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A case study of five latino male college students: What contributes to their educational success?

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A case study of five latino male college students: What contributes to their educational success?

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Content A CASE STUDY OF FIVE LATINO MALE COLLEGE STUDENTS:
WHAT CONTRIBUTES TO THEIR EDUCATIONAL SUCCESS?

by

Ivan Ayro

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2012

Copyright 2012 Ivan Ayro
ii
Acknowledgments
It has definitely been a long journey full of all-nighters, missed vacations and
going weeks without spending time with my family and friends. I sometimes wondered
if I would ever close this chapter of my life considering that I have also moved up the
ladder in my professional career and oftentimes struggled to find balance between work,
school and play. This would all not have been possible without the constant motivation,
support, and “nagging” from many different individuals close to my heart.
I would like to first begin by thanking my parents who have supported me
throughout all of my endeavors. From financially funding my way through college as an
undergrad, to assisting me in buying my first home, they have witnessed and been a part
of many milestones in my life. Mom and Dad, thank you for always being there for me, I
would not be the person I am today without your guidance and unconditional love.
For those that know me well, thank you for helping me refocus whenever my
ADD would take a hold of me. To Jamie and Jen for keeping me company in the library,
Chris for proofing my work, Beth for locking me in my office so I could write, Phil and
his Aunt for sequestering textbooks I always needed, John for the late nights preparing
my defense presentation, and Wendy for just yelling at me when I refused to sit down
and write. To the Las Vegas crew, Aaron, Michelle, Adam, Jackie, and Carol, now that I
am done, when is the Vegas weekend that you all promised?
I have met many lifelong learners similar to myself throughout this educational
journey. To my Pepperdine cohort pal Bianca, thank you for persuading me to pursue a
doctorate from USC- know that whatever it takes, I promise to help you finish as well.
Dale and Mike, thank you for listening to my dilemmas and helping me make decisions
iii
when I seemed lost and confused. Rocke, if it were not for your constant advice and
assistance, I would not have been able to navigate through the dissertation process. To
Dr. Kaminski and Dr. Rutherford, thank you for all the words of encouragement as well
as for the flexibility with my work schedule.
Lastly, I would like to thank my dissertation committee for their assistance
throughout the process. Dr. Hayes, if it were not for you, I would have never been able
to conduct the research I needed to write my literature review. Dr. Garcia, thank you for
your positive outlook and giving me a pep talk when I felt ready to throw in the towel.
Most of all, Dr. Crew, thank you for being an excellent mentor and friend.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ii

Abstract vi

Chapter 1: Background 1
Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of the Study 4
Theoretical Frameworks 6
Social Capital 6
History of Social Capital 6
Application of Social Capital to learning 7
Positive Deviance 10
History 10
Application of Positive Deviance 11
Research Questions 13
Definition of Terms 13
Limitations 14
Conclusion 14

Chapter 2: Literature Review 16
Introduction 16
Latinos in the United States 17
Historical Context 18
Historical Perspective of Latino Education in the U.S. 19
Latino education from 1898-1960 19
Latino Education from the 1960’s-Present 20
Social Capital in Education 24
Social Capital - a Eurocentric perspective 25
Cultural Capital & Educación 27
From Eurocentric to Multicultural Education 29
Resistance 31
Student Success 33
Factors Linked to Student Success 34
Relationships 34
Persistence 35
Engagement 36
Ethnic Identity 39
Self-Efficacy 41
Conclusion 43
v
Chapter 3: Methodology 44
Qualitative Research 44
Research Questions 48
Population Sample 48
The Story of Each Participant 48
Data Collection 58
Data Analysis 58
Summary 59

Chapter 4: Results 60
Findings and Data Analysis 61
Relationships 61
Persistence 67
Engagement 71
Ethnic Identity 75
Self-efficacy 83
Table 1: Summary of Key FIndings 86

Chapter 5: Conclusions 89
Introduction 89
Summary of the Study 90
Summary of Findings 91
Conclusions 93
Implications for Action 94
Relationship-building 94
Offer, support, and maintain extracurricular programs 97
Implication for future research 99
Summary 99

References 100
Appendix: Interview Protocol 106

vi
Abstract
The Latino/a population is one of the fastest growing ethnic groups nationwide. It
is estimated that the Latino/a population increased by 43% since 2000. Although this
may be the case, data shows that Latino males continue to be underrepresented within the
educational system at the post-secondary institutional level. Case studies of five Latino
male college students were conducted to investigate which factors contribute to their
educational success. Through ethnographic interviews, data was collected and grouped
into five themes: relationships, persistence, engagement, ethnic identity, and self-
efficacy. The findings of the study concluded that 1) Positive relationships at school can
have an influence on academic success, 2) the focus of schools needs to be more student-
centered to assist in the development of a student’s self-efficacy and ethnic identity, and
3) schools should continue to offer, support, and maintain extracurricular programs.

1
Chapter 1: Background
Anthony is a 19 year old independent and responsible college student. He lives alone in a two-
bedroom apartment in the city of Cedar Park, and commutes by bus to a Community College 15 miles
away. Currently in his second year of college, he holds a 3.5 Grade Point Average. As an independent
student, his living expenses are covered by numerous grants and scholarships that he was awarded this past
year. His short term objective is to transfer to a four-year institution and study Criminology so he can
become an F.B.I agent.
Considering the challenges Anthony has faced in his past, one might say that he is a reasonably
successful college student. Anthony is a Latino male who was in the foster care system since the age of six.
His mother and father emigrated from Mexico to the United States in 1985. Struggling to make ends meet
and living in poverty, Anthony and his two younger siblings were placed in the foster care system. By the
time he entered high school, Anthony was what society would label a “troubled youth.” He socialized with
a tagging crew and was involved in numerous fights due to his affiliations. He viewed school as more of a
social institution to hang out with friends rather than an educational institution for learning.
Due to this, Anthony acquired an insurmountable amount of D’s and F’s during his first two years
of high school. By the time he was a Junior at the age of seventeen, he realized that he had less than one
year before he would be considered a legal adult, and no longer a ward of the state. He began to take
school seriously, spending his last two years going to all his classes as well as adult school (in the
evenings) to graduate on time. Because of his determination, Anthony was able to graduate from Valley
Point High School on June 18, 2009.

