by Darling-Hammond (2006) was used for questions related to training of guiding teachers. Stanford s (1994) research was the foundation for questions regarding the selection of teachers. Lemloch and Hertzog s (1999) study was used to develop questions about perceptions of guiding teachers. (Figure 3 and Appendix B) School Site Administrator School sites were selected to participate if they had been listed on the guided practice teachers survey as sites where they completed guided practice. The administrators who worked closest with teachers were asked to respond to a survey (Appendix B). The questions for school site administrators were based on research from Hsu (2005) and Clarke (2001). This survey was made up of fourteen items that focused on the selection and training of guiding teachers (See Figure 3) (See Appendix C). University Placement Coordinator The study also invited the tier-one research university s guided placement coordinator to participate in the study. This individual had the opportunity to respond to 50 twenty questions. Questions regarding supporting guiding teachers were based on research completed by Fives, et.al (2006), Darling-Hammond (2009), and Stanford (1994). The questions centered on the training of guiding teachers were supported by research from Koerner (1992) and Khan (2001). (See Figure 3) (See Appendix C) Each survey item supported one or more of the research questions as evident by Tables 2 and 3. Table 2 correlated each research question to the items in each of the four surveys. Table 3 paired the themes within the surveys as they correlated amongst the four sets of participants. Table 2: Correlation of Research Questions to Survey Items Research Question 1: What criteria and procedures are used by the university administrator and school site to select guiding teachers? Research Question 2: How are guiding teachers formally or informally prepared to support guided practice teachers in their classrooms? Research Question 3: What types of support do guiding teachers receive from the university throughout the field experience? Research Question 4: What are perceptions of guided practice teachers regarding the support they receive from guiding teachers? Guided Practice Teacher 1 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 8, 11, 12 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 Guiding Teacher 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22,23 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 School Site Administrator 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 University Placement Coordinator 1, 2, 3 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 17, 18, 19, 20 51 Table 3: Survey Item Themes Areas Guided Practice Teachers Guiding Teachers School Site Administrator University Coordinator Selection Q 1 Q 1, 2, 3, 4 Q 1, 2, 3, 4, Q 1, 2, 3 Qualifications Q 5 Lesson Planning Q 17 Q 28 Communication Q 8, 9, 10 Q 15, 16, 17, Q 10, 11, 12 Feedback Q 16, 18 Q 29 Q13 Training Q 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Q 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 Q 6, 11 Q 4, 5 , 6, 7, 8, 9 Preparation for Professionalism Q 19 Q 30 Compensation Q 11, 12 Q 21, 22, 23 Q 9, 10, 13 Q 15, 16 Evaluations Q 6, 7, 13, 14 Q 13, 14, 24, 25 Q 17, 18, 19, 20 Support Q 8 Q 18, 19, 20 Q 7, 8 Q13, 14 Motivation Q 15, Q 5, 6, 7, 26, 27 Data Collection Data was collected by survey; via a web-based program hosted by Qualtrics. The university s school of education career adviser contacted former guided practice teachers by way of alumni email. Along with a brief abstract of the study, a web link to the survey was included for those who chose to participate in the study. The duration of the surveys was between five to ten minutes. Former guided practice teachers were asked to identify guiding teachers and school site administrators with whom they worked in order for the researcher to contact them. Guiding teachers and school site administrators then received an invitation via email and/or standard mail to participate in the study. (As previously mentioned, the University Placement Coordinator supplemented the amount of surveys sent out.) All data was expected to be collected within a two-month period. In actuality, the surveys remained open during a five-month period due to the lengthier rate of participation. 52 Official documents provided to guiding teachers were also used as data for this study. The document packet includes an overview of the university s teacher education program, and overview of the responsibilities of guiding teachers and guided practice teachers. This overview also defines the attributes of guiding teachers. An independent contract is also included in the packet for teachers who choose to take on the responsibilities of guiding teachers. The program s core principles are explained as well as the scope and sequence of the lessons and assignments to be completed by guided practice teachers. A lesson observation form is included for use during the guided practice. Data Analysis Data collected from the various groups of participants helped to determine the relationships between support to be provided for guiding teachers and the support they actually received. The data was analyzed through a descriptive quantitative design. A comparative analysis was administered comparing data among the four sets of participants. The surveys were divided into four sections: cooperating teacher selection, cooperating teacher training, cooperating teacher support, and perceptions of cooperating teachers. The term cooperating teacher was used in the surveys instead of guiding teacher because the surveys were developed and published prior to the restructuring of the guided practice program. Additionally, official documents from the university s teacher education preparation program were analyzed to determine the goals of the teacher education preparation program. The documents that were analyzed were those given to guiding 53 teachers by the teacher education program informing them of the expectations held by the university. This analysis was made to understand how expectations were communicated to guiding teachers who hosted guided practice teachers. The documents also assisted to structure questions regarding faithful implementation of the university s guidelines. These questions provided information about how guiding teachers interpreted the expectations given to them. The questions in the surveys were designed to parallel the information found in these documents to allow a comparison of the data Validity and Reliability Issues To ensure validity of the study, the questions for the surveys were grounded in the reviewed literature. The researcher originally created some questions, while others are replicated from previous published studies (Holm, 2004; Jonnet, 2010; Overton, 2010; Taylor, 2004). To ensure reliability, every effort was made to use the same language and multiple-choice options across the four sets of surveys in order to ensure accurate results. Ethical Consideration For ethical consideration, those who chose to participate in the study were informed of all aspects of the study. The researcher was honest and forthcoming about the information and procedures presented to all participants. All participants had the option to terminate participation at any time of the study if they so chose. All names of participants and institutions included in this study were kept anonymous for confidentiality reasons. The surveys were conducted via a standardized format to ensure consistency. The questions were submitted for IRB approval, from the university and a 54 school district, prior to the collection of data. All participants were given the opportunity to review the results of the study. 55 CHAPTER IV RESULTS A high-quality support system should facilitate guided practice for it to be a positive learning experience for guided practice teachers. A strong triad, inclusive of the guided practice teacher (traditionally referred to as student teacher), the guiding teacher (traditionally referred to as master teacher), and a university representative offer the best opportunities of success for pre-service teachers (Hsu, 2005; Fives, et.al. 2006). The relationships amongst these individuals are essential to the successful interpretations required from balancing theory and practice within a classroom setting (Darling- Hammond, 2005; Zeichner, 2002). While guided practice teachers learn theory in the university setting, they must be able to put theory into practice in a classroom setting (Fives, et. al). Collegiality with guiding teachers provides the necessary platform for lesson planning, lesson implementation, and the day-to-day teaching responsibilities (Stanford, Ronnie, et.al 1994). University representatives periodically observe guided practice teachers and also support them in their teaching per regulations agreed upon by the school district and the university teacher education program as detailed in the Guiding Teacher Orientation Handouts. There is a vast collection of literature detailing support given to guided practice students by university teacher education programs as well as from the schools in which they perform their guided practice. However, within that research there exists a void of data regarding the support for guiding teachers. The absence of this data results in a narrow understanding of experiences by guiding teachers. 56 For this reason, this study focused primarily on guiding teachers experiences, including how they were selected, trained, and supported throughout guided practice. Given that guided practice teachers work closest with them, the perceptions of those guided practice teachers have also been included in the study. Strong relationships between guiding teachers and guided practice teachers allow for opportunities of growth in learning to manage a classroom (Darling-Hammond, 2005). This chapter begins with a portrait of the population used for collecting data. Instrumentation, the sequence of events, and methodology are then described. Then, the findings from four sets of surveys distributed to four groups of participants are illustrated through a descriptive analysis. The research questions were divided into sub-sections to include the responses from each of the participant groups. The chapter concludes with a summary of the data. The participants for this study included former guided practice students, current and former guiding teachers, school site administrators, and the placement coordinator from a teacher education program at a tier-one research university in Southern California. One hundred fifty former guided practice teachers were invited to participate in the study. Of those, thirty-one responses were recorded through the survey. The former guided practice teachers who participated in the study were all graduates from the same tier one university in the Southern California region. Of the thirty-one participants, eighteen of them held a multiple subject teaching credential and fifteen of them held a single subject credential. The age range of this group of participants spanned between 18-24 and 45-50 years of age. All thirty-one participants of the guided practice survey completed their field experience assignments between 2006 and 2010. 57 Seventy-five invitations were sent out to guiding teachers who had prior experiences with the urban teacher education program. The guiding teachers who participated in the study were from various schools within southern California. The teaching experiences amongst these participants ranged from six years to over twenty years. There were nineteen respondents to this study. School site administrators were also invited to aid in understanding the support offered to guiding teachers at their school sites. Fifty survey invitations were sent out but none were accepted. A second round of fifteen invitations was sent with the same results. After a four week period, it was determined that data from this participant group would not be incorporated into the analysis for this study. The placement coordinator was the connection between the university s teacher education program and the urban schools where the former guided teachers were placed. The university featured in this study requires supervised, guided practice throughout a semester in an urban school, as defined in the Guiding Teacher Orientation handout. The university employs one individual to oversee the placement of guided practice teachers in urban classrooms within several districts surrounding the university. It was her responsibility to locate schools and potential guided teachers whose educational philosophy related to or was closely aligned to that of the university s teacher education program. Instrument For this study, an online survey was sent to four sets of participants. The surveys were hosted through Qualtrics (www.qualtrics.com). Each group of participants had a period of 3 weeks to complete the survey. Each of these surveys was divided into four 58 sections. The first section included items on the selection process for guiding teachers. The second section included items regarding the training of guiding teachers. The third section included items regarding the support given or offered to guiding teachers. The last section inquired about the perceptions of guiding teachers. Although the surveys were structured similarly, the number of items in each section differed. The former guided practice students responded to thirteen questions. Current and former guiding teachers responded to fifteen items while school site administrators and the University Placement Coordinator were asked to respond to ten and fourteen items respectively. The surveys took approximately five to ten minutes to complete. The surveys were accessible for participants for a period of five months. Sequence of Events To attain the data, the researcher sent invitations for participation to guided teachers who had graduated between 2005 and 2009, via electronic mail through the School of Education s Career Placement Office at the University. Thirty-four guided teachers responded to the survey. Within the survey, former guided teachers were asked to identify the guiding teachers and administrators with whom they had worked. The researcher then sent invitations to those guiding teachers via standard mail in one particular school district. Nine of the fifteen invitations that were sent out were returned unopened to the researcher. It is possible that school employees had moved on to other schools or to other capacities within the district. It is also a possibility that teachers left the profession or retired. 59 To attain more data for the study, the University Placement Coordinator sent participation invitations to guiding teachers currently working with the university. The emails went to recipients from at least three different school districts. From those invitations, sixteen more guiding teachers responded to the invitations making it a total of nineteen participants. The University Placement Coordinator also sent survey invitations to school site administrators who were currently working with the university. There was no response from this set of participants in the following two weeks. The University Placement Coordinator resent the invitation to a select group of school site administrators, however there were no responses. The data for this study does not reflect the perceptions of this group of participants. The University Placement Coordinator completed a survey as well. All the survey participation emails were sent by university personnel in order to keep the participants contact information confidential. Data Collection The focus of this study was to investigate the support given to guiding teachers as they supported guided practice teachers in their classrooms. To ease the collection process of data, online surveys hosted by Qualtrics (www.qualtrics.com) were utilized. For this descriptive study, surveys allowed a straightforward and standardized process for collecting data. Surveys also allowed for a timely turnaround of data collection. Results Data collected from these surveys were analyzed descriptively to decipher the correlation between the support assured by the university teacher education program and the support guiding teachers actually received. Descriptive analysis allowed for a clear 60 depiction of the data gathered through Qualtrics.com, an online survey tool. Percentages were identified through the program s data analysis function. The data is presented through tables of relevant items included in the surveys. Following the tables are descriptions of data that are followed by research supporting the concepts behind the questions asked on the surveys. The results are organized by research question. Within each of the four sections related to the research questions, data is shown from surveys completed by former guided practice teachers, guiding teachers, and the University Placement Coordinator. Information found in the document packet is included with the University Placement Coordinator s responses. Data was not collected from School Site Administrators, as that group of individuals did not complete any surveys. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the results. Results, Research Question #1 Research Question 1 asked: What criteria and procedures do university school administrators and the school sites use to select guiding teachers? The aim of this question was to explore the processes for selecting guiding teachers by the university and school sites. The guided practice experience has the potential to be one of the best learning environments for guided practice teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2005). This experience can be beneficial for learning flexibility in the classroom, time management, behavior management practices, and developing pedagogical styles (Maltas & McCarty- Chair, 2006). In her study, Hsu (2005) reports some placements were less beneficial than others. In her study, Hsu (2005) states that some principals placed guided practice 61 teachers with guiding teachers who may not have been the best role models in terms of planning and instruction. This was done in hopes that guided practice teachers would elevate the knowledge of their guiding teachers. This would then limit the support given to guided practice teachers. This type of placement is not ideal for the development of guided practice teachers. For this reason, it is important to examine how guiding teachers are selected (Standford, et. al., 1994; Clark, 2001; Boz & Boz; 2006). Under Bandura s (Bandura & Wood, 1989) social-cognitive theory, the professional development of classroom teachers as guiding teachers ought to be supported throughout the field experience. Bandura (2002) supports successful application of observable behavior through guided master modeling. Guiding teachers require rules and strategies be modeled for them through trainings in order to be successful observers and evaluators of guided practice teachers performances in classrooms. The following discussion relates to data collected on the surveys regarding the criteria and procedures used to select guiding teachers. Former Guided Practice Student Responses Item 14 asked: Are you aware of the process used to select your cooperating teacher? This item was included in the study to help understand the perceptions guided practice teachers had of the process used in choosing their guiding teachers. The survey s first question examines whether or not guided practice students have an understanding of the selection process of their guiding teachers. Of the thirty-one (31) respondents, twenty- eight (28) answered they were not aware of the process taken in selecting their guiding teachers. 62 Table 4: Awareness of Selection Process Answer Responses Percentages Yes 3 10% No 28 90% Total 31 100% The survey s first question examines whether or not guided practice students have an understanding of the selection process of their guiding teachers. Of the thirty-one (31) respondents, twenty-eight (28) answered they were not aware of the process taken in selecting their guiding teachers. Consistent with findings from this survey, Parot-Jurascka (2009) found that candidates were rarely involved with their placements. The university program, the district, and/or the school site were mostly responsible for placement. Guiding Teacher Reponses Items 1-4 asked: Did you become a guiding teacher by volunteering, being recommended by the school site administrator, being requested by the university teacher education program, or by having been randomly assigned to be a guiding teacher? Guiding teachers were asked to choose which selection process they had experienced to become partners with the teacher education program. The number of responses that differs from number of questions could be due to the fact that many chose more than on option. 63 Table 5: Guiding Teacher Assignment Methods Answer Responses % (yes) Responses % (no) Volunteering 13 59% 9 41% Recommended by school site 18 82% 4 18% Requested by Univ. program 5 24% 16 76% Random assignment 5 21% 17 77% Total 51 46 According to the data collected, the highest percentage of teachers eighty-two percent (82%), eight-teen were recommended by their school sites to host guided practice teachers in their classrooms. Twenty-three percent (23%) of the teachers were less likely to have been randomly assigned guided practice teachers with whom to work. When asked if teachers had volunteered as guiding teachers, thirteen, or fifty-nine percent (59%) stated they had volunteered while nine, or forty-one percent (41%), teachers stated they had not. Through a survey, Clarke (2001) collected data indicating that one third of the participants specified the school principal should be the one responsible for selecting guiding teachers. Thirty-seven percent (37%) of the participants reported that school- based teams should be charged with selecting guiding teachers. Twenty-three percent (23%) of the respondents felt it should be the sole responsibility of the university to decide who should host guided practice teachers. The Clinical Master Teacher Program in Alabama (Wilson, et. al.; 1995) utilizes a thorough screening when selecting guiding teachers. Potential participants must meet pre-determined criteria that include five years of teaching experience, recommendation 64 by his/her principal, and approval by the university faculty, among others. This selection process has been found to lead to a successful program with the teacher education program. University Placement Coordinator In response to the survey, the University Placement Coordinator stated that guiding teachers were personally invited or volunteered to work with the teacher education program. On occasion, principals from school sites nominated teachers to serve as guiding teachers. The teachers invited to the study held positive working relationships with the university. The Guiding Teacher Overview in the document packet states that guiding teachers must have a minimum of three years of teaching experience, possess state certification in the subject area and grade level, be recommended by a building administrator, and be open to working with the university s faculty. According to the documents, the attributes the university looks for in guiding teachers are an understanding of the importance of their role in the development of novice teachers, an open-mind to new research and teaching strategies, and the ability to encourage guided practice teachers to implement and experiment with numerous strategies to meet students needs. Guiding teachers are expected to be able to model and teach teacher candidates that successful teaching is grounded in achieving positive student outcomes; engagement and collegial conversations should focus on improving students outcomes, and how to use varied instructional strategies to positively affect student learning. 65 The findings from these studies coincide with research presented in this study. Teachers volunteer, are nominated, or invited to participate as guiding teachers (Koerner, 1992; Wilson; 1995; Clarke, 2001). Koerner (1992) states a desire to give back to the teaching community as a guiding teacher. The teachers in the study also hoped to be revitalized in the classroom with a new perspective. The study conducted in Alabama, Wilson (1995) cites an extensive selection process to determine guiding teacher participants to work with their guided practice teachers. In his study, Clarke (2001) references that guiding teachers are self-selected to work with the University of British Columbia College of Teachers. The only requirements for selection are that teachers hold a current teaching certificate and are responsible for a class of students. Results, Research Question #2 Research Question 2 asked: How are guiding teachers educated in order to support guided practice teachers in their classroom? The Clinical Master Teachers (CMT) Program in Alabama (Wilson, et. al. 1995) offers participants opportunities for team building, training to enhance supervisory practices, and professional development. The program's expectations are high for guiding teachers, therefore extensive training is required. A support system embedded in a university teacher education program would elevate how guiding teachers see themselves as well as elevate their skills (Zeichner, 2005). Guided master modeling, under social cognitive theory (Bandura & Wood, 1989), encompasses three aspects of modeling. Master modeling is the modeling of skills and general rules of a particular system. Skills are to be taught in generalized manners giving 66 individuals opportunities to react in various ways to any given situation. To achieve guided skill mastery, individuals are given opportunities to receive corrective modeling with the purpose of realizing improvement. The last component of master modeling is through a transfer program. Once in this stage, individuals can be placed in situations where they can provide themselves with self-directed success. These components of social-cognitive theory support the design of what guiding teachers should experience in preparation for working with guided practice teachers. With the intention of understanding the training provided to guiding teachers, all participant groups were asked to share information about the process taken by the University Teacher Program in education or training guiding teachers. Former Guided Practice Teacher Responses Item 15 asked: Were you aware if your guiding teacher(s) were given documents outlining their duties? Although guided practice teachers were not directly involved with the training of guiding teachers, this question was included to inform whether or not they understood if their guiding teachers knew of the university s expectations. Table 6: Awareness of Training Documents Of the thirty-two respondents to this item, fifty-six percent (56%) answered they were aware of the documents given to guiding teachers outlining their duties or Answer Responses Percentages Yes 18 56% No 14 44% Total 32 100% 67 responsibilities. Forty-four percent (44%) of the participants stated they were unaware of the documents given to their guided teachers. To have a common application of effective teaching (Cochran-Smith, 1991), the goals of pre-service programs are best met when there is consonance between the university and the school site. In doing so, guided practice students can be best trained when the viewpoints and the language of the guiding teachers are the same as the university s. Item 16 asked: Were you aware if your guiding teacher(s) attended training sessions at the university? Table 7: Training at University Table 8: Training at School Site Answer Responses Percentages Yes 3 9% No 29 91% Total 32 100% Item 17 asked: Were you aware if your guiding teacher(s) attended training sessions at their school sites? These two items were placed under a singular discussion because of their similarities in context. When asked whether or not former guided practice teachers were Answer Responses Percentages Yes 4 13% No 28 88% Total 32 100% 68 aware of trainings offered on site for their guided teachers, three responded that they were aware. Twenty-nine were unaware of such trainings at their school site. Four of the thirty-two participants responded they were aware of training sessions at the university. Twenty-eight of the participants were unaware of trainings their guided teacher may have attended. The majority of respondents made it clear that they were unaware of trainings their guiding teachers may have attended whether at their school site or at the university. In her research, Darling-Hammond (2006) maintains that a partnership between the university and the schools is an important factor in creating stronger bridges between the two. In her study of exemplary teacher education programs, Darling-Hammond (2006) noticed that programs that organized courses, clinical studies, and analyses of teaching to include university faculty along with guided teachers and their guiding teachers reinforced shared norms and the knowledge base required to establish effective learning experiences. Item 18 asked: Was your guiding teacher(s) trained how to observe a guided practice student? Table 9: Guiding Teacher Training, Observing Answer Responses Percentages Yes 11 38% No 18 62% Total 29 100% Item 19 asked: Was your guiding teacher(s) trained on how to evaluate guided practice students? 69 Table 10: Guiding Teacher Training, Evaluating Answer Responses Percentages Yes 10 34% No 19 66% Total 29 100% Item 20 asked: Did the teacher education program train your guiding teacher(s) on the pedagogical expectations from the University? Table 11: Guiding Teacher Training, Pedagogy Answer Responses Percentages Yes 6 21% No 23 79% Total 29 100% When asked about the evaluation of guided practice teachers by their guiding teachers, thirty-four percent (34%) agreed that their guiding teachers had, in fact, been trained. Sixty-six percent (66%) of the participants specified that their guiding teachers had not been trained on how to evaluate them. Item 19 asked participants to identify their knowledge of specific training their guiding teachers received. Thirty-eight percent (38%) noted that their guiding teacher was trained on how to observe guided practice students while sixty-two percent (62%) were unaware of such trainings. Item 20 pertained to the University s pedagogical expectations for the guided practice teacher. This item asked whether or not guiding teachers were well versed in the expectations of the university for guided practice teachers. Twenty-one percent (21%) of 70 the participants stated their guiding teachers were trained on the University s pedagogical expectation while seventy-nine percent (79%) stated their guiding teachers had not been trained. Guided teachers are taught various methods of observing students, and it is equally important that guiding teachers be given instruction on observation and constructive criticism of pre-service teachers (Cochran-Smith, 1991). Cochran-Smith references the power structures that exist amongst university teacher education programs and the schools with which they work. Cochran-Smith (1991) supports that guiding teachers should be trained to "reframe or rename" in order to compliment the language used in the teacher education program s teachings. Guiding Teacher Reponses Item 8 asked: Were you given official documents outlining your duties as a guiding teacher? This item was included in order to understand the frequency of documents provided to guiding teachers. Although the respondents to this survey worked with one particular university, their experiences differed. Table 12: Documents for Guiding Teachers Answer Responses Percentages As part of 1 st field experience 8 42% Only when I requested documents 4 21% As part of every field experience 7 37% There were no such documents 0 0% Total 19 100% 71 Of the nineteen respondents, forty-two percent (42%) received written documentation outlining the duties expected of them to accomplish as guiding teachers as part of their first experience with guided practice teachers. Twenty-one percent (21%) of participants received documentation when requested, while thirty-seven percent (37%) received documents as part of every guiding teacher assignment. In her research, Darling-Hammond (2005) found communication plays an important role in a powerful teacher education program. Among several components Darling-Hammond (2005) offers the following as common components of strong teacher education: -A common, clear vision of good teaching permeates all coursework and clinical experiences. -Well-defined standards of practice and performance are used to guide and evaluate course work and clinical work. -Extended clinical experiences are carefully developed to support the ideas and practices presented in simultaneous, closely interwoven coursework. Darling-Hammond (2005) One way to clearly communicate expectations to guiding teachers is through training where university representatives can outline expectations for guiding teachers. Training is important aspects in ensuring guiding teachers clearly understand the expectations for which they will be held accountable. Item 9 asked: Did the teacher education program invite you to attend training sessions at the university? 72 Table 13: Guiding Teacher Training Sessions at University Answer Responses Percentages As part of 1 st field experience 4 21% Only when I requested training 2 11% As part of every guiding teacher 2 11% There were no trainings available 11 58% Total 19 100% Table 14: Guiding Teacher Trainings at School Site Answer Responses Percentages As part of 1 st field experience 2 11% Only when I requested training 1 5% As part of every field experience 2 11% There were no trainings available 14 64% Total 19 100% Item 10 asked: Did the teacher education program invite you to attend training sessions at your school site? Items 9 and 10 are inquiries about trainings conducted by the teacher education program at the university and/or school site. Four responses indicate that training at the university was given as part of a guiding teacher s first experience with a guided practice teacher. Two participants stated training took place at their own school site. Three of the responses stated training was given only when they approached the teacher education program. Two respondents reported receiving training at the university for every guiding teacher assignment, while two others reported receiving training at the school site as part 73 of every assignment. Eleven guiding teachers reported not having received any training at the university, while fourteen declared not having received any training at their sites. In his study, Clarke (2001) found there was a percentage of guiding teachers had not received training. However, he points out the majority of guiding teachers in his study are more prepared than is assumed. His analysis showed guiding teachers, who had more training, failed guided practice students more so often than those who had less training. He attributed this finding to the idea that professionally prepared teachers were better able to discriminate between strong or poor guided practice teachers. This finding argues that guiding teachers can be regarded as gatekeepers to the profession. Item 11-4 asked: How often were you trained to remain current with the teacher education program s goals, to observe guided practice teachers, how to evaluate them, and on the pedagogical expectations of guided practice teachers? Table 15: Training of Specific Program Goals Answer Program s Goals How to observe How to evaluate Pedagogical expectations Percentages As part of 1 st field experience 3 4 3 4 16-21% Only when requested raining 4 3 3 2 11-21% As part of every field experience 1 1 2 2 5-11% There were no trainings available 11 11 11 11 58% Total 19 19 19 19 100% The results of these items indicate a lack of overall training for guiding teachers. Eight responses per question indicate training occurred at some point of their experience with the teacher education program, which training occurred either as part of their initial 74 assignment as guiding teachers, upon their request, or as part of every assignment. Eleven participants claimed never received any training for these components of the program. Cochran-Smith (1991) articulates that an approach to reinventing teacher education is through consonance between the university teacher education program and school sites where guided practice teachers are placed. This consonance is achieved by providing guiding teachers with coordinating language and practices with school sites and universities. This is typically done by providing guiding teachers with instruction on classroom observations, approaches to evaluating guided practice teachers, and training in the concepts of the program s pedagogical foundation. University Placement Coordinator Items 4-9 asked the University Placement Coordinator to report on the type of trainings offered to guiding teachers. This individual was asked about the frequency of trainings regarding the current goals of the program, how to observe guided practice teachers, how to evaluate them, and training in the pedagogical goals of the teacher education program. According to the most current documents provided by the university, guiding teachers were to participate in a Guiding Teacher Orientation. The documents stated that training was conducted in Southern California or could be taken online; this was applicable to eleven of the guiding teachers who participated in this study. The packet also included a presentation handout that outlined the university s expectations. The handout informed guiding teachers about the benefits of working with the teacher education program, an overview of the responsibilities of both guiding teachers and 75 guided practice teachers. The information was presented in a power-point format with general information. In fifty-eight percent (58%) of the instances, the university teacher education program did not make trainings available for guiding teachers. Less than half of the guiding teachers stated they received training at the school site as part of their first field experience with guided practice teachers. In her book Powerful Teacher Education Programs: Lessons from Exemplary Programs, Darling-Hammond (2005) writes about program designs that emphasize preparing guiding teachers. Darling-Hammond describes programs that offer training workshops prior to the beginning of school to full semester courses on supervising guided practice teachers. This type of attention to training has brought about opportunities for in depth conversations about practice, not only by guided practice teachers but also by guiding teachers. Darling-Hammond (2005) contends that, with systematic training, the relationship between guiding teachers and the university faculty can continue to grow and offer opportunities for collegial learning. Results, Research Question #3 Research question 3 asked: What types of support do Guiding Teachers receive from the university throughout the field experience? To maintain teacher education programs that produce effective teachers, an emphasis for reform should be the role guiding teachers play within the system (Zeichner, 2002). Guiding teachers need to be regarded as full partners in teacher education. In doing so, strong support systems should include pedagogical support and compensation for their time and effort (Zeichner, 2005). 76 Serving as a guiding teacher is a considerable commitment for most teachers, they are asked to give time and energy while receiving little to no compensation (Zeichner, 2002). Whaley and Wolfe s (1984) research underscores various incentives offered to individuals for their work as guiding teachers. Those incentives include release time, a job title to promote prestige, membership to professional groups, and monetary compensation. According to social-cognitive theory (Bandura & Woods, 1989), an individual s self-efficacy must be developed in order for master modeling and guided modeling to have a positive effect. With support from the program, guiding teachers would have positive impacts on guided practice teachers. The following survey questions referred to the support given to guiding teachers to aid them in gaining efficacy as an integral individual in the training of new teachers. Former Guided Practice Teacher Responses Item 21 asked: How often did a teacher education representative meet with your guiding teacher? Table 16: Scheduled Meetings Answer Responses Percentages Daily 0 0% Weekly 15 50% Monthly 10 33% Never 5 17% Total 30 100% 77 This question elicited responses to the investigation of the frequency of which a university representative met with guiding teachers. None of the respondents claimed their guiding teachers met daily with a University representative. Fifteen percent (15%) of the participants stated there were weekly meetings. Ten percent (10%) said there were monthly meetings, while seventeen percent (17%) of the respondents noted their guiding teachers and university representatives never met. The results of these two items reflect a divide that Zeichner (2002) states are present in field experiences. He notes there is often disengagement between the campus- based portion of teacher education programs and student teaching experiences. Zeichner (2002) goes on to explain that university professors and cooperating teachers are often mutually ignorant of each other s work. Moreover, they are often uninformed of the principles that guide the other s work. Item 23: Was communication between the teacher education program and your guiding teacher effective? Table 17: Effectiveness of Communication Answer Responses Percentages Very effective 1 3% Effective 15 52% Ineffective 12 41% Very 1 3% Total 29 100% This item asked former guided teachers about their perception of the communication between guiding teachers and the teacher education program. Three 78 percent (3%) noted the communication was very effective. Fifty-two percent (52%) responded the communication was effective. Forty-one percent (41%) stated the communication was ineffective whereas three percent (3%) stated the communication was very ineffective. Communication between the teacher education program and school sites has traditionally lacked consonance (Cochran-Smith, 1991; Hsu, 2005). Hsu (2005) presents the idea that university full-time faculty assigned to observe guided teachers were often too busy to visit school sites; consequently, they visited the minimal amount of times in order to assign a grade. In her research examining the reinvention of teacher education programs, Cochran-Smith (1991) suggests university programs and school sites have an agreed upon common application of effective teaching research. Her research claims that oftentimes teachers are faulted for not using language found in university classrooms to reinforce theory taught in teacher education programs. This research points to teacher education programs that have based their practices using more collaborative approaches. These programs are more likely to include improved more frequent communication between guiding teachers and university supervisors. Cochran-Smith (2006) emphasizes the importance of communication between guiding teachers as does the CMT program at the University of Alabama (Stanford, et.al., 1994). The CMT program maintains several rationales for upholding open lines of communication. The CMT coordinators regularly meet with guiding teachers to provide thorough information on their roles as guiding teachers. The coordinators also serve as sounding boards and lend support to both guiding teachers and guided practice teachers. 79 Item 25: Were you aware if your guiding teacher(s) was offered compensation for his/her time? Table 18: Guiding Teacher Compensation Answer Responses Percentages Yes 23 74% No 8 26% Total 31 100% Table 19: Adequacy of Compensation Answer Responses Percentages Yes 12 52% No 11 48% Total 23 100% Item 26: If yes, do you believe the compensation was adequate? The participants were asked if they were aware of compensation given to guiding teachers. Most (74%) of participants were aware of some type of compensation. Of those, fifty-two percent (52%) felt the compensation was adequate. As a point of clarification, the survey did not distinguish between monetary, release time, and other types of compensations. The research analyzed did not include knowledge from guided practice teachers regarding compensation. Guiding Teacher Reponses Item 15 asked: Was the on-site communication between the teacher education program and yourself effective? 80 Table 20: Effectiveness of On-Site Communication Answer Responses Percentages Very Ineffective 1 5% Ineffective 5 26% Effective 10 53% Very Effective 3 16% Total 19 100% Item 16 asked: Was communication via electronic mail between the teacher education program and yourself effective? Table 21: Effectiveness of Electronic Mail Communication Answer Responses Percentages Very Ineffective 2 11% Ineffective 3 16% Effective 11 58% Very Effective 3 16% Total 19 100% Item 17 asked: Was written communication between the teacher education program and yourself effective? 81 Table 22: Effectiveness of Written Communication Answer Responses Percentages Very Ineffective 1 6% Ineffective 5 28% Effective 11 61% Very Effective 1 11% Total 18 100% When asked about the effectiveness of on-site communication, just over half (61%) of the respondents felt the communication was effective. Six participants felt their experience was ineffective or very ineffective while three others reported to have very effective communication at their school-site with the university representative. Items 16 and 17 involved the effectiveness of differing forms of communication: electronic mail and written. Overall, more participants regarded communication via electronic mail to be effective or very effective. Twelve respondents noted that written communication was effective or very effective. Communication appeared to be a recurring component in the set of exemplary teacher education schools reviewed by Darling-Hammond (2005). She found that programs that presented clear goals and objectives to the guiding teachers with whom they worked had more success in providing positive learning experiences for both guided practice teachers and the guiding teachers. Item 23 asked: How often did a university representative meet with you? 82 Table 23: Frequency of Meetings Answer Responses Percentages At the beginning of the 6 32% Once a week 8 42% Twice a month 2 11% No meetings occurred 3 16% Total 19 100% Participants were asked to report the frequency of meetings with university representatives. Of the nineteen respondents, six expressed they met with a representative at the beginning of the guided practice assignment. Eight participants met with the representative on a weekly basis. Two participants and university representatives met on a bi-monthly basis. Three respondents stated that they never met with university representatives. Another component of exemplary teacher education programs is the frequency in which university representatives met with guiding teachers. Darling-Hammond (2005) stated that some programs integrated regular meetings with guiding teachers- individually and as larger groups. The on-going discussion revolved around topics such as expectations, the curriculum, and strategies for mentoring guided practice teachers. Item 20 asked: Did the teacher education program invite you to be a participant of the program in other capacities than as a guiding teacher? 83 Table 24: Other Capacities Offered to Guiding Teachers Answer Responses Percentages Yes 3 16% Sometimes 2 11% No 14 74% Total 19 100% For this item, guiding teachers were asked to recall whether or not the teacher education program asked them to take on responsibilities in addition to that of a guiding teacher. The majority answered they were not invited to the program in any other capacity. In contrast, three stated they had been invited to take on other responsibilities in the program, which included working with professors on research conducted through the university at the time. The survey, however, did not ask for specific duties guiding teachers may have conducted for the teacher education program. Working with the university program in a capacity other than that of guiding teacher can empower teachers to know they were more important than just the classroom they provide (Zeichner, 2002). The CMT program in Alabama provided a bigger role for guiding teachers. They were appointed as adjunct faculty and were therefore entitled to all benefits awarded by the university (Stanford et al, 1994). Furthermore, as adjunct faculty, they were legally responsible for guided practice teachers grades. As such, the study conducted by Stanford, et.al (1994) found that CMTs take their responsibilities exceptionally seriously. Item 22 asked: What types of compensations have you been offered by the teacher education program? 84 Table 25: Types of Compensation Answer Responses Percentages Monetary 17 89% University credit 0 0% District salary 0 0% Thank you 7 37% Item 23 asked: If you were offered monetary compensation, what was the amount offered? Table 26: Monetary Compensation Answer Responses Percentages Under $100 per guided practice teacher 1 6% Between $100 and $200 per guided 4 24% Between $200 and $300 per guided 2 12% Over $300 per guided practice teacher 10 59% Total 17 100% Guiding teachers were asked to report on the type of compensation they received for their time working with guided practice teachers. There were twenty-four responses as several individuals may have received more than one type of compensation. Seventeen of the responses indicated guiding teachers received monetary compensation. Of those seventeen responses, ten received over $300.00 per guided practice teachers as compensation. One guiding teacher reported to have received under $100.00 while six more respondents received between $100.00 and $300.00 as compensation. Seven 85 respondents also received thank you gestures from the university teacher education program. Research conducted for this study reveals a lack of information regarding compensation given to guiding teachers. The CMT study gave a detailed account of the provided compensation (Stanford, et. al, 1994). This particular program gave a monetary stipend of $250.00 per guided practice teacher per semester. However, they were also awarded full university benefits as adjunct faculty. With these benefits, guided teachers were empowered to take on more leadership roles at their school sites. Another example of monetary compensation is from the University of Southern Maine. As of 2005, their guiding teachers received $600 per guided practice teacher they mentored (Darling-Hammond, 2006). Item 24: Do you feel this was adequate compensation for the duties required of you as a guiding teacher? Table 27: Adequacy of Compensation Answer Responses Percentages Yes 10 53% No 9 47% Total 19 100% When asked about the adequacy of compensation received, ten of the nineteen respondents agreed with the compensation awarded. However, nine respondents indicated the compensation was not adequate for the work they completed with guided practice teachers. 86 The next item on the survey offered an opportunity to elaborate as to why they felt the compensation they received was inadequate. Of the eight responses, four said $1000.00 per guided practice teacher would be more adequate to compensate for the time spent planning, evaluating, meeting, and videotaping. Two respondents indicated the current monetary compensation did not promote accountability from guiding teachers. One respondent stated the amount of compensation seemed to indicate the classroom teacher was not integral to the process as a whole. One guided teacher accepted the stipend as a gift rather than a payment. This respondent claimed the experience was one that allowed for learning by both the guided practice teacher and the guiding teacher. Whaley and Wolfe (1984) used Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs to determine motivating incentives for guiding teachers. That study determined monetary compensation was rated high among incentive choices. Another highly regarded incentive was meaningful participation in the teacher education program. The concept of seeing themselves with higher prestige was a high motivator for the guided teachers in the study. Recognition as a guiding teacher was also chosen as an important incentive. University Placement Coordinator The University Placement Coordinator gave the following data after completing the survey. The teacher education representative met with guiding teachers only at the beginning of the guided practice experience. The compensations rewarded to guiding teachers included a stipend of $500 per mentored guided practice teacher and along with thank you gestures such as gift baskets or certificates of appreciation. When asked about guiding teachers acting in other capacities than that as classroom teachers, the 87 University Placement Coordinator stated guiding teachers are invited to several events on campus. Those events include the PDK conference (Phi Delta Kappa, a professional education association), the Los Angeles Times Festival of Books, and the Tribute in Teaching reception held in the spring semester. The document packet includes an overview of the benefits of serving as guiding teachers for this particular program. Those benefits include professional development, opportunities to reflect on current practices while training new teachers, and receiving new ideas, initiatives, and perspectives from the university program. Guiding teachers would also receive extra support in the classroom and be given compensation for working with guided practice teachers. An independent contract agreement is included in the packet. The document also states there would be opportunities to participate in the Phi Delta Kappa conference, a professional education association. Findings from Khan s (2001) study point out that guiding teachers want opportunities to be more involved with the guided practice process. Some wanted to have involvement in methods courses while others wanted to have their expertise valued. Guided teachers wanted a forum where they could share knowledge with guided practice teachers outside of their own classrooms. Results, Research Question #4 Research question 4 asked: What are perceptions of student teachers regarding the support they received from guiding teachers? In a study focused on guided practice teachers efficacy, Fives, et. al. (2005) found a correlation between the levels of support given by guiding teachers to that of the level of efficacy attained by guided practice 88 teachers. The study found guided practice teachers have increased levels of confidence in their abilities if they have a positive working relationship with their guiding teachers. This occurred when guiding teachers gave opportunities for guided practice teachers to initiate their own learning and gave consistent feedback. This led to guided practice teachers understanding their own competencies and, subsequently, inspired them to develop higher efficacy in their own teaching. Former Guided Practice Teacher Responses Item 24: Was communication between you and your cooperating teacher(s) effective? Table 28: Effectiveness of Communication Answer Responses Percentages Very Effective 15 47% Effective 14 44% Ineffective 3 9% Very Ineffective 0 0% Total 32 100% Communication between guiding teachers and their guided practice teachers is an important element in creating successful learning experiences. The majority of respondents stated that communication between themselves and their guiding teachers was very effective or effective; forty-seven (47%) and forty-four (44%) percent respectively. Nine percent (9%) of the respondents indicated that communication with their guiding teacher was ineffective. 89 Support from guiding teachers exists on a continuum that shifts from personal and emotional support, to specific task or problem support, and extends to critical self- reflection (Powell, et. al, 2007). Although the survey did not define the meaning to effective , research has shown that communication between guiding teachers and guided practice teachers is instrumental to providing constructive feedback to develop their teaching skills (Hsu, 2005; Fives et. al., 2006; Glen, 2006). According to Fives et. al. (2005), guided practice teachers who received a higher level of support from guiding teachers had increased confidence in their abilities associated with instructional practice. Item 28 asked: Did the teacher education program use formal evaluations to determine your guiding teacher s effectiveness? Table 29: Formal Evaluations of Guiding Teachers Effectiveness Answer Responses Percentages Yes 13 45% No 16 55% Total 29 100% Item 29 asked: Did the teacher education program use informal evaluations to determine your guiding teacher s effectiveness? Table 30: Informal Evaluation of Guiding Teachers Effectiveness Answer Responses Percentages Yes 19 66% No 10 34% Total 29 100% 90 An important aspect of any institutional program is the effectiveness of the stakeholders involved. Although guided practice teachers were not held accountable for evaluating their guiding teachers, they were asked whether or not they were aware of evaluations, formal and/or informal, used by the university teacher education program. Thirteen respondents stated they were aware of the use of formal evaluations of their guiding teachers. Nineteen former guided practice teachers were aware of the use of informal evaluations. Twenty-six of the responses indicated that no evaluations were conducted of guiding teachers. Clarkes (2001) study found some surprising evidence. They found guiding teachers initiated their own desire for evaluation or feedback not only from the program but from the guided practice teachers as well. The researchers did not find guiding teacher evaluations as part of the research studies or as references in their literature review. To date, there still remains a void in the literature regarding this aspect of the guided practice experience. Item 30 asked: Overall, how would you describe your relationship with your guiding teacher(s)? Table 31: Relationship with Guiding Teachers Answer Responses Percentages Very positive 14 45% Positive 14 45% Negative 3 10% Very Negative 0 0% Total 31 100% 91 Maintaining good working relationships is important in creating valuable learning experiences (Fives, et. al., 2005). This item in the survey reveals the majority of guided practice teachers, twenty-eight, believe they had positive or very positive relationships with their guiding teachers. Three stated their experience was negative while none of the participants chose very negative as their response. Kroll et. al. (1990) noted that guided practice teachers perceived their relationships with guiding teachers to be mostly positive. They attributed that perception to support from their guiding teachers, being treated as professionals, and being included as part of the school community. Item 31: How frequently did your guiding teacher(s) provide feedback to you? Table 32: Frequency of Provided Feedback Answer Responses Percentages Daily 17 55% Weekly 10 32% Monthly 4 13% Never 0 0% Total 31 100% Item 33: How satisfied were you with the feedback provided to you by your guiding teacher? 92 Table 33: Satisfaction of Provided Feedback Answer Responses Percentages Very Satisfied 11 35% Satisfied 14 45% Dissatisfied 6 19% Very Dissatisfied 1 3% Total 31 100% Communication is an essential part of any program s success. In this case, guiding teachers were expected to give guided practice teachers feedback on their daily performances in classrooms. The frequency of feedback varied between daily, as seventeen respondents stated, monthly, as stated by ten respondents, and monthly as four participants responded. The satisfaction levels of the feedback provided by guiding teachers also varied. Twenty-five former guided practice teachers felt satisfied or very satisfied with the feedback provided to them. Six were dissatisfied while one respondent was very dissatisfied with the feedback provided by the guiding teacher. To understand how an individual performs, feedback is an important contribution to their development. As Fives et.al. (2005) acknowledged consistent feedback is important to the efficacy and growth of pre-service teachers. Kroll et. al. (1990) confirmed that negative relationships between guided teachers and guided practice teachers occurred at times because of poor or inconsistent feedback. Item 34 asked: How did you receive the advice or suggestions (feedback) given to you by your guiding teacher(s)? 93 Table 34: Acceptance of Advice Provided by Guiding Teachers Answer Responses Percentages Very Positively 14 45% Positively 15 48% Negatively 2 6% Very 0 0% Total 29 100% As noted previously, communication is important for success in a guided practice experience. The feedback given to guided practice teachers in this particular program was mostly received positively or very positively. Only two respondents received the feedback negatively. People may interpret feedback in different ways. LaBoskey & Richert (2002) found that guided practice teachers needed to feel safe to take risks in classrooms. Their study reveals an importance of how feedback is given to guided practice teachers. Weamser and Woods (2003) also attribute guiding teachers own teaching styles to how guided practice teachers accept feedback. Item 32: How satisfied were you with the guidance in lesson planning provided to you by your guiding teacher? 94 Table 35: Satisfaction of Guidance Regarding Lesson Planning Answer Responses Percentages Very Satisfied 8 26% Satisfied 13 42% Dissatisfied 9 29% Very 1 3% Total 31 100% When asked about feedback related to lesson planning, the satisfaction for the feedback varied among guided practice teachers. Eight respondents were very satisfied and thirteen were satisfied with the guidance they received. Nine participants were dissatisfied while one respondent was very dissatisfied with the guidance provided. The consensus in Boudreau s (1999) study was that an important characteristic for effective guiding teachers is to develop relationships with guided practice teachers by planning lessons and learning activities together. Studies showed better relationships between guiding teachers and their guided practice teachers could lead to positive experiences for lesson planning (Boudreau, 1999; Clarke, 2001). Item 35 asked: How would you describe the relationship between the education practice in the classroom and what you learned in the teacher education program? 95 Table 36: Correlation of Pedagogical Practice Answer Responses Percentages Very Appropriate 5 16% Appropriate 20 65% Inappropriate 4 13% Very 2 6% Total 31 100% Relationships between guiding teachers and their guided practice teachers are as important as that between the pedagogy learned at the university and the pedagogy supported in the classroom. Twenty-five respondents specified the pedagogy was appropriate or very appropriate. Four responses stated the pedagogy was inappropriate and two stated the pedagogy was very inappropriate. Pedagogical practices and expectations should be evident at school sites hosting guided practice teachers and their teacher education programs. LaBoskey and Richert (2003) found the best guided practice placements were ones where the teacher education program s principles were blended into the guided practice expectations. Guiding Teacher Reponses Item 26: Did the teacher education program use formal evaluations to determine your effectiveness with guided practice teachers? 96 Table 37: Formal Evaluations of Guiding Teachers Effectiveness Answer Responses Percentages Yes 5 26% No 14 74% Total 19 100% Item 27: Did the teacher education program use informal evaluation to determine your effectiveness with guided practice teachers? Table 38: Informal Evaluations of Guiding Teachers Effectiveness Answer Responses Percentages Yes 8 42% No 11 58% Total 19 100% To keep quality in a program, reflection and evaluation should occur on a regular basis. Guiding teachers were asked about the processes used in evaluating their work with guiding teachers. Overall, twenty-five guiding teachers responses indicated they were neither formally nor informally evaluated. Thirteen of the responses indicated there was some type of evaluation conducted. Item 28 asked: Overall, how would you describe your relationship with the teacher education program? 97 Table 39: Relationship with Teacher Education Program Answer Responses Percentages Very positive 4 21% Positive 13 68% Negative 1 5% Very Negative 1 5% Total 19 100% Inquiries regarding the relationships between guiding teachers and the university teacher education program reveal that they were primarily positive experiences. Thirteen of the responses indicate positive relations. Four of the responses express very positive relationships. However, two responses indicate negative and very negative relationships with the teacher education program. It has been observed that guiding teachers have not always been seen as vital contributors to the development of guided practice teachers (Kroll et. al, 1990; Zeichner, 2001). Communication and struggles in understanding each other can contribute to this ideology. Given the opportunities for purposeful communication between teacher education programs and guiding teachers, the potential exists to develop positive experiences for guided practice. Item 29 asked: Overall, how would you describe your relationship with guided practice teachers from this teacher education program? 98 Table 40: Relationships with Guided practice Teachers Answer Responses Percentages Very Positive 7 37% Positive 11 58% Negative 1 5% Very Negative 0 0% Total 19 100% This item asked guiding teachers to assess their relationships with guided practice teachers. This survey did not ask guiding teachers to assess individual relationships if they had worked with more than one guided practice teacher. Eighteen of the responses indicated positive or very positive relationships while only one response indicated a negative relationship. Positive relationships between guided practice teachers and guiding teachers cannot be guaranteed (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). The experience can be affected by the way guiding teachers choose to support guided practice teachers. Darling- Hammond and Brasnford (2005) suggest that individuals reactions differ depending on whether guiding teachers are passive in the development of guided practice teachers or if they choose to let them learn by way of a trial by fire. These choices can affect how guided practice teachers perceive guiding teachers. Additionally, Khan (2001) found offering guiding teachers learning opportunities for themselves could foster better relationships. Item 30 asked: How often did you meet with guided practice students to discuss their lesson planning? 99 Table 41: Frequency of Meetings with Guided Practice Teachers Answer Responses Percentages Daily 17 89% Weekly 2 11% Monthly 0 0% Never 0 0% Total 19 100% Item 31 asked: How frequently did you provide feedback to guided practice teachers? Table 42: Frequency of Feedback given to Guided Practice Teachers Answer Responses Percentages Daily 18 95% Weekly 1 5% Monthly 0 0% Never 0 0% Total 19 100% Guided practice teachers work with guiding teachers in the classroom setting, making them accessible on a more frequent basis than university representatives. Guiding teachers have opportunities to give consistent and frequent feedback. The data from this inquiry confirms the frequency of feedback was daily or weekly. Fives, et. al. (2006) found communication between guiding teachers and guided practice teachers that was positive and offered consistent interactions gave guided practice teachers higher efficacy as teachers. The feedback was utilized to elevate guided practice teachers confidence in planning and instruction. 100 Item 33 asked: How would you describe the relationship between educational practices in your classroom and what the guided practice teachers learned in their methods courses? Table 43: Relevance of Educational Practices Answer Responses Percentages Very 0 0% Inappropriate 3 15% Appropriate 14 70% Very Appropriate 3 15% Total 19 100% Fourteen respondents said the methodology used by guided practice teachers was appropriate. Three stated it was very appropriate. Three stated the pedagogy was inappropriate. Darling-Hammond (2005) mentions that one exemplary teacher education program hand-picks the guiding teachers with whom it collaborates. In doing so, there is a higher probability for guided practice teachers to reach goals set by their preparation program. LaBoskey and Richert (2002) found that guided practice teachers whose guiding teachers did not share the same principles or pedagogical styles had difficulty practicing what was taught in their university classes. University Placement Coordinator The last section of the survey for the University Placement Coordinator included four questions. Those items inquired about evaluations, formal and/or informal, used to determine the effectiveness of guiding teachers. The data showed this particular teacher 101 education program utilized informal surveys completed by guided practice teachers and the university representative. Formal evaluations were not used in this program. The informational packet contains observation and evaluative materials focusing on the guided practice teachers performances throughout guided practice. It is not stated that guiding teachers would be evaluated as well. The University of British Columbia teacher education program study by Clarke (2001) showed that although they were not officially evaluated, guiding teachers desired feedback about their own performance in working with guided practice teachers. In his study, Clarke (2001) found that twenty-six percent of the guiding teachers requested feedback from guided practice teachers while twenty-one percent preferred to meet with the triad involved in guided practice. A smaller percentage, eighteen percent, requested to meet with the faculty advisor form the program. Clarke (2001) recommends that more research is needed in this particular area of study about guiding teachers. Summary of Results In summary, the majority of guided teachers were not directly involved in the selection process for guided practice teachers. Of those who were somewhat involved, more volunteered than were recommended to participate in the program. Regarding preparation, the majority of guiding teachers did not receive documents outlining their responsibilities. Ninety percent (90%) of the respondents stated they also did not receive formal training in observation, evaluation, or in pedagogical foundation. Approximately half of the guiding teachers met on weekly with their guided practice teachers. For the work they did, just over half of guiding teachers felt they were awarded with adequate 102 monetary compensation. However, some respondents felt that higher compensation could be awarded. Overall, guided practice teachers were unaware of how guiding teachers were selected, trained, or supported. Nonetheless, the experiences were mostly positive throughout the guided practice semester. Table 44: Summary of Findings Areas of Research Pertaining to Guiding Teachers Description of Areas of Research Summary of Findings Selection of Guiding Teachers Informal/formal requirements used to identify Guiding Teachers -90% of Guiding Teachers not involved in selection process -59% of Guiding Teachers are recommended for mentorship -82% of Guiding Teachers volunteered Training Given to Guiding Teachers Preparation provided to Guiding Teachers by the University Teacher Education Program -56% of Guided Teachers were given Informational Documents -90% of Guided Teachers were not offered training Support Given to Guiding Teachers Communication and Support provided by the University Teacher Education Program to Guiding Teachers -70% of Guided Teachers were not trained on observation, evaluation, or pedagogical methods -65% of Guiding Teachers were not offered training sessions -50% of Guiding Teachers met on a weekly basis with University Representative Compensation Provided to Guiding Teachers Payment or other benefit provided for Guiding teachers by the University Teacher Education Program -54% of Guiding Teachers received a stipend of at least $300 per Guided Practice Teacher -53% of Guided Practice Teachers believed their compensation was adequate 103 Table 44, continued Perceptions of Guiding Teachers Perception of Guiding Teachers training, support, and effectiveness -63% of Guided Practice Teachers were aware of their Guiding Teachers training and support -57% of Guiding Teachers received effective communication -74% of Guiding Teachers served in only one capacity for the University -Overall perception of the Guided Practice experience was satisfactory or very satisfactory 104 CHAPTER V IMPLICATIONS Background of the Problem The transformation that occurred in teacher education throughout the past century was highlighted by several reforms. There is vast evidence of university teacher education programs that underwent reforms to include more pedagogical training, rather than simply relying on content knowledge (Cochran-Smith, 2005; Koerner, et.al, 2008; Solomon, 2009). The 1980 s gave way to federal policies that defined a set of skills, knowledge, and strategies for student achievement (Cochran-Smith, 2005). The era of outcomes came to fruition in the 1990 s, led by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Preparation (NCATE). This organization led the movement towards a focus on teacher candidates competencies from a system directed by evaluative standards. In the twenty-first century, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was introduced. The privatization of schools is the most recent reform. A significant supporter of the privatization of schools is Arne Duncan. He served as the former chief executive officer of Chicago Public Schools (CPS). His vision was to transform educational settings into business-oriented foundations where school operators could bid for schools to run them using business models (Ayers & Klonsky, 2006). The fundamental goal of CPS is to hold schools accountable to high performance measures, such as those outlined by NCLB (Chicago Public Schools, 2008). NCLB s legislations placed teacher preparation in a prominent position. Within NCLB, Title II spotlights the processes of recruiting, preparing, and training teachers (www.whitehouse.gov; 2002). Title II gave states federal support to make changes to 105 teacher certification or requirements. The ultimate goal for Title II was to increase teacher competencies, particularly in high-risk schools around the nation. There are now numerous teacher education programs, each with different perspectives, requirements, and procedures for preparing teacher candidates. There is currently a movement towards alternate teacher education programs that include Teach for America (TFA) (Darling-Hammond, 2005), residential intern programs (Solomon, 2009), and the privatization of schools (Ayers & Klonsky, 2006). The goal of these programs is to recruit recent college graduates who are in the top percentiles of their graduating classes to become teachers in high-need schools across the country. Teacher residential programs pair newly hired teachers with experienced teachers as mentors during their first years of teaching (Solomon, 2009). For the most part, they, too, have little experience in school settings. The belief is that individuals with extensive content knowledge and some training can be effective teachers; especially in high needs schools. These alternative programs have brought to light the process of teacher preparation. Programs, such as TFA (Darling-Hammond, 2005) and teacher residential programs (Solomon, 2009) cut out guided practice in an effort to place teachers in schools. As programs like these quickly place novice teachers in classrooms, what does it mean for traditional teacher education programs? Traditional teacher education programs are under scrutiny. Questions are being asked of traditional programs effectiveness to produce highly qualified teachers. This study looks at the relationships of the traditional guided practice triad: guided practice teacher, guiding teacher, and university supervisor. To maintain the claim that these types of programs are successful, this study looked closely at the experiences of guiding 106 teachers. It has been said that a teacher s most important experience is his/her guided practice (Darling-Hammond, 2005; Zeichner, 2001). To make certain positive experiences are realistic, more knowledge is needed about guiding teachers. The body of literature is void of information regarding the selection, training, and support of guiding teachers. By acknowledging the significant nature of guided practice, effort must be made to support guiding teachers in traditional teacher education programs. Research Questions This study examined the selection process, preparation, and support given to guiding teachers while hosting guided practice teachers in their classrooms. To guide this study, the following questions were asked of former guided practice teachers, guiding teachers who have worked with the program since 2005, and school site administrators charged with placing guided practice teachers in their schools. The University Placement Coordinator was also asked to participate in the study. 1. What criteria and procedures do university school administrators and the school sites use to select guiding teachers? 2. How are guiding teachers educated in order to support guided practice teachers in their classroom? 3. What types of support do guiding teachers receive from the university throughout the field experience? 4. What are the perceptions of guided practice teachers regarding the support they receive from guiding teachers? 107 The questions were integrated into surveys hosted by an internet-based host, qualtrics.com. The data was then analyzed descriptively to determine findings and implications for future studies. Overview of Findings Question 1 asked: What criteria and procedures do university school administrators and the school sites use to select guiding teachers? The findings determined that most guiding teachers who work with this program either volunteered or were recommended by the school site to host guided practice teachers. There were also several individuals who were requested by the university teacher program and a few who were randomly chosen. This data suggests there may be high variability regarding supports guiding teachers receive in classrooms. The Clinical Master Teacher program in Alabama (Wilson, et. al., 1995) demonstrated success in guided practice experiences partly due to a rigorous selection process of guiding teachers. Their program required guiding teachers to be nominated to participate in the program. They were deemed as exceptional teachers and had at least five years of teaching experience. One of the exemplary programs Darling-Hammond (2006) discussed also systematically chose individuals to be recognized as guiding teachers. The guiding teachers in this program were graduates of the teacher education program and therefore had the foundation needed to effectively guide pre-service teachers in conjunction with the program s foundational pedagogies. 108 Question 2 asked: How are cooperating teachers formally or informally prepared to support guided practice teachers in their classrooms? The findings for this inquiry determined that guiding teachers in this particular program receive little to no training in observation, evaluation, or expectations of the university teacher education program. In her book, Darling-Hammond (2006) attributes extensive training as a significant contributor to the success of an exemplary program. This school offered initial trainings as well as trainings throughout the practicum. The topics in those meetings ranged from how to observe guided practice teachers to how to plan lessons with them. In doing so, the university teacher education program was able to keep the lines of communication open between guiding teachers and university representatives. Question 3 asked: What types of support do guiding teachers receive from the university throughout the field experience? According to the data from this study, guiding teachers received little support in terms of training. They may or may not have received documents outlining their duties as guiding teachers. However, they did receive support in the means of monetary compensation for their time and efforts. The compensation ranged from one hundred dollars to over three hundred dollars per guided practice teacher. The data also recognized that they also received invitations to attend functions at the university. Though approximately half of the guiding teachers in the study felt that the compensation was adequate, many felt it was not. This was not the case with the guiding teachers from the Clinical Master Teacher program (Stanford et. al., 2005). The University of Alabama agreed to hire guided teachers as adjunct faculty in the teacher education program. In this program, they received full university benefits along with a 109 stipend of $250 per guided practice teacher. These types of benefits allowed guiding teachers to be empowered and take the responsibilities of guiding teacher to another level. Unlike the Clinical Master Teacher program in Alabama (Stanford, 1994), the program in this study did not offer opportunities for guiding teachers to be integrated into the curriculum of the university s program. Whereas Clinical Master Teachers held adjunct faculty positions with university benefits, the guiding teachers in this study were invited to attend isolated functions at the university. Question 4 asked: What are perceptions of former guided practice teachers regarding the support they received from cooperating teachers? The perceptions of former guided practice teachers in this study were mostly positive. Guided practice teachers did not appear to have significant knowledge on the selection, training, or of the support given to their guiding teachers. The feedback given to guided practice teachers by their guiding teachers were largely positive. Correspondingly, communication as a whole was positive. The survey revealed the use of informal assessments of guiding teachers to determine the effectiveness of guiding teachers. However, it was not determined whether or not guiding teachers received these results, or any other form of feedback from the university teacher education program. Miller Taylor s (2004) research indicates that the perception of guiding teachers by their guided practice teachers is important to the success of guided teaching experiences. She discusses the role of guiding teachers in providing for the success of guided practice teachers in various ways, including the assurance of efficacious initial teaching experiences, help in defining the guided practice teachers roles in the field of education, 110 and development of relationships based on effective communication as well as reflection. Furthermore, guiding teachers are responsible for encouraging professional relationships between guided practice teachers and in-service teachers as well as administrators. Miller-Taylor (2004) articulates that guiding teachers responsibilities are much more than critiquing lessons. They are crucial in inspiring the leadership of guided practice teachers. Implications The implications of these findings indicate that selection processes of guiding teachers are key in providing positive guided practice experiences. By employing more of a systematic selection processes, university teacher education programs can maintain higher quality guided practice expectations. A systematic approach would produce opportunities for guiding teachers educational philosophies to align with the universities teacher education programs. In doing so, guiding teachers would be able to assist guided practice teachers to implement strategies that are parallel with theory the guided practice teachers are learning in the university setting. Another implication from this study points toward a significant factor in successful guided practice experiences. The training that guiding teachers receive from university teacher education programs can have substantial effects on guided practice experiences. Because guiding teachers have such diverse backgrounds (Boudreau, 1999), training from university teacher education programs would warrant less variability amongst the experiences of guided practice teachers. With more frequent training, teacher education programs can make sure that all of their expectations are met in a standardized manner. 111 According to the data in this study, there was very little training given to guiding teachers. In order for them to understand and accomplish the work expected of them, extensive training should be constant throughout the guided practice experience. This would ensure that guiding teachers are kept current on the latest research concerning the university s methods courses. This more extensive training should take place at the beginning of every semester that guiding teachers are expected to work with guided practice teachers. Results from this study revealed that slightly over half of the guiding teachers surveyed felt they were adequately compensated for their time spent as guiding teachers. The compensation received by the guiding teachers in this program included monetary compensation between one hundred dollars and five hundred dollars per semester per guided practice teacher. The other guiding teachers felt the amount received was inadequate for the amount of hours spent working with guided practice teachers, considering guiding teachers spend many hours supporting their guided practice teachers. They also aid in the planning of lessons, observe and take notes during lessons, then debrief with guided practice teachers about the lessons. Guiding teachers also make themselves available before and/or after school hours for consultation with guided practice teachers. As research stated (Miller-Taylor, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 2006), guided practice is remarkably important in the development of pre-service teachers. There is reciprocity between guiding and guided practice teachers. Guiding teachers may have varied experiences they can share with guided practice teachers, including curriculum development, classroom management, and navigating the public school system. Guided 112 practice teachers offer access to the most current literature in teaching, access to new teaching strategies developed within the teacher education program, and new perspectives about teaching in general. The reciprocal relationships developed between guiding and guided practice teachers can have ongoing effects, even after the guided practice experience was over. It is important for teacher education programs to cultivate valuable relationships that are perceived as positive by guided practice teachers so that they are inspired to take what they learn into their own classrooms. Positive perceptions of the guiding teacher enable guided practice teachers to be more motivated to receive feedback as constructive and critiques as opportunities for reflection on their practice. Positive perceptions would also encourage guided practice teachers to implement routines and behaviors modeled and learned from guiding teachers. Limitations of the Study There were several limitations to this study. A lack of published research with focuses pertaining to guiding teachers presented few empirical studies from which to draw conclusions. However, data pertaining to guiding teachers was found within a context of guided practice teachers experiences. Inferences were made from the information that was not related directly to the various research questions in this study. Regarding the data collected, the measures of satisfaction were not verified through this study. Although items in the surveys asked about satisfaction levels, the response choices were meant to get a general impression of guiding teachers experiences. Even though data from this study illustrates an overall satisfaction, there may be certain aspects of the teacher education program that indicates guiding teachers 113 dissatisfaction. Further research should focus on measuring the levels, as well as the sources; of satisfaction in more depth considering the relationships guiding teachers have guided practice teachers and the university teacher education program. Other limitations to this study included time and access to the proposed participants. The time frame for this study was a two-month period that was extended to five months due to delays in the Internal Review Board (IRB) process. Furthermore, time constraints of this study confined the research to a limited number of schools and personnel to be included. Once the study was approved by IRB, a total of two hundred seventy participants were asked to contribute input through surveys for analysis. However, only fifty-three responded to the surveys. The number of respondents resulted in limited data. These limitations justify more research employing more participants in order to support or contest the findings from this study. Next Studies Three areas for further research were identified through this study. In order to align the expectations from university teacher education programs and the guided practice teachers they instruct, a more systematic approach should be put in place. Data revealed the majority of guiding teachers volunteered to work with guided practice teachers. Volunteerism is an effective manner in which to recruit guiding teachers, however, it does not guarantee those teachers educational beliefs and philosophies will be aligned with those of the university. Research on systematic approaches for selecting 114 guiding teachers would help to avoid disagreements in how and what type of work will be completed by guided practice teachers. A possibility for further studies could also focus on the training and support provided for guiding teachers. Almost all participants reported not having had much or any training on how to best serve as a guiding teacher. To ensure guided practice teachers have the most beneficial experiences possible, a systematic approach to the training and support of guiding teachers could make certain all guided practice teachers get similar support in classrooms, diminishing discrepancies amongst their experiences. Further research opportunities could also focus on incentives for guiding teachers. As revealed through data, the majority of guiding teachers did not feel their time and efforts were well compensated. Whether guiding teachers felt as though the monetary compensation was insufficient or they did not feel as though they were important stakeholders in preparing new teachers, a more concerted effort should be made by universities to respect and acknowledge the wealth of knowledge guiding teachers have to offer. The overall perception of teachers by guided practice teachers would be increased if the guiding teachers were to receive more explicit guidance and support. Within the past couple of decades, numerous studies focused on learning, specifically on how teachers learn. Schulman (2002) created a Table of Learning inspired by Bloom s Taxonomy. Rather than insisting his Table of Learning be used in a prescribed manner, Schulman s hope is to provide an aid to its users and to aid re- designing educational situations, such as guided practice. Schulman invites the following six components to be utilized to enhance guided practice teaching. First, engagement and motivation are to be presented as active learning to keep the interest of guiding teachers 115 as guided practice teachers are being asked to do the same. With more explicit training, knowledge and understanding can convey ownership of teacher knowledge as well as of the knowledge imparted by the university. Performance and action would put understanding of the teacher education program s expectations into practice, while reflection and critique would allow systematic reflection on support provided to guiding teachers to make necessary adjustments. 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You have been identified as someone who is involved with the student teaching experience, and may qualify for the study. Participation would require one survey that lasts 5-10 minutes. Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain confidential at all times during and after the study and all interviews will take place in a private office at. Your relationship with will not be affected whether or not you participate in this study. If you would like to participate in this study please follow this link to the hosting website. <insert web link> If you have questions, please contact me at (XXX) XXX-XXXX. Thank you, Carmen Lopez, Principal Investigator University of Southern California RECRUITMENT LETTER Dear [Name], My name is Carmen Lopez, and I am a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education at USC. I am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation, focusing on the selection, training, and support of cooperating teachers while hosting student teachers. You have been identified as someone who is involved with the student teaching experience, and may qualify for the study. Participation would require one survey that lasts 5-10 minutes. Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain confidential at all times during and after the study and all interviews will take place in a private office at. Your relationship with will not be affected whether or not you participate in this study. If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me at (XXX) XXX- XXXX. Thank you, Carmen Lopez, Principal Investigator University of Southern California 122 APPENDIX B Study Survey - University Placement Coordinator Participants: Please choose the best answer to answer the question. Cooperating Teacher Selection 1. How do you choose cooperating teachers? a. Invite specific teachers to participate b. Teachers volunteer to participate in our program c. Principal at the school site selects teachers Cooperating Teacher Training 2. Do you invite cooperating teachers to attend trainings at the university? a. Every time they are assigned a student teacher b. Sometimes c. Never 3. Do you invite cooperating teacher to attend trainings at their school sites? a. Every time they are assigned a student teacher b. Sometimes c. Never 4. How often are cooperating teachers trained to maintain pace with the teacher education program? a. offer initial training b. meet with cooperating teachers once a week c. meet with cooperating teachers once a month d. offer no training 5. Do you offer training on classroom observations a. Every time they are assigned a student teacher b. Sometimes c. Never 6. Do you offer instruction for evaluating student teachers? a. Every time they are assigned a student teacher b. Sometimes c. Never 123 Cooperating Teacher Support 7. What type of communication has been the most effective with cooperating teachers? a. on site interaction b. email correspondence c. written correspondence d. meet with cooperating teacher once a month e. offer no training 8. How often are cooperating teachers provided with support by the university program? a. only at the beginning of the assignment b. once a week c. twice a month d. once a month e. no support is offered throughout the assignment 9. Does the teacher education program invite cooperating teachers to be active in the program? a. Every time they are assigned a student teacher b. Sometimes c. Never 10. What types of compensation have you received as a cooperating teacher? (Please choose all that apply.) a. Stipend b. University credit c. Salary points d. thank you gestures (such as gift baskets, certificates of appreciation, etc.) 11. If you have received a stipend, what was the amount awarded to you? a. Below $100.00 b. Between $100.00 and $200.00 c. Between $200.00 and $300.00 d. Between $300.00 and $400.00 e. Above $400.00 12. Do you believe the compensation offered to cooperating teachers is adequate for their efforts? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided 124 Cooperating Teacher Perceptions 13. How do you evaluate whether cooperating teachers are successful in supporting student teachers in your program? a. Formal cooperating teacher evaluation b. Informal survey from cooperating teachers c. Informal survey from student teachers d. There is no process in place 14. Have you had to remove student teachers from classrooms at any point during student teaching experiences? a. Many times b. A few times c. Never 125 APPENDIX C Study Survey - School Site Administrator Participant: Please choose the best answer for each question. Cooperating Teacher Selection 1. What is the process you use to select cooperating teachers? a. Ask for volunteers b. Select highly-effective teachers c. Select teachers experienced with the teacher education program d. Random selection 2. What is the rationale used to select teachers? a. To mentor pre-service teachers b. To assist cooperating teachers c. To teach cooperating teachers 3. Do you consider years in service as important to the selection of cooperating teachers? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided 4. Are academic qualifications considered in your selection of cooperating teachers? a. Yes b. No c. Sometimes Cooperating Teacher Training 5. Do you offer training at your school site for cooperating teaches? a. Yes b. No c. Sometimes 6. If you do offer training, how often does this training occur? a. Only at the beginning of the assignment b. Once a week throughout the assignment c. Once a month throughout the duration of the assignment 126 Cooperating Teachers Support 7. Do you offer support for cooperating teachers that may seek it? a. Yes b. No c. Sometimes 8. Do you offer cooperating teachers compensation? a. Yes b. No c. Sometimes 9. If yes, what types of compensation do you offer cooperating teachers? (Please choose all that apply.) a. Stipend b. University credit c. Salary points d. thank you gestures (such as gift baskets, certificates of appreciation, etc.) 10. Do you believe cooperating teachers receive adequate compensation for their efforts? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided 127 APPENDIX D Study Survey - Guiding Teacher Participants: Please choose the best answer to answer the question. Cooperating Teacher Selection 1. How did you come to supervise a student teacher? a. Volunteered b. Recommended by principal c. Asked by university faculty d. Was assigned a student teacher 2. Would you agree to serve as a cooperating teacher in the future? a. Yes b. No e. Undecided If no, why not? a. Not enough support by university b. Not enough compensation for my time c. Disagreement with university s procedures d. Poor relationship with university s teacher education program 3. What motivates you to serve as a cooperating teacher? (Please rank in order of preference, 1 being most motivating factor.) __ Be a role model to per-service teachers __ Learn new ideas to including my own teaching __ Have opportunity to reflect on teaching with other educators __ Receive a stipend __ Give back to the profession Cooperating Teacher Training 4. Were you given official documents outlining the expectations of cooperating teachers from the university teacher education program? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided 5. What type of preparation was offered by the university teacher education program? a. Teacher Education orientation b. Was only given official documents by the university c. Received no training 128 6. Did you receive clear and explicit instructions from the university? a. Yes b. No c. Somewhat Cooperating Teacher Support 7. Who do you contact when you feel you need support with the university s teacher education program? a. The university coordinator b. The university faculty c. Principal at school site d. The student teacher e. Nobody 8. Based on the number of hours you spend guiding your student teacher, do you think you are compensated adequately? a. Yes b. No c. Somewhat 9. What types of compensation have you received as a cooperating teacher? (Please choose all that apply.) a. Stipend b. University credit c. Salary points d. thank you gestures (such as gift baskets, certificates of appreciation, etc.) 10. If you have received a stipend, what was the amount awarded to you? a. Below $100.00 b. Between $100.00 and $200.00 c. Between $200.00 and $300.00 d. Between $300.00 and $400.00 e. Above $400.00 11. Would you like to have more involvement with the university teacher education program to provide input in the teacher education process? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided 129 Perceptions of Cooperating Teachers 12. How would you describe your relationships with student teachers? a. Positive b. Neutral c. Negative 13. Did you provide time to meet with your student teacher on a regular basis? a. Yes b. No c. Sometimes 14. Did you help your student teacher develop lesson plans? a. Yes b. No c. Sometimes 15. Did you provide immediate feedback to your student teacher? a. Yes b. No c. Sometimes 130 APPENDIX E Study Survey - Former Guided Practice Teacher Participants: Please choose the best answer to answer the question. Cooperating Teacher Selection 1. Are you aware of the process used to select your cooperating teacher? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided Cooperating Teacher Training 2. Is your cooperating teacher familiar with the university s expectations? a. Yes b. No c. Somewhat 3. Did your cooperating teacher receive preparation to be able to guide you in the classroom from the university teacher education program? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided 4. Did your cooperating teacher receive preparation to be able to guide you in the classroom from his/her school site? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided Cooperating Teacher Support 5. Did your teacher receive support from your university teacher education program? a. Yes b. No c. Somewhat 6. Did you teacher receive support from his/her school site? a. Yes b. No c. Somewhat 131 7. Are you aware if your cooperating teacher receives compensation for his/her efforts? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided 8. If yes, do you believe the compensation is adequate for his/her efforts? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided Perceptions of Cooperating Teachers 9. Which types of support from your cooperating teacher have been the most effective? a. Co-teaching b. Provide written feedback c. Interaction on site d. No feedback 10. Do you feel your cooperating teacher gives you enough guidance with lesson planning? a. Yes b. No c. Somewhat d. Undecided 11. Do you feel your cooperating teacher gives you meaningful feedback after your lessons? a. Yes b. No c. Somewhat 12. How often do you meet with your cooperating teacher to discuss your progress? a. once a week b. twice a month c. once a month d. never 13. Does your cooperating teacher address you as a professional? a. Yes b. No c. Undecided

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In response to a growing trend towards alternative teacher education programs, this study aims to direct the focus on traditional teacher preparation programs. The purpose of this study is to analyze the processes of how classroom teachers are selected, trained, and supported as guiding teachers in one urban teacher education program. The perceptions of guiding teachers by former guided practice teachers from that program are also examined. ❧ The first research question explores the processes for selecting guiding teachers who work with the teacher education program. The second research question investigates the training provided for guiding teachers through the guided practice experience. The third question examines the types and frequencies of support given to guiding teachers. The last question considers the perceptions of former guided practice teachers on their guiding teachers. ❧ Data was collected via a web-based survey tool. Four groups of participants (former guided practice teachers, guiding teachers, school site administrators, and a University Placement Coordinator) were invited to complete surveys that were reflective of the research questions. Three of the four groups of participants provided data for this study. The data was analyzed leading to the provided recommendations for future research.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lopez, Carmen Lizette (author)

Core Title An analysis of the selection and training of guiding teachers in an urban teacher education program

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/23/2012

Defense Date 03/05/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag cooperating teacher,guided practice,guiding teachers,master teacher,OAI-PMH Harvest,selection of guiding teachers,student teaching,training of guiding teachers,urban teacher education

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kaplan, Sandra (committee chair), Baca, Reynaldo R. (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email clopez35@lausd.net,trojanlily@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-8930

Unique identifier UC11290067

Identifier usctheses-c3-8930 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LopezCarme-625-0.pdf

Dmrecord 8930

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lopez, Carmen Lizette

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA