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How religious engagement shapes the college experience of African American Christian males at a predominantly White institution: a phenomenlogical approach

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How religious engagement shapes the college experience of African American Christian males at a predominantly White institution: a phenomenlogical approach

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HOW RELIGIOUS ENGAGEMENT SHAPES THE COLLEGE EXPERIENCE
OF AFRICAN AMERICAN CHRISTIAN MALES AT A PREDOMINANTLY
WHITE INSTITUTION: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH

by

Stephen J. Rice

__________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2012

Copyright 2012 Stephen J. Rice

ii
DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to my grandparents John Henry and Cassie Rice
for their ultimate sacrifice so I would never have to be in the fields but in the
classroom. To my parents, Rev. C. Calvin Rice and Rev. Sandra R Gay, for
laying the foundation for my spiritual journey, but allowing me to walk it my
way.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my committee chair,
Dr. Kristan Venegas, for her guidance, patience, and passion to level the playing
field so that every student may have access to higher education. To the rest of my
committee members, Dr. Darnell Cole and Dr. Frank Harris III: Thank you for
your knowledge and input to enhance this study and for knowing the importance
of providing holistic student development.
I would like to thank my Thursday cohort for its support and for getting
me through my core courses. A special thank you to Kari Enge, Sonja Daniels,
and Colby Clark for your constant motivation. Thank you to my family for your
prayers and strong support.
Finally I would like to thank the students who participated in this study.
You reminded me of the struggles students may face surrounding their religious
identity while in college, and how the university can always do a better job at
providing the proper resources and support.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ii

Acknowledgments iii

Abstract vi

Chapter One: Background, Purpose, and Overview of the Study 1
Introduction 1
Background of the Problem 3
Problem Statement 10
Purpose of the Study 11
Overview of Methodology 12
Importance of the Study 13
Definition of Terms 13
Organization of the Study 14

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 16
African American Students in Higher Education 16
College Engagement for African American Males 19
Spirituality vs. Religiosity 23
Religious Commitment/Spirituality Bolsters Resilience 36
Religious Engagement/A Sense of Purpose 38
Support Provided by Mentors 46
Student Affairs 48
Spirituality and Higher Education 49
Conclusion to Literature Review 56

Chapter Three: Research Methodology 57
Research Design 57
Site Selection 59
Participants 60
Instruments 62
Data Analysis 65
Trustworthiness 65
Formulating Themes 66
The Role of the Researcher 67
Conclusion to Research Methodology 67

Chapter Four: Presentation of Data 69
Participant Profiles 70
Table 1: Participants in the Study 70

v
Introduction of Finding 80
Summary of Opportunities 89
Summary of Religious Engagement 101
Summary of Campus Resources 104
Major Themes Drawn from Findings 104

Chapter Five: Summary of Findings and Research 106
How African American Males Define Spirituality 107
Theme One: The African American Males in this Study, Noticed
their Development of Spirituality Increased while in College 108
Theme Two: The Practice of Religious Engagement while in
College for African American Males Varied for Each Student 114
Theme Three: Religious Engagement for African American
Males in this Study was Nurtured and Sustained within a
Community Such as a Student Organization 118
Implications for Policy and Practice 120
Future Research 128
Conclusion to the Study 130

References 132

Appendices
Appendix A: Individual Interview 139
Appendix B: Information Sheet 140
Appendix C: Recruitment Email 143

vi
ABSTRACT

Understanding the different aspects of the college experience of African
American males in a predominantly White institution is an important topic for
researchers. This focus directly responds to the despairing statistics surrounding
collegiate African American males, who often show lower graduation rates
compared to other racial groups. The need to refocus research is especially urgent
given the significant gap between male and female African American college
students. One often-overlooked issue concerns the religious engagement of
African American Christian males at predominantly White institutions, and how
that engagement may shape their college experience.
Based on the overwhelming data received by the participants, this study,
which originally set out to look at spirituality in African American males, opened
up to an exploration of religious engagement. The study aimed to answer the
following research question: How does religious engagement shape the college
experience of African American Christian males at a predominantly White
institution. The research sub question is: How do African American males define
spirituality?
This study’s framework draws upon the research of Alexander Astin,
Helen Astin, and Jennifer Lindholm (2011) on the religious life of college
students. These researchers categorized how students manage their religious life
into three key areas: (a) religious commitment, (b) religious engagement, and (c)
religious conservatism. The present study focused mainly on religious

vii
engagement. Qualitative methods, specifically phenomenology in the form of
one- on-one interviews were used to gather the data. The participants were
recruited through a snowball effect, which resulted in 11 students who identified
as African American or Black males having a spiritual background (however they
defined it) and functioning as full-time students at the host site.
The results showed evidence that religious engagement shapes the college
experience of African American males at a predominantly White institution.
These findings were shown through (a) the various ways that students engaged in
their religion lives, (b) how the students used their religious engagement to define
their purpose, (c) how the students tried to develop their own personal religious
identities, and (d) the importance they granted to creating their own religious
communities.
New findings from the study included the recognition that students were
struggling to deal with aspects of college life that were odds with their religious
identities. The student-participants were trying to find ways to navigate
conflicting issues in college, such as having sex, partying, and consuming alcohol.
At the end of the dissertation, the researcher offers recommendations and
implications for university administrators to consider.

1
CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND, PURPOSE, AND OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Introduction

For decades, researchers in higher education have studied the experience
of African American males in college, in an effort to understand how to retain and
guide this population through to graduation (Cuyjet, 2006). These researchers
have posited that four main areas; academic, social, emotion, and financial
(Herndon & Hirt, 2004) can shape whether African American males college
experiences. Even with campus administration coordinating programs, such as
cultural resource centers, available to provide support in each of these areas, some
African American males seek outside resources for support (Herndon & Hirt,
2004). One relevant area yet to be explored is religious engagement and how it
shapes the college experience of African American Christian men.
University administrators recognize the rewards of having a diverse
student body and see the potential to offer a well-rounded educational experience
to all college students. Having a diverse college population fosters openness and
understanding among various ethnic groups, creating new lenses through which to
view societal situations (Pike et al., 2007). However, these diverse groups often
find it challenging to interact with White students on college campuses,
sometimes due to America’s entrenched history of segregation and racism, which
denied racial and ethnic minorities access to many higher educational institutions,
creating a deep racial divide in the nation (Cuyjet, 2006). To help eliminate

2
remnants of past racist policies, colleges and universities have developed a more
nuanced understanding of the need to increase equity and access to higher
education for qualified minority students (Adams & Gaither, 2005). Even with
this understanding, African American males continue to struggle in college, and
leave their institutions (Bailey, 2003). Many new developments, including
information on low self-efficacy and social isolation, have raised awareness of
some of the issues that African American males face in college, especially at
predominantly White institutions (Cuyjet, 2006). Based on this knowledge,
resources such as tutoring services, mentoring programs, and leadership
opportunities have been implemented to help combat these issues (Bailey, 2003).
One area that has gone underexplored is whether adding religious engagement to
the list of support initiatives would serve to positively shape the college
experience of African American Christian males. To fill this gap in the research,
this study will look at the experience of African American Christian males in
college and the role that religious engagement plays in their lives.
Religious engagement and spirituality often play a significant part in
African American communities. This study considers predominantly White
institutions, because of the cultural adjustment, isolation, alienation, and racism
that African American males often experience at predominantly White institutions
(Jackson, 2003). Once enrolled in a predominantly White institution, African
American males can struggle to remain in school, and they often graduate at lower
rates compared to their White counterparts. Religious engagement and

3
spirituality are areas that can be considered to help eliminate some of the negative
experiences African American males undergo in college. For African Americans,
spirituality has been shown to positively affect physical, psychological, social,
and civic well-being and to enhance the meaning and purpose of their lives
(Mattis, 2000).
This study set out to look at how spirituality shapes the college experience
of African American males at a predominantly White institution; however,
responses received from the participants during the data collection aligned with
religious activities or religious engagement rather than spirituality. Notably, a
significant number of African Americans view these two realms as intertwined
(Watson, 2006). Most of the participants equated spirituality with their traditional
religious practice and beliefs, revealing the unspoken tension between spirituality
and religion (Astin et al., 2011). The collected data thus changed the focus of this
study; whereas most of the background and literature review focus on spirituality,
the conceptual framework that presents the data in Chapter Four and the
implications section in Chapter Five are mainly concerned with religious
engagement.
Background of the Problem
As the population in the United States becomes more diverse, so do the
demographics on college campuses. In 1980, White students made up 81% of the
college population, whereas 19% was ethnic minority students (races that are non-
White), this number included nonresident aliens (United States Department of

4
Education, 1998). In 2000, White students made up 68% of students enrolled in
college, whereas ethnic minority students made up 31% (United States
Department of Education, 2010). During this time in 2000, the breakdown of the
minority students was 11% African American, 10% Hispanics, 6% Asians, and
1% Native American Indians. Although minority student enrollment has
increased, the rate at which minority students are leaving their institutions remains
higher than that of their White peers (Carter, 2006; Seidman, 2005).
Variables proven to help in the college experience of minority students
include academic preparation, adequate financial aid, and strong college campus
support networks (Carter, 2006). Research indicates that African American
students are among the minority groups struggling throughout their college career,
producing a graduation rate 20% lower than that of White students (Cokley &
Moore, 2007). This disparity in school completion and access begins at the time
of high school graduation. After high school graduation, 35–50% of African
Americans enroll in college, compared to the 75% of White students entering
higher education (Seidman, 2005).
These numbers starkly show the widening gap between African
Americans and Whites when it comes to socioeconomic status. Graduating and
obtaining a college degree gives African Americans males, especially those from
low-income urban areas, a stronger chance of obtaining a well-paying job. Few
African American males from low-income and working-class backgrounds take
on the challenges of a college degree, because many do not receive support or

5
validation from their African American peers (Harper, 2006). Research has shown
that education remains one of the key determinants of a community’s social
conditions (Bailey, 2003) which is an important consideration given that many
African Americans come from lower socioeconomic brackets (Cuyjet, 2006).
Understanding the value and power of a college degree reinforces the necessity to
create equal access to any student who has a desire to advance his or her
education. As researchers continue to examine issues of equity, it remains clear
that African American students, particularly African American males still struggle
to persevere from admission to graduation within six years, a finding that is not
true for African American females (Siedman, 2005).
African Americans have the lowest male-to-female ratio in college
enrollment than any other racial group (Cuyjet, 2006). According to the 2003
Minorities in Higher Education Annual Status report, 37% of African American
male high school graduates matriculated to a higher educational institution,
whereas 42% of African American women transitioned to college. Moreover,
33% fewer African American men who attended college in 1999 graduated than
African American women (Cross & Slater, 2000). Some researchers believe that
the decline is due to the various barriers that African American men face as they
try to matriculate through the traditional educational systems (Noguera, 2003).
Obstacles include feeling disconnected to the campus and lacking self-efficacy
and gained respect from other students (Cuyjet, 2006).

6
Many situational variables explain why African American males often
leave college (Cuyjet, 2006); such components include family economic status,
type of institution (public, private, urban, rural, etc.), and family educational
status. Larger cultural and societal factors are relevant as well: more African
American males are in jail than in college; many come from a poor secondary
educational system; and this population tends to have a low presence of fathers at
home (Noguera, 2003). These realities often mean that African American men are
not encouraged to attend college by their male peers (Cuyjet, 2006). Even if they
decide to attend college, they often lack the self-efficacy to remain strong
academically (Noguera, 2003).
The dearth of knowledge regarding this student population means that
research is needed to develop a deeper understanding of this population’s
experiences, with the hope of creating useful and productive programs that can
provide solutions to this problem. With the known factors discussed above,
student affairs administrators and faculty are able to utilize theories and execute
effective programs to assist the very students being impacted by these issues
(Howard-Hamilton, 1997). Recognizing tools like spirituality and religious
engagement could possibly help African American males face these challenges is
important for student affairs administrators.
Spirituality is a valuable component of the African American community
(Walker & Dixon, 2002). Spirituality can be a vital source of aid for those coping
with the many struggles of college (Chae et al., 2004). Given the low number of

7
African American males obtaining a college degree, understanding this population
and its culture and community background continues to be a priority, as does
providing effective resources to increase its graduation rate.
University administrators would benefit immensely from having greater
insight into the roles that African American males play in their own culture and
community. In the African American community, males are leaders; thus, their
communities often pressure them to attend college because it believes that earning
an education is the best way to make money. This includes having a good career,
even though some students may feel that sports and entertainment are an easy way
to be successful in life (Wright & McCreary, 1997). Despite such demanding
expectations, many African American males often do not seek a college education
(Wallace et al., 2000). Besides the pressure placed on African American males to
earn an education, “being a man” is also an important factor.
The role of the man and what it means to be masculine are crucial
considerations in African American communities. In American society,
masculinity is often associated with being independent, controlling, active, and
having qualities that could conflict with characteristics of spirituality, which
values cooperation, yielding, connectedness, and community (Longwood et al.,
2004). However, one research project found that high-achieving African
American athletes associated masculinity with being strong, upstanding, having
good moral character, and the knowledge and ability to do what is right (Martin &
Harris, 2006). When it comes to factors affecting African American males such as

8
the lack of positive role models and the pressures of being a man, they continue to
be topics of research, whereas spirituality continues to remain in need of deeper
exploration (Cuyjet, 2006).
Spirituality as a component of the human condition has not been
thoroughly studied insofar as it impacts African American males at PWIs
(predominantly White institutions) (Cuyjet, 2006). Most research on spirituality
has come from the field of psychology, which looks at addictions (Brome et al.,
2000), depression (Desrosiers & Miller, 2007), and sexual choices (Beckwith &
Morrow, 2005). However, the limited educational field research on spirituality
has shown its positive effects on African Americans, especially with issues of
self-esteem (hooks, 2003), academic performance (Walker & Dixon, 2002), and
social relationships (Mattis & Jagers, 2001). According to Herndon (2003),
awareness of community bonding and understanding of self-worth involve a
connection to spirituality. Community bonding and understanding allow African
American men to stay strong and to persevere in the midst of hardship.
Most extant research has compared the significance of levels of spirituality
between men and women in general, often revealing that women have higher
levels of spirituality. However, research on African Americans shows there is no
key significance in the level of spirituality between African American women and
African American men. Notably, however, the research shows that both African
American men and African American women use spirituality throughout their
college lives.

9
Herndon (2003) identified three themes relating to African American
males in college with regard to spirituality and how spirituality is engaged. These
themes are particularly salient to this study given that the researcher sought to
discuss spirituality and was given numerious examples of religious engagement to
explain spiritual practices. In his study, Herndon found that spirituality bolsters
resilience, which allows students to believe they can make it through college.
Spirituality provides African American males with a sense of purpose about who
they are and what they will become. Finally, recognizing the role that African
American religious institutions play for African American males while they are in
college is imperative. By understanding the function spirituality plays in the lives
of African American college males, we may create the foundation of new campus
programs (Riggins et al., 2008). Because spirituality is a central factor in African
American culture, qualities associated with spirituality could serve the
development of a new approach to creating academic self-efficacy. Still, few
studies have looked at the role that spirituality plays for African Americans in the
academy (Herndon, 2003).
Astin (2011) developed an assessment model to understand spirituality
and religion. According to Astin, the five areas pertaining to religious
measurement are (a) religious commitment, (b) religious engagement, (c)
religious/social conservatism, (d) religious struggle, and (e) religious skepticism.
Religious commitment refers to an “internal” quality, meaning “how religious” a
student self-rates. This assessment factors in how much a student follows

10
religious teachings on a daily basis and through this finds strength by trusting in a
higher power. Religious engagement comprises “external” qualities and is the
behavioral counterpart to religious commitment, including attending religious
services, praying, religious singing, chanting, and so forth. Religious/social
conservatism measures the student’s opposition to issues such as abortion and
casual sex. It also means how often a student prays for forgiveness. Religious
struggle and religious skepticism, the final two areas, play important roles for
many students’ religious development (Astin et al., 2011). Religious struggle
occurs when a student reflects and questions areas of his or her faith. Religious
skepticism is the opposite of religious commitment and religious engagement
reflects the belief that some aspects of particular theological propositions are in
error (Astin et al., 2011)
Problem Statement

Given the variety of experiences that African American males may face
before college, such as racism, crime, and lack of educational role models, they
often have greater daily obstacles than many White students (Cuyjet, 2006). Even
with research and consequent practices serving to help this population, African
American males still fail to matriculate at a satisfying rate (Noguera, 2003).
Dealing with societal issues (including racism, coming from a low economic
status, and having male mentors in the penal system) may contribute to their low
resilience in college (Noguera, 2003). Some African American males live in

11
communities that face issues related to drugs, crime, and a lack of present fathers,
thus contributing to their need to find their own community support in college.
Many programs have been developed to help alleviate some of these
concerns, so that African American males can persist through college and
eventually graduate (Cuyjet, 2006). Components of these initiatives include
mentoring, tutoring, and creating strong faculty-student relationships (Herndon &
Hirt, 2004). Although many programs on college campuses have been developed
to help African American males find a place, some of them fail to help African
American males understand their purpose in life (Cuyjet, 2006). Student affairs
administrators must grasp the lived emotional realities and needs that African
American males have before they come to campus and try to gain an
understanding of their experiences in college. Gaining this awareness may begin
by evaluating current programs designed for African American males to aid in
their matriculation, and measuring their effectiveness. Without constant
assessment and communication with these students, African American males will
continue to have low college completions rates (Cuyjet, 2006).
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine how spirituality and religious
engagement shapes the college experience of African American males at a
predominantly White institution. This study will also explore how African
American males define spirituality. With the college enrollment rate of African

12
American males continuing to decline, the need to understand their experience has
become dire. The overarching research question for this study is:
How does religious engagement shape the college experience of African
American Christian males at a predominantly White institution?
There is also one sub question: How do African American males define
spirituality?
Overview of Methodology
This study uses a qualitative approach. Qualitative methods look at the
combined set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that allows others to
form a clearer view of lived realities (Schwandt, 2007). Specifically, this study
utilizes a phenomenological approach, which looks at the real life experience of a
group of individuals on a specific concept (Creswell, 2006). This method will
provide deeper comprehension of the personal experiences of the observed
African American males and will explicate a specific understanding of the college
experience of African American males to see how religious engagement plays a
role in their endeavors.
The study will involve analysis of both current documents and literature
that has identified key components surrounding spirituality and religious
engagement in college. Eleven African American males from a predominantly
White, western four-year institution were interviewed, through one-on-one
interviews. Reflexive field notes detail the entire process of this study, and
identify any biases, mistakes, and reactions that may surface (Schwandt, 2007).

13
Importance of the Study
This study will provide insight into how spirituality and religious
engagement shape the college experience of African American males and provide
information that is of profound value to student affairs administrators. Knowing
about religious engagement is significant for student affairs administrators,
because it allows them to implement a spiritual dimension in retention programs
that very well may help African American students in college. Notably, however,
campus administrators are often reluctant to infuse spirituality into campus life
due to the challenge of separating spirituality from religiosity (Love & Talbot,
1999). The following section defines key terms in this study.
Definition of Terms
Spirituality: Researchers have not determined a universal definition of
spirituality to use as a foundation for understanding its true meaning (Astin, 2004;
Estanek, 2006). Some people believe that spirituality is an individual process that
creates a unique personal experience for everyone (Estanek, 2006). According to
Hindman (2002), spirituality is a reflection of who we truly are and shapes our
authentic selves. It reflects the desire to be in a place of knowledge, love,
meaning, hope, transcendence, connectedness, and compassion (Chae et al.,
2004). Spirituality deals with our interior, our human consciousness, desires,
hopes, dreams, and the ability to adhere to our sacred values (Astin, 2004). For
purposes of this study, spirituality is defined as the desire to grasp a deeper
authentic self, role, and purpose in life in an effort that is conceptualized through

14
relationships with others and derives from a common connection to a higher
power or being.
Religion: Religion is an institutional pattern of belief and behavior in
which common meanings are established, thus creating cultural systems
(Schneiders, 2003).
Religiosity: Religiosity is the extent to which a person lives by the rules of
the particular religion he or she believes in; the degree of involvement in religious
life including, but not limited to, practices, involvement in religious activities, and
public religious expressions (Taylor et al., 2004).
Religious Engagement: Religious engagement refers to the activities an
individual participates in to practice his or her religion (Astin et al., 2011),
including praying, mediating, chanting, singing, and reading religious documents
(Astin et al., 2011).
Organization of the Study

This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter One presented the
introduction to the issues surrounding both understandings of the experience of
African American males in college and the role that religious engagement plays in
that endeavor. The chapter defined key terms, provided background, and clarified
the research questions. Chapter Two provides a deeper understanding of the issue
by surveying the current literature on the subject, showing the empirical and
theoretical research on spirituality and religious engagement, and discussing the
college experience of African American males. The methodology for this study is

15
presented in Chapter Three, which explains the research design, sample selection,
sample size, and method of data collection and data analysis. Chapter Four
presents the results of the findings from the data collection. Lastly, Chapter Five
discusses the findings, presents the final conclusions, and offers recommendations
for future studies.

16
CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter reviews the literature related to spirituality, religious
engagement, and the college experience of African American Christian males. It
begins with a brief overview of the statement of the problem detailed in Chapter
One, including a discussion of factors that shape the college experience of African
American men. The chapter then presents an understanding of the difference
between spirituality and religiosity, the conceptual framework used for the initial
research for this dissertation, and the framework used based on the data received.
The chapter ends with a discussion of scholarly research on spirituality. This
chapter also looks at scholarly research related to spirituality and African
American men in college, college engagement for African American men, and
how student affairs professionals can utilize the information. The purpose of the
review is to provide an understanding of how religious engagement shapes the
collegiate experience of African American Christian males at a predominantly
White institution.
African American Students in Higher Education
Providing proper assistance for ethnic minority students to manage the
issues they face in college continues to be a challenge for higher educational
institutions (Herndon & Hirt, 2004; Wilson-Sadberry et al., 1991). With funding
set aside each year to support programs and services for students of color, this
demographic remains a priority for university administrators (Seidman, 2005).

17
Over the years, universities have made significant strides in increasing the
enrollment of students of color. Even though minority students are entering
college at a higher rate than in previous years, they continue to leave at a higher
rate than nonminorities (Seidman, 2007).
According to the U.S. Department of Education in 1990, 77.5% of the
students enrolled in higher education was White and 19.5% was minority (this
statistic does not include the international student population). Of the minority
demographics, 9% were African Americans, 5.6% Hispanic, 4% Asian, and .7%
American Indian. In 2008, the U.S. Department of Education reported that
individuals who identified as White made up 63% of the students in higher
education, and 33% identified as minority (this statistic does not include the
international student population). African Americans made up 13%, Hispanics
were at 12%, Asians constituted 7%, and American Indians were at 1%.
The rate of African American males graduating from college continues to
be one of the lowest among the racial groups (Cuyjet, 2006). Nonetheless, African
American student enrollment in college increased half a million over the past 20
years (Cokley & Moore, 2007). According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, the
enrollment percentage of traditional-age African American college students (ages
18–24) increased from 20.3% to 31.8% within 10 years. This increase was
primarily due to African American women going to college (Cokley & Moore,
2007).

18
Researchers have identified some variables that African Americans
struggle with at predominantly White institutions. Student often battle with
cultural adjustments, meaning their own culture often does not mesh with the
culture of the campus, which in turn creates feelings of isolation and alienation
(Jackson, 2003). Constantly navigating these feelings takes energy that they
could apply to their academic advancement (Kim, 2002). The time it takes to deal
with their emotions may cause African American men not to focus on the work
they should be doing to help them remain in school. Further research is clearly
important to determining and understanding what tools African American males
need so they can progress toward graduation.
As they conduct more studies of these issues, researchers are presenting
ways to relieve feelings of isolation and to find ways to help socially integrate
African American males into the college community. Many resources for
academic and emotional support have been created to help African American
males transition to college (Herndon & Hirt, 2004). Often academic support is
implemented through tutoring programs, interaction with faculty, and mentoring
programs (Bailey, 2003). Emotional support programs in the form of campus
counseling services help students who are stressed or need mental support. In
spite of these apparatuses, however, spirituality is an often-overlooked factor that
could be providing both academic and emotional support for African American
males. Though a common component of African American culture, spirituality is
not frequently utilized as part of the support networks of academic institutions

19
(Herndon & Hirt, 2004). Notably, in the history of American higher educational
institutions, religiosity and spirituality used to play a more important and
prominent role.
In fact, religious institutions were instrumental to creating many of the
early American colleges. In 1839, over 80% of college presidents were clergy
members (Young, 1997). As more public institutions were established in
America many through funds by the government, this resulted in these schools
foundation with a pluralistic framework (Young, 1997). Aiming for greater
inclusiveness, public institutions began to distance themselves from religiosity.
As higher educational institutions shifted paradigms from having a spirit core
value to a more scientific approach, a spiritual presence decreased on campuses
(Bryant et al., 2003). But even as American colleges and universities have
changed, the importance of spirituality and religious engagement for African
American males has not. Research has shown that African American students
place a higher value on spirituality than do most White students (Walker &
Dixon, 2002). In spite of general awareness of the importance of spirituality in
the lives of African American males, spirituality practices continue to be absent
on college campuses.
College Engagement for African American Males
Recognizing the ways in which African American males engage in
campus life is also important. What researchers mean by student engagement is
how an enrolled person in college participates inside and outside the classroom

20
(Harper & Quaye, 2009). Studies have shown that students who are engaged in
campus activities often matriculate to graduation (Harper & Quaye, 2009).
Researchers have measured student engagement by the amount of time and effort
students put into their studies and other educational activities (Harper & Quaye,
2009). Engagement has been shown to provide students with educational gains
and benefits, including cognitive and intellectual skill development, better college
adjustment, and the accumulation of social capital (Harper & Quaye, 2009).
Engagement for African American men on a predominately White campus
is often a struggle. Many researchers have attributed this phenomenon to feelings
of isolation, alienation, and hostility experienced by African American males
(Harper & Quaye, 2009; Watson, 2006), which can lead to self-doubt, low self-
efficacy, and feelings that they are not smart enough for college. This pattern of
thinking can create an aversion to participating in campus activities (Harper &
Quaye, 2009; Watson, 2006). Others researchers have posited that African
American men are not engaged in college because men often deem sports,
physical activity, and athleticism more socially acceptable and “cooler” than
campus leadership and purposeful engagement (Watson, 2006). Still other
researchers have put forth that male students typically encounter difficulty
working together, a level of engagement that is often required in student
organizations (Watson, 2006).
Watson (2006) studied 25 African American male college students
attending a Southern University. The participants were enrolled in an African

21
American studies course, where they were invited to attend four focus groups.
From focus group conversations, the researcher found that participants felt that
the campus community did not perceive them positively as African American
men (Watson, 2006). The participants felt that their faculty and White peers
viewed them as a special admit, meaning they were only in college because of
affirmative action. Joining a student organization helped the students overcome
those negative perceptions. The student organizations were often used as
vehicles to help build bridges and to show these students that they deserved to be
in college (Watson, 2006). The students in this study were active in the student
government association, intramural athletics, recreation, and the student union.
Out of all engagement opportunities, fraternities and sororities are the most
popular venues for undergraduate African Americans out-of-class engagement
(Harper, 2008).
In the early 1900s, Black fraternities were created to create a support
system for the few African Americans able to attend college. Research has shown
that joining a Black fraternity helps students develop a sense of belonging and a
connection to campus, leadership skills, and transferable skills for future careers
(Harper, 2008). Today, the number of African American men joining Black
fraternities has decreased. Many Black men are unable to meet the minimum 2.5
grade point average requirement for membership in one of the five historically
Black fraternities (Harper, 2008).

22
Like the data on the decrease in African American men being engaged on
campus some researchers are now trying to reframe how studies portray African
American men. Positing that in order to improve the experiences of African
American males in college, researchers must change the way they look at their
subjects, instead of only focusing on the negative look at what is positive and how
those individuals made it happen (Harper & Kuykendall, 2012). In his report in
the National Black male college achievement study from 2012, Harper looked at
their success in higher education, explaining that when you focus on the negative
statistics surrounding African American males, you forgot those who don’t fit into
the numbers. Many African American males have gone to Ivy League schools,
and others have become great contributors to society. Harper recognized that if
you use what worked for them in return can possible help others succeed. Harper
undertook this effort by interviewing 210 African American males, a study that
produced a large amount of data. Through his research Harper recognized the
importance to get the stories of successful African American male students out
there to educate others. Their involvement on campus and belief in God helped
them positively navigate their college career. Most of the students in that study
identified their religious beliefs as a Christian (Harper, 2012). This study also
found that some African American men engage in religious activities while in
college (Harper, 2012).
Lemuel Watson conducted research on the role that spirituality and
religion play in the college experience of African American males, using a 23-

23
item instrument, including two likert scales and three essay questions. These
instruments helped gather information on the students’ experience in general and
on their spiritual and religious beliefs and practices (Watson, 2006). The essay
questions gathered data to gain an understanding on what the students believed
caused them to be successful before college and during their current enrollment
(Watson, 2006). As the study revealed, participants felt that spirituality through
religious engagement was important to their purpose in life. Having the ability to
affirm their spirituality was important to the African American males in the study.
Watson thus concluded that the social construct of spirituality can affect one’s
ability to focus on collegiate experiences (Watson, 2006). The students Watson
studied drew upon their spirituality and religion to help them obtain their goals
and took the time to mediate, pray, and reflect.
Spirituality vs. Religiosity
What is the difference between spirituality and religiosity? Spirituality
has some connection with religion, but they are often confused as being one and
the same. Since the late 1990s, researchers have created clearer definitions to
distinguish spirituality from religiosity (Estanek, 2006). Some researchers see
clear boundaries between the two terms, whereas others regard them as
interconnected (Berkel et al., 2004). Many African American equate spirituality
as religiosity (Watson, 2006).
Religiosity comprises the many aspects of religion and is often
characterized as an organized belief founded in doctrines of faith (Love & Talbot,

24
1999). As institutional organizations, religions contain many traditions, creeds,
and codes, as well as patterns of belief and behavior in which common meanings
are established, thus creating cultural systems (Schneiders, 2003). Some well-
known religions are Buddhism, Judaism, Muslim, and Christianity (Schneiders,
2003). Christianity represents the majority mindset in the United States and often
sets the tone for the country’s belief system (Bryant et al., 2003). In African
American communities, Black Christian churches frequently serve as cultural and
community centers and can play a role in resolving social problems that threaten
the African American population such as ending gang violence, preventing
HIV/AIDS, and finding employment opportunities (Mattis & Jagers, 2001). For
college students, researchers have studied the influence of religion on campuses
by measuring their attendance at church services and by looking at the level of
membership in religious clubs and organizations (Bryant et al., 2003). In
comparing religion to spirituality, religion may be viewed as a behavior, whereas
spirituality can be seen as self-identification (Berkel, et al., 2004; Bryant et al.,
2003).
Spirituality is defined as the degree to which individuals endorse a
relationship with God or a transcendent force that brings meaning and purpose to
their existence. Spirituality affects the ways in which one operates in the world
(Berkel et al., 2004). Spirituality is an intentional process of life-integration of
self-transcendence toward an individual’s life goals (Schneiders, 2003). Self-
transcendence is the ability to create a sense of liberation by going beyond one’s

25
limits (Schneiders, 2003). Spirituality helps individuals to understand the very
nature of knowing (Jagers & Smith, 1996). Although it began as a Christian term,
spirituality now refers to actualizing the human capacity for self-transcendence
(Schneiders, 2003). Spirituality is a personal experience, an ongoing intentional
project of life-integration, and the effort to enact self-transcendence combined
with ultimate values (Schneiders, 2003). Based on these definitions, spirituality
for purposes of this study is defined as the desire to understand a deeper authentic
self, role, and purpose in life, conceptualized through relationships with others
who have a common connection to a higher power or being.
Even though religiosity and spirituality are seen as separate, many
researchers have studied their similarities. Spirituality has its roots in religion
(Estanek, 2006; Schneiders, 2003). Religious beliefs and practices are one of the
five aspects of spirituality (Berkel et al., 2004). Religiosity is a tool, and
spirituality is perceived as the ultimate outcome (Mattis, 2000). Research has
shown that during a student’s college years, his or her level of spirituality often
increases while religiosity decreases (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Astin et al.,
2011). This decline in religiosity in college is often due to decreases in available
church services, fewer opportunities for formal prayers, and disaffiliations from
churches at home (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). This decline in religion often
comes during the adult life cycle (Berkel et al., 2004). At home, religious ideas
are often reinforced daily, but when students are at school that nonpresence
reduces their religious orientation (Astin et al., 2011).

26
Bryant et al.’s (2003) study on levels of spirituality and religion for first-
year students found that religious activities, such as attendance at religious
services, praying/meditating, or having discussions about spirituality, decreased.
However, they noticed an increase in student efforts to incorporate spirituality in
their daily lives. Finally, they discovered that individuals with high levels of
religiosity also had high levels of spirituality. Acknowledging the presence of
spirituality in the lives of college students, scholarly research continues to
examine how spirituality is defined and the ways spirituality is used, especially by
African American men.
Astin, Astin, and Lindholm (2011) developed a survey to understand the
roles and perceptions of spirituality and religion for college students. This
instrument, titled College Students’ Beliefs and Values (CSBV), surveyed 3,680
college juniors from 46 colleges and universities (Astin et al., 2011). The results
produced five different scales for measuring religion: (a) religious commitment,
(b) religious engagement, (c) religious/social conservatism, (d) religious
skepticism, and (e) religious struggle. This new measurement tracked the
participants from their first year through their entire college career. The
researchers were able to see if the students remained the same or changed in any
one of the individual items.
Religious commitment concerns internal aspects of the student’s self-
reflection on “religiousness.” Based on 12 attitudinal and belief items, religious
commitment includes the degree to which the student follows religious teachings

27
in his or her everyday life. This instrument also studied the ways in which the
students found religion to be personally helpful, and whether they gained personal
strength by trusting in a higher power. The information was collected by eliciting
responses to such assertions as “I gain spiritual strength by trusting in a higher
power”; “I find religion to be personally helpful”; and “My spiritual/religious
beliefs provide me with strength, support, and guidance.” From the participant
responses, the data showed that the students’ levels of religious commitment
changed very little during their college years (Astin et al., 2011).
Religious engagement measures external behaviors including attending
religious services, praying, religious singing, chanting, and reading sacred texts.
In Astin et al.’s (2011) study, nine items helped collect the data in this area. One
finding was that student attendance at religious services showed a steep decline.
Over half the participants maintained their rate of service attendance from high
school to college, whereas more than a third attended less frequently (Astin et al.,
2011).
Religious/social conservatism was measured from seven items based on
the student’s degree of opposition to things such as abortion, casual sex, and
atheism (Astin et al., 2011). The instrument found that most of the students who
scored high in this area saw God as a father figure. All but one area saw a decline
in the religious/social conservatism of participants later in their college careers.
The largest drop was in the percentage of students who disagreed with the belief
that abortion should be legal. The researchers saw a correlation between religious

28
engagement and religious/social conservatism. Students who had high levels of
religious engagement in college were less likely to show a decline in their
religious conservatism.
Evaluating religious struggles can deepen understandings of how students
negotiate what is going on around them at a time when they may be having
trouble knowing why they are experiencing conflicted feelings (Astin et al.,
2011). Students may be questioning what they really believe in, or why poverty,
death, and suffering exist in the world. Exposure to other ideologies can
challenge college students to reflect on their beliefs and to reconcile to an evolved
faith. Astin et al. (2011) measured religious struggles based on the responses from
seven items in the survey.
Religious skepticism is considered the opposite of religious engagement
and commitment (Astin et al., 2011). As mentioned earlier, religious engagement
and commitment are based on belief in particular theological propositions,
whereas religious skepticism is the belief that those same propositions are in error
(Astin et al., 2011). As such, students who scored high in religious engagement
often scored low for religious skepticism. While college students try to
understand their faith, they may also be learning how to navigate their spirituality.
Michael Herndon (2003) looked at expressions of spirituality among
African American college males. The purpose of his study was to understand the
role spirituality plays in the life of African American men in college. The study
was designed to explore whether spirituality was a factor that would help keep

29
African American men in school. To this end, Herndon (2003) asked, “How does
spirituality among African American male college students affect their ability to
stay in school?” The data was collected at a predominantly White institution in a
rural area. Thirteen African American male students participated in this study.
Ten identified as Christian, one Muslim, and two considered their religious
affiliation to be “other.” Based on a grounded theory method, three themes
emerged from the data collection: (a) spirituality bolsters resilience, (b)
spirituality provides a sense of purpose, and (c) spiritual support is provided by
African American religious institutions.
Many aspects of Herndon’s (2003) theoretical framework are consistent
with claims that spirituality creates resilience (Cuyjet, 2006) and helps individuals
develop purpose (Love & Talbot, 1999). Herndon’s research is valuable because
it sheds light on of the role that members at the local church played in the
students’ lives. Members of the church encouraged the students to remain in
school and gave them the motivation and encouragement to do well. The church
members became an extended family and a support network for the students.
These individuals served as mentors to the students and, by providing a spiritual
connection, were able to show them ways to persist and to graduate.
The role of a mentor is to provide resources and knowledge to help the
protégé succeed (Wallace et al., 2000). Mentors serve as institutional agents who
have knowledge and the ability to network, advocate, be role models, support, and
provide feedback to their protégés (Watkins, 1998). The purpose of most mentors

30
in college is to allow students to become a part of social aspects of the campus
and to obtain the keys to achieve success with the hopes that, one day, they will
pass this knowledge on to someone else (Cuyjet, 2006). African Americans
benefit from having African American mentors because they can serve as
interpreters of the students’ lives. Having often experienced the same obstacles
that the students are facing, these mentors can guide students toward academic
success (White & Cones, 1999). This information illuminates how the mentoring
role that church members play, in connection to their spirituality, helps African
American males overcome obstacles they face in college.
Elkins, Hedstrom, Hughes, Leaf, and Saunders (1988) sought their own
definition of spirituality through a humanistic lens. Based on the works of
Abraham Maslow and John Dewey, Elkins et al. (1988) posited that spirituality
was not, in fact, part of religion, but rather part of a human phenomenon far
greater than any one traditional religion. Spirituality is a vital framework in
which humans can coordinate their values and philosophies of life and is just as
important as any basic survival needs, such as sunlight and love (Elkins et al.,
1988). Aligned with Herndon’s (2003) framework, spirituality helps create a
sense of purpose for African American men in college.
The work of Elkins et al. (1998) was based on four assumptions: (a)
everyone has a “spiritual dimension” or “spirituality,” because central values,
beliefs and emotions are experience by all; (b) spirituality is a human
phenomenon and exists in everyone; (c) spirituality is not the same as religiosity;

31
and (d) spirituality has the ability to be defined and assessed. Recognizing that
spirituality’s core is internal, the researchers realized it was on a
phenomenological level. After identifying common themes, the researchers found
nine major components of spirituality. To triangulate these nine areas, they
conducted interviews with five individuals whom they considered to be highly
spiritual. During these individual one-hour meetings, the interviewees were given
a list of nine components and their definitions. According to the researchers, the
interviewees were able to connect to the components and give personal examples
of each, identifying the components as positive and useful.
In their literature review, Elkins et al. (1988) identified nine components
related to different characteristics of spirituality; they were (a) transcendent
dimension, (b) meaning and purpose in life, (c) mission in life, (d) sacredness of
life, (e) material values, (f) altruism, (g) idealism, (h) awareness of the tragic, and
(i) fruits of spirituality. The transcendent dimension is the belief that there is a
divine dimension to life a world beyond what is seen. This belief ranges from a
view of a personal God to a natural extension of the conscious self into regions of
the unconscious or Greater Self.
Meaning and purpose in life occurs for a spiritual person on a journey to
find the reason for his or her own existence. Although everyone reaches this
epiphany differently, each person is filled with an authentic understanding that
life has meaning and purpose. Mission in life is the understanding that each
individual has a calling to fulfill in his or her life. Some call this calling

32
“fulfilling a life destiny” or “accomplishing a mission in life.” Either way, a clear
understanding exists that they may lose their lives in their quest to find and live
out this mission. Sacredness of life is the belief that all things in life are infused
with sacredness, that things should not be placed into categories of right or wrong
but that all areas of life are scared. Material values show that a spiritual person is
not looking for money or possessions to find satisfaction in life. Understanding
the nature of being or the ontological quest can only be fulfilled through
spirituality, and not by material goods. Altruism is the understanding that, as
humans, we must care for the well-being of others; when others are hurt or
suffering, a spiritual person is sympathetic to their needs. The spiritual person
strongly values social justice and believes in a common humanity. Idealism
creates a motivation in life, based on the belief that the world can be better.
Individuals take things where they are and have optimism about what they can
become. Through this commitment to idealism, a spiritual person is able to see the
full potential of the world and what life has to offer. Awareness of the tragic
allows a spiritual person to be aware of the tragic realities that often exist in the
world, including pain, suffering, and death. Indeed, by observing this pain, a
spiritual person is able to focus on the joy, and to value everything in life. Fruits
of spirituality are the benefits a spiritual person sees in his or her life. By living a
spiritual life, individuals experience positive effects in their relationships. The
benefits can be seen through the connection between their self and the world.

33
Through the gifts of these relationships an individual understands what they
consider to be the ultimate being.
Through these definitions, Elkins et al. (1988) created a way to measure
humanist spirituality with the spiritual orientation inventory. To create this
inventory, Elkins et al. (1988) first developed 200 items for the questionnaire;
over time, they narrowed the questions to 85 items, which covered their nine
components of spirituality. The work of Elkins et al. (1988) helped to develop
both a definition of spirituality through a humanist lens and an inventory tool to
aid in the measurement of individuals. Using their work, other researchers have
been able to develop more definitions for spirituality.
The research most often cited in literature related to concepts of
spirituality and to defining spirituality is that of Patrick Love and Donna Talbot.
In 1999, Love and Talbot recognized that little research surrounding spirituality
had been undertaken in higher education and student affairs literature. To redress
this lack of research, their study focused on creating a three-fold purpose: (a)
creating an intentionality of spirituality in student affairs, (b) creating a definition
of spirituality, and (c) creating future practice through previous research. From
their research, five propositions were developed (not considered to be in order of
importance); they are: (a) spiritual development involves an internal process of
seeking personal authenticity, genuineness, and wholeness as an aspect of identity
development; (b) spiritual development involves the process of continually
transcending one’s current locus of centricity; (c) spiritual development involves

34
developing a greater connectedness to self and others through relationships and
union with community; (d) spiritual development involves deriving meaning,
purpose, and direction in one’s life; and (e) spiritual development involves an
increasing openness to exploring a relationship with an intangible and pervasive
power or essence that exists beyond human existence and rational human
knowing.
Spiritual development involves an internal process of seeking personal
authenticity, genuineness, and wholeness as an aspect of identity development.
This proposition speaks to a quest for personal authenticity and genuineness by
understanding the self as a whole, including being consistent in our actions,
beliefs, and understanding of our self. Spiritual development involves the process
of continually transcending one’s current locus of centricity. Spiritual
development is an ongoing process of learning and growing, which often occurs
through life challenges that lead you to self-transcendence, or to the highest
holistic level of human consciousness. Spiritual development involves developing
a greater connectedness of self and others through relationships and union with
community. Spirituality is a personal process that is embedded in connectedness
and relationships. Through this connectedness, individuals are able to find a
deeper meaning in work, family, community, and shared faith. Although it is an
individual process, spirituality often finds its strongest manifestation within a
community.

35
Spiritual development involves deriving meaning, purpose, and direction
in one’s life. Spiritual development is a process focused on greater knowledge
and greater love that furthers an individual’s understanding of his or her life
purpose and meaning and the direction in which he or she is destined to go.
Spiritual development involves an increasing openness to exploring a relationship
with an intangible and pervasive power or essence that exists beyond human
existence and rational human knowing. As they continue their journey to develop
their spiritual sense, individuals often realize that there is a higher force beyond
their realm.
These propositions were based on three assumptions: (a) the quest for
spiritual development is an innate aspect of human development, (b) spiritual
development and spirituality are interchangeable concepts, and (c) openness is a
prerequisite to spiritual development. Love and Talbot’s (1999) research was
conducted to help higher education administrators understand the different
components that constitute the broad definition of spirituality. Though other
researchers often draw on Love and Talbot’s (1999) research, the findings are
usually applied to a general population and have not been considered in light of
the specific experiences of African American males in college. However, this
model does support Herndon’s (2003) framework concerned with how spirituality
develops a sense of purpose and is supported by mentors for African American
males. Using Herndon’s (2003) research and Astin et al., (2011) as a conceptual
framework, the following three sections will look at empirical research supporting

36
the themes of spirituality: namely, that it bolsters resilience, provides a sense of
purpose, and involves spirituality support by mentors.
Religious Commitment/Spirituality Bolsters Resilience
Religious commitment was one of the stronger areas on which students
scored in Astin’s study. Students often used their religious commitments to deal
with situations they encountered, a quality also known as resilience. How
individuals cope with and respond to the many incidents in their lives is important
to understanding a student’s level of resilience (Noguera, 2003). Resilience is
created through spirituality and prayer, inspirational writings, church attendance,
and reading scriptures (Herndon, 2003). Providing African American males
opportunities for such activities gives them the tools to cope with various
situations, including the stress and strain of life in college.
Resilience is a broadly defined term reflecting one’s ability to rebound and
recover from something that has been a hindrance (Miller & MacIntosh, 1999).
Resilience is the ability to positively adapt despite negative environmental
influences (Miller & MacIntosh, 1999). Miller and Macintosh (1999) conducted
research on resilience, specifically focusing on factors that enable an individual to
adapt successfully to the environment despite challenges or threatening
circumstances. They were able to determine two essential elements for
developing resilience: (a) exposure to risk factors, and (b) the presence of
protective factors. Risk factors that may increase the need for resilience may be
internal or external.

37
African Americans in predominately White institutions are exposed to
many risk factors, internally and externally. Two factors should be taken into
consideration to understand the low representation of African American men in
college: (a) factors preventing African American men from getting into college
and (b) factors that leave them unprepared when they do get to college (Cuyjet,
2006). One risk factor African American male students face is the historical
challenges of African Americans. The history of African Americans in the United
States plays a major role in how current African Americans evaluate their self-
worth (Watkins, 1998). In the past, they were considered second-class citizens, a
dangerous species thus the doors to success were often closed in their faces
(Watkins, 1998). Through legislation, African Americans were often denied
access to a college education. These discriminatory laws compelled many
religious institutions to create Black colleges to train them to teach in the
segregated south (Kim, 2002). In predominantly White institutions, many African
Americans still face these feelings of alienation (Carter, 2006; Solorzano et al.,
2000). African American students at predominantly White institutions often
experience isolation and lack of support, and they feel that the playing field at
their institutions is unequal (Carter, 2006; Strayhorn, 2008; Watkins, 1998).
Once in college, African American males have to overcome even more obstacles,
such as feeling accepted by others and a lack of faith that they can succeed
(Jackson, 2003). Most African American males have witnessed negative
treatment and discrimination based on their culture. As a result, they experience a

38
lack of trust by both the faculty and administrators on campus, the people who are
vital for the support they provide for African American men to matriculate (Cole,
2008; Howard-Hamilton, 1997). Culture is a collage of languages, religions, and
customs that a particular group utilizes and that evolve over time (Lee, 1999).
African American students often struggle due to the clash between their own
culture and the culture of their university (Lee, 1999), which are aspects of the
university that make it unique and different from other campuses (Lee, 1999).
Lee (1999) has described campus culture as an assumption created by a particular
group in order to deal with internal integration, adding that campus culture is
taught right away so students know how things are done at that institution. With
religious commitment, students can work on issues internally, such as building
self-efficacy, and externally, as they navigate through their campus culture.
Bolstering resilience allows African American college students to explore their
purpose, buoying them through the tough times.
Religious Engagement/Creating A Sense of Purpose
Religious engagement provides a sense of purpose, direction, and focus in
life (Astin et al., 2011). Honing a sense of purpose helps one to navigate current
and future tasks (Herndon, 2003) and may mean developing a clearer
understanding of one’s academic goals and mission in life are. African Americans
males, as well as other students in college, often struggle to understand who they
truly are. And for African American male students, identity plays a key role in
their college journey. Spirituality and religious engagement has been shown to

39
play an important role in helping with identity development (Stewart, 2008).
How students develop their spirituality and purpose in life is known as faith
(Fowler, 1995; Parks, 2000).
Faith helps individuals move through life and make meaning of the
different parts of their lives, informing how they work with others with shared
meaning and purpose (Fowler, 1995). Fowler (1995) has created his definition of
faith based on the 1950s work of two theologians, Paul Tillich and Richard
Niebur. Fowler concluded that faith is a universal human concern that is both
social and relational. It springs from our desire to love and give love, to value and
share values, and to honor and respect the essence that sustains who we are, and
who we are becoming (Fowler, 1995). Faith, according to Fowler (1995), shapes
our self-perception and our purpose; it creates longing for answers about who we
really are. Based on three theorists (Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and Lawrence
Kohlberg), Fowler combined work in cognitive, psychosocial, and moral
development to create his six stages of faith. They are (a) intuitive-projective
faith, which begins at the age of two, when the individual looks to adult guardians
to gain understanding and meaning; (b) mythic-literal faith, which often begins to
develop at the age of 10, when an individual’s thoughts are more concrete and
structured, symbols have literal meaning, and they are able to create connections
to their community; (c) synthetic-conventional, which forms during the adolescent
years. Though some adults remain in this stage, they understand their experience
is broader and, through faith, acquire the ability to synch their values and beliefs;

40
(d) individuative-reflective faith, which is a stage at which individuals start taking
responsibility for their own choices, values, and beliefs; (e) conjunctive faith,
defined as when people recognize their own beliefs and the beliefs of those
around them; and (f) universalizing faith, which is when the individual fully
understands what love and justice is and creates an activist incarnation. Fowler
(1995) believed that people rarely evolve to this stage and that only individuals
like Gandhi, Mother Theresa, and Martin Luther King, Jr. are representative of
this level of development.
Stage 1: The Intuitive-Projective Faith mirrors Piaget’s stage of the pre-
operational when a child is able to use objects and symbols to create
understanding (Green & Hoffman, 1989). The intuitive-projective faith begins in
the second year of life, when self is the core of an individual’s experience. This
stage is when fantasy plays a large part in life. The child’s imagination is a key
component of this stage and is often enhanced by stories that hold their intuitive
understanding. Their adult guardian is the person whom they look to in order to
gain understanding and meaning.
Mythic-Literal Faith is stage 2, which often begins to develop at the age of
10. During this time, the individual’s thoughts are more concrete and structured.
Symbols now have literal meaning, and individuals are now able to use the
experiences in their life to create understanding (Fowler, 1995). Due to this new
comprehension, the individual is able to make connections to factors aligned with
the symbols of their community (Fowler, 1995).

41
Stage 3: Synthetic-Conventional Faith often happens during the adolescent
years; some adults remain in this stage. Adolescents understand their life
experience is broader and now includes a variety of outlets and influences from
the media, classmates, and educational leaders at school (Fowler, 1995). People
understand themselves through the groups with which they identify and associate
with as members. From these new experiences and relationships, they learn to
use faith to synchronize their values and beliefs (Fowler, 1995; Parks 2000). The
individual now is working to create his or her own identity, but is vulnerable
enough to conform to the ideas of those around them (Fowler, 1995; Parks, 2000).
They start to develop their values, but often don’t recognize their values’
existence or its importance to how it develops their faith (Fowler, 1995).
Individuative-Reflective Faith is the fourth stage of Fowler’s theory. In
this stage, individuals start taking responsibility for their choices, values, and
beliefs. This stage is often a rough transition, due to the complexities inherent in
this new-found independence (Fowler, 1995). People realize that they do not
have to depend on the groups with which they associate but are able to make
personal statements about their own self-beliefs (Fowler, 1995). They connect
symbols and stories from the past and embrace the principles for themselves.
This stage can occur during the early to mid-20s (Fowler, 1995)
When symbolic power combines with conceptual meaning, one has moved
toward the Conjunctive Faith, or Stage 5. In this stage, a person recognizes his or
her own beliefs and the beliefs of others around them. Though they may not agree

42
with the beliefs of others, they still acknowledge those beliefs and respect
individuals for their forms of faith. Individuals in this stage can look at symbols
and rituals and see a deeper understanding and recognize how these symbols and
rituals fit into their lives (Fowler, 1995). Because people often experience this
stage at midlife, they reflect on their younger years and on what they learned and
worked on to create a deeper understanding of who they truly are and the
direction they wish to take for the remainder of their life.
The final stage, Stage 6, is Universalizing Faith, which Fowler (1995) has
described as a time when the individual fully understands what love and justice is
and creates an activist incarnation. The person in this stage is able to move from
an individual self and begin to know the world through the experiences of others.
They recognize that in order to receive the full love of the creator, they must give
up the self and share their knowledge in order to be of service and help to others.
Although researchers often use Fowler’s theory as it applies to
understanding faith and spirituality, scholars have critiqued some areas. Fowler
has explained that his theory is based on universal faith not on any one specific
religion and that anyone can use his stages (Fowler, 1995). Some of the questions
asked of participants in his study were directed at their beliefs in God. These
questions such as who and what God is to them determined what stage his
participants were at in their faith (Fowler, 1995). The people interviewed for his
study often referred to biblical characters and invoked their religion in their
responses. Of the 359 people who participated in this study, 97% of them were

43
White; they also self-identified as members of the Judeo-Christian faith and
associated with the traditions inherent to that faith (Tisdell, 2003). Based on these
numbers, researchers such as Elizabeth Tisdell (2003) have expressed a belief that
even though Fowler (1995) talks about a broader definition of faith, unconnected
to religion, he mainly studied individuals from a strong religious population,
which ultimately undermines his claim (Tisdell, 2003).
Based on Fowler’s (1995) theory, Sharon Parks (2000) has proposed
another stage between stages three and four called “the young adult,” which
includes the common age group of college students (Parks, 2000). Parks defined
faith as the process individuals undergo on their journey to discovering and
understanding the meaning and purpose of the various and most comprehensive
aspects of their experience (Parks, 2000). Parks (2000) looked at college-age
individuals and their development of meaning and purpose in life as it related to
their faith.
Park’s (2000) faith development model consists of three areas: forms of
knowing, forms of dependence, and forms of community. These formations occur
differently during each of the four age ranges (adolescent/conventional, young
adults, tested adults, and mature adults) of model of development. Forms of
knowing is how students cognitively develop their faith. This stage is based on
William Perry and James Fowler’s model of cognitive development. Forms of
dependence looks at how a person’s faith development is effected by his or her
surroundings. The final part of the model forms of community is the social

44
relationships that nourish an individual’s faith. The four-stage model of
development is based on Erik Erikson’s eight ages of development. Parks’s
model begins with adolescent/conventional, the time before students begin their
journey to adulthood. The young adult stage is a new stage between adolescence
and full adulthood. According to Parks, this time frame is often not researched,
though it is important to understand. The third stage, tested adults, describes the
experience of graduate students and some undergraduates who are testing what
they are exposed to or are learning. The fourth stage, mature adults, is comprised
of individuals in midlife and beyond.
In the adolescent/conventional stage, an individual in the community of
knowing, is based on authority-bound dualistic and unqualified relativism. While
in the authority-bound dualistic phase, an individual depends exclusively on an
authoritative figure (parent, teacher, etc.) for truth. In the unqualified relativism
phase, student knowledge attainment occurs when he or she realizes that there are
other aspects of knowing, that knowledge is often based on what each individual
is exposed to, and that there are many perceptions of reality. During the forms of
dependence stage, students are in the dependent/counter dependent stage. An
individual’s truth is beginning to change due to exposure to new experiences.
When they start to realize that the “truth” they are hearing is not the truth they
want to believe and yet they still have not moved toward developing their own
truth they turn to counterdependence. In terms of community, they are in two
areas: conventional and diffuse. Conventional community is when everyone in

45
the community has the same ideas, values, and beliefs. Diffuse community is
when an individual’s commitment to the community begins to weaken and opens
up to respecting the ideas of other communities.
Young adult is a transitional stage between adolescence and adulthood. In
forms of knowing, these individuals are probing their understanding of
commitment. People at this stage realize that they should choose the direction
they want their life to go in including how to contract meaning and define their
own faith. In forms of dependence, students are in a fragile inner-dependence
mode, vulnerable but still full of promise and potential. They have a newly
gained inner strength, which represents a new sense of pride in their ability to take
responsible action. One form of community that helps young adults grow in their
faith is the mentoring community. Mentoring is defined as a social networking
group. For their faith to develop, students must be with a group that recognizes
who they are and who they are becoming.
Tested adults could be undergraduate students but are often older, such as
graduate students. During the tested adult stage, an individual is experiencing
commitment to relativism. These individuals are looking where to stand on moral
issues and are recognizing that their choices can affect others. During the forms
of dependent stage of tested adults, an individual achieves confident inner-
dependence, which enables them to create their own sense of value and
confidence (Parks, 2000). Through encouragement and confirmation, the person
develops confident inner-dependence. In the form of community, the individual

46
is now in self-selected groups, has achieved confidence in his or her beliefs, and is
not threatened by opposing viewpoints.
The final state, mature adults, represent individuals who are often in
midlife and beyond. In the forms of knowing stage of James Fowler’s model, a
person recognizes that all knowledge has a purpose, and that new information can
change previously feelings and opinions. During the forms of dependence stage,
the individual experiences interdependence through a deeper understanding of
trust and responsibility. In forms of community, an individual is open to others,
and, through this exposure, creates a practice of inclusiveness. Forms of
community also help develop relationships, including mentorships.
Support Provided by Mentors
Herndon’s (2003) study has suggested that African American religious
institutions provide a formal place for individuals to explore their spirituality.
Research has shown that the Black church is a pillar for the Black community
(Barnes, 2005; hooks, 2003). In Herndon’s (2003) study, the African American
male student participants spoke about being religiously engaged at a local
institution and how members of the church encouraged their educations. These
church members can be viewed as mentors to college students. The relationship
between students and church members can be replicated with faculty and staff on
college campuses.
There are two types of mentoring relationships, formal and informal
(LaVant et al., 2002). Formal mentoring is made to enroll and retain students by

47
increasing the student’s exposure to positive experiences in their academic lives.
These intentional programs provide few rewards for the mentor (Lee, 1999).
Formal mentoring situations deliberately pair a mentor and protégé, and such a
relationship can provide information that increases the protégé’s possibilities for
retention, academic performance, and satisfaction in college (Wallace et al.,
2000).
Informal mentoring programs are relationships between two or more
individuals that just happen (LaVant et al., 1997). These relationships are not
structured and often occur due to common interests. Informal mentoring has had
a great effect on formal mentoring in that it has been successful in fostering
academic success and strong relationships between the mentor and mentee. Due
to this outcome, some formal mentoring programs have implemented forms of
informal mentoring (LaVant et al., 1997). Wallace et al. (2000) have stated that
informal mentoring provides students with important information, experiences,
and networking opportunities, providing the protégé with the “rules of the game,”
which may include information on how to work with their campus culture.
Parks (2000) has recognized mentoring as a way for young adults to form
communities. Mentors can give their protégés recognition and support, challenge
them and provide inspiration through dialogue (Parks, 2000). A mentoring
community is created when a group of mentors creates an environment in which
ideas and possibilities take hold of their mentees’ imagination (Parks, 2000). In a
mentoring community, mentors play an important role in forming a young adult’s

48
faith. Mentors create a network of belonging, a place where big questions are
asked, and a place where students can have meaningful encounters with others.
Higher education has the capacity to serve as a mentoring environment to
help young adults form their faith. Developing faith is a function of higher
education because it is a part of the process of meaning making. Professors and
administrators can serve as spiritual guides for their students. This effort can be
achieved by creating complex ways for students to think and construct meaning
through their college experience. Student affairs and enrollment services can help
create a mentoring community. Due to policy restrictions, university
administrators often feel that they do not have permission to help students develop
their faith (Rogers & Love, 2007). The next section will explore the roles that
student affairs and enrollment service professionals serve in implementing
spirituality in higher education, especially for African American males.
Student Affairs
The role of the student affairs professionals is to create supportive
programs that aid in the holistic development of the students they serve (Love &
Talbot, 1999). Student affairs professionals serve as mentors and provide
opportunities for students to develop their self-authorship and identity. Some
offices often associated with student affairs include orientation, student activities,
student housing, health services, judicial affairs, dean of students, disability
services, counseling services, student union, and international student services
(Komives et al., 1996). Enrollment services often include functions of the

49
institution involved in recruiting, financial aid, and the retention of students.
Many of those departments include admissions and recruitment, orientation,
registration, and financial aid.
Student affairs and enrollment service professionals must (a) understand
their own personal development with spirituality, (b) understand the spiritual and
religious development of students, especially the African American males at their
institution, and (c) develop programs with an understanding of how to enable the
personal, religious engagement, and spiritual development of African American
males.
Spirituality and Higher Education
Spirituality has been a topic of discussion recently in student affairs (Love
& Talbot, 1999). Student affairs professionals are trained to understand the way
students develop not only cognitively, but also through faith and hope, and, as a
result, understand how these factors can help individuals persist (Love & Talbot,
1999). Student affairs professionals have discussed and written about spirituality,
helping to define, shape, and reshape the meaning of spirituality for themselves
and for their students as they interact with them (Estanek, 2006). Understanding
their own journey with spirituality is important for the work student affairs
professionals do with students.
Student affairs professionals must understand and recognize their own
personal development in spirituality (Allen & Kellom, 2001; Love, 2001), which
includes having cognitive awareness of their own understanding of life, what

50
gives them meaning, and how this meaning influences their interactions with
others (Allen & Kellom, 2001; Love, 2001). By understanding their own spiritual
development, student affairs professionals can be a better resource and provide
better support for college students who are reflecting on these issues themselves.
Recognizing how spirituality already manifests on campuses is a good place to
start for student affairs professionals to gain a clear understanding of the gaps that
need to be filled and to determine how supportive their campus actually is in
enabling students to explore their spirituality.
Knowing how students develop internally and externally, and the support
they need in understanding who they truly are, is one of the key roles student
affairs professionals play (Rogers & Love, 2007). Student affairs practitioners
deal with the development of the entire person, which includes mind, identity,
sexual orientation, and spirituality. As spirituality continues to rise as a priority
on college campuses, so has the need to understand how spirituality is developed
in students (Love, 2001; Love et al., 2005; Manning, 2001; Riggins et al., 2008).
Student affairs professionals should recognize that, for students of color,
spirituality is a vital component in their journey to comprehend the development
of their identity (Chae et al., 2004). Due to the nature of spirituality, students are
coming to college looking for their higher educational institutions to provide
avenues for this exploration and development (Rogers & Love, 2007).
Understanding this desire on the part of the student is important for student affairs
professionals so that they can find the best ways to serve their students. As

51
previously discussed, student affairs professionals often serve as mentors to
students, and help create opportunities for their holistic development, including
mental health, physical health, and various aspects of spirituality (Love & Talbot,
1999; Allen & Kellom, 2001). Research on the various facets of spirituality that
college students may experience can provide vital information for student affairs
and other university administrators in their quest to support holistic growth in
their student body.
A 2003 study conducted by the Higher Education Research Institute
(under the direction of Alexander) had a sample of 112,232 students from 236
colleges and universities. Through surveys, the study gathered information on the
role that spirituality plays in the lives of students. Researchers found that college
students today are comprised of diverse ethnic groups looking to college for
support in achieving their goals in life. During their time in college, students
continue to seek deeper meaning in their lives, and ways to bring out their inner
selves. The study found that first-year students, when entering college, had high
expectations that their college education would prepare them for a future career
and support their emotional and spiritual development. When asked how secure
the students felt about their views on spirituality, only 42% responded, “secure,”
which left over 50% still seeking guidance and understanding about spirituality.
These numbers show the opportunities for higher education institutions to provide
venues for students to become secure in their spiritual concerns. Students
reported that when they entered college, they had high levels of spiritual interest

52
and involvement. Four out of five students indicated an interest in spirituality.
Over three-fourths had conversations with their friends on the meaning of life and
admitted that they were searching to find meaning and purpose in their lives.
With regard to information surrounding the distinction between spirituality and
religion, 64% of the respondents believed that “person can grow spiritually
without being religious (Astin, 2004).
Based on Astin’s quantitative study in 2003, students who scored high on
spirituality said they were looking for what this study categorized as a “spiritual
quest.” Individuals involved in such a quest have an interest in understanding the
meaning and purpose of life. The participants in Astin’s (2003) study in 2003
were looking for answers to the mysteries of life and, in the process, sought to
develop a meaningful philosophy of life. This area of interest can be addressed
within the classroom by faculty and staff. Student-participants in Astin’s study
(2003) mentioned that their faculty neither encourages nor discusses spiritual
matters in the classroom. The faculty also did not provide opportunities to discuss
the meaning or purpose of life. Like faculty, student affairs professionals were
not providing adequate spirituality support for their students (Astin, 2004).
Because present-day academia has not created venues for students to talk
about spirituality, excluding religious courses, it is up to student affairs
professionals to provide these opportunities for students outside of the classroom
(Love & Talbot, 1999; Tinsdell, 2003). If they are unable to provide support for
spiritual development, student affairs professionals are missing an important facet

53
of the student’s growth (Love & Talbot, 1999). Love and Talbot (1999) have
expressed the belief that because higher education is not talking about spirituality,
students could become vulnerable to religious cults; due to the need for spiritual
fulfillment, students will go where they believe that need will be satisfied.
The final suggestion is to include spirituality as a subject of study in
master’s and doctoral programs for student affairs professionals. Such programs
could help future student affairs professionals learn about student development
theory and how to implement them in their practice. Having spirituality as a
formal part of their programs would help future professionals become aware of
the needs of students early in their career and would put them in a better place to
help students (Love, 2001).
Developing identity and purpose are two stages of Chickering’s seven
vectors (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). In these stages, students are exploring who
they are and who they want to be. Students are pondering some of the profound
questions that growth in spirituality can answer. Other areas in which spirituality
appears in student development theory is how students advance cognitively, and
how psychosocial development aids in their spiritual growth (Love, 2001). Many
researchers of spirituality have based their understandings in the work of William
Perry, Robert Kegan, Erik Erikson, Lawrence Kohlberg, and Carol Gilligan
(Love, 2001). Erik Erikson has addressed spirituality as a key part of a student’s
process of self- discovery (Cuyjet, 2006). New research on spirituality is
elucidating an important component of identity development for students of color.

54
The relationship between spirituality and culture is important (Tinsdell,
2003). According to Tinsdell (2003), Asian Americans of various religious
beliefs recognize Kuan Yin, the feminine wisdom figure and a symbol for
compassion in Buddhism. Symbols are items used in various cultures, such as the
hijab in Muslim culture or tribal symbols for Native Americans (Tinsdell, 2003).
For the latter group, rituals, symbols, ceremonies, and meditations create
interpersonal relationships and make connections within Native American
communities (Tinsdell, 2003). For African Americans, spirituality plays a major
role in their culture and continues to shape who they are, and who they will
become (Mattis, 2000; Tinsdell, 2003; Wallace & Constantine, 2005).
Through spirituality, African Americans have learned how to forgive, and
how to find hope, justice, and meaning in their lives, even when facing oppression
(Mattis, 2000; Riggins et al., 2008). The African American community is often
defined by spirituality and, like Native Americans, the African American
community also develops interpersonal relationships within a spiritual dynamic
(Mattis, 2000). By utilizing spirituality, African American students are able to
find, embrace, and enhance goodness in their lives, which they can tap into to
bolster their resilience (Mattis, 2000).
Another correlational research study on spirituality and academics showed
that strong spiritual beliefs held by African American college students produced
stronger academic outcomes (Walker & Dixon, 2002; Riggins et al., 2008). The
study revealed that students with strong spiritual commitments in their lives had

55
fewer academic suspensions and probations. Walker and Dixon (2002) believed
that by utilizing spirituality, intervention programs could help African American
students become academically successful and complete their degrees on time.
African American students depend on spirituality to deal with stress and
the pressures of school (Riggins et al., 2008). The transition to college can create
levels of stress that lead African American students to draw upon their
spirituality, rather than to consult a mental health professional for support
(Riggins et al., 2008). African American college students may face stress due to
financial needs, experiencing discrimination, wanting to fit in, and facing
academic pressures. They can utilize various resources on campus, but one
resource that has shown to be effective with a combination of the existing
resources (counseling, financial aid, tutoring, etc.) is spirituality; however, this
support continues to be absent from campuses (Riggins et al., 2008).
Spirituality creates two perspectives for African Americans on a college
campus: creative soul force and resistance soul force, as described by Cuyjet
(2006). Creative soul allows African American students to adjust to, and deal
with, their new environments through their culture and spirituality. By using
creative soul, they are able to incorporate their culture into their college
experience. On the other hand, resistance soul force helps African American
students overcome any forms of oppression or discrimination on campus by
tapping into their spirituality, essentially removing themselves from the campus
culture in order to survive (Cuyjet, 2006). Using resistance soul force separates

56
the student from the campus. Professionals must create opportunities for African
American students to use and see their culture and spirituality on campus. If not,
walls will continue to keep them separate and, in the end, may cause some
African American students to leave college.
Conclusion to Literature Review
This chapter was a synthesis of the literature on religious engagement and
spirituality and how it shapes the college experience of African American men. It
began with a brief overview of the statement of the problem, including issues
surrounding African American men in college. Through scholarly research on
spirituality and resilience, this chapter distinguished spirituality from religiosity.
In a research study, Elkins et al. (1988) developed their own definition of
spirituality by identifying nine components. Love and Talbot (1999), in their
research on spirituality, formulated five propositions to describe how students
develop their spirituality. The chapter then outlined this study’s theoretical
framework as it draws upon Astin et al.’s (2011) work on the religious life of
college students. Astin et al. (2011) found that spirituality enabled the following
responses for college students: (a) religious commitment, (b) religious
engagement, (c) religious/social conservatism, (d) religious skepticism, and (e)
religious struggle. Finally, this chapter examined other scholarly research around
spirituality in college, and showed the ways in which student affairs professionals
can utilize this information to assist their African American students. Chapter
Three will detail the methodology protocol for this study.

57
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The methodology of this study was determined by the research topic,
which was understanding how religious engagement shapes the college
experience of African American Christian males while attending a predominantly
White institution. This chapter describes the research methodology for this study,
the instrumentation, how data was collected, and information about the site of
study. This chapter provides details about the selected campus, statistics, and
demographics and concludes with the data analysis and summary. As mentioned
in Chapter One, the research questions for this inquiry were:
1. How does religious engagement shape the college experience of African
American Christian males at a predominantly White institution?
2. How do African American males define spirituality?

Research Design

This study used a qualitative approach as a means of inquiry. Schwandt
(2007) has said that qualitative methods foster understanding of the meanings of
human action. For this study “human action” consists of how religious
engagement shaped the college experience of African American Christian males
in a predominantly White institution. This approach allowed the researcher to
take a deeper look at the individual’s world regarding a particular phenomenon
(Lunenburg & Irby, 2007). The data was gathered through in-depth interviews
and review of written documents (Patton, 2002). Qualitative research examines

58
an individual’s words, actions, and records (Lunenburg & Irby, 2007). In
processing first-hand information, the researcher looks for patterns and themes to
create meaning surrounding the human action (Lunenburg & Irby, 2007). One
area of qualitative research that tries to gain understanding of a specific topic is
phenomenology.
A phenomenological research design seeks to comprehend a particular
phenomenon. Knowledge is acquired by looking at basic information, actions,
behaviors, and changes to phenomena (Lunenburg & Irby, 2007). The basic
source of information is based on what the phenomena looks like through the
experience of the participants and the researcher collecting the data (Lunenburg &
Irby, 2007). In this design, the researcher seeks clarification and recognition of
the phenomena through the eyes of the participants (Lunenburg & Irby, 2007). A
phenomenological study necessarily involves looking at the shared meaning in
individuals’ own interpretation of phenomena, including how they comprehend it,
and how it is brought into their consciousness (Patton, 2002). Through the shared
experience of the phenomenological study, the researcher must use a method that
will allow him or her to gather the necessary information and to decipher how the
participants perceive, describe, feel, judge, remember, and discuss this
phenomena with others (Patton, 2002).
In studying how religious engagement shaped the college experience of
African American Christian males, this researcher found that a qualitative
approach helped to capture their experience. Understanding spirituality and

59
religious engagement involves knowing individuals’ qualitative experiences
(Astin, 2004). How a person engages spirituality is an individual journey, and
hearing about the pathways of African American males will add information to
the extant research and enable a better understand of the topic (Mattis & Jagers,
2001).
Site Selection
Carroll-Ruth is one of the leading universities in the west and serves over
16,000 undergraduate students. According to its website, Carroll-Ruth is a
prominent institution serving international students with campuses throughout
their city. Undergraduate students are able to major in arts and humanities, social
science, natural science, and engineering. Although each college functioned
separately, the colleges worked together to support the educational experience of
each student. With over 3,000 faculty and staff members, Carroll-Ruth prides
itself on being an outstanding liberal arts college.
Founded in the late 1800s Carroll-Ruth is a nonsectarian institution that
provides undergraduate, graduate, and professional educational opportunities. In
2009, 5.4% of its students were African American. Due to its nonreligious
affiliation (although it was founded by a religious organization), Carroll-Ruth
University was selected as the site of study. Selecting a campus without a
religious affiliation helped to reduce bias from the participants. Students at a
religiously affiliated institution may have applied precisely because of that
affiliation, and consequently could have biased the data. The programmatic

60
support services for African American students at Carroll-Ruth was another
reason this site was chosen.
The African American Support Services at Carroll-Ruth was created to
serve and support African American students. Its goal was to help African
American students earn a college degree, learn how to be ethical adults, and
secure an understanding of their goals for the future. According to its director, the
office created opportunities for African American students to understand their
culture and provided venues for social interaction. Many of their programs
offered academic support, including tutoring, academic workshops, academic
advising, and scholarship information. Moreover, this office developed programs
for the entire community for Black History Month, Martin Luther King
celebration, and cultural trips.
Participants

The participants for this study were 11 African American males currently
enrolled in various Carroll-Ruth colleges. To gain specific information related to
the phenomena, the researcher selected individuals through a purposeful sampling
of students who self-identified as being spiritual. Purposeful sampling involves
the selection of a sample based on knowledge of the group (Lunenburg & Irby,
2008). For this study, purposeful sampling allowed an in-depth understanding of
the individual’s experience navigating religious engagement as a way of
bolstering resilience and creating meaningful purpose in life. This study required
a purposeful intent in the selection of the sample to achieve such information.

61
Through purposeful sampling, the researcher gathered rich and important
information for the study (Patton, 2002). Purposeful sampling created the
opportunity to find students already seeking ways to explore and understand their
religious engagement while in college.
The participants in this study consisted of one first-year student, three
sophomores, three juniors, one junior/senior, and three seniors. The day before
each interview, the meeting time was confirmed through an email with an
attached copy of the information sheet about the study. The information sheet
detailed the rights of the participants, the contact information for the university’s
internal review board, and the name of the researcher’s faculty chair. Before each
interview, the information sheet was reviewed with the participant, and a
reminder was given of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without
penalty. Six of the interviews took place on campus in a conference room,
whereas the remaining five were conducted over the telephone using a special
earpiece to record the conversation. The six interviews conducted on campus
lasted 45 to 90 minutes.
Contact information on the first two students was obtained through the
African American Student Support Services’ assistant director, who served as a
gatekeeper. A gatekeeper is an individual already connected to the sampled group
and allows the researcher to gain access and trust (Patton, 2002). The gatekeeper
was informed about the purpose of the study and the design of the methodology to
obtain data. The gatekeeper was interviewed for the study, but her data did not

62
inform the findings and recommendations. This interview allowed the gatekeeper
to articulate the study to the two students she recommended.
The initial two students recommended by the gatekeeper provided the
researcher names of other possible participants, leading to a snowball sampling to
find the remaining participants. Snowball sampling is getting new individuals to
participate in the study based on recommendations from those already interviewed
(Patton, 2002). Before a student was selected to participate, he had to self-
identify as African American or Black, spiritual, and enrolled as an undergraduate
student at Carroll-Ruth. To avoid bias, the researcher allowed potential
participants to determine if they had a spiritual background, an effort achieved
through participant self-reflection. Originally 12 students were identified, but one
was released because he was a graduate student.
Instruments

The instruments for this study consisted of individual interviews. The
following section goes into detail about the instrument. The required questions
are also listed in their appropriate section.
Individual Interviews

Individual interviews for a phenomenological study help the researcher
find information he or she may not gather from an observation (Patton, 2002).
Furthermore, individual interviews help participants describe their experiences of
a phenomenon in their own voices (Lunenburg & Irby, 2008). The structured
interviews were recorded and transcribed for data analysis. The conference room

63
in which the majority of face-to-face interviews took place had a long table and
chairs. During each of the individual interviews, four of the students sat across
the table, and one chose to sit right next to the researcher. The remaining student,
due to his busy schedule, had his interview at an eating-place on campus, which
made the conversation difficult due to noise. Each session was recorded, and the
researcher took written notes. The recorder allowed the researcher to take
strategic and focused notes (Patton, 2002). Taking notes served three purposes: it
(a) helped the researcher formulate new questions as the interview proceeded, (b)
helped the researcher to note where important information had occurred in the
interview, and (c) served as a backup if the tape recorder failed (Patton, 2002).
Following the interview, the researcher went over his notes with the participant to
allow them to validate exactly what they had communicated. The interviews
consisted of two parts (a) demographic/background information and (b) questions
surrounding the research questions. The individual interviews began with basic
demographic questions relevant to the study, including information related to their
hometown, family, year in school, and major. This part not only provided the
primary information about the participant but also helped the students understand
the structure of the interviews. Because this study originally set out to understand
spirituality, the remainder of the questions for this study focused on spirituality
and the participants’ personal definitions of spirituality.

64
The following demographic/background questions were asked:
1. Where do you consider your hometown?
2. Do you still have a lot of family there?
3. Do you have any other family members in college?
a. If so, where?
4. Why did you choose to attend Carroll-Ruth University?
5. What year are you at Carroll-Ruth University?
6. Have you declared a major yet? If so, what is it?
7. How did you decide to choose that major?
a. If undecided, what area do you feel yourself leaning towards as
a possible major?
8. Do you consider yourself a spiritual person?

The remaining questions were used to gather information from the
participants on their own points of view about spirituality. The primary research
question, How does spirituality impact the college experience African American
males at a predominantly White institution? guided the interview, which included
the following questions:
1. As a student at Carroll-Ruth University describe your experience as an
African American male?
2. What issues have you encountered as an African American student at
Carroll-Ruth University?
3. How did you get through those issues?
4. How do you utilize spirituality while in college?
5. How do you practice your spirituality while in school?

In terms of the second question, How do African American males define
spirituality?, the interview posed the following questions:
1. How would you define spirituality?
2. How did your spirituality develop for you?
3. What do you feel your purpose in life is?
4. How did you determine this purpose?
5. What are your social networks of encouragement while in college?
6. Do you have a mentor that you can talk to about spirituality?

65
Data Analysis

After the interviews, the researcher transcribed, typed, and entered each
session was into a word processing program. The majority of the interview
recordings were sent out for transcription; the researcher transcribed the
remaining interviews in order to gain experience. The data was coded and
evaluated for interpretation. These codes were selected mainly based on common
words often associated with Christianity. Patterns and differences were identified
then coded and placed into categories. The categories were determined based on
the study’s framework, research questions, and common topics that came up from
many of the participants’ interviews. Finally, the categories were selected, while
the framework and other research helped develop the themes. The patterns
retrieved from the data were then triangulated with current research and then
matched to the appropriate research question. During the entire process of the
study, the researcher used reflective field notes. This instrumentation aids the
researcher in recognizing any biases or noteworthy reactions they encounter;
doing so helps with the validity of the process and of the study as well.
Trustworthiness
To establish trustworthiness, the researcher used only methods that
ensured reliability and validity. Trustworthiness is directly tied to the competence
of the researcher who collects and analyzes the data (Patton, 2002). Three ways
that trustworthiness was ensured during the research process were (a)
triangulation, (b) confirmation of participants, and (c) reflective field notes.

66
Triangulation helps support the accuracy of the data. Current research,
publications, and data were used to confirm information received during the
collection of the data. After information was received from the participants,
information was read back to the students to confirm accuracy and for the
students to make any necessary corrections. During the interviews, the researcher
had to address and deal with any personal bias that may have occurred, and thus
wrote down potential issues, which became part of the reflective field notes. Such
measures helped to ensure that the researcher did not insert his own experience as
an African American Christian male into the data. They also helped to ensure
transferability, that is, that even though the research was conducted on one
particular campus, the study information would provide insight into phenomena
on other campuses.
Formulating Themes
Each participant’s identity was coded to preserve confidentiality (AA1,
AA2…AA11). As mentioned earlier, each interview was audio taped and then
sent out for transcribing. After reading each of the transcribed interviews, the
researcher recorded patterns and themes. Patterns and themes were based on the
conceptual framework and common information discussed by a majority of the
participants during their interviews. An electronic program was used to upload
each of the transcribed notes, and the researcher created search criteria based on
previously established themes and patterns.

67
The Role of the Researcher
The researcher’s role was to foster trust with the participants in order to
gain the most information. This trust was created by ensuring confidentiality and
transparency about the study’s process, reminding students of their option to
withdraw at any time without penalty, and allowing the participants to decide
when and where they would like to be interviewed. The researcher identifies as
an African American Christian male from the Midwest, who is the son of a pastor.
Church was the central focus of his family because it was the source of income.
Due to his background, he had to make sure that he did not project his own
personal and college experiences into the information gathered by participants.
This focus was not always easy to maintain, but by keeping focus on the students
and only using the information from the interviews, he helped to ensure that he
was gathering accurate information. The researcher’s background, however, did
help to establish immediate trust with the participants, who often commented that
these interviews were their first time really talking about their beliefs to someone
outside their circle of friends.
Conclusion to Research Methodology
This chapter described the purpose of the research and presented the
research questions. It offered reasons for using a qualitative method as the
research design and explained that phenomenology would inform the study. The
participants for this study were chosen via purposeful and snowball sampling
through email invitations with specific requirements. Each participant identified

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as an African American or Black male, enrolled as an undergraduate student at
Carroll-Ruth, and self-identified as having a spiritual background; however, they
defined what this spiritual background meant to them. The 11 participants
consisted of students from every undergraduate level in college (first year,
sophomore, etc.). The instruments used for this study were interviews and
reflective field notes as well as observations from the interviews. Finally, the
chapter discussed how the data was analyzed and detailed for coding.

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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF DATA
The goal of this study was to examine the influence of religious
engagement on the college experience of African American Christian males at a
predominantly White institution. This chapter is organized in the following way:
it briefly presents the data collection process and introduces the profile of each
student participant including demographics, experience at Carroll-Ruth
University, utilization of religious engagement while in college, and personal
definitions of spirituality.
The stories highlighted in this chapter focus on the college experience of
African American males regarding the phenomenon of religious engagement
through an understanding of spirituality. Astin et al.’s (2011) research on
spirituality and the religious life of college students was applied as a conceptual
framework to help answer the research question. Astin et al.’s (2011) study has
identified three main measures to understand the religious life of college students;
these themes are religious commitment, religious engagement, and religious
conservatism.
The data in this study was gathered through one-on-one interviews with 11
African American men. Interviews sought information about how religious
engagement through spirituality has influenced their college experience at a
predominantly White institution. The information in this chapter details the
personal data collection process for the 11 African American males, a summary of

70
the demographics (See Table 1, below), a presentation of the themes and findings
from the data, and a conclusion to the chapter.
Participant Profiles
This section introduces each student who participated in the study. Their
data is used in the findings presented in the next section.

Table 1

Participants in the Study

Pseudonym Major Year in
School
Hometown
Location
Albert Business Junior South
Brett Music/Business Sophomore West Coast
Carl Theatre Junior East Coast
David Architecture First Year West Coast
Eric Music Industry Sophomore Northwest
Fred Political Science Sophomore West Coast
Greg French Senior Mountain State
Henry Engineer Junior Mountain State
Ian Communication Senior West Coast
Jacob Business Senior West Coast
Kevin Health and
Humanities
Junior/Senior East Coast

Albert
Albert was a junior from a small town in the southern part of the United
States. Majoring in business administration and corporate finance, Albert chose
Carroll-Ruth for its location, reputation, and support. Starting at Carroll-Ruth was
not easy for him due to the low number of African American students he
interacted with on campus. He then became involved in student organizations,
including 100 Black Men and the Ambassador program, and became president of

71
the gospel choir, a member of the Interfaith council, and a Resident Advisor. His
father and grandfather were pastors in the Missionary Baptist church. Albert had
diverse ways of utilizing and understanding his spirituality, using meditation,
learning more about God, reading the Bible, participating in Bible study, and
singing in the choir. As a member of the Inner Faith Council, he met and
discussed various spiritual topics with students from different faith backgrounds,
including Muslims, Latter Day Saints, Wiccans, Pagans, and Christians. Albert
defined spirituality as the desire to get closer to the divine and making that desire
an active part of your life while trying to achieve what the divine wants you to do
in life.
Brett

Brett was a sophomore from a major west coast city. Majoring in music
with a minor in business, Brett chose Carroll-Ruth due to its proximity to home
and its music school. Like his father, he was a trumpet player, and had been since
the 2
nd
grade. His goal was to start his own business, teaching inner-city youth
how to read and play music while keeping them off the streets. Brett struggled
with Carroll-Ruth’s stereotype that all African American men on campus are
athletes, and he was often stopped and questioned by its campus security. At
Carroll-Ruth, Brett was active in 100 Black Men, the gospel choir where he
served as musical director, and was part of the campus Christian group for
musicians. Raised on what he called “biblical principles,” he had been going to
the same church since the age of two. He experienced his spirituality through

72
choirs, bible study, reading biblical scriptures, and attending anything spiritual at
school. Pastors had prophesied to him that God wanted him to use his talents with
music and art as a vehicle to spread the Word. Brett defined spirituality as
allowing God to be part of every aspect of your life.
Carl
Carl was a junior from a large east coast city, and was majoring in theatre.
He chose Carroll-Ruth due to its theatre school, location, and large endowment to
help cover tuition. His passion for theatre came early in his life. While attending
a Performing arts high school, he put on an original production that he wrote and
directed. When he first arrived at Carroll-Ruth, he experienced culture shock but
quickly utilized campus resources to find the necessary support. At school he was
active in the gospel choir, serving as the vice president, and was the president of
his fraternity and an opinion writer for the school newspaper. He also helped
coordinate and implement mentoring programs with Carroll-Ruth’s neighboring
high schools. Carl identified himself as a spiritually sensitive person, which had a
specific meaning for him, namely that he could determine the demeanor of other
people depending on whether his spirit interacted positively or negatively with
them. According to Carl, God started speaking to him in his dreams. Besides the
choir, Carl practiced his spirituality in college with a group of friends, by
attending church together, teaching bible study, talking about spirituality, holding
each other spiritually accountable, and expressing himself through his art and

73
writing. Carl defined spirituality as being in tune with a spiritual realm or higher
being, believing that one’s self was connected to a greater source.
David
David was a first-year student. He was born and raised in a medium-sized
west coast city, and was double majoring in architecture and East Asian language
and culture. He chose architecture due to his passion for learning how buildings
were designed especially Japanese architecture, which led to his second major.
David felt that God had led him to Carroll-Ruth, because he had not planned to
attend that particular institution, but received the best financial aid package from
them. He enjoyed the diversity of Carroll-Ruth and often did not focus on the fact
he was an African American on campus. Due to the workload involved with his
majors, David was only active in Inter-Varsity, a national evangelical campus
ministry mainly consisting of bible studies, and the gospel choir. David talked
about being on a “dating fast.” He was abstaining from dating to focus on God
and felt that God wanted him to undertake the fast for 15 months. Prayer was a
guiding force for him. David said, “If you can pray about it then you can pray for
anything, then you can have it happen.” His spirituality had developed more while
he had been in college, and his goal was to utilize God in every aspect of his life.
David defined spirituality as a lifestyle, the act of letting God be God.
Eric
Eric was a sophomore from a major northwestern city. His academic
course of study focused on the music industry. Eric had been a vocalist from a

74
young age and had developed the desire to learn about the various aspects of the
music industry. He chose Carroll-Ruth to experience living away from home. He
was looking to create the opportunity to grow on his own without his parents and
to develop connections with different people in another environment. Those
elements were important when he was considering applying to college. At
Carroll-Ruth, Eric was involved in the gospel choir, where he was the head
director. He had recently started a production for college-age students to
showcase visual performing artists doing positive things for the community. Eric
practiced his spirituality through singing in the choir, praying, meditation, and
one-on-one devotion. While in college, he realized that a relationship with Christ
was different from going to church and following man-made traditions. Due to
this revelation, Eric was trying to live his life in a positive way. Eric defined
spirituality as an individual relationship in which the person has a connection with
his or her higher being.
Fred
Fred was a transfer sophomore from a major west coast city, with family
members also living in the south. Majoring in political science, he had originally
planned to go into law until he audited a law class, which made him realize he no
longer wanted to pursue law. Fred came to Carroll-Ruth because he was selected
as a walk-on for the football team, but then he became ill and was unable to play.
He planned to play on the team in the coming season. When he first arrived at
Carroll-Ruth, he found it odd that it took four months until he ran into another

75
African American student. He was active in five singing groups (including the
gospel choir), Campus Crusade, a Christian fraternity, and an athlete bible study,
and was creating a new Christian group for African American students. As a
Christian, Fred practiced his spirituality through his faith in Jesus and the Bible.
He believed that everyone was called to live worshipping, meaning that our lives
themselves are a form of worship. Fred defined spirituality as the deepest place in
a person, a place even deeper than the soul; that was where he believed one finds
his or her spirituality.
Greg
Greg was born in a West African country, but had lived in a major
mountain state city for six years. A senior majoring in the French language with a
double minor in business and natural science, Greg found that coming to his
major was not easy. Originally wanting to go to medical school, Greg first
decided to major in biology until he realized that he was following this career path
for others. Because he had studied French while living in his home country, he
decided to take it as a major. He chose Carroll-Ruth because he received a large
financial aid package and wanted to attend school away from home. As a Black
male at Carroll-Ruth, he often felt that it was hard to meet other people on
campus. He was a member of 100 Black Men and the Black Alumni Association.
Raised Catholic, Greg had attended mass every Sunday while at home; however,
in high school he had converted to Protestant Christianity. He spoke about his
struggle to find time to go to church in college. In college, his spirituality mainly

76
consisted of praying to God whenever exams or tests come up, and asking for
help and the grace to move forward with decisions. Greg defined spirituality as
believing in something bigger and making it part of your life so that it carries you
through your day and during activities.
Henry
Henry was a junior born on the west coast; his hometown was in a major
city in a mountain state. Recently, however, his family had moved to the south.
His major, chemical engineering, was a transition from biomedical engineering,
which he had chosen because of his passion for the medical field. However his
aspirations for a medical career quickly changed when he realized he felt uneasy
around blood. He chose Carroll-Ruth, because he knew he wanted to come back
to the west coast and admired the reputation of the institution’s engineering
program. Henry was multiracial of African American and Caucasian descent, but
identified as a Black male. Active in a Greek organization, he recognized the low
number of African American men participating in the Greek system, so he
decided to join the Black Alumni student group to stay connected with his
community. Growing up in the Catholic faith, he had learned the importance of
attending mass at a young age. While in college, he realized how difficult it was
to attend church, as most of his friends were not religious. He acknowledged that
the world was made up of various religions with one common goal: to make the
world a better place. His father suffered a heart attack while Henry was in his
sophomore year and was unable to go home. This experience compelled Henry to

77
rely on his spirituality to help him understand what was going on with his family
and to continue with his studies. Henry’s spirituality, though important to him,
was not something he was very public about. His primary way of practicing his
spirituality was through prayer. However, when his roommate was in the room,
he would say his prayers in his head. Henry defined spirituality by likening it to
faith believing in something that you’ve never really seen but that you still lean on
to help you even though you don’t know it’s there.
Ian
Ian was a transfer senior who was born and raised in a medium-sized west
coast city. At the time of the interview, his mother was also in school. Majoring
in communication, he hoped to enhance his passion for public speaking and
become a motivational speaker. His road to Carroll-Ruth was not an easy one.
He was originally planning to attend an historically Black University in Florida,
but he had financial aid issues that were never resolved. He did not have enough
funding to attend that school, so he quickly applied and enrolled in a local state
school within a week. Ian knew as soon as he arrived on the local state school
campus that it was not where he was supposed to attend school. He soon
discovered that someone was using his social security number at the school in
Florida that he was supposed to attend and that his financial aid had been cut off
at the local state school, because they thought he was receiving it from two
institutions. Ian prayed for guidance and had a dream that he was telling his
family he was going to Carroll-Ruth. Because of Carroll-Ruth’s academic

78
reputation, initially he had been intimidated to apply and felt it was just a dream.
The next night he had the same dream again and knew it was a sign, so he
applied. Based on his lack of credits, Carroll-Ruth advised that he take a year of
classes at a community college. He was accepted that next academic year. He
was active in the Black Alumni student group and the campus safety escort
services on campus. While in school, Ian practiced his spirituality through prayer
and listening to gospel rap music. At his local church, he was one of the leaders
for a youth ministry created to foster a culture in which young people could grow
and live for Christ at all times. Ian felt that he was here on earth to help
Christians grow in their faith. He defined spirituality as a spirit that possesses a
soul, which is their mind, will, and emotions. This spirit had an experience living
in the body. Ian referred to the soul as “your mind, will, and emotions.”
Jacob
Jacob was a transfer senior from a small west coast city and was majoring
in business entrepreneurship/marketing with a minor in cinematic arts. He chose
Carroll-Ruth based on its location and accessibility to networks and resources.
Originally, Jacob had wanted to become a hospital administrator and thought a
business background would help. He decided to deviate from his plan and
gravitated toward the entertainment industry, but still wanted to keep business as
a foundation. His transition to Carroll-Ruth had been a little difficult. After
noticing that he was often the only African American male in class, he felt that he
had to prove to his professors and peers that he belonged at Carroll-Ruth. Other

79
students often assumed that he was a student athlete. He was shocked both by
their reactions when they found out he did not play a sport and when they
inquired what his talents were on campus. Jacob utilized his spirituality as his
compass, allowing it to guide him toward whom to interact with and what to
become involved in on campus. This guidance was mastered through reading the
Bible and attending church. The first thing Jacob did when he woke up was pray.
Jacob said. “In high school and junior high I was doing what my mom was
motivating me to do, being in the college environment helped me to realize my
belief in God.” Being on his own in college, he began to question his faith. This
exploration helped develop a deeper personal connection to and understanding of
his spirituality. He defined spirituality as the knowledge and awareness that there
is something bigger than one’s self and as the personal quest to develop a
relationship with that higher being.
Kevin
Kevin was a junior/senior from a medium-sized east coast city, where he
had attended one of the country’s top high schools. His major at Carroll-Ruth
was in health and humanities. Born in South Africa, he went back every summer
to volunteer. His class status was between a junior and senior, because he was a
spring admit. Only applying to what he referred to as “good quality schools,” he
was denied admission from all of them. Carroll-Ruth re-evaluated his application
and rescinded its rejection, allowing him to enroll that spring. Kevin was
interested in going to medical school but did not want to commit fully to a premed

80
major, so he decided to do health and humanities. His transition to Carroll-Ruth
had not been easy, because he found it difficult to find other African Americans
on campus. Kevin’s family continued to work in South Africa as missionaries, a
commitment that had created a passion in him to continue the work in college.
Spirituality was important to Kevin; he felt that people did not pay enough
attention to it. People took care of their bodies and minds, but they often
neglected the spirit. He believed that in order not to lose yourself, you must stay
grounded and have a firm foundation with your beliefs. He also believed that
with everything going on in the world, you must continue to strengthen your
spirituality. While in college, Kevin practiced his spirituality through Bible study,
praying, developing a personal relationship with God, and living his life in a way
that allowed him to act out what he believed. Kevin defined spirituality as the
dynamic existence between an individual and God.
Introduction of Findings

This section presents the themes of the study. The data is analyzed
through the conceptual framework for this study, which considers the spirituality
and religious life of college students across the country. The data that informs
this study comes from one-on-one interviews with the participants and from the
researcher’s field notes. Every participant in this study identified his spiritual
background as Christian, so no other beliefs are mentioned in these findings.
“God” was often used to refer to their conception of a higher power, and many
terms mainly associated with Christianity, including attending church, going to

81
Bible study, and singing in the gospel choir were mentioned. Religious
engagement is the only measure from Astin’s research used to structure the results
for this study. As mentioned before, the three measures are (a) religious
commitment, (b) religious engagement, and (c) religious conservatism. As
described earlier, these measures show how committed a student is to a religion,
how engaged he/she is in the practices of faith, and how conservative the
student’s religious views are. Because this study focused on religious
engagement, the findings will focus on that particular area.
Religious Engagement
Participants sought out religious teachings to gain personal strength and to
build trust in a higher power. To this end, they participated in various practices,
including prayer and church attendance. Religious engagement is a personal
endeavor that individuals practice in order to meet the various needs surrounding
their beliefs. Individualism in religious engagement creates the opportunity for
each person to form a unique practice. This effort was evident in the way the
participants practiced religious engagement in college. They learned how to
utilize specific tools to create balance in their lives when they were tested and
dealing with various issues. Five key themes emerged regarding the way the
participants practiced religious engagement; these were (a) prayer, (b) studying
the bible, (c) membership in a Christian student organization, (d) focusing more
on God, and (e) the desire to fill in the missing gaps in their lives.
Prayer

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Prayer was one of the most common practices universally used by the
students in this study. The participants described prayer as finding a quiet place
and having a conversation with God. Eric said, “I feel God has been leading me
in that direction as well because prayer is the guiding force for everything.”
While talking to God, individuals may ask for guidance to handle a situation, or
make a specific request, which is called a petitioning prayer. They may also pray
for things they need, such as asking for help to remember information to pass a
test or to get through tough situations. Greg explained how he used prayer: “My
spirituality in college is mostly just praying to God whenever exams are coming
up or whenever I have a test or just in general, just asking for the grace to move
forward.”
Prayer while in college allowed the students to have daily conversations
with God. Prayer is one of the few forms of practice universally used by various
spiritual and religious groups. Fred explained that he spent “a lot of time in
prayer,” using it like other students to remain resilient and to petition God to help
with his studies, relationships, and life struggles.
Studying and Reading the bible
Reading the Bible and going to Bible study was another important practice
in the participants’ religious engagement. The Bible or, what some participants
referred to as The Word gave students the necessary guidance on the best way to
live their lives. The lessons in the Bible were often used to give meaning and
structure to what was going on in their lives. When situations arose, the

83
participants often turned to their Bible to remain resilient and gain direction on
how to handle the situation. As Brett said: “Usually there’s something in the
bible that will definitely represent what you’re going through.” Reading stories in
the Bible similar to what they were going through gave some of the students
direction. Growing up, the participants’ families taught them that the Bible was
the key for lessons on how to live in what they considered the correct way. Kevin
explained the best gift he received from his mom:
The biggest moment in my life was going off to college my mom
gave me a gift, it was a bible. She gave me the bible and I said oh
ok bible yay, it was a bible with one hundred dollars. Now at the
time I was more excited about the hundred dollars than the bible.
So I took the hundred dollars, took the bible and tossed it in my
suitcase and went off to college. I tell you that bible has literally
saved my life through college, because I really relied on the word
that was in it and the lessons that I learned.

Besides reading the Bible, many of the participants attended Bible study.
Bible study is usually a weekly event where a group of individuals study specific
scriptures. These discussions allow participants to hear the meaning of the same
scripture from the perspective of everyone in attendance. They also allowed the
participants to ask questions to gain better clarity about the meanings of the
scriptures that they may not fully understand. David explained how he
participated in a Bible study: “I didn’t really start to understand more about God
until I came to college. I was introduced to a bible study group here on campus,
Inner Varsity, and so ever since then I’ve kind of been developing more on my
own.” The Bible is another religious engagement tool for African American men

84
to use in college. Serving as a road map, the Bible was used by participants to
gain clarity on situations arising in their lives, through its lessons and stories.
Attending a Bible study allowed the students to find deeper understanding of the
Bible and to hear interpretations from the perspective of the other participants.
Having a Membership in a Christian Organization
Prayer, reading the Bible, and studying the Bible were some of the main
components of the different Christian student organizations of which many of the
participants were members. Some also served as officers of these organizations
on campus. Even though Christian student organizations may be open to anyone,
they each target specific populations. These demographics could include
ethnicity, gender, and majors, or athletes and musicians. The gospel choir was the
largest organization in which the participants were active. The gospel choir’s
mission, according to its website, was to spread the good news of Jesus Christ
through song. It described itself as a place that accepted other religious
backgrounds, meaning that everyone in the choir is not necessarily a Christian.
This organization was about more than just singing gospel songs it was a place for
spiritual and personal growth. To achieve this aim, the choir participated in
community service projects to give back. It also provided short Bible studies so
the members could understand what they were singing about. Brett explained it
as follows:
While in college I definitely try to attend everything spiritual. I am
a part of the Gospel Choir, I’m the musical director of that, so I run
the band and also as well I’m a part of Artists Group which is an

85
organization on campus for Christian musicians, which is great and
basically those just help me get through everything I’m going
through because basically with the choir there’s so many
subsections of it that really just get me through my semesters.
There’s something called pieces that’s part of our rehearsals on
Monday nights. Pieces is basically a bible study aside from choir
rehearsal.

Other student organizations helped focus students on their quest to
understand what spirituality and religious engagement meant for them. The
Interfaith council provided a safe space for students to talk freely about their
thoughts and beliefs without any judgment. It was a place where the students
were challenged to hear from students with different beliefs. This encounter with
difference compelled the students to analyze their values and to understand not
only what they truly believed in but also why they believed it. Albert explained
his experience this way:
It’s a really core organization I got in when I was a freshman, so
different faiths, Muslim, Latter Day Saints, Wiccan, Pagan,
Christian, we all come together to kind of talk about what’s going
on in terms of our campus. Last year there was a huge eruption
with speakers coming in who were anti Islam, anti-Jewish and we
really got into those types of conversations, having peace walks
and peace circles and really doing something about it and learning
more about each other.

Christian student organizations play an important role in bringing students
together. This supportive environment allowed the students to connect with
others in order to practice and understand their own spiritual and religious lives.
As David said, “I was introduced to a bible study group here on campus, Inner
Varsity, and so ever since then I’ve kind of been developing my spirituality

86
more.” These organizational meetings were often a place where the students
could get advice and encouragement to remain in college.
Focusing Only on God
Studying and understanding the Bible encouraged the participants to
focus more on God, promoting their desire to live with a complete concentration
on God and to do what they felt their transcendent force would want them to
accomplish. As college students, the participants were sometimes tempted by
what they categorized as “worldly things,” an interaction or decision that the
students felt did not align with what the Bible says is “of God.” These activities
included going out to a party, drinking alcohol with other classmates, or listening
to popular music songs that may have curse words, promote drugs and premarital
sex, or send messages that may hinder their spiritual growth. Jacob said, “In this
Christian faith, it’s like secular and non-secular and you know with many
Christians, no one wants to talk about sex.” Trying every day to do what he felt
was right, Eric explained his experience when he began college:
I’m spiritual, but then when I get here and I’m faced with all the
things that go on campus, tough times and different temptations
and things like that, really finding something strong to hold on to
during those moments have been different for me.

The students felt that their romantic relationships often distracted them
from God. The relationships mentioned in the interviews were only with females;
no one disclosed if their relationship had been with another male. Because same-

87
sex alliances were never mentioned, the data in this section of the study only deals
with heterosexual relationships.
Kevin talked about the relationship he got into as soon as he had arrived at
college. He felt that he needed to get into a relationship right away to prove that
he was a man and a protector. During this relationship, he felt terrible things were
happening to him. He battled to behave in ways that would not be considered
wrong in the eyes of God. In this relationship, he often had to fight and defend
God something he realized he did not fully understand. This self-reflection made
him realize that something needed to change, which led to ending his relationship
and refocusing on his beliefs. Kevin shared his experience:
I was a victim of that and I felt like I needed to be in a relationship.
So I got into a relationship pretty quickly, and through that
relationship it was made clear to me that my own abilities…. and I
was miserable and that’s when I really started to pursue a sort of
spiritual growth and try to understand how do you deal with
situations like that.

At the time of the study, both Kevin and David were on a dating fast.
They were both abstaining from dating anyone in order to keep a stronger focus
on and dedication to God. This effort represented a way to show the world they
were completely focused on God. David spoke more about his dating fast. “Right
now I’m in a dating fast. God is leading me in the direction of a dating fast and
that’s what I’m on right now. It shows that I can focus on him more to lead me in
my walk.” He went on to explain what his dating fast entailed:
A dating fast, essentially it means that I’m not going to be dating at
all. I felt god telling me 15 months, so I won’t be dating for 15

88
months, pretty much it means that I’m not really attempting to date
someone, I’m not going to flirt with them as much, that’s about all.
It’s not that easy, but you try, you definitely try.

Focusing only on God was an important for some of the participants’
spiritual growth: Living everyday with the desire to keep their attention on God
and not on things of the world. Concentration on their higher power included
severing relationships that could cause them to lose their focus. By centering on
God, the participants noticed what was missing from their religious engagement.
Acknowledging What’s Missing With Their Religious Engagement in Their
Life and Filling in the Gap
As the participants focused on God, they began to recognize the best ways
to meet their religious needs. Through self-reflection, the students realized that
something was still missing from their spiritual needs. This instinct was true for
two participants, who decided to create a program to fill the gap. At his local
church, Ian saw a discrepancy in the youth ministry for teenagers compared to
what was available for the younger group. As the youth transitioned to the
teenage ministry, the numbers dropped because members were not satisfied with
the services. With three other friends, Ian created what he described as a ministry
to help youth foster a culture where young people, ages 16 to 25, could grow in
Christ and live for him at all times. They focused on Bible teachings that Ian said
show what is required to live like the disciples. Ian explained, “That’s denying
yourself, that’s love, the bible says that people will know you’re my disciples by

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your love, so we teach those kinds of things and kind of give them ideas or ways
to apply that to their actual life.”
Fred saw a gap in the ministry for African Americans on Carroll-Ruth
campus. He noticed that the gospel choir’s main focus was music, and that the
campus only had a female African American Christian group. What was missing
was a Christian group in which African American males and females were able to
come together to learn and share. He decided to coordinate and bring to campus a
national organization that would help fill this gap. Fred explained his experience
as follows:
Well I launched a ministry for the one that was missing. It’s called
the Impact Movement and it’s a nationwide college ministry thing
under the umbrella of campus crusade and its purpose here is to
kind of unite those who are, because we have Gospel Choir and we
have a African American female group which is growth focused
but brothers don’t get to go to the African American female group,
so things like that just to get everybody together to just kind of get
focused around growing in what they think they believe in,
figuring what it is exactly they believe and trying to move forward
from there.

Summary of Opportunities
The individualism of religious engagement created opportunities for
participants to practice in ways that met their personal needs. These needs
manifested as taking a moment to have a conversation through prayer to get
through the day, to do well on an exam, and to be open to listening to what God
has to say. Through praying, the students wanted to learn more about God and
what was required of them to live in accordance with their reading and studying

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of the Bible. The Bible served as a tool to guide them on how to live as a
Christian. To understand more of what they were reading in the Bible and to hear
interpretations of the Bible by others, many of the participants joined Christian
student organizations. In gaining a deeper understanding of the Bible and seeing
how other students were living their lives, they developed focusing only on God
became a priority. Despite their different ways of practicing religious
engagement, some of the participants noticed something was still missing. Once
they realized what was needed, they created new initiatives on campus to fill the
gap. These obstacles and ways of practicing religious engagement bolstered their
resilience as African American men determined to remain in college.
Transition from Parental to Independent Religious Engagement
College is a transitional experience for students and a place where they
encounter a variety of educational and social situations. In college, religious
students often seek ways to remain engaged. The study used for the framework
showed that student attendance at church goes down in college. Researchers have
attributed this finding to students not having their parents around to take them to
church. Henry shared his difficulty attending church away from home:
It’s definitely more difficult than at home. Going to church is harder
and busyness and there’s not like a big group, I mean all my friends
aren’t as religious so I go to church not as often as I would here. It’s
automatic when I’m home but at school it’s definitely not as much
as I wish.
Greg also noticed the difference and how his religious engagement was
lower compared to how it is when he is home:

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I was praying every morning before I went to school when I was in
high school and I would say moving away from college actually
took away from my spirituality a little bit because I was away from
home and I wasn’t going to church every Sunday.

David had recently realized that it was up to him to continue his religious
engagement away from home. He was used to his parents making him attend
church: “Recently I’ve kind of been developing more on my own because there’s
no one there really babysitting me. There are no parents or a church that’s just
pushing God on me.”
Some of the participants found that they used their religious engagement
to deal with issues in their lives. Balancing different circumstances ranging from
interacting with students from diverse backgrounds, to dealing with a rigorous
academic load compelled participants to implement coping mechanisms,
including drawing on spirituality and religion to handle new situations. This
effort included dealing with challenging encounters and thus becoming more
resilient. As Kevin shared:
I utilize my spirituality it got me through; it got me through this
far, right off the bat. It was made very clear to me that I cannot
survive and come out in a position in the shape that is good for me
with just my mind and just with body. From that realization I have
depended on my beliefs, my spiritual beliefs to help me through
decisions to help me through hard times, and to also help develop
relationships with people around me and get things done. Not just
in general accomplish the right thing at the right time, I have
totally dependent upon it, it’s been the most important part of my
college experience far more than my academics and far more than
any kind of athletic feat I can do.

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By engaging their religious practices, the participants were able to remain
in school and deal with tough situations. Many of them identified these endeavors
as “being tested” meaning that something had come up that caused them to
navigate challenges on their own. The students felt that these particular situations
had occurred so that they could face challenges and learn how to handle them.
Brett explained it as follows:
I feel that I was able to develop it (spirituality) in a sense that I
wasn’t really all this spiritual as a high schooler because I wasn’t
tested so now that I have all these classes and all these things have
been coming up, I’ve had a lot of family conflicts and stuff, I’m
really being tested here.

Being tested on their own was a new experience for many of the students.
Challenges often arose as soon as they left home for college. Living away from
home is often a tough transition for college students. As the participants got
ready for college, their parents often left them with words of wisdom but not
advice on how to handle situations by themselves. As the academic year
progressed, life at home continued to move on without them. This reality became
evident to the students when serious situations occurred at home such as family
members losing their job, a natural disaster occurring in their hometown, or the
death of someone close. The hardest circumstance to deal with was when a
family member became very sick, yet their parents asked them to remain in school
and not come home. To deal with being tested and feeling guilty about continuing
their schoolwork, the students often turned to spiritual and religious engagement.
Henry described his experience this way:

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It’s one of those things that’s like in hard times is when I get really
spiritual, actually my dad had a heart attack at the beginning of
sophomore year and that was really difficult because I couldn’t go
and see him because it was like the first two weeks of school and my
parents didn’t want to take us out of school or anything, so that was
really difficult and it’s like those times where I rely on the
spiritualness and my religious background to kind of get through
things.

The strains of life and the on-going academic responsibilities forced these
African American males to find ways to manage these situations in order to
graduate. Learning from these “tests,” the participants realized that they wanted
to live according to their religious beliefs, including using their religion to carve
out a necessary path to understanding their purpose in life.
Religious Engagement Creates a Sense of Purpose

Living life based on their religious beliefs often led the students to
understanding their purpose in life, including what they wanted to do for a living
or in life after they graduated from college. From this finding, each participant in
this study was asked what he felt his purpose was in life. Purpose is defined as
what people believe is his/her main reason for being born and what they feel they
are destined to do and/or bring to the world. From these definitions, three themes
were identified regarding the participants’ notion of purpose: (a) being what God
has called them to be, (b) utilizing the talents given to them, and (c) making a
positive difference in the world.

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Being What God has Called Them to Be

The students often gained understanding of who they were and why they
were put on the earth through religious engagement. Some of the participants felt
that God had planned out what they were called to be. Thus, we can surmise that
these participants believed that they were not necessary in control, but that if they
trusted in God, He would show them the way. Along these lines, Jacob shared, “I
think my purpose, because I’ve always kind of felt, especially ever since in
deciding to pursue entertainment, cause I know like God wouldn’t put me this
goal in my heart if it wasn’t for a purpose.” Each student’s purpose was based on
what God had planned for him. Some of those callings were communicated to the
students through their pastor or other leaders in their church. Brett shared his
experience as follows:
My purpose I think is definitely based upon God’s plan for me and
from what a lot of pastors have told me and prophesized over me was
telling me that God’s plan for me is basically to use my talents which
is music and arts, the arts to reach out to people and to spread God’s
word basically. I think that’s what my purpose is.

Many of the participants talked about how their purpose had changed.
Some of them based their purpose on how much money they would make or what
their parents felt they should be with some parents even telling their children what
major to study, or what career path to take. Greg explained his original purpose,
“My purpose is pretty hard to define, but at some point I thought my purpose in
life was to become a doctor and to help others but I found out that was really what
my parents were telling me what they wanted me to be.” As the participants

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practiced their spirituality, they learned to follow their own paths and decided to
let God guide their journeys in life. The participants believed in taking one day at
a time and in placing all of their trust in God to show them what would be,
subscribing to the faith that things would happen when they were supposed to
happen. Thus the participants’ faith remained, even if their futures were not yet
fully clear to them. David explained his purpose as follows:
God already has a purpose for me and that purpose, I don’t know it,
so I have to live my life every single day, just try my best to do what
God’s telling me to do. Eventually I will find that purpose and when
I do, well I can answer your question then.

Utilize the Talents Given to Them

The participants spoke very passionately about the many gifts and talents
God had given them. The majority of their skills was in the arts. Singing, playing
an instrument, theatre, writing, and speech were some of the various artistic skills
the participants possessed. Ian shared his talent: “I’m good at speaking publicly, I
think that it’s going to play a part at some point in what I do in life.” Because the
students were given these talents, they believed that they should be used to help
spread the word of God, and that they should use their artistic skills to reach out
to God’s people. Carl shared his purpose as follows:
I would say maybe a couple of months ago I could tell you my
purpose is this. I definitely think that my purpose is number one to
allow God to use me to minister to people. Now how he will use me
to minister, I definitely feel like he’s given me a gift of speech, a gift
of writing and a gift of performance… I think the artistic realm is
where he wants me to use people to minister to them but in a very
different way than maybe most churches do or even church
productions.

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Like Carl, other participants had already used their artistic talents to begin
to fulfill what they believed was their purpose in life. Through the arts, they were
able to spread a positive message to others. Some of the participants saw the arts
as a vessel to get children off the streets. Eric explained how he had a chance to
utilize his gift:
I feel like my gift is music and so I feel like it’s something I’m called
to do. I love gospel music and I love Christian music but I realize
also that it’s not the way that you draw everybody and so my whole
thing or what I feel like I’m here for is to give an outlet for the
younger generation or the next generation to express themselves
positively or constructively through their art. I started a production
last summer for college age students that showcased visual
performing artists who are doing good and who are on track in school
or what not and I feel like a lot of society has shifted, I guess the
focus is different for society or what they’re looking for and so I just
want to get people who are doing positive things in their
communities, I want that to be exposed, I want that to be a highlight
instead of all the negative things we hear about in the media.

To Make a Positive Difference in the World

The third area of purpose the participants described was to make a
difference in the world to be a force that changes the world to make it better for
everyone, to be used by God, to bring peace and love throughout the world.
Henry said, “I think my purpose in life is to just try to make the world a happier
better place.” From his passion to make the world happier, he often saw himself
serving as a medium to bring together groups from various backgrounds that
normally are not together. Some people refer to this belief as having a sense of
vocation. Through their spirituality, individuals are able to know that their calling

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is about positively interacting with the world. Albert explained his purpose this
way:
I find my purpose in life is to try to be some force for change for
what’s better in the world, the things that I think God wants, like
peace and love here, so any way in which I can act and do that helps.
When I initially came in I thought my purpose was to make a lot of
money and help my family and the more I’ve been in the choir and
kind of just personally reflect on what I want to do, I’m starting to see
more that that’s what I’m looking forward to, what I’m really
interested in.

Kevin’s parents served as missionaries in South Africa. Every year since
middle school, he had gone there to work on projects in various villages. His
family identified the leaders of the community and worked with them to provide
help. After graduation from college, Kevin hoped to take on a larger
responsibility by working on bigger projects for his parent’s foundation:
My family does a lot of work in South Africa, I was actually born in
Botswana, and my mom grew up in South Africa, Soweto during
apartheid. And so ever since my seventh grade year, I have been
going back there and been helping out with a lot of projects that they
started because my father and my mother were missionaries there.
They got to know a certain community and got to know people there
and identified leaders and start to help them out. And so I see myself
in the future taking more responsibility over the goings on of our
foundation and having to really help lead the projects that we started.

Religious Engagement Summary

Religious engagement plays an important role for African American men
in college, helping them determine their purpose in life. For these participants,
understanding what their purpose in life was and what they planned to do in the
future was often determined by God. Some participants could not fully articulate

98
their purpose but knew that it was whatever God called it to be. Some students
looked to ministers and other leaders in their church to help articulate to them
what God wanted them to do. Other participants knew that the artistic gifts given
to them must be used to fulfill their purpose. With their artistic abilities, the
students were able to share their purpose with the world. Other participants
identified their purpose as being a positive change in the world. Their purpose
was to make the time and effort to give back to others. To understand their
purpose in life, the participants knew they would need a supportive religious
community.
Creating a Religious Community While in College

Herndon (2003) found that the participants in his study received support
and motivation to remain in college from parishioners in their local churches.
Through this community, the participants in Herndon’s study felt nurtured and
supported. Spiritual and religious engagement is a personal experience, but in
Herndon’s research, the participants talked about how their religious engagement
was deepened by experiencing it with other people. To the students in this study,
belonging to a community was important to spiritual and religious growth.
Groups with other members who had a spiritual identity helped everyone become
accountable to each other’s spirituality. The groups did not need to share the
same form of religious engagement as the students in this study they only needed
to have openness, respectful relationships, and a willingness to dialogue with one
another.

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Carl had a group of friends that he went to church with every Sunday.
They fellowshipped together and attended Bible studies in his apartment. This
sense of a spiritual, supported community spilled over into his fraternity, where
they implemented a stronger emphasis on discussing their spirituality.
Occasionally, his fraternity brothers fellowshipped at each member’s church
throughout the year. This community nurturing continued beyond his fraternity
and showed up in his class work, especially in his art projects. Carl shared how
his spirituality appeared in his academic work.
I have a tendency, especially in arts, I want to use my art as a ministry
and so I have a tendency to always bring in God in the situation and I
know for some people it makes them uncomfortable and I had a
teacher one time who he was not spiritual or religious at all and he
made it very clear to me, but it was cool because I told him, even in a
joking manner, I said you know I’m going to pray for you and I know
he didn’t like that, but it was cool.

As previously mentioned, the gospel choir was the main organization that
participants talked about. The choir was full of friends who challenged, supported,
and nurtured each other to stay engaged with their spirituality and religious
practices. The participants said that the gospel choir brought them together
through their love and background of gospel music, but kept them involved by its
ability to nurture their spiritual and religious development. Eric felt that the
gospel choir was his main outlet at school:
Well my closest friends I guess within the African American
community has come from the Gospel Choir and I would just say
that, I don’t know if powerful is the right word, but they’re definitely
motivated to do something for the community and they are just really
driven I would say within their particular fields and that ranges from

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Business to Arts to Sciences or what not, so that’s kind of given me a
nice foundation to stay motivated and stay strong and what not
because I do recognize that we are a minority on the campus.

As the head director of the organization, Eric knew the gospel choir was a
good source of spiritual accountability. He saw it as a good check-in system, a
place where you could feel comfortable questioning your own faith. Having
people around whom you can ask challenging questions without fear of being
judged or silenced is vital. To the participants, places such as gospel choir served
as their family away from home, a place where they could go to other members
and discuss anything going on in their lives. The group members held each other
accountable with their spirituality in a couple of ways: Calling members if they
had not been to choir rehearsal; or opening up a discussion if they noticed an
individual was not utilizing his or her religious practices, or if they noticed
someone’s spirituality was not as strong as they knew it can be. Brett talked about
how the choir was his support system:
My biggest support group has to be the gospel choir. It’s been like my
family and I would say that I can confide in them with a lot of things
and I would say the only type of issues that I can say I’ve experienced
maybe would be just like personal issues, constantly growing,
understanding yourself, discovering yourself and I would say that the
people there definitely hold me accountable, spiritually especially and
so I think I’ve come to a point, now especially I feel like I’m in this
place where I have a lot of reevaluating of myself and so there’s
really no help, honestly I think that the only person who can help me
is God, so if I need to get through certain situations then whatever, so
I would say that I think talking to my friends especially in the gospel
choir has really helped me in that aspect.

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Those without communities of support struggle with maintaining and
being open about the importance of spirituality and religion in their lives. Many
of the participants had their parents to hold them accountable for their spirituality
while at home. But if no one was there to help motivate them to practice their
religious and spiritual engagement, they noted that this aspect of their life could
suffer, given the many pressures of academic life. For example, Greg did not
attend church while at school, feeling that those two hours would be best served
doing his schoolwork.
Eric realized the importance of finding a group to help with your religious
engagement. When asked what advice he would give to an incoming student
regarding his beliefs, he recommended finding a group with the same ideas:
I would try to find somebody that could be, even if it’s not a group,
just finding somebody who can connect with you and it doesn’t
necessarily have to be a Black person, just somebody who shares your
same values and shares your same morals.

Summary of Religious Engagement
Though each participant’s religious engagement is a personal endeavor,
community venues are available to nurture and support these commitments. In
college, a spiritual community can consist of friends or members from a student
organization. Having others to go to for open and honest conversation about their
spirituality was important to the participants’ holistic development. Study
participants who were part of a spirit-based community had others to hold them
accountable to practice and to constantly engage in their spirituality. The

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participants without this form of community struggled to practice their religious
engagement. These students were the ones most likely to hide their religious
beliefs and spiritual practices from friends and colleagues.
Lack of Utilization of Campus Resources
This section looks at the participant use of the established resources for
religious engagement on campus. The office of religious life at Carroll-Ruth
supported students in maintaining and developing their spirituality. According to
its website, the office’s purpose was to aid students on their religious and spiritual
journey. This office offered support to students looking for a religious home,
starting a new student group, or working on relevant research topics. The
religious office provided programs and co-sponsored events with other university
departments. They were responsible for overseeing the university religious
holiday policy, memorial services on campus, and the baccalaureate service
during graduation.
When the participants were asked where to go on campus for spirituality
guidance, they all indicated an awareness of the religious office; however, most of
the participants did not utilize the religious office’s services. The students who
used the office were those serving as officers in a Christian student organization
or individuals wanting to start a new group on campus. Responses to why they
were not using their service ranged from not feeling a one-on-one relationship
with the office, never taking the time to go there, or already having an established
spiritual community. Participants felt that the office’s services should be

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highlighted more on campus, especially in places where first-year students
circulate. Jacob shared his experience as follows:
I think it’s because I kind of know, I guess I don’t really feel the need but I
hope that’s not bad but I guess I don’t really feel the need to use religious
services because I already have a church community and I’m getting
involved in a small group outside of campus but I can see someone, like a
freshman would maybe take advantage of the religious office.

The students who did utilize the religious center felt that they had
benefited from the services they received. The center provided opportunities for
students to have open dialogue about their spirituality, supported student
programs, and helped student organizations with any logistical needs. Through
his work with a Bible study group, Ian had utilized the religious center.
I just walked passed that place (religious center) not really paying
much mind to it. I’ve had to work with them because we have
done major events through the campus. They helped not only with
the event we were trying to throw with the group but they also
helped me and my buddy trying to set up a program with
mentoring kids, and this is just a personal endeavor they helped us
out with that, had nothing to do with the school nothing at all, they
are not going to benefit from it at all and yet they still helped us
out with that.

Every participant felt that the university should provide opportunities for
spirituality development. They believed that spirituality and questions about
spirituality raised issues that any student may deal with in college. Albert was
asked who he felt was responsible for helping students with their spirituality on
campus. He responded this way:
I think I’ve talked to the religious office about this, that it’s
something that the university should focus more on and just the
amazing opportunities it has for development, and just in general

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the resources it has, because I think religion and faith, spirituality,
it’s one of the only spots that really can transcend some of the
stratifications here at the university. It’s how to stratify a university
no matter what diversity numbers we have and in those religious
organizations are the only times I’ve seen where students
regardless of race, ethnicity, background, we come together to talk
about some things, so I feel like the university itself should be
focusing on that more.

Summary of Campus Resources

Carroll-Ruth, like most higher educational institutions, had offices on
campus designated to provide students spiritual and religious support. Even
though the Carroll-Ruth religious office was on campus, the African American
male students in this study were not using its services. Some of the participants in
this study used the religious office mainly due to their participation in a student
organization on campus. In order to provide proper services, understanding why
this student population was not accessing this office for their spiritual support
would be productive.
Major Themes Drawn from Findings
The students who participated in this study articulated how religious
engagement shaped their college experience. Based on the data shown in this
chapter, three major themes emerged. These themes are:
1. The African American males in this study, noticed their development of
spirituality increased in college.
2. The practice of religious engagement in college for African American
males varied for each student.

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3. Religious engagement for African American males in this study was
nurtured and sustained within a community, such as a student
organization.

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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RESEARCH
Researchers believe that administrators who understand the experiences of
African American men in college are better able to implement effective programs
and resources for them (Cuyjet, 2006). With this specific student population,
college administrators should remember that African Americans have the lowest
male-to-female ratio graduating from college of all minority groups, and that
finding ways to close this gap is vital (Cuyjet, 2006). This study aimed to explore
how religious engagement shapes the college experience for African American
men. The goal of this study was to answer the following research and sub
question:
• How does religious engagement shape the college experience of African
American Christian males at a predominantly White institution?
o How do African American males in college define spirituality?
The proceeding chapter analyzed and presented the data from this study. The
purpose of this chapter is to expand upon the major themes from the findings of
this study and to utilize the appropriate data to answer the research questions.
Three major themes emerged from the findings of this study.
1. The African American males in this study noticed their development of
spirituality increased while in college.
2. The practice of religious engagement while in college for African
American males varied for each student.

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3. Religious engagement for African American males in this study was
nurtured and sustained within a community such as a student organization.
The chapter closes with a discussion of the implications for practice and
recommendations for further research and conclusion.
How African American Males Define Spirituality
First I am going to answer the sub question: How do African American
males define spirituality? I am choosing to answer this question first because the
study participants’ understanding of spirituality and religious engagement were so
intertwined. Little explicit evidence helps us understand the various meanings
that African Americans attribute to the term “spirituality” (Mattis, 2000). Each
participant in this study was asked for his personal definition of spirituality. Their
various personal interpretations of spirituality were listed in each of their profiles
in Chapter Four. Based on their diverse personal interpretations of spirituality and
the many themes that emerged around its meaning, the following definition was
developed: Spirituality is the quest to build a personal relationship with a higher
being, in which you allow it to be part of every aspect of your life and to provide
meaning, purpose, values, and beliefs.
Having a relationship with their transcendent force was very important to
the participants in this study. Most definitions of their spirituality focused on
their relationship with God. Love and Talbot (1999) have referred to this
relationship with God in their research, explaining that spiritual development
involves an increasing openness to exploring a relationship with an intangible and

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pervasive power. Even though the meaning and purpose of life was discussed
during interviews, their personal relationship with God was often mentioned first
and given more attention. Connection with God was an important part of
articulating their definitions of spirituality.
Through their relationship with God, the students were able to understand
their meaning and purpose in life. Indeed, some of the participants in this study
began to use their spirituality to find their meaning and purpose in life. Those
participants who were not sure what their meaning and purpose in life was knew
their spirituality would help them understand it someday. Definitions of
spirituality given by the participants were often based on what the students were
experiencing at that moment. I now turn to the study’s implications for policy
and practice in higher education, basing these suggestions on the emergent
themes.
Theme One: The African American Males in this Study, Noticed their
Development of Spirituality Increased while in College

The students in this study felt their spirituality increased in college. The
participants in this study articulated how their spirituality had increased while
they were enrolled in college. Many of the students compared their spiritual level
when they were younger to what it had evolved into at the present time. Many of
the participants recalled going to church every Sunday with their family when
they were younger. Church was the foundation for their family, a place where
they could worship together. During the weekly Sunday church visits, the students

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attended Sunday school, where they learned the principles of their religious
denomination, and memorized key Biblical stories and scriptures. The students
thought they had gained a greater understanding for the personal value of reading
the Bible, praying, and taking communion. In college, the students realized they
did not really understand why praying, reading, or communion was so important
to practice. Even though the participants had grown up in spiritual households,
issues surrounding their religious beliefs such as how they might apply them in
their lives had not been challenged or questioned until they were in college.
In college, the participants began to use religious engagement to help
manage situations without family help. As mentioned earlier, the participants
identified these moments as times when they felt they were being tested.
Challenges arose that forced them to resolve issues on their own. The students
felt that these situations had occurred in their lives so that God could see how they
handled each situation. These incidents sparked the students’ quest for deeper
understanding of their life purpose.
Many of the participants felt that their spirituality was developed through
religious engagement by attending church or reading the Bible. The students
realized in college that just going to church was not enough to help them fully
understand their spiritual and religious beliefs; these participants needed more.
Although they did everything they were taught to be a good Christian, the
students knew something was still missing. This missing element explained why
many of the participants felt that their spiritual growth had been limited. In

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college, the participants came to terms with the fact they did not fully understand
the concept of spirituality or the personal meaning spirituality could have in their
lives. As they dealt with personal issues, the students began to explore their
spirituality on a deeper level. The students transitioned from a surface level of
understanding their spiritual beliefs from their parents’ point of view, to the
revelation that no one in their life had actually taught them about spirituality.
Rather, they had to come to understand it on their own. The students realized that
it was their responsibility to discover what spirituality meant to them on a
personal level. Their self-reported religious practices during their college years
served as examples of how they realized the strength of their own spirituality.
This new personal ownership of spirituality and religious beliefs enabled
the study participants to recognize when deeper understandings of spirituality
could be utilized in their lives. Situations when the participants were tested
created high levels of stress that often prevented them from studying or doing
well in their academic pursuits. By relying on their spirituality and engaging in
religious practices during challenging times, the students were able to find the
strength and confidence to make it through each situation. Life’s struggles can
serve as a catalyst to one’s search for meaning and purpose (Astin et al., 2011).
This revelation helped participants understand the deeper importance of utilizing
their spirituality and religious life. In addition to formulating measurements for a
college student’s religious life, Astin et al.’s (2011) study identified students’
ability to use their spirituality to pull through hard times a practice they labeled

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equanimity. They defined equanimity as the ability to find meaning in difficult
times and feeling centered and at peace (Astin et al., 2011). When one
participant’s step-father had had a heart attack, the student did not understand
why this tragedy was happening to his family. The student could not focus or
study. He turned to his spirituality and religious practices to help him stay
grounded; however this situation also caused him to question God about how
something like this could happen.
Questioning God and Their Faith

Many of the participants had experienced stressful situations in college,
failed relationships, getting sick during finals week, parents getting a divorce,
death in the family, or other personal difficulties. These situations were often
perceived as personal attacks, rather than random events, and caused the students
to question why such things were happening to them all of the time. Parks (2000)
has talked about how tough it is to find meaning during difficult situations, such
as betrayal, loss, fear, and death, explaining that such events can, in turn,
challenge an individual’s faith. This frustration and disappointment can cause the
student to become upset with God for allowing these situations to happen to a
person of faith. These perplexing situations, mixed with meeting people from
diverse spiritual backgrounds, increased their need to question God and to find
meaning in the complexities of life.
Study participants reported that spirituality development increased when
they were faced with unique situations or met individuals with different beliefs.

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These interactions caused the students to question God and their faith. This
finding is in line with Chickering et al.’s (2006) assertion that college is a
multicultural place with a wide variety of individuals who hold diverse
worldviews, and that such variety of thought and opinion can lead students to
search for some kind of absolute truth. Being exposed to diverse world views and
dealing with personal circumstances beyond their control can lead college
students to examine their own beliefs with greater scrutiny.
Facing the great ethnic, gender, socioeconomic, and spiritual diversity on
campus disrupted participants’ “comfort zone” (Astin et al., 2011). The process
of questioning and finding answers helped the students articulate their spirituality,
create greater personal ownership, and develop a stronger relationship with their
faith. According to Park (2000), moments of questioning God can be the key to
better understanding one’s belief system.
Desire to Create a New Type of Relationship with a Higher Power
The students reflected on how they lived their lives, questioning whether
they were living at a satisfactory level. The main area of their spiritual self-
evaluation pertained to their relationship to a transcendent force that the
participants referred to as God. Through this exploration, the students realized
that they wanted to identify more ways to enhance their spirituality and religious
life. They knew that God was part of their lives, but God was only called upon in
specific circumstances mainly in times of crisis and need, such as before a major
examination or an important paper was due. When relationships were not going

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well or they were not happy with the way life was unfolding, they asked God for
direction. Recognizing that their transcendent force was called on only during
the bad times, the students realized that they wanted to speak to God when good
things were happening in their life also. When the students received positive
news, they always wanted to thank God; when the semester was going well and
their grades were strong, they wanted to give credit to God. Speaking to their
higher power at all times gave them a new lens through which to view their lives,
allowing them to see where their transcendent force truly fit in the design of their
lives. In the view of the participants, God purposely brought certain people into
their lives. They recognized that the different people they knew were not around
them by coincidence, but had been purposely sent to them as a result of their
higher power. One participant recognized that God had brought one of his closest
friends into his life. While he was eating on campus one day at a time when he
was depressed because a relationship was not going well, another student came up
to him and began talking. This stranger started asking him questions about
spirituality and how he felt about God. Since that day, the two had stayed in
contact and met regularly. The person had become someone the student in this
study continued to trust and confide in. Such situations allowed participants to
recognize why a closer relationship with their higher power was important, and
how new individuals in their lives were helping them throughout their college
careers.

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Comparing their Level of Spirituality to Those of Others
The majority of this study’s participants benchmarked their own
spirituality and religious levels against those of friends and family members,
taking into consideration spiritual role models and grandparents, aunts, parents, or
friends individuals I refer to as the students’ spirituality mentors. These mentors
were open about their spirituality and willing to educate others about their beliefs.
Participants saw how these mentors lived their lives and the various ways they
practiced their spirituality on a daily basis. The students noticed the positive
transformations and changes going on in lives of their spiritual mentors. The
participants admired the way these mentors handled situations and the role they
allowed their higher being to play in their lives, during good times and bad. Even
when they were busy and had many things demanding their attention, the
participants noted, their spiritual mentors still let their transcendent force have
priority in their lives.
Theme Two: The Practice of Religious Engagement while in College for
African American Males Varied for Each Student

The practice of religious engagement while in college for African
American males varied for each student. Because religious engagement is a
personal experience, how an individual practices or demonstrates his or her
spiritual needs varies. Many of the participants utilized the traditions and rituals
of their religion to engage in spiritual practices. As mentioned in the previous

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chapter, the participants in this study practiced their religious engagement through
prayer, meditation, music, reading spiritual material, and developing a stronger
relationship with their transcendent force.
Through a focus group they conducted, Taylor et al. (2004) found that
African Americans often utilize prayer as a form of communicating and building a
relationship with God. Praying can be used to make a request, give thanks,
intercessory (praying for someone else), or to make a petition for material items
(Taylor et al., 2004). Prayer is one of few universal practices used by various
spiritual beliefs (Taylor et al., 2004). Praying, however, is often equated to
meditation.
Meditation was an exercise that some of the participants had recently
begun to practice. The students would take time out each day to sit quietly and
focus on themselves in order to continue positively throughout the day.
According to research, two out of three African Americans engage in meditation,
with a little more than half of them practicing it at least once a week (Taylor et al.,
2004). Meditation is a contemplative practice that is considered one of the most
powerful tools for enhancing a student’s spiritual development (Astin et al.,
2011). Individuals who practice meditation often encounter deep and significant
spiritual moments (Tisdell, 2003). During meditation, individuals may gain
clarity on the next steps to take in their life or on major decisions. The use of
meditation in higher education has been shown to have positive effects on
releasing stress, achieving emotional balance, and enhancing academic skills

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(Astin, 2011). Many of the participants in this study had started meditation in
college. When the mediated, they felt they could handle the situations they were
facing. Meditation helped them build a strong relationship with God and was
used to understand who they were in the world.
Music played an important role in the religious engagement of some of the
students. Music enjoyed by the students came in various forms, including rap,
singing, and playing an instrument. The majority of the participants in this study
was active in the gospel choir. They came together every week to practice old
songs and learn new ones to sing throughout the year, including at a large spring
concert. Choir had been an important part of many of the participants’ lives in
childhood. Singing songs of hope and encouragement often helped the students in
times of need. The message in the music gave some of the participants’ directions
in their college career. Some students played an instrument and participated in a
Bible study group just for musicians. One participant enjoyed listening to gospel
rap, which was something he began to enjoy once he started listening to the words
to the songs. The words to the songs from the choir and rap music kept the
students grounded in their spiritual beliefs. The music brought comfort,
encouragement, and meaning to their faith. Humans begin to construct
knowledge and meaning through various mediums and other forms of art like
music and singing (Tisdell, 2003). Along these lines, the lyrics helped the
participants to create schema for understanding their spirituality. Many of the
lyrics in the music came from spiritual material the participants read.

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Reading also helped center and guide the students on how to study,
interpret, and understand their spirituality and religious life. The main spiritual
materials they read were the Bible and other devotional books, such as Sunday
school guides. Carving time out to read these materials was not often easy for the
participants. However, when the students did make time to study their Bible, they
noticed how it shaped their outlook on their lives and careers. Reading the Bible
can enhance a person’s spiritual quest (Astin et al., 2011). Messages in the Bible
can compel an individual to question and figure out what he/she really believes in,
and how he/she want to live life (Astin et al., 2011).
The participants in this study used the Bible to find messages that would
help them get through certain situations. Some of the students believed that
whatever situation they were facing, the Bible would have advice on what
direction to take. Reading and understanding their religious materials helped the
participants develop a closer relationship with their transcendent force. Creating a
stronger relationship with a transcendent force helps bring meaning and purpose
to one’s existence (Berkel et al., 2004). Prayer is one way to foster intimate
relationships, like being best friends with one’s transcendent force (Taylor et al.,
2004). When one participant was asked why he felt he was spiritual, his response
was that he and Jesus were tight. By creating a stronger relationship with their
transcendent force, the students knew that their higher being was close to them
and always available.

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Spirituality and religious engagement was a personal endeavor that the
students tailored to meet their needs. Prayer is a universal spiritual tool used by
people to speak to their transcendent force. Praying is a time to give thanks, make
requests, and speak on behalf of someone else in need. Meditation, which is often
confused with praying, allowed the participants to clear their minds and focus on
the self. Music provided another way for the students to construct knowledge and
meaning about their spirituality. Most of the gospel and Christian music included
words from spiritual materials such as the Bible. Reading and studying these
materials provided a deeper understanding for the participants on their spiritual
quest. These various practices aided the participants in creating a closer
relationship with their transcendent force and providing meaning and purpose in
their lives. These various methods allowed the students in this study to practice
their spirituality based on their current needs as college students.
Theme Three: Religious Engagement for African American Males in this
Study was Nurtured and Sustained within a Community Such as a Student
Organization

Religious engagement for African American males in this study was
nurtured and sustained within a community such as a student organization.
Although spirituality and religious practices are personal endeavors, they still may
be nurtured and supported within a community. Spirituality has played a central
role in defining African Americans’ sense of social obligation, including their
definition of community (Mattis, 2000). In college, a community may consist of a
group of friends or members from a student organization. Parks (2000) has

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referred to these groups as mentoring communities. Mentoring communities are
important in facilitating opportunities for spiritual and faith development (Parks,
2000). It is important for college students to have others to go to for open and
honest conversation about their religious life. Individuals can have open and
honest conversations with faculty and staff, but mainly these conversations take
place through religious student organizations. Students may find that members in
student organizations hold them accountable to practice their spiritual and
religious beliefs.
Often, these student organizations or communities serve as proxy families.
When they are away from home, college students look for places that will serve as
surrogate families (Parks, 2000). Having this sense of family is important for
many college students, as it can replace the support network they are used to
having back at home. This feeling of being a part of a community helps students
connect with others who are dealing with some of the same situations. One
important area of a student’s personal spiritual quest is finding others to connect
with in a deeper and more meaningful way (Chickering et al., 2006). Students on
a spiritual quest often look for a safe community or organization that will
welcome, support, and nourish them as they develop their spirituality (Parks,
2000). A reliable community is one in which students are able to talk about their
spirituality and gain further confidence in their beliefs. Among the communities
that students in this study were part of included the gospel choir or a Christian
student organization. The participants enjoyed how these communities created a

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safe space to ask questions about their spirituality and to gain a better
understanding of what they really believed in.
With the diversity in spiritual beliefs that can be found on any given
campus, debates can often arise regarding one’s own values (Astin et al., 2011).
These conversations can propel students to truly understand their views. When
seeking a deeper understanding of life, individuals often look to others with
whom they can share their thoughts (Chickering et al., 2006). This trust is
important for students to feel they can be open and honest without judgment or
guilt. These communities exposed participants to others in their same situations
who were willing to share their experiences with the group.
Participants in this study who did not have such communities often
struggled with ways to cultivate their spirituality and religious practices. These
students were most likely to hide their spiritual queries from friends and not talk
about such issues openly. These students often dealt with tough situations on
their own, making it harder to deal with them in a timely manner. Thus, finding a
community or student organization is important for students, because these groups
may help nurture and sustain their religious engagement. Exploratory
opportunities create an environment for students to be open about what they are
struggling with in their lives and to sort through their feelings toward God.
Implications for Policy and Practice
Implication 1: Colleges and universities should develop a spirituality and
religious engagement assessment for their African American male Christian

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students so that they can provide the best spiritual support, resources, and
programs for their students. Universities need assessment plans so that they can
provide the best support for African American Christian male students seeking to
develop the spiritual aspects of their lives. Through such data, colleges and
universities would be able to implement programs, resources, and improvements
to support African American Christian males engaged in a spiritual quest. As the
first step in creating this plan, institutions should have a common definition of
spirituality and an understanding of religious engagement. Because spirituality
has many complex meanings, students, faculty, and student affairs administrators
must be on the same page and work under a framework based on the university’s
definition of spirituality.
Some researchers have created assessment tools for spirituality, which are
available for other institutions to implement. In addition to talking about the
religious life of college students, Astin et al. (2011) created the most recent
instrument for assessing the spirituality of college students. Using data from their
2003 College Students’ Beliefs and Values (CSBV) survey, they identified five
areas to assess where students are with their spirituality. The spirituality quest
assesses a student’s interest in searching for purpose and developing a meaningful
philosophy in life. Equanimity, as mentioned before, measures the extent to
which the student feels at peace or is centered, has the ability to find meaning in
times of hardship, and views each day as a gift. An ethic of caring assesses the
student’s degree of commitment to values such as helping others face difficulties,

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and trying to reduce the pain and suffering in the world. Charitable involvement
is a behavioral measure that looks at what the student is active in, such as
community service and helping friends with problems. The fifth area,
Ecumenical worldview, measures whether the student is interested in learning
about other cultures, values, and beliefs.
Assessing where their students are with their spirituality allows the
university to provide the best resources. Valuation can reiterate to the
administration that some of its students are constantly evolving and often
struggling with their spirituality. Assessment would provide a way to know
which area of spirituality their student may be working on, and to determine what
effective support networks they can provide.
Implication 2: Colleges and universities should provide opportunities for
religious engagement for African American Christian male students on campus.
As an indication that the institution supports the spiritual development of their
African American Christian male students, they must make an array of resources
and places to practice religious engagement visibly available. Offering a variety
of opportunities for students to practice their spirituality is crucial. Students are
hungry for spirituality, a commitment that should be understood as separate from
the faith and practice of a specific denomination (Chickering et al., 2006).
Providing campus venues where students can practice or interact with any
faith they choose can increase a student’s spiritual development. Creating
opportunities on campus for personal meditation, prayer, and reflection for

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diverse spiritual practices is important (Chickering et al., 2006). Some
universities have facilities at which campus communities can engage in spiritual
pursuits. Such centers must have inclusive names as a way of showing that the
university supports a wide spectrum of spiritual practices (Astin et al., 2011).
Campuses should also explore creating a safe space for students to
dialogue about their spirituality and religious beliefs, and to discuss questions
with a diverse group of students. As students look to develop a better
understanding of the meaning or purpose of their lives, they need opportunities to
openly talk about those matters. Creating an interfaith dialogue group can
provide a place for students to discuss various topics on values, belief, meaning,
purpose, and so forth. These groups can create safe spaces for students to ask big
questions and thus gain perspective on what they have experienced in their lives.
Conversations surrounding spiritual meaning are important for students, enabling
them to process their questions about life in a supportive and nurturing
environment (Astin et al., 2011).
For example, colleges and universities with a gospel choir should consider
providing ways to support the group from an institutional level. During the
collection of data for this study, this researcher found that the gospel choir played
a very important role in participants’ spiritual growth. The choir met many of the
students’ spiritual needs. Music, community support, spiritual accountability, and
development happened within the confines of the gospel choir. Most of the
participants had grown up listening to and identifying with the messages in gospel

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music. Higher educational institutions should look at ways to support their gospel
choirs. Providing space for students to practice, allowing access to instruments,
and hiring a musical teacher with a spiritual background to serve as an advisor are
all helpful efforts.
The final recommendation is to create a partnership with spiritual
facilities in the community. Through such partnerships, the university can gain a
better understanding of the diverse beliefs of its students. For examples,
university websites may include information and links to spiritual communities so
that students can easily find a local place of worship a spiritual community away
from home. Designating a place on campus for local spiritual facilities to pick up
and drop off students is helpful especially for students who do not have
transportation.
Implication 3: Colleges and universities resources to support spirituality
needs to be visible. Most higher education institutions have a place that supports
and promotes religious life on campus; however, many students in this study did
not utilize such places or took advantage of the services they offered. Religious
offices on campus often have a charge to provide resources to meet the spectrum
of religious and spiritual needs of their students. One reason students may not
utilize the services of the religious office might be that the name of the office
implies that it only deals with religious, and not spiritual, issues. Changing the
office name to the Office for Interfaith and Spiritual Services would show the
student that the office offers support across the spiritual spectrum and thus may

125
attract more African American males. Another reason that the religious office
may not get utilized is lack of awareness about it by incoming students. Making
the office visible in areas where first-year students reside may increase awareness
of the office’s services. As a result, its resources may become part of the first-
year college student’s experience from the very beginning until graduation.
Incorporating spirituality into student affairs offices is another way to
increase opportunities for spiritual development. Student affairs staff can help
shape personal meaning for students, and be present during teachable moments
that happen outside the regular classroom (Chickering et al., 2006). Spirituality
can be integrated into residence life, campus activities, career services, counseling
services, multicultural services, and volunteer services. Residence life can make
spirituality part of the residence assistant’s programming model. Campus
activities can incorporate spiritual programs, ensuring that the campus has a
variety of student organizations that have a spiritual focus and have spirituality as
part of their leadership programs. Career services can provide opportunities for
students to explore their purpose and meaning in life as it pertains to their time
after graduation. Counseling service intake forms can include a section for
students to describe their spiritual beliefs or struggles, information that the
counselor can consider during counseling sessions. Multicultural services can
incorporate programs and conversations with students regarding the intersection
of spirituality and ethnic identity.

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Institutions must provide spiritual support for African American Christian
male students. Having spirituality as part of the university’s mission and culture
sends a clear message to the students that their educational institution has a
commitment to helping them develop holistically. Many students are quiet about
their spirituality because they feel their values and beliefs do not fit into the
mission of the university, which in turn causes faculty and student affairs staff to
become silent about spiritual and religious matters (Chickering et al., 2006). Just
having an office on campus is not enough to keep students from being reticent
about their spirituality.
Implication 4: Colleges and universities should look at ways to provide
resources to African American males struggling with balancing their religious
engagement and common activities college student partake in that may contradict
their beliefs. Many of the students in this study talked about their struggle to live a
religious life. These conflicts are centered on the students’ desire to live life
according to what the Bible says and to engage in what they feel is part of the
college experience. When they arrive on campus, they face new situations that
may go against their beliefs. These situations include being involved in a
relationship that may lead to sexual intercourse. Participants talked about finding
a mate to spend time with. One participant in particular felt that he needed get
into a relationship in order to prove he was a man. Most of the students talked
about their upbringing and how they were taught that sex was made for marriage.
Many of their partners were raised on the same beliefs, but were nonetheless

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ready to engage in sexual intercourse. Wanting to take that important step with
their partner, but also wanting to stay true to their core values created turmoil for
the students. This distraction and contradictions to their beliefs caused some of
the participants to end their relationship; some even underwent dating fasts.
Abstaining from relationships helped participants feel they could hinder any
possible temptation and focus more on God. Astin et al.’s (2011) study created a
way to measure a student’s level of conservatism surrounding such issues
including premarital sex. If students scored high in religious conservatism, they
often were highly engaged and had a strong religious commitment. The level on
conservatism aligned with the denomination of which the student was a member.
Sexual intercourse was not the only issue the students encountered in
college. Participants also talked about struggling with the college’s party
atmosphere. Feeling they needed to experience this aspect of college, some of the
participants went to parties. At the parties, the students noticed that the music
often included curse words or language that was degrading to women. This music
was the opposite of what they were used to listening to with gospel music. At the
parties, alcohol was often available, hindering their ability to make proper
decisions or to act in a respectable manner. The students did not want to be
known as partiers or drinkers.
The students talked about not having anyone to talk to about these
struggles without embarrassment or feeling judged. Knowing that many college
students may encounter situations that contradict religious engagement, it is

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important to have staff and faculty who are willing to have conversations to help
the students make the right decisions. Being open and honest in conversations
about topics that some may view as sensitive is important. Such exchanges can
happen during one-on-one conversations or during the interfaith dialogues.
Future Research
The goal of this study was to investigate the influence that religious
engagement has on the college experience of African American males at
predominantly White institutions. There are other areas to consider for future
research. I have identified four areas that may further enhance this study. The
first of these areas arose as a result of the limitations of this study.
Participants for this study only consisted of students who practiced
Christianity, causing this religion to be the focus of the study. Although
Christianity is a major religion for African Americans males, it is not their sole
faith-based doctrine. Having a larger number of participants from various
backgrounds would help researchers gain a deeper understanding of the diverse
forms of religious engagement for African American males. Having data from
participants associated with the Islamic faith, Buddhists practices, or agnostic
beliefs would provide richer insight into their religious development.
Further research could examine the role that masculinity plays in how
open an African American male student might be about his religious engagement,
as religiousness is often considered a negative quality and may not be admirable
for men to display. This hindrance is similar to the fear of being considered smart

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or “acting White.” The perceptual definition of masculinity for African American
males includes downplaying their intelligence and doing whatever it takes so
others don’t perceive them as “acting White” (Harper, 2006). One participant
made it clear that he was not open about his faith with his friends and, as a result
of that discomfort, he often hid the religious aspect of his life. Further research
should look what influence masculinity might have on African American male
students and others who have a spiritual interest but feel they must hide it from
others.
During the data collection process, the participants communicated that
their spiritual pursuits had increased in college. They noticed the difference
spirituality and religious engagement played in their lives then, as compared to
when they were younger. Although information about their spiritual growth came
directly from participants during their interviews, no instrument was used to
measure if their spiritual involvement had, in fact, increased. Further research
might be useful for devising a method of quantitatively measuring whether and to
what extent spirituality and religious practices increase for African American
males while in college.
Finally, research on African American males is often about the negative
aspects of their experience in college rather than on solutions (Cuyjet, 2006). As
the data here shows, the positive influence that religious engagement had in
helping them get through tough times has not been extensively studied. Further
research is needed to see how religious engagement may influence the persistence

130
rates of African American males in college. Through further research, we may
find out if religious engagement can aid their integration into the campus culture
and increase the persistence rates of African American males in college.
Conclusion to the Study
The data from this study has shown how religious engagement shapes the
college experience of African American Christian males at a predominantly White
institution. Students articulated how they utilized their religious engagement in
college, and how it has helped them to stay focused, grounded, and active in
school.
College is a place of many developmental opportunities, such as
knowledge attainment, acquisition of independent skills, and nurturing a spiritual
dimension in one’s life. College is a place where students deal with many
situations; they are constantly tested. Religious engagement plays an important
part for students figuring out how to get through tough times. Questioning belief
and faith initiates the quest for knowledge, often leading to personal ownership of
their religious engagement. Recognizing this stronger relationship with their
beliefs, the participants began to call on God during the good as well as the bad
times. As their religious faith developed, the students yearned for others with
similar spiritual commitments those individuals whom they felt practiced their
religious engagement at a stronger level.
This study proved that religious engagement positively shaped the
experience of African American Christian males in college. The participants went

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through various stages that compelled them to use, analyze, and understand their
religion. This information is important for student affairs administrators to have,
as they are charged with providing resources and support for the holistic
development of their students outside of the classroom. However, many college
administrators neglect spiritual development. As discussed in the beginning of
this dissertation, African American males continue to struggle to remain in
college and graduate. Many researchers have made recommendations to aid in
their college success, however the numbers of African American males who
remain in college, and eventually graduate, remains stagnate. Religious
engagement is one area worth focusing on concerning African American male
college students, as it may play a significant role in their lives. This attention can
change the culture of the campus, so that it can support a student’s holistic
development, including their religious engagement and spirituality.

132
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Appendix A
Individual Interview Guide

How spirituality impacts the college experience of African American males at a
predominantly white institution: A Phenomenological Approach

Interview questions for study conducted by Stephen J Rice
Demographic Questions
1. Where do you consider your hometown?
2. Do you still have a lot of family there?
3. Do you have any other family members in college?
a. If so, where?
4. Why did you choose to attend Carroll-Ruth University?
5. What year are you at Carroll-Ruth University?
6. Have you declared a major yet? If so, what is it?
7. How did you decide to choose that major?
a. If undecided, what area do you feel yourself leaning towards as
a possible major?
8. Do you consider yourself a spiritual person?

The remaining questions were used to gather information from the participants on
their own points of view about spirituality.

1. As a student at Carroll-Ruth University describe your experience as an
African American male?
2. What issues have you encountered as an African American student at
Carroll-Ruth University?
3. How did you get through those issues?
4. How do you utilize spirituality while in college?
5. How do you practice your spirituality while in school?

In terms of the second question, How do African American males define
spirituality?:
1. How would you define spirituality?
2. How did your spirituality develop for you?
3. What do you feel your purpose in life is?
4. How did you determine this purpose?
5. What are your social networks of encouragement while in college?
6. Do you have a mentor that you can talk to about spirituality?

140
Appendix B
Information Sheet

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

How spirituality impacts the college experience African American males at a
predominantly white institution: A Phenomenological Approach

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Stephen J Rice
Doctoral Candidate for the Rossier School of Education under the supervisor of
Dr. Kristan Venegas at the University of Southern California, because you are a
self-indentified non first year African American male at Claremont Colleges aged
18 or older. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information
below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding
whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent
form. You may also decide to discuss participation with your family or friends.
You will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand how spirituality impacts the college
experience of African American males a predominantly white institution. With
the college enrollment rate of African American males continuing to decline, the
need to understand their experience is dire. Spirituality is a valuable component
in the African American community. The study is also looking to learn how
African American males define spirituality.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to answer pre-
determined questions about your experience at your college, things that impact
your experience, and ways spirituality is used while in college. The interview
should be between 45 and 90 minutes long. Participants will be still be allowed to
participate even if they decide not to be recorded.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation. You may feel uncomfortable
answering questions or being taped.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY

141
You may not directly benefit from your participation. It is hoped that this study
will aid understanding the impact spirituality has on African American males in
college.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be compensated for your participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
anonymous.

Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with
this study. The data will be stored in a secure location for three years after the
completion of the study. After that time all information will be deleted and or
destroyed.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
identifiable information will be used.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty
or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your
consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not
waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this
research study.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. You will not be graded on your responses,
nor will anyone in the school be informed of your participation.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact Principal Investigator: Stephen J. Rice at srice@usc.edu or at 310 466-
6857 or Dr. Kristan Venegas Committee Chair at kvenegas@usc.edu; or at the
University of Southern California Rossier School of Education Waite Phillips
Hall, 3470 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT
INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research
participant you may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below.
If you have questions about the research and are unable to contact the research
team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of the research team, please
contact the University Park IRB (UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for

142
Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu IRB# UP-10-00129.

143
Appendix C
Email to Participants

Hello!

My name is Stephen Rice and I am a Doctoral Candidate at the University of
Southern California Rossier School of Education. I am requesting your assistance
in learning about the various items that impact the college experience of African
American males at a predominately White Institution.

I am asking for your assistance in gathering data, by participating in a one on one
interview with me to learn more about your experience in college.

The interview should take between 45 to 90 minutes and I am grateful that you
will take the time out of your day to assist with my research. I am looking for
individuals who identify as African American or Black male, consider themselves
to be spiritual. Please feel free to pass this on to any colleagues who may not be
on this e-mail, but meet the criteria. It is our goal to compile all the data before
the end of this academic school year.

If you are interested please email me at srice@usc.edu.

I look forward to speaking with you.

All the best,

Stephen J Rice
Doctoral Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Understanding the different aspects of the college experience of African American males in a predominantly White institution is an important topic for researchers. This focus directly responds to the despairing statistics surrounding collegiate African American males, who often show lower graduation rates compared to other racial groups. The need to refocus research is especially urgent given the significant gap between male and female African American college students. One often-overlooked issue concerns the religious engagement of African American Christian males at predominantly White institutions, and how that engagement may shape their college experience. ❧ Based on the overwhelming data received by the participants, this study, which originally set out to look at spirituality in African American males, opened up to an exploration of religious engagement. The study aimed to answer the following research question: How does religious engagement shape the college experience of African American Christian males at a predominantly White institution. The research sub question is: How do African American males define spirituality? ❧ This study's framework draws upon the research of Alexander Astin, Helen Astin, and Jennifer Lindholm (2011) on the religious life of college students. These researchers categorized how students manage their religious life into three key areas: (a) religious commitment, (b) religious engagement, and (c) religious conservatism. The present study focused mainly on religious engagement. Qualitative methods, specifically phenomenology in the form of one- on-one interviews were used to gather the data. The participants were recruited through a snowball effect, which resulted in 11 students who identified as African American or Black males having a spiritual background (however they defined it) and functioning as full-time students at the host site. ❧ The results showed evidence that religious engagement shapes the college experience of African American males at a predominantly White institution. These findings were shown through (a) the various ways that students engaged in their religion lives, (b) how the students used their religious engagement to define their purpose, (c) how the students tried to develop their own personal religious identities, and (d) the importance they granted to creating their own religious communities. ❧ New findings from the study included the recognition that students were struggling to deal with aspects of college life that were odds with their religious identities. The student-participants were trying to find ways to navigate conflicting issues in college, such as having sex, partying, and consuming alcohol. At the end of the dissertation, the researcher offers recommendations and implications for university administrators to consider.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Rice, Stephen J. (author)

Core Title How religious engagement shapes the college experience of African American Christian males at a predominantly White institution: a phenomenlogical approach

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/19/2012

Defense Date 10/23/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American males,Education,OAI-PMH Harvest,religious engagement,student affairs

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Veneges, Kristan (committee chair), Cole, Darnell G. (committee member), Harris, Frank, III (committee member)

Creator Email rice.stephen@gmail.com,srice@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-114433

Unique identifier UC11290433

Identifier usctheses-c3-114433 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-RiceStephe-1301-0.pdf

Dmrecord 114433

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rice, Stephen J.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA