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Back to Ostrovsky!: reclaiming Russia's national playwright on the early Soviet stage
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Content
BACK
TO
OSTROVSKY!:
RECLAIMING
RUSSIA'S
NATIONAL
PLAYWRIGHT
ON
THE
EARLY
SOVIET
STAGE
by
William
David
Gunn
A
Dissertation
Presented
to
the
FACULTY
OF
THE
USC
GRADUATE
SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY
OF
SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA
In
Partial
Fulfillment
of
the
Requirements
for
the
Degree
DOCTOR
OF
PHILOSOPHY
(SLAVIC
LANGUAGES
AND
LITERATURES)
August
2012
Copyright
2012
William
David
Gunn
ii
Dedication
For
Matthew
Bowen
Hill
iii
Acknowledgments
Thanks
to
Sharon
Carnicke
for
her
constant
support
and
guidance
throughout
this
project.
I
could
not
have
hoped
to
find
a
more
knowledgeable
and
gracious
companion
with
whom
to
explore
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s.
I
owe
much
to
Brad
Damaré
for
his
willingness
to
provide
insightful
comments
at
every
stage
of
the
writing
process
and
also
to
James
Collins
II
for
his
enthusiasm
and
thoughtful
responses
from
a
perspective
outside
the
field
of
Slavic
studies.
I
would
be
remiss
if
I
did
not
thank
Marcus
Levitt
for
doing
much
of
the
thankless
work
in
the
preliminary
stages
of
this
project.
I
am
grateful
to
have
benefitted
from
his
keen
eye
and
willingness
to
ask
the
tough
questions,
but
more
than
anything,
I
appreciate
his
kindness
and
unwavering
encouragement
over
the
last
seven
years.
I
consider
myself
fortunate
to
have
been
a
graduate
student
in
the
Slavic
Department
at
the
University
of
Southern
California,
where
I
have
been
trained
as
a
scholar
and
mentored
by
various
faculty
members
along
way.
Thomas
Seifrid,
Alexander
Zholkovsky,
and
Sarah
Pratt
have
guided
me
through
Russian
literature
of
the
nineteenth
and
twentieth
centuries
and
have
challenged
me
in
ways
I
never
thought
possible.
Thanks
to
Mark
Konecny
of
the
Institute
of
Modern
Russian
Culture
at
USC
for
his
friendship
and
for
sharing
his
knowledge
and
love
of
Russian
theatre.
Without
Susan
Kechekian,
"nashe
vse,"
I
could
have
never
survived
graduate
school,
and
I
will
forever
be
thinking
of
ways
to
repay
her.
There
are
too
iv
many
graduate
students
to
mention,
but
I
want
to
thank
Lena
Vasilieva
for
helping
me
identify
and
work
out
some
the
critical
questions
of
my
project.
Professor
John
Bowlt
has
also
played
a
large
part
in
my
research
and
has
indulged
by
interest
in
theatre
throughout
my
time
at
USC.
Thanks
to
John,
I
was
able
to
secure
funding
from
the
Albert
and
Elaine
Borchard
Foundation
in
order
conduct
archival
research
in
Moscow
and
St.
Petersburg
during
the
summer
of
2010.
The
agreement
John
negotiated
between
USC
and
the
Russian
National
Library
in
St.
Petersburg
made
my
research
possible
and
gave
me
access
to
people
and
places
I
would
not
have
had
otherwise.
During
my
time
in
abroad,
Denis
Tsypkin
(my
Russian
handler),
knocked
on
many
doors
and
made
numerous
phone
calls
to
make
sure
I
was
able
to
accomplish
my
goals
in
Russia.
I
also
want
to
thank
various
colleagues
outside
USC
for
supporting
my
work
and
providing
encouragement.
Professor
Boris
Wolfson
at
Amherst
University
has
generously
supported
my
work
from
afar
and
has
introduced
me
to
other
scholars
working
on
Russian
theatre.
For
their
generous
advice,
I
want
to
specifically
mention
Caryl
Emerson
at
Princeton,
Anna
Muza
at
Berkeley
and
Dassia
Posner
at
Northwestern.
I
am
blessed
to
have
a
large
family
that
has
influenced
me
more
than
anything
else
in
my
life.
My
parents,
Dr.
Thomas
Gunn
and
Aleta
Gunn,
have
always
encouraged
me
to
pursue
my
dreams,
even
if
it
meant
being
an
actor
or
a
Russian
professor.
My
older
sisters,
Tina,
Laurie
and
Becky,
taught
me
how
to
love
unconditionally,
and
my
younger
brothers,
Jimmy
and
Andy,
provided
me
with
my
v
first
teaching
experiences.
My
new
sister-‐in-‐law,
Yuliana,
deserves
special
thanks
for
assisting
me
with
editing
the
final
versions
this
dissertation.
To
my
wife's
parents,
Anne
and
Veryl
Law,
thank
you
for
your
constant
love
and
support.
But
the
person
to
whom
I
am
most
grateful
is
Erika
Gunn.
Through
nine
years
of
school
and
three
graduate
degrees,
she
has
endured
summers
alone
and
semesters
in
which
I
was
unavailable
in
every
way.
With
the
birth
of
our
daughter,
Gwyneth,
Erika
has
been
playing
the
roles
of
both
mother
and
father
as
I
wrote
this
dissertation.
Not
only
has
she
provided
me
with
a
balanced
life
outside
of
academia,
but
also
she
has
given
me
the
push
necessary
to
complete
this
project.
Thank
you
for
everything.
I
don't
think
I
will
ever
be
able
to
a
make
it
up
to,
but
I
will
try.
vi
Table
of
Contents
Dedication
ii
Acknowledgments
iii
List
of
Figures
vii
Note
on
Transliteration
and
Translation
viii
Abstract
ix
Introduction
1
Chapter
One:
Two
Ostrovskys
9
Chapter
Two:
Post-‐Revolutionary
Theatre
42
Chapter
Three:
Eisenstein's
Wiseman
71
Chapter
Four:
Meyerhold's
Forest
114
Chapter
Five:
Stanislavsky's
Ardent
Heart
148
Conclusion
174
Bibliography
176
Appendices
Appendix
A:
Meyerhold's
Episode
Breakdown
189
Appendix
B:
Ostrovsky
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
(1898-‐1998)
192
vii
List
of
Figures
Figure
1:
The
Theatre
Triangle
125
Figure
2:
The
Theatre
of
the
Straight
Line
126
viii
Note
on
Transliteration
and
Translation
In
this
dissertation,
I
adhere
to
the
simplified
Library
of
Congress
transliteration
system
used
by
the
Slavic
and
East
European
Journal.
This
system
is
applied
consistently
throughout
the
manuscript.
The
following
rules
are
used
in
order
to
maintain
uniformity
in
the
text:
1.
All
Slavic
last
names
that
appear
in
the
body
of
the
text
are
Anglicized.
For
example,
the
ending
of
the
name
"Ostrovskii"
is
changed
to
"Ostrovsky."
In
most
cases,
first
names
and
patronymics
are
not
Anglicized,
but
transliterated.
The
exception
to
this
rule
is
names
that
have
a
common
Anglicized
version,
for
example
"Alexander."
2.
All
Slavic
names
appearing
in
the
footnotes
and
bibliography
are
transliterated,
except
when
part
of
an
Anglicized
title.
Soft
and
hard
signs
in
Russian
are
used.
3.
In
the
body
of
the
text,
geographical
names
with
Anglicized
spellings
are
used
in
their
common
appellation,
for
example
"Moscow"
and
"St.
Petersburg."
In
the
notes
and
bibliography,
geographical
names
are
transliterated
as
described
above
when
part
of
an
original
Russian
source.
4.
Short
quotations
from
Russian
sources
are
translated
in
the
body
of
the
text,
with
Russian
provided
in
the
footnotes.
Longer
quotations
appear
in
the
original
Russian,
with
translations
provided
in
the
footnotes.
All
translations
from
Russian
are
my
own
unless
otherwise
noted.
ix
Abstract
Alexander
Ostrovsky
(1823-‐1886)
is
the
most
prolific
and
most
produced
playwright
in
the
history
of
Russian
theatre,
and
no
other
figure
has
been
as
instrumental
in
establishing
theatre
as
a
key
institution
of
Russian
national
culture.
In
1923,
the
centennial
of
Ostrovsky's
birth,
the
Soviet
Commissar
of
Enlightenment,
Anatoly
Lunacharsky,
launched
a
campaign
promoting
Russia's
national
playwright
with
the
slogan
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
At
a
time
when
the
language
of
the
regime
was
focused
on
forward
momentum,
this
was
a
peculiar
directive
to
look
back
to
the
bourgeois
art
of
Russia’s
past.
Lunacharsky
employed
the
1923
Ostrovsky
jubilee
to
promote
his
agenda
for
the
Soviet
theatre
and
began
a
push
to
use
dramatic
classics
as
models
for
new
proletarian
art.
The
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign
prompted
the
greatest
theatrical
directors
of
the
era
to
create
new
productions
of
Ostrovsky’s
plays
in
the
1920s.
These
directors,
representing
both
avant-‐garde
and
traditionalist
aesthetic
ideologies,
engaged
in
a
performative
dialogue
embodying
the
larger
artistic
debate
of
the
post-‐Revolutionary
period.
Three
productions
from
the
years
immediately
following
the
1923
Ostrovsky
jubilee
are
examined:
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
(Na
vsiakogo
mudretsa
dovol'no
prostoty)
directed
by
Sergei
Eisenstein
at
the
Proletkult
Theatre
in
1923,
The
Forest
(Les)
directed
by
Vsevelod
Meyerhold
at
the
Meyerhold
Theatre
in
1924,
and
An
Ardent
Heart
(Goriachee
serdtse)
directed
by
Konstantin
Stanislavsky
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
in
1926.
Relying
on
W.
B.
x
Worthen's
conception
of
dramatic
writing
as
"writing
for
use,"
these
productions
support
the
claim
that
Ostrovsky's
works
were
used
as
a
platform
to
work
out
aesthetic
and
ideological
debates
in
the
early
Soviet
era.
Before
analyzing
the
productions
in
Chapters
Three,
Four
and
Five,
Chapter
One
examines
the
model
for
coopting
Ostrovsky's
works
established
by
the
social
critics
of
the
mid-‐nineteenth
century,
and
Chapter
Two
presents
the
key
issues
facing
the
early
Soviet
Theatre.
1
Introduction
In
the
relatively
brief
period
between
the
October
Revolution
of
1917
and
the
first
All-‐Union
Congress
of
Soviet
Writers
in
1934,
an
immense
amount
of
energy
was
put
into
shaping
an
artistic
platform
for
the
Soviet
Union.
In
essence,
there
were
two
groups
vying
for
influence—those
who
wanted
to
look
to
the
artistic
traditions
of
Imperial
Russia
as
a
model
and
inspiration
and
those
who
desired
a
clean
break
from
the
artistic
conventions
of
the
past.
Various
labels
have
been
applied
to
describe
these
two
groups:
conservative
and
radical,
right
and
left,
traditionalist
and
avant-‐garde.
Perhaps
most
appropriate
is
Katerina
Clark's
characterization
of
these
groups,
as
"monumentalists"
and
"iconoclasts,"
which
takes
into
account
their
varying
agendas.
1
While
the
political
motivations
were
the
same
for
both
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts—supporting
the
ideology
of
Communism
and
the
building
up
of
the
Soviet
state—their
aesthetic
conventions
were
vastly
different.
The
iconoclasts'
experiments
with
new
forms
were
increasingly
viewed
as
dangerous
and
subversive
by
Party
leaders
who
wanted
to
promote
art
that
could
be
universally
interpreted
and
understood,
and
as
a
result,
the
monumentalists
generally
enjoyed
the
regime's
support
with
their
more
conservative
approach.
In
1932,
the
concept
for
a
predictable
and
consistent
artistic
platform
was
put
forth
by
the
Party's
Central
Committee,
and
at
the
first
Congress
of
Soviet
Writers
in
1934
1
Katerina
Clark,
Petersburg:
Crucible
of
Cultural
Revolution
(Cambridge:
Harvard
University
Press,
1995),
27.
2
the
doctrine
of
Socialist
Realism
was
presented
as
the
only
acceptable
artistic
theory
in
the
Soviet
Union.
Simply
put,
Socialist
Realism
demanded
that
artists
portray
life
in
a
realistic
manner
and
support
the
goals
of
the
Soviet
state
and
the
Communist
Party.
The
focus
of
this
dissertation
is
to
examine
how
the
polemic
between
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
played
out
in
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s.
The
fact
that
the
theatre
was
put
under
the
control
of
the
Commissariat
of
Enlightenment
in
1917,
which
was
also
responsible
for
education
in
the
Soviet
Union,
indicates
the
utilitarian
aims
of
the
theatre
after
the
Revolution.
At
the
First
Congress
of
Writers
in
1934,
Maksim
Gorky
famously
claimed
that,
of
all
the
literary
arts,
the
theatre
has
the
greatest
power
to
influence
people.
2
The
realistic
theatrical
tradition
and
prolific
dramatic
repertoire
of
Alexander
Nikolaevich
Ostrovsky
(1823-‐1886)
dominated
the
late
Imperial
theatre
and
remained
prominent
on
post-‐
Revolutionary
stages.
Though
other
classical
writers
were
also
appropriated
into
this
debate,
the
nature
of
Ostrovsky's
diverse
body
of
works
and
his
widespread
impact
on
the
Russian
theatre
as
an
institution
make
him
an
ideal
candidate
function
for
both
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts.
In
the
playwright's
jubilee
year
of
1923,
the
Commissar
of
Enlightenment,
Anatoly
Lunacharsky,
called
for
theatre
practitioners
to
go
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
("Nazad
k
Ostrovskomu!").
Whether
2
Pervyi
vsesoiuznyi
s"ezd
sovetskikh
pisatelei
1934,
stenograficheskii
otchet
(Moskva:
Gosudarstvennoe
izdatel'stvo
khudozhestvennoi
literatury,
1934),
9.
"Из
всех
форм
художественного
словесного
творчества
наиболее
сильной
по
влиянию
на
людей
признаются
драма
и
комедия,
обнажающие
эмоции
и
мысли
героев
в
живом
действии
на
сцене
театра."
3
due
to
his
own
aesthetic
preferences
or
as
a
response
to
the
failure
of
authors
to
write
new
plays
for
the
Soviet
stage,
Lunacharsky's
official
promotion
of
Russia's
national
playwright
prompted
some
of
the
greatest
directors
of
the
early
Soviet
stage
to
make
bold
artistic
claims
in
their
productions
of
Ostrovsky's
plays.
As
the
cultural
value
of
classical
Russian
authors
increased
in
the
late
1920s
and
1930s,
elaborately
conceived
jubilees
were
created
to
celebrate
their
accomplishments.
The
Ostrovsky
jubilee
was
followed
by
the
jubilees
of
Tolstoy
in
1928
and
Pushkin
in
1937,
each
with
increasing
extravagance
and
more
sophisticated
framing
of
the
authors'
work
to
coincide
with
Soviet
political
ideology.
Following
Lunacharsky's
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign,
directors
who
rejected
realistic
staging
practices,
such
as
Sergei
Eisenstein
and
Vsevelod
Meyerhold,
along
with
more
aesthetically
conservative
directors,
such
as
Konstantin
Stanislavsky,
became
part
of
the
larger
cultural
debate
concerning
the
aesthetic
conventions
of
Soviet
art.
These
directors
used
Ostrovsky's
works
as
a
canvas
to
express
their
ideas
about
the
theatre
and
to
choose
sides
in
this
broader
cultural
polemic.
Ultimately,
Ostrovsky
becomes
a
sort
of
cipher;
his
theatrical
tradition
fades
away
as
the
uses
his
plays
are
put
to
illuminate
the
artistic
struggle
of
the
1920s.
I
invoke
W.
B.
Worthen's
conception
of
drama
as
a
literary
form
existing
in
a
space
between
poetry
and
performance,
begging
to
be
infused
with
the
ideologies
of
directors
and
actors.
Worthen
writes:
"Dramatic
writing
is
writing
for
use,
an
instrument:
how
we
understand
its
utility,
how
we
use
it
and
what
we
use
it
to
do—
its
affordance—is
partly
a
function
of
the
properties
of
the
instrument,
and
partly
a
4
function
of
our
imagination
of
the
task
we
want
to
perform
with
it."
3
In
this
dissertation,
I
examine
the
initial
development
of
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
in
the
nineteenth
century,
as
well
as
three
productions
of
his
plays
from
the
1920s.
Throughout,
it
becomes
clear
that
from
the
very
moment
they
came
into
existence,
Ostrovsky's
plays
have
been
put
to
use
by
various
critics,
politicians
and
theatre
practitioners.
Precisely
as
Worthen
argues,
the
properties
of
the
texts
lend
themselves
to
certain
interpretations,
but
more
significantly,
the
imaginations
of
critics
and
directors
alike
have
put
Ostrovsky's
plays
to
a
variety
of
tasks
over
the
last
150
years.
Each
chapter
tells
a
story
about
how
Ostrovsky
has
been
used
to
serve
a
specific
purpose,
and
while
various
complex
threads
are
interwoven,
I
will
focus
on
those
that
come
to
the
fore
in
the
key
productions
outlined
below.
In
Chapter
One
I
examine
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
as
it
was
established
in
the
nineteenth
century
and
point
to
some
of
the
primary
reasons
Ostrovsky's
works
were
so
well-‐suited
to
play
a
dynamic
role
in
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s.
I
pay
special
attention
to
two
key
articles
written
by
Nikolai
Dobroliubov,
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness"
("Temnoe
tsarstvo")
and
"A
Ray
of
Light
in
the
Kingdom
of
Darkness"
("Luch
sveta
v
temnom
tsarstve"),
which
established
the
canonical
reading
of
Ostrovsky's
works
and
have
dictated
the
way
Ostrovsky
has
been
viewed
ever
since.
Dobroliubov's
appropriation
of
Ostrovsky
as
a
critic
of
Russian
society
and
capitalist
greed
created
the
foundation
for
his
interpretation
by
Soviet
scholars.
3
W.
B.
Worthen,
Drama:
Between
Poetry
and
Performance
(Chichester:
Wiley-‐Blackwell,
2010),
xviii.
5
The
goal
of
Chapter
Two
is
to
provide
context
for
Soviet
Theatre
of
the
1920s.
Through
a
close
reading
of
Romain
Rolland's
The
People's
Theatre
(Le
Théâtre
du
peuple),
I
show
how
proponents
of
the
artistic
right,
such
as
Anatoly
Lunacharsky,
and
of
the
left,
such
as
Platon
Kerzhentsev
of
the
Proletkult,
both
use
Rolland's
theories
in
an
attempt
to
overcome
the
issues
facing
the
Soviet
theatre.
Specifically,
I
argue
that
Rolland's
concept
of
melodrama
as
the
centerpiece
of
the
people's
theatre
becomes
a
key
feature
of
Lunacharsky's
and
Kerzhentsev's
theories
about
the
future
of
Soviet
Theatre.
Ostrovsky's
melodramatic
characteristics
then
become
one
of
the
reasons
Lunacharsky
promotes
him
in
1923.
In
Chapter
Three,
I
analyze
Sergei
Eisenstein's
1923
production
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
(Na
vsiakogo
mudrets
dovol'no
prostoty)
at
the
Moscow
Proletkult
theatre.
With
this,
the
most
radical
adaptation
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
in
my
study,
Eisenstein
makes
a
bold
statement
about
his
aims
for
the
Soviet
theatre
and
the
place
of
Ostrovsky
in
the
repertoire.
Eisenstein
built
upon
the
techniques
he
learned
in
Vsevelod
Meyerhold's
directing
workshop,
developed
his
own
artistic
theories
and
presented
his
first
film
in
course
of
the
production.
In
his
article,
"Montage
of
Attractions"
("Montazh
attraktsionov"),
Eisenstein
begins
to
work
out
the
concept
of
montage,
which
would
become
the
cornerstone
of
his
cinematic
theories.
I
consult
reviews
and
memoirs,
as
well
as
Eisenstein's
theoretical
writings,
hand-‐written
notes
and
adaptation
of
the
play.
Chapter
Four
is
devoted
to
Vsevelod
Meyerhold's
1924
production
of
The
Forest
(Les)
at
the
Meyerhold
Theatre.
I
argue
that
by
dividing
the
play
into
thirty-‐
6
three
episodes
and
reordering
the
scenic
structure,
Meyerhold,
perhaps
unintentionally,
created
a
play
closer
to
the
style
of
Symbolism
or
Futurism
than
Ostrovsky's
realism.
Meyerhold
also
used
the
play
as
a
platform
for
developing
his
new
technique
of
stage
movement—biomechanics.
Along
with
Eisenstein's
Wiseman,
Meyerhold's
Forest
continued
the
argument
for
the
avant-‐garde
on
the
Soviet
stage.
In
addition
to
reviews
and
memoirs,
I
support
my
argument
through
an
analysis
of
Meyerhold's
acting
theories
and
his
restructured
text
of
the
play.
In
Chapter
Five,
I
analyze
Konstantin
Stanislavsky's
1926
production
of
An
Ardent
Heart
(Goriachee
serdtse).
Crafted
as
a
deliberate
response
to
the
Ostrovsky
productions
of
Eisenstein,
Meyerhold
and
others,
Stanislavsky's
Ardent
Heart
reveals
an
attempt
to
wrest
away
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
from
the
avant-‐garde
and
stake
a
claim
for
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
as
the
authority
on
Ostrovsky.
The
archival
sources
I
examine
expose
a
complex
situation,
in
which
the
Art
Theatre
and
Soviet
cultural
authorities
invoke
Stanislavsky's
name
and
the
authority
of
his
System
for
training
actors,
while
at
the
same
time,
his
role
in
the
theatre
is
constantly
diminishing.
In
An
Ardent
Heart,
we
can
see
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
role
in
the
development
of
Socialist
Realism
on
the
stage
through
staging
the
classics
and
using
the
Stanislavsky
System.
Finding
a
reliable
set
of
resources
is
one
of
the
inherent
difficulties
in
researching
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s.
By
its
very
nature,
theatre
is
an
ephemeral
experience,
and
almost
all
of
the
materials
available
for
studying
theatre
of
this
period
are
in
the
form
of
first
person
accounts
of
performances,
such
as
7
reviews,
or
the
recollections
of
artists
who
participated
in
creating
the
productions,
such
as
memoirs.
In
addition
to
reviews
and
memoirs,
I
consult
various
archival
sources,
such
as
promptbooks
and
director's
notes,
which
provide
valuable
insights
into
the
creation
process.
Unfortunately,
there
is
an
imbalance
of
available
resources
for
each
production,
but
by
cobbling
together
various
materials
it
becomes
possible
to
portray
a
sense
of
each
production.
On
the
other
hand,
because
there
is
great
interest
in
Eisenstein,
Meyerhold
and
Stanislavsky,
there
is
a
substantial
amount
of
secondary
resources,
which
serve
to
contextualize
the
productions
within
the
oeuvre
of
each
director.
In
the
end,
Lunacharsky's
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign
serves
as
a
microcosm
of
a
widespread
cultural
dynamic
in
the
1920s.
The
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
competition
for
aesthetic
supremacy
eventually
led
to
the
widespread
adoption
of
Socialist
Realism.
While
Eisenstein
would
be
hailed
as
a
master
of
Soviet
cinema,
Stanislavsky
was
mostly
confined
to
his
home
throughout
his
final
years—
in
a
sort
of
internal
exile
subtly
mandated
by
Stalin—due
to
the
experimental
techniques
and
ideas
he
was
exploring.
By
framing
Stanislavsky's
name
and
the
reputation
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
as
extensions
of
Soviet
ideology,
they
were
deemed
to
be
extremely
useful
to
the
regime
as
the
keys
to
Socialist
Realism
in
the
theatre,
but
it
was
Meyerhold
who
paid
the
ultimate
price
for
falling
on
the
wrong
side
of
this
high
stakes
artistic
debate.
In
fact,
one
of
the
main
reasons
Meyerhold
survived
the
1930s
was
due
to
his
association
with
Stanislavsky,
so
it
is
not
a
coincidence
that
just
one
year
after
Stanislavsky's
death
in
1938,
Meyerhold
was
8
arrested,
tortured
and
executed
as
a
leader
of
the
"anti-‐Soviet"
movement
in
the
arts,
which
did
not
exist.
4
4
Edward
Braun,
Meyerhold:
A
Revolution
in
Theatre
(Iowa
City:
University
of
Iowa
Press,
1995),
300.
9
Chapter
One:
Two
Ostrovskys
Don't
Forget
Ostrovsky
At
the
end
of
1918,
Vladimir
Il'ich
Lenin
often
met
and
corresponded
with
Pavel
Ivanovich
Lebedev-‐Polianskii,
the
newly
appointed
commissar
in
charge
of
publishing
literature.
Lebedev-‐Polianskii
composed
a
"Decree
about
the
government
publishing
house"
("Dekret
o
gosudarstvennom
izdatel'stve")
on
29
Dec
1918,
in
which
he
wrote
that
his
first
order
of
business
would
be
to
create
an
"inexpensive
people's
edition
of
Russian
classics."
1
When
Lebedev-‐Polianskii
met
with
Lenin
to
discuss
the
selection
of
texts
for
this
new
collection
of
Russian
classics,
Lenin
had
one
simple
thing
to
say
about
Russia's
national
playwright:
"Don't
forget
Ostrovsky."
2
Although
there
is
very
little
scholarship
on
Ostrovsky
published
in
English,
much
of
what
exists
seems
to
incorporate
the
idea
that
Ostrovsky
has
been
forgotten
in
the
West.
In
fact,
Marjorie
Hoover
and
Kate
Sealey
Rahman,
the
authors
of
the
only
two
monographs
on
Ostrovsky
in
English,
use
their
work
to
champion
the
cause
of
Ostrovsky
in
the
English-‐speaking
world
and
make
this
a
partial
justification
for
their
research.
3
It
is
difficult
to
understand
how
such
a
monumental
1
B.
Iakovlev,
Kritik-‐boets:
P.
I.
Lebedev-‐Polianskii
(Moscow:
Goslitizdat,
1960),
12.
"[Д]ешевого
народного
издания
русских
классиков."
2
Ibid.,
15.
"[Н]е
забудьте
Островского."
3
Hoover
and
Rahman
provide
valuable
resources
on
Ostrovsky's
life
and
give
relatively
comprehensive
analyses
of
his
plays.
These
two
monographs
are:
Marjorie
L.
Hoover,
Alexander
10
figure
of
Russian
literature
and
theatre
could
be
left
behind
when
other
Russian
classics
of
the
same
era
were
exported
to
the
West.
Various
explanations
have
been
provided,
such
as
difficulties
with
translation
and
the
inaccessibility
of
characters
and
social
situations,
but
while
these
questions
may
be
a
logical
starting
point
for
a
non-‐Russian
Ostrovsky
scholar,
the
fact
that
Lenin
specifically
made
a
point
of
reminding
Lebedev-‐Polianskii
not
to
forget
Ostrovsky
in
1918
is
much
more
interesting.
Lenin
was
far
more
interested
in
what
Ostrovsky
could
do,
than
with
what
he
actually
was,
but
this
was
not
a
new
phenomenon
for
Ostrovsky
in
1918.
The
claiming
of
Ostrovsky
as
a
representative
of
a
specific
cause
or
political
agenda
had
been
practiced
since
his
earliest
days
as
an
author.
At
precisely
the
same
time
Lenin
was
meeting
with
Lebedev-‐Polianskii
about
the
publication
of
Russian
classics,
Vladimir
Il'ich
famously
attended
a
production
of
Alexander
Ostrovsky's
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
in
December
of
1918.
The
Soviet
Union's
most
important
political
figure
was
struck
by
Konstantin
Stanislavsky's
portrayal
of
the
pompous
General
Krutitsky,
proclaiming:
Вот
видите
ли,
пьеса
Островского...
Старый
классический
автор,
а
игра
Станиславского
звучит
по-‐новому
для
нас.
Этот
генерал
открывает
очень
многое,
нам
важное...
Это
агитка
в
лучшем
и
благородном
смысле...
Все
бы
так
умели
вскрывать
образ
по-‐
новому,
по-‐современному,—
это
было
бы
прекрасно!...
4
Ostrovsky
(Boston:
Twayne,
1981)
and
Kate
Sealey
Rahman,
Ostrovsky:
Reality
and
Illusion
(Birmingham:
Birmingham
Slavonic
Monographs,
1999).
4
Simon
Dreiden,
V
zritel'nom
zale—Vladimir
Il'ich
(Moskva:
Iskusstvo,
1967),
178.
"You
see
this
play
of
Ostrovsky…
An
old,
classical
author,
but
the
acting
of
Stanislavsky
speaks
to
us
in
a
new
way.
This
general
uncovers
many
things
that
are
important
to
us…
This
is
agitprop
in
the
best
and
most
noble
11
It
is
not
insignificant
that
this
anecdotal
account
adds
to
the
legends
of
Stanislavsky
and
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,
but
even
more
importantly,
it
points
to
the
idea
that
both
Stanislavsky
and
Ostrovsky
hold
value
beyond
the
realm
of
theatre.
At
perhaps
no
other
time
and
place
in
history
was
the
institution
of
theatre
endowed
with
more
political
and
ideological
power
than
on
the
early-‐Soviet
stage.
With
Stanislavsky's
ability
to
make
Ostrovsky's
plays
fresh
and
relevant,
Russia's
national
playwright
would
be
able
to
fulfill
vital,
political
as
well
as
artistic
functions.
The
message
here
is
clear:
Stanislavsky
and
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
hold
the
keys
to
making
classical
texts,
and
Ostrovsky
in
particular,
usable
in
the
Soviet
context.
As
Kevin
Platt
and
David
Brandenberger
claim
in
their
recent
work,
Epic
Revisionism:
Russian
History
and
Literature
as
Stalinist
Propaganda,
this
process
of
reclaiming
the
great
names
from
Russian
history
in
an
attempt
to
find
the
usable
past
was
more
finely
tuned
in
the
1930s,
and
became
a
"defining
feature
of
Soviet
public
life."
5
The
1923
Ostrovsky
jubilee
was
the
first
such
effort
organized
by
the
Soviet
regime
to
celebrate
a
classical
author
and
frame
his
works
in
accordance
with
Soviet
ideology.
While
the
first
Soviet
jubilee
was
perhaps
clumsily
conceived
and
executed,
it
was,
more
importantly,
the
prototype
for
the
progressively
more
sense…
If
only
they
all
knew
how
to
reveal
a
character
in
a
new,
contemporary
way,
it
would
be
wonderful!"
5
Kevin
M.
F.
Platt
and
David
Brandenberger,
Epic
Revisionism:
Russian
History
and
Literature
as
Stalinist
Propaganda
(Madison:
University
of
Wisconsin
Press,
2005),
5.
12
complex
jubilees
that
would
follow,
such
as
the
Tolstoy
jubilee
of
1928
and
Pushkin
jubilee
of
1937.
Ostrovsky
was
not
forgotten
in
the
years
following
the
Revolution.
With
his
nearly
fifty
plays
(forty-‐seven
total),
Ostrovsky's
works
made
up
the
majority
of
the
Russian
theatrical
repertoire
in
1917,
and
his
influence
on
the
Russian
theatre
as
an
institution
made
him
an
unavoidable
figure
of
the
Russian
theatrical
tradition.
As
playwrights
struggled
to
write
new
works
for
the
Soviet
stage,
Ostrovsky
became
the
only
logical
alternative.
Throughout
the
1920s,
the
Maly
Theatre—which
made
Ostrovsky
famous—continued
be
the
home
of
Russia’s
national
playwright.
The
Maly
produced,
on
average,
one
new
Ostrovsky
play
each
year,
and
with
the
Ostrovsky
jubilee
of
1923,
the
Soviet
Union’s
greatest
directors
staked
their
own
claims
to
Ostrovsky.
With
the
rise
of
Socialist
Realism
in
the
1930s,
Ostrovsky’s
value
only
increased.
In
her
book,
Revolutionary
Acts,
Lynn
Mally
cites
some
staggering
statistics
about
Ostrovsky's
presence
in
Russia's
amateur
and
club
theatres,
where
he
was
clearly
produced
more
than
any
other
playwright.
Mally
quotes
a
1937
article
by
the
playwright
Anatoly
Glebov
who,
through
exhaustive
research,
calculated
that
Ostrovsky's
plays
were
performed
150,000
times
per
year
on
amateur
stages.
6
The
first
two
Ostrovsky
film
adaptations,
with
sound,
came
out
in
the
1930s—Vladimir
Petrov's
1934
film
of
The
Storm
(Groza)
and
Iakov
Protazanov's
Without
a
Dowry
(Bespridannitsa)
in
1936.
6
Lynn
Mally,
Revolutionary
Acts:
Amateur
Theater
and
the
Soviet
State,
1917-‐1938
(Ithaca:
Cornell
University
Press,
2000),
196.
13
Although
Lunacharsky's
1923
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign
did
much
to
cement
Ostrovksy's
legacy
on
the
Soviet
stage
and
in
Soviet
culture,
Ostrovsky
also
had
a
tremendous
impact
on
the
Russian
theatre
of
the
nineteenth
century.
Just
as
Lenin
recognized
the
usefulness
of
Ostrovsky's
texts,
critics
and
scholars
have
ascribed
their
ideologies
to
Russia's
national
playwright,
and
directors
have
used
Ostrovsky
as
a
canvas
for
their
artistic
experiments.
The
history
of
Russia's
national
playwright—both
on
the
stage
and
in
criticism—has
always
had
less
to
do
with
what
he
actually
is
and
more
with
what
he
can
do.
The
aim
of
this
chapter
is
to
identify
a
few
of
the
key
moments
that
built
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
during
his
own
lifetime
and
to
uncover
some
of
the
reasons
his
plays
were
so
well
suited
to
play
a
dynamic
role
in
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s.
In
the
first
section,
I
examine
events
in
Ostrovsky’s
life
that
occurred
roughly
before
1860.
Experiences
from
these
years
not
only
serve
as
the
foundation
for
his
early
works,
but
also
had
a
lasting
impact
on
his
financial
situation
and
relationship
to
the
theatre.
Ostrovsky's
activities
in
the
1850s
have
traditionally
been
given
the
most
attention.
In
1859,
Ostrovsky's
critical
reputation
was
forever
changed
by
Nikolai
Dobroliubov’s
seminal
article,
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
which
highlights
dominant
themes
and
character
types
in
Ostrovsky’s
plays
written
between
1847
and
1859.
In
this
chapter,
particular
attention
is
given
to
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness"
as
the
text
having
the
single
most
impact
on
Ostrovsky's
reputation
in
his
own
time,
as
well
providing
a
frequent
justification
for
Ostrovsky's
use
in
the
Soviet
era.
In
the
second
section
I
look
at
the
period
of
Ostrovsky's
life
after
1860,
in
which
14
he
creates
a
diverse
body
of
work,
writing
history
plays,
social
satires
and
even
a
fairytale.
I
also
analyze
Ostrovsky’s
impact
on
the
Russian
theatre
as
an
institution,
as
he
worked
for
the
rights
of
authors,
the
establishment
of
acting
schools
and
the
abolishment
of
the
monopoly
of
the
Imperial
theatres.
Although
the
period
before
1860—the
first
Ostrovsky—established
the
critical
reputation
of
Ostrovsky's
work,
his
activities
after
1860—the
second
Ostrovsky—prove
that
Russia's
national
playwright
is
much
more
than
he
seems.
Ostrovsky
is
intertwined
with
the
very
structure
of
Russian
theatre
that
would
be
debated
and
reevaluated
in
the
1920s.
The
First
Ostrovsky
(1823-‐1860)
The
controversial
decisions
Ostrovsky
made
in
his
early
years
had
a
profound
impact
on
the
subjects
of
his
plays,
as
well
as
his
material
existence.
Although
not
an
overtly
rebellious
individual,
Alexander
Nikolaevich
Ostrovsky
was
determined
to
make
his
own
way
in
life,
and
because
of
this,
he
was
forced
to
confront
the
consequences
of
his
actions.
When
Alexander
was
born
in
March
of
1823
in
neighborhood
inhabited
by
Moscow’s
merchants,
Zamoskvoreche,
he
was
only
one
generation
removed
from
the
clergy.
His
father,
Nikolai,
was
the
son
of
a
priest
from
Kostroma
and
studied
in
the
Moscow
Theological
Academy,
but
he
chose
to
serve
in
the
judiciary
branch
of
the
civil
service
and
swiftly
achieved
noble
status.
7
For
a
time,
young
Alexander
appeared
to
be
following
in
his
father’s
7
Kate
Sealey
Rahman,
"Aleksandr
Ostrovsky—dramatist
and
director,"
in
A
History
of
Russian
Theatre,
ed.
Robert
Leach
and
Victor
Borovsky
(Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press,
1999),
167.
15
footsteps.
After
graduating
from
secondary
school
magna
cum
laude
in
1840,
Alexander
was
automatically
accepted
into
Moscow
University
where
his
father
encouraged
the
study
of
law.
Alexander’s
less
than
inventive
letter,
excusing
himself
from
exams
in
May
of
1842
was
the
beginning
of
the
end
of
his
pursuit
of
a
career
in
law:
"Честь
имею
уведомить
исправляющего
должность
инспектора
Степана
Ивановича
Клименкова,
что
я,
по
причине
случившейся
лихорадки,
не
могу
явиться
на
экзамены."
8
During
his
time
in
university,
Alexander
was
more
interested
in
literature
and
attending
the
theatre
than
his
actual
course
of
study.
As
a
result,
he
never
passed
his
second
year
exams
and
left
the
University
in
1843.
The
experience
gained
after
leaving
the
University
proved
to
be
pivotal
for
the
young
Ostrovsky,
as
he
was
able
to
pursue
simultaneously
two
endeavors,
which
would
pave
the
way
for
his
career
as
a
man
of
letters.
Alexander’s
father
secured
a
position
for
him
as
a
clerk
at
the
Moscow
Court
of
Conscience
(Moskovskii
sovestnyi
sud)
in
September
of
1843,
and
in
December
of
that
year
he
completed
his
first
known
literary
work,
"The
Tale
of
How
the
Police
Superintendent
Went
on
a
Binge,
or
From
Greatness
to
Ridicule
is
Only
One
Step"
("Skazanie
o
tom,
kak
kvartal'nyi
nadziratel'
puskalsia
v
plias,
ili
ot
velikogo
do
smeshnogo
tol'ko
odin
shag").
9
This
work
is
a
parody
of
a
Pushkin
poem,
"Count
Nulin"
("Graf
Nulin"),
exhibiting
both
8
A.
N.
Ostrovskii,
Polnoe
sobranie
sochinenii,
vol.
14,
ed.
A.
I.
Reviakin,
G.
I.
Vladykin
and
V.
A.
Fillipov
(Moskva:
Gosudarstvennoe
izdatel'stvo
khudozhestvennoi
literatury,
1953),
11.
"I
have
the
honor
of
informing
the
acting
inspector
Stepan
Ivanovich
Klimenkov
that
I
will
be
unable
to
appear
at
examinations
due
to
the
occurrence
of
a
fever."
9
Ostrovskii,
Polnoe
sobranie,
vol.
16,
350.
16
Gogolian
influences
in
theme
and
theatrical
language
within
the
text.
10
Although
his
position
at
the
court
was
insignificant
and
this
story
was
never
published
during
his
lifetime,
during
the
second
half
of
1843,
Ostrovsky
not
only
found
his
calling
as
a
writer,
but
also
began
to
work
with
the
types
of
people
who
would
become
staple
characters
in
his
plays.
11
After
only
one
year
at
the
Court
of
Conscience,
Ostrovsky
was
appointed
collegiate
registrar,
and
then
in
December
of
1845
he
took
a
position
at
the
Moscow
Commercial
Court
(Moskovskii
kommercheskii
sud).
In
1847,
Ostrovsky's
first
printed
works
and
his
first
complete
play
appeared
in
the
Moscow
Town
Tabloid
(Moskovskii
gorodskoi
listok),
albeit
without
being
attributed
to
the
author.
On
January
9,
а
scene
from
the
play
The
Insolvent
Debtor
(Nesostoiatel'nyi
dolzhnik),
later
known
as
A
Family
Affair
(Svoi
liudi—sochtemsia)
was
published,
and
then
on
March
14,
Ostrovsky's
first
play,
A
Picture
of
Family
Bliss
(Kartina
semeinogo
schast'ia),
which
would
later
be
retitled
as
A
Family
Picture
(Semeinnaia
kartina),
appeared
in
print.
One
month
earlier,
A
Family
Picture
had
an
extremely
successful
public
reading
at
the
home
of
Professor
S.
P.
Shevyrev.
Looking
back
on
this
event
in
1885,
Ostrovsky
proclaimed,
"Самый
памятный
день
в
моей
жизни:
14
февраля
1847
года.
Почему
этот
день
памятен
мне
и
дорог,
Вы
это
знаете.
С
этого
дня
я
стал
считать
себя
русским
писателем
и
уж
без
сомнений
10
Rahman,
"Aleksander
Ostrovsky,"
167.
11
Marjorie
L.
Hoover,
Alexander
Ostrovsky
(Boston:
Twayne,
1981),
17.
17
и
колебаний
поверил
в
свое
призвание."
12
In
this
same
entry
from
M.
I.
Semevskii’s
album
of
autobiographical
stories,
Ostrovsky
reminds
us
that
his
"plays
did
not
appear
on
the
stage
for
a
long
time."
13
By
1885,
Ostrovsky
was
such
a
vital
part
of
the
theatre
establishment
that
his
controversial
beginnings
were
mostly
forgotten.
It
would
take
nearly
six
years
before
Ostrovsky’s
plays
were
permitted
by
the
censors
to
be
performed
on
the
stage
in
1853.
A
Family
Picture’s
negative
depiction
of
Moscow
businessmen
resulted
in
its
being
banned
by
the
censors
on
August
of
1847.
Ostrovsky
continued
to
develop
the
themes
and
characters
encountered
in
his
youth
and
work
in
the
courts
with
his
first,
non-‐dramatic
work,
Notes
of
a
Zamoskvoreche
Resident
(Zapiski
zamoskvoretskogo
zhitelia),
published
in
June
of
1847.
One
of
the
frequently
overlooked
events
in
Ostrovsky's
biography
is
his
1849
common
law
marriage
to
Agaf'ia
Ivanovna,
which
had
an
immediate
impact
on
his
relationship
with
his
family,
as
well
as
his
financial
situation.
Ostrovsky's
father,
Nikolai,
had
taken
great
care
to
raise
the
status
of
the
family
name
after
the
death
of
his
first
wife,
Liubov'
Ivanovna,
in
1831.
With
his
lucrative
law
practice
and
second
marriage
to
the
Swedish
baroness,
Emilia
Andreevna
von
Tessin,
in
1836,
the
elder
Ostrovsky
was
an
up
and
coming
member
of
society.
In
addition
to
owning
two
houses
in
Zamoskvoreche,
Nikolai
purchased
the
Shchelykovo
estate
in
1847,
not
far
12
Ostrovskii,
Polnoe
sobranie,
vol.
13,
302.
"The
most
memorable
day
in
my
life
is
February
14,
1847.
Why
this
day
is
so
memorable
and
dear
to
me,
you
already
know.
From
this
day
I
began
to
consider
myself
a
true
Russian
writer,
and
already
without
doubts
or
hesitations
believed
in
my
calling."
13
Ibid.
"[П]ьесы
долго
не
появлялись
на
сцене."
18
from
the
Volga
River
in
the
Кostromskaia
region.
Because
Alexander
would
not
end
his
relationship
with
Agaf'ia
Ivanovna,
which
his
father
demanded
because
they
were
not
social
equals,
the
young
Ostrovsky
was
immediately
cut
off
financially.
Ostrovsky's
problems
only
intensified
with
the
publication
of
his
first
full-‐
length
play,
A
Family
Affair,
in
Slavophile
journal
The
Muscovite
(Moskvitianin)
on
March
3,
1850.
The
immoral
conclusion
of
the
play
drew
the
attention
of
the
censors
and
even
Tsar
Nikolai
I.
The
plot
revolves
around
the
businessman
Samson
Bolshov,
who
in
order
to
avoid
paying
his
debts,
declares
bankruptcy
and
entrusts
his
assets
to
an
associate,
Podkhaliuzin,
by
marrying
him
off
to
his
daughter,
Lipochka.
After
marrying
Lipochka,
Podkhaliuzin
refuses
to
make
pre-‐arranged,
partial
payments
to
his
father-‐in-‐law's
creditors,
and
Bolshov
is
thrown
into
debtor’s
prison.
Many
of
the
elements
characteristic
of
Ostrovsky’s
plays
are
already
seen
here—exposing
capitalist
greed,
the
theme
of
acquiring
money
through
marriage,
concerns
of
the
middle
class
and
open-‐ended
conclusions.
14
But
the
notion
that
Podkhaliuzin
could
go
unpunished
in
his
treachery
resulted
in
the
play
being
banned
for
performance.
In
order
to
get
the
play
republished
in
an
1858
collection
of
plays,
Ostrovsky
had
to
include
a
scene,
in
which
Podkhaliuzin
was
summoned
to
answer
for
his
misdeeds
in
court.
15
In
the
resolution
banning
the
performance
of
A
Family
Affair,
Tsar
Nikolai
I
himself
wrote:
"It
shouldn’t
have
been
printed,
to
perform
it
is
prohibited."
16
Here
14
Hoover,
Alexander
Ostrovsky,
36.
15
Ibid.,
33.
16
Ostrovskii,
Polnoe
sobranie,
vol.
16,
362.
"Напрасно
печатно,
играть
же
запретить."
19
the
Tsar
clearly
recognizes
the
power
that
theatrical
performance
can
have
on
an
audience.
Although
Nikolai
I
viewed
the
publication
of
A
Family
Affair
as
unfortunate,
staging
the
play
could
be
dangerous,
especially
in
light
of
recent
revolutions
in
France
and
Germany
and
the
arrests
of
Russian
revolutionaries.
On
June
2,
1850,
Nikolai
I
ordered
that
Alexander
Ostrovsky
be
put
under
secret
police
surveillance,
which
lasted
until
after
the
Tsar's
death.
As
a
result
of
the
surveillance,
Ostrovsky
lost
his
job
at
the
Commercial
Court
in
January
1851,
so
without
an
income
or
the
financial
support
of
his
father,
it
became
all
the
more
important
for
Alexander
to
earn
his
living
as
a
playwright.
It
is
not
clear
that
Ostrovsky
actually
held
any
revolutionary
political
views,
but
the
subjects
of
his
plays,
which
merely
brought
to
life
the
people
he
encountered
in
everyday
life,
made
him
both
an
opponent
of
the
Tsar
and
a
champion
of
the
revolutionary,
social
critics
who
would
cement
his
literary
reputation.
Ostrovsky's
early
troubles
with
the
censors
would
make
success
difficult
in
the
short
term,
but
in
the
long
term,
he
was
able
to
have
a
lasting
effect
on
the
Russian
theatre
of
the
nineteenth
and
twentieth
centuries.
For
better
or
worse,
the
1850s
mark
the
period
most
remembered
by
Ostrovsky
critics
and
scholars.
Certainly
much
of
this
has
to
do
with
the
fact
that
Soviet
scholars
and
teachers
could
easily
discuss
the
content
of
Ostrovsky's
early
plays
in
relation
to
the
corrupt
social
and
economic
conditions
fostered
under
capitalism.
Nikolai
Dobroliubov's
1859
article
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
in
which
the
author
hails
Ostrovsky's
plays
as
models
of
social
and
political
criticism,
is
particularly
significant.
Although
Ostrovsky
had
written
less
than
a
third
of
his
20
nearly
fifty
plays
by
1859,
no
other
critical
work
has
had
more
influence
on
the
way
Russia's
national
playwright
has
been
interpreted
and
understood.
Dobroliubov
highlights
the
themes
and
character
types
upon
which
Ostrovsky's
reputation
was
established.
This
monolithic
view
of
Ostrovsky
discounts
his
more
diverse
later
works,
and
disregards
the
compromises
he
had
to
make
in
order
to
break
into
the
theatre.
Over
the
course
of
a
decade,
Ostrovsky
would
see
his
first
play
on
the
stage
of
the
Maly
Theatre,
print
a
collection
of
his
plays
and
win
the
prestigious
Uvarov
prize
for
drama
in
1860.
Ostrovsky
burst
onto
the
Imperial
stage
in
1853
with
the
January
14
premiere
of
Stay
in
Your
Own
Lane
(Ne
v
svoi
sani
ne
sadis')
at
the
Maly
Theatre
in
Moscow.
In
February,
productions
of
A
Young
Man’s
Morning
(Utro
molodogo
cheloveka)
and
Stay
in
Your
Own
Lane
premiered
at
the
Alexandrinsky
Theatre
in
St.
Petersburg.
These
were
followed
up
by
productions
of
The
Poor
Bride
(Bednaia
nevesta)
in
August
at
the
Maly
and
October
at
the
Alexandrinsky.
By
December,
a
fourth
play,
Poverty
is
No
Crime
(Bednost'
ne
porok),
was
already
in
rehearsal
in
both
Moscow
and
St.
Petersburg.
Unfortunately,
the
death
of
Ostrovsky’s
father
on
February
22,
1853
in
Shchelykovo
meant
that
he
was
never
able
to
witness
his
son’s
first
great
triumphs.
By
1860,
Ostrovsky
was
a
bona
fide
success,
with
a
total
of
ten
plays
reaching
the
stages
of
Moscow
and
St.
Petersburg.
Ostrovsky's
works
resonated
with
the
critics
of
the
journal
founded
by
Alexander
Pushkin
in
1836,
The
Contemporary
(Sovremennik),
which
by
the
1850s
21
had
become
an
extremely
influential
platform
for
radical
critics.
17
After
being
purchased
by
Ivan
Panaev
and
Nikolai
Nekrasov
in
1846,
The
Contemporary
remerged
in
1847
with
Vissarion
Belinsky
as
the
chief
literary
critic
and
Nekrasov
as
head
editor.
The
additions
to
editorial
staff
of
Nikolai
Chernyshevsky
in
1856
and
Nikolai
Dobroliubov
in
1857,
resulted
in
the
journal
losing
many
of
its
more
moderate
contributors.
18
Fortunately,
this
did
not
diminish
the
quality
of
the
criticism
at
The
Contemporary
at
a
time
in
which
radical
critics
were
far
superior
to
their
conservative
and
moderate
counterparts.
19
In
1854,
Chernyshevsky
praised
Ostrovsky
on
the
pages
of
the
The
Contemporary.
He
valued
Ostrovsky's
gift
as
a
playwright,
but
he
was
not
uncritical
of
certain
elements
in
his
plays
that
indicated
the
influence
of
Slavophilism.
20
In
1856,
Ostrovsky
continued
to
draw
the
attention
and
praise
of
The
Contemporary's
radical
critics.
In
an
article
from
February
1856,
Nikolai
Nekrasov,
proclaimed
the
Ostrovsky
was
"indisputably,
our
first
dramatic
writer."
21
At
the
same
time,
Ostrovsky
entered
an
agreement
with
Nekrasov
regarding
an
exclusive
collaboration
with
The
Contemporary,
and
almost
all
of
his
plays
would
appear
in
17
Charles
Moser,
Esthetics
as
Nightmare
(Princeton:
Princeton
University
Press,
1989),
33.
18
Victor
Terras,
Handbook
of
Russian
Literature
(New
Haven:
Yale
University
Press,
1985),
445.
19
Moser,
Esthetics,
32.
20
N.
G.
Chernyshevskii,
"Bednost'
ne
porok.
Komediia
A.
Ostrovskogo,"
Sovremennik
No.
5,
(May
1854).
21
N.
A.
Nekrasov.
"Zametkakh
o
zhurnalakh
za
dekabr'
1855
i
ianvar'
1856
goda,"
Sovremennik
2
(1856),
quoted
in
Ostrovskii,
Polnoe
sobranie,
vol.
16,
367.
"[Н]ашим,
бесспорно,
первым
драматическим
писателем."
22
the
journal
up
until
it
closed
in
1866.
The
relationship
between
Ostrovsky
and
the
liberal
critics
at
The
Contemporary
was
beneficial
to
both
sides.
Ostrovsky
enjoyed
the
praise
and
attention
of
Russia's
most
respected
literary
critics,
and
The
Contemporary
benefitted
from
publishing
the
playwright's
works.
"You
will
soon
see
that
it
is
not
for
nothing
that
we
call
this
realm
dark."
22
In
response
to
the
publication
of
a
two-‐volume
collection
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
in
1859,
Nikolai
Dobroliubov
published
a
two-‐part
article
in
The
Contemporary,
which
appeared
in
June
and
September
of
that
year.
In
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
Dobroliubov
produces
an
intensely
detailed
analysis
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
and
characters.
At
the
same
time,
the
article
is
filled
with
the
Dobroliubov's
biases
and
agendas
for
literature—the
very
tactics
for
which
he
censures
other
critics
in
the
article.
The
general
thrust
of
Dobroliubov's
literary
criticism
revolves
around
examining
and
exposing
social
and
political
issues
in
literature.
Dobroliubov
is
perhaps
best
known
for
his
article
"What
is
Oblomovism?"
(Chto
takoe
Oblomovshchina?"),
in
which
he
examines
the
traits
of
the
hopelessly
ineffectual
eponymous
character,
Oblomov,
and
connects
compares
him
to
the
superfluous
Russian
nobility
who
are
also
plagued
with
the
inability
to
do
anything
useful.
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness"
is
very
much
in
the
same
vein;
Dobroliubov
emphasizes
Ostrovsky's
critique
of
the
social
and
economic
conditions
in
his
characters
and
plotlines.
Dobroliubov's
examination
of
Ostrovsky's
first
decade
as
a
playwright
has
22
N.
A.
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika
(Moskva:
Gosudarstvennoe
izdatel'stvo
khudozhestvennoi
literatury,
1961),
314,
trans.
J.
Fineberg,
Selected
Philosophical
Essays
(Moscow:
Foreign
Languages
Publishing
House,
1948),
244.
"Скоро
вы
убедитесь,
что
мы
недаром
назвали
его
темным."
23
remained
the
textbook
on
Russia's
national
playwright
for
the
last
150
years.
Not
only
does
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness"
highlight
the
major
concerns
of
radical
critics
in
the
mid-‐nineteenth
century,
but
also
it
provides
a
convenient
justification
for
Soviet
scholars
and
artists
to
use
Ostrovsky's
plays
after
the
Bolshevik
Revolution.
While
Dobroliubov's
interpretation
of
Ostrovsky
has
been
privileged
due
to
his
status
as
a
leading
radical
critic,
as
well
as
the
fact
that
his
views
corresponded
nicely
with
Soviet
ideology,
Dobroliubov's
image
of
Ostrovsky
as
detractor
of
old
Russian
society
has
not
been
universally
accepted.
One
of
the
most
respected
theatre
critics
of
the
nineteenth
century,
Apollon
Grigor'ev,
saw
noble
attributes
in
the
characters
Dobroliubov
identified
as
corrupt,
immoral
and
tyrannical.
While
it
is
difficult
to
effectively
characterize
Grigor'ev's
critical
work,
Victor
Terras
designates
him
as
"the
leading
conservative
literary
critic
of
his
age."
23
His
Slavophile
tendencies
and
affiliation
with
the
Slavophile
journal,
The
Muscovite,
do
not
fully
or
adequately
define
him,
but
Grigor'ev's
fundamental
disagreements
with
Dobroliubov
were
clearly
identified
in
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness."
Dobroliubov
clearly
delineates
the
five
sections
of
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
and
in
the
first
section,
he
takes
on
the
various
critics
who
have
unsatisfactorily
analyzed
Ostrovksy's
plays.
Dobroliubov
mockingly
points
out
their
methodological
flaws
but
affirms
the
overwhelming
opinion
regarding
Ostrovsky's
great
talent.
According
to
Dobroliubov,
Ostrovsky's
talent
has
prompted
critics
"to
23
Terras,
Handbook,
185.
24
see
in
him
a
champion
and
vehicle
of
the
convictions
which
they
themselves
held,
and
this
is
their
fundamental
error."
24
Dobroliubov
summarizes
all
the
previous
scholarship
on
Ostrovsky
thus:
Если
бы
публике
приходилось
судить
об
Островском
только
по
критикам,
десять
лет
сочинявшимся
о
нем,
то
она
должна
была
бы
остаться
в
крайнем
недоумении
о
том:
что
же
наконец
думать
ей
об
этом
авторе?
То
он
выходил,
по
этим
критикам,
квасным
патриотом,
обскурантом,
то
прямым
продолжателем
Гоголя
в
лучшем
его
периоде;
то
славянофилом,
то
западником;
то
создателем
народного
театра,
то
гостинодворским
Коцебу,
то
писателем
с
новым
особенным
миросозерцанием,
то
человеком,
нимало
не
осмысливающим
действительности,
которая
им
копируется.
Никто
до
сих
пор
не
дал
не
только
полной
характеристики
Островского,
но
даже
не
указал
тех
черт,
которые
составляют
существенный
смысл
его
произведений.
25
Dobroliubov
claims
to
be
above
such
partisan
pandering,
which
he
believes
as
only
"prevented
many
from
taking
a
plain
straight
look
at
him."
26
Although
Dobroliubov
assures
his
readers
that
he
will
not
"ascribe
any
program
to
the
author,"
he
cannot
be
taken
at
his
word,
for
he
quickly
makes
his
own
position
known.
27
24
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
301,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
228.
"[В]идеть
в
нем
поборника
и
проводника
тех
убеждений,
которыми
сами
они
были
проникнуты."
25
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
301,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
227-‐228.
"If
the
public
were
obliged
to
judge
Ostrovsky
only
on
the
basis
of
what
the
critics
have
been
writing
about
him
for
ten
years,
it
would
have
been
totally
at
a
loss
to
know
what,
finally,
it
should
think
about
this
author.
At
one
moment
he
is
a
flag-‐wagging
patriot,
an
obscurantist;
at
another
moment
he
is
the
direct
successor
to
Gogol
in
his
best
period.
At
one
moment
he
is
a
Slavophil[e],
at
another
a
Westerner;
at
one
moment
he
is
the
creator
of
the
people's
theatre,
at
another
a
shopkeeper
Kotsebu
[Kotzebue],
at
another
an
author
with
a
new
and
original
world
outlook,
at
another
a
man
who
fails
to
understand
the
reality
which
he
copies.
Far
from
giving
a
complete
characterization
of
Ostrovsky,
nobody,
so
far,
has
even
indicated
the
features
that
constitute
the
main
idea
of
his
productions."
26
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
297-‐298,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
223.
"[П]омешали
многим
прямо
и
просто
взглянуть
на
него."
27
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
304,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
231.
"[М]ы
не
задаем
автору
никакой
программы."
25
Dobroliubov's
ideas
about
the
function
of
art
in
society
are
quite
simple.
By
focusing
on
real
life
and
depicting
it
as
accurately
as
possible,
"the
images
created
by
the
artist
greatly
facilitate
the
formulation
of
correct
ideas
about
things
and
the
dissemination
of
these
ideas
among
men."
28
This
is
a
clear
indication
of
Dobroliubov's
devotion
to
radical
politics.
It
is
the
formulation
and
dissemination
of
correct
ideas
that
will
lead
to
social
change.
He
defends
Ostrovsky's
vacillating
depictions
of
life
as
an
indicator
that
he
is
actually
portraying
real
life,
but
this
is
also
the
reason
that
there
have
been
such
varying
critical
views
of
his
plays
and
characters.
In
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
Dobroliubov
is
frequently
an
Ostrovsky
apologist,
claiming
that
his
sense
of
truth
contributes
to
conflicting
qualities
he
gives
characters.
He
seems
to
be
saying
that
in
real
life
it
is
impossible
to
categorize
people
so
easily,
and
this
is
one
of
the
markers
of
Ostrovsky's
genius.
He
defends
Ostrovsky's
diverse
characters,
abrupt
endings,
middle
class
characters
and
pro-‐
religious
sentiments
as
fundamentally
true.
If
audiences
will
but
see
these
truthful
depictions,
they
will
recognize
the
problems
that
need
to
be
dealt
with
in
society.
Although
Russian
authors
and
literary
critics
had
long
played
a
significant
role
in
society,
by
the
1850s,
the
explosion
of
Russian
literary
criticism
acted
as
one
of
the
leading
voices
for
social
change.
Terras
has
claimed
that
the
unprecedented
growth
of
Russian
journalism
in
the
1850s
stemmed
from
the
need
for
critics
to
come
together
for
a
common
cause—the
abolition
of
serfdom,
which
would
take
28
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
308,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
236.
"[О]бразы,
созданные
художником,
собирая
в
себе,
как
в
фокусе,
факты
действительной
жизни,
весьма
много
способствуют
составлению
и
распространению
между
людьми
правильных
понятий
о
вещах."
26
place
in
1861.
29
Along
with
this
growth
in
criticism
was
an
intensification
of
rivalries
and
polemics
among
different
groups.
In
Esthetics
as
Nightmare,
Charles
Moser
argues
that
the
beginnings
of
extreme
polarization
of
literary
criticism
began
in
1855,
with
"the
issuance
of
two
publications
which
intensified
the
relatively
calm
discussion
of
esthetic
matters
into
what
could
be
characterized
as
a
debate
or
controversy
over
art
and
literature."
30
The
first
of
these
works
is
Chernyshevsky's
thesis
The
Esthetic
Relations
of
Art
to
Reality
(Esteticheskie
otnosheniia
iskusstva
k
deistvitel'nosti),
which
claims
the
superiority
of
reality
over
art;
"the
beautiful
is
life."
31
The
other
publication
is
Pavel
Annenkov's
six-‐volume
edition
of
Pushkin's
works,
which
generally
supports
the
idea
of
the
"supremacy
of
art
over
reality."
32
If
Dobroliubov
sides
with
his
colleague,
Chernyshevsky,
at
The
Contemporary
in
the
belief
that
life
should
be
reflected
in
art,
then
Apollon
Grigor'ev
is
the
critic
of
the
right
who
bears
the
brunt
of
Dobroliubov's
journalistic
rage.
In
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
Dobroliubov
identifies
the
two
contradicting
parties
as
the
young
Slavophile
editors
at
The
Muscovite
and
his
group
of
radical
critics
at
The
Contemporary.
Although
Dobroliubov
does
not
identify
Grigor'ev
by
name,
his
role
at
The
Muscovite
and
the
specific
lines
from
his
articles
cited
by
Dobroliubov
make
it
clear
that
Grigor'ev
is
the
target.
Dobroliubov's
overall
contention
with
Grigor'ev
is
29
Terras,
Handbook,
212.
30
Moser,
Esthetics,
3.
31
Ibid.,
7.
32
Ibid.,
14.
27
the
"amazing
arrogance,
vagueness
and
ambiguity"
with
which
he
has
analyzed
the
playwright.
33
A
specific
example
is
the
term
narodnost',
which
Grigor'ev
uses
to
describe
one
of
the
general
qualities
of
Ostrovsky's
plays.
Narodnost'
is
a
notoriously
difficult
word
to
adequately
translate;
it
encompasses
the
ideas
of
nationality,
national
character
and
folk
heritage.
Dobroliubov
does
not
value
the
qualities
of
honesty
and
drunkenness
as
displayed
by
Liubim
Tortsov,
Ostrovsky's
hero
from
Poverty
is
No
Crime,
whom
Grigor'ev
sees
as
a
noble
representation
of
Russia's
national
character.
Furthermore,
Dobroliubov
takes
exception
to
Grigor'ev's
claim
that
"with
four
plays
Ostrovsky
has
created
a
people's
theatre
in
Russia."
34
Dobroliubov
then
goes
on
to
attack
Grigor'ev's
vague
claim
that
Ostrovsky
has
introduced
the
"new
word"
(novoe
slovo)
to
Russian
literature,
citing
Grigor'ev's
poem
published
in
The
Muscovite
in
1854:
Поет,
глашатай
правды
новой,
Нас
миром
новым
окружил
И
новое
сказал
нам
слово,
Хоть
правде
старой
послужил.
35
Victor
Terras
has
argued
that
the
issues
between
Dobroliubov
and
Grigor'ev
come
down
to
the
fundamental
differences
in
their
views
on
Russian
literature:
Grigor'ev's
assessment
of
Russian
literature
is
more
abstract
than
that
which
we
find
in
his
rival
Dobroliubov,
but
is
based
on
the
same
33
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
294,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
219.
"[У]дивительной
заносчивостью,
туманностью
и
неопределенностью."
34
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
294,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
219.
"[Ч]етырьмя
пьесами
создал
народный
театр
в
России."
35
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
294,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
219.
"Poet,
herald
of
new
truth,
/
Of
a
new
world
the
creator,
/
A
new
word
has
he
brought
to
us,
/
Though
serving
ancient
truth."
28
fundamental
criterion:
art
should
reveal
the
truth—and
so
the
ideal—
of
life.
But
while
Dobroliubov's
truth
is
essentially
sociopolitical
truth,
Grigor'ev's
is
moral
and
religious.
And
while
Dobroliubov's
scope
is
limited
to
the
concerns
of
his
own
generation,
Grigor'ev
seeks
to
encompass
the
entire
history
of
the
Russian
people:
past,
present,
and
future.
36
This
polemic
between
Dobroliubov
and
Grigor'ev
gathers
steam
with
Ostrovsky's
production
of
The
Storm
in
November
of
1859.
Dobroliubov
and
Grigor'ev
respond
to
the
play,
as
well
as
the
attacks
they
have
made
on
each
other.
In
"After
Ostrovsky's
The
Storm"
("Posle
Grozy
Ostrovskogo")
from
January
of
1860,
Grigor'ev
defends
his
romantic
ideas
about
the
function
of
art,
writing:
[Я]
не
думаю
ставить
искусству
какие-‐либо
внешние
цели
или
задачи.
Искусство
существует
для
души
человеческой
и
выражает
ее
вечную
сущность
в
свободном
творчестве
образов,
и
по
этому
самому
оно—независимо,
существует
само
пo
себе
и
само
для
себя,
как
все
органическое,
но
душу
и
жизнь,
а
не
пустую
игру,
имеет
своим
органическим
содержанием.
37
Grigor'ev
claims
that
art
exists
for
the
human
soul,
and
he
wants
to
give
power
back
to
art
and
artists,
proclaiming
the
independence
of
art
from
utilitarian
purposes.
Grigor'ev
then
takes
more
direct
aim
at
Dobroliubov
for
drafting
Ostrovsky
for
his
own
philosophical
purposes,
which
is
precisely
what
Dobroliubov
had
done
to
Grigor'ev:
36
Victor
Terras,
"Apollon
Grigor'ev's
Organic
Criticism
and
Its
Western
Sources,”
in
Western
Philosophical
Systems
in
Russian
Literature,
ed.
Anthony
M.
Mlikotin
(Los
Angeles:
USC
Press,
1979),
74.
37
A.
A.
Grigor'ev,
"Posle
Grozy
Ostrovskogo,"
in
Teatral’naia
kritika
A.
A.
Grigor’ev
(Leningrad:
Iskusstvo,
1985),
173.
"I
don't
think
to
give
any
sort
of
external
goals
or
tasks
to
art.
Art
exists
for
the
soul
of
man
and
expresses
its
eternal
essence
in
the
free
creation
of
images,
and
because
of
this—
independently,
it
exists
in
its
own
right
and
for
itself,
like
everything
organic,
but
has
a
soul
and
life,
and
not
an
empty
game,
with
its
own
organic
content."
29
Островский
прежде
всего
драматург:
ведь
он
создает
свои
типы
не
для
г.
-‐-‐бова,
автора
статей
о
'Темном
царстве,'—не
для
вас,
не
для
меня,
не
для
кого-‐нибудь,
а
для
массы,
для
которой
он,
пожалуй,
как
поэт
ее,
поэт
народный,
есть
и
учитель,
но
учитель
с
тех
высших
точек
зрения,
которые
доступны
ей,
массе,
а
не
вам,
не
мне,
не
г.
-‐-‐бову.
38
One
of
the
main
problems
that
Grigor'ev
has
with
Dobroliubov's
attempts
to
make
The
Storm
fit
his
self-‐serving
interpretation
is
his
understanding
of
Katerina.
The
main
conflict
in
The
Storm
is
concerned
with
the
adulterous
relationship
between
the
married
Katerina
and
the
young,
educated
Boris.
After
her
husband
Tikhon
leaves
for
Moscow,
Katerina
begins
a
relationship
with
Boris.
This
relationship
is
conniving
facilitated
by
Varvara,
the
sister
of
Tikhon.
When
Boris
abruptly
returns,
Katerina
confesses
everything
to
her
husband
and
is
driven
to
commit
suicide
by
casting
herself
into
swelling
waters
of
the
stormy
Volga.
Dobroliubov
blames
the
repressive,
ancient
demands
of
family
and
society
for
driving
Katerina
to
another
man:
"The
conditions
in
which
Katerina
lives
require
that
she
lie
and
deceive."
39
In
his
response
to
The
Storm,
"Ray
of
Light
in
the
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
Dobroliubov
interprets
Katerina's
suicide
as
a
heroic
protest
against
the
"kingdom
of
darkness,"
and
this
horrific
act
serves
as
his
inspiration
for
38
Ibid.,
177.
"First
and
foremost,
Ostrovsky
is
a
playwright,
so
he
does
not
create
types
for
Mr.
-‐-‐bov,
author
of
the
article
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
not
for
you,
not
for
me,
not
for
anyone
but
the
masses,
for
whom
he,
as
perhaps
their
poet,
a
national
poet,
is
a
teacher,
a
teacher
with
that
supreme
point
of
view
that
is
accessible
to
them,
to
the
masses,
and
not
you,
me
or
Mr.
-‐-‐bov."
39
N.
A.
Dobroliubov,
"Luch
sveta
v
temnom
tsarstve,"
Stat'i
ob
Ostrovskom
(Moscow:
Gosudarstvennoe
izdatel'stvo
khudozhestvennoi
literatury,
1956),
227.
"Обстановка,
в
которой
живет
Катерина,
требует,
чтобы
она
лгала
и
обманывала."
30
the
article's
title—the
"ray
of
light."
40
Grigor'ev
believes
that
that
this
opinion
of
Katerina
reduces
Groza
to
nothing
more
than
satire.
41
Later
Grigor'ev
places
his
belief
in
Ostrovsky's
narodnost'
in
direct
opposition
of
Dobroliubov's
satire.
42
Although
this
was
the
first
time
Ostrovsky
found
himself
in
the
position
of
middleman,
his
ability
to
serve
a
function
for
both
radical
and
conservative
critics
would
become
a
recurring
theme.
As
W.
B.
Worthen
suggests
in
his
claim
that
"dramatic
writing
is
writing
for
use,"
this
has
to
do
with
the
characteristics
of
Ostrovsky's
plays,
as
well
as
the
uses
Dobroliubov
and
Grigor'ev
imagine
for
him.
43
Ostrovsky
certainly
benefited
the
most
from
this
polemic
between
two
great
critics.
More
than
anything,
Ostrovsky
was
concerned
with
getting
his
plays
published
and
performed.
As
the
first
Russian
playwright
who
truly
depended
on
the
success
of
his
plays
for
his
livelihood,
the
attention
created
by
Dobroliubov
and
Grigor'ev
was
exactly
what
he
needed.
Ostrovsky's
capitalist
aims
are
a
great
irony,
especially
considering
how
Dobroliubov
touted
him
as
a
mouthpiece
for
exposing
capitalist
greed.
Ultimately,
it
seems
that
Ostrovsky
wrote
what
he
knew,
which
was
the
seedy
affairs
of
middle-‐class
merchants,
and
his
constant
desire
to
gain
the
official
acceptance
and
privileges
of
the
Imperial
theatres
does
not
suggest
that
he
was
highly
motivated
to
change
Russian
society.
It
just
so
happened
that
many
of
40
Ibid.,
236.
41
Grigor'ev,
"Posle
Grozy,"
178.
42
Ibid.,
198-‐199.
43
Worthen,
Drama,
xviii.
31
Ostrovsky's
characters
could
be
seen
as
either
nobly
flawed
or
horribly
monstrous,
and
Ostrovsky
could
benefit
from
both
interpretations.
After
his
lengthy
analysis
of
previous
Ostrovsky
criticism,
in
the
second
part
of
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
Dobroliubov
goes
on
to
analyze
the
plays
and
emblematic
characters
that
have
made
Ostrovsky
such
an
important
literary
figure
in
only
a
short
period
of
time.
This
type
of
specific
analysis,
he
claims,
is
the
key
to
understanding
Ostrovsky's
talent
and
true
point
of
view.
To
reiterate
his
claim
that
Ostrovsky's
plays
reveal
the
environmental
defects
in
Russian
society,
Dobroliubov
argues:
"Драматические
коллизии
и
катастрофа
в
пьесах
Островского
все
происходят
вследствие
столкновения
двух
партий
-‐-‐
старших
и
младших,
богатых
и
бедных,
своевольных
и
безответных."
44
First
he
analyzes
the
characters
responsible
for
these
catastrophes,
and
this
is
followed
by
a
look
at
the
various
victims
of
oppression.
Dobroliubov
introduces
the
concept
of
"samodurstvo"—petty
tyranny—to
define
this
environment
of
abuse
and
victimization.
For
Dobroliubov,
samodurstvo
is,
first
and
foremost,
an
indictment
of
Russian
patriarchy,
an
ancient
order
in
which
male
authority
figures
rule
their
households
through
physical
and
mental
abuse.
These
men,
whom
Dobroliubov
calls
"samodurs,"
are
responsible
for
the
ills
of
middle-‐class
Russian
society,
and
those
whom
they
oppress
are
left
with
empty
and
meaningless
existences:
44
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
229,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
243.
"All
the
dramatic
collisions
and
catastrophes
in
Ostrovsky's
plays
take
place
as
a
result
of
the
conflict
of
two
parties,
namely
the
old
and
the
young,
the
rich
and
the
poor,
the
arrogant
and
the
timid."
32
И
неоткуда
ждать
им
отрады,
негде
искать
облегчения:
над
ними
буйно
и
безотчетно
владычествует
бессмысленное
самодурство,
в
лице
разных
Торцовых,
Большовых,
Брусковых,
Уланбековых
и
пр.,
не
признающее
никаких
разумных
прав
и
требований.
45
Going
in
chronological
order,
Dobroliubov
discusses
Ostrovsky's
first
play,
A
Family
Picture,
which
acts
as
a
prototype
for
the
cruel
relationships
and
their
consequences
displayed
in
later
plays.
46
He
then
shows
the
development
of
samodurstvo
with
the
character
Bolshov
in
Ostrovsky's
second
play,
A
Family
Affair.
Dobroliubov
laments
the
fact
that
A
Family
Affair
was
still
banned
for
the
stage
because
it
is
a
particularly
good
example
of
the
flawed
environment
that
has
created
this
kingdom
of
darkness
where
good
is
punished
and
bad
is
rewarded.
Samodurstvo
and
its
effects
are
the
key
ideas
behind
Dobroliubov's
analysis
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
throughout
his
article.
In
parts
three,
four
and
five
of
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness"
Dobroliubov
takes
a
closer
look
at
the
different
types
of
samodurstvo.
He
begins
by
examining
a
different
type
of
samodur
in
part
three.
In
Stay
in
Your
Own
Lane,
Maksim
Fedotych
Rusakov
is
a
wealthy,
honest
and
kind
merchant
who
loves
his
daughter
Avdot'ia,
even
after
she
foolishly
elopes
with
a
nobleman
who
abandons
her
upon
discovering
that
she
will
be
disinherited
for
her
actions.
Avdot'ia
is
forgiven
by
her
family
and
fiancé,
and
all
ends
well
for
her.
Far
from
agreeing
with
other
critics,
such
as
Apollon
Grigor'ev,
who
view
Stay
in
Your
Own
Lane
as
an
apology
for
the
old
Russian
45
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
231,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
245.
"And
nowhere
can
they
look
for
joy,
nowhere
can
they
seek
relief:
over
them
rages
the
irresponsible
an
senseless
tyranny
represented
by
various
types
of
Tortsovs,
Bolshovs,
Bruskovs,
Ulanbekovs
and
the
like,
who
recognize
no
reasonable
rights
or
demands."
46
Ibid.,
324.
33
patriarchy
and
educational
system,
Dobroliubov
sees
the
play
as
a
protest
against
them.
47
Rusakov
is
not
a
testimony
to
what
was
lost
after
Peter's
Europeanization,
bur
rather
an
example
of
a
passive
samodur,
who
has
done
a
great
disservice
to
his
daughter
by
neglecting
her
education
and
creating
a
naïve
woman
to
be
taken
advantage
of
by
cunning
men.
48
In
the
fourth
part
of
the
article,
Dobroliubov
examines
the
play
Poverty
is
No
Crime
as
an
intensification
of
samodurstvo
through
the
character
Gordei
Karpych
Tortsov,
whose
obsession
with
money
and
appearances
prompts
him
to
attempt
to
marry
off
his
daughter,
against
her
will,
to
the
elderly
Afrikan
Savich
Korshunov.
In
the
same
section,
Dobroliubov
examines
the
A
Hangover
from
Someone
Else's
Feast
(V
chuzhom
piru
poxmel'e)
and
the
character
Tit
Titych
Bruskov.
Dobroliubov
argues
that
Bruskov
is
the
epitome
of
a
samodur,
and
Ostrovsky
himself
uses
the
character
to
define
the
word
in
the
first
scene
of
the
play:
"Самодур
-‐-‐
это
называется,
коли
вот
человек
никого
не
слушает,
ты
ему
хоть
кол
на
голове
теши,
а
он
все
свое.
Топнет
ногой,
скажет:
кто
я?
Тут
уж
все
домашние
ему
в
ноги
должны,
так
и
лежать,
а
то
беда...
"
49
In
the
fifth
part
of
the
article,
Dobroliubov
explores
the
reasons
characters
do
not
oppose
these
samodurs,
which
he
concludes
to
be:
"respect
for
the
law"
and
47
Ibid.,
353.
48
Ibid.,
358.
49
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
377,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
322.
"A
man
who
won't
listen
to
anyone.
You
can
hit
him
over
the
head
with
a
cudgel,
but
he
won't
budge.
He'll
stamp
his
foot
and
shout:
'Do
you
know
who
I
am?'
and
everybody
in
the
house
must
fall
down
at
his
feet
and
lie
there,
otherwise
it'll
go
hard
with
them…"
34
"need
for
material
security."
50
He
supports
this
idea
with
examples
from
the
plays
already
examined
in
the
article
and
several
new
ones,
including
The
Poor
Bride,
Poverty
is
No
Crime,
You
Can't
Live
as
You
Like
(Ne
tak
zhivi
kak
khochetsia),
A
Profitable
Post
(Dokhodnoe
mesto),
Incompatibility
of
Temperament
(Ne
soshlis'
kharakterami)
and
The
Ward
(Vospitannitsa).
Dobroliubov
ends
with
a
teaser
for
his
next
major
Ostrovsky
article
"A
Ray
of
Light
in
the
Kingdom
of
Darkness:"
Мы
должны
сознаться:
выхода
из
'темного
царства'
мы
не
нашли
в
произведениях
Островского.
Винить
ли
за
это
художника?
Не
оглянуться
ли
лучше
вокруг
себя
и
не
обратить
ли
свои
требования
к
самой
жизни,
так
вяло
и
однообразно
плетущейся
вокруг
нас…
[…]
…Выхода
же
надо
искать
в
самой
жизни:
литература
только
воспроизводит
жизнь
и
никогда
не
дает
того,
чего
нет
в
действительности.
51
This
conclusion
makes
Ostrovsky
a
fitting
prelude
to
the
1917
Bolshevik
Revolution
as
the
way
out
of
this
dark
kingdom.
Thus,
Dobroliubov
provides
a
ready-‐made
justification
for
Ostrovsky's
adoption
in
Soviet
theatre.
While
Dobroliubov's
article
was
certainly
the
most
thorough
and
well-‐argued
piece
of
Ostrovsky
criticism
from
the
1850s,
his
narrow
reading
of
Ostrovsky
leaves
little
room
for
other
interpretations.
This
is
particularly
unfortunate,
considering
the
various
parties,
including
Slavophiles
and
Westernizers,
who
also
claimed
Ostrovsky
as
their
own.
50
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
382,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
328.
"[Ч]увство
законности"
[и]
"необходимость
в
материальном
обеспечении."
51
Dobroliubov,
Literaturnaia
kritika,
412,
trans.
Fineberg,
Selected,
367.
"We
have
to
admit
that
we
have
not
found
a
way
out
of
the
"kingdom
of
darkness"
in
Ostrovsky's
productions.
Shall
we
blame
the
artist
for
this?
Would
it
not
be
better
to
look
around
and
present
our
demands
to
life
itself,
which
is
dragging
on
so
listlessly
and
monotonously
around
us?…The
way
out
of
it
must
found
in
life
itself;
literature
only
reproduces
life,
it
never
portrays
that
which
does
not
exist
in
reality."
35
The
case
of
Apollon
Grigor'ev's
is
crucial,
for
he
was
a
close
friend
and
colleague
of
Ostrovsky
from
their
time
together
at
The
Muscovite,
and
they
clearly
shared
similar
views
about
the
inherent
goodness
of
the
Russian
people,
which
would
fly
in
the
face
of
Dobroliubov's
samodurstvo.
Ostrovsky's
personal
relationship
with
Grigor'ev
continued
long
after
their
work
at
The
Muscovite;
Grigor'ev
would
meet
with
his
old
friend
for
play
readings
and
remained
a
fervent
supporter
of
his
work.
52
This
relationship
was
certainly
more
beneficial
for
Grigor'ev,
who
devoted
much
of
his
work
to
dramatic
criticism
but
often
lacked
the
platform
from
which
to
proclaim
his
view.
In
addition,
Grigor'ev
and
Ostrovsky
were
of
the
same
mind
in
their
belief
that
theatre
could
play
a
special
role
in
the
development
of
Russian
nationality,
"Так
же
как
Островский,
Григорьев
считал,
что
театр
занимает
особое
место
в
воспитании
чувств
нации,
в
формировании
ее
духовного
облика."
53
Ostrovsky
himself
does
not
make
any
specific
claims
about
the
political
element
in
his
plays,
but
there
is
much
to
be
gained
by
his
association
with
the
liberal
critics
at
The
Contemporary
and
their
positive
assessment
of
his
works.
Surely
the
relationship
between
Ostrovsky
and
The
Contemporary
was
mutually
beneficial.
In
the
highly
competitive
environment
in
which
journalists
and
authors
of
literature
existed,
Ostrovsky
and
Dobroliubov
relied
on
each
other.
If
Ostrovsky's
works
after
1860
are
any
indication,
he
was
much
more
concerned
with
getting
his
52
L.
R.
Kogan,
Letopis'
zhizni
i
tvorchestva
A.
N.
Ostrovskogo
(Moscow:
Gos-‐izdat
kul'turno-‐
prosvetitel'noi
literatury,
1953),
92.
53
Grigor'ev,
Teatral’naia
kritika,
19.
"Just
as
Ostrovsky,
Grigor'ev
believed
that
the
theatre
occupies
a
special
place
in
the
education
of
the
feelings
of
a
nation,
in
the
formulation
its
spiritual
character."
36
plays
past
the
censors
and
finding
a
way
to
secure
his
financial
security,
than
with
starting
a
revolution.
The
Second
Ostrovsky
(1860-‐1886)
It
would
be
difficult
to
overestimate
the
impact
that
Dobroliubov
and
his
article,
"The
Kingdom
of
Darkness,"
have
had
on
the
way
Ostrovsky
has
been
perceived
historically,
and
as
a
result,
the
first
ten
years
of
Ostrovsky's
work
as
a
playwright
is
significantly
privileged
over
the
remaining
25
years
he
spent
writing
for
and
working
in
the
theatre.
Ostrovsky's
eagerness
for
his
plays
to
be
successful
on
the
stages
of
Moscow
and
St.
Petersburg
in
the
1850s
was
followed
by
his
constant
struggle
to
become
an
influential
member
of
the
theatre
establishment
in
60s,
70s
and
80s.
During
Ostrovsky's
lifetime,
the
total
number
of
performances
of
his
13
plays
written
before
1860
almost
equals
the
number
of
performances
of
the
33
plays
written
after
this
period,
but
Ostrovsky's
post-‐1860
contributions
to
the
Russian
dramatic
repertoire
and
the
institutional
reforms
he
influenced
are,
at
least,
equally
significant
to
his
pre-‐1860
body
of
works.
54
Ostrovsky
was
nothing
if
not
a
prolific
writer;
between
1860
and
1885,
he
wrote
well-‐over
one
play
per
year.
Although
Ostrovsky
did
not
publish
exclusively
in
one
journal,
his
frequent
collaboration
with
The
Contemporary
ended
with
its
54
E.
G.
Kholodov,
"Ostrovskii
na
teatral'noi
afishe
ego
vremeni,"
in
Literaturnoe
nasledstvo,
A.
N.
Ostrovskii,
novye
materialy
i
issledovaniia,
kniga
vtoraia
(Moskva:
Izdatel'stvo
"Nauka,"
1974),
13.
During
Ostrovsky's
lifetime,
the
total
number
of
performances
of
plays
written
before
1860
was
1204
and
1282
for
those
written
after
1860.
37
closing
in
1866,
after
which
time,
Notes
of
the
Fatherland
(Otechestvennye
zapiski)
became
Ostrovsky's
most
frequent
publisher,
issuing
21
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
between
1868
and
1884.
Even
after
receiving
the
prestigious
Uvarov
Prize
for
The
Storm
in
1860,
Ostrovsky
was
frustrated
by
his
constant
struggles
with
the
censors,
so
he
turned
to
history
plays
in
the
1860s
with
One-‐Armed
Minin
(Koz'ma
Zakhar'ich
Minin-‐Sukhoruk)
in
1862,
Voevoda
in
1865,
The
False
Dmitry
and
Vasily
Shuisky
(Dmitrii
Samozvanets
i
Vasilii
Shuiskii)
in
1867,
and
Tushino
in
1867.
Certainly
the
most
unique
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
is
his
1873
fairytale
in
verse,
The
Snowmaiden
(Snegurochka),
for
which
Tchaikovsky
would
write
music,
and
later,
Nikolai
Rimsky-‐
Korsakov
adapted
the
plot
into
an
opera,
which
far
surpassed
the
popularity
of
Ostrovsky's
original
play.
Some
of
Ostrovsky's
best
works
are
his
satirical
treatments
of
the
Russian
aristocracy
in
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
from
1868,
Easy
Money
(Beshenye
den'gi)
from
1870
and
Wolves
and
Sheep
(Volki
i
ovtsi)
from
1875.
Ostrovsky
also
wrote
a
number
of
plays
about
actors
and
life
in
the
theatre,
such
as
The
Forest
(Les)
in
1870,
A
Seventeenth-‐Century
Comic
(Komik
XVII
stoletiia)
in
1873,
Artists
and
Admirers
(Talanty
i
poklonniki)
in
1882
and
Guilty
Without
Guilt
(Bez
viny
vinovatye)
in
1884.
In
addition,
Ostrovsky
wrote
an
intense
psychological
drama
Without
a
Dowry
in
1879
and
three
serious
comedies—The
Last
Sacrifice
(Posledniaia
zhertva)
in
1878,
The
Heart
is
not
a
Stone
(Serdtse
ne
kamen')
in
1880
and
The
Unfree
(Nevol'nitsy)
in
1881.
Although
far
from
exhaustive,
this
list
of
plays
and
corresponding
publication
dates
represents
the
diversity
of
38
subjects
tackled
by
Ostrovsky,
not
to
mention
the
fact
that
many
of
these
works
are
staples
of
the
Russian
repertoire
up
to
the
present
day.
Just
as
Ostrovsky
struggled
in
his
early
years
as
a
playwright,
his
attempts
to
improve
and
reform
the
Russian
theatre
were
fraught
with
difficulties
and
disappointments.
In
1866,
after
providing
plays
for
Moscow's
and
St.
Petersburg's
Imperial
theatres
for
nearly
20
years,
Ostrovsky
was
so
distraught
that
a
jubilee
was
not
organized
on
his
behalf,
that
he
wrote
to
his
friend,
actor
F.
Burdin,
that
he
would
abandon
the
theatre
altogether.
He
was
similarly
offended
when
his
applications
for
a
government
pension
were
denied
in
his
25
th
and
35
th
anniversary
years
of
1872
and
1882,
respectively.
When
Alexander
III
finally
awarded
him
a
pension
of
3000
rubles
per
year
in
1884,
he
had
little
time
left
to
savor
the
accomplishment.
The
rights
of
dramatic
authors
were
always
the
leading
cause
of
Ostrovsky's
concerns
for
the
theatre.
In
the
first
of
his
many
letters,
proposals
and
memoranda
criticizing
the
theatre
establishment,
"Conditions
Preventing
the
Growth
of
Dramatic
Art
in
Russia"
("Obstoiatel'stva,
prepiatstvuiushchie
razvitiiu
dramaticheskogo
iskusstva
v
Rossii")
of
1862,
Ostrovsky
blames
the
poor
state
of
the
Russian
theatre
on:
censorship,
which
he
believed
to
be
stricter
in
the
theatre
than
other
arts;
the
Theatrical-‐Literary
Committee,
which
no
longer
consisted
of
members
qualified
to
select
appropriate
plays
for
the
Imperial
theatres;
and
the
rights
of
authors,
which
were
still
defined
by
a
copyright
of
only
five
years
and
an
39
outdated
fee
scale
established
in
1827.
55
Ostrovsky's
lifelong
struggle
for
the
rights
of
the
playwright
made
some
modest
progress
with
the
copyright
being
extended
to
50
years
after
the
death
of
the
author
and
an
increase
in
the
1827
scale,
and
this
gave
Ostrovsky,
at
least,
some
peace
of
mind
regarding
the
financial
security
of
his
children.
56
In
1882,
Ostrovsky
finally
saw
one
is
pet
causes
get
resolved
with
the
abolition
of
the
Imperial
theatre
monopoly,
through
which
the
crown
had
controlled
which
plays
could
be
performed
and
reaped
the
financial
spoils,
effectively
limiting
Ostrovsky's
ability
to
make
money
through
the
production
of
his
plays.
Ostrovsky
saw
the
work
of
the
playwright
as
being
intimately
connected
to
the
work
of
the
actor.
Thus,
he
was
instrumental
in
the
creation
of
an
organization
for
both
parties—the
Society
of
Dramatic
Authors
and
Opera
Composers
(Obshchestvo
russkikh
dramaticheskikh
pisatelei
i
opernykh
kompozitorov)
in
1870
and
the
Moscow
Actors'
Club
(Moskovskii
artisticheskii
kruzhok)
in
1865.
In
a
document
from
1867,
"About
the
Actors'
Club"
("Ob
artisticheskom
kruzhke"),
Ostrovsky
writes
that
the
goal
of
the
club
is
"to
find
and
develop
talented
servants
of
art
and
support
them
in
life."
57
The
Imperial
theatre
school
discontinued
acting
classes
in
1871
and
turned
its
focus
to
training
ballet
dancers;
Ostrovsky
was
extremely
concerned
with
the
effect
this
would
have
on
the
craft
of
acting,
and
55
Ostrovskii,
Polnoe
sobranie,
vol.
12,
13-‐22.
56
Hoover,
Alexander
Ostrovsky,
29.
57
Ostrovskii,
Polnoe
sobranie,
vol.
12,
25.
"[Н]айти
и
воспитать
талантливых
служителей
искусства
и
поддерживать
их
в
жизни."
40
thereby,
productions
of
his
plays.
58
Again,
patience
was
necessary
for
Ostrovsky
to
witness
any
revision
of
the
theatre
school's
curriculum.
In
1881,
Ostrovsky
was
asked
to
serve
on
а
commission
to
review
the
situation
of
theatres,
but
his
recommendations
for
the
creation
of
a
theatre
curriculum
were
ignored.
In
his
memorandum
"About
the
Theatre
Schools"
("O
teatral'nykh
shkolakh"),
Ostrovsky
writes,
"Актером
родиться
нельзя…[Р]одиться
люди
с
теми
или
другими
способностями,
с
тем
или
другим
призванием,
а
остальное
дается
артистическим
воспитанием,
упорным
трудом,
строгой
выработкой
техники."
59
This
was
followed
up
by
his
"Additional
Note
About
the
Theatre
Schools"
("Dopolnitel'naia
zapiska
o
teatral'nykh
shkolakh"),
in
which
he
provides
a
detailed
curriculum
for
a
three-‐year
course
to
train
actors.
It
was
not
until
he
was
appointed
director
of
the
repertory
for
Moscow's
Imperial
theatres,
in
1886,
the
final
year
of
his
life,
that
Ostrovsky
was
able
to
reinstitute
training
for
actors.
Ostrovsky's
efforts
to
reform
Russian
theatre
as
an
institution—with
the
abolishment
of
the
Imperial
monopoly
and
establishing
of
actor
training—created
a
model
for
producing
theatre
that
inspired
the
work
of
Stanislavsky
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
60
58
Hoover,
Alexander
Ostrovsky,
30.
59
Ostrovskii,
Polnoe
sobranie,
vol.
12,
25.
It
is
not
possible
for
an
actor
to
be
born…[P]eople
are
born
with
certain
abilities,
with
a
particular
calling,
but
the
rest
is
up
to
artistic
training,
persistent
labor
and
strict
development
of
technique."
60
Rahman,
"Alexander
Ostrovsky,"
177.
41
By
the
time
of
his
death
in
1886,
Ostrovsky
had
almost
single-‐handedly
reconstituted
the
Russian
dramatic
repertoire
and
reshaped
the
structure
of
the
Russian
theatre.
Ostrovsky
has
been
afforded
relatively
little
attention
in
the
West
in
comparison
with
the
international
fame
of
his
contemporary
Russian
prose
writers,
such
as
Tolstoy
and
Dostoevsky,
and
in
the
realm
of
theatre,
his
celebrity
has
been
overshadowed
by
the
likes
of
Chekhov
and
Stanislavsky.
But
his
place
in
the
Russian
theatre
is
unquestioned,
and
perhaps
this
is
the
problem.
From
the
staggering
number
of
productions
of
his
plays
to
creating
the
conditions
that
enabled
Stanislavsky
to
establish
a
private
theatre
in
Moscow,
Ostrovsky
has
left
such
a
lasting
imprint
on
the
Russian
theatre
that
it
largely
goes
unnoticed—he
is
the
Russian
theatre.
Both
Dobroliubov
and
Grigor'ev
were
right.
While
Ostrovsky's
plays
do,
in
fact,
expose
the
evils
of
capitalism,
the
conditions
are
patently
Russian,
and
the
intricacies
of
Russian
society
encapsulated
by
Grigor'ev's
claims
of
narodnost'
make
the
social
terrain
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
incomprehensible
and
alien
to
Western
readers
and
audience
members.
Fortunately,
Ostrovsky's
inability
to
resonate
with
Western
audiences
has
not
negatively
affected
his
significance
in
the
Russian
theatre.
Backed
by
Dobroliubov's
"Kingdom
of
Darkness"
and
his
immense
popularity
on
the
Russian
stage,
Ostrovsky
was
poised
to
have
an
impact
on
the
future
of
the
Soviet
Theatre
and
beyond.
42
Chapter
Two:
Post-‐Revolutionary
Theatre
Monumentalists
vs.
Iconoclasts
Юбилей
Островского
надвигается.
Сейчас
время
переоценки
ценностей.
1
In
anticipation
of
the
100-‐year
anniversary
of
Alexander
Ostrovsky's
birth,
Anatoly
Lunacharsky,
the
Soviet
Commissar
of
Enlightenment,
published
a
two-‐part
article
in
Izvestiia
on
April
11
th
and
12
th
,
1923,
titled
"About
Alexander
Nikolaevich
Ostrovsky
and
Concerning
Him"
("Ob
Aleksandre
Nikolaeviche
Ostrovskom
i
po
povodu
ego").
In
the
first
two
sentences
of
the
article,
reproduced
in
the
epigraph
above,
Lunacharsky
not
only
points
toward
the
significance
that
future
jubilees
would
have
in
Soviet
culture,
but
also
the
importance
of
reevaluating
and
reframing
Russian
literary
classics
within
the
new
socio-‐political
context.
Functioning
as
a
mouthpiece
of
political
and
artistic
ideology,
Lunacharsky's
influence
on
Soviet
culture
was
far
reaching,
but
his
specific
interest
in
the
theatre
was
critical
to
how
the
art
form
would
function
after
the
Bolshevik
Revolution.
With
Lunacharsky
heading
theatrical
matters
in
the
Soviet
Union,
there
were
high
expectations
for
the
theatre
to
fulfill
a
utilitarian
function
in
society.
To
entertain
was
not
enough;
the
theatre
needed
to
play
a
part
in
supporting
the
ideology
of
the
Party
and
the
Soviet
state.
Lunacharsky
believed
that
Ostrovsky's
plays
could
play
a
vital
part
in
achieving
these
lofty
goals.
1
A.
V.
Lunacharskii,
Sobranie
sochinenii
vol.1
(Moskva:
Khudozhestvennaia
literatura,
1963),
200.
"The
jubilee
of
Ostrovsky
is
approaching.
Now
is
the
time
to
reevaluate
his
worth."
43
In
the
early
1920s,
Ostrovsky's
legacy
and
value
on
the
Soviet
stage
had
reached
a
critical
juncture.
There
was
no
doubt
that
his
works
remained
the
staples
of
the
dramatic
repertoire,
but
within
the
Soviet
context,
the
place
of
Russia's
national
playwright,
along
with
other
major
literary
and
cultural
figures
from
Russia'
Imperial
past,
was
the
subject
of
much
debate.
Two
distinct
groups
of
artists
and
cultural
figures
debated
how
to
best
create
art
that
would
support
the
Soviet
ideology.
One
group
wanted
to
preserve
the
artistic
traditions
of
Imperial
Russia,
and
the
other
group
believed
that
it
was
necessary
to
completely
break
free
from
bourgeois
artistic
traditions
and
conventions.
Various
labels
have
been
applied
to
differentiate
these
two
groups:
conservative
and
radical,
right
and
left,
traditionalist
and
avant-‐garde.
In
an
attempt
to
characterize
the
motivations
of
these
two
groups,
Katerina
Clark
describes
the
participants
of
this
struggle
as
"monumentalists"
and
"iconoclasts."
2
For
all
intents
and
purposes,
these
labels
are
interchangeable,
but
Jonathan
Brooks
Platt
claims
that
Clark's
interpretation
offers
a
more
sophisticated
view
of
the
debate
by
focusing
on
"accumulation
and
purgation,"
rather
than
"orientation
on
the
past"
and
"orientation
on
the
future."
3
While
the
political
motivations
were
the
same
for
both
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts—to
support
the
ideology
of
Communism
and
to
build
up
the
Soviet
state—their
aesthetic
conventions
were
vastly
different.
By
turning
the
Ostrovsky
jubilee
into
an
2
Clark,
Petersburg,
27.
3
Jonathan
Brooks
Platt,
"Feast
in
the
Time
of
Terror:
Stalinist
Temporal
Paradox
and
the
1937
Pushkin
Jubilee"
(PhD
diss.,
Columbia
University,
2008),
11.
44
opportunity
for
accumulation
rather
than
purgation,
Lunacharsky
set
a
precedent
for
how
future
jubilees
would
be
framed
by
the
Soviet
establishment.
Slowly
but
surely,
the
iconoclasts
were
pushed
out
of
the
picture
until,
in
1934,
the
official
program
of
Socialist
Realism
was
rolled
out.
Alexander
Nikolaevich
Ostrovsky’s
legacy
in
the
Russian
theatre
was
firmly
established
by
the
revolutionary
critics
of
the
mid-‐nineteenth
century
and
was
strengthened
by
the
popularity
of
his
works
on
the
Russian
stage,
but
in
the
1920s,
if
it
were
not
for
the
Commissar
of
Enlightenment,
Ostrovsky
could
have
easily
become
a
casualty
of
the
struggle
between
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts.
Lunacharsky
understood
that
he
needed
to
change
the
conversation
about
Ostrovsky,
if
he
wanted
to
make
a
case
for
the
playwright's
relevance
in
the
Soviet
theatre.
Simply
claiming
that
Ostrovsky
was
Russia's
greatest
playwright
was
not
enough;
Lunacharsky
wanted
to
show
that
Ostrovsky
was
still
relevant
and
could
contribute
to
the
development
of
Soviet
art.
Lunacharsky
was
essential
in
launching
Ostrovsky's
influence
in
the
Soviet
era
and
solidifying
his
legacy
in
the
twentieth
century
and
beyond.
This
official
endorsement
of
Alexander
Ostrovsky
in
1923
was
influenced
by
the
needs
of
the
theatre
after
the
Revolution
and
the
Commissar's
aims
for
the
new
Soviet
theatre,
as
well
as
the
theories
upon
which
he
relied
to
support
his
goals.
By
inserting
Ostrovsky
into
the
larger
cultural
debate
about
Soviet
art,
Lunacharsky
engaged
with
the
heart
of
the
Russian
theatrical
tradition
as
a
way
to
overcome
key
concerns
facing
the
Soviet
theatre.
45
Leading
up
to
and
including
the
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign,
the
debates
of
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
played
out
in
various
ways,
and
part
of
the
fundamental
transformation
of
the
Russian
theatre
after
the
1917
Revolution
was
determining
the
place
of
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
in
the
new
Soviet
theatre.
One
of
the
first
problems
was
to
figure
out
how
theatrical
activities
would
be
financed.
Lunacharsky
made
the
controversial
decision
to
nationalize
the
theatres,
but
he
allowed
certain
privileged
theatres
to
maintain
relative
autonomy,
which
sparked
outrage
from
artists
of
the
left
who
wanted
all
theatres
to
be
on
equal
footing.
Within
this
polemic
between
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts,
remarkably,
both
groups
found
neutral
ground
in
the
ideas
from
Romain
Rolland's
book,
The
People's
Theater.
Using
Rolland's
fresh
interpretation
of
the
merits
of
popular
theatre,
and
melodrama
in
particular,
both
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
sought
to
stimulate
the
creation
of
new
works
for
the
stage,
in
order
to
deal
with
shortcomings
of
the
native
Russian
repertoire.
After
it
became
clear
that
writing
new
plays
would
not
yield
immediate
results,
Ostrovsky's
plays
were
touted
as
a
means
to
bridge
the
gap
between
the
Russian
theatre
of
the
past
and
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
future.
Nationalization
of
the
Theatres
Although
the
very
concept
of
theatres
functioning
under
Communism
assumes
both
state
funding
and
productions
in
service
of
the
state,
at
the
dawn
of
the
Soviet
era,
there
were
major
concerns
about
how
to
reconfigure
the
structure
of
46
the
Russian
theatre
that
existed
before
the
Revolution
of
1917.
As
the
Commissar
of
Enlightenment
from
1917
to
1929,
Anatoly
Lunacharsky
was
tasked
with
negotiating
the
complex
economic
and
artistic
issues
that
would
face
the
theatre
as
an
institution
during
his
tenure.
As
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
competed
for
scarce
financial
resources,
Lunacharsky
mediated
the
ideological
and
aesthetic
debates
of
both
sides.
As
John
J.
Von
Szeliski
points
out,
Lunacharsky's
"tastes
and
interests
were
anything
but
narrow,
and
his
theoretical
views
rarely
suffered
the
loss
of
perspective
which
is
the
normal
curse
of
political
and
artistic
totalitarianism,
with
which
he
was
often
surrounded."
4
Through
his
resolve
to
make
room
for
the
artistic
right
and
left,
Lunacharsky
cultivated
an
environment
that
produced
groundbreaking
theatrical
works
throughout
the
1920s.
Even
as
the
fledgling
Soviet
Union
faced
far
more
immediate
and
pressing
concerns,
Lunacharsky
recognized
and
promoted
the
theatre
as
a
key
institution
of
the
new
political
and
social
order—
a
belief
that
often
put
him
at
odds
with
other
commissars
and
Lenin,
in
particular.
In
August
of
1919,
Lunacharsky
announced
his
plans
to
create
the
Tsentroteatr,
which
would
become
the
Commissariat
of
Enlightenment's
committee
devoted
to
handing
theatrical
affairs.
5
On
August
3
rd
,
Izvestiia
reported
the
details
of
the
Tsentroteatr
project,
which
would
mean
the
immediate
nationalization
of
all
theatres
and
theatre
property.
But
certain
theatres
would
gain
privileged
status
as
4
John
J.
Von
Szeliski,
"Lunacharsky
and
the
Rescue
of
Soviet
Theatre,"
Educational
Theatre
Journal
18,
no.
4
(1966):
413.
5
Sheila
Fitzpatrick,
The
Commissariat
of
Enlightenment
(Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press,
1970),
144.
47
"autonomous"
if
they
were
properly
managed
and
deemed
worthy
based
on
their
cultural
value.
Only
a
few
theatres
would
be
able
to
attain
autonomous,
and
later
academic,
status—most
notably
the
former
Imperial
theatres
(Aleksandrinsky,
Mariinsky,
Mikhailovsky,
Bolshoi,
and
Maly)
and
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
6
The
Sovnarkom
(Council
of
People
Commissars)
approved
the
plan
less
than
one
month
later,
but
this
arrangement
was
not
met
enthusiastically
by
the
theatrical
left,
which
recognized
that
it
would
be
difficult
to
infiltrate
the
existing
state
theatres
and
the
private
theatres
given
autonomous
status.
The
right
would
eventually
win
the
battle
between
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
in
the
theatre,
but
in
the
1920s,
the
dogma
of
Socialist
Realism
had
not
yet
been
established,
and
the
appropriate
amount
of
reliance
on
Russia's
theatrical
tradition
was
still
being
determined.
Representatives
of
the
left,
such
as
Platon
Kerzhentsev
of
the
Proletkult,
opposed
the
preservation
of
the
Russia's
bourgeois
theatre
tradition
and
often
clashed
with
Lunacharsky.
7
As
the
left
vied
for
access
to
more
state
funding,
framing
its
agenda
in
both
ideological
and
aesthetic
terms,
the
right
followed
suit
with
Lunacharsky
as
their
advocate.
8
By
creating
the
Tsentroteatr
in
1919,
Lunacharsky
quickly
resolved
the
two
vital
questions
facing
the
state
and
private
theatres
in
the
years
immediately
following
the
Revolution—"whether
to
give
the
companies
administrative
and
6
Ibid.,
146.
7
The
Proletkul't
was
an
organization
that
promoted
avant-‐garde
aesthetics
in
the
development
of
proletarian
culture
between
1917
and
1932.
8
Clark,
Petersburg,
27.
48
artistic
autonomy,"
and
"whether
their
artistic
traditions
were
worth
preserving."
9
But
Lunacharsky
knew
that
he
needed
to
defend
his
decision
to
give
autonomous
status
to
certain
theatres
against
attack
from
the
left.
In
Vestnik
teatra,
the
journal
of
the
theatre
section
of
the
Commissariat
of
Enlightenment,
Kerzhentsev
rejects
Lunacharsky's
belief
that
the
proletarian
theatre
should
be
built
upon
the
foundations
of
the
past.
10
For
Kerzhentsev,
there
was
no
room
for
compromise,
and
the
"the
ideological
enemy
in
the
theatre"
needed
to
be
rooted
out,
just
as
the
all
other
enemies
of
the
Revolution.
11
In
terms
of
aesthetics,
Kerzhentsev
believed
the
theatre
should
innovate
new
forms
of
presentation,
favoring
avant-‐garde
approaches
over
the
realistic
ones.
In
the
same
issue
of
Vestnik
teatra,
Lunacharsky
makes
a
case
for
traditional
aesthetics,
claiming
that
he
has
seen
how
bored
the
proletariat
is
with
revolutionary
performance
techniques,
and
Lenin,
who
always
stood
firm
as
an
artistic
conservative,
implicitly
supported
his
position.
12
Under
Lunacharsky's
seemingly
conservative
direction,
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s
thrived
as
both
right
and
left
produced
theatre
within
the
terms
laid
out
by
the
Commissar
of
Enlightenment.
The
Ostrovsky
jubilee
of
1923
represents
a
critical
moment
as
the
ideological
and
artistic
agendas
of
the
right
and
left
engaged
9
Fitzpatrick,
Commissariat,
139.
10
P.
M.
Kerzhentsev,
"Burzhuaznoe
nasledie,"
Vestnik
teatra,
51
(1920):
2-‐3.
11
Fitzpatrick,
Commissariat,
146.
12
A.
V.
Lunacharskii,
"Imenem
proletariata,"
Vestnik
teatra,
51
(1920):
3-‐4.
49
in
performative
dialogue,
and
as
result,
Russia's
greatest
directors
created
some
of
the
most
dynamic
productions
of
the
era.
The
People's
Theater
and
Melodrama
[A]mong
those
who
claim
to
represent
the
aims
of
the
People's
Theater,
there
are
two
diametrically
opposed
ideals:
the
adherents
of
the
first
seek
to
give
the
people
the
theater
as
it
now
exists,
any
theater
so
long
as
it
is
a
theater;
those
of
the
second
attempt
to
extract
from
this
new
force,
the
people,
an
entirely
new
theater.
The
first
believe
in
the
Theater,
the
others
in
the
People.
The
two
have
nothing
in
common;
one
is
the
champion
of
the
past,
the
other
of
the
future.
13
In
various
articles
at
the
turn
of
the
century,
Romain
Rolland,
the
French
dramatist
and
theatre
theorist,
began
to
express
his
ideas
about
reshaping
the
structure
of
the
theatre
in
a
way
that
could
meet
the
needs
and
desires
of
the
common
workingman.
Rolland's
prescriptive
theories
quickly
spread
across
Europe,
and
Soviet
Russia's
theatre
practitioners
were
particularly
entranced
by
his
ideas
about
the
creation
of
a
new
"People's
Theater."
Rolland's
ideas
about
altering
the
way
theatre
was
produced
and
reconfiguring
the
bureaucratic
structure
of
the
theatre—traditionally
controlled
by
the
political
and
cultural
elite—resonated
in
post-‐Revolutionary
Russia,
where
Lunacharsky
recognized
conditions
that
were
comparable
to
those
described
by
Rolland.
Rolland
had
a
profound
influence
on
both
Lunacharsky
and
Kerzhentsev,
one
of
the
great
iconoclasts
of
the
early-‐Soviet
theatre,
as
they
attempted
to
influence
theatrical
culture
in
the
1920s.
Lunacharsky
13
Romain
Rolland,
The
People's
Theater
(New
York:
H.
Holt
and
Company,
1918),
4.
50
and
Kerzhentsev
were
well
acquainted
with
Rolland’s
articles
published
between
1900
and
1903
in
The
Journal
of
Dramatic
Art
(Revue
d'Art
Dramatique)
and
later
collected
in
his
book
The
People's
Theater
in
1913.
For
Rolland,
and
consequently
for
Lunacharsky
and
Kerzhentsev,
the
People's
Theater
of
the
future
was
intimately
connected
to
the
development
of
new
plays
that
would
appeal
to
the
masses,
namely
melodramas.
Rolland
outlines
the
three
essential
principles
of
the
People's
Theater:
"Joy,
energy,
and
intelligence:
these
are
the
three
fundamental
requisites
of
our
People's
Theater."
14
He
is
careful
to
point
out
that
these
are
not
universal
rules,
but
rather
specifically
pertain
to
the
Parisian
theatre
at
the
turn
of
the
century.
Rolland
recognized
that
the
theatre
must
be
able
to
attract
audience
members
who
traditionally
have
not
had
access
to
cultural
events
of
the
elite;
so
much
of
his
attention
is
focused
on
appeal.
The
first
requisite
of
the
People's
Theater
is
that
"it
must
be
a
recreation."
15
Comfort
was
one
of
the
key
factors
that
falls
under
this
category,
and
Rolland
is
not
only
concerned
about
the
audience
members
in
the
more
desirable
parts
of
the
theatre:
"It
will
be
the
task
of
the
architects
of
the
future
People's
Theater
to
see
that
cheap
seats
are
not
instruments
of
inquisitional
torture."
16
The
material
presented
must
also
provide
something
desirable;
Rolland
is
convinced
that
in
order
to
prevent
audiences
from
seeking
lighter
fare
at
the
14
Rolland,
People's
Theater,
106.
15
Ibid.,
103.
16
Ibid.,
103.
51
cabaret,
the
dramatists
of
the
People's
Theater
need
to
write
plays
that
promote
joy,
rather
than
"sadness
and
boredom."
17
In
connection
with
this,
Rolland’s
second
requisite
is
that
"[t]he
theatre
ought
to
be
a
source
of
energy,"
which
can
affect
a
man’s
health
and
happiness
through
the
representation
of
action.
18
Rolland
envisions
the
playwright
as
a
"congenial
traveling
companion,"
upon
whom
the
audience
can
rely
to
alert
them
in
times
of
need,
entertain
them
along
the
tedious
journey
of
life,
and
even
provide
examples
of
heroic
deeds.
19
Rolland
actually
believes
the
People's
Theater
can
produce
immediate
benefits
in
the
spectators'
lives
and
identifies
his
ultimate
aim
for
the
theatre
as
enabling
the
workingman
to
better
accomplish
his
work
the
next
day.
20
The
final
requisite
of
the
People's
Theater
is
that
it
should
be
"a
guiding
light
to
the
intelligence."
21
Perhaps
naively,
Rolland
implies
that
workers
are
not
required
to
think
in
order
to
carry
out
their
daily
labor,
but
he
claims
that
the
theater
can
spur
a
man
to
thought,
which
will
then
allow
him
to
see
things
more
clearly
and
make
more
sound
judgments
in
every
aspect
of
life.
22
Through
performances
that
embody
the
principles
of
joy,
energy
and
intelligence,
Rolland
is
promoting
a
balanced
art
form
that
can
satisfy
not
only
intellectual
but
also
emotional
needs.
17
Ibid.,
103-‐104.
18
Ibid.,
105
19
Ibid.
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid.
22
Ibid.,
106.
52
In
the
chapter
descriptions
of
The
People's
Theater,
Rolland
identifies
the
different
types
of
drama
that
fit
his
requirements.
Among
them
are:
historical
drama,
the
social
play,
rustic
drama,
legends
and
tales,
and
the
circus,
but
the
first
chapter
is
devoted
to
melodrama.
23
He
claims:
"The
people
speak
frankly,
and
their
preferences
leave
no
possible
room
for
doubt…For
the
last
hundred
years
they
have
remained
faithful
to
the
entertainment
so
despised
by
the
delicate."
24
Since
one
of
the
assumptions
of
a
People's
Theater
is
that
the
population
will
determine
artistic
and
theatrical
endeavors,
Rolland
is
unconcerned
that
artistic
and
cultural
authorities
have
long
made
a
habit
of
demeaning
popular
forms
of
entertainment.
Performances
such
as
"the
circus,
the
pantomime,
the
burlesque
and
the
melodrama"
are
precisely
what
the
people
want
because
they
appeal
"to
the
soul
through
the
senses"
by
arousing
"simple
emotions"
and
"simple
pleasures."
25
While
Rolland
is
quick
to
dismiss
the
artistic
desires
of
the
"delicate"
in
favor
of
the
artistic
demands
of
the
"public,"
in
the
same
breath,
he
begins
to
redefine
precisely
what
the
art
of
the
people
has
been
and
what
it
should
be.
Rolland
knows
that
simply
giving
the
people
what
they
want
does
not
constitute
a
valid
theory
for
theatre
practice,
so
he
attempts
to
build
up
melodrama
as
a
genre
by
proposing
that
some
of
the
most
enduring
works
of
the
dramatic
canon
are,
in
fact,
textbook
cases
of
melodrama.
His
examination
of
melodramatic
23
Ibid.,
ix.
24
Ibid.,
118.
25
Ibid.
53
classics
focuses
on
the
two
most
recognized
golden
ages
of
the
theatre—Attic
and
Elizabethan
drama.
He
claims
that
the
"sensational
horrors"
of
Aeschylus'
Oresteia
and
Sophocles'
Oedipus
are
not
only
some
of
the
very
best
examples
of
melodrama,
but
that
the
melodramatic
plots
are
precisely
what
make
them
great.
26
Rolland
even
invokes
Shakespeare's
Hamlet
and
Macbeth
in
order
to
claim
that
the
sublime
melodramas
of
the
past
do
not
compare
to
"our
cheap
manufactured
products,
all
cut
to
a
pattern."
27
By
inserting
melodrama
within
the
context
of
the
most
enduring
and
recognized
classics
of
the
Western
stage,
Rolland
immediately
places
melodrama,
or
at
least
its
potential,
on
an
equal
footing
with
some
of
the
greatest
plays
ever
written.
Rolland
dismisses
the
critical
tradition
that
has
looked
down
upon
melodrama
as
too
course,
too
simple,
and
ultimately,
too
accessible
to
the
all
segments
of
society.
This
seemingly
contradictory
gesture,
at
once,
breaks
down
traditional
notions
of
Greek
and
Elizabethan
drama
while
reconceptualizing
the
value
of
melodrama
as
a
genre.
But
Rolland
does
not
stop
there;
he
goes
on
to
extol
the
melodramatic
form
as
the
most
difficult
to
produce:
As
a
matter
of
fact,
there
is
no
form
so
difficult
and
so
sublime
as
great
poetic
melodrama.
A
perfect
specimen
is
the
product
of
genius.
The
form
cannot
be
reduced
to
rules.
To
put
the
great
simple
passions
into
the
breasts
of
great
and
simple
human
beings
as
universal
as
Romeo,
Macbeth,
Othello,
and
Cordelia,
to
extract
from
the
naturally
developed
story
or
the
conflict
between
humans
begins
true
tragic
action,
to
write
a
play
that
blinds
with
its
light
and
groans
as
from
a
convulsion
of
nature—no
one
can
do
this
unless
he
is
a
superhuman
26
Ibid.,
120.
27
Ibid.
54
creature,
an
Aeschylus,
a
Shakespeare,
a
Wagner.
For
such
there
is
no
rule.
28
Although
Rolland
claims
there
is
no
specific
rule
for
creating
melodrama,
it
is
possible
to
extract
a
formula
for
his
ideas
about
character
and
plot:
melodramatic
characters
should
be
universal
and
have
simple
passions,
while
the
plot
must
consist
of
real
human
conflict
and
tragic
action
that
develops
in
a
logical
way.
He
goes
on
to
offer
a
simple
recipe
for
melodrama,
consisting
of
four
elements:
"Mingling
of
pleasing
and
painful
emotions,
True
realism,
Simple
morality,
and
Getting
one’s
money’s
worth,"
and
adds
the
caveat
that
these
rules
must
be
applied
with
"artistic
integrity."
29
Rolland
underscores
the
importance
of
going
to
the
theater
to
feel,
specifically
pointing
out
that
the
main
purpose
is
not
to
learn.
30
The
experience
is
more
enjoyable
if
one
can
feel
a
variety
of
emotions.
Rolland’s
emphasis
on
realism
is
significant,
as
he
points
out
that
one
of
the
main
reasons
that
melodrama
is
successful
is
the
"scrupulous
exactitude"
with
which
visual
elements
are
reproduced.
31
He
explains
that
the
need
for
simple
morality
is
not
necessitated
by
the
audience’s
lack
of
intelligence,
but
rather
is
connected
to
the
psychological
benefit
of
suggesting
that
good
will
triumph
over
evil.
32
Rolland's
ideas
about
melodrama
and
its
place
in
the
People's
Theater
were
essential
for
how
both
28
Ibid.,
122.
29
Ibid.,
120-‐122.
30
Ibid.,
121.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
55
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
conceptualized
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
future.
Although
Rolland
seems
to
somewhat
dismiss
the
utilitarian
potential
of
melodrama—a
crucial
point
which
Soviet
cultural
authorities
would
certainly
dispute—its
ability
to
evoke
emotions,
portray
life
in
a
realistic
manner,
and
show
good
conquering
evil
would
only
need
to
be
slightly
modified
to
the
fit
within
prescriptive
confines
of
Soviet
art
after
1934—the
era
of
Socialist
Realism.
Crisis
of
the
Repertoire
The
most
critical
issue
facing
the
Soviet
theatre
in
the
years
immediately
following
the
Revolution
was
the
repertoire.
Determining
which
existing
plays
should
be
produced
and
how
to
create
new
plays
that
could
reflect
some
semblance
of
Soviet
life
and
ideology
preoccupied
the
theatre
authorities.
In
his
1918
book
entitled
Creative
Theatre,
Kerzhentsev
devotes
a
chapter
to
the
repertoire,
in
which
he
eventually
concludes
that
"it
must
be
acknowledged
that
the
repertoire
of
the
proletarian
theatre
has
not
yet
been
created."
33
Kerzhentsev
looks
to
Rolland
for
solutions
and
quotes
the
aforementioned
three
essential
characteristics
of
the
People's
Theater
(joy,
energy,
and
intelligence),
and
then,
in
a
rare
turn
for
one
of
the
most
iconoclastic
men
of
the
theatre,
Kerzhentsev
produces
a
list
of
classical
plays
that
should
be
included
in
the
Russian
repertoire.
34
This
list
almost
exactly
33
P.
M.
Kerzhentsev,
Tvorcheskii
teatr,
2
nd
ed.
(Petrograd:
Izdatel'stvo
Kniga,
1919),
64.
"Пока
приходится
признать,
что
репертуар
пролетарского
театра
еще
не
создан."
34
Ibid.,
60,
63.
56
corresponds
to
the
titles
of
classical
Greek
and
Shakespearean
plays
that
Rolland
cites
in
The
People's
Theater,
but
also
includes
a
few
choice
masterpieces
of
the
Russian
Stage
by
Nikolai
Gogol
and
Ostrovsky.
35
Like
Lunacharsky,
Kerzhentsev
was
willing
to
accept
the
need
to
produce
Ostrovsky's
plays,
if
only
to
provide
a
model
for
proletarian
playwrights.
Only
a
few
years
before
Anatoly
Lunacharsky
would
signal
the
Soviet
theatre
to
go
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!,"
he
was
completely
committed
to
the
idea
that
the
creation
of
new
plays
should
be
the
focus
of
his
efforts.
Lunacharsky
also
looks
to
Rolland
to
support
his
ideas
for
the
creation
of
a
Soviet
theatre
based
on
the
principles
of
popular
performance,
using
the
great
dramatic
works
of
the
past
as
models
for
the
future.
Lunacharsky
begins
his
1919
article,
"What
kind
of
melodrama
do
we
need?"
("Kakaia
nam
nuzhna
melodrama?"),
by
immediately
invoking
the
authority
of
Romain
Rolland,
claiming
that
the
future
of
the
People's
Theater
is
connected
to
the
creation
of
new
melodramas.
36
Lunacharsky
recommends
that
"instead
of
turning
[up
their]
nose[s]"
at
melodrama,
playwrights
should
consider
writing
something
that
people
actually
want
to
go
see.
37
His
prescriptive
requirements
for
melodrama
echo
Rolland's:
[X]ороший
захватывающий
сюжет,
затем
богатство
действий,
громадная
определенность
характеристик,
ясность
и
точная
выразительность
ситуаций
и
способность
вызывать
единое
и
35
Ibid.,
63.
36
Lunacharskii,
Sobranie
sochinenii,
vol.
2,
212-‐213.
First
published
in
Zhizn'
iskusstva,
1919.
37
Ibid.,
213.
"[В]место
того,
чтобы
морщить
нос."
57
целостное
движение
чувств:
сострадание
и
негодование;
связанность
действия
с
простыми
и
ясными
идеями.
38
Lunacharsky
goes
beyond
Rolland's
claim
that
melodrama
is
the
merely
most
difficult
type
of
theatre
to
produce,
asserting
that,
"Simply
put,
in
theatrical
terms,
melodrama
is
higher
than
other
dramatic
genres."
39
Here
Lunacharsky
expands
on
Rolland's
point
by
claiming
that
melodrama
is
above
realistic
drama,
symbolic
drama,
and
tragedy,
and
he
fails
to
mention
a
dramatic
genre
that
should
be
ranked
below
it.
Rolland
and
Lunacharsky
are
less
concerned
with
categorizing
plays
that
have
already
been
written,
than
with
stimulating
the
creation
of
new
plays
that
would
be
able
to
resonate
with
contemporary
audiences.
In
his
article,
Lunacharsky
has
a
clear
agenda;
shortly
after
this
article
was
published,
he
joined
with
Maksim
Gorky
to
sponsor
a
playwriting
competition
designed
to
promote
the
creation
of
revolutionary
melodramas.
40
Fortunately
for
Ostrovsky’s
legacy,
the
results
were
so
abysmal
that
none
of
the
forty-‐one
entries
were
awarded
a
first
prize,
thus
creating
the
necessity
to
rely
on
established
works
by
recognized
authors
until
the
proletarian
repertoire
could
be
established.
38
Ibid.,
213.
"A
good
captivating
plot,
followed
by
richness
of
actions,
an
enormous
distinctness
of
descriptions/details,
clarity
and
precise
expressiveness
of
situations
and
the
capacity
to
draw
out
a
united
and
holistic/natural
movement
of
feelings:
compassion
and
indignation;
a
connection
of
action
with
simple
and
clear
ideas."
39
Ibid.,
214.
"Мелодрама
попросту
в
театральном
отношении
выше
других
драматических
жанров."
40
Julie
A.
Cassiday,
"Alcohol
is
Our
Enemy!:
Soviet
Temperance
Melodramas
of
the
1920s,"
in
Imitations
of
life:
Two
Centuries
of
Melodrama
in
Russia,
ed.
Louise
McReynolds
and
Joan
Neuberger
(Durham:
Duke
University
Press,
2001),
157.
58
Ostrovsky
and
Melodrama
Наш
Островский,
и
больше
чем
Островский,
наверно
уже
где-‐
нибудь
в
пути,
может
быть,
уже
родился,
может
быть,
уже
пишет.
Но
нам
не
довольно
одного
индивидуального
Островского;
нам
нужно
полдюжины
Островских
да
две
дюжины
под-‐Островских
для
того,
чтобы
создать
расцвет
театра.
41
This
failure
to
produce
a
new
body
of
works
worthy
of
the
Soviet
stage
resulted
in
a
moment
of
crisis
for
Russia’s
dramatic
repertoire,
which,
in
turn,
created
an
opportunity
for
Lunacharsky.
Recognizing
the
need
for
dramaturgical
models,
Lunacharsky
capitalized
on
the
fact
that
his
call
of
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
could
be
pitched
in
the
context
of
an
Ostrovsky
jubilee
in
1923.
Such
a
gesture
may
have
seemed
incomprehensible
in
the
context
of
the
1920s
when
all
the
official
language
of
the
Soviet
regime
was
focused
on
a
forward
trajectory
towards
a
bright
communist
future.
Lunacharsky
had
to
cautiously
navigate
the
terrain
when
praising
the
virtues
of
Russia's
cultural
past,
so
he
is
careful
to
point
out
that
this
is
only
a
stop-‐gap
measure:
"[Идем]
назад
к
Островскому
не
только
для
того,
чтобы
оценить
правильность
основных
баз
его
театра,
но
еще
для
того,
чтобы
41
Lunacharskii,
Sobranie
sochinenii,
vol.
1,
210.
Our
Ostrovsky,
and
someone
greater
than
Ostrovsky,
is
probably
already
somewhere
on
his
way,
maybe
he
has
already
been
born,
maybe
he
is
already
writing.
But
one
individual
Ostrovsky
is
not
enough
for
us;
we
need
half
a
dozen
Ostrovskys,
yes,
two
dozen
inspired
by
Ostrovsky
in
order
to
create
theatrical
prosperity.
59
поучиться
у
него
некоторым
сторонам
мастерства…Просто
же
подражать
Островскому
значило
бы
обречь
себя
на
гибель."
42
Ostrovsky
was
the
logical
solution
to
the
problems
with
the
repertoire.
Not
only
did
his
plays
serve
as
a
model
for
how
to
write
dramas
that
deal
with
the
social
issues
unique
to
Russia,
but
also
his
plays
could
provide
the
joy,
energy
and
intelligence
Rolland
called
for
in
The
People's
Theater.
In
conjunction
with
this,
Ostrovsky's
plays
were
able
to
fulfill
the
same
functions
that
Rolland
ascribes
to
melodrama.
Critics
have
shied
away
from
applying
the
dreaded
label
of
melodrama
to
Ostrovsky's
plays,
choosing
rather
to
place
him
within
the
framework
of
theatrical
realism,
but
Rolland's
theories
presented
the
genre
in
a
new
light
when
he
claimed
that
the
world's
greatest
dramatists,
Sophocles
and
Shakespeare,
wrote
melodramas.
43
It
would
not
be
difficult
to
make
the
same
case
that
Ostrovsky,
too,
employed
the
conventions
of
melodrama
in
his
plays.
Lunacharsky
never
made
such
claims,
but
by
turning
to
Ostrovsky's
plays
as
a
means
of
resolving
the
crisis
of
the
repertoire
immediately
after
his
failed
attempt
to
promote
new
melodramas,
the
label
of
melodrama
for
Ostrovsky
does
not
seem
inappropriate.
Although
Peter
Brooks'
groundbreaking
work,
The
Melodramatic
Imagination,
has
done
much
to
raise
the
scholarly
reputation
of
melodrama,
the
genre
continues
to
be
an
undervalued
aesthetic
and
retains
its
reputation
as
a
form
42
Ibid.,
204.
"[We
are
going]
back
to
Ostrovsky
not
only
to
appraise
the
correctness
of
the
main
foundations
of
his
theatre,
but
also
to
learn
from
him
certain
elements
of
craftsmanship.
To
simply
imitate
Ostrovsky
would
mean
condeming
ourselves
to
destruction."
43
Rolland,
People's
Theater,
199-‐200.
60
that
is
considerably
less
than
realistic
modes
of
performance.
44
Melodrama
was
certainly
the
primary
mode
of
theatrical
performance
in
the
mid-‐nineteenth
century,
yet
conspicuously,
Ostrovsky's
works
have
never
been
applied
with
this
pejorative
label.
Instead,
Russian
and
Western
critics
alike
have
been
preoccupied
with
making
Ostrovsky
the
great
realist
of
the
Russian
stage.
45
Critics
have
assigned
a
social
and
ideological
agenda
to
Ostrovsky
based
on
the
outward
presence
of
critical
depictions
of
capitalist
relations
in
his
plays.
Essentially,
Ostrovsky's
designation
as
a
realist
by
Dobroliubov,
Chernyshevsky
and
others
resulted
from
their
focusing
on
the
themes
of
his
plays,
rather
than
the
performative
features
encoded
in
his
texts,
which
were
frequently
melodramatic.
The
realistic
portrayal
of
life
and
melodrama
are
not
mutually
exclusive.
Working
under
the
assumption
that
Ostrovsky
is
driven
primarily
by
social
concerns,
his
melodramatic
impulse
has
been
almost
completely
overlooked
by
scholars.
Recent
studies
on
Russian
melodrama
have
also
failed
to
make
the
44
Peter
Brooks,
The
Melodramatic
Imagination
(New
Haven:
Yale
University
Press,
1976),
15.
45
The
focus
on
Ostrovsky's
realistic
tendencies
seems
to
be
almost
universal
among
critics.
See
the
following:
A.
I.
Reviakin,
Iskusstvo
dramaturgii
A.N.
Ostrovskogo
(Moskva:
Prosveshchenie,
1974),
201.
"С
самого
начала
своего
творческого
пути
А.
Н.
Островский
видел
свою
цель
в
правдивом
изображении
жизни.
Его
интересовала
не
форма
комедии
или
драмы,
а
та
или
иная
сторона
реальной
действительности."
Margaret
Wettlin,
"Alexander
Ostrovsky
and
the
Theatre
before
Stanislavsky,"
Alexander
Ostrovsky:
Plays,
trans.
Margaret
Wettlin
(Moscow:
Progress
Publishers,
1974),
7.
"It
was
the
realistic
trend
in
theatre
art,
so
congenial
to
the
Russian
temperament,
which
he
took
up
and
carried
to
a
higher
point
of
development
than
any
of
his
predecessors."
Norman
Henley,
"Introduction,"
in
A.
N.
Ostrovsky,
Without
a
Dowry
&
Other
Plays,
trans.
and
ed.
Norman
Henley
(Dana
Point:
Ardis,
1997),
13.
"If
critics
agree
that
Ostrovsky
is
unsurpassed
in
his
use
of
colloquial
language,
they
also
agree
that
he
is
a
master
of
characterization.
His
characters
are
convincingly
real,
interesting
and
varied."
Oscar
Brockett
and
Franklin
J.
Hildy,
History
of
the
Theatre,
9th
ed.
(Boston:
Allyn
and
Bacon,
2003),
370.
"Before
Turgenev's
plays
appeared
on
the
stage,
realism
had
already
been
popularized
through
the
work
of
Alexander
Ostrovsky...Working
primarily
from
observation,
Ostrovsky
is
often
credited
with
creating
a
peculiarly
Russian
drama
free
from
Western
influence."
61
connection
between
Ostrovsky
and
melodrama.
In
her
article
on
Soviet
melodramas
of
the
1920s,
Julie
Cassiday
separately
discusses
Ostrovsky
and
Lunacharsky's
argument
for
melodrama
on
the
Soviet
stage,
but
she
fails
to
connect
the
two.
Instead,
she
upholds
the
traditional
notions
of
Ostrovsky
and
his
connection
to
realism.
46
Julie
A.
Buckler
comes
closest
when
she
acknowledges
that
Ostrovsky
has
been
denied
"melodramatic
affiliation
by
scholarly
precedent
that
favors
the
realist
aspects
of
the
Russian
dramatic
tradition,"
but
she
does
not
take
the
next
step
and
claim
that
Ostrovsky
fits
into
the
melodramatic
tradition.
47
In
the
light
of
Brooks'
theories
and
other
recent
works
on
melodrama,
including
Ben
Singer's
Melodrama
and
Modernity,
it
becomes
clear
that,
fundamentally,
melodrama
arose
as
a
response
to
the
new
social
contract
of
modernity:
Melodramatic
conflicts
gave
dramatic
shape
to
the
adversities
and
insecurities
of
the
modern
world.
Scenarios
in
which
good
people
experience
duress
from
forces
beyond
their
control
resonated
with
the
urban
masses.
Poverty,
class
stratification
and
exploitation,
job
insecurity,
workplace
hazards,
heartless
contractual
systems
of
housing
and
money-‐lending—these
and
similar
components
of
the
new
capitalist
social
order,
which
represented
such
a
striking
contrast
to
the
feudal
gemeinschaft
that
had
governed
life
for
many
centuries,
played
prominent
roles
in
the
narratives
of
classical
melodrama.
48
46
Cassiday,
"Alcohol,"
152-‐177.
47
Julie
A.
Buckler.
"Melodramatizing
Russia:
Nineteenth-‐Century
Views
from
the
West,"
in
Imitations
of
Life:
Two
Centuries
of
Melodrama
in
Russia,
ed.
Louise
McReynolds
and
Joan
Neuberger
(Durham:
Duke
University
Press,
2002),
55.
48
Ben
Singer,
Melodrama
and
Modernity
(New
York:
Columbia
University
Press,
2001),
133.
62
Such
ideas
can
effectively
contextualize
Ostrovsky
as
a
writer
who
grapples
with
essential
social
insecurities,
not
merely
as
a
writer
who
singled
out
a
class
or
a
specific
moment
in
the
development
of
capitalism
in
Russia.
The
nineteenth
century,
with
its
rapid
industrial
growth
and
resulting
social
upheavals,
brought
about
a
renegotiation
of
social
intercourse
and
affected
the
public
understanding
of
values
and
virtues.
Ostrovsky
functions
as
a
mirror
that
reflects
a
sense
of
malaise
about
a
change
in
an
otherwise
stable
social
environment.
This
contextualization
of
Ostrovsky—as
a
response,
after
the
fact,
to
economic
growth
and
social
change—
sets
up
a
discussion
of
his
melodramatic
characteristics
and
an
inquiry
of
his
presence
in
Soviet
Russia.
Ostrovsky’s
towering
presence
in
the
Russian
theatre
has
largely
gone
unquestioned,
even
though
his
works
have
exhibited
remarkable
longevity.
The
sheer
volume
of
his
works
and
the
popularity
of
their
productions
have
made
Ostrovsky
a
central
figure
in
the
repertoire
of
Russia's
most
influential
theatres.
Although
Ostrovsky
wrote
in
a
variety
of
genres,
an
analysis
of
two
particularly
emotionally
charged
works—The
Storm
(Groza)
of
1859
and
Without
a
Dowry
(Bespridannitsa)
of
1878—is
sufficient
to
make
a
case
for
his
melodramatic
tendencies.
An
analysis
of
the
melodramatic
features
in
Ostrovsky's
plays
is
significant
in
and
of
itself,
if
for
no
other
reason
than
it
has
never
been
done.
But
more
importantly,
Ostrovsky's
melodramatic
tensions
and
stock
characters
are
key
features
that
enable
directors
of
the
1920s
to
radically
transform
plays,
while
still
preserving
the
integrity
of
the
text.
63
The
Storm
is
one
Ostrovsky's
best-‐known
plays
in
the
West.
The
action
of
the
play
takes
place
in
a
fictional
city
on
the
Volga.
The
major
issue
in
the
play
is
the
adulterous
relationship
between
the
married
Katerina
and
the
young,
educated
Boris.
Katerina
is
stifled
by
her
controlling
mother-‐in-‐law,
Marfa
Kabanova,
and
after
her
husband
Tikhon
leaves
for
Moscow,
she
begins
a
relationship
with
Boris,
aided
by
her
sister-‐in-‐law
Varvara.
When
Boris
abruptly
returns,
Katerina
confesses
everything
and
is
driven
to
suicide—casting
herself
into
swelling
waters
of
the
stormy
Volga.
The
most
obvious
melodramatic
convention,
present
throughout
the
play,
is
the
excess
of
emotion
in
the
character
of
Katerina.
This
emotion
drives
her
to
not
only
have
the
affair
with
Boris,
but
it
also
causes
her
to
drown
herself
in
the
river.
The
violent
and
spectacular
end
of
the
moral
transgressor
is
also
a
trademark
of
melodrama.
This
results
in
a
strong
presentation
of
pathos,
where
virtue,
or
rather
the
consequence
facing
one
who
lacks
virtue,
is
made
a
public
display.
Without
a
Dowry
is
also
highly
regarded
as
an
example
of
Ostrovsky's
finest
dramatic
work.
The
action
also
takes
place
in
a
town
on
the
Volga,
but
this
time
the
play's
female
protagonist,
Larisa,
compromises
her
moral
standards
because
of
her
destitute
state.
Larisa's
mother,
Kharita
Ogudalova,
has
already
sold
off
two
other
daughters
to
the
highest
bidders,
resulting
in
tragic
consequences.
Now
it
is
Larisa's
turn
to
get
married,
and
her
mother
has
chosen
the
humble
Karandyshov
to
take
her,
but
Larisa
is
a
young,
beautiful,
and
well-‐liked
girl
who
is
friends
with
many
powerful
businessmen.
It
just
so
happens
that
one
of
Larisa's
old
flames,
the
rich
ship-‐owner
Paratov,
has
come
into
town
to
sell
a
boat.
Two
other
wealthy
64
merchants,
Vozhevatov
and
Knurov,
are
determined
to
help
Larisa
in
her
plight,
and
they
flip
a
coin
to
see
which
of
them
will
take
Larisa
to
Paris,
where
she
will
remain
as
a
mistress.
At
a
party
celebrating
her
engagement
to
Karandyshov,
Larisa
gives
in
to
temptation
and
sneaks
off
with
Paratov.
Karandyshov
is
infuriated
and
runs
off
to
find
Larisa,
bringing
a
gun
with
him.
Paratov
informs
Larisa
that
she
must
go
home
to
her
mother
and
informs
her
that
they
can
never
be
together
because
he
is
already
engaged
to
another
woman.
At
this
point,
Knurov,
who
won
the
coin-‐toss,
proposes
his
plan
to
take
Larisa
to
Paris.
She
refuses
Knurov's
offer
and
then
is
confronted
by
her
fiancé
who
shoots
her.
Larisa
takes
the
gun
from
Karandyshov
before
anyone
can
identify
him
as
the
murderer,
and
with
her
dying
breath,
she
claims
that
she
has
shot
herself,
thereby
taking
responsibility
for
the
crime.
In
Without
a
Dowry,
the
same
intense
emotion
that
was
seen
in
The
Storm
is
present
here,
and
the
same
violent
punishment
is
exacted
on
the
transgressor
of
virtue.
The
violence
is
even
more
graphic,
with
Larisa
being
shot
onstage,
as
opposed
to
Katerina's
drowning
in
the
Volga,
which
is
almost
scenically
impossible.
In
addition
to
the
intense
melodramatic
conflicts
of
The
Storm
and
Without
a
Dowry,
another
identifiable
characteristic
of
melodrama
in
these
plays,
passed
down
from
popular
theatre
traditions
of
the
past,
is
the
stock
character.
Even
through
this
cursory
plot
description
of
two
plays,
key
characteristics
of
Ostrovsky's
stock
characters
can
be
extracted.
First,
there
is
the
samodur,
described
by
Dobroliubov
as
a
representative
of
old
Russian
values.
Marfa
Kabanova
and
Kharita
Ogudalova
represent
two
of
Ostrovsky's
powerful
female
samodurs
who
use
their
power
as
65
matriarchs
to
create
an
atmosphere
of
stagnation,
preventing
the
growth
of
family
members
under
their
influence.
Next
is
the
morally
bankrupt
capitalist
who
gives
false
hope
his
victims.
His
life
is
based
on
exploiting
others
in
order
to
gratify
himself
financially
and
sexually.
Boris
from
The
Storm
and
Paratov
from
Without
a
Dowry
are
prime
examples
of
this
type.
Finally,
there
is
the
marginalized
victim,
unable
to
break
free
from
cultural
expectations
within
the
family
structure
and
ill
equipped
to
deal
with
the
worldly
manipulations
of
the
capitalist
exploiter.
Although
Katerina
and
Larisa
face
the
ultimate
penalty
for
their
transgressions,
their
purity
and
nobility
shines
through.
As
chapters
three,
four
and
five
of
this
dissertation
will
reveal,
variations
of
these
character
types
are
so
deeply
embedded
in
the
fabric
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
that
they
also
exist
in
his
comedies.
These
easily
identifiable
melodramatic
characteristics
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
are
a
feature
that
allow
Russia's
national
playwright
to
be
effectively
reenvisioned
on
the
Soviet
stage
and
provide
the
joy,
energy
and
intelligence
Rolland
imagines
in
The
People's
Theater.
Rolland,
Lunacharsky
and
Kerzhentsev
all
believed
that
the
future
of
the
theatre
should
be
focused
on
benefiting
the
common
man.
Perhaps
Rolland's
boldest
assertion
is
that
the
theatre
can
actually
enhance
quality
of
life
and
provide
fulfillment
that
work
and
family
cannot.
In
The
People's
Theater
he
writes,
"Our
great
problem
is
to
bring
more
light,
purer
air,
and
better
order
into
the
chaos
of
the
soul.
It
is
enough
if
we
set
the
people
to
thinking
and
doing;
let
us
not
think
and
do
66
for
them."
49
It
is
as
though
Rolland
believes
the
theatre
can
provide
spectators
with
skills
necessary
to
function
in
the
modern
world.
Although
melodrama
has
always
been
one
of
the
most
accessible
forms
of
entertainment
to
the
lower
classes,
it
has
almost
always
been
looked
down
upon
as
an
inferior
genre.
With
rise
of
popular
culture
studies,
the
understanding
and
reputation
of
melodrama
has
altered
dramatically,
and
many
of
these
studies
support
the
very
claims
made
by
Rolland
almost
a
century
ago.
Melodrama,
Peter
Brooks
writes,
"comes
into
being
in
the
world
where
the
traditional
imperatives
of
truth
and
ethics
have
been
violently
thrown
into
question,
yet
where
the
promulgation
of
truth
and
ethics,
their
instauration
as
a
way
of
life,
is
of
immediate,
daily,
political
concern."
50
Although
Brooks
imagines
early-‐ninteenth-‐
century
Europe
as
the
setting
for
the
rise
of
melodrama,
the
conditions
he
describes
certainly
apply
to
post-‐Revolutionary
Russia.
The
abolishment
of
a
centuries-‐old
political
system
that
was
intimately
connected
to
the
Russian
Orthodox
Church
created
a
spiritual
void,
but
melodramatic
plots
could
portray
a
world
in
which
good
is
rewarded
and
bad
is
punished,
creating
some
sense
of
spiritual
stability
through
poetic
justice.
Brooks
makes
bold
claims
about
the
powerful
cultural
function
that
melodrama
can
serve.
In
the
tumultuous
environment
of
the
1920s,
Ostrovsky’s
plays
provided
one
of
the
only
ways
for
the
Soviet
population
to
make
sense
of
their
changing
world.
49
Rolland,
People's
Theater,
106.
50
Brooks,
Melodramatic
Imagination,
15.
67
The
familiarity
of
his
works
and
their
connection
to
Russia's
recent
past
created
a
cultural
constant
that
could
help
bridge
the
gaps
of
truth
and
ethics
to
which
Peter
Brooks
refers.
At
the
same
time,
Lunacharsky
recognized
that
Ostrovsky's
works
could
serve
as
a
model,
thereby
fulfilling
a
similar
stabilizing
function
in
the
artistic
realm.
There
have
been
few
periods
in
history
in
which
the
"promulgation
of
truth
and
ethics"
has
been
more
vigorously
pushed
into
the
cultural
realm
than
it
was
in
the
early
Soviet
period.
51
Before
the
adoption
of
Socialist
Realism
in
the
early
1930s,
the
conventions
of
traditional
artistic
forms
were
"violently
thrown
into
question"
by
the
iconoclasts
of
the
1920s.
52
The
1920s
provided
a
period
of
relative
artistic
freedom
before
the
rigid
artistic
program
of
the
1930s.
Although
a
monumentalists
at
his
core,
Lunacharsky
often
found
himself
in
the
unique
position
of
defending
not
only
those
who
desired
to
preserve
the
theatrical
traditions
of
Russia’s
past,
but
also
as
a
sympathizer
of
the
theatrical
revolutionaries
who
wanted
to
throw
those
traditions
off
the
ship
of
modernity.
But
after
Lunacharsky
was
ousted
from
his
position
in
1929,
the
push
toward
a
uniform
artistic
ideology
was
well
underway.
In
an
almost
prophetic
statement,
Romain
Rolland
describes
the
results
of
an
artistic
stranglehold
by
the
state:
I
need
not
tell
you
where
the
State
stands.
By
its
very
definition,
the
State
always
belongs
to
the
past.
No
matter
how
new
the
forms
of
life
it
represents,
it
arrests
and
congeals
them.
But
you
cannot
fix
life
once
51
Ibid.
52
Ibid.
68
for
all.
It
is
the
function
of
the
State
to
petrify
everything
with
which
it
comes
into
contact,
and
turn
living
into
bureaucratic
ideals.
53
Ironically,
even
after
visiting
the
Soviet
Union
in
the
summer
of
1935,
Rolland
was
unable
to
recognize
the
impact
Socialist
Realism
was
having
on
the
arts.
While
Rolland’s
initial
reactions
to
the
Bolshevik
Revolution
were
ambivalent,
he
would
agonize
over
his
feelings
about
the
Soviet
regime,
ultimately
taking
on
the
"role
of
a
friendly
but
critical
sympathizer."
54
But
after
his
sojourn
in
Moscow,
which
was
clearly
orchestrated
by
Soviet
authorities,
Rolland
found
himself
caught
up
in
the
enthusiasm
of
the
newly
ratified
Constitution,
which
of
course,
would
never
fulfill
the
promises
it
made
on
paper.
55
He
neglected
to
see
the
failure
of
the
People's
Theater
in
Russia.
Back
to
Ostrovsky!
Productions
of
Ostrovsky’s
plays
by
some
of
the
greatest
directors
of
the
Soviet
stage
in
years
following
Lunacharsky’s
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign
became
the
canvas
for
grand
ideas
and
experiments
about
art
and
theatre.
Sergei
Eisenstein’s
1923
production
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wise
Man
at
the
Proletkult
Theatre,
Vsevelod
Meyerhold’s
1924
production
of
The
Forest
at
the
Meyerhold
Theatre
and
Konstantin
Stanislavsky's
1926
production
of
An
Ardent
Heart
at
the
53
Rolland,
People's
Theater,
4.
54
David
James
Fisher,
Romain
Rolland
and
the
Politics
of
Intellectual
Engagement
(Berkeley:
University
of
California
Press,
1988),
53.
55
Ibid.,
247.
69
Moscow
Art
Theatre
participated
in
the
battle
between
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
via
performance,
using
Ostrovsky's
texts
as
a
means
to
further
their
own
artistic
and
political
agendas.
As
our
representatives
of
the
iconoclasts,
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold
altered
Ostrovsky's
texts
as
a
means
of
contemporizing
the
plays—
while
still
maintaining
features
inherent
in
the
plot
and
characters—and
they
also
used
these
productions
to
realize
techniques
and
theories
critical
to
their
development
as
artists.
Stanislavsky,
on
the
other
hand,
took
on
the
role
of
monumentalist,
using
his
production
of
An
Ardent
Heart
to
capture
the
true
essence
of
Ostrovsky's
work,
which
he
believed
was
lost
in
the
productions
of
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold,
and
recalibrate
the
course
for
staging
Ostrovsky
and
other
classics
in
the
Soviet
era.
Theatre
is
an
inherently
synthetic
undertaking—an
arena
in
which
literature,
the
visual
arts,
and
grand
ideas
about
society
and
culture
interact
before
a
live
audience.
As
a
result,
theatre
can
both
dramatize
aesthetic
debates
and
engage
with
social
issues
that
are
relevant
in
a
given
time
and
place.
In
the
1920s,
the
plays
of
Ostrovsky
could
do
just
this.
The
Ostrovsky
tradition
was
a
cultural
constant
that
could
give
a
sense
of
stability
to
the
turbulent
theatrical
climate,
and
the
nature
of
his
plays
fostered
bold
artistic
experimentation.
Ostrovsky's
stock
characters
and
intense
melodramatic
conflicts
could
hold
up
to
the
most
radical
transformations.
Even
in
their
attempts
to
breakdown
existing
artistic
and
theatrical
tradition,
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold
enhanced
the
Ostrovsky
legacy,
adding
a
previously
unknown
layer
of
complexity
to
his
performance
history.
70
Lunacharsky's
1923
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign
served
as
an
unruly
prototype
for
future
Soviet
jubilees
that
relied
on
monumentalizing
schemes
to
promote
cultural
figures
by
framing
them
within
the
context
of
Soviet
ideology.
Ostrovsky's
status
as
Russia's
national
playwright
and
the
familiarity
that
the
population
had
with
his
plays
made
him
the
perfect
candidate
to
work
out
the
crisis
of
the
repertoire
and
the
struggle
between
the
artistic
right
and
left.
With
the
rise
of
socialist
realism
in
the
1930s
came
a
renewed
appreciation
for
the
classics
and
a
revival
of
the
traditional
interpretation
of
Ostrovsky's
works
as
prime
examples
of
Russian
realism—adopting
the
same
arguments
made
by
the
social
critics
of
the
nineteenth
century.
71
Chapter
Three:
Eisenstein's
Wiseman
The
Russian
Theatrical
Tradition
Having
established
the
origins
of
the
Ostrovsky
legacy
in
the
nineteenth
century
and
background
for
the
polemic
between
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
in
the
post-‐Revolutionary
theatre,
it
makes
sense
to
provide
a
context
for
the
baseline
theatrical
tradition
to
which
each
director—Eisenstein,
Meyerhold
and
Stanislavsky—responded.
At
the
end
of
the
nineteenth
century
and
the
beginning
of
the
twentieth
century,
Moscow's
Maly
Theatre
set
the
standard
for
drama
in
Russia.
In
addition
to
homegrown
classics
by
authors
such
as
Fonvizin,
Griboedov,
Pushkin,
Gogol,
Sukhovo-‐Kobylin,
Tolstoy
and
Ostrovsky,
the
Maly
had
a
diverse
repertory
that
included
both
old
and
new
European
classics
by
Shakespeare,
Goldoni,
Lope
de
Vega,
Ibsen,
Strindberg
and
others.
While
Stanislavsky
was
confronting
the
Maly
Theatre's
tradition
and
model
for
production
at
the
turn
of
the
century,
Meyerhold
and
Eisenstein
were
rejecting
the
approaches
of
both
the
Maly
and
Stanislavsky
in
their
work.
With
the
founding
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
in
1898,
Stanislavsky
fundamentally
reshaped
the
way
theatre
was
produced
in
the
Russia.
Before
Stanislavsky,
the
Russian
theatre,
and
most
European
theatre
for
that
matter,
functioned
in
an
actor-‐based
system,
which
privileged
the
art
of
the
actor
as
the
key
production
element.
The
director-‐based
model,
in
which
the
theatrical
72
director
is
the
ultimate
supervisor
and
author
of
the
production,
did
not
exist
in
Russia
before
Stanislavsky
and
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
1
Up
until
the
end
of
the
1920s,
the
Maly
Theatre
maintained
an
actor-‐based
approach
to
producing
theatre,
and
production
values
changed
very
little.
2
This
meant
that
the
director
had
little
chance
to
affect
the
production,
other
than
making
decisions
about
casting
and
telling
the
actors
where
to
stand
or
sit,
while
sets
and
costumes
were
selected
from
a
stock
of
pre-‐existing
options.
3
With
names
like
Ermolova,
Fedotova,
Lensky,
Yuzhin
and
Sadovsky,
the
Maly's
stable
of
outstanding
actors
in
the
1880s
and
1890s
was
its
saving
grace.
4
Even
though
rehearsals
were
almost
non-‐existent
and
actors
were
expected
to
develop
their
characters
independently,
the
acting
was
the
highlight
of
each
production
at
the
Maly.
5
With
the
benefit
system,
actors
had
the
ability
to
choose
their
favorite
plays
and
corresponding
roles
in
order
to
attract
large
audiences
and
line
their
pockets.
The
two-‐dimensional
sets
and
stock
costumes
drew
little
attention,
encouraging
the
spectator
to
focus
on
the
actor.
As
Arkady
Ostrovsky
argues,
the
Maly
Theatre's
model
was
unsustainable
and
completely
unprepared
to
compete
with
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
in
the
twentieth
century:
1
Arkady
Ostrovsky,
"Imperial
and
Private
Theatres
1882-‐1905,"
in
A
History
of
Russian
Theatre,
ed.
Robert
Leach
and
Victor
Borovsky
(Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press,
1999),
223.
2
Iu.
A.
Dmitriev
and
K.
Rudnkitsii,
eds.,
Istoriia
russkogo
sovetskogo
dramaticheskogo
teatra,
kniga
1,
1917-‐1945
(Moskva:
Prosveshchenie,
1984),
147.
3
Arkady
Ostrovsky,
"Imperial
and
Private
Theatres,"
223.
4
Ibid.
5
Ibid.,
224.
73
The
family
of
great
actors
was
growing
old.
…The
troupe
was
suffering
from
increasing
size,
traditionalism
and
lack
of
fresh
blood.
With
the
opening
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,
the
Maly
could
no
longer
play
the
dominant
role
in
Russian
theatre
and
was
generally
becoming
a
backwater
for
cultivated
conservatism.
6
Rather
than
emphasizing
star
actors,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
approached
plays
with
an
eye
for
detail
and
historical
accuracy,
as
well
as
a
focus
on
the
ensemble
and
overall
effect
of
the
production.
By
choosing
to
produce
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman,
Eisenstein
was
able
to
engage
with
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
and
the
play's
recent
production
history
at
both
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
and
the
Maly
Theatre.
In
addition
to
the
1910
Art
Theatre
production,
which
was
praised
by
Lenin
for
its
innovative
approach
to
staging
the
classics,
The
Maly
premiered
a
new
production
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
one
month
before
Eisenstein's
version
opened
in
May
of
1923.
Stanislavsky's
Directing
Family
Tree
Analyzing
the
Ostrovsky
productions
of
Eisenstein,
Meyerhold
and
Stanislavsky
chronologically,
according
to
their
premiere
dates,
poses
some
difficulties.
Although
all
three
distinguished
themselves
for
very
different
reasons,
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold
are
direct
descendants
on
Stanislavsky's
directing
family
tree.
Ironically,
Stanislavsky,
himself,
claimed
that
he
received
his
most
important
training
while
viewing
Ostrovsky
productions
at
the
Maly
Theatre,
which
is
just
one
6
Ibid.,
234.
74
more
example
indicating
the
pervasiveness
of
Ostrovsky
tradition
in
the
Russian
theatre.
7
Nonetheless,
by
beginning
with
Eisenstein's
1923
production
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
and
then
proceeding
on
to
Meyerhold's
The
Forest
in
1924
and
Stanislavsky's
An
Ardent
Heart
in
1926,
the
aesthetic
trajectory
from
the
avant-‐garde
toward
Socialist
Realism
becomes
clear.
The
connections
among
these
three
directors
are
both
personal
and
professional,
and
ultimately
within
the
Soviet
context,
they
share
the
same
goal—to
use
the
theatre
as
a
way
to
improve
society.
In
a
lecture
given
to
directing
students
on
January
17,
1939
Meyerhold
compared
his
own
production
of
The
Forest
with
Eisenstein's
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
at
the
Moscow
Proletkult
Theatre,
showing
the
level
of
respect
he
had
for
his
former
student:
На
чем
была
основана
ранняя
деятельность
замечательного
режиссера
Сергея
Эйзенштейна?
Он
брал
до
такой
меры
поводом
для
своей
режиссерской
работы
пьесу,
что
когда
он
поставил
пьесу
Островского,
то
от
нее
остались
рожки
да
ножки.
Мой
Лес
казался
абсолютно
наивным
произведением
по
сравнению
с
тем,
что
делал
он.
Но
я
считаю,
что
он
должен
был
это
проделать.
Его
томила
какая-‐то
иная
проблема,
ему
нужно
было
это
сделать,
но
досадно,
что
мы
все
эксперименты
делаем
на
публике.
8
7
Konstantin
Stanislavsky,
My
Life
in
Art,
trans.
and
ed.
Jean
Benedetti
(London
and
New
York:
Routledge,
2008),
3.
8
V.
E.
Meierkhol'd.
Stat'i,
pis'ma,
rechi,
besedy,
chast'
vtoraia,
1917-‐1939
(Moskva:
Iskusstvo,
1968),
470.
"What
was
the
early
work
of
the
outstanding
director
Sergei
Eisenstein
based
upon?
He
chose
a
play
that
enabled
him
to
display
his
directorial
work
to
such
an
extent,
that
when
he
staged
Ostrovsky's
play,
only
bits
and
pieces
of
it
remained.
My
[production
of]
The
Forest
seemed
absolutely
naïve
in
comparison
with
what
he
did.
But
I
believe
he
had
to
do
it.
He
was
tormented
by
some
other
problem,
he
needed
to
do
this,
but
it
is
a
pity
that
we
conduct
all
of
our
experiments
on
the
public."
75
Eisenstein's
great
teacher
and
mentor
not
only
recognized
the
significance
of
his
protégé's
exciting
work
at
the
Moscow
Proletkult,
but
also
understood
the
role
it
played
in
Eisenstein's
development
as
a
director.
For
Eisenstein,
the
young
and
dynamic
director
who
stormed
onto
the
Moscow
theatre
scene
in
1922,
the
theatre
was
a
laboratory
for
exploring
and
implementing
his
bold
artistic
ideas,
which
would
only
truly
come
to
fruition
in
the
cinema.
Among
the
directors
who
heeded
Anatoly
Lunacharsky's
call
of
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!,"
Eisenstein's
production
displays
the
most
complete
dismantling
of
the
source
text
and
existing
theatrical
conventions.
As
the
centerpiece
of
the
realistic
tradition
in
the
Russian
theatre,
Ostrovsky
was
the
ideal
target
for
Eisenstein's
radical,
avant-‐garde
aesthetics.
To
dismantle
Ostrovsky
is
to
simultaneously
undermine
realistic
conventions
and
the
Russian
theatre
as
an
institution.
In
an
attempt
to
explain
the
techniques
used
in
Wiseman,
Eisenstein
composed
one
of
his
earliest
theoretical
writings
and
introduced
the
concept
that
would
become
his
most
significant
contribution
to
cinema—montage.
Eisenstein's
Life
and
Work
Any
introduction
to
Eisenstein
and
his
work
is
inherently
problematic.
This
is
largely
due
to
the
fact
that
Eisenstein
was
an
extremely
prolific
artist
and
writer.
In
addition
to
his
numerous
films,
he
wrote
various
theoretical,
analytical
and
autobiographical
writings,
many
of
which
contradict
each
other.
The
vast
amount
of
Eisenstein
criticism,
memoirs
and
other
writing
about
the
great
director
has
only
76
further
complicated
the
picture.
In
the
end,
"there
coexist
several
Eisensteins."
9
A
brief
look
at
Eisenstein's
life
and
work,
especially
as
it
is
relevant
to
the
production
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman,
is
important
for
establishing
significance
of
his
early
work
in
the
theatre
as
a
catalyst
for
his
work
in
cinema.
Sergei
Eisenstein
was
born
on
January
23,
1898
to
Mikhail
Osipovich,
a
city
engineer,
and
Iuliia
Ivanovna,
the
daughter
of
a
middle-‐class
merchant,
in
Riga,
Latvia.
The
family's
Jewish
and
German
roots
were
not
a
factor
in
the
upbringing
of
young
Sergei,
who
was
most
frequently
under
the
care
of
his
Russian
nurse.
Sergei's
parents
separated
around
the
time
of
the
1905
Revolution,
and
his
mother
moved
to
St.
Petersburg.
Mikhail
took
a
job
in
St.
Petersburg
around
1909,
and
this
resulted
in
a
time
of
reconciliation
for
Sergei's
parents.
The
reunion
was
short
lived,
and
Mikhail
and
Iuliia
were
soon
officially
divorced.
Sergei
received
his
primary
education
at
home
from
an
English
governess—a
fact
he
later
lamented
because
it
indicated
his
privileged
status
before
the
1917
Revolution—and
quickly
learned
to
speak
English,
while
also
becoming
familiar
with
English
literature.
10
By
all
accounts,
Sergei
was
a
gifted
student,
and
by
the
time
he
was
ten-‐years-‐old,
he
could
read
and
converse
in
English,
French
and
German.
While
much
care
was
taken
to
by
Sergei's
mother
to
culturally
refine
her
son,
Mikhail
pushed
Sergei
to
follow
him
as
an
engineer.
But
Sergei
possessed
the
characteristics
of
a
budding
artist.
He
was
fond
of
role-‐playing
games,
as
well
as
being
a
voracious
reader,
consuming
9
James
Goodwin,
Eisenstein,
Cinema,
and
History
(Urbana:
University
of
Illinois
Press,
1993),
9.
10
Marie
Seton,
Sergei
M.
Eisenstein
(New
York:
Grove
Press,
1960),
21.
77
everything
he
could
get
his
hands
on.
11
After
attending
the
circus
with
his
mother
in
St.
Petersburg,
Sergei
was
particularly
taken
with
the
theatricality
of
the
event.
This
passion
for
the
circus
would
not
only
lead
to
integrating
clowns
and
acrobats
on
the
set
of
his
Wiseman,
but
it
is
also
one
of
the
key
theatrical
forms
Romain
Rolland
identifies
in
The
People's
Theater.
12
James
Goodwin
has
noted
the
significance
that
the
development
of
Eisenstein's
artistic
identity
and
increasing
interest
in
the
theatre
occurred
at
the
same
time
as
the
Bolshevik
Revolution
and
World
War
I.
13
Immediately
after
the
Revolution,
Eisenstein
witnessed
the
possibilities
of
non-‐traditional
theatrical
performance
while
attending
Meyerhold's
productions
at
the
Alexandrinsky
Theatre
in
Petrograd,
and
as
a
result,
he
began
to
an
intensive
study
of
dramatic
literature.
14
Thus,
Eisenstein's
artistic
and
political
consciousness
was
formed
simultaneously
within
this
revolutionary
atmosphere
and,
as
a
result
his
art,
is
inseparable
from
his
politics.
Eisenstein's
training
as
an
engineer
ostensibly
ended
upon
enlisting
for
the
Red
Army
in
1918,
but
it
was
not
until
he
was
transferred
to
a
Red
Army
theatre
company
to
serve
as
a
production
designer,
that
he
actually
began
his
work
in
the
theatre.
Eisenstein
was
demobilized
in
1920
and
took
a
job
as
the
head
of
scenic
11
Yon
Barna,
Eisenstein
(Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press,
1973),
31,
34.
12
Seton,
Eisenstein,
23-‐24.
13
Goodwin,
Eisenstein,
19.
14
Ibid.
78
design
for
the
Proletkult
Theatre
in
Moscow.
Soon
thereafter,
he
turned
his
focus
to
directing
and
began
studying
with
Meyerhold
in
the
newly
opened
State
School
for
Stage
Direction.
Eisenstein's
love
and
respect
for
Meyerhold
prompted
him
to
refer
to
his
teacher
as
a
"second
father"
in
his
memoirs,
which
he
began
to
write
after
a
massive
heart
attack
in
February
of
1946:
[I]t
was
natural
for
me
to
lavish
my
adoration
on
my
second
father.
And
I
must
say,
of
course,
that
I
never
loved,
idolized,
worshipped
anyone
as
much
as
I
did
my
teacher.
Will
one
of
my
lads
say
that
about
me
one
day?
No.
And
the
matter
lies
not
in
my
pupils
and
me,
but
in
me
and
my
teacher.
For
I
am
unworthy
to
undo
the
straps
of
his
sandals
(even
though
he
wore
felt
boots
in
the
unheated
theater
workshop
on
Novinsky
Boulevard).
Until
I
reach
extreme
old
age
I
shall
consider
myself
unworthy
to
kiss
the
dust
from
his
feet,
although
his
errors
as
a
person
have
evidently
swept
away
forever
from
the
pages
of
our
theatrical
history
the
footprints
of
the
greatest
master
of
our
theater.
15
Eisenstein's
comments
about
his
beloved
mentor
are
both
brave
and
cowardly,
considering
the
environment
in
which
they
were
written—under
the
gaze
of
Stalin,
who
had
Meyerhold
arrested
in
June
1939
and
then
shot
in
early
1940.
The
love
Eisenstein
felt
for
Meyerhold
clearly
comes
through
in
these
words,
and
even
the
obligatory
disclaimer
and
accusation
of
Meyerhold's
misdeeds
can
be
forgiven
when
considering
the
fact
that
Eisenstein
was,
in
large
part,
responsible
for
saving
his
teacher's
archives
from
KGB
destruction.
16
15
Sergei
M.
Eisenstein,
Immoral
Memories
(Boston:
Houghton
Mifflin
Company,
1983),
75.
16
Herbert
Marshall,
"Preface,"
in
Immoral
Memories
(Boston:
Houghton
Mifflin
Company,
1983),
xii-‐
xiii.
79
The
education
and
training
Eisenstein
received
in
avant-‐garde
theatre
between
1920
and
1923
were
the
stepping-‐stones
for
his
work
on
Wiseman
and
its
complete
rejection
of
the
realistic
theatre.
Eisenstein's
recollections
about
Meyerhold
also
suggest
that
his
teacher's
brilliant
lessons
were
impossible
to
fully
grasp,
a
fact
that
frustrated
Eisenstein
immensely.
17
But
clearly
the
student
retained
enough
knowledge
for
Meyerhold
to
invite
Eisenstein
to
be
the
assistant
director
for
his
1922
production
of
The
Death
of
Tarelkin
(Smert'
Tarelkina).
Eisenstein
was
present
for
Meyerhold's
attempts
to
create
a
training
system
for
actors
based
on
biomechanics,
which
was
"based
loosely
on
studies
in
reflexology,
behavior,
and
labor
management"
and
attempted
to
"rationalize
theatrical
performance
by
means
of
scientific
calculation".
18
In
addition
to
his
activities
with
Meyerhold,
Eisenstein
also
participated
in
Mastfor
(Masterskaia
Foreggera)—the
theatre
workshop
of
Nikolai
Foregger
established
in
1920.
Foregger's
focus
on
physical,
non-‐realistic
forms
for
performance,
such
as
dance,
commedia
dell'arte,
circus,
parody,
farce,
satire
and
grotesque,
provided
Eisenstein
with
an
indefinite
number
of
theatrical
tools
to
be
used
at
his
disposal.
Thanks
to
Meyerhold
and
Foregger,
Eisenstein
looked
to
the
distinct
character
types
in
Italian
commedia
dell'arte
as
the
starting
point
for
his
work
on
Ostrovsky's
characters.
19
The
ancient
commedia
dell'arte
was
then
coupled
with
the
17
Eisenstein,
Immoral,
75
18
Goodwin,
Eisenstein,
23.
19
Barna,
Eisenstein,
57.
80
contemporary
circus,
as
Eisenstein
conceived
the
physical
and
visual
components
he
would
use
in
Wiseman.
In
his
article
"Eisenstein's
Wiseman,"
Daniel
Gerould
points
out
the
post-‐Revolutionary
avant-‐garde's
infatuation
with
the
circus.
Theatre
artists
such
as
Yuri
Annenkov,
Vladimir
Mayakovsky,
Sergei
Radlov,
Grigorii
Kozintsev
and
Sergei
Yutkevich
all
attempted
to
infuse
productions
with
circus-‐
inspired
elements
before
Eisenstein.
20
Of
course,
part
of
this
push
toward
lesser,
popular
genres
of
entertainment
is
a
rejection
of
the
high
art
so
beloved
by
the
Russian
aristocracy
and
bourgeoisie.
In
addition,
this
is
part
of
a
larger
dialogue
about
the
popular
theatre,
as
expressed
by
Romain
Rolland,
Lunacharsky
and
Kerzhentsev.
Eisenstein
would
push
the
techniques
and
ideas
he
discovered
in
this
period
to
their
extremes
in
his
production
of
the
Wiseman
in
1923,
and
this,
in
turn,
would
propel
him
into
his
career
as
film
director.
Wiseman
at
the
Moscow
Proletkult
In
1922,
Sergei
Eisenstein
became
the
leader
of
the
Moscow
Proletkult
Theatre
Collective,
which
was
devoted
to
"the
development
of
proletarian
artists
and
the
education
of
the
working
class."
21
They
promoted
a
platform
of
radical
artistic
experimentation
that
would
correspond
with
Russia's
radical
political
transformation
into
the
Soviet
Union.
In
his
first
major
production
as
director
of
the
20
Daniel
Gerould,
"Eisenstein's
Wiseman,"
The
Drama
Review
18,
no.
1
(1974):
71.
21
John
B.
Kuiper,
"The
Stage
Antecedents
of
the
Film
Theory
of
S.
M.
Eisenstein,"
Educational
Theatre
Journal
13,
no.
4
(1961):
259.
81
Moscow
Proletkult,
Eisenstein
would
attempt
to
incorporate
the
lessons
he
received
from
Meyerhold
and
Foregger
by
filling
his
adaptation
of
Ostrovsky's
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
with
as
many
ideas
and
techniques
as
he
possibly
could.
Eisenstein
also
pointed
out
that
Wiseman
was
the
continuation
of
the
approach
he
used
in
the
Proletkult's
1921
production
of
The
Mexican
(Meksikanets).
22
As
the
designer
of
The
Mexican,
Eisenstein
used
exaggerated
visual
symbols,
such
as
circles
and
squares,
to
signify
character
types,
and
he
also
turned
the
stage
into
a
boxing
ring,
with
the
audience
on
three
sides.
The
use
of
popular
spectacles
and
sports
in
stage
performance
was
further
developed
by
Eisenstein
in
Wiseman,
which
was
a
critical
moment
in
the
development
of
the
artistic
ideas
and
methods
he
would
then
transfer
to
the
cinema.
In
the
late
1930s,
Eisenstein
wrote
a
series
of
essays
that
have
been
published
as
a
book
in
English,
titled
Towards
a
Theory
of
Montage.
He
wrote
that
his
work
in
the
theatre
was
a
type
of
apprenticeship
for
his
later
work
in
film,
particularly
when
he
made
the
switch
from
silent
to
sound
film:
Достаточно
точно
известно,
что
хотя
и
весьма
неполно
и
достаточно
грубо,
но
до
известной
степени
все
же
в
качестве
«Vorschule»
к
звукозрительному
контрапункту
может
служить
театр.
В
тех
случаях,
когда
звуковая
партитура
в
сочетании
с
партитурой
наглядного
действия
стоит
достаточно
принципиально
в
поле
внимания
и
достаточно
последовательно
в
самой
практике.
С
подобной
закваской
личного
театрального
опыта
я
и
пришел
в
кинематограф.
23
22
Sergei
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
1
(London:
British
Film
Institute,
1988),
33.
23
S.
M.
Eizenshtein.
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2
(Moskva:
Iskusstvo,
1964),
453,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
2,
229-‐230.
It
is
common
knowledge
that
theatre,
albeit
very
inadequately
and
clumsily,
can
to
a
certain
extent
serve
as
an
apprenticeship
to
the
audiovisual
counterpoint
of
the
82
Fortunately,
a
number
of
sources
exist
from
which
to
gather
information
about
Eisenstein's
production
of
Wiseman.
In
addition
to
Eisenstein's
own
recollections,
we
have
the
memoirs
of
actors,
writings
of
other
cultural
figures,
reviews
of
the
play,
as
well
as
valuable
archival
sources,
such
as
the
Eisenstein's
preliminary
notes
for
the
production
and
the
text
of
the
play.
From
this
multiplicity
of
texts,
it
is
possible
to
illuminate
the
goals
of
the
production
and
its
significance
to
the
director
and
the
early
Soviet
theatre
more
broadly.
Maksim
Shtraukh,
a
cast
member
of
Wiseman
and
friend
of
Eisenstein
since
childhood,
tells
about
how
Eisenstein
got
the
idea
for
his
adaptation
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman:
Спектакль
этот
родился
несколько
своеобразно.
Мы
с
Эйзенштейном
в
МХАТ
смотрели
На
всякого
мудреца
довольно
простоты
Островского.
Билетов
не
было,
нас
провел
капельдинер,
мы
сидели
на
ступеньках
в
бельэтаже.
И
вот
именно
на
этом
спектакле
у
Эйзенштейна
возникла
мысль—
использовав
схему
сюжета
комедии
Островского,
перевести
ее
действие
в
сегодняшний
день.
Так
был
создан
спектакль
Мудрец—веселое,
озорное,
эстрадно-‐цирковое
политобозрение
на
злобу
дня.
24
sound
film—in
those
cases
where,
as
a
matter
of
principle,
the
sound
score
in
conjunction
with
the
visual
action
are
kept
in
the
forefront
of
the
director's
attention
and
are
consistently
adhered
to
in
practice.
I
myself
came
to
cinema
with
just
this
kind
of
background,
derived
from
my
personal
experience
in
theatre.
24
Maksim
Shtraukh,
"Eizenshtein—kakim
on
byl,"
in
Eizenshtein
v
vospominaniiakh
sovremennikov,
ed.
R.
N.
Iurenev
(Moskva:
Iskusstvo,
1974),
46.
"
The
production
came
into
being
a
bit
peculiarly.
Eisenstein
and
I
were
watching
Ostrovsky’s
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman.
There
was
not
any
tickets
left,
so
the
usher
sat
us
on
the
steps
of
the
balcony.
It
was
precisely
during
this
performance
that
Eisenstein
came
up
with
the
idea
of
using
the
plot
scheme
of
Ostrovsky’s
comedy
and
transferring
its
action
to
present
day.
That
is
how
the
production
of
Wiseman
was
created—a
cheerful,
naughty,
circus-‐variety
political
survey
in
response
to
current
events."
83
Shtraukh's
revelation
that
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
production
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
was
the
starting
point
and
direct
reference
for
Eisenstein's
production
is
a
particularly
fortuitous
coincidence,
as
Stanislavsky
would
subsequently
respond
to
Eisenstein
with
his
1926
production
of
An
Ardent
Heart.
Eisenstein
entrusted
the
textual
adaptation
of
Wiseman
to
another
Sergei
Mikhailovich—
Sergei
Mikhailovich
Tretiakov,
and
often-‐overlooked
figure
in
the
early
Soviet
Theatre.
The
collaboration
between
Eisenstein
and
Tretiakov
continued
after
Wiseman
with
Listen,
Moscow?!
(Slyshysh',
Moskva?!)
in
1923
and
Gas
Masks
(Protivogazy)
in
1924.
Soon
after
this,
Tretiakov
would
also
work
with
Meyerhold,
who
opened
the
1926
season
at
his
theatre
with
Tretiakov's
Roar,
China
(Rychi,
Kitai).
One
of
Eisenstein's
actors,
Alexander
Levshin,
tells
us
that
Eisenstein
viewed
this
production
as
his
way
of
heeding
the
Commissar
of
Enlightenment's
call
of
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
25
Eisenstein
conducted
lengthy
preliminary
meetings
with
the
Proletkult's
actors,
during
which
time
they
had
no
idea
they
would
be
undertaking
the
Ostrovsky
play
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman.
Aside
from
the
fact
that
Ostrovsky
was
being
promoted
from
above
by
Lunacharsky,
Eisenstein's
choice
of
Wiseman
encouraged
Moscow
audiences
to
consider
his
radical
adaptation
in
relation
to
other
productions
of
the
same
play.
Not
only
was
Ostrovsky
in
the
air
in
1923,
but
also
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
was
playing
at
multiple
Moscow
25
Aleksandr
Levshin,
"Na
repetitsiiakh
'Mudretsa,'"
in
Iurenev,
Eizenshtein
v
vospominaniiakh,
139.
84
theatres
simultaneously.
There
was
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
production,
which
would
have
been
fresh
in
the
minds
of
many,
and
also
the
Maly
Theatre
opened
a
new
production
of
Wiseman
in
May
of
1923.
Because
Eisenstein
could
assume
his
audience
knew
the
play
and
its
recent
production
history,
he
was
able
to
push
the
limits
of
his
artistic
agenda.
By
textually
and
visually
dismantling
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
before
the
eyes
of
the
audience,
Eisenstein
reinforced
the
avant-‐garde's
position
towards
the
bourgeois
art
of
Russia's
past
and
provided
a
glimpse
into
his
director's
laboratory.
Levshin
provides
the
most
valuable
insights
into
Eisenstein's
laboratory
through
his
accounts
of
the
rehearsal
process
and
his
attempts
to
place
the
production
in
the
context
of
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s.
When
discussing
the
competition
between
theatres
in
the
1920s,
Levshin
states
that
each
of
them
believed
that
they
alone
held
the
keys
to
the
modern
theatre,
and
Eisenstein
at
the
Proletkult
was
no
exception.
26
Of
all
the
Ostrovsky
productions
of
the
1920s,
Eisenstein's
Wiseman
makes
the
strongest
case
for
the
development
of
an
avant-‐
garde
aesthetic.
Even
Meyerhold
dubbed
his
production
of
Ostrovsky's
The
Forest
as
"naïve"
in
comparison
with
Eisenstein's
Ostrovsky
production.
Levshin
describes
the
conversations
Eisenstein
had
with
the
actors
of
the
Proletkult
theatre
as
they
prepared
to
produce
Wiseman,
in
which
Eisenstein
stated
that
the
Revolution
necessitated
a
"new
phase
of
theatrical
development."
27
He
describes
how
26
Ibid.,
137.
27
Ibid.
85
Eisenstein
executed
his
role
as
director
in
unorthodox
ways.
For
example,
Eisenstein
was
so
focused
on
the
effect
theatre
should
have
on
the
audience,
that
he
turned
his
chair
around
to
watch
the
reactions
of
the
audience.
28
Thus,
Eisenstein
formulated
his
theory
of
"Montage
of
Attractions"
by
focusing
on
the
audience
to
determine
when
to
evoke
tears,
laughter,
or
shock.
29
Before
Eisenstein
took
over
the
Proletkult,
the
theatre
was
under
the
authority
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,
and
therefore
the
Stanislavsky
system,
so
when
he
began
to
incorporate
Meyerhold's
biomechanics
and
other
unorthodox
training
techniques,
this
was
a
major
shift
for
the
Proletkult.
Levshin
goes
on
to
describe
the
daily
training
routine
of
the
actors.
From
9:00
a.m.
to
1:00
p.m.
the
actors
did
all
sorts
of
physical
exercises:
gymnastics,
eurhythmics,
fencing,
circus
work,
horseback
riding
and
jumping,
rowing,
and
diving.
30
Although
it
was
not
exactly
clear
to
the
actors
how
these
activities
translated
to
their
work
in
the
theatre,
Sergei
was
very
pleased
when
they
performed
at
a
high
level.
Lunch
was
from
1:00
p.m.
to
2:00
p.m.,
after
which
the
group
played
volleyball
for
45
minutes.
31
After
volleyball,
rehearsal
would
run
until
midnight,
unless
there
was
a
concert
or
another
event
to
attend.
About
the
28
Ibid.,
138.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid.,
141.
31
Ibid.,
142.
86
production
process,
Levshin
writes,
"It
was
fun,
but
we
knew
fatigue!
We
went
to
work
as
if
it
was
a
holiday."
32
Levshin
also
sheds
light
on
Eisenstein's
directing
style.
One
of
the
most
important
elements
was
improvisation.
Eisenstein
said
that
he
came
to
rehearsal
with
the
director's
work
75%
prepared,
and
the
remaining
25%
was
determined
during
the
rehearsal
process.
Levshin
recalls
a
time
that
Grigorii
Aleksandrov
hiccupped
during
rehearsal
and
couldn't
stop.
After
seeing
the
reaction
of
the
production
team,
Eisenstein
demanded
that
the
hiccup
remain
in
the
show.
33
Rewriting
lines
during
rehearsal
was
another
thing
that
Eisenstein
frequently
did,
but
considering
the
fact
the
Tretiakov's
text
was
already
a
radical
reworking,
this
is
not
very
remarkable.
Eisenstein
also
showed
his
inexperience
as
a
director
with
his
tendency
to
mimic
movements
and
gestures
for
the
actors
to
replicate,
a
habit
which
professional
actors
often
find
insulting.
34
From
his
preoccupation
with
a
unique
physical
training
regimen
to
his
focus
on
precise
movements,
Eisenstein's
major
concern
in
his
production
of
Wiseman
was
visual—determining
how
to
use
movement
to
affect
the
audience.
In
the
memoirs
of
Levshin,
Shtraukh
and
Eisenstein,
much
attention
has
been
given
to
movement
as
the
fundamental
element
of
the
production.
Levshin
recalls
that
"in
Wiseman
the
fundamental
device
of
acting
gesture
and
movement
was
pushing
them
32
Ibid.
"Курьезно,
но
мы
знали
усталости!
На
работу
шли
как
на
праздник."
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.,
143.
87
to
the
limit."
35
Eisenstein
confirms
Levshin's
claims
about
extending
movements
beyond
their
usual
limits
when
he
writes:
Посылом
для
стиля
было
простейшее
исходное
звено.
То
положение,
чтобы
каждое
проявление
артиста
переходило
в
интенсивности
за
пределы
самого
себя.
Грубо
говоря,
чтобы
'удивление'
артиста
не
ограничивалось
тем,
что
он
'отпрянул.'
Отпрянул
–
недостаточно;
обратное
сальто-‐мортале
–
вот
тот
объем,
который
предписывало
ему
юное
буйство
постановщика.
36
Maksim
Shtraukh
also
wrote
about
how
one
of
the
main
goals
of
the
production
was
to
modernize
Ostrovsky
by
keeping
only
the
basic
plot
line
and
contemporizing
the
characters
and
text.
37
Thus,
Ostrovsky
was
"'mobilized'
in
the
service
of
modernity."
38
To
accomplish
this
task,
Shtraukh
claims
that
Eisenstein
asked
himself
how
Ostrovsky's
characters
would
conduct
themselves
if
they
were
placed
in
the
post-‐Revolutionary
world
of
1923.
39
Tretiakov
transferred
the
setting
of
the
play
to
Paris
among
the
White
Russian
émigrés,
but
he
kept
the
basic
plot
line
intact,
which
revolves
around
the
hero
Glumov,
a
seemingly
pleasant
and
agreeable
young
man,
who
decides
to
keep
a
detailed
diary
of
his
true
feelings
about
all
the
35
Ibid.,
145.
"В
Мудреце
основным
приемом
в
актерском
жесте
и
движении
было
доведение
их
до
предела."
36
Eizenshtein.
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2,
453,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
2,
230.
The
stylistic
premise
was
derived
from
a
very
simple
starting
point:
the
proposition
that
every
action
by
an
actor
should
expand
in
intensity
to
pass
beyond
the
bounds
of
that
activity
itself.
Roughly
speaking,
it
meant
that
in
registering
'astonishment'
the
actor
should
not
limit
himself
to
'starting
back';
starting
back
was
insufficient;
it
had
to
be
a
backward
summersault
in
the
air.
Such
was
the
scale
of
movement
prescribed
by
the
impetuous
young
director.
37
Shtraukh,
"Eizenshtein—kakim
on
byl,"
46.
38
Ibid.
"'[М]обилизован'
на
службу
современности."
39
Ibid.,
47.
88
disingenuous
characters
with
whom
he
associates.
From
his
pompous
uncle,
Mamaev,
and
his
lecherous
aunt,
Mamaeva,
to
the
various
characters
who
attempt
to
benefit
from
his
wit
and
talent;
Glumov
has
plenty
of
tawdry
material
with
which
to
fill
his
diary.
When
his
diary
is
stolen
and
submitted
to
a
publisher
he
is
shunned
from
society.
Eisenstein
believed
that
with
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
he
found
the
perfect
play
for
incorporating
his
work
with
Meyerhold
and
Foregger.
Eisenstein
suggests
that
in
the
creation
of
his
characters,
Ostrovsky
followed
the
dramaturgical
models
of
the
Spanish
and
Italian
theatre,
which
were
refined
versions
of
the
masked
character
types
found
in
the
tradition
of
Italian
commedia
dell'arte.
Since
the
fundamental
characteristics
of
these
strong
character
types
were
embedded
in
Ostrovsky's
text,
Eisenstein
was
able
to
transform
the
play
through
commedia
dell'arte's
"great-‐great-‐grandchildren"—the
circus.
40
Further
evidence
of
Eisenstein's
commedia
inspired
adaptation
is
found
in
his
preliminary
notes
for
the
production,
in
which
he
assigns
each
character
from
Ostrovsky's
play
a
corresponding
character
from
commedia
dell'arte.
Eisenstein
describes
the
transformation
of
Ostrovsky's
play
as
a
"'two-‐level'
performance,
the
first
being
"theatre
'downwards'
to
the
circus"
and
second
"theatre
'upwards'
to
cinema."
41
After
identifying
the
commedia
dell'arte
character
types
40
Eizenshtein,
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2,
454,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
2,
231.
"[П]раправнуков."
41
Ibid.
"[Д]вупланность,"
"вниз,"
"вверх."
89
that
corresponded
with
Ostrovsky's
characters,
Eisenstein
brought
these
character
types
into
the
contemporary
circus.
Even
Eisenstein's
setting
for
the
production
resembled
a
circus
arena.
The
former
mansion
of
the
wealthy
businessman
and
philanthropist
Savva
Morozov,
which
was
the
home
of
the
Proletkult
Theatre
in
1923,
was
transformed
for
the
production.
The
stage
was
round,
and
canvas
was
hung
on
the
walls
to
produce
the
feeling
of
a
circus
tent.
In
Eisenstein's
Wiseman,
Ostrovsky
was
no
longer
the
stale
chronicler
of
nineteenth
century
Russia.
The
adaptation
of
Ostrovsky’s
characters
shows
Eisenstein's
focus
on
making
the
text
relevant
to
the
present.
Rather
than
beginning
the
play
in
the
era
of
Alexander
II
with
Glumov
telling
his
mother
about
his
plan
to
write
only
the
truth
in
his
diary,
Eisenstein
added
a
prologue
set
in
post-‐
Revolutionary
Russia,
in
which
the
recently
disenfranchised
aristocrat,
Glumov,
is
talking
to
a
member
of
the
circus
staff
about
his
fall
from
power
since
the
Revolution:
Глумов:
Юриспруденцию
изучил;
кому
в
морду
давать
можно,
а
кому
нельзя.
Униформа:
А
кому
же
можно
Глумов:
Раньше
вас
было
можно,
а
меня
нельзя
Униформа:
А
теперь
меня
можно
Глумов:
А
теперь
вас
нельзя
а
меня
можно.
Был
я
господин,
а
стал
нуль.
Хуже
2
нуля.
Дырка.
Калач.
Во.
Униформа:
А
что
у
вас
вот
нулей
этаких
много
еще
осталось.
42
42
S.
M.
Tretiakov,
Tekst
spektaklia
Na
vsiakogo
mudretsa
dovol'no
prostoty
po
A.
N.
Ostrovskomu,
postavlennogo
S.
M.
Eizenshteinom
v
1om
rabochem
teatre
Proletkul'ta,
Rossiiskii
Gosudarstvennyi
Arkhiv
Literatury
i
Iskusstva
(RGALI)
f.
1923
(Eizenshtein,
Sergei
Mikhailovich),
op.
1,
ed.
khr.
799,
4.
"Glumov:
I
studied
jurisprudence;
[I
learned]
whom
you
can
hit
in
the
face
and
whom
you
can't.
/
Uniform:
Well
whom
can
you
hit
in
the
face?
/
Glumov:
Before,
I
could
hit
you,
but
you
couldn't
hit
me.
/
Uniform:
Now
you
can
hit
me?
/
Glumov:
Now
I
can't
hit
you,
but
you
can
hit
me.
I
was
a
90
Then
Ryzhii,
a
title
synonymous
with
"circus
clown,"
appears
and
convinces
Glumov
that
he
is
just
the
type
of
man
who
will
thrive
amongst
the
Russian
émigré
population
in
Paris.
Glumov
agrees
to
go
to
Paris
with
Ryzhii,
and
the
first
act
begins
with
the
pair
of
them
arriving
in
Paris.
Downwards
to
Circus
Eisenstein
assigned
a
twentieth
century,
Russian
equivalent
to
each
character
from
Ostrovsky's
play,
and
in
his
preliminary
notes
for
the
production,
he
also
categorized
each
of
them
as
a
commedia
dell'arte
stock
character.
The
protagonist,
Egor
Dmitrievich
Glumov,
is
transformed
into
George
Glumov
the
clown
and
his
mother,
Glafira
Klimovna
Glumova,
played
by
the
red-‐haired
clown
or
"Ryzhii."
In
Eisenstein's
notes,
he
refers
to
Glumov
and
Glumova
as
"1
st
zanni"
and
"2
nd
zanni,"
a
general
descriptor
for
a
number
of
different
servant
characters
in
commedia
dell'arte.
43
The
zanni
characters
almost
always
appear
in
pairs,
with
one
servant
being
slightly
more
intelligent
than
the
other.
Glumov
was
designated
as
the
notorious
Arlecchino,
known
for
having
impressive
physical
agility
coupled
with
less
than
impressive
intellect.
44
We
receive
some
vital
information
about
Glumova,
gentleman,
but
became
a
zero.
Worse
than
two
zeros.
A
hole.
An
old
stager.
There
you
go.
/
Uniform:
What,
are
there
still
a
lot
of
your
type
of
zeros
remaining?"
43
S.
M.
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki
S.
M.
Eizenshteina
k
spektakliu
'Na
vsiakogo
mudretsa
dovol'no
prostoty'
po
A.
N.
Ostrovskomu,
postavlennomu
v
1-‐om
rabochem
teatre
Proletkul'ta,
1921-‐
1922,
Rossiiskii
Gosudarstvennyi
Arkhiv
Literatury
i
Iskusstva
(RGALI)
f.
1923
(Eizenshtein,
Sergei
Mikhailovich),
op.
1,
ed.
khr.
800,
l.
40-‐41.
44
John
Rudlin,
Commedia
dell'Arte:
An
Actor's
Handbook
(London:
Routledge,
1994),
79.
91
whom
Eisenstein
designates
as
"travesti"—a
type
of
female
zanni
played
by
a
male
actor.
45
It
is
clear
that
Eisenstein's
gender
reassignment
was
planned
in
the
beginning
stages
of
his
work
on
Wiseman.
In
addition,
by
pairing
Glumov
and
Glumova
as
zanni,
Eisenstein
attaches
significance
to
their
interdependence
as
characters.
In
Eisenstein's
reworking
of
the
text,
Nil
Fedoseevich
Mamaev,
a
wealthy
aristocrat
and
distant
relative
of
Glumov,
became
Pavel'
Mamiliukov-‐Prolivnii,
a
parody
of
Pavel
Miliukov,
the
leader
of
the
Constitutional
Democratic
Party—a
powerful
group
under
the
Provisional
Government
of
1917,
which
advocated
the
establishment
of
a
constitutional
monarchy.
After
the
Bolshevik
revolution,
Miliukov
advised
leaders
of
the
White
movement
and
eventually
immigrated
to
Paris
after
the
Civil
War,
where
he
was
the
publisher
of
a
Russian-‐language
newspaper.
Maksim
Shtraukh
recalled
how
Eisenstein
created
a
reference
to
contemporary
theatrical
culture
in
Russia
and
its
most
influential
figure,
Lunacharsky,
by
including
a
bit
in
which
Mamiliukov
was
pulling
a
character
by
the
skirt
of
his
coat
and
yelling
"Back,
back
to
Ostrovsky!"
46
In
Wiseman,
Mamiliukov-‐Prolivnii
looked
very
much
like
a
circus
clown,
with
baldhead,
oversized,
plaid
pants,
a
suit
coat,
and
appropriately—
due
to
his
connection
to
the
White
movement—he
also
wore
white
clown's
makeup.
47
Eisenstein
designated
Mamaev
as
"Dottore,"
the
doctor
character
in
45
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki,
l.
41.
46
Shtraukh,
"Eizenshtein—kakim
on
byl,"
48.
"[Н]азад,
назад
к
Островскому!"
47
Ibid.,
47.
92
commedia
dell'arte.
48
From
Bologna,
the
site
of
the
oldest
university
in
Italy,
Dottore
is
a
well
educated,
yet
pretentious
know-‐it-‐all
and
busybody,
who
loves
to
hear
the
sound
of
his
own
voice.
49
By
assigning
the
attributes
of
both
Pavel
Miliukov
and
Dottore
to
Mamaev,
Eisenstein
appropriately
represents
the
spirit
of
Ostrovsky's
character
as
a
figure
of
the
old
Russian
aristocracy,
hanging
on
for
dear
life.
In
Ostrovsky's
play,
Mamaev's
wife,
Kleopatra
L'vovna
Mamaeva,
is
already
a
bawdy
and
lecherous
woman
who
would
fit
quite
nicely
on
the
commedia
dell'arte
stage.
Since
she
did
not
require
a
radical
transformation
by
Eisenstein,
Mamaeva
is
almost
completely
unchanged
in
Wiseman.
In
both
Ostrovsky's
and
Eisenstein's
versions,
Mamaeva
aggressively
pursues
Glumov
for
sexual
gratification,
and
therefore,
Eisenstein
ultimately
designated
her
as
a
"kurtizanka."
50
But
he
also
tried
out
other
characters
and
descriptions,
such
as
"Smeraldina"
and
"sirena."
51
Mamaeva's
similarity
to
Smeraldina
is
perhaps
most
interesting,
for
she
is
a
variant
of
Colombina—a
female
maidservant
and
mistress
of
Arlecchino.
52
Colombina
is
known
for
her
superior
intellect,
which
she
frequently
uses
to
protect
Arlecchino,
so
Mamaeva/Colombina
would
be
the
logical
pair
for
Glumov/Arlecchino.
For
both
48
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki,
l.
40.
49
Rudlin,
Commedia
dell'Arte,"
101.
50
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki,
l.
41.
"[C]ourtesan."
51
Ibid.,
40.
52
Rudlin,
Commedia
dell'Arte,"
127-‐130.
93
Ostrovsky
and
Eisenstein,
she
is
a
combination
of
these
types—Smeraldina,
Colombina,
siren
and
courtesan.
Krutitsky
was
transformed
into
General
Zhoffr,
a
deliberate
reference
to
Marshal
Joseph
Jacques
Césaire
Joffre,
a
French
General
during
World
War
I.
Zhoffr
wore
a
pompous,
military-‐inspired
costume,
which
included
a
large,
ruffled
collar,
oversized
stars,
a
striped
hat,
and
his
name
written
on
his
back.
According
to
his
notes,
Eisenstein
envisioned
Krutitsky
as
"Capitano."
53
Il
Capitano
is
a
versatile
character,
known
to
brag
about
his
military
exploits
and
sexual
prowess;
in
every
sense,
he
is
a
satirized
version
of
a
military
man.
54
In
Il
Capitano,
Eisenstein
certainly
captures
the
spirit
of
Ostrovsky's
description
of
Krutitsky
as
"an
old
and
very
important
gentleman."
55
The
character
Ivan
Ivanovich
Gorodulin
became
a
fascist
in
Eisenstein's
adaptation,
and
the
spelling
of
his
name
was
slightly
altered
to
Goredulin.
In
Eisenstein's
notes,
Gorodulin
is
first
labeled
"Pantalone,"
and
then
"es-‐er."
56
In
commedia
dell'arte,
Pantalone
is
an
old,
powerful
and
wealthy
man
who
makes
unreciprocated
advances
toward
women
and
is
known
for
his
trademark
red
pants.
57
The
marker
"es-‐er"
is
one
of
the
names
given
to
members
of
the
Socialist
53
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki,
l.
40.
54
Rudlin,
Commedia
dell'Arte,"
120-‐122.
55
A.
N.
Ostrovskii,
Sobranie
sochinenii,
vol.
5
(Moskva:
Gosudarstvennoe
izdatel'stvo
khudozhestvennoi
literatury,
1959-‐1960),
73.
"[С]тарик,
очень
важный
господин."
56
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki,
l.
40-‐41.
57
Rudlin,
Commedia
dell'Arte,
94-‐95.
94
Revolutionary
Party,
another
faction
that
held
significant
influence
under
the
Provisional
Government.
Again,
we
see
Eisenstein
attempting
to
identify
the
individuals
and
parties
that
opposed
the
Bolshevik
Revolution.
Golutvin,
whom
Ostrovsky
describes
as
a
"man
without
occupation,"
is
another
character
who
wants
to
exploit
Glumov's
literary
talent.
58
In
Eisenstein's
Wiseman,
he
became
a
money-‐grubbing
NEPman—one
of
the
much-‐villainized
capitalists
who
thrived
under
the
Soviet
Union's
New
Economic
Policy
of
1921-‐
1928.
Golutvin
is
the
character
who
successfully
steals
Glumov's
diary
in
Eisenstein's
version,
and
he
became
the
focus
of
the
film
that
accompanied
the
stage
production.
Eisenstein
does
not
apply
a
commedia
dell'arte
label
to
Golutvin,
but
under
his
character
type
is
written,
"inozrimyi,"
an
uncommon
word
meaning
unknown
or
unseen.
59
This
designation
must
be
connected
to
the
fact
that,
in
Wiseman,
Golutvin
wore
a
mask
to
disguise
himself.
Although
the
NEPman
was
always
depicted
as
an
untruthful
exploiter
in
the
popular
culture
of
the
time,
Aleksandrov's
slender
physique
and
dashing
suit
with
tails
and
top
hat
was
a
departure
from
the
typical,
pot-‐bellied
typical
visual
depiction
of
the
NEPman.
60
In
Wiseman,
the
wealthy
widow
Sof'ia
Ignat'evna
Turusina
was
played
by
a
man,
and
her
niece,
Mashen'ka,
whom
Glumov
pursues
for
his
wife,
is
turned
into
the
female
stockbroker
Mary
Mak-‐Lak.
Ultimately,
she
marries
the
Hussar,
58
Ostrovskii,
Sobranie
sochinenii,
259.
"[Ч]еловек,
не
имеющий
занятий."
59
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki,
l.
41.
60
Gerould,
"Eisenstein's
Wiseman,"
75.
95
Kurchaev,
played
by
three
actors
who
moved
and
spoke
simultaneously.
Eisenstein
was
extremely
amused
by
this
idea
and
wrote
that
this
indicated
Kurchaev's
"nullity,
his
triteness,
his
banal
conventionality."
61
Eisenstein
and
Tretiakov
also
used
Kurchaev's
three-‐part
persona
to
make
jokes
about
plural
marriage.
62
In
Eisenstein's
notes,
Mashen'ka
and
Kurchaev
are,
predictably,
the
lovers
or
innamorati,
"Isabella"
and
"Odoardo."
63
The
Isabella
character,
usually
the
daughter
of
Pantalone,
is
a
flirtatious,
intelligent
and
headstrong
woman
who
is
the
primary
target
of
male
affection.
64
Odoardo
seems
to
be
the
Eisensteinian
version
of
Orazio,
Ottavo
or
Ortensio—all
common
names
for
innamorati.
Here
Eisenstein
captures
Kurchaev's
self-‐love
and
self-‐importance
with
his
commedia
dell'arte
equivalent.
Significantly,
the
innamorati
always
come
in
pairs
and
are
reliant
upon
one
another
to
fulfill
their
vital
plot
function—marriage.
Eisenstein's
intentions
for
Turusina
are
not
entirely
clear,
except
for
the
fact
that
she
was
played
by
a
man,
and
in
his
notes,
Eisenstein
designates
her
as
"dura"
and
"matrona."
65
Turusina
requires
little
reworking
by
Eisenstein
for
the
labels
of
"fool"
and
"matron"
to
make
sense.
61
Eizenshtein,
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2,
454,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
2,
230.
"[Н]ичтожества,
шаблонности,
банальной
'серийности.'"
62
See
Maksim
Shtraukh's
description
of
the
marriage
between
Kurchaev
and
Mashen'ka,
in
which
he
cites
the
pun:
"ну,
если
не
над
многоженством,
то
над
многомужеством"
("well,
if
not
under
polygamy
and
the
under
polyandry").
He
also
describes
how
a
mullah
was
brought
in
to
perform
an
Islamic
marriage
ceremony
and
recited
anti-‐religious
poetry
to
the
tune
of
a
popular
jingle
advertising
galoshes.
In
Shtraukh,
"Eizenshtein—kakim
on
byl,"
47-‐48.
63
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki,
l.
40.
64
Rudlin,
Commedia
dell'Arte,"
115-‐116.
65
Eizenshtein,
Rezhisserskie
zametki,
l.
40-‐41.
96
The
remaining,
supporting
characters
take
on
qualities
of
commedia
dell'arte's
zanni
or
the
attributes
of
characters
typically
found
in
the
circus,
whom
Eisenstein
dubbed,
"ekstsentry."
66
In
addition
to
Glumova
and
Turusina,
Manefa,
a
female
fortuneteller,
was
also
played
by
a
man.
By
creating
contemporary
Russian
equivalents,
Eisenstein
modernized
the
characters
in
Ostrovsky's
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman,
making
it
easier
for
the
audience
to
relate
to
them,
but
at
the
same
time,
he
turned
the
characters
into
archaic
commedia
dell'arte
types,
which
have
a
distancing
quality.
One
of
Eisenstein's
key
techniques
for
creating
the
style
of
the
circus
in
Wiseman
was
to
literalize
metaphors,
and
he
used
the
text
and
characters
in
various
ways
to
accomplish
this
task.
Ostrovsky
often
attached
metaphorical
signifiers
to
individual
characters
based
on
the
names
he
gave
them.
For
example,
Eisenstein
points
out
that
the
name
Gorodulin,
is
derived
from
the
verb
"gorodit',"
meaning
to
talk
nonsense
or
babble,
and
the
name
Turusina,
comes
from
the
word
"turusy,"
meaning
nonsense
or
twaddle.
67
Eisenstein
asks
the
rhetorical
question:
"[A]re
not
their
images
and
behaviour
on
stage
living
incarnations
of
the
metaphors
contained
in
their
surnames,
expressed
in
character
and
action?"
68
Eisenstein
attempted
to
66
Ibid.,
41.
67
Eizenshtein,
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2,
454.
68
Ibid.,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
2,
230.
"[Р]азве
сценические
облики
и
поступки
их—
не
развернутые
метафоры
фамилий,
воплощенных
в
живые
образы
и
характеры."
97
express
the
metaphors
encoded
in
Ostrovsky's
play
in
literal
and
physical
ways
through
the
conventions
of
the
circus.
In
the
late
1930s,
Eisenstein
recalled
a
specific
scene
at
the
end
of
the
first
act
of
Wiseman,
in
which
Glumov
shows
his
uncle,
Nil
Fedoseevich
Mamaev,
a
portrait
of
himself
painted
by
Kurchaev.
Glumov
attempts
to
tell
his
uncle
that
the
portrait
is
not
very
well
done,
saying
"Get
ride
of
it
uncle,
it
doesn't
resemble
you
at
all."
69
Eisenstein
decided
to
discard
the
figurative
meaning
of
the
verb
"brosit',"
meaning
"to
get
rid
of"
and
replace
is
with
the
literal
meaning,
"to
throw."
He
describes
the
action
thus:
Совершенно
так
же
разгневанный
Мамаев,
'готовый
броситься'
на
карикатурный
портрет
на
него,
сделанный
племянником
Курчаевым,
волей
режиссера
должен
был
действительно
бросаться
на
портрет
и
не
только
бросаться,
но,
разрывая
его,
пролетать
saut
de
lion'ом
сквозь
него.
70
Similarly,
Eisenstein
used
the
scene
between
Mamaev
and
Krutitsky
in
the
fourth
act
to
create
the
same
effect:
Реплика
Мамаевой
'хоть
на
рожон
полезай'
сейчас
же
материализовалась
тем,
что
вносилась
'мачта
смерти.'
водружалась
в
пояс
Крутицкому,
Мамаева
на
нее
влезала
и
делала
цирковой
номер
'перш.'
71
69
S.
M.
Tretiakov,
Tekst
spektaklia,
l.
16.
"Бросьте
дядюшка
и
не
похож
совсем."
70
Eizenshtein,
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2,
453,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
2,
230.
"[T]he
infuriated
Mamayev,
who
is
'ready
to
hurl
himself'
at
the
caricatured
portrait
of
himself
done
by
his
nephew
Kurchayev,
was
made
by
the
director
to
literally
hurl
himself
at
the
portrait,
and
not
only
to
hurl
himself
but
to
crash
through
it
like
a
circus
lion
jumping
through
a
hoop."
71
Ibid.
"Mamayeva's
line
'it's
enough
to
drive
one
up
a
pole'
was
instantly
actualized
by
having
her
thrust
a
long
pole
into
a
socket
attached
to
Krutitsky's
belt,
whereupon
she
climbed
up
the
pole
and
swung
herself
around
from
its
top
doing
the
act
known
in
circus
jargon
as
'the
perch.'"
98
Literalizing
metaphors
was
the
one
of
main
ways
Eisenstein
accomplished
this
goal
of
pushing
theatre
"downwards
to
the
circus,"
but
he
also
traced
this
technique
back
to
classical
comedy
and
Aristophanes.
72
Eisenstein's
attempts
to
highlight
textual
metaphors
by
expressing
them
in
literal
terms
did
not
seem
to
serve
a
specific
purpose,
other
than
creating
physical
comedy.
This
very
specific
experiment
was
certainly
a
factor
that
contributed
to
the
disjointed
nature
of
the
production
as
a
whole,
but
this
is
only
one
example
from
the
vast
array
of
theatrical
tricks
Eisenstein
employed
in
Wiseman.
Upwards
to
Cinema
At
the
end
of
the
play,
the
onstage
action
in
the
circus
arena
was
transferred
to
a
screen,
with
which
the
live
actors
interacted,
and
the
visual
metaphors
reached
a
higher
state
of
literalness,
only
attainable
in
film.
73
In
her
article
"Filmed
Scenery
on
the
Live
Stage,"
Gwendolyn
Waltz
provides
a
detailed
analysis
of
early
theatre
and
film
hybrid
performances,
which
are
often
forgotten
in
contemporary
histories
of
multimedia
performance.
Waltz
makes
it
clear
that
the
incorporation
of
film
sequences
on
the
popular
stage
had
already
been
attempted
by
notable
names
such
as
the
Shuberts
and
Ziegfeld,
as
well
as
the
inclusion
of
live
acting
in
filmed
performances
directed
by
the
likes
of
D.
W.
Griffith
and
Donald
Crisp,
so
the
idea
was
not
entirely
innovative
by
the
time
Eisenstein
included
the
film,
Glumov's
Diary,
72
Ibid.
73
Ibid.,
454-‐455.
99
in
his
1923
production
of
Wiseman.
74
Waltz
claims
that
"[t]he
join
between
these
media
was
porous,
a
membrane
rather
than
a
shared
wall;
the
relationship
was
one
of
confluences
and
bi-‐directional
influences."
75
This
was
certainly
the
case
in
Wiseman.
Eisenstein's
first
film
was
inspired
by
the
theatricality
of
the
circus,
while
the
director's
obsession
with
creating
stunning
visual
images
and
quickly
shifting
focus
was
ultimately
more
suited
to
the
medium
of
cinema.
What
makes
Eisenstein's
production
so
significant
is
that
it
was
a
vital
moment
in
his
development
as
a
director
and
artist.
The
theatre
was
the
laboratory
that
allowed
him
to
push
his
ideas
as
far
as
possible,
but
ultimately
Eisenstein
would
need
the
cinema
in
order
to
fully
realize
them.
The
basic
plot
of
the
film
revolves
around
the
theft
of
Glumov's
diary,
taking
on
the
parodic
style
of
an
American
adventure
film.
On
the
Thursday
before
Wiseman's
Saturday
premiere,
Eisenstein
shot
his
first
film
in
one
day.
76
On
screen,
Glumov's
diary
became
a
roll
of
film,
rather
than
a
book.
The
NEPman,
Golutvin,
steals
the
roll
of
film,
and
jumps
off
a
building
into
an
airplane,
and
then
falls
into
a
moving
car.
The
care
then
drives
up
to
the
entrance
of
the
theatre,
which
is
immediately
recognizable
as
the
façade
of
the
Morozov
mansion.
Then
Golutvin
ran
into
the
theatre
with
the
film
in
his
hand.
74
Gwendolyn
Waltz,
"Filmed
Scenery
on
the
Live
Stage,"
Theatre
Journal
58
(2006):
548.
75
Ibid.
76
Eizenshtein,
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
1,
108.
First
appeared
as
"Moia
pervaia
filma,"
Sovetskii
ekran
50
(1928):
10.
100
Through
the
technique
of
moving
"theatre
'upwards'
to
cinema,"
the
second
stage
of
Eisenstein's
two-‐level
performance,
Glumov's
insincerity
is
revealed
in
the
most
literal
way
possible.
77
In
Eisenstein's
own
words:
"By
way
of
a
summersault
and
a
fade-‐in,
Glumov
turned
into
whatever
object
the
given
character
desired."
78
In
the
film,
Glumov
literally
turns
into
precisely
what
other
characters
want
him
to
be.
Mamaev
wants
Glumov
to
be
the
weak-‐minded,
obedient
nephew
he
can
mold
into
a
respectable
young
man,
so
Glumov
turns
into
a
submissive
donkey.
For
General
Krutitsky,
Glumov
appears
in
the
shape
of
a
cannon.
In
the
presence
of
Mamaeva,
his
lecherous
and
manipulative
aunt,
Glumov
is
transformed
into
a
baby
whom
she
can
play
with
however
she
chooses.
For
Gorodulin,
the
fascist,
Glumov
takes
the
form
of
a
swastika.
Although
primitive,
the
trick-‐editing
techniques
used
by
Eisenstein
to
transform
Glumov
into
various
objects
are
significant,
especially
considering
the
innovative
editing
for
which
Eisenstein
was
ultimately
known.
For
his
last
bit
of
cleverness,
Eisenstein
did
not
come
out
to
take
a
bow
at
the
end
of
the
play,
but
rather
he
was
projected
on
screen,
bowing
to
the
camera.
Maksim
Shtraukh
claims
that
Eisenstein's
idea
for
filming
his
own
curtain
call
at
the
end
of
the
production
came
from
one
of
their
childhood
experiences.
Shtraukh
and
Eisenstein
met
as
young
boys
in
Latvia
and
often
went
to
a
movie
theatre
owned
by
a
certain
Mr.
Galske.
Mr.
Galske
had
his
own
short
reel
of
film
that
he
would
add
the
77
Ibid.,
vol.
2,
231.
78
Ibid.
vol.
1,
107.
"Глумов
через
кульбит
наплывом
переходил
в
тот
или
иной
предмет,
желательный
для
того
или
иного
действующего
лица."
101
end
of
each
showing,
in
which
he
would
bow
to
the
audience.
Shtraukh
recalls
how
he
and
Eisenstein
could
not
wait
until
the
end
of
each
film
to
see
this
fat
man,
with
an
idiotic
smile,
bow
to
the
public
"as
if
he
himself
were
Edison
or
one
of
the
Lumière
brothers."
79
It
seems
fitting
that
Eisenstein,
as
if
bidding
adieu
to
the
theatre,
would
take
a
bow
onscreen
in
one
of
his
last
theatrical
productions.
He
would
go
on
to
direct
two
more
productions
at
the
Proletkult,
but
Eisenstein
had
already
begun
to
realize
his
place
in
the
history
of
cinema.
During
his
time
with
the
Proletkult,
Eisenstein
began
to
work
out
some
of
his
most
influential
ideas
and
wrote
the
article
"Montazh
attraktsionov"
("Montage
of
Attractions")
in
an
attempt
to
explain
the
staging
techniques
he
used
in
Wiseman.
For
all
the
efforts
Eisenstein
put
into
making
the
production
exciting
and
accessible
to
his
proletarian
audience,
it
was
still
necessary
to
include
a
plot
summary
before
the
play,
and
Eisenstein
was
prompted
to
provide
a
theoretical
explanation
of
his
techniques
in
"Montage
of
Attractions."
The
concept
of
montage
turned
out
to
be
better
suited
for
the
cinema
than
the
stage,
but
it
was
for
his
production
of
Wiseman
that
Eisenstein
began
to
grapple
intensely
with
the
key
theoretical
concept
of
his
career.
It
is
impossible
to
arrive
at
one
definition
of
montage
from
Eisenstein's
writings,
which
are
too
complex
and
often
contradictory,
but
as
Jacques
Aumont
79
Shtraukh,
"Eizenshtein—kakim
on
byl,"
48.
"[Т]ак,
будто
сам
был
по
крайне
мере
Эдисоном
или
одним
из
братьев
Люмьер."
102
suggests,
"Critics
and
biographers
are
all
agreed
on
this
one
point:
Eisenstein
equals
montage."
80
The
Attraction
Аттракцион
(в
разрезе
театра)
-‐
всякий
агрессивный
момент
театра,
т.-‐е.
всякий
элемент
его,
подвергающий
зрителя
чувственному
или
психологическому
воздействию,
опытно-‐
выверенному
и
математически
рассчитанному
на
определенные
эмоциональные
потрясения
воспринимающего,
в
свою
очередь
в
совокупности
-‐
единственно
обусловливающие
возможность
восприятия
идейной
стороны
демонстрируемого
-‐
конечного
идеологического
вывода.
(Путь
познавания
–
'через
живую
игру
страстей'
-‐
специфический
для
театра).
81
Eisenstein
is
sure
to
point
out
that
an
attraction
should
not
be
understood
the
same
way
as
a
trick
or
stunt.
Tricks
and
stunts
are,
more
or
less,
self-‐contained
events,
while
an
attraction
is
dependent
upon
other
attractions,
which
acquire
a
collective
meaning
through
the
montage.
For
Eisenstein,
the
primary
significance
of
the
attraction
is
that
it
is
the
antithesis
of
realism.
Although
the
attraction
is
more
a
theatrical
concept
than
a
cinematic
one,
it
carries
similar
meanings
in
film.
As
Jacques
Aumont
explains,
in
film
the
attraction
remains
both
autonomous
and
visually
striking,
just
likes
its
theatrical
counterpart:
80
Jacques
Aumont,
Montage
Eisenstein,
(Bloomington:
Indiana
University
Press,
1987),
145.
81
Eizenshtein,
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2,
270,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
1,
34.
"An
attraction
(in
our
diagnosis
of
theatre)
is
any
aggressive
moment
in
theatre,
i.e.
any
element
of
it
that
subjects
the
audience
to
emotional
or
psychological
influence,
verified
by
experience
and
mathematically
calculated
to
produce
specific
emotional
shocks
in
the
spectator
in
their
proper
order
within
the
whole.
These
shocks
provide
the
only
opportunity
of
perceiving
the
ideological
aspect
of
what
is
being
shown,
the
final
ideological
conclusion.
(The
path
to
knowledge
encapsulated
in
the
phrase,
'through
the
living
play
of
passions',
is
specific
to
theatre.)"
103
"[T]he
attraction
is
originally
the
music
hall
number
or
sketch,
a
peak
moment
in
the
show,
relatively
autonomous,
and
calling
upon
techniques
of
representation
which
are
not
those
of
dramatic
illusion,
drawing
upon
more
aggressive
forms
of
the
performing
arts
(the
circus,
the
music
hall,
the
sideshow)."
82
In
1923,
Eisenstein's
chief
concern
was
how
the
attraction
could
be
used
in
theatre,
and
with
his
still
unrefined
sense
of
montage,
Eisenstein's
method
was
to
use
the
attraction
to
literalize
simple
metaphors.
As
a
result,
the
use
of
attractions
in
Wiseman
was
disjointed
and
failed
to
do
anything
significant
other
than
create
individual
moments
of
shock
and
comedy.
In
his
films,
Eisenstein's
focus
was
on
the
cumulative
effect
of
the
attractions
to
create
meaning.
Partly
due
to
the
nature
of
and
conventions
of
film,
Eisenstein
was
able
to
realize
the
potential
of
the
attraction,
which,
in
its
cinematic
form,
could
be
powerful
in
isolation
or
within
a
sequence
to
express
a
particular
theme
to
the
audience.
83
Keeping
in
mind
that
the
aim
of
the
Proletkult
was
to
create
artifacts
of
proletarian
culture
that
would
appeal
to
an
audience
composed
primarily
of
workers,
Eisenstein
used
the
attraction
to
capture
the
spectator's
attention
and
express
political
ideology
at
the
same
time.
Discerning
the
message
in
avant-‐garde
art
is
not
always
straightforward,
but
Eisenstein
believed
that
the
overarching
goal
of
all
art
should
be
"the
building
of
socialism."
84
In
order
to
support
the
building
of
socialism
in
Wiseman,
Eisenstein
attempted
to
expose
the
shortcomings
of
the
New
82
Aumont,
Montage,
42.
83
Ibid.,
43.
84
Ibid.
104
Economic
Policy,
as
well
as
the
corruption
and
depravity
of
Russian
aristocrats
abroad.
The
Montage
Настоящий
подход
коренным
образом
меняет
возможности
в
принципах
конструкции
"воздействующего
построения"
(спектакль
в
целом)
-‐
вместо
статического
"отражения"
данного,
по
теме
потребного
события
и
возможности
его
разрешения
единственно
через
воздействие
логически
с
таким
событием
сопряженные,
выдвигается
новый
прием
-‐
свободный
монтаж
с
произвольно
выбранных,
самостоятельных
(также
и
вне
данной
композиции
и
сюжетной
сценки
действующих)
воздействий
(аттракционов),
но
с
точной
установкой
на
определенный
конечный
тематический
эффект
-‐
монтаж
аттракционов.
85
For
Eisenstein,
the
"montage
of
attractions"
is
the
system
through
which
he
attempts
to
destroy
the
dominant
tradition
of
theatrical
realism.
Rather
than
creating
meaning
through
the
logical,
cause
and
effect
progression
of
the
plot,
Eisenstein
uses
the
juxtaposition
of
very
different
visual
images
to
shape
the
narrative
and
create
meaning.
More
than
40
years
before
Roland
Barthes
would
proclaim
the
death
of
the
author,
Eisenstein
advocated
an
approach
that
blatantly
disregards
the
intentions
of
the
author
and
makes
no
attempt
to
reproduce
the
original
context
of
the
text.
While
Eisenstein's
approach
dismantles
Ostrovsky's
85
Eizenshtein,
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2,
271,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
1,
35.
"Our
present
approach
radically
alters
our
opportunities
in
the
principles
of
creating
an
'effective
structure'
(the
show
as
a
whole)
instead
of
a
static
'reflection'
of
a
particular
event
dictated
by
the
theme,
and
our
opportunities
for
resolving
it
through
an
effect
that
is
logically
implicit
in
that
event,
and
this
gives
rise
to
a
new
concept:
a
free
montage
with
arbitrarily
chosen
independent
(of
both
the
PARTICULAR
composition
and
any
thematic
connection
with
the
actors)
effects
(attractions)
but
with
the
precise
aim
of
a
specific
final
thematic
effect—montage
of
attractions."
105
play,
his
montage
of
attractions
constructs
a
new
narrative.
Thereby,
Eisenstein
is
able
to
emphasize
different
themes
and
capture
the
audience's
attention
in
a
new
and
exciting
way.
By
downgrading
the
significance
of
text,
Eisenstein
again
privileges
the
visual
aspects
of
performance,
pointing
to
his
eventual
destination
in
the
cinema,
where
the
visual
is
of
supreme
importance.
In
his
writings
about
Wiseman,
Alexander
Levshin
makes
the
argument
that
there
is
a
direct
correlation
between
the
montage
techniques
used
by
Eisenstein
in
Wiseman
and
those
used
in
The
Battleship
Potemkin.
86
Although
Levshin
fails
to
develop
this
argument
very
convincingly,
the
more
plausible
claim
is
that
the
initial
techniques
and
theories
Eisenstein
developed
for
his
stage
production
of
Wiseman
led
to
the
more
refined
approach
to
montage
that
he
used
in
his
films.
In
addition,
the
experience
gained
in
shooting
his
first
film
was
perhaps
the
most
crucial
moment
in
Eisenstein's
life
as
an
artist.
Eisenstein's
preoccupation
with
the
visual
aspects
of
performance
as
a
way
to
reach
audience
members
makes
him
an
ideal
fit
for
the
medium
of
cinema.
Not
only
is
Eisenstein
better
able
to
control
the
attention
of
the
viewer
in
cinema,
but
also
he
is
able
to
realize
a
higher
level
of
precision
unattainable
in
live
theatre.
After
this
production,
Eisenstein
was
considered
by
many
to
be
the
most
radical
director
in
Moscow.
87
But
he
reigned
things
in
by
redesigning
the
outlandish
86
Levshin,
"Na
repetitsiiakh,"
137.
87
Mel
Gordon,
"Eisenstein's
Later
Work
at
the
Proletkul't,"
The
Drama
Review
22,
no.
3
(Sep.,
1978),
107.
106
actor
training
program
he
instituted
with
Wiseman
and
sticking
to
simple
plots
with
Listen,
Moscow?!,
which
used
the
news
of
recent
communist
uprisings
as
it's
inspiration,
and
Gas
Masks,
which
was
performed
at
the
Moscow
Gas
Works
and
tells
the
true
story
of
Soviet
workers
how
fixed
a
gas
leak
without
any
protective
masks.
88
Like
Wiseman,
these
productions
engaged
with
current
events
and
exhibited
Eisenstein's
passion
for
avant-‐garde
staging
techniques,
albeit
in
a
more
focused
and
choreographed
form.
89
The
drastically
simplified
plots
of
Gas
Masks
and
Listen,
Moscow?!
greatly
contributed
to
the
overall
effectiveness
and
implementation
of
montage.
Critical
Response
Reviews
of
Wiseman
point
to
the
notion
that
while
the
production
was
not
entirely
successful
in
terms
of
maintaining
audience
engagement—it
ran
nearly
three
hours
without
an
intermission—Eisenstein's
grand
attempt
at
radically
transforming
actor
training,
stage
conventions
and
audience
expectations
was
understood
and,
at
least,
somewhat
appreciated.
There
seems
to
be
an
unspoken
awareness,
on
the
part
of
the
critics
and
theatre
practitioners,
that
the
theatre
is
a
fertile
battleground
for
determining
the
path
for
art
in
Soviet
Union.
In
a
review
by
Kh.
N.
Khersonskii
from
Izvestiia
in
May
of
1923,
the
critic
characterizes
the
goals
of
the
production
as
presented
to
the
audience
before
the
production:
"One
of
the
tasks
88
For
an
analysis
of
Eisenstein's
last
two
productions
at
the
Proletkul't,
see
Mel
Gordon's
article.
89
Gordon,
"Later
Work,"
108.
107
of
the
production
of
Wiseman
is
a
new
training
of
the
actor,
another
is
experience
in
exploring
a
few
new
forms
of
agitational
theatre."
90
Khersonskii
does
not
believe
these
two
goals
were
successfully
realized
and
provides
a
dismissive
assessment
of
the
production,
making
a
joke
based
on
the
performance's
introductory
remarks,
he
claims
that
the
production
was
"only
experience."
91
He
continues
his
review
by
writing
that
Eisenstein's
Wiseman
is
completely
characteristic
of
the
left
front
and
pushes
the
techniques
of
Vsevelod
Meyerhold
and
Nikolai
Foregger
to
their
logical
ends—"circus
clownery."
92
Khersonskii
is
impressed
by
Eisenstein's
extreme
devotion
to
his
aesthetic
experiment—turning
the
stage
into
an
arena
and
successfully
transforming
the
movements
of
actors
into
circus
tricks—but
ultimately,
the
experiment
is
too
much
for
the
audience
to
endure,
over
three
hours
without
a
break
in
the
action.
He
humorously
remarks,
"The
inventiveness
of
Eisenstein
even
surpassed
the
attention
span
of
the
spectator."
93
Regarding
Sergei
Tretiakov's
adaptation
of
the
play,
Khersonskii
concludes
that
not
only
is
the
play
not
Ostrovsky,
but
it
is
against
him.
Tretiakov
has
turned
Ostrovsky's
psychological
realism
into
the
"grimaces
of
clowns
and
hysterics
of
90
Kh.
N.
Khersonskii,
"Mudrets
v
proletkul'te,"
in
Ostrovskii
na
sovetskoi
stsene,
eds.
T.
N
Pavlova
and
E.
G.
Kholodov
(Moskva:
Iskusstvo,
1974),
22-‐23.
First
published
in
Izvestiia,
May
11,
1923.
"[О]дна
из
задач
постановки
'Мудреца'
–
новое
воспитание
актера,
другая
–
опыт
в
поисках
некоторых
новых
форм
агитационного
театра."
91
Ibid.
"[Т]олько
опыт."
92
Ibid.
"[Ц]ирковой
клоунады."
93
Ibid.
"[И]зобретательность
Эйзенштейна
даже
превзошла
вместимость
внимания
зрителя."
108
fools."
94
In
the
end,
according
to
Khersonskii,
only
a
hint
of
Ostrovsky
remains;
a
few
individual
phrases
are
comprehensible,
but
the
connections
of
meaning
between
them
are
lost.
Furthermore,
Khersonskii
believes
that
the
production
has
also
bastardized
the
circus.
He
claims
that
the
primitive
emotion
of
energy
and
laughter
in
the
circus
should
be
healthy
and
whole,
but
in
Wiseman,
the
eccentric
buffoonery
results
in
hysterics
and
idiotic
mind
games.
Khersonskii
again
cites
the
influence
of
Meyerhold
and
Foregger
and
their
decadent
tendencies.
The
only
actor
that
Khersonskii
praises
at
all
is
Iurtsev
for
his
portrayal
of
the
clown
and
Glumov's
mother.
His
final
assessment
is
that
the
production
is
overcomplicated
yet
inventive,
amateurish
but
a
striking
example
of
left
art
taken
to
its
logical
conclusions.
Khersonskii
believes
that
Eisenstein
has
not
created
the
rich
and
healthy
type
of
theatre
needed
at
present
time,
but
simply
an
attempt
to
shock
audiences
with
formalist
trickery.
Khersonskii
gives
us
a
clear
view
of
what
the
conservative
press
thinks
about
the
avant-‐garde
theatre
in
1923,
and
this
serves
a
preview
of
what
is
to
come
in
the
1930s.
I.
A.
Aksenov's
review
from
the
journal
Zrelishcha
provides
a
slightly
more
positive
assessment
of
the
production.
Like
Khersonskii,
Aksenov
also
attributes
the
methods
Eisenstein
used
in
Wiseman
to
his
work
with
Meyerhold.
He
views
the
production
as
the
culmination
of
Eisenstein's
training
as
a
director,
claiming
that
the
production
itself
should
be
considered
as
his
Master's
dissertation
and
the
94
Ibid.
"[Г]римасами
клоунов
и
истерикой
'юродивых.'"
109
performance
as
its
defense.
95
Aksenov
would
clearly
pass
Eisenstein's
dissertation,
for
the
things
the
director
was
able
to
accomplish
intrigue
him.
Eisenstein
completely
and
successfully
transformed
the
theatre
space
and
completely
abandoned
accepted
theatrical
conventions,
and
for
Aksenov,
this
is
a
major
accomplishment,
which
gives
the
production
a
cohesive
feel
for
the
duration
of
the
performance.
While
Aksenov
is
impressed
with
Eisenstein's
commitment
to
the
task
at
hand
and
the
clarity
with
which
the
director
was
able
to
execute
his
vision,
he
is
not
sure
of
the
value
of
such
an
experiment.
Aksenov
claims
that
the
current
aim
of
art
is
to
struggle
against
aestheticism,
but
this
sometimes
understood
as
the
"de-‐aestheticization
of
art."
96
For
Aksenov,
this
is
the
difference
between
making
a
theatrical
production
accessible
to
the
common
man
and
creating
a
work
that
becomes
incomprehensible
due
to
its
utter
disregard
for
tradition,
and
Wiseman
is
a
perfect
example
of
what
happens
when
artistic
norms
and
conventions
are
completely
abandoned.
According
to
Aksenov,
in
the
realm
of
theatre,
the
production
is
a
disgrace,
but
in
the
realm
of
circus,
it
is
reasonably
successful.
One
of
the
biggest
problems,
according
to
Aksenov,
is
that
"Eisenstein
is
completely
absorbed
with
the
visual
scenario
of
the
production."
97
This
is
an
insightful,
and
almost
prophetic,
analysis
of
the
early
work
of
an
iconic
film
director
who
will
soon
shift
his
focus
to
cinema,
in
which
the
visual
scenario
95
I.
A.
Aksenov,
"Mudrets
S.
M.
Eizenshteina,"
in
Pavlova
and
Kholodov,
Ostrovskii
na
sovetskoi
stsene,
23-‐25.
First
published
in
Zrelishcha
40
(1923).
96
Ibid.
"[Д]еэстетизацию
искусства."
97
Ibid.
"Эйзенштейн
совершенно
поглощен
зрительным
сценарием
спектакля."
110
supersedes
the
textual
elements.
But
as
a
theatrical
production,
Aksenov
is
very
critical
of
Eisenstein's
disregard
for
the
spoken
word
and
Ostrovsky's
text:
Откуда
такое
презрение
к
слову?
Этот
вопрос
меня
довольно
мучил,
и
теперь
я,
кажется,
решил
загадку:
драматический
текст
проявил
такие
свойства,
что
постановщик
махнул
на
него
рукой
и
радовался
его
погибели.
Не
стану
спорить:
текст
может
не
нравиться,
но
зачем
тогда
было
его
брать?
98
For
Aksenov,
Eisenstein's
disdain
for
Ostrovsky's
text
creates
enormous
problems
in
an
artistic
medium
that
must
rely
on
both
visual
and
the
textual
elements
to
be
successful,
but
perhaps
this
critic
provides
some
insights
into
why
Eisenstein
would
succeed
in
a
more
visual
art
form—film.
Impact
About
the
environment
of
early
Soviet
theatre,
Maksim
Shtraukh
wrote:
"Everything
occurred
with
a
harsh
polemical
fervor.
Art
developed
in
an
atmosphere
of
bitter
arguments
and
conflict."
99
Shtraukh
proclaimed
that
Wiseman
was
a
great
success,
but
he
was
also
quick
to
point
out
that
it
was
scandalous.
Along
with
the
many
fans
of
the
production
who
attended
multiple
times,
there
were
many
audience
members
who
left
before
the
end
of
the
show.
Those
who
expected
to
see
Ostrovsky's
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
were
sorely
disappointed,
while
98
Ibid.
"What
is
the
source
of
such
contempt
for
the
word?
This
question
bothered
me
considerably,
and
now
it
seems
I
have
solved
the
riddle:
the
dramatic
text
displayed
such
features
that
the
director
waved
his
hand
at
it
and
delighted
in
its
destruction.
I
will
not
argue
that
the
text
can
be
unappealing,
but
then
why
would
you
choose
to
use
it?"
99
Shtraukh,
"Eizenshtein—kakim
on
byl,"
46.
"Все
делалось
с
резким
полемическим
задором.
Искусство
развивалось
в
атмосфере
ожесточенных
споров
и
борьбы."
111
those
who
could
accept
the
production
on
its
own
merits
were,
more
or
less,
satisfied.
In
his
introduction
to
"Montage
of
Attractions,"
Eisenstein
reveals
his
blatant
objective
to
dismantle
the
institution
of
theatre
in
every
way:
В
двух
словах.
Театральная
программа
Пролеткульта
не
в
'использовании
ценностей
прошлого'
или
'изобретении
новых
форм
театра'
а
в
упразднении
самого
института
театра,
как
такового,
с
заменой
его
показательной
станцией
достижений
в
плане
квалификации
бытовой
оборудованности
масс.
100
Viktor
Shklovsky
interpreted
this
to
mean
that
the
Proletkult
desired
that
the
theatre
should
cease
to
exist;
according
to
Eisenstein's
program,
theatres
would
no
longer
be
necessary,
and
actors
would
be
obsolete.
101
Shklovsky
also
points
out
that
Lenin
was
concerned
about
the
direction
the
Proletkult
was
headed
and
he
explicitly
stated
that
the
goal
of
the
Proletkult
should
not
be
to
reinvent
the
art,
but
rather
"the
development
of
the
best
models,
traditions
and
results
of
existing
culture
from
the
point
of
view
of
the
world
view
of
Marxism."
102
In
his
campaign
to
promote
the
works
of
Ostrovsky
in
1923,
Anatoly
Lunacharsky
incorporated
Lenin's
directive
and
reasoning
for
producing
Russian
classics
on
the
Soviet
stage.
Although
Eisenstein
followed
the
letter
of
the
law
by
100
Eizenshtein,
Izbrannye
proizvedeniia,
vol.
2,
269,
trans.
Eisenstein,
Selected
Works,
vol.
1,
33.
"In
a
few
words:
Proletkul't's
theatrical
programme
consists
not
in
'using
the
treasures
of
the
past'
or
in
'discovering
new
forms
of
theatre'
but
in
abolishing
the
very
institution
of
theatre
as
such
and
replacing
it
by
a
showplace
for
achievements
in
the
field
at
the
level
of
everyday
skills
of
the
masses."
101
Viktor
Shklovsky,
Eizenshtein
(Moskva:
Iskusstvo,
1973),
78.
102
V.
I.
Lenin,
Polnoe
sobranie
sochinenii,
5
th
ed.,
vol.
41,
(Moskva:
Izdatel'stvo
politicheskoi
literatury,
1967),
462.
"[Р]азвитие
лучших
образцов,
традиций,
результатов
существующей
культуры
с
точки
зрения
миросозерцание
марксизма."
112
producing
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman,
he
transgressed
the
spirit
of
the
law
in
every
way.
Through
his
complete
dismantling
of
Ostrovsky's
text
and
utter
disregard
for
theatrical
conventions,
Eisenstein
anointed
himself
as
the
representative
of
the
extreme
left
of
the
theatrical
avant-‐garde
and
drew
a
line
in
the
sand
that
forced
other
directors
to
make
their
artistic
positions
known.
Considering
the
overall
aims
of
Eisenstein's
work
at
the
Proletkult,
producing
an
Ostrovsky
play
was
the
best
choice
for
destroying
and
reconfiguring
the
Russian
theatre.
There
was
no
better
representative
of
the
tradition
of
Russian
drama,
and
there
was
no
figure
more
influential
in
establishing
the
structure
of
the
Russian
theatre.
By
producing
a
radical
reworking
of
a
classical
text
that
was
being
performed
in
multiple
Moscow
theatres
in
1923,
Eisenstein
challenged
his
audiences
to
examine
the
realistic
tradition
in
relation
to
his
Wiseman.
Thus,
he
relied
on
the
notion
that
Ostrovsky's
works
had
sufficient
cultural
currency
to
render
his
experiment
comprehensible.
Eisenstein
envisioned
an
enormous
task
for
Ostrovsky's
play
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman,
and
for
the
most
part
the
text
was
up
to
the
challenge.
Relying
on
W.
B.
Worthen's
argument
in
Drama:
Between
Poetry
and
Performance
as
a
methodology
for
examining
the
production
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
from
the
1920s—
that
"dramatic
writing
is
writing
for
use
"
and
that
"its
affordance"
is
dependent
upon
the
play
itself
and
the
imagination
of
the
director—it
becomes
clear
that
he
qualities
inherent
in
Ostrovsky's
play,
such
as
its
uncomplicated
plot
and
strong
character
types,
allowed
Eisenstein
to
infuse
the
text
with
his
own
artistic
and
113
ideological
agendas.
103
Examining
the
progression
of
the
performative
dialogue
among
Eisenstein,
Meyerhold
and
Stanislavsky
will
uncover
how
Ostrovsky's
plays
are
crucial
to
the
development
of
Soviet
theatre.
103
Worthen,
Poetry
and
Performance,
xviii.
114
Chapter
Four:
Meyerhold's
Forest
Meyerhold's
Life
and
Work
Vsevelod
Emil'evich
Meyerhold—christened
Karl
Theodore
Kasimir—was
born
January
28,
1874
in
the
city
of
Penza.
He
was
the
eighth
child
of
Emil'
Fedorovich
Meyerhold,
an
affluent
Russian-‐German
businessman,
and
Alvina
Danilovna
van
der
Neese.
He
was
drawn
to
the
various
popular
entertainments
of
the
era,
such
as
pantomimes,
farces
and
puppet
shows,
and
Meyerhold's
early
life
was
affected
by
the
aftermath
of
serfdom
and
the
presence
of
young
radicals
who
were
exiled
to
Penza,
such
as
Aleksei
Remizov,
who
introduced
Meyerhold
to
Marxism
and
later
became
one
of
his
literary
managers.
1
Even
in
Meyerhold's
first
official
theatre
work
with
an
amateur
group
in
Penza,
he
attempted
to
join
his
artistic
endeavor
with
a
social
cause
of
making
theatre
more
accessible
to
all
members
of
society.
2
Meyerhold's
early
experiences
attending
Penza's
local
theatre
coincided
with
a
period
of
exciting
growth
and
development
in
European
and
Russian
theatre.
In
Europe,
the
likes
of
Ibsen
and
Strindberg
expanded
the
possibilities
of
conventional
dramaturgy,
while
the
independent
theatre
movement
in
France,
Germany
and
England
created
a
new
model
for
producing
theatre.
In
Russia,
Alexander
Ostrovsky,
almost
singlehandedly,
established
the
dramatic
1
Robert
Leach,
Vsevelod
Meyerhold
(Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press,
1989),
1-‐2.
2
Ibid.,
2.
115
repertoire
and
abolished
the
Imperial
theatre
monopoly—making
it
possible
for
the
establishment
of
private
theatres
in
Moscow
and
St.
Petersburg.
In
1895,
Meyerhold
moved
to
Moscow
to
study
law
at
Moscow
University.
Soon
afterward,
he
converted
to
Russian
Orthodoxy
from
Lutheranism,
officially
changed
his
name
and
patronymic
to
Vsevelod
Emil'evich,
and
obtained
Russian
citizenship.
Not
only
did
this
transformation
allow
him
to
marry
his
Russian
wife
from
Penza,
Olga
Munt,
but
also
it
helped
him
avoid
conscription
into
the
Russian
military.
3
After
his
marriage
in
1896,
it
did
not
take
long
for
Meyerhold
to
abandon
his
study
of
law
and
make
his
way
toward
the
theatre.
Following
in
the
footsteps
of
his
new
sister-‐in-‐law,
Katia,
Meyerhold
began
to
study
drama
under
Vladimir
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko
at
the
Moscow
Philharmonic
School.
Meyerhold
excelled
as
a
student
of
acting,
and
upon
graduation
in
1898,
he
became
a
founding
member
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
Meyerhold's
fortuitous
association
with
the
Nemirovich-‐
Danchenko
and
Stanislavsky
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
placed
him
at
the
forefront
of
a
movement
that
would
alter
the
shape
of
the
Russian
theatre
as
it
moved
into
the
20
th
century.
In
the
Art
Theatre's
inaugural
production
on
October
14,
1898,
Meyerhold
played
the
part
of
Vasilii
Shuiskii
in
Aleksei
Tolstoy's
Tsar
Fedor
Ioannovich,
and
in
December,
he
followed
this
up
with
the
role
of
Konstanin
Treplev
in
Anton
Chekhov's
The
Seagull.
The
level
of
trust
and
respect
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko
and
3
Braun,
Meyerhold,
6.
116
Stanislavsky
had
for
Meyerhold
is
indicated
by
the
fact
that
he
would
play
another
six
roles
in
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
first
season.
Although
he
played
significant
roles
in
Hauptmann's
Lonely
People
in
1899
and
Chekhov's
Three
Sisters
in
1901,
Meyerhold's
place
in
the
theatre
gradually
diminished
as
he
fell
out
of
favor
with
its
directors.
A
major
rift
with
Stanislavsky
occurred
in
1901
when
Meyerhold
voiced
his
disapproval
with
the
staging
of
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko's
play
In
Dreams,
while
at
the
same
time,
the
premiere
of
Maksim
Gorky's
more
socially-‐pointed
play,
Philistines,
was
delayed
multiple
times.
4
Meyerhold
was
already
frustrated
by
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
obsession
with
realism
and
reluctance
to
create
socially
engaged
theatre,
so
the
fate
of
Gorky's
play
was
of
particular
interest
to
him.
In
1902,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
was
forced
to
reorganize
as
a
joint-‐stock
company
in
order
to
get
out
of
financial
trouble,
and
Meyerhold
was
not
chosen
to
be
one
of
the
sixteen
shareholders,
even
after
receiving
strong
support
from
Chekhov.
5
The
1901-‐
1902
season
would
be
Meyerhold's
last
at
the
Art
Theatre,
but
during
their
March
tour
to
St.
Petersburg,
he
was
finally
able
to
play
the
role
of
Petr
in
Gorky's
Philistines.
Meyerhold's
departure
from
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
immediately
pushed
him
into
a
new
role
as
theatre
director
and
producer.
Along
with
fellow
actor
Alexander
Kosheverov,
Meyerhold
took
over
the
existing
theatre
in
Kherson—a
city
on
the
Dnieper
River,
not
far
from
the
Black
Sea.
For
all
his
disagreements
with
4
Ibid.,
13.
5
Ibid.,
14.
117
Stanislavsky
and
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko,
early
in
his
career
as
a
director,
Meyerhold
relied
upon
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
model
for
creating
theatre.
Not
only
did
Meyerhold
admit
to
following
Stanislavsky's
directing
style,
but
also
he
filled
his
plays
with
the
intricate
details
characteristic
of
the
Art
Theatre,
using
the
techniques
of
Viktor
Simov,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
head
of
design.
6
In
addition,
the
repertoire
of
Meyerhold's
Kherson
theatre
closely
resembled
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's.
The
season
opened
with
Three
Sisters
and
included
three
other
Chekhov
plays—Ivanov,
The
Seagull
and
Uncle
Vanya.
Other
familiar
works
by
Aleksei
Tolstoy,
Hauptman,
Ibsen
and
Gorky
were
also
included.
From
this
period,
there
are
also
indicators
of
the
social
and
artistic
concerns
that
Meyerhold
would
deal
with
throughout
his
career,
such
as
a
program
providing
low-‐cost
and
no-‐cost
tickets
for
students
and
the
poor
inhabitants
of
Kherson.
In
Meyerhold:
A
Revolution
in
Theatre,
Edward
Braun
points
out
both
the
success
and
significance
of
Meyerhold's
production
of
The
Acrobats
by
Franz
von
Schönthan
during
Meyerhold's
first
season
in
Kherson.
7
In
The
Acrobats,
Meyerhold
translated,
directed
and
starred
as
the
aging
clown
Landowski,
but
more
importantly,
we
see
the
first
manifestations
of
Meyerhold's
work
with
popular
entertainments
and
character
types.
The
theatre's
great
success
in
its
first
season
enabled
the
troupe
to
tour
during
the
summer
of
1903,
during
which
Meyerhold
staged
his
first
symbolist
drama—The
Intruder
by
Maurice
Maeterlinck.
For
Meyerhold's
second
season
in
6
Ibid.,
18.
7
Ibid.,
19.
118
Kherson,
the
theatre
was
renamed
as
the
Fellowship
of
New
Drama
(Tovarishchestvo
Novoi
dramy),
a
deliberate
indication
of
the
focus
of
his
work
on
contemporary
texts
and
a
move
away
from
naturalism.
8
After
another
exhausting,
yet
successful
season
in
Kherson,
Meyerhold
took
his
troupe
to
the
Georgian
capital
of
Tiflis,
which
promised
better
facilities
and
more-‐secure
financing,
but
Meyerhold
still
longed
for
theatrical
success
in
Moscow.
In
1905,
Stanislavsky
invited
Meyerhold
back
to
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
as
the
director
of
the
newly
formed
Theatre-‐Studio,
which
was
to
be
devoted
to
the
type
of
innovative
work
Meyerhold
had
been
doing
in
the
provinces.
As
if
the
past
conflicts
between
Stanislavsky
and
Meyerhold
had
never
occurred,
Meyerhold
wrote
to
his
mentor
in
April
1905:
"I
am
grateful
for
everything
the
Art
Theatre
has
given
me
and
want
to
give
it
all
my
efforts!!!"
9
Using
his
own
money
to
fund
the
project,
Stanislavsky's
idea
for
the
Theatre-‐
Studio
was
part
of
a
larger
plan
to
create
a
series
of
touring
companies
to
take
a
dynamic
repertoire
and
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
production
standards
to
the
provinces.
10
In
addition,
the
Theatre-‐Studio
would
allow
Meyerhold
to
continue
his
experiments
with
new
works
and,
more
importantly,
devise
methodologies
for
staging
them.
In
his
initial
plans
for
the
Studio,
Meyerhold
wrote:
8
Ibid.,
21.
9
Meierkhol'd,
Stat'i,
chast'
pervaia,
87.
"Благодарный
за
все,
что
дал
мне
Художественный
театр,
хочу
отдать
ему
все
мои
силы!!!"
10
Braun,
Meyerhold,
27.
119
Задача
новой
труппы—всеми
силами
помочь
Московскому
Художественному
театру
не
утрачивать
обаяния
именно
такого
вот
передового
театра,
который
бы
всегда
шел
рядом
в
стремительном
авангардном
движении
современной
'новой'
драматургии
и
живописи,
который
бы
никогда
не
допускал,
чтобы
драматургия
и
живопись
так
сильно
опережали
технику
сцены,
технику
артистов.
11
Meyerhold's
major
concern
was
that
the
new
drama
required
staging
techniques
that
the
existing
theatrical
institution
did
not
possess.
His
desire
to
abandon
existing
directing
practices
was
not
met
without
resistance,
but
ultimately,
Stanislavsky
supported
Meyerhold's
vision.
The
studio
began
rehearsals
in
June
of
1905
with
plans
for
a
ten-‐show
repertoire,
beginning
with
Maeterlinck's
The
Death
of
Tintagiles,
Hauptman's
Schluckand
Jau,
Ibsen's
Love's
Comedy
and
Przybyszewski's
Snow.
12
After
a
challenging
summer
of
rehearsals,
political
unrest
broke
out
in
Moscow
in
October
of
1905,
making
it
difficult
for
Stanislavsky
to
continue
supporting
such
a
risky
enterprise—not
to
mention
the
difficulties
faced
by
the
actors
and
designers
as
they
prepared
the
final
production
elements
in
the
enormous
Nemchinov
Theatre,
which
Stanislavsky
had
leased
for
Studio.
In
My
Life
in
Art,
Stanislavsky
recalled
a
dress
rehearsal
for
Death
of
Tintagiles,
during
which
it
became
clear
that,
in
his
estimation,
Meyerhold's
talent
could
not
overcome
the
failings
of
his
inexperienced
11
Meierkhol'd,
Stat'i,
chast'
pervaia,
90.
"The
goal
of
the
new
troupe
is
to
help,
with
all
its
power,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
not
to
lose
the
charm,
namely
of
that
progressive
theatre,
which
always
walked
alongside
in
the
swift
avant-‐garde
motion
of
contemporary
dramaturgy
and
painting,
but
never
allowed
dramaturgy
and
painting
to
so
forcefully
pass
ahead
of
the
technique
of
the
stage,
the
technique
of
the
actors."
12
Braun,
Meyerhold,
36.
120
actors
and
ambitious
designers.
13
By
the
end
of
October,
the
Theatre-‐Studio
was
finished.
But
according
to
Edward
Braun,
Meyerhold's
apparent
failure
at
the
Theatre-‐Studio
was
not
a
complete
loss;
rather,
it
was
a
prerequisite
for
his
future
triumphs:
In
October
1905
the
Theatre-‐Studio
must
have
seemed
a
dismal
fiasco
to
all
concerned,
but
its
failure
stemmed
not
so
much
from
the
fallaciousness
of
its
aims
as
from
the
deep-‐rooted
habits
and
prejudices
that
frustrated
their
complete
realization:
in
effect,
stylisation
failed
because
it
was
not
stylised
enough.
Nevertheless,
the
lessons
learnt
at
the
Studio
equipped
Meyerhold
with
the
experience
to
achieve
the
successes
that
were
soon
to
follow
in
St.
Petersburg
and
which
led
to
the
establishment
of
a
new
movement
in
the
Russian
theatre.
14
After
the
closing
of
the
Theatre-‐Studio,
Meyerhold
spent
two
years
acting
and
directing
at
Vera
Komissarzhevskaia's
theatre
in
St.
Petersburg.
For
the
same
reasons
Stanislavsky
asked
him
to
run
the
Theatre-‐Studio,
Komissarzhevskaia
wanted
Meyerhold's
expertise
in
staging
new
works.
Although
Meyerhold
often
clashed
with
Komissarzhevskaia
and
neglected
to
give
her
parts
in
what
turned
out
to
be
their
most
successful
productions,
he
was
able
to
continue
his
experiments
and
began
to
stage
the
work
of
prominent
Russian
Symbolists,
such
as
Leonid
Andreev
and
Alexander
Blok.
One
of
Meyerhold's
most
significant
productions
at
Komissarzhevskaia's
theatre
was
Blok's
The
Fairground
Booth
(Balaganchik),
which
marked
the
beginning
of
his
infatuation
with
commedia
dell'arte.
15
After
Meyerhold
13
Stanislavsky,
My
Life
in
Art,
249.
14
Braun,
Meyerhold,
43.
15
Meyerhold,
Stat'i,
chast'
pervaia,
103.
121
was
let
go
by
Komissarzhevskaia
in
the
spring
of
1908,
it
was
quite
a
shock
when
the
St.
Petersburg
Imperial
theatres
sought
out
his
services.
For
the
traditionally
conservative
Imperial
theatres,
Meyerhold
would
work
as
a
director
and
actor
for
the
next
ten
years.
Meyerhold
found
ways
to
continue
his
experiments
outside
of
the
establishment
by
putting
on
productions
at
various
venues
in
St.
Petersburg
and
forming
studios
for
the
training
of
actors,
which
ironically,
is
the
same
model
employed
by
Stanislavsky
for
his
experimental
work
outside
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
Frequently
assuming
the
pseudonym
Doctor
Dapertutto
for
his
work
outside
the
Imperial
theatres,
Meyerhold
investigated
the
theatrical
traditions
of
different
nations,
such
as
Spanish
Golden
Age
with
Calderon's
Adoration
of
the
Cross.
He
also
continued
to
work
extensively
with
popular
genres
and
entertainments,
perhaps
nothing
was
more
important
than
his
work
with
commedia
dell'arte
in
Doctor
Dapertutto's
adaptation
of
Schnitzler's
Columbine's
Scarf.
16
Meyerhold's
work
during
the
decade
leading
up
to
the
Bolshevik
Revolution
prepared
him
to
take
on
an
even
more
significant
role
in
the
Soviet
theatre.
Just
after
the
February
Revolution
of
1917,
Meyerhold
began
to
assert
his
authority
and
make
clear
his
program
for
a
new
type
of
theatre
institution.
In
his
speech
"Revolution
and
Theatre"
from
April
14,
he
proclaimed:
Довольно
партера!
Интеллигенцию
выгонят
туда,
где
процветают
эпигоны
Островского.
А
пьесы
тех
авторов,
которые
упоминались
выше,
будут
ставиться
для
крестьян,
солдат,
16
Ibid.
122
рабочих
и
той
интеллигенции,
которая
скажет:
довольно
спать!
Тогда
театр
будет
на
высоте.
17
For
Meyerhold,
the
changing
social
and
political
order
was
an
opportunity
to
promote
new
works
for
a
new
breed
of
audience.
In
practical
terms,
this
meant
abandoning
realism
and
the
naturalism
for
symbolism
and
futurism,
as
well
as
catering
to
workers
and
peasants
rather
than
bourgeoisie.
Eventually
he
would
return
to
the
"epigones
of
Ostrovsky,"
but
with
a
new
approach
to
transforming
the
text
in
order
to
make
it
speak
to
a
contemporary
audience.
Following
the
October
Revolution,
Meyerhold
allied
himself
with
the
cause
of
the
Bolsheviks,
and
after
officially
joining
the
Communist
Party
in
August
of
1918,
Anatoly
Lunacharsky
appointed
him
the
deputy
head
of
Petrograd's
Theatrical
Department
(TEO)
of
Commissariat
of
Enlightenment
(Narkompros).
Finally,
Meyerhold
was
able
to
combine
his
political
and
artistic
agendas
and
have
an
impact
on
the
future
of
Soviet
theatre.
One
of
first
things
he
did
was
use
his
new
influence
to
establish
a
training
program
for
actors.
18
In
1918,
Meyerhold
collaborated
with
Vladimir
Mayakovsky
for
Mystery-‐
Bouffe
at
the
Petrograd
Conservatory,
in
what
was
the
first
of
many
artistic
endeavors
with
the
poet
of
the
Revolution.
A
bout
of
illness
in
1919
forced
Meyerhold
to
leave
this
theatrical
work
for
a
time
to
recover
in
the
Crimea.
After
17
Ibid.,
318.
"Enough
stalls
[expensive
seats]!
The
intelligentsia
will
be
driven
out
to
where
Ostrovsky’s
imitators
flourish.
And
the
plays
of
the
authors
previously
mentioned
[Blok,
Sologub,
Mayakovsky
and
Remizov]
will
be
staged
for
the
peasants,
soldiers,
workers
and
the
intelligentsia
who
will
say:
enough
sleeping!
Then
the
theatre
will
be
up
to
the
occasion."
18
Law
and
Gordon,
Meyerhold,
Eisenstein,
28.
123
White
troops
took
Yalta,
Meyerhold
was
captured
in
September
of
1919,
but
he
was
able
to
avoid
prosecution
and
go
into
hiding.
The
Red
Army
retook
the
region
in
March
of
1920,
and
Meyerhold
went
to
Moscow,
where
Lunacharsky
appointed
him
head
of
the
Narkompros
TEO
for
all
of
the
Soviet
Union.
Simultaneously,
Meyerhold
took
over
the
First
Theatre
of
the
Russian
Socialist
Federative
Soviet
Republic
(R.S.F.S.R
Theatre
No.
1),
which
he
envisioned
would
be
the
model
for
Revolutionary
theatre.
19
After
an
unsuccessful
season,
R.S.F.S.R.
Theatre
No.
1
was
closed
by
the
Moscow
Soviet
in
June
1921,
but
Meyerhold
was
only
without
a
theatre
for
a
short
time.
He
would
run
a
theatre
bearing
his
name
from
1922-‐1938.
Towards
Biomechanics
From
the
very
beginning
of
Meyerhold's
work
as
a
director,
two
practical
concerns
had
a
profound
effect
on
the
way
he
developed
as
an
artist.
Figuring
out
how
to
deal
with
new,
non-‐realistic,
works
and
attempting
to
make
the
theatre
more
accessible
to
the
common
man
largely
determined
the
choices
he
made
as
a
director.
These
concerns
are
also
connected
to
Meyerhold's
reaction
against
realism
and
support
of
radical
politics.
Meyerhold
employed
various
strategies
and
conducted
countless
theatrical
experiments
as
he
worked
out
approaches
to
staging
new
works
and
appealing
to
a
new
type
of
audience.
Reconfiguring
the
audience's
physical
relationship
to
the
performance
led
to
Meyerhold's
interest
in
popular
19
Ibid.,
30.
124
entertainments,
which
then
resulted
in
creating
a
new
theory
for
movement.
Ultimately,
Meyerhold
would
apply
his
radical
techniques
to
re-‐envision
classical
texts,
such
as
those
of
Alexander
Ostrovsky.
The
Work
of
the
Director
While
working
at
the
Imperial
theatres
in
St.
Petersburg,
Meyerhold
wrote
his
first
book,
On
Theatre
(O
teatre)
in
1912,
in
which
he
discussed
his
first
decade
as
a
director
and
the
productions
that
significantly
influenced
his
work.
On
Theatre
contains
some
of
Meyerhold's
earliest
ideas
about
the
audience's
relationship
to
performance.
The
early
twentieth
century
was
dominated
by
realistic
staging
practices,
in
which—taking
cues
from
the
natural
sciences—the
production
was
treated
as
an
experiment
with
the
audience
members
functioning
much
like
scientists
observing
the
events
on
stage.
In
this
model,
the
audience
is
fundamentally
passive,
having
no
effect
whatsoever
on
the
performance.
For
directors
like
Stanislavsky,
this
meant
that
the
fourth
wall,
through
which
the
audience
observed
the
performance,
was
a
sacred
barrier
not
to
be
broken
at
any
cost.
Robert
Leach
argues
that
this
was
the
"fundamental
cause"
of
Meyerhold's
conflict
with
Stanislavsky.
20
For
Meyerhold,
the
audience
was
a
critical
component
that
should
have
an
effect
on
performance.
20
Leach,
Vsevelod
Meyerhold,
30.
125
In
On
Theatre,
Meyerhold
describes
two
different
models—one
passive
and
one
active—to
explain
the
relationship
between
audience
and
performance.
The
first
model
is
called
the
"Theatre-‐Triangle,"
in
which
the
director
is
at
the
apex
of
the
triangle,
with
the
author
and
an
actor
making
up
the
two
bottom
points.
The
audience
perceives
the
performance
through
the
director,
who
is
solely
responsible
for
interpreting
the
text
and
determining
all
the
actor's
choices.
Figure
1:
The
Theatre
Triangle
Spectator
é
Director
Author
Actor
The
"Theatre
of
the
Straight
Line,"
on
the
other
hand,
includes
the
same
four
elements:
author,
director,
actor
and
spectator.
But
in
this
model,
the
director
conveys
his
concept
of
the
text
to
the
actor,
who
then
possesses
a
combination
of
the
author's
and
director's
visions,
and
then
the
actor
"stands
face
to
face
with
the
spectator
(with
director
and
author
behind
him),
and
freely
reveals
his
soul
to
him,
126
thus
intensifying
the
fundamental
theatrical
relationship
of
performer
and
spectator."
21
Figure
2:
The
Theatre
of
the
Straight
Line
Author
è
Director
è
Actor
è
Spectator
Meyerhold's
assessment
of
these
models
is
that
"one
deprives
not
only
the
actor
but
also
the
spectator
of
creative
freedom;
the
other
leaves
them
both
free,
and
forces
the
spectator
to
create
instead
of
merely
looking
on."
22
Surely,
part
of
Meyerhold's
beliefs
about
the
active
participatory
role
of
the
audience
stemmed
from
this
interest
in
popular
entertainments.
In
the
circus,
the
puppet
show,
the
pantomime,
the
music
hall
and
commedia
dell'arte,
the
line
between
audience
and
performer
is
at
least
blurred,
if
not
removed
completely.
In
these
types
of
entertainments,
the
performance
itself
is
dependent
upon,
and
therefore
affected
by,
the
audience.
Perhaps
more
importantly
for
Meyerhold,
popular
genres
destroy
the
illusion
of
reality
and
prompt
the
audience
to
actively
engage.
The
proximity
of
audience
to
performer
and
the
arrangement
of
the
21
Vsevelod
Meyerhold,
Meyerhold
on
Theatre,
ed.
and
trans.
Edward
Braun
(New
York:
Hill
and
Wang,
1969),
52.
22
Ibid.,
50.
127
performance
space
are
important
factors
in
this
equation.
Meyerhold
often
used
actors
to
invade
the
audience's
space
by
using
the
house
for
entrances
and
exits,
thereby
breaking
both
the
fourth
wall
and
the
illusion
of
reality.
Meyerhold
even
aimed
to
evoke
emotional
outbursts
in
the
audience.
Recalling
the
boisterous
audience
reaction
to
his
1906
production
of
Blok's
The
Fairground
Booth,
Meyerhold
was
proud
to
create
a
performance
in
an
established
St.
Petersburg
theatre
that
prompted
an
intense
vocal
response
during
the
show.
23
This
was
not
the
refined
response
of
the
bourgeois
elite,
but
the
brash
reaction
of
the
peasant
and
the
worker.
After
the
Revolution,
Meyerhold
believed
his
artistic
experiments
held
the
key
to
realizing
the
Soviet
theatre's
political
hopes
and
aspirations,
and
even
after
it
became
clear
that
the
tide
was
turning
back
toward
Stanislavsky
and
realistic
aesthetics,
in
1930,
Meyerhold
still
argued
for
active
audience
engagement
under
the
umbrella
of
Stalinist
ideology.
The
theatre
is
faced
with
a
new
task.
The
theatre
must
work
on
the
spectator
in
order
to
awaken
and
strengthen
in
him
a
militancy
strong
enough
to
help
him
conquer
the
oblomovism,
manilovism,
hypocrisy,
erotomania
and
pessimism
within
himself.
How
can
we
acquaint
the
manual
labourers
with
the
full
magnitude
of
the
revolution?
How
can
we
imbue
them
with
that
'life
giving
force'
(to
quote
Comrade
Stalin)
which
will
carry
the
masses
forward
to
a
work
of
new
revolutionary
creative
effort?
How
indeed,
if
not
through
the
theatre?
24
23
Ibid.,
120.
24
Ibid.,
270.
128
The
Work
of
the
Actor
The
Revolution
sharpened
and
focused
Meyerhold's
aims
for
the
theatre,
and
he
built
upon
his
previous
experiments
with
popular
entertainments
by
making
them
resonate
in
Soviet
politics
and
culture.
During
his
tenure
with
the
Imperial
theatres,
Meyerhold
made
various
attempts
to
create
a
training
program
for
actors,
the
most
systematized
coming
in
1915
with
his
sixteen
études.
Devised
from
various
theatrical
traditions,
the
études
were
intended
to
provide
a
catalogue
of
stage
movements,
which
actors
could
draw
upon
as
needed.
25
The
training
program
he
devised
in
1918
as
deputy
head
of
the
Petrograd
Narkompros
Theatrical
Department
included
a
vast
array
of
activities,
including
gymnastics,
sports,
stage
combat,
dance
and
acrobatics,
in
addition
to
traditional
stage
movement.
26
But
the
showpiece
of
Meyerhold's
training
for
actors
after
the
Revolution—biomechanics—
was
founded
on
scientific
principles
related
to
industrial
productivity.
From
the
report
of
a
lecture
given
on
June
12,
1922
at
the
Moscow
Conservatory,
"The
Actor
of
the
Future
and
Biomechanics,"
Meyerhold
stated:
In
the
past
the
actor
has
always
conformed
with
the
society
for
which
his
art
was
intended.
In
future
the
actor
must
go
even
further
in
relating
his
technique
to
the
industrial
situation…The
work
of
an
actor
in
an
industrialized
society
will
be
regarded
as
a
means
of
production
vital
to
the
proper
organization
of
the
labour
of
every
citizen
of
that
society.
27
25
Law
and
Gordon,
Meyerhold,
Eisenstein,
25.
26
Ibid.,
29.
27
Meyerhold,
Meyerhold
On
Theatre,
197
129
As
Alma
Law
and
Mel
Gordon
outline
in
Meyerhold,
Eisenstein
and
Biomechanics,
Meyerhold's
Biomechanics
was
an
amalgam
of
his
own
previous
attempts
to
create
training
programs
and
theories
taken
from
Frederick
Winslow
Taylor,
William
James
and
Petr
Lesgaft.
28
The
work
of
American
engineer
Frederick
Winslow
Taylor,
known
as
Taylorism,
is
concerned
with
making
the
physical
movements
of
workers
as
efficient
as
possible.
By
eliminating
unnecessary
movements
and
harmful
muscle
strains,
workers
become
more
productive.
Meyerhold
related
Taylorism
to
the
movements
of
actors
thus:
The
actor
must
train
his
material
(the
body),
so
that
it
is
capable
of
executing
instantaneously
those
tasks
which
are
dictated
externally
(by
the
actor,
the
director).
In
so
far
as
the
task
of
the
actor
is
the
realization
of
a
specific
objective,
his
means
of
expression
must
be
economical
in
order
to
ensure
that
precision
of
movement
which
will
facilitate
the
quickest
possible
realization
of
the
objective.
29
Meanwhile,
Meyerhold
adapted
the
work
of
American
psychologist
William
James
in
Reflexology
as
the
antidote
to
the
Stanislavsky
System's
psychological
realism
by
asserting
that
the
most
effective
way
to
affect
an
audience
emotionally
is
through
movement.
Regarding
his
beliefs
on
the
effectiveness
of
stage
movement,
Meyerhold
said:
"A
theatre
built
on
psychological
foundations
is
as
certain
to
collapse
as
a
house
built
on
sand.
On
the
other
hand,
a
theatre
which
relies
on
physical
elements
is
at
very
least
assured
of
clarity."
30
Added
to
this
were
Petr
Lesgaft's
theories
of
28
Law
and
Gordon,
Meyerhold,
Eisenstein,
33-‐38.
29
Meyerhold,
Meyerhold
On
Theatre,
198.
30
Ibid.,
199.
130
physical
education,
which
asserted
the
significance
of
physical
education
for
mental
development.
31
All
in
all,
Meyerhold
Biomechanics
was
the
ultimate
tool
for
actors
to
inspire
audiences
and
evoke
desired
emotional
responses
through
wide
a
range
of
physical
movements
and
gestures.
In
addition,
these
techniques
focusing
the
physical,
and
therefore
visual,
components
of
performance
are
vital
to
Eisenstein's
work
in
Wiseman
and
later
in
film.
Meyerhold's
work
on
Biomechanics
logically
coincided
with
his
turn
toward
constructivist
design
in
the
early
1920s.
His
1922
production
of
Fernand
Crommelynck's
The
Magnanimous
Cuckold
(Velikodushnyi
rogonosets)
was
the
prime
example
of
a
machine-‐like
set
consisting
of
unadorned
scaffolding,
ramps
and
stairs
for
the
actors
to
accomplish
their
onstage
work.
Later
that
year,
the
first
classical
Russian
play
directed
by
Meyerhold
using
biomechanics
and
constructivist
design
was
Sukhovo-‐Kobylin's
The
Death
of
Tarelkin—the
very
production
for
which
Eisenstein
served
as
assistant.
The
Death
of
Tarelkin
was
an
important
predecessor
to
Meyerhold's
production
of
The
Forest,
for
not
only
was
it
valuable
experience
gained
in
applying
Biomechanics
to
a
classical
text,
but
also
the
director
realized
that
a
certain
amount
of
real-‐life
objects
were
essential.
The
constructivist
furniture
designed
by
Varvara
Stepanov
for
Tarelkin
was
too
elaborate
and
complicated,
which
distracted
the
actors
and
impeded
their
physical
work.
32
All
of
this
set
the
stage
for
Meyerhold's
turn
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
in
1923.
31
Law
and
Gordon,
Meyerhold,
Eisenstein,
38.
32
Ibid.,
47.
131
The
Forest
at
the
Meyerhold
Theatre
Meyerhold's
body
of
work
as
a
director
leading
up
to
Lunacharsky's
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign
in
1923
reveals
a
tendency
toward
selecting
contemporary
dramatic
works
and
an
increasingly
refined
approach
to
non-‐realistic
staging.
Outside
of
his
work
at
the
Imperial
theatres
in
St.
Petersburg,
Meyerhold
directed
relatively
few
classical
plays,
but
after
his
two
Ostrovsky
productions
in
1923
and
1924,
Meyerhold
would
discover
a
methodology
for
presenting
the
classics
that
he
would
use
for
the
rest
of
his
career.
Before
1923,
Meyerhold’s
only
other
attempt
at
directing
Ostrovsky
took
place
in
1915
with
The
Storm
(Groza)
at
the
Alexandrinsky
Theatre,
and
he
would
never
attempt
another
Ostrovsky
work
after
1924.
Meyerhold’s
1923
production
of
Ostrovsky’s
play
A
Profitable
Post
(Dokhodnoe
mesto)
was
his
first
at
the
Theatre
of
the
Revolution
and
defied
the
expectations
of
leftist
critics.
Not
only
were
they
appalled
by
the
choice
of
material,
but
also
they
were
perplexed
by
the
apparent
absence
of
Meyerhold's
avant-‐garde
staging
techniques.
This
same
production
was
remounted
in
1926
and
1936,
with
increasing
popularity,
and
with
time,
it
became
apparent
that
Meyerhold
had
not
simply
created
a
traditional
Ostrovsky
production.
Rather,
he
had
juxtaposed
traditional
costuming
with
a
subtle,
yet
distinct,
Constructivist
setting,
in
which
the
walls,
staircases,
and
furniture
were
stark
and
utilitarian.
33
In
addition,
Konstantin
33
Konstantin
Rudnitsky,
Meyerhold:
The
Director
,
trans.
George
Petrov
and
ed.
Sydney
Schultze
(Ann
Arbor:
Ardis,
1981),
324.
132
Rudnitsky
claims
that
Meyerhold
chose
this
play,
primarily,
to
serve
as
a
pedagogical
tool
to
teach
his
new
company
the
alphabet
of
Biomechanics.
34
In
light
of
this,
we
see
that
Meyerhold's
choice
was
not
strange
at
all.
Just
as
Eisenstein
had
before
him,
he
heeded
Lunacharsky's
call
to
return
to
Ostrovsky,
and
he
also
found
ways
to
make
his
appropriation
of
Ostrovsky
serve
multiple
purposes.
Meyerhold's
production
of
The
Forest
at
the
theatre
bearing
his
name
was
staged
less
subtly
than
A
Profitable
Post,
and
it
was
met
with
even
more
controversy.
Rather
than
treating
the
text
as
a
museum
piece,
Meyerhold
reconfigured
the
text
to
highlight
its
political
undertones
and
emphasize
theme,
and
he
also
created
a
stunning
space
for
avant-‐garde
staging.
The
plot
of
The
Forest
revolves
around
the
actions
of
the
hypocritical,
wealthy
widow
Gurmyzhskaia
who
is
selling
off
her
land—the
very
forest
of
the
play's
title.
Gurmyzhskaia
refuses
to
provide
a
dowry
for
her
niece,
Aksiusha,
who
has
fallen
in
love
with
Petr,
the
son
of
the
merchant
Vosmibratov.
Gurmyzhskaia's
nephew,
an
actor
going
by
the
name
of
Neshchastlivtsev,
and
friend
Arkashka,
a
fellow
actor
known
as
Shchastlivtsev,
arrive
at
the
estate
posing
as
a
retired
army
officer
and
his
valet.
The
actors
offer
Aksiusha
an
escape
to
the
theatre
as
a
way
out
of
her
predicament,
but
instead
she
chooses
to
continue
to
pursue
love
and
try
to
overcome
the
obstacles
in
her
path
to
happiness.
With
a
dramatic
performance,
Neshchastlivtsev
convinces
his
aunt
to
give
him
1000
rubles
for
his
inheritance,
but
upon
witnessing
Aksiusha's
sorrow
34
Ibid.,
323.
133
after
she
is
unable
to
come
up
with
a
dowry,
Neshchastlivtsev
gives
away
his
inheritance
to
make
enable
the
young
lovers'
to
get
married.
Konstantin
Rudnitsky
claims
that
The
Forest
was
the
ideal
Ostrovsky
play
for
Meyerhold
to
draw
out
one
of
his
favorite
themes—the
triumph
of
the
theatre
over
life.
35
Although
this
theme
is
inherent
in
Ostrovsky's
text,
Meyerhold
further
reinforced
it
by
pushing
the
story
of
the
tragedian
and
comedian,
Neshchastlivtsev
and
Shchastlivtsev,
to
the
beginning
of
his
production.
Meyerhold's
resequenced
version
begins
in
Ostrovsky's
act
two,
scene
two,
which
is
the
moment
the
two
actors
reconnect
at
a
lonely
train
station
in
the
provinces
of
Russia.
Then
Meyerhold's
second
episode
jumps
back
to
Ostrovsky's
act
one,
scene
one.
Thus,
through
the
first
fourteen
episodes
of
Meyerhold's
adaptation,
the
vital
scene
between
Shchastlivtsev
and
Neshchastlivtsev
comprises
the
odd-‐numbered
episodes,
while
the
even-‐numbered
episodes
are
made
up
of
Ostrovsky's
original
act
one,
ending
up
with
Petr
and
Aksiusha's
first
scene
alone
on
stage.
36
By
making
act
two,
scene
two
the
focus
of
the
plot,
Meyerhold
emphasized
the
significance
and
power
of
Shchastlivtsev
and
Neshchastlivtsev,
and
they,
in
turn,
relayed
his
message
about
the
transformative
power
of
art
and
theatre.
Meyerhold
similarly
fragmented
the
remainder
of
play,
but
the
widest
gaps
among
Ostrovsky's
original
acts
and
35
Ibid.,
331.
36
V.
E.
Meierkhol'd,
Rezhisserskaia
chast,
Rezhisserskaia
razrabotka
V.
E.
Meierkhol'dom
komedii
A.
N.
Ostrovskogo
Les,
Rossiiskii
Gosudarstvennyi
Arkhiv
Literatury
i
Iskusstva
(RGALI)
f.
963
(Gosudarstvennyi
teatr
im.
Vs.
Meierkhol'da),
op.
1,
ed.
khr.
340,
l.
1-‐116.
134
scenes
occur
in
the
first
fifteen
episodes.
37
Similar
to
Eisenstein's
attractions,
Meyerhold's
episodes
were
conceived
as
self-‐contained,
autonomous
events,
each
with
its
own
beginning,
middle
and
end.
The
division
of
a
text
into
episodes
and
its
resulting
fragmentation—a
technique
that
seems
to
anticipate
the
tactics
of
Poststructuralism
or
Postmodernism—became
one
of
Meyerhold's
key
strategies
for
staging
the
classics.
During
a
discussion
about
his
production
of
The
Forest
in
February
of
1924,
Meyerhold
traced
his
inspiration
for
transforming
Ostrovsky's
text
back
to
the
theatre
of
Shakespeare,
and
more
specifically,
Pushkin's
attempt
at
a
history
play
in
the
style
of
Shakespeare—Boris
Godunov.
Meyerhold
highlights
the
nationalistic
and
folk
tendencies
of
Shakespeare,
but
perhaps
more
importantly,
he
cites
Shakespeare
as
the
model
for
dividing
the
play
in
episodes.
38
Meyerhold
defended
his
right
to
modify
Ostrovsky's
text
as
a
fundamental
aspect
of
creating
theatre,
and
he
even
claimed
that
Ostrovsky
would
approve
of
his
adaptation:
Театр
имеет
право
на
разночтение
пьес.
Сальвини
и
Росси
не
благоговели
перед
Шекспиром,
а
первым
долгом
работали
на
зрителя.
В
эпохи
цветения
у
театра
был
собственный
драматург;
пьесы
переделывались
под
влиянием
жизни.
Для
драматурга,
режиссера
и
актера
главное—учитывать
состояние
зрительного
зала.
Неверно,
что
мы
должны
давать
в
точности
то
,что
писал
Островский.
Если
бы
Островский
воскрес,
он
должен
был
бы
37
Meierkhol'd,
Rezhisserskaia
chast',
l.
1-‐116.
See
Appendix
A
for
Meyerhold's
episode-‐by-‐episode
breakdown
and
Ostrovsky's
corresponding
acts
and
scenes.
38
Meyerhold,
Stat'i,
chast'
vtoraia,
55.
135
радоваться
тому,
что
его
произведения
развивают
так,
как
этого
требует
новая
эпоха.
39
He
would
go
on
to
say
that
every
"dramaturgical
score"
waits
for
its
interpreter.
40
Using
the
familiar
metaphor
of
the
musical
score,
to
describe
the
nature
of
drama,
Meyerhold
indicates
his
belief
that
plays
are
inherently
unfinished
and
require
performance
to
be
fully
realized.
While
this
notion
of
the
play
as
unfinished
is
not
particularly
radical,
Meyerhold
was
not
concerned
with
respecting
the
The
Forest
as
a
piece
of
classical
literature.
Rather
than
probing
the
text
for
the
proper
interpretation
of
the
playwright's
characters
and
themes—which,
as
we
will
find
out,
was
the
approach
in
Stanislavsky's
production
of
An
Ardent
Heart
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre—Meyerhold
looked
to
contemporary
society
and
current
events
in
order
to
infuse
the
text
with
ideas
that
would
resonate
for
audiences.
He
believed
it
is
critical
to
tailor
the
performance
to
the
needs
of
the
audience
and
to
make
it
relevant
socially
and
politically.
While
the
fragmentation
and
rearrangement
of
Ostrovsky's
text
broke
down
any
illusions
of
reality—a
key
goal
of
Meyerhold's
work—it
also
had
a
significant
impact
on
how
the
audience
viewed
the
characters.
39
Ibid.
"The
theatre
has
the
right
to
reinterpret
plays.
Salvini
and
Rossi
were
not
reverent
before
Shakespeare,
but
worked
for
the
spectator
first.
During
the
period
of
its
development,
each
theatre
had
its
own
playwright,
and
the
plays
were
influenced
by
life.
It
was
crucial
for
the
playwright,
the
director,
and
the
actor
to
take
into
account
the
state
of
the
audience.
It
is
false
to
assume
that
we
must
give
them
exactly
what
Ostrovsky
wrote.
If
Ostrovsky
was
to
rise
from
the
dead,
he
would
be
delighted
that
his
plays
are
adapting
to
fit
the
needs
of
a
new
era."
40
Ibid.,
56.
"[Д]раматургическая
партитура."
136
Before
the
jubilee
performance
of
The
Forest
on
January
19,
1934,
Meyerhold
claimed
his
adaptation
strengthened
the
text
and
sharpened
its
political
message
by
highlighting
the
juxtaposition
of
the
two
distinct
character
groups.
41
The
first
camp
consists
of
those
characters
who
attempt
to
exploit
nature
and
their
fellow
man
for
financial
gain.
Meyerhold
said
that
in
previous
productions,
Gurmyzhskaia
had
been
interpreted
as
nothing
more
than
the
female
version
of
a
foolish
samodur,
but
in
his
production,
she
is
recognized
as
a
representative
of
"that
class,
which
we
want
to
condemn."
42
Meanwhile,
in
Vosmibratov
is
uncovered
the
features
of
the
kulak,
and
Milonov's
true
identity
as
a
priest
is
emphasized.
43
It
should
not
be
too
surprising
that
Meyerhold's
attempt
to
contemporize
characters
in
The
Forest
is
quite
similar
to
Eisenstein's
approach
in
Wiseman,
but
Eisenstein
took
his
adaptation
of
characters
further
than
his
mentor
by
unashamedly
altering
the
time
period
and
geographical
location
of
the
action.
But
ultimately,
Meyerhold
had
the
same
fundamental
idea—to
show
how
Ostrovsky's
characters
in
their
NEP
forms.
Aksiusha
and
Peter
represent
the
other
camp.
Previous
depictions
of
Aksiusha
portrayed
her
as
tearful
and
sentimental,
but
Meyerhold
showed
а
"character
who
knows
how
to
fight."
44
The
actors
offer
Aksiusha
a
career
in
theatre
as
a
means
of
escaping
her
current
situation,
but
she
refuses.
They
proceed
to
use
41
Ibid.
42
Ibid.,
56-‐57.
"[Т]ого
класса,
который
мы
хотим
обличить."
43
Ibid.,
57.
44
Ibid.
"[Д]ействующее
лицо,
которое
умеет
бороться."
137
their
performative
abilities
to
alter
the
state
of
Aksiusha's
world
by
securing
her
dowry
and
freedom.
For
Meyerhold,
Aksiusha
is
a
young
Communist
heroine
of
the
1920s
who
chooses
action
and
change
over
escapism.
Meyerhold
claimed
that
in
his
production,
Aksiusha
sees
in
Petr
"positive
characteristics,
which
with
her
help
can
outweigh
the
negative
ones
he
received
from
Vosmibratov
[his
father]."
45
As
for
Shchastlivtsev
and
Neshchastlivtsev,
Meyerhold
claimed
that
he
rescued
them
from
the
confines
of
the
realistic
theatre,
arguing
that
Ostrovsky
"created
these
characters
under
the
influence
of
classical
Spanish
theatre"
and
that
the
comedian
and
tragedian
are
direct
descendants
of
the
Spanish
clown
gracioso
and
the
knight
of
the
cape
and
sword
plays,
respectively.
46
It
is
not
clear
why
Meyerhold
chooses
to
highlight
Ostrovsky's
connection
to
the
Spanish
theatre.
It
was
a
well-‐known
fact
that
Ostrovsky
translated
the
works
of
Cervantes
and
Calderon,
but
Meyerhold
could
have
just
as
easily
made
a
case
for
associating
Shchastlivtsev
and
Neshchastlivtsev
with
the
Italian
and
English
popular
theatre
based
on
Ostrovsky's
translations
of
Goldoni
and
Shakespeare.
More
than
anything,
Meyerhold
could
play
up
dashing
machismo
of
the
Spanish
knight
in
Neshchastlivtsev
and
the
noble
sadness
of
the
Spanish
clown
in
Shchastlivtsev.
In
terms
of
his
message
about
the
power
of
art
and
theatre,
it
is
perhaps
most
significant
that
Meyerhold
positions
these
two
social
outcasts
to
be
the
noblest
characters
in
he
play.
45
Ibid.
"[З]доровые
черты,
которые
с
ее
помощью
могут
преодолеть
то
отрицательное,
что
в
нем
есть
от
Восмибратова."
46
Ibid.
"[С]оздал
эти
образы
под
влиянием
классического
испанского
театра."
138
By
1924,
Meyerhold
assumed
an
active
role
in
the
design
of
his
productions.
In
The
Forest,
he
used
the
set,
costumes
and
properties
to
once
again
make
a
comment
about
realistic
staging
practices.
Although
Vasilii
Fedorov
was
credited
as
the
designer
of
The
Forest,
he
was
merely
executing
Meyerhold's
instructions.
Konstantin
Rudnitsky
relates
how
Fedorov
came
to
Meyerhold
with
a
preliminary
plan
for
the
set,
at
which
point
Meyerhold
drew
a
long
curve
starting
from
the
top
left
corner
of
a
new
piece
of
paper.
47
Considering
all
of
the
sets
for
Meyerhold's
productions,
this
curve
turned
out
to
be
one
of
his
most
striking
and
iconic
images;
the
two-‐story,
curved
ramp
reached
its
highest
point
at
upstage
left
and
then
swept
downstage
to
the
floor
of
the
auditorium,
just
left
of
center.
The
curved
ramp,
encroaching
upon
the
space
of
the
audience,
ended
up
at
the
façade
of
the
Gurmyzhskaia
estate
at
house
right.
The
façade
of
the
estate
had
three
steps
leading
to
an
archway
with
a
sign
indicating
the
name
of
the
owner.
While
the
ramp
and
entrance
to
the
Gurmyzhskaia
estate
visually
dominated
the
theatre,
they
actually
took
up
very
little
space
on
the
stage
itself.
As
Marjorie
Hoover
points
out,
the
stage
proper
was
equipped
with
various
elements
that
could
be
arranged
to
quickly
and
easily
transform
the
setting,
such
as:
a
dovecote,
a
seesaw,
a
pole-‐swing
known
as
gigantskie
shagi,
and
a
large
table.
48
From
the
very
first
episode,
the
large
curved
ramp
is
given
symbolic
significance.
It
is
here
that
Shchastlivtsev
and
Neshchastlivtsev
meet,
as
if
suspended
in
midair,
while
the
events
at
the
47
Rudnitsky,
Meyerhold,
345.
48
Marjorie
Hoover,
Meyerhold
and
His
Set
Designers
(New
York:
Peter
Lang,
1988),
138-‐139.
139
Gurmyzhskaia
estate
take
place
below
them,
on
the
stage
floor.
49
And
it
is
up
the
ramp
to
freedom
which
Aksiusha
and
Petr
use
for
their
final
exit
together.
50
Although
Federov's
design
was
non-‐representational
and
constructivist
in
style,
the
remaining
design
elements
abandoned
the
constructivist
tendency
toward
abstract,
utilitarian
costumes
and
properties.
Instead,
Meyerhold
used
costumes
to
accentuate
character
types
and
incorporated
realistic
props
as
one
more
method
to
highlight
the
overarching
conflict
between
reality
and
theatricality.
Aksiusha
wore
the
red
dress
and
white
scarf
of
the
Komsomolka,
and
Gurmyzhskaia's
whip,
short
skirt
and
boots
indicated
her
role
as
the
NEP
exploiter.
51
Meyerhold
wanted
Shchastlivtsev
and
Neshchastlivtsev
to
be
associated
with
their
Spanish
classical
roots
as
Sancho
Panza
and
Don
Quixote,
so
he
costumed
Shchastlivtsev
as
the
traditional
clown
with
a
hint
of
Charlie
Chaplin
and
Neshchastlivtsev
as
the
stereotypical
cape
and
sword
hero.
52
Meanwhile,
realistic
props
were
used
to
ground
the
action
of
the
play
in
everyday
life.
The
critic
E.
Beskin
noted
the
juxtaposition
of
constructivist
theatricality
alongside
the
types
of
props
one
would
expect
to
see
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,
specifically
mentioning
real
clothes
hanging
on
a
line
to
dry
and
water
buckets
carried
by
Aksiusha.
53
In
between
each
49
Meierkhol'd,
Rezhisserskaia
chast',
4-‐8.
50
Ibid.,
116.
51
Hoover,
Set
Designers,
140.
52
Meyerhold,
Stat'i,
chast'
vtoraia,
56.
53
Em.
Beskin,
"Teatral'nyi
LEF,"
Sovetskoe
Iskusstvo
6
(1925),
qtd.
in
Rudnitsky,
Meyerhold,
345.
140
episode,
the
stage
lights
would
dim,
and
the
title
of
the
next
episode
was
projected
on
the
stage.
54
This
technique,
which
to
a
theatre
historian
is
immediately
recognized
as
feature
of
Brechtian
aesthetics,
serves
to
remove
any
sense
of
theatrical
illusion
and
inspire
reflection
in
the
audience.
We
see
that
in
terms
of
both
text
and
staging,
Meyerhold's
Forest
rejected
the
conventions
of
realism
and
naturalism.
Critical
Response
The
critical
response
to
The
Forest
was
both
prolific
and
varying,
but
more
importantly,
it
points
to
the
significance
of
Meyerhold's
art
and
Ostrovsky's
repertoire
for
the
Soviet
theatre.
In
his
article
"Les
in
Terms
of
National
Theatre"
("Les
v
plane
narodnogo
teatra"),
A.
Gvozdev
has
an
overwhelmingly
positive
take
on
the
merits
of
the
production.
He
begins
by
praising
Meyerhold's
contemporary
interpretation
as
a
way
to
make
the
Ostrovsky's
social
message
more
palpable.
More
than
any
other
moment
in
the
play,
he
highlights
the
beauty
of
the
fourteenth
episode
and
the
interaction
between
Petr
and
Aksiusha
as
they
confirm
their
love
for
each
other
while
swinging
on
the
gigantskie
shagi.
For
Gvozdev,
this
dynamic
staging
of
a
scene
that,
historically,
has
been
rendered
statically
in
performance
indicates
the
path
Soviet
theatre
should
take
in
the
future.
Лес
же
дает
интереснейшую
попытку
обоснования
театрального
движение
как
народной,
русской
динамики.
Вместо
лифта—
54
Rudnitsky,
Meyerhold,
332.
141
качели,
гигантские
шаги,
бурные
взрывы
гармоники
и
русской
песни.
Любовная
сцена
Петра
и
Аксюши,
проведенная
на
гигантских
шагах,
дает
вместо
традиционной
сценической
картины
(всегда
статичной
по
существу)
новой
ритмический
рисунок,
ритмическое
строение
театрального
искусства
и
вместе
с
тем
вскрывает
заново
какую-‐то
стихийную
вольность
русской
души,
ее
буйную
динамику…Это
ново
и
цено.
Это
дает
указание,
в
каком
направлении
может
развиваться
динамика
нового
русского
театра.
55
At
the
same
time,
Gvozdev
writes
that
some
complexity
is
lost
by
Meyerhold's
simplification
of
characters
and
heavy-‐handed
distinction
of
the
two
worlds
within
the
play.
As
an
example,
he
cites
Meyerhold's
decision
to
stage
the
opening
episodes
between
the
actors
on
the
suspended
ramp
above
the
stage
with
the
action
at
the
Gurmyzhskaia
estate
going
on
below
as
too
obvious.
But
again
he
praises
the
clarity,
which
the
director
is
able
to
attain.
Most
of
all,
Gvozdev
is
impressed
how
Arkashka
(Shchastlivtsev)
has
been
imbued
with
all
the
popular
theatrical
traditions
with
which
Meyerhold
has
come
in
contact.
He
praises
Il'insky's
portrayal
of
Arkashka
as
the
highlight
of
the
performance.
He
concludes
by
writing
that
The
Forest
was
"likely,
the
most
important
production
of
the
current
season
and
significant
for
the
55
A.
Gvozdev,
"Les
v
plane
narodnogo
teatra,"
in
Pavlova
and
Kholodov,
Ostrovskii
na
sovetskoi
stsene,
39-‐40.
First
published
in
Zrelischa
74
(1924).
"The
Forest
provides
one
of
the
more
interesting
attempts
at
legitimizing
theatrical
development
as
a
national,
Russian
dynamic.
In
place
of
an
elevator,
there
are
swings,
giant
steps
[type
of
swing],
boisterous
explosions
of
the
accordion
and
Russian
songs.
The
love
scene
between
Petr
and
Aksiusha
was
performed
on
the
giant
steps,
and
instead
of
portraying
the
traditional
scenic
image
(which
is
always
fundamentally
static),
it
conveys
a
new
rhythmic
picture,
based
on
the
rhythmic
structure
of
theatrical
art,
and
at
the
same
time
it
reopens
the
question
of
some
sort
of
spontaneous
freedom
of
the
Russian
soul
and
its
turbulent
dynamic…This
is
precious
and
new.
It
indicates
a
trajectory
along
which
the
dynamics
of
the
new
Russian
theatre
may
develop."
142
fate
of
the
Russian
theatre
as
a
whole."
56
At
this
point
in
his
career,
Meyerhold
was
an
extremely
influential
director
and
important
theatrical
figure.
As
a
result,
there
was
much
more
at
stake
for
him,
and
in
Gvozdev's
final
appraisal
of
the
production,
it
becomes
clear
that
Meyerhold's
Forest
was
part
of
a
larger
debate
about
the
aesthetic
conventions
of
the
Soviet
theatre.
Gvozdev
was
not
the
only
critic
to
praise
Meyerhold's
work
and
support
his
artistic
agenda.
The
title
of
A.
Slonimsky's
article
"Ostrovsky
Revived"
("Vozrozhdennyi
Ostrovskii")
is
certainly
enough
to
indicate
his
take
on
The
Forest.
Slonimisky
notes
the
streamlining
effect
Meyerhold's
adaptation
had
on
the
production,
claiming
that
all
the
elements
work
together
for
a
common
goal.
He
writes
that
there
are
no
superficial
or
decorative
elements,
but
rather,
everything
serves
a
function.
He
also
echoes
Gvozdev's
assertions
about
the
significance
of
the
production
in
terms
of
the
Soviet
theatre
more
broadly:
Постановка
Леса
означает
конец
театрального
'декадентства'
и
театрального
снобизма,
возвращение
к
простоте
и
ясности
реалистического
театра.
Пусть
эта
простота
сейчас
еще
не
так
проста
и
ясность
не
совсем
ясна
для
массового
зрителя.
Пусть
постановка
еще
слишком
'эрудитна.'
Лес
Мейерхольда—начало
не
только
новой
эпохи
театра,
но
и
сценического
возрождения
Островского.
57
56
Ibid.,
"[С]амой
значительной
постановкой
текущего
сезона,
вероятно,
знаменательной
для
судеб
русского
театра
в
целом."
57
A.
Slonimskii,
"Vozrozhdennyi
Ostrovskii,"
Zhizn'
iskusstva
24
(June
1924):
7.
"This
production
of
The
Forest
marks
the
end
of
theatrical
'decadence'
and
theatrical
snobbery,
and
a
return
to
the
simplicity
and
clarity
of
the
realistic
theatre.
Although,
at
present,
this
simplicity
and
clarity
are
not
obvious
to
the
mass
audience,
it
may
be
that
this
production
is
still
too
'erudite.'
Meyerhold's
Forest
is
not
only
the
beginning
of
a
new
theatrical
epoch,
but
also
the
theatrical
reincarnation
of
Ostrovsky."
143
In
this
contradictory
passage,
Slonimsky's
assumes
the
full
responsibility
of
the
critic
and
informs
his
readers
that
there
is
more
to
Meyerhold's
Forest
than
meets
the
eye.
It
seems
that
in
his
desire
to
cast
the
production
in
a
positive
light,
Slonimsky
apologizes
for
Meyerhold's
shortcomings,
but
he
is
very
much
in
tune
with
the
notion
that
theatre
can
be
more
accessible
to
the
common
man
through
engaging
popular
theatrical
traditions
in
the
appropriate
way.
For
Slonimsky,
the
aesthetic
techniques
Meyerhold
used
in
The
Forest
are
the
model
for
creating
a
style
of
theatre
between
realism
and
decadence.
But
not
everyone
felt
that
Meyerhold's
production
of
The
Forest
was
the
dawn
of
a
new
era
for
the
Soviet
theatre
and
the
rebirth
of
Ostrovsky.
In
an
article
from
the
newspaper,
The
Academic
Theatre
Weekly
(Ezhenedel'nik
akademicheskikh
teatrov),
the
Commissar
of
Enlightenment,
Anatoly
Lunacharsky,
blasts
Meyerhold
for
his
pursuit
of
cheap
effects
that
only
impress
the
uncultured
public,
calling
him
out
for
changing
his
directing
approach
from
production
to
production.
Lunacharsky
claims
that
Meyerhold's
approach
to
The
Forest
is
nothing
more
than
a
cinematized
version
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
methods
and
that
the
Maly
Theatre's
Ostrovsky
productions
are
more
revolutionary
than
Meyerhold's.
Lunacharsky
dismisses
Meyerhold's
attempts
to
highlight
class
struggle
by
likening
characters
to
contemporary
types
as
simple
director's
tricks.
В
чем,
в
сущности,
революционные
ноты
Леса
по
Мейерхольду?
В
том,
что
Гурмыжская
представлена
не
расслабленной
дамой,
а
в
амазонке,
кричащей
и
горланящей
бабой?
В
том,
что
один
из
помещиков
превращается
в
попа?
Если
искать
в
постановке
Мейерхольда
выявления
классовых
противоречий,
то
я
144
утверждаю,
что
в
ней
нет
не
одной
тенденции,
не
одной
идеи,
приемлемой
с
революционной
точке
зрения.
58
Perhaps
the
sharpest
word
for
Meyerhold
came
from
Viktor
Shklovskii
in
his
article
"A
Dissenting
Opinion
about
The
Forest"
("Osoboe
mnenie
o
Lese"):
Островский
в
этой
пьесе
не
оказалось.
Его
здесь
меньше
всего.
Островского
можно
сейчас
играть
как
угодно,
его
мертвая
конструкция
уже
не
ощущается.
Даже
Мейерхольдом.
Он
прошел
сквозь
Островского,
как
слепой
сквозь
призрак.
59
Meyerhold's
production
of
the
The
Forest
turned
out
to
be
the
most
talked
about
production
of
Moscow's
1923-‐1924
theatrical
season
and
sparked
controversy
amongst
both
radical
and
conservative
critics.
The
scandal
not
only
revolved
around
the
significance
of
the
production
within
the
broader
context
of
Soviet
theatre
and
its
future,
but
also
in
terms
of
the
trajectory
of
Meyerhold's
work.
While
the
critics
of
the
right
generally
disapproved
of
Meyerhold's
non-‐
representational
style
and
textual
meddling,
or
even
his
"rape
of
the
text"
according
to
Konstantin
Rudnitsky,
some
critics
of
the
left
were
baffled
that
Meyerhold
would
even
undertake
a
play
by
Ostrovsky.
60
But
the
popularity
of
Meyerhold's
production
58
A.
V.
Lunacharskii,
"Shtukarstvo.
A.
V.
Lunacharskii
o
Meierkhol'de,"
in
Pavlova
and
Kholodov,
Ostrovskii
na
sovetskoi
stsene,
40-‐41.
First
published
in
Ezhenedel'nik
akademicheskikh
teatrov
15
(1924).
"In
reality,
what
are
the
revolutionary
notes
found
in
Meyerhold’s
production
of
The
Forest?
Is
it
that
Gurmyzhskaia
is
not
portrayed
like
comfortable
lady,
but
like
a
screaming
and
bawling
Amazon
woman?
Is
it
that
one
of
the
landowners
is
transformed
into
a
priest?
If
one
is
to
look
for
indications
of
class
conflict
in
Meyerhold’s
production,
then
I
must
insist,
that
not
one
tendency,
not
one
idea
can
be
accepted
from
a
revolutionary
point
of
view."
59
V.
Shklovskii,
"Osoboe
mnenie
o
Lese,"
Zhizn'
Iskusstva
26
(June
1924),
11.
"Ostrovsky
did
not
end
up
in
this
play.
He
is
less
here
than
anything
else.
Ostrovsky
can
be
performed
anyway
you
want,
his
lifeless
construction
is
no
longer
felt,
even
by
Meyerhold.
He
passed
through
Ostrovsky,
like
a
blind
man
through
a
ghost."
60
Rudnitsky,
Meyerhold,
342.
145
of
The
Forest
was
unprecedented.
61
On
the
heels
of
Eisenstein's
Wiseman
and
as
the
precursor
to
Stanislavsky's
An
Ardent
Heart,
the
various
critical
responses
to
Meyerhold's
Forest
reveal
the
high
stakes
game
that
was
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s.
Always
the
proponent
of
Revolutionary
theatre,
even
after
the
game
was
lost,
Meyerhold
still
pushed
his
agenda
on
the
morning
of
Socialist
of
Realism
in
1930:
Comrades—when
we
come
to
discuss
the
influence
which
the
modern
revolutionary
theatre
can
exert
upon
the
spectator
at
a
time
when
its
own
organizers
have
still
to
agree
on
the
precise
form
it
should
take,
we
must
not
overlook
a
single
aspect
of
it,
particularly
in
view
of
the
need
to
take
account
of
the
demands
both
of
our
Party
and
of
the
new
spectator.
62
Impact
Ultimately,
Meyerhold's
production
of
The
Forest
revealed
his
strategy
for
directing
classical
texts
by
staying
true
to
his
rejection
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
psychological
realism.
In
the
end,
it
seems
that
Meyerhold's
goal,
whether
deliberate
or
not,
was
to
reinvent
Ostrovsky's
play
in
the
style
of
symbolism
or
futurism.
The
division
of
episodes
created
a
type
of
fragmentation
of
the
original
text.
63
We
lose
the
logical,
cause
and
effect,
flow
of
Ostrovsky's
text,
and
this
is
replaced
by
a
rapid
succession
of
independent
and
self-‐sustaining
episodes.
Similar
to
Eisenstein's
deliberate
attempt
to
play
on
the
familiarity
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
recent
production
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman,
Meyerhold's
likely
target
was
the
61
Ibid.,
349.
Rudnitsky
cites
the
number
of
productions
as
more
than
1700,
but
even
Marjorie
Hoover's
conservative
number
of
1300
is
more
than
impressive.
Hoover,
Meyerhold,
141.
62
Meyerhold,
Meyerhold
on
Theatre,
253.
63
Rudnitsky,
Meyerhold,
332.
146
Maly's
1921
production
of
The
Forest.
In
addition,
there
was
a
distinct
advantage
for
Meyerhold
to
adapt
a
play
so
widely
known
and
loved
as
The
Forest.
After
the
Revolution,
as
the
balance
of
power
had
shifted
from
the
Maly
Theatre
to
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
as
the
arbiter
of
realistic
acting
and
directing
practices,
Ostrovsky
was
at
the
center
of
the
debate
about
the
future
of
the
Soviet
theatre.
As
seen
in
the
productions
of
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold,
Ostrovsky's
multifunctionality
in
the
theatre
of
the
1920s
was
remarkable.
With
his
Forest,
Meyerhold
uses
Ostrovsky
to
realize
many
of
the
same
goals
Eisenstein
had
for
Wiseman,
but
he
is
also
able
to
accomplish
much
more.
Not
only
does
Meyerhold
repurpose
the
text
as
a
means
to
help
it
resonate
in
a
new
era
and
with
a
new
type
of
audience,
but
he
selects
a
play
that
can
make
a
comment
about
the
function
of
art
in
the
Soviet
Union.
After
Neshchastlivtsev
uses
his
artistic
genius
to
extract
money
from
Gurmyzhskaia
in
order
to
start
a
theatre,
he
recognizes
that
he
must
sacrifice
his
winnings
to
secure
Aksiusha's
happiness.
Meyerhold,
perhaps
unknowingly,
foreshadows
the
artistic
sacrifice
of
Socialist
Realism
for
the
supposed
benefit
of
the
state,
as
well
as
the
ultimate
sacrifice
would
make
for
defending
his
art.
In
hindsight,
Meyerhold
knew
that
The
Forest
demanded
a
response
from
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,
and
as
such
an
influential
figure
of
the
post-‐Revolutionary
theatre,
Meyerhold
understood
that
his
aesthetic
agenda
became
a
problem
for
the
Party,
but
he
hoped
and
believed
that
he
had
something
to
contribute
to
the
larger
discourse
about
Soviet
theatre.
In
1936,
Meyerhold
would
remind
us
that
he
is
to
thank
for
Stanislavsky's
Ardent
Heart:
147
Without
our
Forest,
Konstantin
Sergeevich
Stanislavsky
would
never
have
produced
his
splendid
Fervent
Heart
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
The
great
masters
of
the
Art
Theatre
visit
us
and
know
how
to
avail
themselves
of
our
methods;
they
don't
just
borrow
mechanically,
but
select
on
merit
whatever
they
consider
useful.
Yes,
there
are
quite
a
few
things
to
be
learnt
from
us.
64
64
Meyerhold,
Meyerhold
on
Theatre,
295.
148
Chapter
Five:
Stanislavsky's
Ardent
Heart
Life
and
Early
Work
Considering
Stanislavsky's
influence
on
the
practice
of
theatre
over
the
last
hundred
years,
introducing
such
a
monumental
figure
is
fraught
with
difficulties.
Not
only
has
Stanislavsky's
legacy
and
"mythic
image"
been
a
target
of
reverence
and
respect,
but
also
it
has
elicited
numerous
negative
reactions
and
has
been
mired
in
misunderstanding.
1
Nonetheless,
a
brief
overview
of
his
biography,
the
events
that
shaped
his
work
and
the
acting
theories
he
developed
is
an
essential
preface
to
an
examination
of
his
work
on
Ostrovsky's
plays.
Konstantin
Sergeevich
Alekseev
was
born
in
Moscow
on
January
5,
1863.
Konstantin
Sergeevich
would
assume
the
surname
Stanislavsky
to
protect
the
Alekseev
name
as
he
began
his
work
as
an
actor
with
amateur
theatre
companies.
The
Alekseevs
were
a
wealthy
family,
which
made
its
money
in
manufacturing
and
industrial
enterprises.
This
afforded
young
Konstantin,
the
second
of
nine
children,
many
luxuries.
With
an
acting
pedigree
on
their
mother's
side,
the
Alekseev
children
loved
the
theatre
so
passionately
that
they
convinced
their
father
to
build
a
performance
space
at
their
Liubimovka
estate
in
1877—located
about
fifty
miles
from
Moscow.
This
led
to
Stanislavsky's
engagement
in
his
first
theatrical
enterprise
when
his
siblings,
relatives
and
friends
created
the
Alekseev
Circle
in
1877.
1
Sharon
M.
Carnicke,
Stanislavsky
in
Focus:
An
Acting
Master
for
the
Twenty-‐First
Century,
2
nd
ed.
(London
and
New
York:
Routledge,
2009),
3-‐4.
149
Because
of
his
impact
on
twentieth-‐century
theatre,
it
is
easy
to
forget
that
Stanislavsky's
early
theatrical
experiences
as
an
amateur
actor
and
audience
member
were
firmly
rooted
in
the
Russian
tradition
of
the
nineteenth
century.
In
his
memoir,
My
Life
in
Art,
Stanislavsky
describes
the
dynamic
period,
"between
two
eras,"
in
which
he
lived:
I
still
remember
the
vestiges
of
serfdom,
tallow
candles,
Carcel
lamps,
bone-‐shaking
carts,
carriages,
couriers,
flintlock
rifles
and
tiny
cannon
that
looked
like
toys.
My
eyes
have
seen
the
coming
of
railways
to
Russia,
with
express
trains,
steamboats.
The
searchlight,
the
automobile,
the
airplane,
the
Dreadnought,
the
submarine,
the
telephone,
with
or
without
wires,
the
radio
telegraph,
the
12-‐inch
gun
were
all
invented.
2
In
many
ways,
Stanislavsky
was
the
product
of
a
bygone
era.
He
was
a
true
contemporary
of
Ostrovsky,
who
died
when
Stanislavsky
was
in
his
early
twenties.
The
characters
and
social
conditions
portrayed
by
Ostrovsky
were
also
part
of
Stanislavsky's
life
experience.
Moreover,
it
was
by
viewing
the
works
of
Ostrovsky
on
the
stage
of
the
Maly
Theatre
that
Stanislavsky
prepared
himself
for
a
career
in
the
theatre.
Looking
back
on
his
early
years,
Stanislavsky
wrote,
"It
was
the
Maly
Theatre
more
than
any
school
that
influenced
the
development
of
my
mind."
3
In
his
memoir,
Stanislavsky
describes
the
intense
process
he
engaged
in
as
he
prepared
to
view
each
production
at
the
Maly,
reading
the
text
of
the
play,
programs,
books
and
articles
and
discussing
them
with
friends
before
seeing
a
play,
and
then
after
the
2
Stanislavsky,
My
Life
in
Art,
3.
3
Ibid.,
29.
150
fact,
his
critical
inquiry
would
continue
in
his
notebooks.
4
The
actors
of
the
Maly
were
Stanislavsky's
idols,
and
he
looked
to
them
for
the
best
examples
of
the
art
of
acting.
It
is
somewhat
ironic,
that
in
only
a
few
years,
the
actors
and
directors
of
the
Maly
would
attempt
to
emulate
Stanislavsky's
work
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
In
addition
to
the
homegrown
talent
at
the
Maly,
Stanislavsky
religiously
attended
the
performances
of
foreign
theatre
companies
touring
in
Russia.
During
Lent,
Russian
actors
were
prohibited
from
performing,
so
foreign
troupes
frequently
filled
the
empty
theatres.
In
1877,
Stanislavsky
saw
the
Italian
actor,
Ernesto
Rossi
play
five
of
Shakespeare's
greatest
tragic
heroes
at
the
Bolshoi—Hamlet,
Othello,
Romeo
and
King
Lear.
5
Stanislavsky
was
impressed
by
the
technical
skill
of
the
Italian,
claiming
that
"[h]e
was
always
polished,
a
craftsman
of
genius"
and
that
he
was
so
convincing
because
"his
acting
was
truthful."
6
In
1882,
Stanislavsky
witnessed
another
Italian,
Tommaso
Salvini,
play
Othello,
and
this
time,
he
was
entranced
by
the
actor's
effortless
style
and
intense
dramatic
output,
calling
him
"an
actor
of
elemental
fire
and
energy."
7
Stanislavsky
was
so
obsessed
with
Salvini
that
he
stalked
the
actor,
attempting
to
get
any
clues
he
could
about
his
acting
techniques.
Perhaps
the
most
significant
influence
on
Stanislavsky's
early
directing
techniques
was
the
theatre
company
of
the
German
Duke
of
Saxe-‐Meiningen,
which
4
Ibid.
5
Jean
Benedetti,
Stanislavski:
A
Biography
(London:
Routledge,
1990),
17.
6
Stanislavsky,
My
Life
in
Art,
53.
7
Ibid.
151
came
to
Moscow
in
1890.
Their
new
approach
to
producing
theatre
marks
a
shift
away
from
an
actor-‐based
production
system
to
a
director-‐based
methodology.
The
company
emphasized
the
importance
of
the
ensemble,
period
authenticity
and
attention
to
detail—all
core
philosophies
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
early
work.
On
June
22,
1897
at
the
Slavianskii
Bazaar
hotel,
Stanislavsky
had
one
of
the
most
important
lunch
appointments
of
his
life
when
he
met
with
Vladimir
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko.
As
the
story
goes,
lunch
turned
into
coffee
and
cigarettes,
which
led
to
dinner,
and
then
after
more
smoking
and
drinking
of
coffee,
the
pair
ended
up
eating
breakfast
at
Stanislavsky's
estate
in
Liubimovka.
Over
the
course
of
this
lengthy
meeting,
the
pair
created
a
plan
to
establish
a
theatre
in
Moscow
and
agreed
on
the
core
principles
of
the
company:
theatrical
art
must
supersede
financial
considerations,
each
production
must
be
entirely
created
from
scratch,
emphasis
on
rehearsals
should
foster
an
ensemble
rather
than
privilege
a
few
star
actors,
the
audience
must
respect
the
work
by
arriving
before
the
start
of
the
show
in
order
to
be
seated
in
the
auditorium.
8
To
accomplish
these
goals,
the
pair
agreed
to
hire
Stanislavsky's
best
collaborators
from
his
work
in
amateur
theatre's
and
new
actors
from
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko's
classes
at
the
Moscow
Philharmonic
School.
A
little
more
than
a
year
later,
the
Moscow
Public-‐Accessible
Art
Theatre
(Moskovskii
Khudozhestvenno-‐obshchedostupnyi
teatr)
opened
in
the
rented
Ermitazh
Theatre
on
Karetnyi
Riad
with
a
production
of
Aleksei
Tolstoy's
Tsar
Fedor
8
Robert
Leach,
Makers
of
Modern
Theatre:
An
Introduction
(London:
Routledge,
2004),
12-‐13.
152
Ioannоvich
on
October
14,
1898.
As
the
second
installment
of
Tolstoy's
trilogy
about
the
tumultuous
historical
events
surrounding
the
death
of
Ivan
the
Terrible,
Stanislavsky
had
the
opportunity
to
re-‐create
sixteenth-‐century
Russia.
The
moderate
success
of
Tsar
Fedor
and
a
series
of
other
premieres
in
the
fall
of
1898
paved
the
way
for
the
Art
Theatre's
first
great
triumph.
On
December
17,
1898
Anton
Chekhov's
The
Seagull
(Chaika)
premiered
to
such
universal
acclaim
that
a
seagull
became
the
symbol
of
the
Art
Theatre.
In
its
third
season
the
words
"Public-‐
Accessible"
were
dropped
from
the
name
of
the
theatre
as
ticket
prices
increased.
Under
the
direction
of
Stanislavsky
and
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko
and
with
a
repertoire
ranging
from
the
classics
of
Sophocles,
Shakespeare
and
Goldoni,
to
the
new
European
classics
of
Ibsen
and
Hauptmann,
to
the
Russian
masterpieces
of
Chekhov,
Tolstoy,
Gorky
and
Ostrovsky,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
was
poised
to
make
an
impact
on
Russian
culture
in
the
twentieth
century.
By
the
1930s,
it
would
become
the
model
Soviet
theatre,
and
Stanislavsky's
obsession
with
formulating
a
reliable
technique
for
consistently
producing
truthful
acting
resulted
in
his
much-‐
famed
System,
which
became
the
official
training
program
for
actors
in
the
Soviet
Union.
The
System
The
history
of
the
Stanislavsky
System
and
the
way
it
has
been
interpreted
and
implemented—not
only
in
Russia
but
also
in
America—has
been
fraught
with
cultural
and
political
biases.
In
her
book,
Stanislavsky
in
Focus:
An
Acting
Master
for
153
the
Twenty-‐First
Century,
Sharon
M.
Carnicke
examines
some
of
the
often
overlooked
and
frequently
misunderstood
factors
leading
to
the
dogmatic
visions
of
Stanislavsky
and
the
System
that
dominated
actor
training
in
the
Soviet
Union
and
the
United
States
for
nearly
a
century.
9
Carnicke
argues
that
the
American
version
of
the
System,
which
became
widely
known
as
the
Method,
"privileged
the
psychological
techniques
of
Stanislavsky's
System
over
those
of
the
physical."
10
Under
the
influence
of
two
Moscow
Art
Theatre
trained
actors,
Richard
Boleslavskii
and
Mariia
Uspenskaia,
Lee
Strasberg
of
the
Group
Theatre
and
later
the
Actor's
Studio
was
largely
responsible
for
these
Western
views
of
Stanislavsky.
Meanwhile,
in
the
Soviet
Union
"the
dictates
of
Marxist
philosophical
materialism
and
the
collective
imperative
of
post-‐Revolutionary
Russia
exalted
Stanislavsky's
physical
training
of
the
actor
as
his
most
complete
and
scientific
technique."
11
Thus,
in
Russia
a
technique
known
as
the
Method
of
Physical
Actions
became
the
dominant
feature
of
the
System
as
it
was
taught
to
Soviet
actors.
As
Carnicke
argues,
both
of
these
rigid
strains
of
the
System
have
failed
to
account
for
the
dynamic
and
holistic
approach
actually
used
by
Stanislavsky,
including
experiments
with
yoga
and
an
improvisation-‐based
technique
known
as
Active
Analysis.
12
9
Carnicke,
Focus,
7-‐8.
10
Ibid.,
7.
11
Ibid.,
8.
12
Ibid.,
3.
154
As
the
focus
of
this
research
is
an
examination
of
Ostrovsky's
manifestations
on
the
early
Soviet
stage,
the
development
of
the
Method
of
Physical
Actions
and
the
System's
official
adoption
by
actor
training
programs
in
the
USSR
is
of
the
particular
importance.
In
the
Soviet
Union,
the
privileging
of
the
physical
elements
of
the
System
was
predicated
by
the
notion
that
there
was
a
distinct
shift
in
Stanislavsky's
work
away
from
the
psychological
and
toward
the
physical.
Interestingly,
Jean
Benedetti
marks
one
of
the
earliest
moments
of
Stanislavsky's
dissatisfaction
with
the
psychological
approach
as
his
work
on
the
role
of
Krutitsky
for
the
Art
Theatre's
1910
production
of
Ostrovsky's
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman.
13
After
an
intense
psychological
investigation
and
much
historical
research,
Stanislavsky
was
still
unable
to
capture
the
physical
aspects
of
Krutitsky.
Upon
visiting
a
court
in
early
1910,
Stanislavsky
encountered
an
old
man
in
whom
he
distinctly
identified
the
traits
Krutitsky
as
he
sat
writing
in
this
environment
where
the
customs
and
conditions
of
old
Russia
were
especially
evident.
Through
his
work
on
Krutitsky
and
other
roles,
such
as
Argan
in
Molière's
The
Imaginary
Invalid,
Benedetti
claims
that
Stanislavsky
came
to
realization
that
physical
action
was
not
always
the
reflection
of
psychological
truth,
but
rather,
that
the
physical
can
aid
in
accessing
the
psychological.
14
Much
can
and
should
be
debated
about
the
development
Stanislavsky's
acting
System,
but
the
pursuit
of
truth
is
the
constant
through
line
of
his
work
that
13
Benedetti,
Stanislavski,
201-‐202.
14
Ibid.,
205.
155
all
can
agree
on.
For
Stanislavsky,
the
concept
of
truth
is
entirely
dependent
upon
the
play,
and
he
accounts
for
variations
in
comedic,
tragic,
realistic
and
non-‐realistic
texts.
15
Privately,
this
meant
that
Stanislavsky
would
continue
to
explore
various
means
to
access
truth
on
stage,
but
publicly,
by
1923,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
would
"trade
on
his
name,"
while
emphasizing
the
work
of
the
theatre
in
realism.
16
Carnicke
attributes
much
of
this
situation
to
the
fractured
relationship
between
Stanislavsky
and
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko,
and
she
traces
the
origins
of
their
conflict
back
to
their
first
meeting
in
1897,
in
which
they
agreed
to
delineate
their
respective
responsibilities—Stanislavsky
dealing
with
staging
and
Nemirovich-‐
Danchenko
with
the
repertory.
17
In
the
end,
the
line
dividing
their
duties
was
not
as
clear
as
they
had
hoped,
and
this
led
to
myriad
disagreements
that
strained
their
relationship.
Within
the
Soviet
context,
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko's
preference
for
politically
relevant
theatre
and
the
conventions
of
realism
meant
that
Stanislavsky
was
not
always
on
the
winning
side
of
their
conflicts.
18
In
the
early
1930s,
by
the
time
the
debates
between
the
monumentalists
and
iconoclasts
had
been
decided
in
favor
of
the
monumentalists
and
their
reliance
on
the
classical
forms
and
traditions,
Stanislavsky
had
accrued
international
fame,
and
in
the
Soviet
Union,
his
name
15
Carnicke,
Focus,
145.
16
Ibid.,
35.
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid.,
37.
156
became
synonymous
with
the
official
artistic
program
of
the
regime—Socialist
Realism.
An
Ardent
Heart
The
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
production
of
Ostrovsky's
An
Ardent
Heart
in
1926
is
a
dynamic
point
of
intersection
for
various
issues
and
conflicts,
both
within
Art
Theatre
itself
and
within
the
broader
context
of
Soviet
theatre.
There
is
the
struggle
of
the
monumentalists
and
the
iconoclasts
represented
in
a
deliberate
attempt
by
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
to
respond
to
the
productions
of
Meyerhold
and
Eisenstein
by
staging
Ostrovsky
in
the
way
they
believed
to
be
proper
and
correcting
the
course
for
Russia's
national
playwright
on
the
Soviet
stage.
As
the
reputation
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
gradually
surpassed
that
of
the
Maly
Theatre
as
the
standard
for
realism
on
the
stage,
the
Stanislavsky
System
continued
to
garner
widespread
support
amongst
opponents
of
the
avant-‐garde.
Also,
the
aforementioned
behind-‐
the-‐scenes
conflict
between
Stanislavsky
and
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko
at
the
Art
Theatre,
as
well
as
Stanislavsky's
diminishing
role
can
be
detected
in
archival
sources
and
production
reviews.
As
a
result,
we
discover
that
the
image
of
Stanislavsky
and
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
was
being
manipulated
behind
the
scenes
by
representatives
of
the
theatre,
such
as
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko,
as
well
as
those
who
recognized
the
potential
influence
this
fabricated
mythology
could
have
on
theatrical
culture.
157
Undoubtedly,
the
theatre
most
closely
associated
with
the
dramatic
works
of
Alexander
Nikolaevich
Ostrovsky
is
the
Maly
Theatre.
It
was
the
Maly
that
premiered
the
majority
of
Ostrovsky's
works,
and
it
is
his
statue
that
stands
outside
the
entrance
of
the
theatre.
Although
an
analysis
of
Ostrovsky’s
performance
history
must
begin
with
the
Maly,
the
pervasiveness
of
his
plays
in
the
Russian
repertoire
makes
Ostrovsky
significant
almost
everywhere.
The
Moscow
Art
Theatre
is
no
exception.
Before
An
Ardent
Heart
premiered
in
1926,
there
were
only
two
other
Ostrovsky
productions
in
the
theatre's
history—The
Snowmaiden
in
1900
and
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
in
1910.
The
Snowmaiden
ran
for
only
twenty-‐
one
performances,
but
Wiseman's
popularity
is
indicated
by
its
235
showings.
No
other
Ostrovsky
production
matches
the
607
performances
of
An
Ardent
Heart,
which
ran
through
the
late
1970s.
19
The
number
of
Ostrovsky
productions
spiked
under
Stalin,
corresponding
with
the
period
in
which
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
supplanted
the
Maly
Theatre
as
the
leading
dramatic
theatre
in
the
Soviet
Union.
With
the
Art
Theatre's
status
came
the
responsibility
to
maintain
the
reputation
of
Russian
classics
and
Ostrovsky
in
particular.
Moving
into
the
1930s,
this
pressure
would
only
increase
as
the
Art
Theatre
and
Stanislavsky's
System
became
the
model
for
all
others
to
emulate.
Stanislavsky's
1926
production
An
Ardent
Heart
was
crafted
as
a
deliberate
response
to
the
Ostrovsky
experiments
of
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold.
Stanislavsky
19
See
Appendix
B
for
a
complete
list
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
Ostrovsky
productions
with
dates
and
number
of
performances.
158
would
get
in
the
last
word
as
he
sought
to
reclaim
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
for
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
By
doing
so,
he
unwittingly
began
the
process
of
determining
precisely
what
Socialist
Realism
would
mean
for
the
Soviet
theatre.
Although
Stanislavsky
was
credited
as
the
head
director
(otvetstvennyi
rukovoditel')
and
approved
all
major
decisions,
the
rehearsal
journals
tell
the
story
of
his
infrequent
attendance.
20
Stanislavsky
conducted
twenty-‐nine
of
the
120
rehearsals;
the
rest
were
run
by
Il'ia
Sudakov,
with
assistance
from
Mikhail
Tarkhanov
and
Ivan
Moskvin.
21
Sudakov's
influence
on
the
production
was
substantial,
and
in
the
archival
records,
he
was
responsible
for
speaking
on
the
behalf
of
the
production.
Sudakov
would
leave
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
in
1937
to
become
the
artistic
director
of
the
Maly
Theatre,
which
serves
as
just
one
more
example
of
the
Art
Theatre's
rising
status.
In
addition
to
their
directing
duties,
Moskvin
and
Tarkhanov
also
played
the
crucial
roles
of
Khlynov
and
Gradoboev,
respectively.
In
a
manuscript
from
December
of
1925,
titled
"Discussion
with
I.
Ia.
Sudakov"
("Beseda
s
I.
Ia.
Sudakovym"),
Sudakov
makes
clear
the
Art
Theatre's
official
position
on
the
recent
avant-‐garde
interpretations
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
and
the
reason's
behind
their
own
return
to
Ostrovsky.
При
постановке
были
на
поднятие
актерского
мастерства,
которое
начало
умирать
и
заменяться
внешними
может
быть
20
Zhurnal
protokolov
repetitsii
no.
1,
August
15-‐November
4,
1925,
Muzei
MKhAT,
f.
1,
op.
95,
no.
511.
Zhurnal
protokolov
repetitsii
no.
2,
November
11,
1925-‐April
16,
1926,
Muzei
MKhAT,
f.
1,
op.
95,
no.
512.
21
A.
M.
Smelianskii,
I.
N.
Solovʹeva
and
O.
V.
Egoshina,
eds.,
Moskovskii
Khudozhestvennyi
teatr:
sto
let,
vol.
1
(Moskva:
Izdatel'stvo
Moskovskii
Khudozhestvennyi
teatr,
1998),
105.
159
эффектными,
но
бесплодными
режиссерскими
ухищрениями.
(Камерн.,
Мейерхольд)
Принципиальное
значение
спектакля
в
том,
чтобы
не
давать
погибнуть
образцам
подлинного
актерского
мастерства,
основанного
на
реальной
школе,
пропитанного
духом
сценической
правды.
22
Sudakov
specifically
calls
out
the
Kamerny
Theatre's
1924
production
of
The
Storm
and
Meyerhold's
The
Forest
for
straying
from
the
realistic
school
in
their
productions
of
Ostrovksy,
but
more
significantly,
he
implies
that
the
motivation
for
the
Art
Theatre's
production
has
much
to
do
with
displaying
correct
acting
techniques
as
it
does
with
Ostrovsky.
Sudakov
also
invokes
the
element
of
"truth"
as
one
of
the
keys
to
restoring
Ostrovsky's
plays
to
their
former
glory.
Truth
was
already
a
feature
built
into
the
Stanislavsky
System
and,
therefore,
the
ideology
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,
but
it
would
become
one
of
the
key
buzzwords
of
Socialist
Realism.
Of
course
the
concept
of
truth
is
defined
differently
for
the
Stanislavsky
System
and
Socialist
Realism.
In
the
System,
truth
in
acting
is
the
moment-‐to-‐
moment
task
of
the
actor
in
his
portrayal
of
a
character,
while
within
the
framework
of
Socialist
Realism,
truth
has
broader,
sociological
connotations
and
relates
to
the
historical
struggle
of
socialism.
22
Goriachee
serdtse
(Materialy
po
postanovke),
Beseda
s
I.
Ia.
Sudakovym,
December
1925,
Muzei
MKhAT,
f.
1,
op.
95,
no.
617,
s.
6.
"During
the
production
process,
there
was
a
revival
in
the
art
of
acting,
which
was
beginning
to
die
out
and
was
being
replaced
by
superficial
directing
tricks,
which
where
perhaps
effective,
but
ultimately
unsuccessful
(Kamern[y],
Meyerhold).
The
main
purpose
of
the
production
is
to
not
allow
the
models
of
the
true
craft
of
acting
to
die,
which
are
based
in
the
realistic
school
and
created
in
the
spirit
of
scenic
truth."
160
For
critics,
An
Ardent
Heart
was
a
strange
choice
of
play
for
the
Art
Theatre
to
use
in
its
reclamation
of
the
Ostrovsky
tradition.
23
The
production
history
proved
the
play
to
be
problematic,
and
it
was
not
considered
to
be
one
of
Ostrovsky’s
most
successful
works.
Most
significantly,
An
Ardent
Heart
was
certainly
not
the
Ostrovsky
play
best
suited
to
showcase
Stanislavsky’s
psychological
realism.
The
play
features
three
of
Ostrovsky’s
trademark
samodurs:
Kuroslepov,
the
father
of
the
heroine
Parasha
and
husband
to
the
deceitful
Matrеna;
Gradoboev,
a
corrupt
city
manager;
and
Khlynov,
a
wealthy
estate
owner
whose
extravagant
existence
is
best
captured
by
his
habit
of
watering
his
plants
with
champagne.
Khlynov,
in
particular,
pushes
the
boundaries
of
realism
into
the
grotesque,
making
pursuit
of
realistic
acting
nearly
unattainable.
Although
the
three
samodurs
dominate
the
play,
the
plotline
that
connects
the
various
characters
revolves
around
Parasha's
conflict
with
her
stepmother,
Matrena,
who
has
not
only
stolen
2000
rubles
from
her
husband,
but
also
prevents
Parasha
from
receiving
her
inheritance
and
marrying.
In
the
end,
the
theft
is
exposed,
Parasha's
father,
Kuroslepov,
makes
everything
right,
and
Parasha
marries
her
love
Gavrilo.
Even
though
An
Ardent
Heart
has
a
weak
central
plotline,
the
fact
that
Stanislavsky
also
chose
an
Ostrovsky
comedy
as
his
response
to
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold
makes
comparisons
among
the
productions
more
relevant
and
the
Art
Theatre's
performative
argument
more
convincing.
23
A.
L.
Shtein,
ed.,
A.N.
Ostrovskii;
sbornik
statei
i
materialov
(Moskva:
Vserossiiskoe
teatral'noe
obshchestvo,
1962),
318.
161
Meyerhold
and
Eisenstein
claimed
their
radical
production
choices
were
justified
due
to
Ostrovsky's
connections
to
the
Spanish
classical
tradition
and
other
popular
theatrical
genres
emphasizing
stock
character
types,
but
Stanislavsky
believed
his
production
captured
the
true
essence
of
Ostrovsky
and
the
play.
All
of
this
began
with
the
proper
interpretation
of
the
play,
which
Sudakov
explains:
По
нашему
мнению,
в
этой
пьесе
Островским
обрисованы
те
киты,
на
которых
строилась
провинциальная
жизнь
прошлого
столетия,
а
может
быть
и
вся
российская.
Это—Градобоевщина—
правящее
чиновничество,
начальство,
власть,
Курослеповщина—
распущенность,
жир,
лень,
пьянство,
и
вместе
с
тем
это
какой-‐то
предводитель
купечества,
власть,
столб,
на
котором
держится
купечество,
3-‐е
начало—Хлыновщина,
нарождающийся
капитал,
чумаз,
который
расправляет
свои
плечи,
начинает
бросать
миллионами…Это
Россия,
и
в
безобразии,
и
в
слабости,
здесь
Русью
пахнет.
24
For
Stanislavsky
and
Sudakov,
capturing
the
horrific
social
conditions
and
representing
them
truthfully
onstage
was
sufficient,
even
if
the
truth
came
in
comedic
form
and
with
a
positive
resolution
instead
of
death
by
drowning
for
the
female
protagonist.
In
comparison
to
the
overwhelming
amount
of
archival
materials,
which
describe
the
productions
of
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold,
there
is
very
little
information
about
An
Ardent
Heart
in
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
archive.
Surely
this
24
Goriachee
serdtse
(Materialy
po
postanovke),
s.
8.
"In
our
opinion,
in
this
play
Ostrovsky
depicted
those
pillars,
on
which
the
provincial
life
of
the
past
century
was
constructed
on,
or
perhaps
even
all
Russian
life.
It
is
Gradoboevshchina—[who
depicts]
the
ruling
bureaucracy,
superiors,
and
power;
Kuroslepovshchina—[who
represents]
promiscuity,
fat,
laziness,
drunkenness,
coupled
with
being
some
sort
of
merchant
leader,
power,
the
pillar
on
which
commerce
rests,
and
a
third
beginning;
Khlynovshchina—
who
with
newly
emerging
capital,
is
a
grimy
individual
who
spreads
his
shoulders
and
begins
to
throw
around
millions…This
is
Russia
in
its
hideousness,
and
its
weakness,
here
it
reeks
of
Rus'."
162
has
much
to
do
with
the
fact
that
Stanislavsky's
involvement
in
the
early
stages
of
the
production
was
quite
limited.
In
addition,
since
Stanislavsky
made
no
substantial
alterations
to
Ostrovsky's
text,
there
is
nothing
remarkable
to
analyze
in
this
regard.
The
rehearsal
journals
are
extremely
detailed
in
terms
of
identifying
the
scenes
worked
on
and
participants
involved,
but
in
fact,
there
is
very
little
description
of
what
the
scenes
actually
looked
like.
25
The
partitura
(score),
a
prominent
document
in
Stanislavsky
directed
productions,
has
extremely
detailed
instructions
for
movements
of
actors
on
stage,
but
again,
there
is
very
little
to
indicate
the
visual
features
of
the
production.
26
But
through
photographs
and
third-‐
party
descriptions
it
is
possible
to
get
a
reasonably
good
sense
of
the
most
important
moments
in
the
production
Sudakov
indicates
that
the
most
challenging
task
of
the
designer,
Nikolai
Krymov,
was
to
represent
the
juxtaposition
of
Russia's
old
provincial
charm
and
the
outrageously
ostentatious
environment
inhabited
by
the
wealthy
merchant,
Khlynov.
27
Krymov
used
simple,
yet
dramatic,
pastoral
settings
to
represent
old
Rus'.
Under
an
enormous,
sweeping
tree
covering
much
of
the
stage,
Parasha
and
Gavrilo
engaged
in
intimate
conversation
about
plight.
But
Krymov's
depiction
of
the
Khlynov
estate
was
the
design
feature
that
had
critics
raving.
With
gaudy
pillars
25
Zhurnal
protokolov
repetitsii,
f.
1,
op.
95,
no.
511-‐512.
26
Partitura
(Goriachee
serdtse),
Muzei
MKhAT,
f.
1,
op.
95,
no.
523.
27
Goriachee
serdtse
(Materialy
po
postanovke),
s.
5-‐6.
163
and
a
grand
staircase
littered
with
statures,
the
façade
of
Krymov's
was
the
epitome
of
tasteless
capitalism.
In
his
review
of
An
Ardent
Heart
in
Our
Newspaper
(Nasha
gazeta),
the
left-‐
wing
critic,
M.
Zagorskii,
begins
by
claiming
that
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
is
in
the
midst
of
a
crisis
because
recent
productions
show
a
move
away
for
psychological
realism.
Zagorskii
looks
back
with
nostalgia
at
the
Art
Theatre's
previous
work
on
Ostrovsky's
plays,
The
Snowmaiden
(Snegurochka)
of
1900
and
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
of
1910,
as
examples
of
harmonious
production
techniques,
but
An
Ardent
Heart
does
not
follow
this
pattern.
В
противоположность
им,
теперешнее
Горячее
сердце—
поразительный
пример
разорванного,
противоречивого
и
шатающегося
спектакля,
бросающегося
от
быта
к
эксцентрике,
от
психологизма
к
буффонаде
и
от
простоты
к
вычурности
и
гротеску.
28
More
than
once,
Zagorskii
references
Meyerhold's
production
of
The
Forest.
First,
he
writes
that
Stanislavsky
should
not
be
expected
to
create
such
a
pointed
commentary
of
contemporary
class
struggles.
Then,
in
order
to
emphasize
his
point
about
the
lack
of
a
unified
style
in
An
Ardent
Heart,
Zagorskii
likens
the
production
to
a
hybrid
of
the
Maly
Theatre's
superficial
realism
and
Meyerhold's
episodic
restructuring.
Rather
than
using
Ostrovsky
as
a
way
out
of
the
crisis
he
points
to
28
M.
Zagorskii,
"Teatr—Muzyka—Kino.
Goriachee
serdtse.
(MKhT
Pervyi),"
in
O.
A.
Radishcheva
and
E.
A.
Shingareva,
eds.
Moskovskii
Khudozhestvennyi
teatr
v
russkoi
teatralʹnoi
kritikе,
1919-‐1943,
chast'
pervaia,
1919-‐1930
(Moskva:
Artist.
Rezhisser.
Teatr.,
2009),
169-‐170.
First
published
in
Nasha
Gazeta,
January
26,
1926.
"In
contrast
to
those
production,
the
current
version
of
An
Ardent
Heart
is
a
striking
example
of
a
broken,
contradictory
and
teeter-‐tottering
play,
which
fluctuates
from
every
day
live
(byt')
to
eccentricity,
from
psychological
analysis
to
buffoonery,
and
from
simplicity
to
pretentiousness
and
the
grotesque."
164
earlier,
Zagorskii
believes
that
An
Ardent
Heart
indicates
the
collapse
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
glory,
as
a
result
of
Stanislavsky
being
influenced
by
Meyerhold's
techniques.
29
N.
Volkov's
review
in
Izvestiia
praises
Stanislavsky
for
his
sensitivity
to
the
specific
demands
of
An
Ardent
Heart,
claiming:
"С
исключительным
чутьем
К.
С.
Станиславский
нащупал
театральный
пульс
пьесы.
Он
понял,
что
Горячее
сердце
нельзя
играть,
как
комедию
действительности,
что
нужны
иные
приемы,
чтобы
воплотить
на
сцене
фантастический
город
Калинов."
30
Unlike
Zagorskii,
Volkov
is
not
concerned
with
the
absence
of
Stanislavsky's
psychological
approach
to
the
production,
but
rather,
he
sees
Stanislavsky
as
the
genius
who
can
adapt
his
style
to
fit
the
needs
of
the
play.
In
fact,
Volkov
is
only
disappointed
that
Stanislavsky
does
not
expand
the
fantastical
atmosphere
of
Khlynov's
world
throughout
the
entire
production.
Volkov
points
out
the
inherent
social
satire
in
An
Ardent
Heart,
which
puts
the
ugliness
of
capitalism
under
the
microscope
and
is
just
the
type
of
the
play
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
should
be
producing.
31
Volkov
emphasizes
Stanislavsky's
ability
to
capture
the
essential
spirit
29
Ibid.
30
N.
Volkov,
"Teatr—Muzyka—Kino.
Goriachee
serdtse.
(Khudozhestvennyi
teatr),"
in
Radishcheva
and
Shingareva,
MKhAT
v
kritike,
1919-‐1943,
chast'
pervaia,
170-‐172.
First
printed
in
Izvestiia,
January
29,
1926.
"It
is
with
exceptional
intuition
that
K.
S.
Stanislavskii
felt
out
the
theatrical
pulse
of
the
play.
He
understood
that
An
Ardent
Heart
cannot
be
played
as
a
realistic
comedy,
but
needed
other
devics
to
embody
the
fantastic
city
of
Kalinov
on
stage."
31
Ibid.
165
of
the
play
that
has
been
traditionally
overlooked,
and
he
praises
the
director
for
identifying
the
significance
of
Ostrovsky's
social
criticism.
A
1926
review
of
the
production
from
The
New
Spectator
(Novyi
zritel'),
written
under
the
pseudonym
"Kalaf,"
goes
even
further
in
its
praise
for
Stanislavsky
and
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre.
In
the
opening
paragraph,
we
see
the
type
of
hyperbolic
acclaim
that
points
to
the
increasingly
privileged
status
enjoyed
by
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre:
"Прекрасный
спектакль.
Он
показал,
как,
в
сущности,
неизменно
высока
и
вместе
с
тем
значительна
театральная
культура
старого
Художественного
театра,
как
ценна
для
нас
эта
культура,
какой
превосходный
резервуар
сочного
и
крепкого,
единственного
в
своем
роде,
актерского
мастерства
представляет
этот
театр."
32
Clearly,
"Kalaf"
is
concerned
with
preserving
the
theatrical
traditions
of
Russia's
past
and
promoting
the
place
of
Stanislavsky,
his
actor
training
system,
and
the
Art
Theatre.
The
author
then
rejects
the
notion
that
Moscow
Art
Theatre
would
be
better
served
cultivating
new
plays,
claiming
that
An
Ardent
Heart
has
deep
social
significance
in
its
portrayal
of
old
Russia
and
the
havoc
wreaked
under
capitalism.
Many
of
the
reviewers
discussed
the
difficulties
inherent
in
the
text
of
An
Ardent
Heart.
For
some
like
Yurii
Sobolev,
in
his
review
from
the
Programs
of
the
Governmental
Academic
Theatres
(Programmy
gosudarstvennykh
akademicheskikh
32
Kalaf
"Goriachee
serdtse
v
MKhAT
pervom,"
in
Radishcheva
and
Shingareva,
MKhAT
v
kritike,
1919-‐
1943,
chast'
pervaia,
172-‐174.
First
printed
in
Novyi
zritel',
No.
6
(1926).
"What
a
wonderful
performance.
In
essence,
it
showed
how
consistently
high
and
significant
the
theatrical
culture
of
the
old
Art
Theatre
really
is,
how
valuable
this
culture
is
for
us,
such
a
magnificent
reservoir
of
strength
and
richness,
the
only
theatre
of
its
kind,
which
produces
this
type
of
acting
mastery."
166
teatrov),
the
plot
poses
some
significant
challenges.
33
He
writes
that
although
the
play
deals
with
a
dynamic
period
in
history—the
years
immediately
following
the
liberation
of
the
serfs—the
final
message
of
the
play
does
not
make
an
appropriate
social
comment.
Sobolev
points
out
that
An
Ardent
Heart
is
one
of
Ostrovsky's
most
theatrical
plays,
and
Lunacharsky
also
alludes
to
this
fact
in
his
article
"Recap
of
the
Dramatic
Season
1925/26"
("Itogi
dramaticheskogo
sezona
1925/26
g."),
as
well
as
calling
the
play
one
of
Ostrovsky's
weaker
works.
34
But
Lunacharsky
calls
the
production
a
"true
triumph
for
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,"
and
rather
than
criticizing
the
play's
insufficiencies,
like
Sobolev,
he
applauds
the
production
for
exposing
social
issues
in
the
play
that
are
still
causing
problems
in
the
1920s.
35
So,
according
to
Lunacharsky,
by
fully
embracing
the
unsavory
ending
of
An
Ardent
Heart,
Stanislavsky
is
doing
society
a
great
service
by
warning
the
spectators
about
contemporary
issues,
not
taking
delight
in
the
old
Russia.
Perhaps
the
most
agenda-‐driven
commentary
on
An
Ardent
Heart
came
from
Pavel
Aleksandrovich
Markov,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
literary
manager
from
1925-‐1949.
He
clearly
understood
the
stakes
involved
in
producing
theatre
during
the
1920s
and
finds
ways
to
separate
Stanislavsky
and
the
Art
Theatre's
approach
to
Ostrovsky
from
other
directors
and
theatres.
In
his
article
from
the
journal
Art
33
Iurii
Sobolev,
"Goriachee
serdtse
v
Khudozhestvennom
teatre,"
in
Radishcheva
and
Shingareva,
MKhAT
v
kritike,
1919-‐1943,
chast'
pervaia,
174-‐175.
First
printed
in
Programmy
gosudarstvennykh
akademicheskikh
teatrov
20
(1926).
34
A.
V.
Lunacharskii,
"Itogi
dramaticheskogo
sezona
1925/26
g.,"
in
Pavlova
and
Kholodov,
Ostrovskii
na
sovetskoi
stsene,
60.
First
published
in
Izvestiia,
July
22,
1926.
35
Ibid.,
"настоящим
триумфом
первого
МХАТа."
167
(Iskusstvo),
Markov
both
refutes
the
negative
reviews
from
other
critics
and
affirms
the
role
of
the
Stanislavsky
System
in
the
creation
of
An
Ardent
Heart.
36
Markov
responds
to
claims,
like
the
one
put
forth
by
N.
Brodskii
in
the
same
issue
of
Art,
that
the
action
of
the
fourth
act
at
Khlynov's
estate
is
too
decadently
styled
by
the
designer
Krymov
and
that—similar
to
Eisenstein's
and
Meyerhold's
work
on
Ostrovsky—characters
assume
the
types
of
commedia
dell'arte.
37
Markov
argues
that
the
key
to
making
the
play
relevant
is
to
emphasize
and
differentiate
the
three
samodurs—Gradoboev,
Khlynov
and
Kuroslepov:
Чтобы
сейчас
прозвучала
тема
Горячего
сердца,
нужно,
чтобы
мощно
прозвучала
объединенная
тема[…]:
административный
восторг
Градобоева,
патетическое
самодурство
Хлынова,
и
обломовское
равнодушие
Курослепова.
Эти
три
слоя
наиболее
символизируют
бытовую
обстановку
Руси.
38
Markov
then
asserts
that
the
Stanislavsky
System
was
the
primary
tool
used
to
create
these
characters
and
that
every
physical
"stunt"
(triuk)
in
the
production
can
be
justified
by
the
internal
motivations
and
psychology
of
the
characters.
Markov's
analysis
raises
a
significant
issue
regarding
the
use
of
the
System
for
comedic
productions.
Interestingly,
Eisenstein,
Meyerhold
and
Stanislavsky
all
chose
to
direct
comedies
when
they
heeded
Lunacharsky's
mandate
to
go
"Back
to
36
P.
A.
Markov,
"Goriachee
serdtse
A.
N.
Ostrovskogo
v
1
Moskovskom
Khudozhestvennom
teatre,"
in
Pavlova
and
Kholodov,
Ostrovskii
na
sovetskoi
stsene,
68-‐71.
First
published
in
Iskusstvo,
kn.
I
(1927).
37
N.
Brodskii,
"Goriachee
serdtse
A.
N.
Ostrovskogo
v
1
Moskovskom
Khudozhestvennom
teatre,"
in
Pavlova
and
Kholodov,
Ostrovskii
na
sovetskoi
stsene,
60-‐63.
First
published
in
Iskusstvo,
kn.
I
(1927).
38
Markov,
"Goriachee
serdtse."
"In
order
for
the
theme
of
An
Ardent
Heart
to
resound,
the
amalgamated
theme
must
be
clearly
articulated…[this
includes
the
following]
the
administrative
delight
of
Gradoboev,
the
pathetic
despotism
of
Khlynov,
and
the
miserly
indifference
of
Kuroslepov.
These
three
layers
symbolize
the
everyday
atmosphere
of
Rus'."
168
Ostrovsky!"
For
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold,
the
use
of
non-‐realistic
acting
techniques
makes
sense,
given
their
radical
interpretations
of
Ostrovsky's
plays,
but
in
his
article,
Markov
makes
a
distinction
between
the
mere
superficial
stunts
of
Eisenstein
and
Meyerhold
and
Stanislavsky's
use
of
the
System
to
find
a
psychologically
motivated
approach
to
discover
truth
in
acting
with
An
Ardent
Heart.
Ostrovsky,
The
Moscow
Art
Theatre
and
Socialist
Realism
As
the
Stalin's
power
increased
in
the
late
1920s
and
early
1930s,
the
possibilities
for
artistic
experimentation
decreased,
but
at
the
same
time,
the
power
of
the
arts
and
literature—and
theatre
in
particular—was
affirmed.
In
his
speech
at
the
First
Writers
Congress
on
August
17,
1934,
Maksim
Gorky
proclaimed,
"Из
всех
форм
художественного
словесного
творчество
наиболее
сильной
по
влиянию
на
людей
признаются
драма
и
комедия,
обнажающие
эмоции
и
мысли
героев
в
живом
действии
на
сцене
театра."
39
With
the
belief
that
live
performance
could
have
such
a
strong
effect
on
society
came
higher
stakes
for
the
institution
of
theatre
under
Stalin.
But
many
of
the
problems
facing
the
Soviet
theatre
of
the
1920s
were
yet
to
be
resolved
in
the
1930s.
As
a
result,
there
was
an
even
more
widespread
attempt
to
return
to
the
classics,
not
only
in
theatre
but
also
in
literature.
This
process
of
39
Pervyi
vsesoiuznyi
s"ezd,
9.
"Of
all
the
forms
of
verbal
literary
art,
the
drama
and
the
comedy,
which
reveal
the
emotions
and
thoughts
of
the
hero
in
live
action
on
the
stage
of
the
theatre,
are
the
most
powerful
in
terms
of
their
ability
to
influence
people."
169
reclaiming
authors
was
so
finely
tuned
that,
in
Epic
Revisionism:
Russian
History
and
Literature
as
Stalinist
Propaganda,
Kevin
M.
F.
Platt
and
David
Brandenberger
claim
this
is
a
"defining
feature
of
Soviet
public
life."
40
The
Ostrovsky
jubilee
of
1923,
the
Tolstoy
jubilee
of
1928
and
the
Pushkin
jubilee
of
1937
are
prime
examples
of
the
increasing
amount
reverence
afforded
to
the
classics.
But
the
creation
of
new
works
for
the
theatre
was
an
even
bigger
problem
than
it
was
in
the
realm
of
poetry
and
prose.
At
the
First
Writers
Congress
Valerii
Kirpotin
said
regarding
the
creation
of
new
plays:
"[М]ы
стоим
только
в
начале
своего
историчестого
пути
в
развитии
искусства.
Совершенно
естественно…,что
наше
искусство,
драматургия
в
том
числе,
которая
к
тому
же
пока
еще
слабее
нашей
прозы,
имеет
весьма
крупные
недостатки."
41
The
echoes
of
Lunacharsky
come
through
quite
clearly
in
Kirpotin's
speech,
who
even
borrowed
the
former
Commissar
of
Enlightenment's
cautious
justification
for
using
Ostrovsky's
plays
on
the
Soviet
stage:
"[Н]екритическое
следование
канонам
Островского
и
Чехова
обедняет
и
тормозит
развитие
нашего
искусства."
42
At
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,
the
frequency
at
which
Ostrovsky
plays
were
produced
increased
dramatically.
Before
1930,
there
were
only
three
Ostrovsky
40
Platt
and
Brandenberger,
Epic
Revisionism:
Russian
History
and
Literature
as
Stalinist
Propaganda
(Madison:
University
of
Wisconsin
Press,
2005),
6.
41
Pervyi
vsesoiuznyi
s"ezd,
376.
"We
stand
only
at
the
beginning
of
our
historical
path
in
the
development
of
art.
It
is
completely
natural
that
our
art,
including
dramaturgy,
which
is,
moreover,
still
weaker
than
your
prose,
has
major
deficiencies."
42
Ibid.
"Uncritically
following
the
canons
of
Ostrovsky
and
Chekhov
weakens
and
slows
down
the
growth
of
our
art."
170
plays
produced
by
the
Art
Theatre,
but
under
Stalin
there
were
twice
as
many.
At
approximately
the
same
time
the
foundational
principles
of
Socialist
Realism
were
being
laid
out
at
the
First
Writers
Congress,
both
Stanislavsky
and
Nemirovich-‐
Danchenko
were
working
on
Ostrovsky
productions.
Though
not
initially
well
received,
Stanislavsky's
1933
production
of
Talents
and
Admirers
(Talanty
i
poklonniki)
would
eventually
run
for
over
400
performances.
Nemirovich-‐
Danchenko's
production
of
The
Storm
in
1934
had
a
respectable
145
performances.
Created
in
the
spirit
of
Dobroliubov,
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko
emphasized
the
repressive
social
conditions
endured
by
Katerina.
Along
with
An
Ardent
Heart
and
these
two
productions
from
the
1930s,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
quickly
became
a
second
home
for
Ostrovsky.
The
emphasis
on
Ostrovsky
and
the
foundation
of
the
Stanislavsky
System
did
much
to
establish
the
conventions
of
Socialist
Realism
in
the
Soviet
theatre.
This
ideal
combination
of
classical
playwright,
realistic
staging
and,
what
was
perceived
by
Soviet
authorities
to
be,
a
scientific
system
for
actors
was
the
perfect
antidote
for
eradicating
the
Formalist
enemy
in
theatre.
The
dreaded
label
of
"Formalism"
became
the
catch-‐all
for
any
work
of
art
that
did
not
fit
within
the
boundaries
of
Socialist
Realism.
The
battle
of
the
monumentalists
and
the
iconoclasts
in
the
1920s
became
a
concerted
and
one-‐sided
effort
to
get
rid
of
Formalism,
and
in
the
theatre,
the
Stanislavsky
System
was
the
official
solution:
Система
Станиславского
всем
своим
существом
направлена
против
формалистического,
выхолощенного
искусства,
где
подлинные
чувства
человека
заменены
внешними
знаками,
где
171
человек
уступил
место
марионетке.
43
As
a
literary
theory
focused
on
examining
texts
on
their
own
terms
in
an
almost
scientific
fashion,
excluding
the
historical,
social
and
cultural
factors,
this
appropriation
of
Formalism
is
mostly
unfitting,
yet
it
is
somewhat
ironic
that,
as
Sharon
Carnicke
points
out,
Stanislavsky
had
an
affinity
for
Formalist
analysis,
and
often
used
its
terminology
in
his
work.
44
It
is
here
in
the
1930s
that
the
mythology
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
began
to
really
take
hold.
Looking
back
to
Lenin's
attendance
at
the
production
of
Ostrovsky's
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
in
1918,
we
see
the
kernels
of
the
belief
that
Stanislavsky
holds
the
key
to
creating
socially
conscious
theatre
and
making
the
classics
relevant.
This
image
was
transformed
into
such
an
elaborate
mythology
that
the
connection
between
the
Art
Theatre
and
Socialist
Realism
was
taken
for
granted
and
assumed,
regardless
of
the
actual
characteristics
of
a
given
production.
Anna
Muza's
fascinating
article
about
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre's
1937
production
of
Lev
Tolstoy's
Anna
Karenina,
examines
the
rupture
between
performance
itself
and
how
it
was
framed
by
the
press
as
a
model
of
Socialist
Realism.
45
There
were
many
legitimate
reasons
for
the
Soviet
regime
to
heap
praise
on
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre,
its
founders
and
the
Stanislavsky
System.
In
a
1933
letter
to
Stanislavsky,
Gorky
anointed
it
the
model
Soviet
theatre:
"Вы—
призванный
43
A.
Anastas'ev.
MKhAT
v
bor'be
s
formalizmom
(Moskva:
Iskusstvo,
1953),
171.
"The
Stanislavsky
System
is
fundamentally
directed
against
formalistic,
impotent
art,
where
the
genuine
emotions
of
an
individual
are
replaced
with
superficial
gestures,
in
which
the
individual
is
turned
into
a
puppet."
44
Carnicke,
Focus,
200-‐201.
45
Anna
Muza,
"'The
Tragedy
of
a
Russian
Woman':
Anna
Karenina
in
the
Moscow
Art
Theater,
1937,"
Russian
Literature
65,
no.
4
(2009):
467-‐506.
172
великий
реформатор
театрального
искусства.
Вы
и
В.
И.
Немирович-‐Данченко
создали
образцовый
театр,
одно
из
крупнейших
достижений
русской
художественной
культуры,
благотворное
влияние
вашего
театра
явно
и
признано
во
всем
мире."
46
They
were
masters
of
realism
and
revolutionized
the
way
theatre
was
produced.
Stanislavsky
did
develop
the
most
influential
actor
training
system
of
the
twentieth
century
in
Russia
and
the
West.
The
theatre
was
and
is
a
treasure
of
Russian
culture.
In
addition
to
all
of
this,
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
fit
nicely
into
the
broader
cultural
program
of
Soviet
art
and,
therefore,
could
serve
a
vital
cultural
function
within
that
system.
The
Stanislavsky
System's
emphasis
on
truth
made
it's
adoption
for
Socialist
Realism
that
much
simpler.
This
part
of
the
mythology
resonates
with
the
famous
anecdote
about
Stalin
instructing
authors
how
to
create
Socialist
Realist
works.
In
1932,
when
Stalin
was
asked
by
a
group
of
authors
how
to
write
in
the
style
of
Socialist
Realism,
he
answered:
"Write
the
truth."
47
In
the
early
1930s
Stanislavsky
was
officially
anointed
as
the
authority
on
acting,
and
the
System
was
promoted
as
the
official
curriculum
for
Soviet
actors.
The
mythology
of
the
System
in
the
Soviet
Union
includes
books
entirely
devoted
to
proving
that
the
Stanislavsky
System
was
key
in
the
rooting
out
of
formalism
in
the
theatre.
In
a
book
titled
The
Moscow
Art
46
Maksim
Gorkii,
Gorkii
ob
iskusstve:
sbornik
statei
i
otryvkov
(Moskva:
Iskusstvo,
1940),
243.
"You
are
the
chosen
great
reformer
of
theatrical
art.
You
and
V.
I.
Nemirovich-‐Danchenko
created
the
model
theatre,
one
of
the
most
significant
achievements
of
Russian
artistic
culture,
the
beneficial
influence
of
your
theatre
is
evident
and
recognized
all
over
the
world."
47
"Za
literaturu
zhiznennoi
pravde,"
Literaturnaia
gazeta,
August
14,
1952.
"Пишите
правду."
173
Theatre
in
the
Battle
with
Formalism
(MKhAT
v
bor'be
s
formalizmom)
these
connections
among
the
System,
truth
and
Socialist
Realism
are
explicitly
made:
"Система
Станиславского
помогает
художникам
сцены
"писать
правду",
и
поэтому
она
сыграла
очень
важную
роль
в
овладении
актерам
и
режиссерами
принципами
социалистического
реализма."
48
As
a
result
of
his
response
to
Eisenstein's
and
Meyerhold's
adaptations
of
Ostrovsky,
Stanislavsky's
1926
production
of
An
Ardent
Heart
became
a
critical
moment
in
the
development
of
the
mythology
of
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
and
its
place
in
the
Soviet
culture.
In
this
case,
Ostrovsky's
play
was
used
along
with
Stanislavsky's
reputation
to
support
the
artistic
ideology
of
the
Soviet
state.
48
Anastas'ev
MKhAT
v
bor'be,
168.
"The
Stanislavsky
System
helps
stage
actors
"write
truth,"
and
because
of
this
it
has
played
a
very
important
role
for
actors
and
directors
in
mastering
the
principles
of
Socialist
Realism."
174
Conclusion
In
the
hands
of
Eisenstein,
Meyerhold
and
Stanislavsky,
the
dramatic
works
of
Alexander
Ostrovsky
became
part
of
a
larger
discourse
about
the
future
of
Soviet
art
and
theatre.
The
monumentalists
ultimately
won
their
battle
with
the
iconoclasts,
and
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
became
the
model
Soviet
theatre
and
the
ultimate
authority
on
the
art
of
acting.
Soviet
theatre
practice
in
the
1920s
reveals
an
intense
impulse
to
reimagine
aesthetic
conventions
as
a
way
to
connect
with
people
and
express
ideologies.
With
the
Ostrovsky
jubilee
of
1923
and
Lunacharsky's
call
of
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!,"
we
see
an
illustration
of
W.
B.
Worthen's
concept
of
dramatic
writing
as
"writing
for
use"
and
the
various
tasks
one
playwright
can
perform.
1
Although
Ostrovsky's
role
and
function
in
Soviet
culture
would
be
fixed
for
more
than
fifty
years,
his
legacy
was
firmly
established
in
the
twentieth
century,
and
productions
of
his
plays
would
once
again
be
used
to
deal
with
vital
social
and
political
issues.
Just
as
Lenin
desired,
Ostrovsky
would
be
remembered.
As
far
back
as
Dobroliubov's
articles
from
the
1850s,
Ostrovsky’s
works
have
been
appropriated
by
various
parties,
and
productions
of
his
plays
have
been
infused
with
the
artistic
and
political
ideologies
that
reflect
the
concerns
of
the
time
and
place
they
were
produced.
On
the
Russian
stage,
Ostrovsky
is
well
equipped
to
rise
1
Worthen,
Drama,
xviii.
175
to
the
challenge.
In
a
current
production
of
The
Forest
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
directed
by
Kirill
Serebrennikov,
Ostrovsky
is
used
to
make
comment
on
the
current
state
of
Russian
politics.
As
if
to
exemplify
the
opportunistic
and
unjust
stewards
who
control
Russia
today,
the
actor
playing
Bulanov—who
marries
Gurmyzhskaia,
the
tyrannical
owner
of
the
forest
at
the
conclusion
of
the
play—assumes
the
physical
and
vocal
characteristics
of
President
Vladimir
Putin.
Although
Ostrovsky
has
not
been
forgotten,
his
place
on
the
Russian
stage
has
certainly
been
taken
for
granted,
and
much
work
remains
to
be
done
in
order
to
fully
grasp
Ostrovsky's
significance
in
twentieth-‐century
Russian
and
Soviet
culture.
The
three
productions
analyzed
in
this
dissertation
tell
only
a
part
of
the
story
of
Ostrovsky
in
1920s.
Among
the
countless
productions
of
Ostrovsky's
plays
in
the
1920s
were
the
Maly
Theatre's
productions
of
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
in
1923
and
A
Profitable
Post
(Dokhodnoe
mesto)
in
1926,
as
well
as
Alexander
Tairov's
production
of
The
Storm
at
the
Moscow
Kamerny
Theate
in
1924.
While
beyond
the
scope
of
this
dissertation,
they
could
certainly
fill
vital
gaps
in
contextualizing
Lunacharsky's
"Back
to
Ostrovsky!"
campaign.
In
addition
there
are
the
nearly
forty
cinematic
adaptations
of
Ostrovsky's
plays,
which
are
more
than
worthy
of
their
own
examination.
Unquestionably,
Ostrovsky's
plays
have
continued
to
be
designated
as
"writing
for
use"
and
have
been
reclaimed,
reinterpreted
and
repurposed
as
theatre
practitioners
employ
the
Ostrovsky
tradition
to
confront
contemporary
concerns
and
deal
with
current
social
issues.
176
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Appendix
A:
Meyerhold's
Episode
Breakdown
1
Number
Title
Ostrovsky's
Act
and
Scene
1
По
шпалам
2.2
(On
the
railroad
ties)
2
Таинственная
записка
1.1
(The
secret
note)
3
Дитя
природы
взлелеянное
несчастьем
2.2
(Nature's
child
nurtured
by
misfortune)
4
Алексис-‐ветреный
мальчик
1.2,
1.3
(Aleksis
the
frivolous
boy)
5
Хлеб
да
вода
актерская
еда
2.2
(Bread
and
water
the
meal
of
actors)
6
Три
добрых
дела
разом
1.4
(Three
good
deeds
at
once)
7
Аркашка
и
курский
губернатор
2.2
(Arkashka
and
the
Kursk
governor)
8
Отец
Евгений
и
его
программа
максимум
1.5
(Father
Evgenii
and
his
program
maximum)
9
И
у
них
биомеханика
2.2
(And
they
have
biomechanics)
10
Нотариальная
контора
1.6
(Office
of
the
notary)
11
Аркашка
против
мещанства
2.2
(Arkashka
versus
philistinism)
1
Meierkhol'd,
Rezhisserskaia
chast',
l.
1-‐116.
190
12
Девочка
с
улицы
и
светская
дама
1.7
(The
street
girl
and
the
high-‐society
lady
)
13
"Беспартийный"
2.2,
3.3
("Non-‐partisan")
14
Невеста
без
приданого
2.1
(The
bride
without
a
dowry)
15
Педикюр
1.8
(Pedicure)
16
Сон
в
руку
3.1,
3.2
(A
dream
in
hand)
17
Аркашка-‐куплетист
3.4,
3.5
(Arkashka
the
singer
of
satire)
18
Ум-‐практический
3.6.
3.7
(A
practical
mind)
19
[No
title]
3.8
20
Пеньки
дыбом
3.9,
3.10,
3.11,
3.12
(Hair
standing
on
end)
21
Люди
мешают,
люди,
которые
власть
имеют
4.5
(People
are
disturbance,
people
who
have
power)
22
Нашла
коса
на
камень
4.1
(The
scythe
has
hit
the
stone)
23
Лунная
соната
4.2,
4.3,
4.4
(Moonlight
sonata)
24
Между
жизнью
и
смертью
4.6
(Between
life
and
death)
25
Актриса
нашлась
4.6
(An
actress
has
been
found)
191
26
Собирая
цветы
4.7
(While
gathering
flowers)
27
В
золотой
клетке
4.8
(In
a
golden
cage)
28
Будущий
земский
начальник
5.3
(The
future
county
superintendent)
29
Алексис
готовиться
к
балу
5.2
(Aleksis
is
getting
ready
for
the
ball)
30
Если
бы
недалеко,
то
было
бы
близко,
5.4
а
если
не
близко,
то
значит
далеко
(If
it
is
not
far,
then
it
would
be
close,
but
if
it
is
not
close,
then
it
is
far)
31
Сцена
из
"Пиковой
дамы"
5.5,
5.6
(The
scene
from
The
Queen
of
Spades)
32
Жених
под
столом
5.7
(The
groom
under
the
table)
33
Дон-‐Кихот
или
пеньки
дыбом
еще
раз
5.8-‐5.9
(Don-‐Quixote
or
hair
standing
on
end,
again)
*(Cut:
5.1)
192
Appendix
B:
Ostrovsky
at
the
Moscow
Art
Theatre
(1898-‐1998)
1
Year
Play
Number
of
Performances
1900
The
Snow
Maiden
21
(Snegurochka)
1910
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
235
(Na
vsiakogo
mudretsa
dovol’no
prostoty)
1926
An
Ardent
Heart
607
(Goriachee
serdtse)
1933
Artists
and
Admirers
413
(Talanty
i
poklonniki)
1934
The
Storm
145
(Groza)
1940
Hard-‐Earned
Bread
63
(Trudovoi
khleb)
1944
The
Last
Sacrifice
401
(Posledniaia
zhertva)
1948
The
Forest
109
(Les)
1949
Late
Love
440
(Pozdniaia
liubov)
1963
Guilty
Without
Blamе
230
(Bez
viny
vinovatye)
1973
Enough
Stupidity
in
Every
Wiseman
737
1996
The
Storm
22
(3423
Total
Performances)
1
Compiled
from
Smelianskii,
Solovʹeva
and
Egoshina,
MKhAT:
sto
let,
vol.
2,
204-‐238.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Alexander Ostrovsky (1823-1886) is the most prolific and most produced playwright in the history of Russian theatre, and no other figure has been as instrumental in establishing theatre as a key institution of Russian national culture. In 1923, the centennial of Ostrovsky's birth, the Soviet Commissar of Enlightenment, Anatoly Lunacharsky, launched a campaign promoting Russia's national playwright with the slogan ""Back to Ostrovsky!"" At a time when the language of the regime was focused on forward momentum, this was a peculiar directive to look back to the bourgeois art of Russia’s past. Lunacharsky employed the 1923 Ostrovsky jubilee to promote his agenda for the Soviet theatre and began a push to use dramatic classics as models for new proletarian art. The ""Back to Ostrovsky!"" campaign prompted the greatest theatrical directors of the era to create new productions of Ostrovsky’s plays in the 1920s. These directors, representing both avant-garde and traditionalist aesthetic ideologies, engaged in a performative dialogue embodying the larger artistic debate of the post-Revolutionary period. Three productions from the years immediately following the 1923 Ostrovsky jubilee are examined: Enough Stupidity in Every Wiseman (Na vsiakogo mudretsa dovol'no prostoty) directed by Sergei Eisenstein at the Proletkult Theatre in 1923, The Forest (Les) directed by Vsevelod Meyerhold at the Meyerhold Theatre in 1924, and An Ardent Heart (Goriachee serdtse) directed by Konstantin Stanislavsky at the Moscow Art Theatre in 1926. Relying on W. B. Worthen's conception of dramatic writing as ""writing for use,"" these productions support the claim that Ostrovsky's works were used as a platform to work out aesthetic and ideological debates in the early Soviet era. Before analyzing the productions in Chapters Three, Four and Five, Chapter One examines the model for coopting Ostrovsky's works established by the social critics of the mid-nineteenth century, and Chapter Two presents the key issues facing the early Soviet Theatre.
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Gunn, William David (author)
Core Title
Back to Ostrovsky!: reclaiming Russia's national playwright on the early Soviet stage
School
College of Letters, Arts and Sciences
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Slavic Languages and Literatures
Publication Date
07/25/2012
Defense Date
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Publisher
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Tag
A Passionate Heart,A Warm Heart,A. N. Ostrovsky,A.N. Ostrovskii,aesthetic,aesthetics,Aleksandr Nikolaevich Ostrovskii,Aleksandr Ostrovskii,Alexander Ostrovsky,An Ardent Heart,Back to Ostrovsky,Eisenstein,Eizenshtein,Enough Stupidity in Every Wiseman,Even Wise Men Err,Goriachee serdtse,ideological,ideology,LES,Lunacharskii,Lunacharsky,Meierkhol'd,Meyerhold,Moscow Art Theatre,Na vsiakogo mudretsa dovol'no prostoty,OAI-PMH Harvest,Ostrovskii,Ostrovsky,political,Politics,Proletkult,Proletkul't,Russia,Russian,Russian theater,Russian theatre,Soviet theater,Soviet theatre,Stanislavskii,Stanislavsky,The Forest,Theater,Theatre
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Tags
A Passionate Heart
A Warm Heart
A. N. Ostrovsky
A.N. Ostrovskii
aesthetic
aesthetics
Aleksandr Nikolaevich Ostrovskii
Aleksandr Ostrovskii
Alexander Ostrovsky
An Ardent Heart
Back to Ostrovsky
Eisenstein
Eizenshtein
Enough Stupidity in Every Wiseman
Even Wise Men Err
Goriachee serdtse
ideological
Lunacharskii
Lunacharsky
Meierkhol'd
Meyerhold
Moscow Art Theatre
Na vsiakogo mudretsa dovol'no prostoty
Ostrovskii
Ostrovsky
political
Proletkult
Proletkul't
Russian theater
Russian theatre
Soviet theater
Soviet theatre
Stanislavskii
Stanislavsky
The Forest