This opening scenario is a true-life story of a student assuming the pseudonym
“Anthony.” Based on his current educational attainment and ambitions to graduate
college and begin a career in law enforcement, Anthony is considered a successful
college student (Kuh, 2008). Taking a closer look at his challenging past, though, one
might conclude that there was a possibility that Anthony could have dropped out before
he graduated from high school.
Historically, Latino males remain underrepresented in various aspects of society,
including education (Oliver, 2006). Studies often demonstrate that Latinos have higher
dropout rates, work lower paying jobs, and often come from families with low
socioeconomic status (Oliver, 2006; Ream, 2003). Based on this research, Latino males
have continually been stigmatized as a marginalized group that is underachieving (Harris,
2009).
Contrary to these research statistics, there are a significant number of
Latinos/Latinas who have excelled and are prominent figures in society. For instance, in
2
the field of education, Jaime Escalante had an impact in the classroom as an educator;
Caesar Chavez challenged labor policies as a civil activist; and Alberto Gonzalez held a
government position as the former U.S. Attorney General under President Bush’s
administration. These prominent Latino males helped to signify that, although the Latino
population is traditionally stereotyped as an underrepresented minority group, there are
also those who attain success and are able to have a significant positive impact within our
global society.
Background of the Problem
Success is described in multiple ways. It can mean upward mobility in terms of
social class and economic status. It can be associated with movement up the career
ladder in the workplace, or gauged by the salary a person earns. It can even be associated
with accumulation of possessions a person has, such as a house or a car. Within the field
of education, success has been typically described by how much schooling a person has
completed. According to Kuh (2008), one primary measure of success in education is a
person’s post-secondary degree attainment.
In post-secondary education, Latino students remain one of the leading
underrepresented minority groups. For those Latinos who graduate high school and
attend college, retention rates and academic ability are often areas of concern for school
officials (Havemen & Smeeding, 2006, p. 139). Statistics indicate that a number of
Latino male students lack the opportunity to obtain some form of post-secondary
education because they did not graduate from high school or obtain their graduate
equivalency diploma (GED).
3
A challenged faced in education is the steady rise in the number of students
dropping out of high school. The National Center for Education Statistics defined the
dropout rate as “the percentage of 16- through 24- year olds who are not currently
enrolled in high school and who lack a high school credential” (IES,
http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=16, 2010NCES, 2010).
During 2008, the nationwide dropout rate for students aged 16 through 24 was
approximately 8%. A breakdown of the dropouts by race and ethnicity found that 5.8%
were White, 8.4% were African American, 6.1% were Asian/Pacific Islander, 19.3%
were Native Americans, and 21.4% were Latinos (NCES, 2010). In terms of gender, data
also showed that Latino males had the highest dropout rates compared to both males and
females of all other ethnicities (NCES, 2010). Based on these statistics, a gap of 15.6%
exists between Latinos and their White counterparts in terms of high school dropout
rates.
These statistics demonstrate that a high number of Latino male students have a
risk of never obtaining a high school diploma or its equivalent. What can be inferred
from this data is that even fewer are able to attend college or some other form of post-
secondary program such as a trade school. This leads to a current problem faced in
education, which is the underrepresented number of Latinos who attain educational
success.
Statement of the Problem
Although the number of Latino males who attain educational success (as
demonstrated by attending and graduating from post-secondary institutions and technical
trade schools) has been on the rise, the numbers are relatively low in comparison to their
4
White counterparts. The problem is that there is a significant imbalance between the
numbers of Latino male students who continue their education after high school in
contrast to White students, which is exemplified by the statistics that follow.
During 2007, it is estimated that 29.5 million students were enrolled in post-
secondary institutions nationwide. Of these students, an estimated 64.4% of all 18-24
year-old undergraduate/graduate students who attended post-secondary institutions were
White, while only 11.4% were Latino. This creates a 53% gap between the number of
White students who continue their education after high school and that of Latino students
(NCES, 2010). Although the percentage is lower in comparison to White students, the
number of Latino students enrolling in post-secondary institutions has been on the rise.
Data shows that, in 1980, approximately 3.9% of Latino students attended post-secondary
degree-granting institutions, has and that percentage had grown to approximately 7.5%
by the year 2007.
The challenge faced within the education system is to find ways to increase the
number of Latino students who continue their education after high school. These
statistics demonstrate that the Latino population is severely underrepresented in post-
secondary institutions. As educators, there is a need to find viable ways of providing the
proper support to facilitate the educational success of Latino students through and beyond
high school.
Purpose of the Study
A vast amount of research in education has been conducted on the negative
reasons that affect student achievement and dropout rates among minority students.
Similarities between much of the current research indicate that factors such as
5
socioeconomic status (SES), language barriers, race, lack of a family support structure,
and coming from a disadvantaged school can all adversely affect student achievement
(Yun & Moreno, 2006). According to John Ogbu (1990), “minority groups in
contemporary pluralistic societies face the problem of achieving educational parity with
the dominant groups of society” (p.45). As a result, Latino student underachievement has
become a focus among researchers within the last few years (Hayes, Molina & Montes,
under review; Valenzuela, 1999; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
On the opposite end of the spectrum, there are questions regarding the positive
reasons some students succeed, whether a student’s self-efficacy or self-perception play a
role, whether success depends on the support structures embedded within secondary and
post-secondary institutions, and whether success is due to relationships between a student
and their families, friends, or a teacher.. Currently, a limited amount of research was
conducted on the persistence of minority students in the educational system. Research
that has been conducted in relation to student achievement often focuses on retention and
graduation rates. Other studies proposed that persistence and self-efficacy may be factors
that can contribute to success (Scott et al, 2006).
The probing question then becomes, “What specific advantage did this Latino
student have in comparison to the rest of his counterparts?” This study engaged in
qualitative research in the form case studies to investigate the attributes that successful
Latino male college students exemplify. This study utilized a social capital and positive
deviance framework as the foundation from which to identify the attributes that may play
a factor in the educational achievement of Latino males.
6
Theoretical Frameworks
Researchers have pointed out social capital as one reason minority groups, such
as Latino males, never acquire educational attainment (Blossfeld & Shavit, 1993; Dika &
Singh, 2002; Ogbu, J., 2009; Ream, R., 2003). This dissertation utilized a social capital
framework to allow for the establishment of the premise that Latinos have long been
viewed by the Eurocentric model of social capital as underachieving, which is a different
viewpoint from that of the social capital of minority groups in that the latter views
achievement through a culture-oriented lens. This study juxtaposed both forms of social
capital by explaining the current views of Latino social capital through a Eurocentric lens
and investigating how social capital from a cultural perspective differs. The aim was to
demonstrate that Latino males are able to be successful and to challenge the theory that a
lack of social capital leads to underachievement on the grounds that it is debatable and
based on perspective.
Social Capital
History of Social Capital. Social capital was a term first analyzed by sociologist
Pierre Bourdieu. In his work titled The Forms of Capital, Bourdieu (1986) defined social
capital as the “aggregate of actual potential resources linked to possession of a durable
network of essentially institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and
recognition” (as cited in Dika & Singh, 2002, p. 33). Bourdieu claimed that attainment in
the middle and upper class in terms of social status was a form of capital which leads to
social and economic benefits. If a person was not at the high end of the social strata, one
way a person could gain capital was through education and schooling (Yosso, 2005).
7
Bourdieu’s theory helps explain why minority groups struggle to gain success,
wealth and power in comparison to the majority group. According to this theory,
minority groups lack the capital to gain social mobility. Social capital is sometimes
referred to as a combination of physical and human capital. Physical capital is the
creation of raw materials into tools that allow for production, while human capital is
providing people with distinctive skills and knowledge (Ream, 2003). According to
Bourdieu, minority groups often lack the social network exchange that enables the use of
physical and human capital resources. Bourdieu’s concepts led some researchers to
theorize that this is the reason minority groups are often underrepresented and unable to
gain social mobility within society.
Application of Social Capital to learning. Within the education setting, studies
have shown that one of the factors affecting student performance is a lack of social
capital. There has been an inequality in “educational opportunity between social strata”
between Latino males and their White male counterparts (Blossfeld & Shavit, 1993, p.
246). Some Latino students come from families having a low socioeconomic status.
Oftentimes, these students live in underprivileged communities and attend low-
performing urban schools with inequitable facilities. With a lack of social networking
via social exchange, Latino students are placed at a disadvantage in accessing social
capital (Ogbu, J., 2009; Ream, R., 2003).
This Eurocentric view of social capital tends to put Latinos and other minority
groups at a deficit based on the capital that they do not have, but does this necessarily
mean that this group tends to underachieve and no be successful? Gallimore and
Goldberg (2001) theorize that, from a Latino parent’s perspective, success is not
8
necessarily based on a child’s educational attainment, but it is based on the concept that
their child has been “well brought up” with moral and ethical values. Angela Valenzuela
(1999) in Subtractive Schooling also argues that educación is a foundational cultural
concept that provides instructions on how one should live in the world and provides the
benchmark by which all humans are to be judged, formally educated or not. The broader
concept of educación unfolds vision of education that parallels the concepts of educación
(Hayes, Molina, & Montes, under review).
According to Yosso (2005), the notion of deficit thinking places minorities at
fault for poor academic performance. This theory tends to assume that, 1) minority
students often lack normative skills in comparison to the majority of society, and 2)
parents do not care about their child’s education - both of which are untrue (p. 75).
Culture capital for Latino students may, in fact, be more culturally oriented. Gallimore
and Goldenberg (2001) stated that Latino parents do believe that formal education is
essential to becoming successful, but their priority as parents is placed on a child’s moral
development, “which is seen as a super ordinate parental responsibility” (p.48). Latino
parents feel that their son/daughter is successful if he/she grows up to be responsible,
respectful, and well behaved, and parents do not always measure success by educational
attainment.
It could be argued that student underachievement is not due to the lack of social
capital that Latinos have in their home life, but to the lack of social capital available to
them within the educational setting. There are those who believe that the educational
reform needed is one that is “aimed at rethinking and transforming the traditional
curriculum that is primarily Anglo Eurocentric in scope” (Bennett, 2001, p. 176). Part of
9
the issue lies in the fact that the nation’s educational system is strictly standards-based
and the focal point shifted towards standardized assessments. This focus on standards
based curriculum does not allow schools to take into consideration a child’s cultural
identity when designing curriculum (Gay, 2000; Valenzuela, 1999). This lack of cultural
sensitivity in curriculum can cause a disconnect for Latino students within the classroom.
According to some researchers, Latino students may be more successful in school if
educators design “instruction and curriculum that were more compatible with people’s
home cultures (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Research conducted by Martinez and Fernandez (2004) found that Latino students
attending community college aspired to transfer to a four year university to obtain a
bachelor’s degree as a primary goal. These students understood that obtaining a degree
would allow them upward social and economic mobility, regardless of their current
socioeconomic position. These students may actually be exemplifying a form of
resistance as “they remain active in the pursuit of quality education” (Solorzano &
Delgado Bernal, 2001, p. 310). According to Solorzano and Delgado Bernal, there four
types of resistance exist: reactionary behavior, self-defeating resistance, conformist
resistance, and transformational resistance. These types of resistance may provide an
explanation for how successful Latino students participate in oppositional behavior as a
movement towards social justice within the educational system. To obtain an
understanding of how some Latino males are able to overcome the marginalized
stereotype and achieve academically, a positive deviance framework is used herein to
identity the attributes that may assist with a Latino student’s success.
10
Positive Deviance
History. Initially used in nutrition research, Positive Deviance (PD) is a term that
was coined in the 1990’s by Tufts University nutrition professor Marian Zeitlin in her
book titled Positive Deviance in Nutrition. In this book, Zeitlin explained the findings of
various studies on the nutrition of children from poor communities. She found the
existence of “positive deviance” among children who were well nourished in comparison
to other children living within the same community. Based on this research, Zeitlin used
the positive deviance concept to “address childhood malnutrition issues at the community
level by identifying what was going right in the community in order to amplify it, as
opposed to focusing on what was going wrong in the community and fixing it” (Positive
Deviance Initiative, 2010).
Jerry and Monique Sternin took Marian Zeitlin’s positive deviance concept and
created an operational tool which was used to promote social and behavioral change
worldwide. Due to its success, PD soon became institutionalized as a social change
approach. This began the Positive Deviance Initiative, which expanded the application
from an intervention for malnutrition to a problem-solving approach used to assist in
addressing problems in the areas of public health, child protection, and education. The
Positive Deviance Initiative has since gained collaboration and support from several
entities and organizations which include Peace Corps, the United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF), the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), and the Department of
Education (Positive Deviance Initiative, 2010).
The concept of PD has evolved since being first used by Zeitlin to explain the
child malnourishment dilemma. Currently, the concept of Positive Deviance: is
11
[Is] based on the observation that in every community there are certain
individuals or groups (the positive deviants), whose uncommon but
successful behaviors or strategies enable them to find better solutions to a
problem than their peers. These individuals or groups have access to
exactly the same resources and face the same challenges and obstacles as
their peers (Positive Deviance Initiative, 2010).
The PD approach has been used in a variety of studies and research since its inception
during the 1990’s with promising success.
Application of Positive Deviance. The positive deviance model uses an assets-
based approach and capitalizes on an individual’s or a group’s resilience, instead of
deficits. In the areas of healthcare and nutrition, it leverages the resources that
communities or families already have that can be used to improve their health. Research
conducted by Lapping et al. (2002) found that, when utilizing a PD approach to resolving
health related concerns, outcomes must be clearly defined. The study found that there are
three determinates that affect the outcomes: a) risk factors (socioeconomic conditions), b)
enablers (i.e. confidence, knowledge skills, norms, etc.), and c) behaviors (evidence
based practices). PD assisted in addressing interventions such as birth outcomes in
Egypt, newborn care in Pakistan, and HIV/AIDS training in Vietnam (Lapping et al.,
2002).
In a New South Wales prison, to help prisoners stop smoking, an intervention
utilizing a PD approach was used. First, the problem within the community was defined
along with the desired outcome, which was to deter smoking by prisoners. Second,
positive deviants (non-smokers and those managing to quit) were surveyed and observed
12
as to what they were doing differently. The final step was to disseminate the findings to
the general population and create an intervention approach which incorporated behaviors
and practices exhibited by the non-smokers. As a result, the amount of prisoners who
smoked in New South Wales decreased by 20% over a 15 month period (Awofeso et al.,
2008).
Although existing research showed the effectiveness of using positive deviance in
addressing various behavior and societal issues, an area that has yet to be exploited using
this approach is education. The vast majority of studies on student achievement
primarily focused on the negative factors that deter minority students from academic
achievement. Even though research is still lacking regarding the positive attributes and
behaviors that assist with a minority student’s academic success, some studies have
eluded that persistence to find that student engagement, self-efficacy, and ethnic identity
all play a factor in a student’s success (Fischer, 2007).
The utilization of a social capital and positive deviance framework assists in
understanding how Latino males are one of several minority groups that continue to
experience educational inequities and in recognizing why success during an educational
career is a significant accomplishment for this population. The research questions
guiding this study focused on identifying the key attributes exhibited by successful
Latino male college students. Data was collected through ethnographic interviews,
which, in turn, were coded for categories and crosschecked for similarities in identifiable
attributes or behaviors.
13
Research Questions
This qualitative study examined the following questions:
Primary Research Question
What attributes do successful Latino males exemplify that assist in their educational
achievement?
Secondary Research Question(s)
1. What factors contribute to the success of high school students?
2. What factors assist in the retention of Latino male college students?
Commonalities from these case studies led to implications for practitioners at the
secondary and post-secondary educational levels. The findings suggested ways to ensure
the success of future male Latino students at both the secondary and post-secondary
institutional levels.
Definition of Terms
Achievement Gap: “The achievement gap is a persistent, pervasive and significant
disparity in educational achievement and attainment among groups of students as
determined by a standardized measure. When analyzed according to race and ethnicity,
achievement disparities negatively impact educational outcomes for poor children and
children of color on a consistent basis” (Department of Public Instruction, 2010).
At Risk: For the purpose of this study, at risk was defined as a high school student who
was low achieving and in danger of dropping out. Background characteristics also
included one or more of the following: (a) poverty, (b) race or ethnicity, (c) family
configuration, (d) parental education, and (e) limited proficiency in English (Nowicki et
al., 2004, p. 226).
14
Latino: “The ethnic groups of a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or
South American, or other Spanish culture of origin, regardless of race. In 1998-99, the
title of this ethnic group was modified from Hispanic to reflect the new federal standards
and more current use” (California Department of Education, 2010). The term Latino was
primarily used to describe the population throughout this study, although the term
Hispanic was also used interchangeably when cited by a primary research source.
Success: Within this study, success is defined as graduation from high school or
obtaining a certificate of completion, and attendance/completion of a post-secondary
degree or technical trade certification.
Limitations
The scope of this study focused on five Latino male college students who
attended low performing urban high schools and, at the time of this study, were
attending, or previously attended, a post-secondary institution. This qualitative study was
limited to 18-24 year old Latino students who attended college in the vicinity of Southern
California. Qualitative data was collected in the form of personal interviews and
observations. The data was coded to allow for identification of similarities in interview
responses.
Conclusion
While, it is expected that the Latino population will continue to rise within the
next few decades, Latino males remain one of the most marginalized groups within
society. One specific problem educational institutions face is finding ways to address
the needs of these students and ensure their success. As the Latino population continues
to increase, education is one of the key components that will ensure that they have the
15
tools and skills needed to become productive members of society. The current reality is
that schools are not able to meet the needs of this specific group, and they continually
“fall through the cracks.” In order for the United States to remain competitive in the
global economy, it is an expectation that every student must be educated and master the
skills necessary to be able to make positive contributions to society.
16
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
The United States is oftentimes described as a “melting pot” due to the cultural
diversity of its residents. The number of immigrants entering the U.S. continues to
increase with each decade, and, as a result, the nation is transformed demographically,
economically, and culturally. Specifically, the Latino population experienced
exponential growth in recent years (Crosnoe, 2005). It is estimated that the Latino
population will continue to rise, reaching 60.4 million by the year 2020, representing
approximately 46% of the nation’s overall growth over the next two decades (Afable-
Munsuz & Brindis, 2006).
According to Martinez and Fernandez (2004), the population boom within the
Latino community has meaningful societal implications, especially considering that, in
several major cities, Latinos represent a significant portion of the population. States with
“significant numbers of Latinos depend on the educational preparedness of Latinos for
economic and social stability” (p. 52). Unfortunately, research demonstrated that Latino
students have traditionally underperformed within the U.S. educational system (Sirin,
2005; Nowicki et al., 2004; Ream 2003). Confirmation of this can be found at the post-
secondary level, where 2007 data shows that the percentage of Latino males enrolled
college is significantly lower than that of the dominant group (NCES 2010). This
underrepresentation of the Latino male population is problem plaguing post-secondary
education.
The fact that Latino students are, at times, viewed as underperforming and
underrepresented within the educational system may be educators’ typically viewing
17
education through a Eurocentric lens. The United Stated has long been dominated by
western cultural values and views. Known as a Eurocentric epistemological perspective,
these western cultures are based on White privilege. The Council on Interracial Books
for Children (1977) defines this perspective as (a) the belief that the perspective of the
Euro-Americans is the norm and (b) the practice of ignoring and/or delegitimizing the
experiences, motivations, aspirations, and views of people of color” (Delgado Bernal,
2002). Instead of continuing to study how Latino students fail within the educational
system, research must begin to focus on the student success stories that also occur.
According to Delgado Bernal (2001), the challenges faced by the Latino population
during their educational journey are continually ignored.
This literature review explores the schooling of Latino males within the U.S.
educational system. It reviews the misconception of a Latino student’s lack of social
capital, examine how current educational curriculum often acts as a roadblock that
hinders Latino males from achieving within the classroom, examine how resistance plays
a factor in a Latino’s desire to achieve success, and identify known attributes linked to
student success. Gaining a deeper understanding of the education of Latino males may
provide some insight as to how the educational system can provide support to this group
of students and improve their rates of educational success.
Latinos in the United States
According to MacDonald and Carillo (2008), Latinos have been omitted or
“dehistorized” in American history. Current curriculum at the secondary and post-
secondary levels contain very little or basic information on Mexican America or other
people of Latino descent. Many post-secondary institutions did not begin offering
18
courses on Latino/Chicano history until the 1970’s, following the Latino Civil Rights
Movement (MacDonald and Carillo, 2010).
Historical Context. Latinos are descendants of people who have evolved over
hundreds of years as a result of a mixing of races, of which include European settlers,
indigenous people of the Americas, and Africans. The Latino population underwent
successive waves of colonization in the U.S., dating as far back as the 1500’s. The
colonization of Latinos in the Americas can be dated back into several historical legacies:
1500-1848 for Central and South America, 1500-1898 for Cuba and Puerto Rico, 1810-
present for Mexico and the United States (MacDonald and Carillo, 2008).
The Latino population is currently the largest growing population within the
United States. Prior to 1965, the majority of Latinos were Puerto Rican, Cuban or
Mexican descent settled in the Southwest, Northeast, and Miami. By 1980, a major shift
occurred geographically and states such as California, Texas, New York, and Florida
became the largest recipients of immigrants. “Current U.S. Census projections for 2050
continue to place the Latino population at one-quarter of the U.S. population or nearly
103 million” which over doubles 2007 Census statistics which estimated the Latino
population to be at 45 million (MacDonald and Carillo, 2008, p. 22). This immense
population growth will impact various facets of globalization within the United States, as
Latinos continue to become part of the work force and access economic resources, as a
means to gain upward social mobility. As a result, an increasing number of Latinos are
accessing education.
19
Historical Perspective of Latino Education in the U.S.
Latino education from 1898-1960. Due to the influx of Latino immigrants to the
United Stated in the 1800’s, a major shift in the public expansion of education occurred
between 1898 and 1960. During this time period, schools were unable and unwilling to
meet the challenges posed by the increase in the Latino population. Schools viewed
Latino students through a deficit perspective lens, ignored the needs of this diverse
group, and responded by trying to eliminate the differences brought on by these students.
As a result, “schools served a reproductive function and sought to ensure that they
remained a subordinate group by providing them with only limited access to separate,
inferior, subtractive and non-academic instruction” (San Miguel and Donato, 1998, p.
29).
Until the 1960’s, the Latino community was excluded from important decision-
making positions of power in education. This undoubtedly had an impact on decisions
made by officials regarding appropriate access to schools. Although some Latino
students attended integrated schools, most were enrolled in separate classrooms or school
facilities. At first, this segregation was limited to the elementary grade levels, but, by the
mid 1920’s, state officials began funding local request for increased segregation at the
secondary levels (San Miguel and Donato, 1998).
During this time period, Latino students were often classified as intellectually
inferior based on intelligence test scores (Soto, 2008). During this time period, educators
used IQ test score results to classify students into one of four categories: educationally
mentally retarded (EMR), slow, regular, or gifted. As a result of these tests, a majority of
Latino students were labeled as EMR or slow. These students were then systematically
20
placed in “developmentally appropriate” classes or curricular tracks. Within these tracks,
curriculum was not academically rigorous and was linguistically and culturally
subtractive. This ultimately led to English only policies throughout the nation. Students
were not allowed to speak Spanish in their classes and had their cultural heritage
devalued. This educational conformity of social and economic subordination by the
dominant group caused contestation, as the Latino community began to confront the
issues of school discrimination (San Miguel and Donato, 1998).
Latino Education from the 1960’s-Present. A significant change occurred
during the 1960’s, as Latinos gained increased access to important positions of power.
Although underrepresented in comparison to the dominant group, Latinos were being
elected as state legislatures, state, county, and local boards of education, and state and
private board of regents. Latinos were also hired in significant numbers as educators and
administrators for the public school system (San Miguel and Donato, 1998).
Despite the changes in legislation and policies, segregation, unequal education,
and subtractive schooling in the form of cultural heritage continued to flourish. During
the 1970’s the educational focus of Latino student shifted from classroom curriculum to
cultural deficits and home upbringing. Problems in learning were identified as being
“located in the culture of the home, where underrepresented students were at a
disadvantage compared to their middle-class Anglo counterparts because they lacked the
reading resources, activities, and programs to become educated” (Soto, 2008, p. 12).
Legislatures viewed education through a cultural deficit lens and presumed that by re-
educating families and creating remedial programs, the educational deficit exhibited by
Latino students would be offset. One notable program which stemmed from this school
21
of thought was Headstart, which focused on promoting school readiness by enhancing the
social and cognitive development of early childhood learning through the provision of
educational, health, nutritional, and social services to enrolled students and their families
(Soto, 2008).
Beginning with the 1970’s, the education of Latinos began to focus on language
acquisition, language function, and bilingualism as a variety of bilingual programs
proliferated. Within the classroom, linguistic subtraction was eliminated with the
passing of the federal Bilingual Education Act of 1968. Under this initiative, native
language instruction began to be used as a vehicle for the acquiring English language
proficiency. By 1978, thirty-four states had repealed their English only policies and
enacted bilingual education polices. These changes led to creation and expansion of
bilingual education programs such as English as a Second Language, early and late exit,
and dual language programs (Soto, 2008).
Bilingual education incorporates the use of two languages (English and native
language) to teach a given student population. It allows students to develop vocabulary
in their native language while learning English. This allows students to learn and
understand instruction while they are mastering English (Rolstad and MacSwan, 2010).
According to Ovando and Collier (1985), bilingual education contains the following
“three characteristics: (1) continued development of the student’s primary language; (2)
acquisition of the second language, which for limited English proficient students is
English; (3) instruction in the content areas using both the primary language and the
second language” (as cited in Soto, 2008, p. 45). Although bilingual education programs
22
vary from state to state, they typically follow one of three models: the transitional model,
the two-way bilingual model, and the maintenance model (Soto, 2008).
The transitional model was the most utilized model in classroom instruction
throughout the United States. In this model, students with limited English proficiency
received most of their subject area instruction in their native language as well as English
as a second language. Once they achieved English proficiency, they were mainstreamed
into English only classes. One of the major problems with this model is that segregation
typically occurs when limited English proficient students are grouped together in
classrooms. Oftentimes, this isolation leads to a lack of interaction between these
students and the main student population, causing a negative labeling of the students
enrolled in these types of classes (Soto, 2008).
The two-way bilingual model (also known as dual language immersion) is an
integrated model in which students who speak one of two languages are placed together
in a bilingual classroom. Typically, dual language programs consist of 50% of the
population who speak English only, and 50% of the students who speak another language
such as Spanish (although California schools typically follow a 90:10 model). The
premise is that students will learn from each other’s language, work academically in both
languages, and develop high level proficiency in both languages. Research has shown
that part of the reason dual language programs is that they establish a “clear
understanding of equitable treatment” and “focus on the needs of culturally and
linguistically diverse students” while integrating multicultural themes into instruction
(Soto, 2008, p. 110).
23
Out of the three bilingual models, perhaps the least utilized is the maintenance
model. This model emphasizes the preservation of the ethnic language and culture
without much regard to the completion of the program and mainstreaming into the
general population. Curriculum is given in both English and a student’s native language,
with the idea that the student will become proficient in both languages. Supporters of
this model believe it is successful because “concepts, knowledge, and skills attained in
their native language will eventually be transferred into English, [and] this methodology
ensures that students will not only become bilingual but also have grade-level knowledge
in the content areas” (Soto, 2008, p. 46).
By the 1980’s and 1990’s, research conducted on bilingual education provided
varying results regarding its effectiveness. The ongoing debate on its effectiveness has
inevitably caused a political battle between those who support bilingual education and
those who believe that English should be the only language used as an instructional
medium. The “English Only” movement’s primary concern is the preservation of the
English Language. One of the most significant policies brought forth by the English
Only movement was the passage of Proposition 227 in California on June, 2, 1998. The
intent of this proposition was to end bilingual education by mandating that all students in
California schools would learn English by being taught in the English language (Soto,
2008).
The passage of Prop 227 reformed bilingual education once again. Under this
proposition, students entering California public schools with limited English proficiency
were “observed” for thirty days. If, after thirty days, they still were not proficient, they
were placed in a “Sheltered English Immersion”/”Structured English Immersion”
24
program for one year. The expectation was that, after one year, students would be
proficient in English and could be mainstreamed into English classes. If a student was
still unable to acquire the language, parents could request that they be placed in
alternative programs where content subject matter could be taught in the student’s native
language (Soto, 2008).
The passage of Prop 227 led the wave of school reform that favors English only
instruction and that is still practiced. The passage of the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) on January 8, 2001, brought forth standards-based curriculum and assessments
into the classroom, with the idea that all students would be proficient in all standards set
for all core subjects. The basic premise of this mandate was to close the achievement gap
among all student groups, including English Learners. In 2002, the passage of Chapter
386 of the Massachusetts Acts required public schools to identify, assess, and place
English language learners in sheltered English instruction classrooms throughout
American schools. Within these classrooms, teachers could only use “physical activities,
visual aides, and the environment to teach English vocabulary for concept development
in mathematics, science, and social studies” to teach English Learners (Soto, 2008, p.
14). Although the support for English Learners has become a primary focus within the
United States’ educational system in recent years, an achievement gap continues to exist
between White and minority students, including Latino males.
Social Capital in Education
A lack of social capital has frequently been cited as a reason Latino students
underachieve and are unsuccessful in education (Brannstrom, 2008; Salvatore & Sohoni,
2007; Sirin, 2003; Yun & Moreno, 2006). Research conducted by Yosso (2005) and
25
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) disagreed with these finding and found that Latinos do
possess social capital. According to Valenzuela (1999), this social capital is known as
educación which conceptualizes the proper moral, ethical, and social ways a person is to
live his/her life.
Social Capital - a Eurocentric perspective. Throughout history, a lack of social
capital in education has been apparent as only those who were privileged have
traditionally had access to education. This was first evident during the Greco-Roman era,
where it was commonplace for only non-minority sons of the wealthy and more
privileged classes to attend schools. This type of segregation lasted until the 1800’s when
institutions began to cater to women, minorities, and lower class citizens (Lucas, 2006).
In the late 1800’s, women’s colleges began to issue academic degrees to students.
In 1842, the first black school, known as “An Institute for Colored Youth” was
established in Philadelphia. During the latter half of the 1900’s, the inclusion of
women’s studies, black studies, gay studies, and Latino studies in academic curriculum
was introduced at many institutions. These advancements were directly enhanced by the
heightened political support of equality and academic accessibility. At the present, a step
in the proper direction occurred when the Supreme Court ended segregation within all
institutions on October 29, 1969, (Lucas, 2006). This historical perspective demonstrates
how minorities historically lacked social capital in education because of segregation.
Currently, segregation of a different type still affects minorities within the educational
system, but it is in terms of socioeconomic status.
A phenomenon which occurs due to social capital is that segregation occurs
throughout many low socioeconomic status neighborhoods. Data showed that Latinos
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and African Americans make up a large percentage of poverty stricken areas. According
to the “data from the 2000 U.S. Census…62% of African Americans and 48% of Latinos
would need to move to eradicate neighborhood segregation in metropolitan areas”
(Goldsmith, 2009, p. 1913).
This racial segregation often results in African Americans’ and Latinos’ attending
schools with a higher proportion of minorities in comparison to Whites, who are more
likely to attend more homogenous schools (Goldsmith, 2009).
According to Sirin (2003), the schools that socioeconomically disadvantaged
students typically attend are urban schools which are often academically low-performing.
John Ogbu (1990) explained that, when minority students attend a low performing
school, they receive inferior education in comparison to students from the dominant
group who have access to superior education (pg. 50). A recent study by Oakes et al.
(2004) found that African American and Latino students attended schools where non-
Whites made up 78%-81% of the population, while 63% of White students attended
majority White schools (Yun & Moreno, 2006). Since African American and Latino
students are “more likely to come from disadvantaged household backgrounds than
[White students], it is reasonable to expect lags in achievement among these subgroups”
(Brannstrom, 2008, p. 464).
This Eurocentric model of social capital depicts Latino males at a deficit. This
deficit thinking places Latino families and students at blame for their poor academic
performance because it infers that Latinos do not have the social capital needed to be
educationally successful because they lack: a) normative cultural knowledge and skills,
and b) Latino parents do not value or support their child’s education (Yosso, 2005).
27
There is evidence to suggest that this conjecture may be a misconception. According to
researchers such as Yosso (2005) and Valenzuela (1999), Latinos have social capital that
is culturally-based and focuses on rearing a child to be a respectful, responsible, and well
behaved adult capable of being successful in life.
Cultural Capital & Educación. Yosso (2005) found that minority students have
cultural capital known as Community Cultural Wealth, which is capital drawn from their
homes and communities. First adapted by Oliver and Shapiro (1995), Community
Cultural Wealth draws from various forms of capital: Aspirational, Familial, Social,
Linguistic, Navigational, and Resistant (Yosso, 2005).
Aspirational capital is also known as resiliency and refers to a person’s ability to
remain hopeful for the future despite hardships. Familial capital is the cultural
knowledge among familia (kin or family) which places emphasis on the community and
focuses on lessons in caring and coping, which informs moral, emotional, educational,
and occupational consciousness. Through storytelling, legends, and corridos, Latino
youth learn about conquest, segregation, labor market stratification, patriarchy,
assimilation, and resistance. Using this knowledge can assist in the survival of everyday
life by providing an understanding of certain situation (Delgado Bernal, 2001).
Social capital refers to the network or people and community resources that
provide instrumental and emotional support to navigate through society’s institutions.
Linguistic capital consists of the social and intellectual skills gained from communication
in more than one language. Navigational capital refers to the ability to maneuver through
social institutions, and resistant capital refers to the knowledge and skills learned through
oppositional behavior that occurs when facing inequality (Yosso, 2005). These six forms
28
of capital create the cultural roots which are all part of a Latino youth’s upbringing - a
concept which is also known as educación.
In Subtractive Schooling, Valenzuela (1999) uses the term educación to help
explain cultural roots embedded in a Latino youth’s upbringing. Educación “refers to the
family’s role of inculcating in children a sense of moral, social, and personal
responsibility and serves as the foundation for all other learning” (Valenzuela, 1999, p.
23). The focus is to raise a child to be caring, well-mannered, respectful, and
responsible. Through educación Latinos understand and respect the individuality of
others, a competence that is essential to functioning within a diverse society.
Research conducted by Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) also found that cultural
capital of Latino families placed emphasis on educación, or proper rearing of a child. In
a study conducted on the connection between cultural models and settings and student
achievement, it was established that Latino parents placed priority on a child’s moral
development. Parents believed it was their primary responsibility to raise a child who is
a “persona de bien” (a good person). While the longitudinal study discovered that
parents believed education was the key to “becoming somebody,” they were primarily
responsible for rearing a child who was respectful, knew right from wrong, and was well-
behaved. To these parents, assuring their child’s academic success was more of a
responsibility of the school system (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Studies conducted by researchers such as Yosso, Valenzuela, and Gallimore and
Goldenberg reveal that Latinos do possess a form of social capital known as cultural
capital. Unlike the Eurocentric model of social capital, cultural capital demonstrates that
Latino students utilize cultural strengths from diverse linguistic and cultural resources to
29
function in schools and society (Delgado Bernal, 2001). There is a significant divide in
viewpoints between a parent’s expectation of their child and a school’s expectations of
that child as a “student.” According to some researchers, the academic success of Latino
students will require that educators change their practice and philosophy regarding
classroom instruction from a Eurocentric model to one that is culturally-based (Bennet,
2001; Gay, 2000, Valenzuela, 1999).
From Eurocentric to Multicultural Education
Educational philosophy within the United States is of European and middle class
origins. It is so deeply “ingrained in the structures, ethos, programs, and etiquette of
schools” that “formal education [has become] about learning how to read, write, and
think…in certain prescribed ways consistent with certain beliefs” (Gay, 2000, p. 9).
When Latino students enter the educational system, their cultural identities are often
systematically derogated and diminished. An example is often seen in the way bilingual
students are classified. Students are often given a negative label such as “Limited
English Proficient,” rather than one that is positive such as “Spanish dominant”
(Valenzuela, 1999). Latino students would be more capable of achieving academic
success if their culture were valued and represented within the curriculum.
According to Bennet (2001), using a student’s own culture as a context for
learning helps him/her relate psychologically and socially. Delgado Bernal (2002)
discovered that Latino college students believed that their bilingualism had a positive
impact on them academically and socially. Similarly, Gutierrez (2002) found that, at the
elementary levels, teachers working with Latino students were “more likely to see the
importance of understanding a student’s primary language” (p. 1049). This is significant
30
considering that, at the secondary and post-secondary school levels, “teachers seem to be
more loyal first to their subject matter and second to their students’ personal
growth...[that] students’ ethnic/racial or linguistic experiences are seen as playing an
insignificant role of teaching and learning” (p. 1049).
According to Gay (2000), the success of Latinos and other minority groups within
the educational system is dependent upon the infusion of culture into the curriculum. This
theory, known as “culturally responsive teaching,” is defined as “using cultural
knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically
diverse students to make learning encounter more relevant” (Gay, 2000, p. 29).
According to Gay, Latino students come to school having successfully mastered cultural
skills and ways of knowing (cultural capital). Building on these capabilities will result in
academic success.
In order for school achievement to improve, instructional practices will need to be
more consistent with cultural orientations, experiences, and learning styles of Latinos.
Research found that the lack of culture infused into the curriculum causes disconnect
among Latino students within the educational system. In a qualitative study conducted
by Delgado Bernal (2002), a male Latino undergraduate student came to the realization
that, throughout his high school education, his cultural and ethnic history had been
omitted from curriculum. This caused him to be disappointed in his school’s focus on
Eurocentric history that denied the history of students of color. This “disappointment”
described by the Latino student can lead to what researchers describe as “resistance.”
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Resistance
When a population or group feels that they have been treated wrongly or unjustly,
the members of that population or group often “resist” in an attempt to gain equitable
treatment. Research has found that, due to the depiction of the Latino population as
suppressed and underachieving within the educational system, Latino students often
engage in resistance that is motivated by a desire to create just and equitable learning
environments. This phenomenon is often overlooked and understudied in educational
research (Solorzano and Delgado Bernal, 2001).
Latino students who are motivated by an interest in social justice and have an
opinion of social oppression will often exhibit a form of resistance. Delgado Bernal
describes four types of oppositional resistance: reactionary behavior, self-defeating
resistance, conformist resistance, and transformational resistance. Students who display
reactionary behavior are not necessarily motivated by social justice. This behavior is
often viewed as “acting out,” sometimes negatively to get a reactionary response. Self-
defeating resistance is exemplified by students who believe that they are being socially
oppressed, but choose to engage in behavior that helps to re-create the oppressive
condition. Students who demonstrate conformist resistance often realize that there is a
social justice issue, and try to solve the issue without understanding social systems and
social conventions. Transformational resistance is the “prove others wrong” mentality
and occurs when a student understands the notion of oppression and has the desire for
social justice through positive actions that counteracts the oppression (Solorzano and
Delgado Bernal, 2001).
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Transformational resistance is often demonstrated by Latino students who are
able to academically achieve regardless of any inequity they may have experienced
within the educational system. Valenzuela (1999) described this behavior as “positive
resistance.” This type of behavior occurs when students take positive courses of action to
achieve their goals and gain control of their own learning. A study conducted by
O’Conner (1997) on African American youth also verified the phenomenon of positive
resistance. His study found that, when children were faced with oppression or
exclusionary forces within society, they have the ability to react constructively and
optimistically (as cited in Valenzuela, 1999, p. 229).
Based on these studies, it can be inferred that Latino students who have achieved
post-secondary schooling have exemplified transformational/positive resistance because
they have been able to oppose the educational statistics which continually label them as
underachieving. The number of Latino males obtaining post-secondary education has
steadily been on the rise. It is estimated that, within community colleges, minority
students constitute 60% of the total enrollment nationwide (Martinez and Fernandez,
2004).
Post-secondary schools have been referred to as institutional sites where students
gain the social and cultural capital needed for upward and social mobility. A study
conducted by Martinez and Fernandez (2004) among Latino students attending
community colleges found that a majority of the students wanted to obtain a minimum of
a bachelor’s degree and transfer to a four year institution. The students had the desire
and motivation to achieve high academic goals because they were aware that these goals
33
would translate into future occupational and career opportunities (Martinez and
Fernandez, 2004).
Data has suggested that, despite the fact that the number of Latinos attending
college has been increasing, the retention rate of this population has not improved.
Zalaquett (2006) suggests that Latino students may not have dropped out of school, but
may have been “pushed out.” According to Zalaquett, Latino students are “pushed out
due to the implementation of schools’ curriculum and regulations that only meet the
needs of mainstream students” (p. 36). In a study conducted on successful Latino
students, Zalaquett identified several factors which have an impact on student success.
The factors included family, education, a sense of accomplishment, friendships,
community support, and school personnel. The study concluded that understanding these
identified core factors may help educators better comprehend what leads successful
Latino students to pursue post-secondary education.
Student Success
In order to identify attributes that lead to academic achievement, success must
first be operationally defined. One way to identify success is to focus on a student’s
persistence to academically achieve and move forward regardless of the obstacles they
face. This type of research has focused on persistence and post-secondary degree
attainment as the primary measures of student success (Kuh et al., 2008). It is a common
understanding in American society that a college degree is linked with economic self-
sufficiency. A bachelor’s degree is now considered a tie to “long term cognitive, social,
and economic benefits to individuals…enhancing the quality of life of the families…and
the larger society” (Kuh et al., 2008, p. 540).
34
For purposes of this study, success will be based on the concept that a Latino
male student coming from a low performing urban high school located within a low
socioeconomic neighborhood has demonstrated success by completing high school and is
attaining some form of post-secondary education (college, university, technical/trade
school). The rationale behind defining success in this manner is that “school failure is all
too common among low-income youth, especially low-income youth from racial-ethnic
minority groups” (Oyserman et al., 2007, p. 479). To assist with the identification of
attributes that may lead to success,
Cantalalo et al. found similarities in various positive behavior programs that he
called “themes” which were common to success. These themes included bonding
relationships with others and as well as self-efficacy (pg. 114). Other research showed
that student engagement and persistence are also common attributes that successful
students have exemplified (Fischer, 2007).
Factors Linked to Student Success
Relationships. Social relationships with parents and students have been linked to
academic achievement. A number of studies demonstrated that a student’s home
environment is linked to positive student outcomes. Utilizing a qualitative study with
college students, Elizabeth Fulton and Lisa Turner (2008) found that an authoritative
parenting style coupled with warmth, autonomy granting, and behavior supervision were
positively correlated with a student’s academic motivation and success. Warmth was
defined as responsiveness and involvement, autonomy was encouraging a student’s
individuality, and behavioral supervision was setting limits/boundaries and constant
monitoring of a student. A significant finding of the study was that parental supervision
35
was the strongest predictor for lower rates of behavior problems (Fulton & Turner, 2008).
It has also been demonstrated that teacher-student interpersonal relationships are also a
predictor for student achievement.
Qualitative studies have found that “positive social relationships can create
powerful incentives for students to come to school, even [for] students who report that
school work is difficult and expectations are hard to meet” (Lee & Burkham, 2003, p.
363). These findings are relevant in addressing the needs of low-performing and at-risk
students. In the book titled Reviving the Soul of Teaching, authors Terrance Deal and
Peggy Redman (2009) state that, as a student, “you’ll rarely remember what teachers
actually taught. But you’ll never forget who they were or how they made you feel” (p.
33). The idea is that, if a teacher is able to build a strong bond and connection with an
“at risk” student, then that student may become more engaged in learning and more likely
to remain in school until they graduate. Research also showed that “engagement is
associated with positive academic outcomes, including achievement and persistence in
school, and is higher in [schools] with supportive teachers” (Fredricks et al., 2004, p. 87).
Although positive social relationships can assist with a student’s motivation and drive to
academically achieve, persistence is one of the attributes that successful students
exemplify in terms of goal commitments.
Persistence. Vincent Tinto conducted a multitude of research studies on student
persistence and academic achievement. His studies consistently showed that there is a
relationship between retention rates and student persistence. On the average, African
Americans and Latinos have been shown to have lower grades in school and to be more
likely to leave school. It has also been observed that the largest rate of student attrition
36
occurs during the first year of college, with an even higher rate occurring among
Mexican American students (Otero et al., 2007). These students are more likely to be
first generation college students, depend on financial aid to attend school, and face a
more difficult time integrating into college life (Fischer, 2007).
Tinto argues that, although family support is a factor associated with student
achievement, it can also pose a hindrance to a student’s integration into college life. He
found that, as a student maintains active ties to friends and relatives off campus, they
tend to be pulled away from actively integrating into the social life on campus. In order
to assimilate into the college community, it is necessary for students to socially integrate
with their peers and separate from the communities of their past (Tinto, 1993). Rafael
Otero et al. (2007) conducted a study to identify the academic and demographic variables
associated with the persistence of Latino students. They found that a “students’
commitment to the institution, commitment to goals, and integration with the campus
environment would be the best predictors of student retention” (Otero, et al., 2007).
Persistence among student is often associated with their level of engagement in school,
which has also been identified as an attribute that successful students exemplify.
Engagement. Student engagement has been described as the amount of effort
(time and energy) that students are willing to commit to educationally purposeful
activities, as well as interactions among faculty and peers. Greene et al. (2008) studied
student engagement among African American and Latino community college students.
They argued that student engagement is essential for the success of minority and low
achieving students. They concluded that minority students who remained engaged with
school related academic and extracurricular activities produced positive academic
37
outcomes (Greene, et al., 2008). This research supports findings of other similar studies
conducted on student engagement.
A study conducted by Swigart and Murrell (2001) on African Americans
attending community college found that positive academic outcomes were demonstrated
by students who exerted more effort toward activities “related to coursework, library use,
faculty member and student interaction, writing, and use of computer technology.” The
findings demonstrate that students with lower academic abilities will increase their
chances of academic success if they pursue effective educational practices. These
practices can assist with developing positive outcomes in the areas of critical thinking,
writing skills, and learning for self-understanding (Pascarella, et al., 2004). Research
conducted by Astin (1984) also had similar findings. Astin found that students who
became more involved in various aspects of college life had better short term and long
term outcomes and concluded that the degree and quality of involvement in campus
activities had a direct correlation with a student’s development (Astin, 1984). Student
engagement can only be possible when the structure of an institution allows for access to
student resources and services.
An institution’s campus climate has been shown to have an effect on student
engagement. The idea is that, if a student feels comfortable with his/her surrounding
environment, he/she is more apt to become involved in campus activities. Fisher (2007)
found that students who lack in sufficient interaction with others or have a negative
college experience are more likely to leave the institution. This concept especially holds
true for minority students.
38
Research showed that a minority student’s perception of an institution’s climate
can have an adverse effect on his/her academic and social lives. A study conducted on
Chicano and Latino students established that minority students who attended
predominantly White institutions felt stressors associated with their minority status on
campus. These stressors included interpersonal tensions with White students and
faculty, as well as feelings of alienation and discrimination (Hurtado & Carter, 1997).
According to Fisher, these stressors may eventually cause a minority student to leave
school.
The sense of alienation and tension minorities may feel on campus can be
“resisted by [individuals] who have developed effective social networks” (Sanders, 2002,
p. 333). In order for this occur, institutions must allow for minority students to become
connected to communities that have a sense of “cultural familiarity” to them. . A
minority student has the ability to adapt and succeed college. In order to do so, s/he must
be able to maintain a balanced interaction between the internal campus community and a
community that has cultural traditions similar to his/her own ethnic heritage (Hurtado &
Carter, 1997).
In order for minority students to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance within
an institution, a school must also address the various dimensions of campus climate,
“including social relations among diverse groups of students, friendliness, comfort,
belonging, and college support of diversity, safety, and equitable treatment by staff,
faculty, and students (Maxwell & Shammas, 2007, p. 348). It has also been suggested
that an individual’s ethnic identity (acceptance of one’s own ethnicity) also plays a role
in his/her engagement in college. Student development ethnic identity theorists believe
39
that a minority student will not be able to integrate into college life until he/she has been
able to acclimate socially with students of other races and ethnicities. This cannot be
fully realized by a minority student until he/she has accepted his/her own ethnic identity
(Pope, 2005).
Ethnic Identity. Ethnic identity “is often considered to be the portion of one’s
overall social identity that derives from one’s ethnic group membership (Yip & Fuligni,
2002, p. 1557). At the time of this study, little ethnic identity developmental information
for Latinos (Pope, 2005) was available. To gain a better understanding of how ethnic
identity develops for minority students in comparison to their White counterparts, the
ethnic identity development of African Americans and Asian minority groups were
reviewed alongside research conducted by Phinney.
The racial identity development theory of African Americans by William Cross
and the Asian American Identity Development by Stanley Sue both are stage theories that
explain how ethnic identity development occurs for two specific minority groups. In
both theories, the “stages are sequential in nature, although the process is not linear and
automatic” (Kim, 2001, p. 283). The theorists believe that it is possible for a minority to
stop developing at a certain stage and never move onto the next stage.
Cross’s racial identity model explains the ethnic identity development of African
Americans in a series of five stages. Stage one, known as the pre-encounter stage, is
when an African American “accept[s] the dominant Anglo-European world view and
seek to become assimilated into White mainstream society” (Bennett, 2002, p. 23). In
stage two, conflict arises in which an experience changes a person’s own self-image as
well as his/her view of how African Americans are viewed by society. Stage three is one
40
in which an African American experiences negativity towards the White race and prefers
to live in an all-Black American society. In stage four, internalization occurs in which
“the individual achieves greater inner security, self-satisfaction, a healthy sense of Black
identity and pride, and feels less hostility towards Whites” (Bennett, 2002, p. 23). The
final stage is where an individual chooses to become actively involved in attempts to
bring about social justice by changing structures within society. Similar to Cross’s
theory, the Asian American Identity Development Theory (AAID) is also comprised of
five distinct stages.
The first stage of AAID is the ethnic awareness stage, in which Asians become
aware of their own ethnicity from interactions and experiences they have with family
members and relatives. Their identity as an Asian American is strengthened in this stage
if they are able to actively participate in cultural activities. The second stage is known as
the White Identification stage. During this stage, Asians realize that they are different
from White individuals, and begin to try to fit into the White society. Asian Americans
“begin to internalize White societal values and standards and see themselves through the
eyes of White society, especially regarding standards of physical beauty and
attractiveness” (Kim, 2001, p. 284).
The white identification stage can either be considered active or passive in nature.
Active White Identification occurs when an Asian person views him/herself as equivalent
to their white counterpart. During Passive White Identification, an Asian person views
him/herself as inferior to Whites and wishes s/he could be White. Stage three is known
as the Awakening to Social Political Consciousness stage. During this stage, Asian
people identify themselves as a minority and gain political consciousness centered on the
41
awareness of White racism. Called the Redirection to an Asian American
Consciousness, the fourth stage occurs when an Asian American becomes secure in and
accepting of his/her ethnicity. S/he becomes immersed in experiencing his/her own
cultural traditions, and acquires racial pride and a positive self-image regarding his/her
Asian American Heritage. The final stage is known as Incorporation. During this stage,
a person has confidence in his/her own Asian American identity and can relate to many
other ethnic groups without losing his/her own identity. The main characteristic “of this
last stage is the blending of individuals’ racial identity with the rest of their social
identities” which is imperative to discovering and accepting one’s self (Kim, 2001, p.
288).
Understanding some of the various studies on ethnic identity development of
minorities may provide some insight on the development of Latino students. What is
similar with both developmental theories is that they occur in stages, with the end stage
being the acceptance of one’s own ethnic identity. Once a Latino student is able to
accept his/her own identity, then, he/she will be able to socially integrate into college life.
Research has revealed that ethnic identity can be influential on self-efficacy as well as
one’s the ability to cope with discrimination, both which can have a positive effect on
academic achievement (Umana-Taylor, 2004).
Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy has been extensively researched by Albert Bandura
and can be described as a person’s own management of his/her functioning and his/her
ability to exercise control of events that affect their lives (Benight & Bandura, 2004). It
is, in essence, an individual’s evaluation of his or her performance on a specific task
(Rueda & Dembo, 1995). An individual’s self-perception can be either “self-enhancing”
42
or “self-debilitating” and can either motivate or defeat that individual in terms of success.
Individuals who have perceived self-efficacy are able to cope and adapt when faced with
stressful situations. These individuals have the ability to handle and adjust to a potentially
risky situation with the confidence of knowing that they can be successful (Benight &
Bandura, 2004).
In a qualitative study conducted by Turner et al. regarding parenting styles,
motivation, and self-efficacy, concluded that there was a correlation between grade point
average (GPA) and self-efficacy. The more a student believed that he/she was capable of
doing well in his/her academics, the more he/she was likely to be academically
successful. The study also found a correlation with success and confidence. The more
success that a student is able to experience, the more confident he/she will be at
succeeding in the future (Turner, et al., 2009).
Research continues to support that one of the attributes achieving students possess
is self-efficacy. Students who have a combination of “low academic self-efficacy with
poor attendance and poor grades may eventually [be] on the pathway to dropping out”
(Hickman, et al, 2008, p. 4). Johnson (2006) found that self-concept among Latinos has
historically been “denigrated” in a similar fashion as the identity of African Americans
(pg. 77). This has left Latino children growing up feeling devalued by society due to
their ethnic identity. This low self-efficacy has left Latino families lacking the cultural
value of viewing educational achievement (such as attending college) as attainable
(Johnson, 2006).
43
Conclusion
The Latino population continues to be the fastest growing population in the
United States. In the year 2007, it was estimated that only 11.4% of the Latino
population attended a post-secondary institution in comparison to 64.4% of White
students. The challenge for educators is to increase the number of Latinos who graduate
and continue their education beyond high school. The purpose of this research was to
identify the attributes that successful Latino males exemplify and which help them
become academically successful. The findings of this study may give educators insight
regarding how to assist at-risk Latino males achieve success.
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Chapter 3: Methodology
Qualitative Research
The study of human behavior is best conducted in a setting that is consistent with
the basic nature of the subject being studied. For this reason, a qualitative research
approach was utilized for this study. Qualitative research has long been used by
anthropologists, sociologists, and psychologists to collect data in the field. In 1916,
cultural anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski used qualitative research to observe the
daily life of a nonwestern town. Using a “native’s point of view,” Malinowski described
what the fieldwork experience was like, thus laying the foundation for interpretive
anthropology. Malinoski believed that culture could only be understood by the human
experience, which is knowledge that is gained through observation and is “inductively
sought” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). Utilizing the approach of Malinowski, anthropologist
Margaret Mead applied the concepts to researching education within the United States.
Mead conducted research on various types of schools (little red schoolhouses, city
schools, and academies) and the role that teachers have at these various institutions.
From her research, she concluded that, in order to be effective instructors, teachers
needed to study the changing context of a student’s upbringing and socialization through
field observations and firsthand experiences. This concept of field research, as described
by anthropologists such as Mead, pioneered the creation of the Chicago Sociology model
(Bogdan, & Biklen, 1998; Flick, 1998).
The Chicago Sociology model was created by a group of sociology teachers from
the Chicago School during the 1920’s and 1930’s. These educators made great
contributions to the development of the qualitative research model. They relied on
45
gathering firsthand data and saw the importance of personalities which emerged from
social interactions. Robert Park, an essential figure in the Chicago School and former
reporter, introduced journalism practices into qualitative research. Park emphasized the
“importance of being on site [which brought] the role of personal observation to the
forefront” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998, p. 9). Throughout the year, other researchers from
the United States and Europe continued to contribute to the development of the
qualitative research approach.
The goal of qualitative research is to “better understand human behavior and
experience” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998, p. 38). Qualitative research primarily utilizes two
sources of data: verbal data and visual data. Verbal data is oftentimes collected through
interviews or narratives of individuals or groups of people. Visual data is collected from
various forms of observational methods such as ethnographies, participant and non-
participant observations, and the visual analysis of artifacts such as photos, documents, or
film. Once collected, visual data is transformed into text through documentation while
verbal data is transcribed. The text is then interpreted, analyzed and finally summarized
as the findings of the study (Flick, 1998).
This research involved a qualitative case study of five male Latino college
students to investigate the factors that influence their educational attainment. According
to Stake (1995) a case study is “the study of the particularly and complexity of a single
case, coming to understand its activity within important circumstances (as cited in Patton,
2002, p. 297). Case studies are often used in qualitative research as a means of studying
specific cases and thematic analysis across cases. Case studies depend on clearly
defining the “object” of the research, and employ a variety of methods of research
46
ranging from interviews, participant observations, and field studies. Through the
utilization of these methods, multiple types of data collected can include background data
of the participants, observations of their experiences, informal conversational interviews
in the field, and excerpts from their own journals and writing they are willing to share
(Patton, 2002).
Data was collected by way of ethnographic fieldwork through interviews and
observation of the participant during the interview. Ethnography is a particular method
used by researchers to understand a culture. It typically involves participating in
activities such as, asking questions, taking notes, observing play, participating in
ceremonies, and interviewing informants (Spradley, 1980). According to Malinowski
(1922), ethnography assists a researcher in understanding a participants “point of view,
his relation to life, [and] realize his vision of his world” (as cited by Spradley, 1980, p.
3).
The primary goals of participant observation are to engage in purposeful activities
with the subject being studied and observe the activities and interactions that occur in
particular situations. Data is collected in the form of descriptive narratives of the
fieldwork (Spradley, 1980). Participant observations should be limited to an hour or less,
especially during the first few days. According to Bogdan and Biklen (1998)
participation does not necessarily mean spending every minute in the field systematically
looking for evidence or data. Good data can be more easily procured by establishing
good rapport with the participant.
By establishing good rapport with a subject through participant
observation, a researcher may be able to collect more data during interviews since
47
the researcher put a subject at ease by first building a relationship (Bogdan &
Biklen, 1998).
The purpose of an interview is to collect descriptive information in the
subject’s own words so that the researcher can gain insight regarding how the
subject views various aspects of the world (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). By
combining interviews with participant observations, opportunities can arise
spontaneously during regular field contacts, providing ample opportunities for the
researcher to collect data (Flick, 1998). An interview can be considered
ethnographic in nature if it is geared towards understanding human culture.
According to Spradley (1979), an ethnographic interview contains three
important elements: explicit purpose, ethnographic explanations, and
ethnographic questions. Explicit purpose provides the researcher and subject
with clear guidance and direction during an interview. Ethnographic
explanations occur when the subject provides explanations to the interviewer (i.e.
providing cultural information and native language explanations). Finally,
ethnographic questions provide data that is descriptive, structural, and clarifying
in nature (Spradley, 1979). Data from interviews are typically transcribed and
analyzed.
The goal of this research project was to collect data through an interview which
provided insight on attributes of successful Latino male college students. Common
attributes and traits exemplified by all participants within this study were analyzed for
similarities, which were then grouped into themes. Generalizations were made from the
commonalities found from each case study that and were used to make recommendations
48
to secondary and postsecondary educational institutions that serve this specific
population.
Research Questions
Primary Research Question: What attributes do successful Latino males
exemplify that assist in their educational achievement?
Secondary Research Questions:
1. What factors contribute to the success of high school students?
2. What factors assist in the retention of Latino male college students?
Population Sample
Purposeful sampling was utilized for the collection of data. According to Meriam
(1998), “purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the investigator wants to
discover, understand and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the
most can be learned” (Meriam, 1998, pg. 61). Specifically, a criterion homogeneous
sample of five students was used in which each participant needed to fit the following
criteria:
Latino male college student
Came from an urban high school within the same school district
Has proven educational success by continuous enrollment at either a post-
secondary institution, trade school, or technical program
The Story of Each Participant. This research involved a case study of five
Latino male college students. All students attended one of four urban high schools
within the same school district. The school district is currently in year 5+ program
improvement, and is located within a low-socioeconomic status neighborhood. What
49
follows next are the biographical summaries of each of the participants based on the
information gathered through ethnographic interviews.
Anthony Vasquez. A first generation college student and currently a sophomore
attending a community college in the Southern California area, nineteen year old
Anthony graduated from Valley Pointe High School in June of 2009. Until the age of
five, Anthony lived with both of his parents and six siblings. Due to financial hardship,
Anthony and his brothers and sisters became wards of the state and entered the foster
care system. Anthony was separated from his siblings and was placed in a foster home
within the city of Cedar Park.
Anthony spent thirteen years growing up in Cedar Park with various foster
families. He stated that the transition was difficult at first because “of all the fighting”
and the “little gangster wannabes” who picked on him. As a child, he recalled that,
during the day, all the neighborhood children played sports in the streets, but, as nightfall
came, the streets became violent as the older teens and young adults involved in crews
and gangs roamed the streets.
Anthony attended schools within CPUSD, and described his former high school
as “ghetto” because of the environment, which included tagged up restrooms and
“gangsters” who liked to cause problems. As a freshman, he played football and
basketball, but stopped during his junior year because he wanted to try to find a job. He
attributed his academic success in high school to several factors: 1) his foster parent, who
he referred to as grandma, 2) his county social worker, 3) one of his school
administrators.
50
During his last two years of high school, Anthony focused on his education and
was able to graduate by the end of his senior year despite having fallen behind in credits
from failing some of his classes during freshman and sophomore year. His senior year
also marked a monumental change in his life due to the fact that he turned eighteen and
was no longer a ward of the state once he graduated. With the help of his county worker,
he adequately prepared for the transition by applying for housing through the Transient
Housing Program (THP Plus) for former foster children. He also applied for various
scholarships and was awarded four scholarships totaling over $13,000.00 to assist with
his tuition, books, and living expenses. He is now living in his own apartment and is
pursuing a post-secondary education.
At the time of this study, Anthony had almost completed his second year at Quest
Community College. He was accepted into college under the Extended Opportunity
Program and Services (EOP&S), which is designed to help community college students
succeed and successfully transfer to a four year institution. Through this program, he
was awarded financial aid, priority registration, and a counselor who assisted him in
planning his course of study.
He chose criminology as his major, and planned to transfer to a local Cal State
University upon completion of the semester. Within five years, Anthony expected to
have graduated from a local California State University campus with a major in
criminology. His career plans were to find a job in law enforcement, or become an FBI
agent. Long term, Anthony stated that he would eventually like to get married, start a
family, and have a well-paying job so he can buy his own house.
51
Jorge Martinez. At the time of this study, Jorge was a twenty year old sophomore
attending Red Rock Community College in Southern California. He lived at home with
both of his parents, two sisters and one brother in the city of Cedar Park. Jorge described
Cedar Park as a place that used to be ghetto but had improved within the previous few
years. He attributed it to the fact that the City of Cedar Park had recently begun
renovating and making improvements to businesses in its downtown area, as well as to a
major focus on cutting down on crime by taking “the early population of people that were
here that made it bad and kind of cleaned them out.”
He attended schools within CPUSD, and graduated from Timberwood High
School in June of 2008. He stated that the reason the school had a bad reputation was that
some “people don’t do their part and makes it look like a bad school.” He played soccer
all four year and considered his coach someone who knew him well, although he could
not say the same for any of his former teachers or other school personnel. Upon
graduating from high school, Jorge applied and was accepted to a local California State
University campus.
Recalling his first year of college, Jorge explained that his experience was not
very good. When asked why he felt his experience was not very pleasant, he attributed
that mainly to the fact that he was away from home. He had lived in an apartment off
campus while attending school, but stated that he was not ready to be independent.
Reflecting, he believed that living in a dorm on campus could have made a difference.
Typically, after attending all of his classes, he went back to his apartment. He claimed
that he had too much freedom, and, during most weekends, he would “let loose” and
52
“party” which eventually affected his grades. After his second semester of college, he
decided to leave school and move back home.
Although Jorge did not claim to have any immediate goals, he was leaning toward
a major in kinesiology. Shortly after moving back, he enrolled at Red Rock Community
College to continue his education. Jorge stated that his second year of college had been
more enjoyable.
Mark Garcia. Mark was a 21 year old Communications major who was in his
third year of college. A commuter student who was living at home with both of his
parents, he was the second youngest of six children and identified himself as a first
generation college student. He spent the majority of his childhood in Cedar Park.
Describing his neighborhood as nice, he said that the city had been recently “cleaned up.”
As a child, he was exposed to gangs, and “most everything that could distract [him] and
derail [him] from the person [he was] today.”
Although he was surrounded by gang activity, he was never attracted to the
lifestyle. He primarily contributed that fact to his parents who, “from an early age, gave
[him] something to do, and soccer was the gateway.” His parents instilled within him
the idea that a life involved in gangs was not the best road for him to take. Not only were
gangs predominant within his neighborhood, they were also a negative presence at the
high school he attended.
Mark graduated from Timberwood High School in June of 2007. During his first
two years at Timberwood, his perception of the school was that it was racially divided
between the Latino and African American students, causing unrest and sometimes
violence between the two groups. He vividly remembered a time when a fight broke out
53
between members of each group, which quickly escalated into a large riot involving
approximately forty members from each side. There was a point in which school
personnel could not gain control of the situation and police officers were called in to
regain order. Things improved by his senior year as school administration took
proactive steps to improve the school’s climate.
At the time of this study, Mark was enrolled as a full-time student at a local
California State University campus. Maintaining a 3.2 grade point average, he learned
how to juggle his academics with work, sports, and other extracurricular programs. He
was actively involved in the communications club and worked in an office for the
college’s foundation. During his sophomore year, he was recruited by a community
college to play soccer. In order to do so, he maintained eligibility by enrolling as a full-
time student at the community college. This entailed taking classes at both campuses
during the fall semester. To be eligible to play during the 2010-11 season, he took 12
units at the community college and took 8 units at the university.
When asked what attracted him to play at the community college, he credited the
coaching staff, the team’s reputation, and the potential to earn scholarships to help with
his educational goals of graduating with his Bachelor’s degree and attending graduate
school. In his opinion, the community college soccer program was strong in comparison
to the soccer program at his university, demonstrated by the fact that the team won the
State Championships in their division the previous year.
Mark planned to continue to be dually enrolled at both colleges during the fall
semester of his senior year. He had his mind set on leading his team to another State
Championship title the following season. Additionally, his short term goals included
54
graduating with his Bachelor’s Degree in Communications by 2012 and acquiring a job
or internship in the radio broadcasting industry. Long term, he aspired to obtain a
Master’s degree because he does not “think he can do anything with a bachelor’s
nowadays.” Once his career was established, he planned on settling down and having a
family stating, “I definitely want to have kids, you know.”
David Rodriguez. David was a 25 year old first generation graduate student
currently obtaining his single subject teaching credential from the University of
Riverdale (UR), a small private college located in Southern California. The only male
and the youngest of four children, he was born, and raised by his mother and father, in
the city of Cedar Park.
David attended Timberwood High School and graduated in June of 2004. The
only thing he would think about during high school was becoming a professional soccer
player. While in high school, he was on the Olympic Development Soccer Team, and
was one cut away from making the United States’ 17
th
National Soccer Team. Although
he did not make the cut for the National Team, he maintained involvement in athletics at
his high school, running in both track and field and cross country and playing soccer.
Aside from sports, David was involved in the AVID (Advancement Via Individual
Determination), a program that, he explained, targets average students who have the
desire to go to college and places them in advanced courses with rigorous curriculum.
Through the AVID program, David was able to bring his GPA from a 3.1 to 4.0, which
played a large role in allowing him to obtain academic scholarships for college.
A few times a week during the months between spring and fall, David worked at a
local city park as a lifeguard. When David was not working at the pool, he spent time
55
with his friends. He was a member of what he referred to as a “tagging crew.” He and
his friends used to get together late at night on a regular basis and express themselves
through tagging on walls on city streets. When asked what compelled him to be involved
in this type of activity, he stated that it was due to its popularity and was a way that he
could fit in and be viewed as “cool” among his friends. Since not all of his friends were
able to play soccer, being part of a tagging crew was one thing they all had in common.
He emphasized that, even though he was tagging, he took care of business in the
classroom. Tagging was “something I did on the side until 2:00 or 3:00 in the
morning…in the classroom, I was a totally different student…I took care of business.”
As David and his friends grew older, they went their separate ways. While David was
making the transition into college, some of his friends were making the transition into a
life in gangs.
David attended the University of Riverdale (UR), a small private Liberal Arts
college in Southern California, and majored in Spanish. A majority of his tuition was
covered through academic scholarships and grants, for which he credits the AVID
program and his high school coach’s assistance. What drew him to UR was the fact that
a majority of classes had a low student to instructor ratio and the opportunity to stay
involved in athletics at the college level.
Within four years, David completed his Bachelor’s Degree in Spanish from UR
and decided to pursue a career in the field of education. He immediately applied and was
accepted into UR’s teacher credentialing program, and completed his Master’s in
Education by the Spring of 2011. When asked if he could identify any factors that helped
him get to that point in his life, he primarily attributed self-motivation and assistance
56
from former teachers. According to him, his parents never really pushed education and
primarily focused on raising him and his three sisters with proper morals and cultural
values.
Upon graduating with his Master’s Degree from UR, David began teaching
Spanish classes at the high school level. Teaching at a small private academy for the over
a year, he hoped to find a job teaching Spanish at a comprehensive high school,
preferably a school similar in demographics to the high school he graduated from.
Christopher Ramirez. A 25 year old single father of two, Christopher or “Chris”
was in his second year of graduate school, obtaining his Master of Education degree and
teaching credential from the University of Riverdale (UR). Born in the city of Cedar
Park, he and his two older brothers were raised by both of his parents, although he
remembered his mother as the parental figure who was more involved with his
upbringing.
A product of an urban neighborhood, Chris described the city of Cedar Park as
the birthplace of many drugs and gangs. He stated that the city was known for its violent
atmosphere, criminal activities and gang affiliations and that the socioeconomic status of
a majority of the population was low to low-middle class. According to him, many of the
“veteranos” or retired gang members from East Los Angeles and South Central slowly
migrated east into urban cities such as Cedar Park. More of the popular gangs such as
Sur Trece gained a foothold in urban neighborhoods such as Cedar Park and created gang
affiliates such as 12
th
Street and Happy Town. Because of this, any person who was
either Black or Latino and living in the city of Cedar Park was automatically assumed to
have gang ties.
57
Chris attended and graduated from Hillcrest High School in June of 2004. He
immediately applied and was accepted to the University of Riverdale (UR). Coming in
as an undeclared freshman, Chris decided on the movement and sports science program,
majoring in Kinesiology with an emphasis in education. His plan was to graduate with
his Bachelor’s degree, obtain a teaching credential, and enter the teaching/coaching
profession.
When he was on campus, Chris’ typical day began at 6:45AM, and ended at
12:30AM the following day. Between classes, football practices, and spending free time
with friends, he found that there was no reason for him to go home. Chris rationalized
that college was an outlet where he had the opportunity to network and meet new people.
It was a place where he could build lifelong relationships that he could benefit from.
Identifying it as another reason why chose to stay on campus, he believed that
surrounding himself with people with similar goals and interests gave him a better
understanding of what it would take to succeed. In comparison to many of his former
friends, he knew that, as a Latino male coming from a city such as Cedar Park, he could
create a better life for himself if he associated with individuals who had the same goals.
Chris graduated from UR in May of 2008 and immediately entered UR’s teacher
credentialing and Master of Education program. Having a goal of graduating by the
spring of 2011, he planned on finding a job so he could begin putting away money in a
savings account for his daughter’s college fund and purchase a house of his own. His
future plan was to go back to school to study medicine and become a doctor.
Considering himself lifelong learner, he stated that “education is one thing that no one
can take away from you.” Until he is financially secure to pursue a career in medicine,
58
he hoped to work as an educator. A job in this field would allow the time he needed to
care of his daughter as well as the time to become financially stable. His worst fear was
not being able to provide for his child, stating “I never want to look my child in the eye
and tell [her] that I cannot afford it.”
Data Collection
Qualitative data was collected through an hour-long interview. Using an
interview protocol, information was collected regarding each subject’s background, life
experiences, educational challenges, educational achievements, and future goals. With
each subject’s permission, all interviews were recorded and transcribed to guarantee that
all information was accurate.
Data Analysis
To disaggregate the data, all interviews were transcribed and coded. The purpose
of coding was to analyze (text) data that is collected to create grounded theory. Although
various forms of coding exist, this research utilized thematic coding since the research
issue focuses on the social distribution of perspectives on a phenomenon. The underlying
assumption of this process of coding was that, in various social groups, differing
perspectives can be found (Flick, 1998).
The sampling used for thematic coding was “oriented to the groups whose
perspectives on the issue seem to be the most instructive for analysis (Flick, 1998, p.
187). By doing so, the data collected assisted in guaranteeing comparability by defining
specific topics or concepts. The first step in this process was to provide a description and
analysis of each individual case. Taking each individual case, codes or concepts were
attached to the text, which were then separated into categories of themes. This process
59
was repeated for all other cases, and the categories and themes linked between the cases
to the original case were “crosschecked.” The end result was a thematic structure among
the data of all cases involved (Flick, 1998).
For the purpose of this study, data was separated into categories that included
behaviors, traits, and institutional support structures. Commonalities among all five
participants allowed for generalizations to be made regarding some possible attributes
which successful Latino males were likely to possess.
Summary
The 2000 U.S. Census estimated that the Latino population will continue to
increase at a rapid pace. Considering that Latino males remain one of the most
marginalized groups within society, these students fail or drop out of school at a much
higher rate in comparison to their White male counterparts. Educators are faced with a
daunting task of teaching an increasing number of “at-risk” students the appropriate skills
necessary to be productive members of a global community. The purpose of this
qualitative research paper was to identify the internal and external factors that contribute
to the success of Latino male students.
Research was conducted in the form of case studies focused on the lives of five
Latino male college students. A single hour-long interview was conducted for each
participant. Interview data was transcribed and coded into several categories which
included: motivation, self-efficacy, engagement, persistence, and relationships.
Commonalities from the results of these five case studies proposed possible ways that
educators could ensure the success of future Latino male students, both at secondary and
post-secondary levels.
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Chapter 4: Results
Five Latino male college students participated in this research study. The
participants’ ages ranged from 19 to 24. At the time of the interviews, all participants
were actively attending a post-secondary institution and obtaining a degree or
certification. All participants were specifically chosen based on distinguishing
commonalities relative to their educational backgrounds.
All five students attended comprehensive high schools within the Cedar Park
Unified School District (CPUSD), located in Southern California. CPUSD is a relatively
large district, made up of twenty nine elementary schools, seven middle schools, four
comprehensive high schools, one academy high school, and four alternative schools.
Located within the low-socioeconomic status city of Cedar Park, CPUSD is currently a
year four program improvement district, within which over 50% of the schools have been
in program improvement for two years or longer. Out of the four comprehensive high
schools, three are in various levels of program improvement while only one school is
considered high performing.
The demographic make-up of CPUSD is as follows: 82.3% of the student
population identifies as Latino, 6% are African American, 3.6% are White, 4.7% are
Asian, and 3.4% identify as other. Although the socioeconomic status varies from school
to school, approximately 81.3% of students’ district-wide qualify for free or reduced
price lunch, and approximately 42.5% of all students are designated as English Learners.
According to an article published by a local newspaper in 2008, CPUSD had a drop-out
rate of approximately 30%, almost 10% higher than that of any other school district in the
Southern California area.
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All five of the participants attended one of the three program improvement
comprehensive high schools within CPUSD and graduated between the years 2002
and2008. Other commonalities among the participants were that they were all first
generation students and all spent the majority of their childhood growing up in the city of
Cedar Park.
Findings and Data Analysis
A disaggregation and coding of all five interviews found similarities among the
data sets which supported some of the research currently available on factors linked to
student success. As detailed in the literature review, the factors of interest for this study
were in the following areas: Relationships, Persistence, Engagement, Ethnic Identity, and
Self Efficacy. A summary of key findings is listed on Table 1.
Relationships. Data revealed that all five participants identified specific
relationships that assisted them through their educational careers. All participants
identified a nurturing relationship with one or both parental figure(s) that provided them
with support during their upbringing. Interviews revealed that four of the participants
had parents who were married and each grew up in an environment with a strong family
support structure.
Reflecting back on his childhood, Mark said he was raised equally by both of his
parents. Growing up with ethics, morals and values was a primary focus within his
family’s household. The most valuable lesson he learned was how to be responsible. He
recalled being punished whenever he did anything wrong, such as not doing his chores or
getting his homework done. This mindset became second nature for him, to the point
where he viewed various aspects of education as just a part of his everyday
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responsibilities. “I don’t even think about not doing homework, you know…I don’t think
about not going to class…school is just a part of life and that’s something I have to get
done.” Chris learned similar life lessons as both his parents raised him. Chris described
his mother as “pleasant” and stated she taught him to never give up on his dreams. Chris’
father was not around often when he was a child, since he often worked sixteen hour days
to provide for the family and “buy a little bit of luxury.” Due to his unyielding
generosity and self-sacrifice, Chris had a strong admiration for his father, who taught him
the motto “do what you have to do to do what you want to do.”
David and Jorge both described their parents as nurturing, caring, and always
sacrificing in order to be able to provide for them and their siblings. David recalled that,
as a young child, there were times when the only food available were beans and tortillas,
and his parents would practically starve to ensure that he and his sisters were well fed.
This demonstrated an important lesson that he learned from his parents, which was to
“love, support, and care for the ones you love - family always comes first.” Jorge stated
both his parents worked long hours in order to be able to provide for him and his siblings.
This instilled in him the idea that providing for your family and having a strong family
support structure was one of the most important things in life. Another important lesson
his parents taught him was “to always do what was right.” These ideals had such an
impact on Jorge that when he moved out for his first year of college, he had to move back
home because he “missed [his] family as well as [his] mother’s home cooked meals.”
Unlike the others, Anthony had been in the foster care system since the age of six,
but was placed in a foster home with a woman he created a bond with and grew up
calling “grandma.” Although he was not raised by his biological parents as the other four
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participants had been, he considered his grandma as part of his immediate family - even
after moving to a different foster home. He described her as very strict, because “she had
too many rules and he was never allowed to leave the house.” According to him, his
grandma “put all her traits in [him]”by teaching him to view others as equals, help others
in need, and never give up.
This data suggests that parental/guardian involvement and a structured home life
may have an effect with the educational success of students. Another notable factor was
that, for those participants living at home, their parents’ marriage was intact, and both
parents were involved in their rearing. Many of the participants inferred that they were
close to their parents and siblings, and valued the relationship they had with their family
members. This was evident in Jorge’s case, as he moved back home after his first year of
college because he missed his family.
During Jorge’s interview, he revealed that his first year of college at a local
California State University campus was not a great experience. When questioned as to
the reason he was unhappy, his response was that he missed home, his mother’s home
cooking, and the fact that when he lived at home, “everyone was always around,”
whereas at school, he would oftentimes come home to an empty apartment. David,
Chris, and Mark also remained living at home while attending college. All three stated
that they preferred to remain living at home because they had good relationships with
their parents and siblings, and also mentioned that they attribute some of their academic
success to the support of their parents. This evidence supports research conducted by
Fulton and Turner (2008) which investigated the connection between parenting style and
academic motivation and success. Findings from this study demonstrated that parent
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relationships were linked to student academic success. The data also suggested that
student-teacher relationships may have an influence on student achievement.
This data suggested that all five individuals have social capital in the form of a
good parental support structure. In all cases, each participant expressed they learned
from their parents that having a strong commitment to family values is an essential part
of life. Furthermore, each participant expressed they were taught various life skills such
as how to be responsible, treat others with respect, and have a persistent “never give up,
always pursue your dreams” attitude. Analysis through a positive deviance perspective
revealed that these values are examples of how each participant’s parents were able to
instill positive social behaviors, which translates into how they now appropriately behave
and act in society as young adults.
All five of the participants mentioned specific individuals within the educational
community who had a significant impact on their lives. Of the individuals mentioned,
five were teachers, two were a teacher/coach, two were coaches, and one was a high
school administrator. All participants stated that these educators attributed to their
educational success during their high school or college career.
Mark credited his Spanish teacher (who also happened to be his coach for
multiple sports) for much of his success in athletics. It was from his teacher/coach that
Mark developed the philosophy to keep working hard and never give up. He compared
cross country to life, and stated that if “you want to stop, you’ll stop; if you want to keep
going, you’ll keep going.”
Similarly, David also built a strong relationship with his Spanish teacher, Mr.
Valencia. David considered Mr. Valencia one of the most influential teachers that he had
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during high school. In David’s opinion, Mr. Valencia was a great teacher and a big
advocate for higher education. Because David’s parents knew very little about the
educational system within the United States, they were not able to give him guidance or
assist him in the college application process. Mr. Valencia was able to fill that void and
provide the needed assistance for the application and financial aid process needed for
many of the colleges and universities. He was also instrumental in assisting David with
choosing a career path in the field of education.
Recalling his high school experience, Chris identified three individuals whom he
believed had a significant impact on his life. The first was his math teacher, whom he
had as a freshman. He taught Chris that grades were earned through hard work, and when
“you don’t know the material, you don’t make excuses, you work harder.” A second
educator who had a significant impact on Chris was one of his English teachers.
Recognizing he was not a strong reader, she provided additional one-on-one assistance,
worked on his grammar, and coached him on building on his strength in the area of
public speaking. A third educator Chris identified with was his Football and Track &
Field coach. Building a strong bond with this coach, Chris stated he learned that success
can only be achieved through commitment and perseverance.
Unlike Mark, David, and Chris, the remaining two participants identified
individuals other than coaches or teachers who assisted them in high school or no one at
all. Through Anthony’s interview, it was discovered that he had assistance from one of
the high school assistant principals, who helped him with his college and financial aid
applications as well as with letters of recommendation for scholarships. He also revealed
that his county social worker had kept in contact with him often and counseled him when
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he had problems academically as well as in his personal life. Jorge was the only
participant who did not identify an educator that he related with while in high school.
When asked about his former high school, he stated that he considered only some of his
teachers were good at their craft. He believed that his teachers gave him what he needed
to succeed, but attributed his academic success to his own hard work and determination.
It can be inferred from this data that a majority of the participants had access to
social capital while in school in the form of access to coaches and educators who they
identified plating a significant role during at some point of their educational career.
David and Chris both had a high school teacher (who also had a role as their athletic
coach) whom they connected with. Chris mentioned two teachers and a coach had
positive influences on his educational decisions, and Anthony connected with a high
school administrator who assisted him with his scholarship, grant, and college
applications.
Evidence from this data supports research conducted by Deal and Redman (2009)
as well as Fredricks (2004) that a positive correlation exists between student-teacher
relationships and educational outcomes. Evidence of this is supported by David’s
statement, “I believe [he] really changed me because in his classroom, he was not only a
Spanish teacher, but also a big advocate for college…my parents did not show me how to
do my [college] applications, he did. I think he is [now] my closest friend, I call him
every day.”
While attending college, each of the participants also had a social outlet of friends
they spent their free time with. Two participants were closest to their teammates on the
soccer team, while the remaining three mentioned that they had made many new friends
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in college, one of whom considers his college friends as people from his Greek
organization.
Persistence. Each of the participants demonstrated persistence by graduating
from high school and continuing his education at a post-secondary institution. Four of
the participants were able to complete their first year of college successfully; Anthony
was in his second year, Mark was in his third year, and Chris and David had completed
their undergraduate degree and were pursuing a Master’s degree. Although Jorge was
also in his second year at a Junior College, he reported that he attended his first year of
college at a four-year institution, but failed some of his classes. Among the participants,
it was found that there were similar strategies used to assist them with their academics.
It took a lot of determination for Anthony to make it to college. Since he was no
longer in the foster system upon graduating high school, he had to find the means to be
able support himself financially. Applying for various scholarships and federal grants
gave him the funding necessary to find a place to live and attend a local community
college. A sophomore in college, he was maintaining a 3.6 grade point average. He
found his classes challenging, and studied (in the form of reading, and memorization
using flashcards) often to maintain his grades. He stated that he was not afraid to ask any
of his professors’ questions during or after class, but did not typically utilize their office
hours if he needed assistance or did not understand the content. He also rarely used the
campus tutoring center and preferred to ask other classmates for assistance, read
thoroughly on the topic, or utilize the internet.
Part of the reason Jorge maintained his grades was the fact that it was an
expectation of his soccer coaches. Each player had to maintain a 2.5 GPA and enroll in
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the college’s WIN program, a program designed specifically to assist all athletes with
many aspects of their education, which includes tutoring. In Jorge’s opinion, college
professors did not have the time to get to know all of their students, unlike high school,
where teachers knew students on a more personal level. For this reason, he did not
usually approach his teachers when he had a difficult time in any of his classes. Instead,
he either went to the WIN center or asked his friends for assistance. Similar to Jorge,
Mark also utilized the WIN tutoring center at college.
Mark’s case was unique in the fact that he was a full-time student at a four-year
public university and also attended part-time at the local community college in order to
be eligible to play soccer. At the community college, Mark utilized WIN on a daily
basis, because it provided him a place to go on campus and study for exams or complete
class assignments. If he had difficulties in any of his classes, he typically utilized the free
tutoring sessions at WIN. In his opinion, his professors at both of his schools were easily
accessible, and he often approached them when he had any questions or concerns. He
was not afraid to ask questions during class, realizing that, oftentimes, when he asked one
of his professors a question, he would sometimes hear “oh” coming from other students
indicating that they had a similar.
What seemed to surprise David during his first semester of college was how much
he struggled in his Spanish Literature class. He began the year in that class under the
assumption that it would be easy because he spoke Spanish fluently, but quickly found
out that his reading and writing skills were not up to par. Due to this, David utilized the
campus tutoring center frequently, met with his professor during office hours, and asked
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clarifying questions during class. He attributed learning many of these strategies from
the AVID program he was involved with during high school.
A majority of Chris’ time was spent engrossed in his studies on campus. He
recalled spending countless hours studying for his classes, especially if he was having
difficulty with the subject matter. Chris admitted that his pride and stubbornness often
got in the way, and he did not often accept or seek outside assistance. He never utilized
the learning enhancement center, tutoring programs or approached his professors for
help. If he found himself confused in class, he never asked questions because he did not
want to be perceived as the “idiot ghetto kid from [Cedar Park].” His philosophy was “if
I don’t get this, [I] just [need to] work harder and read more.”
All five participants shared that they had taken at least one difficult course while
attending college and shared their academic coping strategies. With the exception of
Chris, they all were not afraid to speak up during class, participate in class discussions,
were not be ashamed to ask clarifying questions, often utilized their professors’ office
hours to seek assistance when necessary, and received assistance from the school’s
tutoring center. Utilizing the positive deviance theory, their persistence and motivation
to work hard on their studies and find the means to achieve academically are examples of
exhibited behavior that may contribute to their educational success. What remains
uncertain is how these individuals learned these academic coping strategies. David was
the only participant who disclosed that many of these strategies were learned while in the
AVID program in high school, while Mark and Jorge stated that attending WIN was a
mandated requirement from their soccer coach.
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According to Vincent Tinto (1993), a correlation exists between student
persistence and academic success. Each of the five participants demonstrated persistence
in various ways. Examples included involvement in school activities, social integration
with other students on campus, as well as taking responsibility for their learning by
recognizing their academic limitations and being proactive in their learning (i.e. seeking
assistance from professors, asking questions in class, utilizing tutoring centers) to
increase the likelihood of their academic success.
Among all five participants, Anthony’s situation was unique due to the fact that
he needed to learn independence early in life and did not have the same family support
structure as the other four participants. Emancipated by the age of eighteen, Anthony
quickly realized that he would need to financially support himself through college.
Determined to further his education, he applied for and was awarded multiple grants and
scholarships, most of which required maintaining an above average academic GPA.
Anthony sustained his grades by practicing good study habits, participating in class
discussions, asking clarifying questions, regularly communicating with his professors,
and studying with friends. These actions are examples of Anthony’s persistence, which,
according to Ortero (2007) and Tinto (1993), may increase his chances of achieving
academically.
Research by Ortero (2007) suggested that commitment to goals and integration
into campus life are factors associated with the retention of college students. Data from
these case studies appear to support current research findings. Although at various points
in their college careers, all participants referred to obtaining a college degree as one of
their primary goals. Chris and David had completed their undergraduate coursework and
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were working on their perspective Master’s Degrees, while all three undergraduate
participants intended to attain a Bachelor’s Degree. All participants spent a majority of
their time on campus, whether it was studying, socializing with friends or involvement in
some form of campus sponsored activity.
Engagement. All five participants were actively involved in athletics while
attending high school, and four continued to play on athletic teams at the collegiate level.
Anthony, Mark and David stated that being involved in sports assisted in keeping them
away from trouble growing up in the city of Cedar Park. Each participant was also
involved in student organizations while attending college. This included affiliation with
ethnic/cultural, Greek, career oriented and intramural athletic organizations.
Anthony was very involved in athletics while in high school and participated in
basketball and football. Although he did not continue to play sports while in college, he
joined a student organization on campus called Fosters to Famous. Through this
organization, he had the opportunity to meet other students with similar life experiences.
He shared how attending college really opened up his eyes to other cultures and
ethnicities, and felt that he had adapted well and was really enjoying meeting other
people from various backgrounds.
Mark was heavily involved in athletics all four years of high school. His
involvement in athletics began at a very young age, when his parents first introduced him
to the sport of soccer by enrolling him in a club team. While in high school, he
participated in track and field, cross country, volleyball and soccer, and claimed his
favorite sport had always been cross country because it was the sport he excelled in, and
he was recognized as the league’s most valuable player in 2007. What attracted Mark to
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the sport was that, since it was an individual sport, a person can be as good as they want
because it is up to him/her to push him/herself. Because of his love for sports, Mark
continued to play soccer in college, and was the Co-Captain of the men’s soccer team at
the community college where he played on the same team as Jorge.
Jorge immediately fell in love with the sport of soccer as a child while playing
with other children his neighborhood. Because of this, he played soccer during all four
years of high school. During his first year of college, he attended a four-year public
university where felt “isolated and alone.” He attributed this to the fact that he lived off
campus and was not involved athletics. Due to this, he did not stay focused academically
and failed all of his classes his freshman year. Moving back home at the end of the year,
he enrolled at a local community college and was recruited to play soccer on the men’s
team. After doing so, he was able to excel academically by improving his grades, and he
felt more connected with the college.
Like Mark, David was a member of a soccer youth organization as a child. His
love for sports continued in high school and college, where he was involved in football,
soccer, track and field and cross county. This passion continued through college where
he ran cross country and played for the University’s soccer team. Most days, David
stayed on campus from early morning through late in the evening. To keep himself
occupied when not in class or participating in athletics, he joined various clubs and
organizations on campus. He often played ping pong with his friends at the university’s
student center, and, as a result, joined the ping pong club. During his junior year, he
pledged and became a member of a national fraternity in order to meet new people and
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network. While in the fraternity, he held several officer positions, gained leadership
skills, and made great friends.
Extracurricular activities and athletics also took up a significant portion of Chris’
time. He was a member of the University’s Latino Student Forum. Leaving that
organization after a few semesters, he pledged and joined one of the national fraternities
on campus. Through the organization, he made many new friends and enhanced his
social life. The downfall was that the experience soon became too similar to the typical
public perceptions of a Greek organization - that they “were all about partying and
having fun.” Ultimately, Chris left the fraternity and spent his free time with friends and
classmates he met at school.
What can be interpreted from this data from a social capital perspective is that all
participants had access to capital while attending school. This social capital was in the
form of access to various student organizations and athletic programs. While many
schools have these various types of programs embedded within their organizational
structure, what is evident is that these participants took advantage and became involved
in various school programs and organizations. Data from the interviews supported the
research of Greene (2008) and Astin (1984), which found that engagement was a good
predictor of a student’s success in school. All five participants were involved in a vast
array of student organizations, which included fraternities, political, ethnic, and cultural
student groups, and intramurals. Involvement in athletics was also common among
participants, demonstrated by their involvement in both high school and college athletics.
What is significant to address was that both Mark and David stated that involvement with
sports was a deterrent from becoming involved with local neighborhood gangs.
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Interpretation through a positive deviant lens reveals that participating in athletics is a
behavior which has allowed the participants the ability to make what they believe are the
right choices, which was to stay away from gang involvement.
According to Mark, playing soccer assisted him in keep his goals in perspective.
He was first introduced to the sport as a child when his parents signed him up for AYSO
(American Youth Soccer Organization). He recalled witnessing various types of gang
activity occurring within his neighborhood on a regular basis. He was exposed to
“mostly everything that could distract you and derail you” but was appreciative of the
fact that his parents kept him so drawn in to soccer that he was too busy to get involved
with the local neighborhood gangs. His dedication to the sport continued throughout high
school and into college, where he became a co-captain of a state championship winning
soccer team. Involvement in soccer allowed him to develop his leadership skills and
develop good study habits, both of which were necessary in keeping his GPA up.
Like Mark, David Rodriguez identified that engagement in athletics served as a
deterrent and kept him out of trouble. David admitted to being part of a tagging crew
throughout a majority of his adolescent life. He recalled regularly coming home early in
the mornings from late nights out with friends tagging on the streets, and managing to
make it to school to attend classes and participate in athletics after school. He first found
his obsession for sport of soccer as a child while playing in Sunday leagues. This
obsession continued throughout high school when his ambitions grew to becoming a
professional soccer player, and he proved he was talented by earning a spot on the
Olympic Development Team. During a time when his close friend was getting “jumped”
into a gang, he, instead, made the ultimate decision to focus on school and athletics.
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Ethnic Identity. Each participant interviewed revealed that they had learned their
cultural values and traditions from their parents, and, in two cases, grandparents. All five
interviewees also shared that their parents/guardian stressed the importance of growing
up learning good moral and ethical values, the importance of making the right choices,
and the importance of being a good person.
Anthony described himself as a first generation Mexican American. Being in the
foster system since the age of 6, Anthony lived with different families. The most
influential foster parent Anthony had was a woman he affectionately referred to as
“grandma.” During the interview, Anthony recalled that, when he first moved in with
her, he was a “rebel” who often misbehaved and got into fights. While living with her,
she taught him how to distinguish what was right from wrong, how to treat all individuals
equally, and how to behave appropriately and be respectful. “She put a lot of time into
me…’cause when I was a little kid I was like a rebel.” Even after being placed in another
foster home, he carried these behavioral life lessons with him claiming “I still had her in
me…like everything she taught me.” He credits his foster grandmother for assisting him
in becoming the responsible and studious person he is today. Similarly, David described
that he had the basic love, care, and support from both of his parents growing up.
David identifies himself as a Mexican American, and describes his family as a
typical Mexican family that celebrates 15
th
birthdays and Baptisms. David shared that
the most important life lessons that his parents taught him proper “mannerisms, how to
behave,” and know “good from bad.” He learned these qualities from both of his parents,
who also stressed the value of being respectful to others. He claims that “these are the
things that stick with you throughout your whole life… you should [always] know how to
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behave” a conduct which he perceives some of today’s Latino students lack. He also
shared that growing up with these values was more emphasized than going to school and
receiving an education. According to him, his parents never pushed him to go to school
or continue his education past high school. Instead, he felt that he received more
motivation to go to college from his high school teachers. Like David, Jorge also spoke
about having appropriate morals and values.
Jorge was first generation with both his parents emigrating from Mexico. His
perception was that the Latino culture is made up of “hardworking people who are very
stubborn and, in some sense, ignorant.” This is because he believed that his cultural
heritage values hard work, and prioritizes joining the labor force over obtaining an
education. He claimed that this ideal is part of his culture’s hard working mentality and
views his “parents [as] not very educationally aware of how things work here in the
United States…they really don’t know what is going on.” In terms of his cultural
heritage, Jorge stated that he grew up learning “to do what is always right.” Chris and
Mark shared similar experiences about being brought up by their parents with good moral
and ethical values as well as the importance of being a responsible person.
Describing himself as a Mexican American, Mark shared that both of his parents
grew up in the same city as children and emigrated from Mexico. They both graduated
from high school, but only his father had attended college in Mexico. Unfortunately,
during his father’s second year of college, Mark’s mom became pregnant, so he dropped
out of school to begin working. Due to this experience, his father instilled in Mark the
family’s cultural values and traditions, with an emphasis on the idea that an education is
very important to being successful in life. Identifying as a Mexican American, Chris
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explained that he is proud of his cultural heritage. Like Mark, he described both of his
parents as hard working individuals, and he learned that supporting one’s family is the
most important responsibility one have as a parent. He also shared that his parents taught
him “how to make the right choices” and “always do the right thing.”
Data collected from the interviews supported the works of researchers such as
Gallimore, Goldenberg, and Valenzuela on educación, which theorizes that a Latino’s
cultural roots are strongly tied to their upbringing. Educación refers to the way a Latino
child is reared by parents, centralizing on the ideals of good morals, respect, being well
mannered, being responsible and understanding right from wrong, which are essential
attributes needed for a person to successfully function in a diverse society. In essence,
this is the social capital that these five participants possessed. While it may not be in the
form of money, wealth, or power, the importance of their social capital is that it gives
them the necessary skills they need in life to be able to live and be productive in society.
Analyzing this data using positive deviance leads to the conclusion that the moral and
ethical attributes that each participant was taught by his parents plays an integral role on
how these individuals are able to have a positive influence in their decision making
capabilities, which, in turn, may have a positive impact on their academic success.
Each participant also expressed he believed that language was an important aspect
of his cultural identity. What was interpreted from the data was that speaking their native
language allowed the participants to stay connected to their cultural roots. All
participants reported they were fluent in both English and Spanish, and, for a majority of
them, it was the primary langue spoken at home.
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Anthony considered himself to be bilingual, with the ability to speak, read, and
write fluently both in English and Spanish. He mentioned he had recently reconnected
with his biological parents and some of his siblings. When speaking with any of them, he
preferred to use Spanish because it was their language of choice. When asked what
language he preferred to use, he stated English because he knows that he will need good
communication skills in the field of law enforcement and that was one of his long term
goals.
For Mark, Jorge, and David’s families, language was considered an important
cultural tradition, and Spanish was the only language spoken at home. All three
participants considered themselves bilingual and fluent in both English and Spanish, and
generally switched between both languages whenever they were surrounded by Spanish
speaking friends at school. It was also found that, when they communicated with their
soccer teammates, they were more comfortable speaking what they refer to as
“Spanglish,” a language that used a combination of English and Spanish within the same
sentence.
Growing up, Chris’ parents exposed him to many of their cultural traditions, but
strongly felt that he should be fluent in the English language. Due to this, Chris’ primary
language of choice was English, stating he was not as proficient in Spanish. When
holding conversation with any of his family members, he spoke “Spanglish” except when
conversing with his grandparents. At which point he stated he switched to the Spanish
language out of respect. Growing up, his parents encouraged him to speak primarily in
the English language, fearing that he would not be able to adapt to American customs and
excel in society if he were not well versed in the English language.
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Chris intended to become more proficient in speaking Spanish so he could teach
his daughter the language, believing that language was one key factor to preserving his
cultural heritage from generation to generation. He strongly believed that, with each
generation, more and more Latinos were losing their heritage because they were choosing
to adapt to the American lifestyle, which means having the ability to articulate and
communicate well in the dominant language. At the time of this study, providing for his
two year old daughter was his primary focus. He stated that, just as his father had worked
hard to support him and his siblings growing up, he would like to do the same for his
child.
According to Umana-Taylor (2004) one’s ethnic identity and the ability to deal
with discrimination plays a prominent role in developing a person’s self-efficacy.
Furthermore, various studies suggested that self-efficacy is influential to a student’s
academic success (Benight & Bandura, 2004; Hickman et al, 2008; Johnson, 2006;
Turner, et al, 2009). Although little research is available on the ethnic identity
development of Latinos, the utilization of ethnic identity development of other minorities
(Cross’ stages of ethnic identity of African Americans as well as Asian American
Identity Development Theory) can provide insight on the ethnic identity development of
all five participants.
Through the analysis of data from the interviews, it was discovered that there
were commonalities among the participants. The primary commonality shared by all
individuals was the fact that they were all first generation students of Latino origin. Four
of the five individuals had a mother and father figure in their lives as well as siblings.
All individuals spoke varying degrees of their native language (Spanish), and all were
80
able to understand their native language. Among all participants, Spanish was the
predominant language spoken within the household, although Chris was the only one
who mentioned that he and his family members code switched between Spanish and
English during regular conversations. Researcher Jean Phinney stated that “language is
the most widely assessed cultural practice associated with ethnic identity” (pg. 304). The
use of the Spanish language at home may provide some insight on each participant’s
ethnic identity development.
An analysis of the participants stages of ethnic identification. Based on the
interview data, all five participants were found to be at varying stages of ethnic identity
development, depending on the ethnic identity development model being utilized. Using
Cross’ model, four of the participants identified in stage four, since they were secure and
prideful of their cultural roots and had a healthy sense of their identity. The fifth
individual, Chris, could be considered be at the final stage of development since he is
driven to bring about social justice by influencing structures within society. By going
into the field of education and working in the school district he once attended, his
intentions were to inspire Latino students to graduate from high school and attend college
as he had done. During the interview, he mentioned that when he has discussions with
his students, he informs them that they need to set attainable and reachable goals for
themselves. According to him, most Latinos live in the now, and do not look towards
their future, which is why he believed that some decide to focus on getting a job instead
of completing or furthering their education.
Utilizing the AAID theory, Jorge, Anthony and Mark identified in the fourth stage
of development in which a person becomes secure and accepting of his/her ethnic
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identity. Based on the data collected, these participants embraced their ethnic heritage as
Latinos by continuing to associate and be friends with others of similar ethnic origins,
continuing to speak in their native language on a regular basis, and by continuing to
follow the moral and ethical values taught by their parents.
For Mark in particular, one of his biggest surprises transitioning from high school
to college was how ethnically diverse college was in comparison to his former high
school. At Timberwood, the student population was primarily made up of Latino and
African American students. Walking through campus on his first day of college, he
remembered thinking it was unusual to see many Asian and White students. He recalled
being a little uncomfortable considering he grew up surrounded by people who were
ethnically similar to him and were “accustomed to their culture, their traditions, and just
way of being.” He quickly realized that, regardless of race or cultural background, he
had something in common with all the other students, which was a “goal of trying to
better themselves and get an education.” He stated he enjoyed the fact that he was able to
meet new people and learn about other culture’s customs and traditions. According to
him, it opened one’s mind up to a whole new world of possibilities, and gave a person a
better understanding of the world.
Accordingly, Chris and David appeared to be in the final stages of development
utilizing the AAID theory. At this final stage of development, not only does a person
have confidence in his/her own ethnic identity, but s/he can also relate to other ethnic
groups without losing a sense of who s/he really is. These two participants identified
themselves as a either a “Latino or Mexican American” when asked how they would
describe themselves ethnically.
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Chris made many new friends while attending UR. Through athletics, student
organizations, and Greek life, he forged relationships with students from various ethnic
and cultural backgrounds. He found meeting new people who had an upbringing
different from his own intriguing because it gave him the opportunity to broaden his
understanding of other people’s cultures.
Although he attended UR, a campus with a more diverse student population in
comparison to his former high school (which consisted of primarily Latino students),
David did not have a difficult time making the adjustment. Considering himself friendly,
approachable, and funny, he usually was the one who took the initiative to befriend
others. Out of all the participants, David had begun to form his own political viewpoints.
According to Jean Phinney (1990), there are a variety of components which play a
role on one’s ethnic identity development: Ethnicity and self-identification, a sense of
belonging, a positive and negative attitude toward one’s ethnic group, and Ethnic
involvement. Ethnic involvement refers to the idea that social participation and cultural
practices in one’s own ethnic group is a high indicator of ethnic identity. Some of these
cultural practices include the language spoken, friendships, and area of residence
(Phinney, 1990).
Based on these three indicators, it can be concluded all five participants were
attuned and accepting of their own ethnic identity as Latinos. All five attended an urban
high school where a majority of the students were ethnically similar. Their ethnic
identification as Latinos was also apparent in the friendships they chose, since all five
identified their closest friends as Latinos. During observation of some of the
participants’ interactions with others during the interviews, it was evident that they felt
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more comfortable relating with those ethnically similar to them. All tended to associate
and be drawn towards other people who were Latino.
Self-efficacy. Several researchers linked student success to self-efficacy. Based
on the interview data, major commonalities among all five participants were the goals of
graduating from college with a degree, establishing themselves with a career, and
eventually raising a family. Of the four participants who were actively involved in
athletics, both at the high school and collegiate level, Jorge, David, and Mark all viewed
themselves as leaders, although only Mark and Chris actually held leadership roles within
their respective organizations of involvement. One finding of particular interest was that,
although Chris was captain of various athletic teams both in high school and college, he
did not consider himself a leader. Instead, he described himself as an individual and a
hard worker who would “rather fail than quit.”
More interesting findings from the analysis of the data were the life experiences
that some of the participants shared during their interviews. According to Albert
Bandura (2004) a person’s self-efficacy is his/her ability to self-manage and make
choices on decisions that can affect his/her life. Anthony, Chris, and David, all shared
life experiences that involved making decisions which assisted in steering them towards
their current direction in life.
Anthony vividly recalled a time when he was nine years old and was almost
robbed by another young boy who wanted the Michael Jordan basketball jersey he was
wearing. The boy stopped Anthony as he was walking down the street and said “I like
your jersey…let me have it.” A fight ensued and was broken up by adults. This
experience taught Anthony a valuable lesson; to survive in Cedar Park, a person had to
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“get tough and learn how to stand up for yourself.” According to him, this experience
translated negatively at first, and he continued to find himself in the middle of fights and
other conflicts throughout high school. Around his junior year, Anthony said he realized
that he needed to change his ways in order to be able to support himself once he turned
eighteen. He improved his grades and to applied for various grants and scholarships -
some of which he needed to interview for as part of the application process. He compared
the interviews to so the fights he participated in as a child because in both cases “you
have to stand up for yourself.”
Chris described his high school alma mater as “ghetto.” When asked to elaborate
what he meant by “ghetto,” Chris stated that there were “a lot of kids strung out on weed
and crack” as well as plenty of opportunities to become involved in tagging crews and
gangs. It was a place where “you definitely had to kind of watch your steps in certain
areas of the school” and quickly learn “how to survive.” Regardless of the challenges he
faced on campus, Chris became involved in a large amount of extracurricular activities
that included athletics (football, track & field, and wrestling) and student organizations
(ASB as senior class president). His main reason for doing so was steer himself from
negative temptations (drugs and gangs) and prepare himself for college; as he knew this
goal would be the key to getting him out of Cedar Park.
At a young age, David was exposed to gangs and violence while growing up in
the city of Cedar Park. He shared that, when he was a child, he and his friend got into
fights with African Americans who lived in the neighborhood. As they entered high
school, his friend was “jumped” into a gang, and, due to his involvement in illegal
activity, he was spending time in prison at the time of this study. David stated that he
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could have easily become involved in gangs and gotten “jumped” in the same time his
friend did, but he made the decision to walk away. When asked what compelled him to
stay away from a life in gangs, he attributed that decision to his love for sports as well as
to knowing how to make the right choices.
In all three cases, each participant encountered experiences during childhood
where each had to make life defining choices. Analysis using the positive deviance
framework revealed that the choices that each individual made could be related to the fact
that each was reared by his parents/guardians who had the social capital of educación.
Because they were taught proper morals and ethical values, these individuals had the
ability to make the right decisions.
In Anthony’s case, as a child, he learned to stand up for himself on the streets
through various altercations with other individuals. This translated positively in the
sense that, as an adult, he knew how to be independent and advocate for himself as he
found ways to financially support himself through college. Chris, even though some of
his friends and acquaintances were involved in gangs, chose to focus on his athletics and
his education.
David’s experience was very similar to Chris’ in the fact that David had friends
who were involved with gangs. While in high school, he and his childhood friend
associated with other individuals who were gang members. While in high school, his
friend made the decision to officially be “jumped” into one of the neighborhood gangs.
He stated that he “was close to getting jumped in with him because he asked me if I
wanted to get jumped in, but, obviously, I didn’t.” His decision was based on the fact
that “he knew the consequences of it and [he] was more of a sports guy.” The outcome
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of David’s experience supports the theory of positive deviance considering the fact that
although his other friends were associated with gangs, he made the choice to go against
the norm and choose a different path in life. His decision could be attributed to the fact
that his access to social capital, in the form of educación as a child, taught him the
appropriate ethical values needed to choose athletics and school over association with a
gang.
Table 1
Summary of Key Findings

Anthony Jorge David Mark Chris
First
Generation
College
student
X X X X X
Raised by
both parents
X X X X
Referred to
strong family
bonds
X X X X X
Cultures and
Traditions
important in
homelife
X X X X X
Inferred in
interview
that parent(s)
raised them
with strong
moral and
ethical
values
X X X X X
Languages
spoken
English and
Spanish
English and
Spanish
English and
Spanish
English and
Spanish
English and
Spanish
Preferred
language
spoken at
home
Spanish Spanish Spanish Spanish
English or
Spanglish

87
Table 1, continued
Non-school
related
activities
growing up
Crews
Youth
sports
programs
Crews
Youth sports
programs
Crews and youth
sports programs
Involved in
extracurricul
ar activities
in high
school
X X X X X
Had an
educator
who had a
positive
influence on
them
X X X X X
Post-
secondary
institution
Community
College
Community
College
Private 4 year Public 4 year Private 4 year
Commuted
to School
X X X X X
Living
arrangements
during
college
Own
apartment
Home with
parents
Home with parents
Home with
parents
Home with
parents
Involved in
athletics in
college
X X X X
Involved in
student
organizations
in college
X X X X X
Held
leadership
positions in
athletics or
student
organizations
X X
Perceived
themselves
as a leader
X X X
How free
time was
spent while
on campus
Socializing
with
friends,
studying in
the library

Socializing
with soccer
teammates,
studying at
WIN
Socializing with
friends/teammates/
fraternity brothers,
studying in the
tutoring center or
library

Socializing
with soccer
teammates,
studying at
WIN
Socializing with
friends/teammates
/fraternity
brothers, studying
in the tutoring
center or library
Utilized
campus
tutoring
services
X X X

88
Table 1, continued
Sought
assistance
from
professors
X X X X
Participated
in class
discussions
X X X X X
Degree
sought
AA or BS AA or BS M Ed BS M Ed

89
Chapter 5: Conclusions
Introduction
Although considered one of the fastest growing ethnic populations in the United
States, Latinos continue to remain under represented in the field of education. In
comparison to their White counterparts, lower numbers of Latino male students complete
their secondary education requirements, and even fewer continue their education and
successfully attain a post-secondary Degree or Certification. Data from 2007 showed
that there was a significant imbalance in the percentage of white students (64.4%) who
attended a post-secondary institution in comparison to Latinos (11.4%). What this data
fail to show is the retention rates of Latinos who continue their education beyond high
school.
According to Havemen and Smeeding (2006), school officials are often
concerned about retention and academic aptitude of Latinos who attend college. The
challenge faced at both secondary and post-secondary education levels is finding viable
solutions to decreasing drop-out rates and increasing the retention rate for this
underrepresented population. An array research has been conducted on student
achievement and drop-out rates among minority students. The challenging question that
remains is how to ensure the educational success of this minority group. Viewing this
problem through a social capital and positive deviance lens and identifying potential
attributes that possibly assist a Latino male student’s success in college, this qualitative
research case study validates some of the findings of researchers such as Delgado Bernal
(2002), Valenzuela (1999), Stanton-Salazar (1997), and Yosso (2005).
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Summary of the Study
This qualitative case study involved the participation of five Latino male college
students who were experiencing varying levels of success in their educational endeavors.
For purposes of this study, “success” was defined as graduating from high school and
passing academic classes at their respective post-secondary schools of enrollment. Based
on research conducted for the literature review on student success, reoccurring themes
became apparent as to factors that may be linked to success. These themes were
relationships, persistence, engagement, ethnic identity, and self-efficacy when collecting
data on the five participants interviewed for the case studies.
All five participants were of Latino ethnic origin, had previously attended the
same school district located in Southern California, and grew up in the same low socio-
economic suburban neighborhood. They were all first generation college students who
graduated from high school and were attending either a community college or
public/private four-year post-secondary institution. Three of the participants were
enrolled in undergraduate coursework and pursuing either an Associate’s or Bachelor’s
degree, while the remaining two participants were both actively pursuing their teaching
credentials and graduate degrees from a four-year private university.
An interview protocol was developed utilizing the primary research question:
“What attributes do successful Latino males exemplify that correlates with their
educational achievement.” To protect the identity of all five participants, pseudonyms
were assigned to each individual as well as to their respective schools of attendance and
cities of residence. The participants were chosen based on purposeful sampling, taking
91
into account ethnic origin, secondary school of attendance, and current attendance at
some form of post-secondary school.
A one-hour ethnographic interview was conducted with each of the five
participants. The interviews were recorded using a digital recording device. As to not
inconvenience the participants, all interviews were held at their respective school of
attendance during a time that was most convenient to the respondent. To disaggregate
the data, the interviews were transcribed, and the data was coded into one of the
following themes: relationships, persistence, engagement, ethnic identity, and self-
efficacy. The data was then “crosschecked” for similarities in responses to the questions
that were asked during the interview. These similarities were then placed in a matrix
(Table 1) and the data was analyzed.
Summary of Findings
Case summaries were written for all five participants that summarized the
findings from the interviews. Each case summary detailed the educational history of
each individual as well as documented personal experiences and pivotal moments they
had growing up, both in school as well as their personal lives. The analysis of the data
revealed similarities among the participants when the coded information was
crosschecked.
In the area of relationships, all participants shared that they had nurturing
relationships with their one or both parental figures. It was interesting to note that four of
the participants reported their parents were still happily married and described a strong
support structure in the home. All individuals also identified teachers and coaches who
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were supportive and influential in their decision to pursue educational goals beyond high
school.
Persistence was demonstrated in various ways by all five participants. First, all
participants demonstrated persistence by graduating from their respective high schools
located in a district that has a 30% drop out rate. While in college, all students described
ways they had taken responsibility for their academics by seeking appropriate assistance
when necessary. When struggling in a specific subject, 80% responded that they often
met with their professors and 60% of them regularly utilized tutoring centers and
services.
Data also showed that all participants had similar responses to questions
involving engagement. All responded that they were actively involved in extracurricular
programs such as sports and student clubs/organizations while in high school. Of these,
four participants explained that involvement in sports and athletics throughout childhood
and while in high school had a positive impact on their educational attainment because
they provided a diversion from negative influences which surrounded them both in
school and within their neighborhoods.
Data revealed that all five participants were in the advanced stages of ethnic
identity development. Although an ethnic identity development model for Latinos is still
absent, utilizing Cross’ theory on ethnic identity development for African Americans as
well as the Asian American Identity Development model assisted in gauging the ethnic
identity development of each participant. All of the participants described the emphasis
that was placed on being taught to have good morals and ethical values, as well as the
93
value placed upon their culture and native language as they were being raised by their
parents or guardian.
In terms of self efficacy, data revealed that all participants believed they were
academically successful in college - four self-reported that they had an academic GPA
above 3.0. All participants identified as being goal oriented, and all reported a short term
goal of graduating from college with a degree and a long term goal of having a successful
career. Expressing the importance of raising a family, all of the participants stated that
they would hope to one day be married and have a successful career.
Conclusions
Responses from the participant aligned with findings from various studies cited
within the literature review. The data showed a connection between the focus areas
(Relationships, Persistence, Engagement, Self Efficacy, and Ethnic Identity) and a Latino
male student’s potential for educational success. Analyzing of this data through a
positive deviance lens, focus was placed on common positive deviant factors that each
participant exhibited and the connections those factors may have to their educational
achievement.
This study took a different perspective from the research available, which
compares a student’s social capital to his/her lack of success in educational careers. By
focusing on socioeconomic status, race, language barriers, broken families, matriculation
at low achieving schools, these studies concluded that Latino male students continue to
be marginalized in the educational system. Taking a different approach, this research
study focused on identifying similarities in actions and behavior exhibited by five
94
individuals and the effect that these may have on educational achievement. Based on the
data collected, three findings were established:
1. Positive relationships at school can have an influence on academic success.
2. Due to educational accountability measures such as No Child Left Behind,
educational institutions have gravitated towards accountability focused goals
and away from student centered ideals which could assist in the development
of a student’s self-efficacy and ethnic identity- areas which some research has
shown to be linked to educational success.
3. Involvement in extracurricular programs increases school connection and the
likelihood that a student will remain in school and not dropout
Implications for Action
The findings from all five case studies may contribute to a Latino male college
student’s academic success. The data from these case studies replicate and support much
of the previous findings of regarding the success of Latino students.
Relationship-building. Data collected from the interviews showed that all five
participants were able to identify key relationships with educators and coaches while in
high school. In most cases, interviews revealed that these individuals influenced the
participants’ decision to attend college. These data reveal that teacher-student
relationships can have a positive influence on a student’s educational outcomes.
A study conducted by Bordes and Arredondo (2005) on mentoring first year
Latina/o college students found that interaction in the form of mentoring by faculty or
counselors positively improved the students’ perception of the university environment.
The participants in this study “revealed that students who perceived the environment as
95
positive also reported higher levels of cultural congruity or having a greater feeling of
belonging” (p. 127). In research on teacher and student relationships as well as student
outcomes, Northup (2011), found that “supportive relationships between teachers and
their students may have implications for academic engagement and possibly academic
achievement” (p. 128). Both of these studies support previous research by Tinto (1993)
which concluded that a positive integration into campus life increased the students’
commitment to the institution and degree attainment.
Although various types of teacher-to-student and student-to-student mentoring
programs exist within many high schools and post-secondary institutions, they tend to be
more of an option rather than the norm. In many cases, these programs can only be
accessed on a voluntary basis. A recommendation to both secondary and post-secondary
institutions is to change school policies and procedures so that mentoring programs
become a standard part of a school’s academic program. Since it may not be feasible to
accommodate every single student within an institution, systematic ways of identifying
at-risk students and academically challenged students must be developed, so they receive
the support needed to be successful. Not only will mentoring provide the academic
tutoring students might need, it will also allow educators to “gain an increased
understanding of their students and their needs while students may become more
interested in school” (Northup, 2011, p. 128).
When educators analyze a student’s failures or shortcomings, the focus is
generally on the surface. This results in conclusions such as that if a student fails math, it
is because he/she cannot add or subtract. Practitioners often fail to dig deeper to find out
if there are other circumstances causing a student to fail. If the student were part of a
96
mentoring program, there would be an increased likelihood that the circumstance true
reasons will surface and be addressed accordingly.
The focus of both schools and classrooms needs to become more student centered
versus accountability focused. Due to accountability models such a No Child Left
Behind, the focus of many schools shifted to standardized assessments and test scores.
What is lost in the educational system is the “magic and mystery of teaching and
learning” (Deal, B. and Redman, P., 2009, p. 8). In the book Reviving the Soul of
Teaching, Deal and Redman state that “teachers play a powerful role in how the next
generation will turn out” (p. 102). While it is important to ensure that all students leave
school with an outstanding education, emphasis must also be placed on the holistic
upbringing of a child, which includes the development of their morals and values. This
notion aligns with the work of Valenzuela (1999) and Yosso (2005) which found that the
rearing of a Latino/a child by their parents emphasized educación (focusing on morals
and ethics and being a good child) rather than on academics.
From a positive deviance perspective, data from this study supports the research
that educación does occur in the rearing of a Latino child. The participants revealed that
an emphasis on understanding what was right from wrong was stressed by their
parents/guardian during their upbringing, and that it contributed to defining them as adult
moral citizens. What is not known from this study is whether these learned morals and
values assisted in their decision to thrive academically. A recommendation is that there
needs to be a balance between educating a student with sound academics and expanding
on the positive ideals and beliefs that they are being taught by their parents at home. A
97
solution may be to infuse the concepts of culturally responsive teaching into the current
curriculum. Doing so may also foster in the development of a student’s ethnic identity.
According to Gay (2000), a paradigm shift from a fully standards-based program
to one that is “derived from a culturally pluralistic educational paradigm is the “creative
ability to approach problem-solving activities with a built-in repertoire of bicultural
perspectives” (p. 27). This type of curriculum will not only address student’s academic
needs, but it will also allow for the development of morals and ethical values to make
sound decisions and positively contribute to society.
Offer, support, and maintain extracurricular programs. Due to the current
economic crisis facing many school districts nationwide, elective courses, athletics, and
other extracurricular programs were trimmed down in many secondary schools
(Kronholz, 2012). Various studies focused on the role that extracurricular activities have
on academic achievement, and one conducted by McNeal (1995) found that students
involved in extracurricular activities were less likely to drop out of school and estimated
that participation in athletic programs reduced the probability of dropping out by up to 40
percent. Similarly, a study conducted by Brown and Evans (2002) concluded that
students who participated in extracurricular activities had greater levels of school
connection. Based on this research, it is evident that participation in extracurricular
programs has a positive effect on a student’s academic achievement.
Data from these case studies indicated that all five of the participants were
involved in various athletic programs in high school and four continued to be involved
while enrolled in college. Similarly, all participants also indicated some form of
involvement in student clubs and campus organizations at both the high school and
98
college levels. This commonality among all participants supports much of the previous
research on extracurricular involvement and academic achievement.
In the case one of the participants, involvement in youth soccer programs had a
positive influence on his upbringing. According to Mark, soccer kept him busy, off the
streets, and away from the pressures to associate with gangs in his neighborhood. Even
while in college, being involved with the men’s soccer program taught him responsibility
and accountability. Since his coach required the entire team to spend a few hours daily in
the tutoring center, it became part of his usual routine. From a positive deviance
perspective, his childhood experiences and the expectations set forth by his college
coaches ingrained day to day activities, which, in turn, assisted in his academic success in
high school and college.
Partnership between colleges and secondary schools to create extracurricular
programs can be instrumental in benefiting high school students as well as secondary
institutions. A recommendation is to provide college credit for involvement in
extracurricular organizations, such as athletics, music, arts or other activities) as incentive
towards an educational path to college. Programs similar to this exist at colleges such as
Chaffey Community College in Rancho Cucamonga, California. Through the college’s
TECH Prep Program, students enrolled in high school elective programs articulated with
the college are given college credit upon successful completion of the course. This type
of joint structure between high schools and colleges may assist in driving the high school
graduation rate along with the Education path into post-secondary schools among high
school students.
99
Implication for future research
The one disadvantage of this study is that it was targeted towards a small group of
individuals from a specific school district in Southern California. In order to broaden the
study, a larger sampling of students should be considered on a national level.
Additionally, to help with the diversity of this research, it would be of benefit to
interview and follow a targeted group of students throughout a semester or a year. This
would help ensure that the data was accurate since due to a larger quantity of data over a
longer period of time. Finally, to broaden the research and study, it would be beneficial
to include other minority groups such as African American, Asian American or females
in the study. This would allow the gathering of information needed, which may lead to
important findings and implications to assist in the academic success of all minority
groups.
Summary
This research involved the case study of five successful Latino males. At the time
of this study, Latino males remained underrepresented at the post-secondary education
level in comparison to their White counterparts. While a significant amount of research
regarding the educational achievement of Latinos/as exists, the significance of this study
is that it put into practice the findings of much of the literature and research by taking a
snapshot of the lives of five Latino male college students. Unlike studies portraying the
educational achievement of Latinos students in a dismal light due to lacking the social
capital needed to be successful, this study focused on the positive behavior exhibited by
five Latino male students that had an effect on their educational outcomes.
100
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Appendix
Interview Protocol

Background Information
1. How old are you?
2. Whom do you live with?
3. How many siblings do you have?
4. Who raised you growing up?
5. Could you tell me one important lesson you learned from this/these person(s)?
6. How would you describe the neighborhood where you grew up?
7. How would you describe the high school you attended?

Relationships
1. Whom do you admire and why?
2. Was there anyone who you believed helped you to get to this point in your
life?
3. Growing up, was there anyone that you could talk to when you needed
advice?
4. Can you name one educator/administrator that you remember from
elementary/secondary school? Why do you remember them?

Persistence
1. What do you do when you need help with your school work?
2. How often do you talk to your instructors when you need assistance?
3. During class, do you ask questions when you need clarification on a topic
being discussed?
4. If you did not do as well as you had expected on an exam/paper/project, what
would you do?

Engagement
1. Do you live on or off campus?
2. Are you involved in any clubs or organizations on campus? (If yes) What are
they?
3. When at school, what do you enjoy doing during your free time?
4. Do you like to participate in class discussions?
5. Would you say that most of your friends are on or off campus?

Ethnic Identity
1. If someone were to ask you to introduce and describe yourself, what would
you say?
2. Can you tell me a little about your cultural heritage?
3. Do you speak more than one language? If so, what?
4. When you are around family, what is the language of preference? When with
friends?
5. Who are your closest friends? How would you describe them?
107
Self-Efficacy
1. If you were doing a group project as part of a class assignment and no one
seems to know what to do, what would you do?
2. What are your short term goals? Long term?
3. What is your best subject? What subject do you find difficult?
4. How do you feel after taking tests in a subject you find difficult?
5. If someone asked you to take the lead in a large project, would you accept?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The Latino/a population is one of the fastest growing ethnic groups nationwide. It is estimated that the Latino/a population increased by 43% since 2000. Although this may be the case, data shows that Latino males continue to be underrepresented within the educational system at the post-secondary institutional level. Case studies of five Latino male college students were conducted to investigate which factors contribute to their educational success. Through ethnographic interviews, data was collected and grouped into five themes: relationships, persistence, engagement, ethnic identity, and self-efficacy. The findings of the study concluded that 1) Positive relationships at school can have an influence on academic success, 2) the focus of schools needs to be more student-centered to assist in the development of a student’s self-efficacy and ethnic identity, and 3) schools should continue to offer, support, and maintain extracurricular programs.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ayro, Ivan (author)

Core Title A case study of five latino male college students: What contributes to their educational success?

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 09/27/2012

Defense Date 08/03/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,Latino,Male,OAI-PMH Harvest,Success

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crew, Rudolph (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Hayes, Cleveland (committee member)

Creator Email ayro@usc.edu,Ayro013@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-98189

Unique identifier UC11290420

Identifier usctheses-c3-98189 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-AyroIvan-1215.pdf

Dmrecord 98189

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Ayro, Ivan

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA