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Recent high school graduates' perceptions on their school experiences, musical lives and curriculum relevancy

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Recent high school graduates' perceptions on their school experiences, musical lives and curriculum relevancy

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Content RECENT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES' PERCEPTIONS ON THEIR SCHOOL
EXPERIENCES, MUSICAL LIVES AND CURRICULUM RELEVANCY

by

Delbert S. Bowers

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
(MUSIC EDUCATION)

May 2012

Copyright 2012 Delbert S. Bowers

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Sheila
C. Woodward, Dr. Robert Cutietta and Dr. Beatriz Ilari. Their guidance through the
course of this study has proven to be most valuable. I am forever thankful for the
supervision that they have provided me throughout the course of this study – and
throughout my studies at USC.
I am most grateful to Dr. Sheila Woodward. In addition to her guidance as
Chairperson in this study, Dr. Woodward has been a truly inspirational person
throughout my studies at USC. Her steady academic guidance, patience and
encouragement have shaped the way in which I view music education and life. I
thank her for providing a supporting environment in which I have been able to
develop my own thoughts and ideas.
I am also thankful for Professor Richard McIlvery’s role in helping me
navigate the academic and “real-world” waters. His courses at USC not only
broadened my musical worldviews, but also have forever changed my outlook on
music. He has proven to be an exceptional instructor and mentor. I am grateful for
his friendship.
Finally, I am forever grateful to my friends and family who have always
encouraged me to pursue my dreams. To them I am most appreciative of their love,
support and insights.

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ii

List of Tables vi

Abstract vii

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1
Background 1
Statement of the Problem 1
Need for the Study 8
Purpose Statement 9
Inclusion Criteria 9
Research Questions 9
Biases and Worldview Self-Disclosure 10
Approach 11

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 12
Introduction 12
Two Purposes of American Education 12
Introduction 12
Historical Background 12
Music Education and the Current Capitalistic Educational Climate 16
Digital Natives 26
School Experiences and Student Perceptions 31

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 37
Introduction 37
Sample 38
Inclusionary Factors 39
Recruitment 39
Study Participants 41
Instrument 42
iv
Interview Process 44
Analysis 45
Thematic Analysis Procedures 45
Summary 46

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 47
Introduction 47
Research Question 1 48
Emotional 49
Motivational 50
Spiritual 51
Creative 52
No Importance 52
Overall Musical Lives 53
Research Question 2 54
Overall High School Experiences 55
Positive Overall High School Experiences 55
Negative Overall High School Experiences 55
Identified Courses of Greatest Benefit 56
Identified Less Beneficial Courses 58
Identified Extracurricular Activities 59
Identified Courses of Interest (Non-Music Related) 60
Research Question 3 62
Musical Lives Met Within School 61
Musical Lives Met Outside School 62
Research Question 4 63
Music Courses Identified 63
Research Question 5 65
Music Class Perception 65
Research Question 6 66
Identified Music Courses of Interest 67
Participants with No Interest in Taking Music in School 71
Summary of Results 72
v

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
74
Summary 74
Conclusion of the Results 76
Discussion of Results 78
Discussion of Procedures and Limitations 89
Implications for Music Education 90
Background 90
Implications 91
Future Research Suggestions 94

REFERENCES 97

APPENDICES 116
APPENDIX A: CLASSROOM ACCESS SCRIPT 116
APPENDIX B: PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT SCRIPT 117
APPENDIX C: PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT FORM 118
APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 121
APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AS RELATED TO
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
125

vi
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Frequency of Reported Themes to Research Question 1 48
Table 2: Overall High School Experiences 54
Table 3: Identified Beneficial High School Classes 57
Table 4: Identified Less Beneficial High School Classes 58
Table 5: Extracurricular Activities 59
Table 6: Identified Courses of Interest (Non-Music) 61
Table 7: Identified Music Course Offerings 64
Table 8: Suggested Music Course Offerings 67
Table 9: Music History Genre Breakdown 68
Table 10: Non-Band Instrumental Breakdown 70
Table 11: Participants with No Interest in Taking Music in School 71
vii
ABSTRACT

The purpose of this interview study was to investigate the perceived musical
lives of high school students as recalled by recent high school graduates who were
not enrolled in music courses during their high school years. This study explored
student perceptions about their overall high school experiences, the roles that music
played during those years and whether or not a broader school music curriculum
might have resulted in an increase in music course enrollment. Thirty participants
were recruited from freshman level courses at various colleges, community colleges,
and universities within the Los Angeles Metropolitan area. This study involved an
interview process that required participants to discuss their recollection of their
musical lives and school experiences during their high school years. Participants also
discussed their views on whether and how their musical interests were met in and
outside of school during those years. Furthermore, participants identified additional
high school courses that they believe might have met their interests and most likely
would have attracted their enrollment. Results revealed a variety of musical interests
and roles of music during the participants’ high school years. Overall attitudes
towards high school experiences were positive yet a lack of relevancy was found in
music course offerings during their high school years. Participants proposed an
assortment of possible music courses that would have attracted their enrollment.
Results may provide a basis for further research on the implementation of additional
music course offerings for high school students.
1
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Background

Traditionally, music and other arts have been key components of America’s
educational policy and students’ school-based experiences. It is the author’s
perception that this dynamic has changed dramatically within recent years and that
causes for this change are rooted in political policy, social norms and technological
advancements. School music education is facing a crisis as evidenced in the
continued reduction of student enrollment in music courses and employment of
music specialists within American schools.
Statement of the Problem
Since the inception of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, many public
schools in America are finding themselves at a difficult juncture in matching their
broad academic goals with those of state testing when planning curricula. The policy
places an increased emphasis on the so-called core academic subjects, such as
mathematics, English language skills and sciences. In an effort to hold schools
accountable to a set of very specific state standards (based on broad national
standards), students are given a series of standardized tests in these core subject areas
in order to gauge progress towards attaining these goals. The scores are intended to
help schools focus on problematic areas of instruction, to increase public awareness
of how their local schools are performing and to exert a level of accountability upon
both teacher and school administration. The critical impact of state testing in these
2
core areas directly affects funding, student enrollment, staffing needs, and
administrative and governmental support (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). As
a result of this system, many subject areas, including arts, physical education and
technical trades, have found it difficult to retain the financial and administrative
support that is needed in order to maintain these programs (Chapman, 2004).
A Council for Basic Education’s (2004) study surveyed nearly 1,000 U.S.
secondary and elementary schools and found that, due to the increased emphasis in
core subjects like mathematics and English language classes, school officials have
had to increase student instruction time spent in these classes in order to meet state
and national testing goals. As a result, other subjects are increasingly receiving
decreased instructional time. In the Council for Basic Education’s report, nearly 25%
of the surveyed principals reported that they had decreased the amount of
instructional time for the arts with another 33% anticipating cuts in the near future. A
2004 MusicForAll.org study investigated California’s public school student
enrollment in art classes (dance, music, theater, and visual arts) and found that, out
of the total 6.3 million students within the system, just 1.4 million were enrolled in a
dance, music, theater, or visual arts class. The study also examined the arts
individually and found that music education courses in the K-12 California public
school systems have decreased by 46.5% since 1999, a total of 512,366 students. In
general music classes, an even greater decrease of 85.8%, or a loss of 264,821
3
students, was identified. Lastly, enrollment in band classes was also down 20.55%
with 44,509 fewer students than in 1999 (MusicForAll.org, 2004).
In 2002, McDowell surveyed 908 sixth and seventh graders from two middle
schools located in the Southeast and Midwest of the United States about their
attitudes towards music in their school. Out of the 908 participants, 17% were in
favor of having music removed from the school altogether or issued a neutral
response in its proposed removal. Points of concern were varied, however,
McDowell identified four pronounced trends from these students about their attitudes
towards school music:
• Music is boring, a waste of time, and we could use the music-
class time to do homework.
• I hate singing/I don't like the songs we sing or the music heard in
school: Singing seemed to be the most frequent music activity
mentioned and the least favored.
• Some [students] wanted to choose their own, more popular music,
including rap for music classes.
• My friends don't like music class: The musicians would see their
friends more, be able to go outside and play instead of practicing,
and would not have to carry their instruments.
(McDowell, 2002, p. 5-6)

Lamont, Hargreaves, Marshall, and Tarrant (2003) examined 1,479 students enrolled
at 21 schools throughout England. The study indicated that 67% of the students
enrolled in music actually reported that they enjoyed their enrolled music class.
When students were asked to select a school subject that could be eliminated from
the school, music was among the nominated subjects. While the authors do not offer
an exact number in which music was indicated as a subject to be dropped from
4
school, they did identify two reoccurring negative trends in which participants
voiced unenthusiastic attitudes towards music courses. First, secondary music classes
were perceived by the students as highly specialist subjects that were only open to
those with considerable instrumental skill. Secondly, the students expressed concern
as to the relevancy of music to their future careers. The researchers also added that
“a good deal of lower secondary school music programs seems to be unsuccessful,
unimaginatively taught and out-of-touch with the pupils’ interests” and that music as
a subject was “the most problematic and vulnerable art form” (Lamont et. al, 2003,
p.229-230; 235-237).
Yet, despite these noted negative attitudes towards school music by both
administrators and students, a 2006 U.S. Gallop Poll conducted by the National
Association of Music Merchants found that 85% of the participants claimed that
“music was an important part of their lives” and that 52% of the U.S. population,
approximately 50 million households, reported having at least one musical
instrument player within the household. Musical instruments identified within these
households were: 31% piano, 28% guitar/bass, 13% drums, 1% electronic keyboard,
and 27% orchestral/band instruments (NAMM, 2006). Jones (2009) is quick to point
out that 73% of the instruments identified are not typically found within traditional
public school educational systems (Jones, 2009). Lastly, the Gallop Poll indicated
that just 30% of the households reported enrolling in band or orchestra class within
school (NAMM, 2006). Assuming that this 30% is included in the 85% of people the
5
Gallop Poll found to have a positive response to music, one can start to identify a
portion of the population, about 55%, that despite having favorable attitudes towards
music did not participate in music courses in school.
The value and importance of music in a student’s overall education have long
been recognized by researchers, educators, and administrators within the United
States Department of Education (Benham, 2010; The College Board, 2006; Magne,
Schon, & Besson, 2006; U.S. Department of Education, 1997). Furthermore,
numerous research studies have indicated that participation in music courses not only
promotes music learning and school oriented objectives, such as student retention
(Benham, 2004) and higher test scores (Johnson and Memmott, 2003), but also aids
in the development of larger skill sets like that of intelligence, abstract thinking, and
life and creativity skills (Bultzlaff, 2000; Chorus Impact Study, 2003; Ho, Cheung,
and Chan, 2003; Chan, Ho, & Cheung, 1998; Nussbaum, 2006; Schellenberg, 2004;
Schneider, Schonle, AltenMuller & Munte, 2007; Tallal, & Gaab, 2006; Watanabe,
Savion-Lemieux & Penhune, 2007; Weiss, 2004; Zatoree, Belin & Penhune, 2002).
But public school music supporters have not only sustained the necessity for music’s
continued inclusion within the public school system based on music’s own academic
merit and the potential learning and life advantages that the subject has to offer but
also on the central social and democratic agendas in which the public school system
was built. Kober (2007) writes that the public school system has a social
responsibility to “unify a diverse population”, “prepare people for citizenship in a
6
democratic society,” and “improve social conditions” (p. 7-13). Woodford (2004)
further simplifies that the role of public schools is to educate the masses in order to
actively participate within a liberal democratic society.
While music sociologists such as Tia DeNora (2000), Lucy Green (2007),
and Susan D. Crafts (1993) have certainly explored individuals’ perceptions of and
relationships with music, it appears that few studies in the field are aimed directly at
today’s digital native youths. The Digital Native research team at the Berkman
Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University and the Research Center for
Information Law at the University of St. Gallen characterizes digital natives as a
group of today’s youth that are “defined by their experiences growing up immersed
in digital technology, and the impact of this upon how they interact with information
technologies, information itself, one another, and other people and institutions”
(DigitalNative.org/About, 2010, par.1). This technological world has created entirely
new musical cultures and interactions in which education systems have barely begun
to incorporate. This new digital native population potentially poses important
changes in the ways in which individuals interact with society, education, technology
and information. Thus, today’s educators are faced with these noteworthy changes in
attitudes and social and educational expectations. The Digital Native research team
discusses the digital native’s educational style:
Technology has always been an important factor for education, but the rapid
development of Internet and digital technology over the past decade is
changing more than just the equipment used in the classroom: kids' learning
7
styles and school behavior are constantly being shaped by the growing
presence of the Internet.
(DigitalNative.org, 2010, par. 1)

Today’s youth have largely grown up with one of the most influential
technological advancements of the past 20 years: the Internet. Because of this,
current youth have had greater access to and abundance of information than perhaps
any other generation. This abundance of communication mediums (e.g. e-mail,
micro-blogging sites such as Twitter, and social networking sites like Facebook and
MySpace) at one’s fingertips has connected individuals in ways that were not
available for a better part of the 20
th
century – a time in which many of our
educational practices were developed. Today, youth are connected via online forums,
discussion boards, chat rooms and web sites, which, among other things, can offer a
wide variety of free musical instruction. It may be reasonable to consider that today’s
youth may be finding their music instructional needs met in these mediums outside
of formal school systems.
In addition to the Internet, today’s youth have also had an unparalleled access
to recorded music. In 2003, Apple’s iTunes music store was launched and, today, has
sold over 8 billion music songs and accounts for 70% of all worldwide digital
download music sales (Apple, 2009). Additionally, the rise in popularity of the
portable digital media player and the digital media smart-phone has now put billions
of songs, videos, applications, websites and games at the fingertips of millions
(Brownlow, 2012). The increase of digital music and portable digital music players
8
now allows students to have instant access to a music catalogue from any music
genre or culture at any time. Students are no longer bound by the physical
restrictions of recorded music experienced by previous generations.
As identified in the 2006 NAMM Gallop Poll, a substantial portion of the
general population is not enrolled in music courses during their high school years;
report overwhelming positive response to the importance of music; and own
household instruments not being typically taught within public schools (NAMM,
2006). These findings, coupled with the emergence of a digital native population,
beg the question about whether or not the musical needs of today’s current high
school population may be under-explored. Could the decline of attitudes and music
participation in the public school system represent a problem within music education
in schools; a large shift in the public’s attitudes towards music’s role; or a
combination of both?
Need for the Study
To date, there have been relatively few publications in collecting information
on the rapidly changing musical needs of today’s youth; thus, music educators are
left to guess at what curricula might be of interest to this population (high school
students not enrolled in music courses) in an attempt to meet their needs and to
increase music enrollment. Until the students of this Digital Native population are
consulted directly, any attempts to meet assumed musical needs might contribute
9
towards irrelevancy of programs and further jeopardize music’s precarious place in
today’s public educational system.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this interview study was to identify the perceived musical
needs of recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in school music courses
during their high school years. This study also aimed to determine their perceptions
on whether and how these needs were met both in and outside of school. Finally, this
study asked the participants to identify possible additional school music courses that
might have enticed them to enroll.
Inclusion Criteria
Inclusion factors for participants are recent high school graduates who were
not enrolled in music courses during their high school years and matriculated from
high school less than two years prior to the interview.
Research Questions
1. What do recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in music
courses during their high school years perceive to have been their musical
lives at that time?
2. In relation to courses and extracurricular activities that were offered, what
were these students’ overall school experiences?
3. Do these students perceive their musical interests to have been met in
and/or outside of school and how?
10
4. What music courses do these students remember being offered during their
high school years?
5. Were these students’ perceptions of the music curricular content of the
courses being offered a reason why they did not enroll in those classes?
6. What courses do these students believe should have been offered, that
would likely have secured their enrollment?
Biases and Worldview Self-Disclosure
The researcher admits to approaching this study from a perception that there
is already a mismatch between school music curricula and the musical needs of
students who, for whatever reasons, did not enroll in school music courses.
Nevertheless, during the interview process, he aimed to encourage student
identification of their perceptions without showing this bias. For this reason, a
carefully designed script was used in each of the interviews. If any unscripted
questions were deemed necessary during the interview process to achieve
clarification, these were transcribed and reported. After analyzing the results, the
researcher attempted to entice music educators to participate in a dialectical approach
to curriculum development with this population. Furthermore, the author openly
admits his belief in the importance of incorporating broader music curricula into the
school system that is more relevant with today’s youth. With this in mind, the
researcher is still cautiously optimistic about the impact that such curricula might
have on student enrollment in such courses.
11
Approach
With these assumptions and biases identified, the researcher attempted to
suspend any past knowledge and assumptions during the interview portion of the
study. The design of the interview questions was constructed to reflect this neutrality
in order to gain a deeper understanding of the participants’ musical needs,
experiences and curriculum perceptions while attempting to minimize any biases that
the researcher brings to the study directly or indirectly (Merleau-Ponty, 1956; Valle
& Halling, 1989; Streubert and Carpenter, 1999). Furthermore, the researcher
attempted to consciously refrain from leading participants in the interviewing
methods by adhering to the instrument’s neutral scripted and prompted questions.
Additionally, when prompted questions were required they were brief and focused
only in providing clarification of the participants’ responses.

12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter presents a historical background on the Purpose of American
education and literature on music education and the current capitalistic educational
model, Digital Natives, and the many influencing factors that shape student
perceptions of their school experiences. This review aims to provide a contextual
background against which the study is based and to offer topics for discussion (see
Chapter 5).
Two Purposes of American Education
Introduction
There are two dominant attitudes towards the purpose of education within the
United States of America. One purpose was cultivated by the founding fathers and
advocates liberal European democratic thought, whereas the other is rooted in
industrialized capitalistic ideals of personal and social economic growth.
Historical Background
Thomas Jefferson is noted for his influence upon the early American
educational system. Jefferson wrote several bills that were of lasting importance in
establishing a foundation for the American educational system: the Bill for the More
General Diffusion of Knowledge (1778), the Bill for Establishing a Public Library
(1779), and the Bill for Establishment of a System of Public Education (1817). In
13
each bill, Jefferson helped construct a liberalist framework for which the role of
education within the United States of America would be built.
In the 1818 Report to the Commissioners of the University of Virginia,
Jefferson openly defines the purpose of education in America:
To give to every citizen the information he needs for the transaction of his
own business;
To enable him to calculate for himself, and to express and preserve his
ideas, his contracts and accounts, in writing;
To improve, by reading, his morals and faculties;
To understand his duties to his neighbors and country, and to discharge with
competence the functions confided to him by either;
To know his rights;
To exercise with order and justice those he retains;
To choose with discretion the fiduciary of those he delegates; and to notice
their conduct with diligence, with candor, and judgment;
And, in general, to observe with intelligence and faithfulness all the social
relations under which he shall be placed.
(Jefferson, August 4, 1818)
Coates (2000), a Jefferson historian, substantiates the report by adding that
Jefferson held a sincere belief that by implementing an educational system in which
all citizens participated, self-governance and involvement in the democratic process
would be possible with minimal federal government influence. In a letter written to
James Madison in 1787, Jefferson wrote “Above all things I hope the education of
the common people will be attended to; convinced that on their good sense we may
rely with the most security for the preservation of a due degree of liberty” (Boyd,
Jefferson to Madison, December 20, 1787).
At the height of the Industrial Revolution in the mid 1800s, the American
educational system began to increasingly incorporate more capitalistic purposes such
14
as vocational job skill and homemaking training. As manufacturing and industrial
economic requirements were growing at a rapid pace, so too was the need for a
stratified workforce: an unskilled laborer (uneducated and not specialized) as well as
a skilled laborer (educated and highly specialized). It was during this period of
American History that the two chief educational purposes of the American
educational system were fully realized: a democratic social purpose and a vocational
purpose.
The accelerated industrial needs of this new economic growth brought forth
numerous vocational legislations from the federal government encouraging
vocational curricula. The first major legislative support for vocationalism was the
National Act for Vocational Education (1917), or Smith-Hughes Act. This legislation
established financial incentives from the federal government to states offering
vocational education. Following closely, the Department of the Interior Bureau of
Education (1918) published the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education. This
publication, for the first time, explicitly institutionalized the importance of
vocationalism within American education. The publication identified the following
main purposes of education:
1. Health – health instruction, inculcate health habits, organize an effective
program of physical activities, regard health needs in planning work and play,
and cooperate with home and community in safeguarding and promoting
health interests

2. Command of fundamental processes – Much of the energy of the
elementary school is properly devoted to teaching certain fundamental
15
processes, such as reading, writing, arithmetical computations, and the
elements of oral and written expression.

3. Worthy home membership – Worthy home membership as an objective
calls for the development of those qualities that make the individual a worthy
member of a family, both contributing to and deriving benefit from that
membership.

4. Vocation – Vocational education should equip the individual to secure a
livelihood for himself and those dependent on him, to serve society well
through his vocation, to maintain the right relationships toward his fellow
development.

5. Citizenship – Civic education should develop in the individual those
qualities whereby he will act well his part as a member of neighborhood,
town or city, State, and Nation, and give him a basis for understanding
international problems.

6. Worthy use of leisure – Education should equip the individual to secure
from his leisure the recreation of body, mind, and spirit, and the enrichment
and enlargement of his personality.

7. Ethical character – In a democratic society ethical character becomes
paramount among the objectives of the secondary school. Among the means
for developing ethical character may be mentioned the wise selection of
content and methods of instruction in all subjects of study, the social contacts
of pupils with one another and with their teachers, the opportunities afforded
by the organization.
(NEA, 1918, p. 5-9)

Kleibard (2004) writes, “with money, powerful lobbying groups, energetic
leadership in high places, and a sympathetic public, vocational education was well
on its way to becoming the most successful curricular innovation of the twentieth
century” (p. 123). Support for vocationalism has remained constant and is still
considered an accepted purpose of the American educational system.

16
Music Education and the Current Capitalistic Educational Climate
Abril and Gault (2008) profiled secondary school music programs in the
United States in order to investigate the principals’ perceptions of music curricula.
During the study, a survey form was sent out to some 1,000 secondary school
principals. With a 54% response rate, Abril and Gualt investigated four central
questions:
1. What is the profile of secondary school course offerings, requirements, and
staffing?
2. What are secondary school principals’ perceptions of music learning
outcomes as they are currently being met?
3. What are secondary school principals’ perceptions of broad educational
goals as they are currently being met?
4. What are principals’ perceptions about the degree to which certain
variables impact music education?

Ultimately the researchers found that music was a required in 67% of the schools and
that 51% of the staffing needs was determined by state and/or school districts. Band
(93%), chorus (88%) and jazz/rock ensemble (55%) accounted for the majority of
programs, with general music (45%), orchestra (42%), theory (40%), guitar (19%),
piano/keyboard (13%), music technology (10%), composition (7%), and mariachi
ensemble (5%) were found in fewer than 50% of the surveyed schools. The top three
courses that principals indicated that they would like to offer were piano, guitar and
17
music technology. Principals felt that the current educational climate (38%) and
standardized testing (26%) had a negative impact along with budget/finances (39%)
and scheduling (34%) (Abril & Gault, 2008). While the researchers noted that these
numbers indicated that a majority of respondents found no negative impact on their
music programs from the educational climate and/or standardized tests, they did
ascertain that a number of respondents indicated sizeable issues that had a
pronounced negative impact on music curriculum, such as the current capitalistic
educational policy, standardized tests, budgetary issues, and scheduling.
Gerrity’s 2007 study investigated the impact of the capitalistic educational
climate and public music programs throughout Ohio. Overall, the participants
(n=179) had positive attitudes towards music education but still consistently placed
music as the least important subject in the general education of students – behind
Reading, Mathematics, Writing, Science & Social Studies. Participants in the study
offered several key insights to the general climate of music within their schools:
Due to demands on scheduling and adding courses for intervention, it has
been difficult to schedule the demands of students wanting music. [Now] we
offer independent studies in music.
~subject 18184

[No Child Left Behind’s] unreasonable expectations keep us from offering
students a well-rounded and enriched curriculum. A few years ago we
participated in SPECTRA and were able to offer dance and drama classes to
all students. We can no longer give time for such opportunities.
~subject 15440

18
There needs to be more staff development to incorporate [reading and
mathematics] into music.
~subject 35105

(Gerrity, 2007, p. 65)

The study concluded that, by taking the condition of staffing, student access, course
offerings, and instructional time into consideration, 43% of music programs had been
weakened due to the capitalistic educational model (Gerrity, 2007).
Spohn (2008) conducted a case study in which teachers within an entire Ohio
valley school district’s arts programs were interviewed. In the investigation, Spohn
identifies several themes found within the small rural school district. The study
found that “arts education in the Ribbon Valley School District was threatened and
showed signs of deterioration as a result of the administrators’ attempts to meet the
capitalistic educational objectives” (Spohn, 2008, p. 5). The study also identified that
arts education programs within the county had to adjust their curricula and teaching
strategies in order to allow for an increased emphasis in science, math and language
arts per the current capitalistic educational climate. Class times were shortened and
arts course offerings were reduced in order to allow more school time for these other
core subjects. The study also identifies a trend within the district of arts programs
being shifted to afterschool activities. Finally, the study found little definition in
assessment practices within the arts programs and contends that arts educators need
to develop more effective evaluation methods in order to correlate student
19
achievement to the 1994 National Standards and the capitalistic centered educational
model (Spohn, 2008).
The shift of importance towards core subjects and away from non-core
subjects is further exacerbated by a shift in financial and school resources. The
Public Policy Institute of California randomly selected 567 schools throughout
California and asked participants to hypothetically allocate money and class size to
areas where they felt best met the state’s academic expectations (Sonstelie, 2007).
The overall cost allocation was skewed towards core subject areas and away from
non-core subjects (such as physical education, music, dance, theater, etc.). The
average cost allocation for high school students was $52.40 for core subjects and
$34.30 for non-core subjects. The advantage towards core subjects was also reflected
in lower hypothetical high school class sizes: 20.2 for core subjects (lowest) and 25.7
for non-core subjects (Sonstelie, 2007).
Because of mandated guidelines, a number of educators have given up on
general public schools in lieu of charter schools. Authors Wohlstetter, Nayfack &
Mora-Flores (2008) contend that charter schools may provide a way for special
programs – such as music - to get a toehold to necessary funding and latitude to
reconfigure curricula. Charter schools are popular with parents because public
pressure can be applied directly upon the charter school without the bureaucracy of
school districts and/or school boards. The authors contend that this approach for
cutting through red tape leads to more effective ways of managing, developing and
20
improving the quality of schools. Findings from a field test of parent stakeholder
driven satisfaction suggest positive levels of satisfaction with the quality of the
charter schools from students and parents (Wohlstetter, Nayfack & Mora-Flores,
2008).
Collins (2007) studied instrumental music programs at secondary Catholic
schools in the United States were investigated for enrollment and school resource.
Her results revealed that 88.9% of parochial schools have instrumental music
education programs. 47% of these are located in the urban areas, 41% in the
suburban areas and 12% in the rural areas. Many secondary parochial school
enrollments were small: 48% had less than 500 students, of which 49% were located
in the urban areas, 42% in suburban areas and 74% in the rural areas. Many parochial
high schools had small instrumental programs with 50 or less students participating
in instrumental music programs. It was found that factors of school scheduling,
administrative and parental support, and feeder school instrumental programs
affected the security and strength of the programs. Recommendations that were
derived from the results included the development of stronger feeder school
programs, promoting supportive parent booster groups, designing better school
schedules and in increasing the administrative support through the provision of
proper rehearsal facilities and the necessary equipment (Collins, 2007).
Some hope for public school was placed on the reconstitution of music
education programs with the March 13, 2010 reauthorization of the Elementary and
21
Secondary Education Act (ESEA). Since then, no evidence of an art program
emphasis has been reported with a lack of any mention in regards to music education
in the materials on the Department of Education’s website concerning the new ESEA
and a capitalistic educational model ("Elementary & secondary," 2011). In fact,
evidence seems to indicate that politicians are becoming more content with the idea
that music programs are better suited as an afterschool program. In an October 20,
2011 press release, Sens. Barbara Boxer (D-CA) and Susan Collins (R-ME) led a
motion to pass a resolution in the Senate specifically recognizing afterschool
programs. Sen. Boxer remarked that, "Afterschool programs keep our children safe
and help them learn. In so many communities, afterschool programs are needed to
give students access to physical education, arts, music and so many other enriching
activities that are increasingly being cut from the school day" (“Afterschool alliance,
policy,” 2011).
The pressure of relocating music programs to after-school hours is not
entirely without benefits as the Harvard Family Research Project (HRFP) points out
(Little, Wimer, and Weiss, 2007). The research group has spent extensive time and
resources collecting information on the effects of after school programs on youths.
According to the HFRP, there is a substantial amount of evidence that children and
youth who participate in after school programs realize a multitude of positive
benefits. The group splits these benefits into four key areas: academic achievement,
social/emotional development, crime prevention, and health and wellness. HFRP has
22
also compiled and maintains an extensive national database of after school program
evaluations (including music programs) throughout the United States. Hundreds of
after school evaluations have been conducted in the past 10 years and are included in
the HFRP database (Little, Wimer, and Weiss, 2007).
In a special publication of the Annenberg Institute for School Reform, the
organization advocates for federal attention to after-school music programs (Weiss,
et. al, 2009). Such programs would conceivably help provide access to music for
poorer families in a more effective manner. What are the core features of such a
music educational system? Complementary learning is systemic and intentionally
integrated with both in-school and out-of-school learning supports. While a number
of stakeholders are involved, the local schools have the primary responsibility to
organize these programs from a network of funding streams, including some from
the federal government. Therefore, the federal role is as an enabler of these
educational programs (Weiss, et. al, 2009).
A substantial amount of research has attempted to link the participation of
music courses with overall academic success (Catterall et al., 1999; Chang, 2000;
Douglas & Willatts, 1994; Johnson, 2006; Kinney, 2005; Sharman, 1981; Cardarelli,
2003; Bygrave, 1996). Results from these studies are sometimes mixed and questions
of predisposition towards academic success are often raised; however, an ever-
growing body of literature indicates a relationship between academic development
and music instruction. One such study was conducted in a dissertation by researcher
23
Juanita J. Huber (2009). In the study, a positive relationship between music
instruction involvement and reading language test scores in middle school students
was identified. The study further suggests that the development of instrumental
performance helps increase brain functions that deal with language processing
(Huber, 2009).
Hodges and Luehrsen (2010) report on a series of phased research projects
that were funded by NAMM to examine a variety of roles in public music education
programs within the lives of school-aged children. The NAMM Foundation allocated
more than $1,000,000 in order to fund a multitude of research studies. The research
was divided into multiple phases. In phase two of the project, Johnson and Memmott
(2006) found that schools with school-wide music programs were compared to
schools without music programs and found that schools with music programs score
22% higher on English exams and 20% higher on Math testing. The researchers note
that the cause cannot be identified but rather there is ground for a supposed
relationship. In the third phase, Campbell, Connell, and Beegle (2007) contacted
1,115 students directly to write essays on the importance of music in their lives. The
participants responded that only about one-third had specific lessons in music or in a
music group (popular music, band, or orchestra instruments). The students also
reported that music was hugely important in their lives. Music was identified as
playing a role in social interactions (i.e. making friends), life benefits (i.e. discipline,
concentration), and emotional benefits (i.e. stress coping, self-expression).
24
In addition to today’s educational climate and the 1994 National Standards
for Music Education, some have brought up other issues of concern within the music
education profession. Williams (2007) writes about what he feels is an overall failure
in execution of the 1994 National Standards for Music Education. He contends that
public school music teachers are not teaching to the standards but instead are
covering only the minimal standards mandated in federal regulations. While basic
standards such as singing and performing are taught, creative aspects of the National
Standards such as improvisation get little to no attention. Singing and instrument
playing received 40-50% of class time investment, 11% was dedicated to reading and
notating music, and less than 7% of class time was being spent on the other National
Standards (Williams, 2007).
As Kratus (2007) points out, it is critical for music education to find ways to
keep up with the changing musical culture in the United States in order to preserve
the best of the country's musical past. Unfortunately, many of the troubles now
plaguing the field of music education pre-date the present recession. We must have a
command of that history if we are to know what to do in order combat it. Kratus used
1999–2004 figures for music education in California public schools. In this data, he
found that the total California public school student population increased by 5.8%
and that the percentage of all California public school students enrolled in music
education courses fell by 50%. This decline represented a loss of 512,366 students.
25
This was the largest drop of any academic subject area in the California public
schools by a factor of four (Kratus, 2007, 43).
Elliott (2008) elaborates upon the vision of Paul Woodford’s Democracy and
Music Education. In his article, Elliott echoes Woodford’s vision for music
education to take a “radical liberal” turn in order to “prepare [music] students to
participate in democratic society and thereby contribute to the common good”
(Elliott, 2008, 45). Such a vision is in keeping with the traditions of John Dewey
(1910) who held that critical thinking was a moral and political kind of thinking.
Elliott wants the profession to reclaim a democratic purpose for music education by
contributing to intellectual and political conversations about the nature and
significance of music education. Elliott feels that this vision could provide the
organizational energy to oppose the degradation of music education in America, at
least partially. Unfortunately, this publication appeared at the start of the present
economic downturn and gives no concrete political or policy agenda in order to make
the vision a reality in today’s fiscal climate.
Education policy author, Beveridge (2010), writes that, since the Bush
administration enacted the NCLB Act in 2002, both lawmakers and school
administrators have questioned what can be done to help combat the trend of shifting
resources away from the arts to tested subjects. As bipartisan support has grown
since NCLB’s inception, Beveridge contends that the current capitalistic educational
climate is not likely to go away anytime soon. Because of this, Beveridge writes,
26
“There is a need for better advocacy by music educators to their administrators and
legislators. NCLB allows, but does not require, arts to be tested, because the arts are
considered a ‘core’ subject and thus have academic status. Because funding is tied to
achievement in only reading and math, all non-assessed subjects receive less
attention in the schools, regardless of the status assigned to them by law” (Beveridge,
2010, pg. 6).
Digital Natives
It is difficult to paint entire generations with broad strokes; however,
historians and sociologists have attempted to do this throughout history. The
generational breakdown for this research is consistent with social literature and
common understanding for ease of discussion: G.I. Generation (1900-1924), the
Silent Generation (1925-1945), the Baby Boomers (1946-1964), Generation X
(1965-1979), the Millennials/Generation Y/Net Generation (1980-2000) and
Generation Z (2001-present) (McCrindle Research, 2008). It is often believed that
each generation differs from other generations based on the environment in which
they develop. Differences between the work ethics, social attitude norms, politics,
fashion and music have all been noted through both anecdotal and research-driven
evidence.
Digital Natives are most commonly thought to belong to Generation Y and to
Generation Z. The environment in which these generations are born is largely one of
digital technology. Digital Natives were born into a world that contained wide usage
27
of digital devices and therefore were never taught how to use digital devices; rather,
they were brought up learning digital devices from birth. They are native to the
digital world. Other generations are largely thought to be Digital Immigrants. These
generations have had their worlds shaped by digital technologies after a period of
time without them. As such, these digital technologies are often secondary
information sources rather than primary (Preinsky, 2001; Palfrey & Gasser, 2008).
The first Internet Domain Name was registered in 1984. Since then, the
application of the Internet has greatly changed the ways in which people access,
acquire and synthesize knowledge. Many social commentators have assigned a
variety of attributes to generations growing up in this technology-driven time period.
These attributes are based on the idea that exposure to such digital technology from
birth predisposes an individual to a more comfortable level of interaction with
technology. Author Coombes (2010) writes, “Generation Y theorists claim that
children born after 1984 have an in-depth grasp and almost ‘intuitive’ knowledge of
how to use technology, simply because they have never known a world without the
Internet and technological change” (Coombes, 2010, p. 31).
This personal association and intuitive use of technology affects the Digital
Native on profound levels. Tapscott (2009) identifies several macro characteristic
traits of the Digital Native: emphasis on freedom, tendency to scrutinize, desire for
corporate openness and integrity, play in the work environment, the need for speed,
and the ability to innovate (pg. 34). Friedl (2009) adds that these generations also
28
share “the extraordinary ability … to express originality and act as creators in the
digital world” (pg7). He adds further that Digital Natives place an increased
importance on the need to belong to a community (Friedl, 2009).
Rainie (2006) argues Digital Natives experience reality differently than non-
natives, including their understanding of the nature of reality. Rainie describes five
realities of the Digital Native as perceived in her interviews in a variety of workplace
environments:
Reality 1 – They are video gamers and that gives them different expectations
about how to learn, work, and pursue careers.
Reality 2 –They are technologically literate, but that does not necessarily
make them media literate.
Reality 3 – They are content creators and that shapes their notions about
privacy and property.
Reality 4 – They are product and people rankers and that informs their
notions of propriety.
Reality 5 – They are multi-taskers often living in a state of ‘continuous partial
attention’ and that means the boundary between work and leisure is quite
permeable.
(Rainie, 2006, p.2-4)

A substantial body of literature has explored the information-seeking
behavior of the digital generations (Banwell, & Gannon-Leary, 2000; Barr, et. al,
2006; Combes, 2006 & 2007a; ETS, 2006; Fallows, 2005; Livingstone, et. al., 2005;
Nicholas et. al. 2008). Prensky (2001) writes that the Digital Native “think[s] and
process[es] information fundamentally differently from their predecessors” (Prenksy,
2001, p. 1). Small and Vorgon (2008) investigated the effects of Internet usage on
child and adolescent neurological processing. The researchers concluded that the
working memory of Digital Natives is enhanced on a biological level and that
29
perceptual learning is increased. Prensky (2001) writes that the speed in which
Digital Natives learn is heightened, allowing for an increased ability to make random
connections, as well as process visual formation, through the help of digital
technologies. Selwyn writes that, as technology increases, so too will the ways in
which young people access and process information. This will be “in ways and
places far removed from the concerns of formal settings such as the school or
library” (Selwyn, 2009, p. 367).
As a result of an ever-changing technological world, behaviors and norms
change swiftly through this interconnected socially digital world. As Digital Natives
progress in age, others must be aware of how they perceive the world differently and
how their behaviors differ. Prensky (2004) advocates:
In a very short time technology has changed an entire generation’s behavior
radically, and it behooves all of us who are not from that generation but
whose daily life involves interaction with them, such as parents and teachers,
to learn as much as we can about the new behaviors… Today norms and
behaviors are changing much faster than in the past, because the technology
changes rapidly and the Digital Natives are programmed to – and want to –
keep up with it. For adults, some new Digital Native behaviors may be worth
immediately imitating and adopting (blogging, for example), others will seem
really strange (online dating, perhaps), and others will forever be out of reach
and impossible to adopt given their pre-digital ‘accents’ (e.g. one handed
typing on a cell phone in your pocket).
(Prensky, 2004, Page 13)

Bennet and Maton (2010) agree:
… [the] more subtle point is that everyday technology based activities may
not prepare students well for academic practices. For example, general
information seeking strategies may have limited application to tasks requiring
synthesis and critical evaluation … Norms and values may not transfer from
everyday situations to academic tasks. For example, while comments from
30
others may be valued within communities of interest (for example, a forum
devoted to mountain bike riding), information from peers may be ascribed
lesser value in an academic context in which students do not trust their
classmates to be right.
(Bennet & Maton, 2010, p. 321 – 325)

Because of these rapidly changing norms and behaviors, educators are put in
a difficult position. Quick adaptability to these students is limited due to the rigid
nature of curriculum planning and school testing practices. In short, the behavior,
interests and avenues for learning are changing faster than traditional education
models can adapt. Students of today are comfortable with electronic materials for
learning – as evidenced by the decrease in physical textbook publishing and the
increase of online universities and e-book readers. The rapid adoption of
technologies has resulted in a gap between traditional institutions and that of the
learners.
Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler (2005) challenge that the root cause of this
mismatch is due to decontextualized knowledge and skills. The argument made by
Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler is based on the multimodal technology environment. In
the world of the Digital Native, knowledge and skills are developed and acquired
through a navigational model. Individuals of younger generations gain
understandings of a subject and explore new ways of thinking through social online
communities (Facebook), multi-media teaching sites (YouTube.com) and
anonymous peer forums (online discussion forums) while the traditional classroom is
geared towards testing models of knowledge out of context and in a single modal,
31
linear environment. This, in turn, can lead to an educational mismatch and construct
a barrier to effective learning.
While the traditional classroom model might seem outdated in this manner,
the opportunities for educators to foster a rewarding learning environment with
Digital Natives are great. Literature (Banwell, & Gannon-Leary, 2000; Barr, et. al,
2006; Combes, 2006 & 2007a; Combes 2010; ETS, 2006; Fallows, 2005;
Livingstone, et. al., 2005; Nicholas et. al. 2008) indicates that, while Digital Natives
are comfortable with technology, there is a deficit in their ability to critically
scrutinize digital information for accuracy. It is here that a digitally inclined educator
can take an active role in helping students navigate the digital environment with
traditional critical thinking techniques. Combes (2010) challenges researchers to
look past the idea that digital familiarity equates to greater intelligence:
The basic premise of the Net Generation theory, that familiarity with
technology equates with efficient and effective use and these achievements
are only applicable to a specific group because they have grown up with
technology, is flawed. Does this mean that children born into an era where
cars are the ubiquitous mode of transport will therefore not only drive, like
driving, but also be good drivers simply because they have never known a
landscape that is different?
(Combes, 2010, Page 32)

School Experiences and Student Perceptions
Students’ general attitudes towards their high school music experiences serve
as a backdrop for the larger focus of this study about music curriculum and music’s
role in today’s youth. This study further places student perception about the role of
music in high school life within context of the larger school picture. The following
32
section is intended to briefly explore the research that has been conducted on these
topics in order to examine student attitudes towards their school experiences and to
identify some factors that influence these attitudes.
Given that students are at the receiving end of instructional decisions made
by school administrators and teachers, a great deal of research has been done on
determining what, if any, value student perception may hold for assessing
instructional and institutional effectiveness (Centra & Gaubatz, 2005; Friedburg,
2003; Goh, Young & Fraser, 1995; Koon and Murray, 1995; O’Connell &
Dickinson, 1993; Smith & Cranton, 1992). Overwhelmingly, the research indicates
that students’ perceptions of their school climate are valid indicators of instructional
efficacy and effectiveness. By triangulating student experiences with curriculum
objectives and instructional effectiveness, researchers have not only been able to
assess the efficacy of instructional objectives but have also given a meaningful,
democratic voice to the student population.
Additional research studies have explored and identified a myriad of factors
that influence the development of student perception (Ellis 1998; Freidberg, 2003;
Freidberg & Stein, 2003; Hoy & Feldman, 2003; Hoy & Miskel, 1996; Stevens &
Sanchez, 2003). This research has divided these influencing factors into two
categories: individual-level and school-level factors (Battistich et al., 1995;
Catsambis & Beveridge, 2001; Lee & Bryk, 1989; Pong, 1997, Stewart 2008).
33
Individual-level factors are perhaps the most difficult to pinpoint as each
individual interacts with the world through their own unique reality based on a
complex web of social, cultural, economical, ethnic, and psychological experiences.
Although these factors are as varied as human existence, there are certain individual-
level factors that are specifically built on the individual and school environment.
In addition to social experiences and self-regulation, one of the many
important influences on a student’s perception of school experiences is the amount of
academic success an individual has experienced. In short, a student who has had
greater success within a class will more likely report a positive experience; while the
student who has not been successful will likely report a negative experience.
Therefore, a root cause of individual-level perception is success.
The amount of effort an individual puts into his/her academic goals has a
great deal of influence on academic success (Johnson, Crosnoe, & Elder, 2001;
Marks, 2000; Smerden, 1999). Additional research (Johnson et al., 2001; Roscigno
& Ainsworth-Darnell, 1999) has also identified that the level of a student’s
attachment to his/her school builds a community sense of pride and ownership that
directly influences academic success.
The level of involvement one has in extracurricular activities is related to
one’s school attachment. In fact, multiple studies have concluded that extracurricular
activity involvement has a positive influence on student grades, feelings towards
school and social skills (Broh, 2002; Fejgin, 1994; Guest & Schneider, 2003).
34
As schools are highly social in nature, it is not surprising that students’
perceptions about school experiences are greatly influenced by others. A wealth of
research has been conducted on the relationship between an individual and his/her
peer group interactions (Duncan, Boisjoly, & Harris, 2001; Phelan, Davidson, & Ya,
1998; Wentzel & Caldwell, 1997). In addition to academic success and
extracurricular activities, student perceptions about school are strongly based on the
company they keep and by social interactions within the school environment.
It is logical to suppose that academic success is also rooted in these social
interactions. In fact, a good deal of research has verified this line of thought (Connell
& Wellborn, 1991;Greenberg, Siegel, & Leitch, 1983; Nichols & White, 2001).
Researchers have also explored the negative aspects of peer influence and found that
peers can discourage attitudes that do not fit within the constructed social norms of a
peer group (Goldsmith, 2004; Gonzales et al. 1996; Horvat & Lewis, 2003; Nichols
& White, 2001). For example, if an individual participates in a behavior that is not
accepted by the group, then that behavior is rejected and the individual feels pressure
to conform to group thought. This has meaningful relevancy about student
perception in that if one identifies or aligns with a group that has little academic
success, decreased participation in extracurricular activities or poor attitudes toward
academic success, then the norm within that group could be to pressure individuals
away from academic success and positive school perception.
35
A component of peer group influence that might be overlooked is the role of
parents. A large amount of research has been conducted on parental involvement and
student academic success (Catsambis & Beveridge, 2001; Christenson, Rounds, &
Gorney, 1992; Epstein, 1991; Feuerstein, 2000; Jeynes, 2003; Rumberger & Palardy,
2005; Thompson, 2002). The research has largely concluded that the greater the level
of parental involvement in a student’s schooling, the greater the chances that student
will have increased academic success. This leads one to consider broader questions
about how economics, race, gender, and political, social and cultural norms influence
parental involvement.
Student perceptions are also shaped by the school environment, or school
culture. The range of school-level variables within a school’s culture that influence
student perception is, perhaps, as great as individual-level factors. A substantial
number of researchers have investigated a large number of these variables regarding
students’ academic success (Carbonaro, 2005; Parcel & Dufur, 2001; Rumberger &
Palardy, 2005) and have found that academic success holds a central influence
regarding student perception of school experiences as well as perception of a
student’s own well-being (Crosnoe et al., 2004; Dupper & Meyer-Adams, 2002;
Glisson, 2000). The impact that school-level factors have on academic success and
student perception is substantial.
Perhaps most primary, a school’s culture is important to student perception
because it overtly and/or covertly communicates the values, beliefs and attitudes of
36
the teachers, administration and community that comprise it. School culture is often
unwritten but is exerted on all aspects of the school – such as afterschool events,
discipline methods, class size, course offerings, resource allotment, teacher selection,
and student-teacher interactions. The school culture is persistent and changing a
school’s culture often takes a great deal of time.

37
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this interview study was to identify the perceived
musical needs of recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in school music
courses during their high school years. The study also aimed to determine their
perceptions on whether and how those needs were met both in and outside of school.
Finally, the study asked the participants to identify possible additional school music
courses that might have enticed them to enroll. The research questions were as
follows:
1. What do recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in music
courses during their high school years perceive to have been their musical
lives at that time?
2. In relation to courses and extracurricular activities that were offered, what
were these students’ overall school experiences?
3. Do these students perceive their musical interests to have been met in
and/or outside of school and how?
4. What music courses do these students remember being offered during their
high school years?
5. Were these students’ perceptions of the music curricular content of the
courses being offered a reason why they did not enroll in those classes?
38
6. What courses do these students believe should have been offered, that
would likely have secured their enrollment?
Sample
The study sample included thirty participants from freshman level courses at
various colleges, community colleges, and universities within the Los Angeles
Metropolitan area. After a comprehensive list of all post-secondary schools within
the Los Angeles Metropolitan area was compiled, this list was divided into three
categories: community college, public universities and private colleges. From each
of the three school categories, two schools were selected at random (2 community
colleges, 2 public universities and 2 private colleges).
One community college was located in a suburb within the Los Angeles area.
Enrollment for this school was reported to be just shy of 30,000 students with a near
1:1 ratio of females to males. The second community college was located in the San
Fernando Valley and reports smaller enrollment of just 20,000 students with a 3:2
ratio of females to males.
Of the two public universities, the first public university reports nearly
40,000 students enrolled with a near 3:2 ratio of females to male. This institution was
located within the Los Angeles city limits. The second public university reports
slightly smaller enrollment of 31,000 students with a similar 3:2 ratio of females to
males and was located in the San Fernando Valley.
39
The first private institution was located within the Los Angeles city limits
and reported nearly 40,000 enrolled students with a 1:1 ratio of females to males.
The second private institution was also located within the Los Angeles city limits
with a reported 2,000 student enrollment with a 3:2 ratio of females to males.
In the United States, most students entering college are required to take
introductory level classes as part of their degree pursuit. With this in mind, the
researcher then determined appropriate introductory level courses that might house a
broad range of students, such as introductory English and Science classes, that would
be suitable for recruiting participants and meeting the study’s inclusion factors. The
researcher attempted to ensure that there was a broad representation of various
school types – such as community colleges and private and public universities and
colleges.
Inclusionary Factors
To be included in the study, participants had to be recent high school
graduates who were not enrolled in music courses during their high school years and
matriculated from high school less than two years prior to the interview.
Recruitment
Participants were recruited for the study strictly on a volunteer basis. In order
to gain access to students in classes for recruitment, instructors of various freshman
level courses from community colleges, universities and colleges within the greater
Los Angeles Metropolitan were contacted by e-mail (see Appendix A), telephone
40
and/or face-to-face interaction. Instructors were briefed on the study and informed
that participation was not mandatory. Instructors who were willing to allow the
researcher access to their students for recruitment purposes then finalized a mutually
agreeable time for the recruitment to take place.
In the regular class to which the researcher had been invited, recruitment
involved a brief 5-minute informational scripted introduction (see Appendix B) about
the study as well as logistical, privacy and compensation issues. The students of the
class were informed about the study and a brief informational handout about the
study was given out (see Appendix C), along with the contact information of the
researcher. Students were informed that there was no obligation to participate and no
penalty would be asked should they not participate in any part of the study. Classes
were informed that anyone who wished not to participate had the right to do so, that
participants might withdraw from any part of the study at any time during the
interview and that there were no known side-effects to participating in the study.
Students were informed that there was a monetary compensation for the completed
interview of $20.00 and that the primary researcher would administer the interview
outside of the participant’s class time.
Once participants contacted the primary researcher via telephone or e-mail,
participants were screened against inclusionary criteria (see Sample section).
Qualifying participants’ interviews were then scheduled at a mutually agreeable time
and location. Participants were informed that the interview was to be audiotaped but
41
that no record of their identity would be kept. At no time were participants’ identities
linked to the data collected.
The study recruited and interviewed participants using a method of data
redundancy, or point of saturation (Creswell, 2007), like the one utilized in Lucy
Green’s 2002 How Popular Musicians Learn book. In the book, Green does not set a
limit on the number of participants but rather continues the research interviewing
process until a trend of redundancy could be witnessed. Once responses became
redundant, Green furthers the interviews until she had became satisfied that data
redundancy has occurred. Green writes:
I kept a fairly open mind as to how many musicians to interview, on the
grounds that I would continue interviewing until the responses kept on raising
the same issues without introducing new ones (or in more technical terms,
until the data were repeating themselves). This began to happen relatively
quickly, after only five or six interviews, and by the time I had completed
fourteen I felt satisfied that the areas relevant to my research questions were
sufficiently saturated.
(Green, 2007, p. 8)

The point of saturation was determined when the researcher believed that by
collecting any additional “new” data would not offer any further insight to the
discussion of results or overall study. The point of saturation was found to be in line
with literature that offers sample size guidelines (Bernard, 2000; Bertaux, 1981;
Creswell, 1998; Green & Thorogood, 2009; Morse, 1994).
Study Participants
Participants were enrolled in post-secondary education classes at various
public colleges, community colleges and private universities within the Los Angeles
42
California area. Thirty participants underwent a 30-minute verbal interview.
Participants were asked a series of scripted, prompt and probe questions (see
Appendix D) about their musical experiences during high school. Interviews took
place over 3 summer months (July- September) and consisted of college age student
participants from freshman level courses at each of the selected study-sites (2 public
colleges, 2 private colleges & 2 community colleges) within the Los Angeles
Metropolitan area. As no age or gender metrics were collected, participants were
anecdotally between the ages of 17-20 years of age with a 50/50 split between male
and female. The study intentionally limited the variables that would be collected and
discussed within the study as to focus more narrowly on the research questions at
hand. Information on race, socio-economic and other points of data were purposely
not collected as to limit the scope of the research to the research’s central themes of
curriculum reform and recall of musical lives during high school. Recommendations
for additional research can be found in Chapter 5 (see Suggestions for Future
Research).
Instrument
The oral interview process consisted of approximately 21 central questions
with supporting sub-questions that were designed to answer each of the study’s six
research questions (see Appendix E). Use of terminology for the interview was
designed in light of the recent high school graduate population for which the study
was intended. Interviewing terminology was that of a general, colloquial speaking
43
manner and did not contain advanced field-specific terminology, musical knowledge
or curricular concepts. Initial questions were created to help put participants at ease
and to aide the researcher in developing an open dialogue with the participants.
Additionally, these provided the researcher context for further specific oriented
questions asked later in the interview.
The interview was comprised of three types of interview questions: structured
questions, scripted prompts and possible unscripted probe questions. Structured
questions were scripted and administered to all participants with the intent of
offering a level of consistency in both the questions asked and of ensuring that the
research questions were examined in a systematic manner. Where it was felt that
clarification of the structured question might benefit the participant, the researcher
drew upon scripted prompts to address this concern. In order to ensure that all
participants were offered further clarity and had an opportunity to respond
accordingly, all of the participants received each of the scripted prompts. Lastly, the
researcher constantly gauged participant responses and monitored opportunities that
could have led to a greater understanding of the participants' perceptions. Any
possible unscripted probe questions that were asked to achieve clarification during
the interview was transcribed from the recording and included in the analysis
process.
The researcher attempted to set aside any biases when implementing these
interviewing techniques, with the intention of facilitating an honest and open forum
44
in which participants could represent their perceptions. All but one of the questions
was designed after a process of consultation with peers and advisors. Question 13
(Could you recall for me your music making or music listening experiences during
high school?) was derived from Tina DeNora’s book “Music in Everyday Life” in
which she discusses the roles that music plays in people’s everyday lives (DeNora,
2000).
Interview Process
Interviews took place during a three-month period during the summer of
2010, at a mutually agreeable time identified after successful recruitment.
Interviews varied in location from coffee shops to libraries. Settings were
selected by the participants with the approval of the primary researcher – with
considerations of privacy, yet in a public venue. The interview protocol consisted of
a greeting, distribution of the Participant Informed Consent Form (see Appendix C)
approved by the Institute Review Board of the University of Southern California,
verbal consent from the participant, and the presentation of a series of interview
questions for this study. Interview questions were given in a predetermined order
(see Appendix D).
Responses were audio recorded onto a Samson Zoom H4n digital recorder.
Audio-recorded responses were transferred to an external Western Digital 500gb
hard drive and then deleted from the Samson Zoom H4n. The hard drive was stored
in a secure, locking house safe. The interviews were then transcribed in a Microsoft
45
Word Document. After transcription, audio-recorded responses were deleted from
the Western Digital 500gb hard drive.
Analysis
In order to maintain anonymity, all interviews were transcribed and coded for
analysis without personal identifiers. Transcripts were kept in a Microsoft Word File
under a password protected file management system. As no identifying information
was collected during the interview process there was no rationale to develop a key
legend that linked participants to their responses. School locations were only
recorded in terms of “private school, public university or community college.”
Once all transcripts were gathered, the data were analyzed and themes across
the multiple interviews were identified. Reoccurring themes were interpreted and
linked to each of the six research questions of this study. These themes are found in
the Results section in Chapter Four to each of the six research questions regarding
this study.
Thematic Analysis Procedures
Data from interviews was collected and responses were grouped according to
themes. With the exception of Research Question 6, no data was classified in more
than one category.
Themes to Research Question 1 were inspired by Tia DeNora’s (2000) six
thematic categories of music’s role in everyday life: mood enhancement, mood
change, sensorial matters (for pleasure), spiritual matters and activities (p.47). As not
46
all participant responses fell strictly into DeNora’s six categories, new categories of
reoccurring themes were constructed to most accurately represent the central theme
of the interview response.
Responses to Research Question 2, 3, 4 and 5 were more straightforwardly
categorized by frequency of occurrence through explicit participant responses.
Summary
This study explored recent high school graduates perceptions on their musical
lives during high school. Participants were not enrolled in music courses during high
school and had graduated no more than two years from the time of the study.
Participants engaged in face-to-face interviews to explore their perceptions of their
high school experiences. Interviews were collected anonymously via audio tape
recording, transcribed, and analyzed for reoccurring trends. The interview instrument
was designed to answer each of the six research study questions. Results are
presented in Chapter Four and discussed in Chapter Five.
47
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
This chapter includes the results of analysis and answers to this interview
study’s research questions of investigation. The study comprised a sampling of thirty
recent high school graduates who had not participated in music courses during their
high school years. Participants were asked a series of questions (see Appendix D) via
a face-to-face interview that was designed to answer the six research questions posed
in this interview study.
1. What do recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in music
courses during their high school years perceive to have been their musical
lives at that time?
2. In relation to courses and extracurricular activities that were offered, what
were these students’ overall school experiences?
3. Do these students perceive their musical interests to have been met in
and/or outside of school and how?
4. What music courses do these students remember being offered during their
high school years?
5. Were these students’ perceptions of the music curricular content of the
courses being offered a reason why they did not enroll in those classes?
6. What courses do these students believe should have been offered, that
would likely have secured their enrollment?
48
The results of this interview study are presented in relation to each of the six
proposed research questions.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked: What do recent high school graduates who were
not enrolled in music courses during their high school years perceive to have been
their musical lives at that time?
The data collected from participants were varied and illustrated the diverse
musical lives that accompany the human-music relationship. Eleven participants
identified central elements of music as emotional, eight recognized music’s role as
motivational, five acknowledged spiritual roles, three classified music as a creative
outlet and three identified no role of music in their high school years (see Table 1).
Table 1
Frequency of Reported Themes to Research Question 1
Identified Themes of Music’s Primary Role of
Their High School Lives
Number of Participants
Emotional 11
Motivational 8
Spiritual 5
Creative Outlet 3
Not Important 3

49
Emotional
Participants indicating music’s central role during their high school years as
being one of emotional placed an emphasis on concert attendance and personal
listening experiences. There was largely no indication of a desire to explore music on
a traditional academic level (such as learning to play an instrument, or write music,
etc…). Responses within this theme seemed to focus on social interactions involving
music or deeply personal listening experiences.
No matter what type of shitty day I had at school I could always put on my
headphones … go to my room… and turn on my music and it’d all just wash
away. Music was important to me. I never wanted to learn it. I just needed it.
I hate to say that because I don’t want to come across all emo but listening to
music was huge for me.
(Class of 2009, Male)

During the week, we’d plan our weekends around what sorts of concerts we
could get in to. There were times that we would just go and hang out front of
a club hoping we could sneak in. Those were the best times in high school.
We would dance all night and my mom would be furious but I didn’t care
because I had such a good time.
(Class of 2008, Female)

I would listen to music non-stop. I think a lot of people thought I was crazy
because I would essentially stalk [participant laughs] my favorite bands. They
would post something online and it was a rush to just see it. If Green Day
knew the crush I had on them, they probably would’ve put me in jail for
being a crazy stalker kid. I copied everything they did and listened to their
music all the time.
(Class of 2008, Female)

The enjoyment I got out of listening to music was crazy. I went through all
kinds of phases – rock, hip-hop, dancer music…there probably wasn’t any
music out there that I didn’t listen to… except show tunes. Yeah, I never got
into that but just about everything else. My iPod was loaded and we [friends]
used to play iTunes roulette and pass each other’s iPod around.
(Class of 2008, Male)
50

I’d just download an insane amount of music off websites. I really didn’t
listen to it all. I just wanted it. I listened most in my bedroom while doing
homework. Everything was on my computer and I’d just hit shuffle. I don’t
know much about music but everyone around me was into it. I felt like I had
to keep up.
(Class of 2008, Male)

I remember Jim would come over and we’d make out in my room. I’d turn up
the music so my parents thought we were listening to music. I can still hear
certain songs from then and remember how I felt. I don’t know if you can say
I was enjoying the music though. I might’ve had other things on my mind.
(Class of 2008, Female)

It was pretty obvious that you had to listen to music. Everyone had to have
their favorite rapper… or song…. or whatever. I probably went to more
concerts than anybody I knew. It got so bad that I was going out every night.
I almost didn’t graduate because of my attendance.
(Class of 2008, Female)

Motivational

Themes of motivation were second in frequency from the participants about
their musical lives. Responses about motivation were linked to moments of
depression or to desire to get through a difficult task. A number of responses
identified music as a coping strategy in the loss of a loved one. Participants with this
theme were found to be more likely to desire a better understanding of music.
Interviews from this theme thread seemed to indicate an increased pronounced desire
to study music within the school environment.
When my mom died, I listened to a lot of music to help me get through it. I’d
put on her favorite song and it’d cheer me up. I’d get so sad and by playing
her favorite song I felt like she was still here. I’m not sure what I would’ve
done without that.
(Class of 2008, Female)
51
I was a complete outsider at school. I would put in my ear buds in order to
shut everyone out. They [schoolmates] were very mean to me. Music was the
only thing that I had that I felt like I could relate to. High school was the
worst.
(Class of 2008, Female)

I remember being so depressed during high school that I almost couldn’t get
out of bed. Most days, I’d wake up and smoke pot and then listen to music on
my way to school. I probably should’ve dropped out but music and drugs
helped me get through it.
(Class of 2008, Male)

When I’d have homework to do and really didn’t feel like doing it, I’d turn
on something really upbeat and exciting. Then I’d dance around the room and
get pumped up and then knock it out.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Spiritual

Participants also identified music as serving a spiritual role in their every day
lives. Some of the responses about spirituality were strictly denominationally
religious in nature while others were not. Individuals from this theme were open to
the idea of studying music in a formal school environment.
I would turn Bible verses into songs and then on Sunday, I’d perform them at
the church. It was pretty cool because everyone could feel the power of the
message.
(Class of 2008, Male)

I really only listened to music at church. I wasn’t big into music but I did go
to church and sing. It was part of the service and we were expected to.
(Class of 2008, Male)

I came out to my parents in high school. I was gay and that there wasn’t
anything wrong with me. They were very understanding eventually but at
first they thought I was going through a phase or something. I’d listen to
some bands and I knew that no matter what I was normal. The music was
spiritual in that it helped me be more confident in the world. It sounds pretty
hippy but we’re all in this together.
52
(Class of 2009, Female)
Creative

While other themes had self-identified instrumentalists, this theme was
unanimously reported by self-identified musicians. Each of the responses from this
theme indicated a strong desire to express themselves to the world with an emphasis
on individuality.
If it weren’t for my iPod, I don’t think I would’ve made it. Listening to music
was everything, ya know. It wasn’t like everything but it was the types of
music you listened to said a lot about who you were. You had your rockers,
your ravers, rappers – or people that wanted to be like rappers… you could
always tell the people by their music. I went through a lot of stages during
high school and a lot of my friends changed and so did the music I listened
to.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I would turn on music to inspire me to create. I was really into drawing
during high school and music helped me be more creative.
(Class of 2008, Male)

Music was how you knew who you were. Without music, I probably would
know less about myself. I played music. I sang. Everything would get
uploaded to YouTube. It was who I was.
(Class of 2009, Female)

No Importance
Some participants confessed that music did not play a role in their high
school lives. Those within this theme largely seemed to show little regards towards
music.
I didn’t really listen to music in high school. It wasn’t something I was into.
I was more into sports and stuff. A lot of my friends would listen to music but
I never really cared.
(Class of 2009, Female)
53
Music was always around but I don’t think I was into music back then. I
remember when I got my first car. It had a CD player in it. My sister used it
more than me. I didn’t really care.
(Class of 2008, Male)

I got into music after high school. I did have a couple of songs that I would
listen to. But music wasn’t that interesting to me.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Overall Musical Lives
Most of the participants appeared to have rich musical lives during their high
schools years. Participants reported favorite bands, songs and albums. They also
frequently reported following a band or artist online. When probed further,
participants offered poorly constructed rationales for the favoritism and showed an
overall lack of critical music analytical skills. Instead of specific musical critiques
(such as a harmonic analysis, song lyric examination, song form evaluation,
instrumentation observations, etc…), responses were that of “it just sounded good”
or “I liked it.”
Nearly all of the participants had some sort of personal music player (iPod,
CD player, computer, etc…) at an early age. Those that did not have their own
personal music player often shared with a sibling or family members. These digital
devices were central to their music listening habits. Many reported having hundreds
of songs on these devices and sharing them with others.
While some participants were only involved in music from an audience
perspective, a portion of the sample reported learning musical instruments outside of
school. Guitar was the most common instrument reported; however several
54
participants reported to “making beats” using computer software. Most reported
learning songs or techniques through mediums of YouTube videos, discussion
forums, tablature notation, or from playing or listening to the musical composition
over and over.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 inquired: In relation to courses and extracurricular
activities that were offered, what were these students’ overall school experiences?.
Overall High School Experiences
A large number of participants acknowledged participation in extracurricular
activities and courses. Twenty-one of the participants identified high school as a
overall positive experience while nine participants reported negative overall
experiences (see Table 2). No responses from the participants indicated dichotomous
responses. Instead, each participant was explicitly direct in his or her response.
Table 2
Overall High School Experiences
Overall High School Experiences Number of Participants
Overall Positive Experience 21
Overall Negative Experience 9

55
Positive Overall High School Experiences
Many identified specific instances during high school that were not a positive
experience; however a majority of the participants indicated an overall positive
experience during high school. The responses ranged in passion.
Oh man, I loved high school. College has been tougher for me.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Overall high school was cool. It definitely had its moments of horribleness
but overall it was positive. It made me the person I am today. I just wouldn’t
want to repeat it.
(Class of 2009, Male)

High school was ok. It wasn’t great but it wasn’t the worst thing ever. I’m
glad to be out of it but I guess it was good.
(Class of 2009, Female)

I really liked high school actually. I had my friends and I knew everyone in
school. It was like a group of people that you saw everyday outside of your
family. I miss it sometimes
(Class of 2008, Female)

My feelings about high school? You mean like what did I think about it?
[Researcher: yes] Wow, that’s a loaded question. Let me think about that
[pause] I guess high school was good. I never really thought about it before
but a lot of good memories came to mind just now.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Negative Overall High School Experiences

While more participants reported positive overall experiences of high school,
there was a sizeable number that felt negatively towards their high school
experiences. Participant responses were vague as to the exact rationale; however,
56
some responses hinged on a life-changing event that dramatically skewed their
feelings about their high school years.
I absolutely hated high school. I hope to never see those people ever again. I
doubt I’ll ever go to a high school reunion unless it is to spit in their faces.
(Class of 2008, Female)

High school was horrible. I absolutely hated it. I hated the classes, the
teachers and the so-called friends. I really did not have a good time in high
school. My one year in college is already better than all four years of high
school.
(Class of 2009, Female)

My sister died during my junior year. The last two years of high school were
horrible. The first two were fine but the last were just really depressing. I
think of high school as a lot of depression. It was not good.
(Class of 2009, Female)

I had a really bad breakup. I had to get a restraining order. High school was
filled with anxiety. Everywhere I went I had to constantly look over my
shoulder.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Identified Courses of Greatest Benefit
A majority of participants felt that high school had done a good job of
preparing them for “the real world.” In fact, many participants were complimentary
of their high school classes and teachers. Specific classes were routinely identified as
serving a more beneficial role than others. Subjects noted, in descending order, the
following classes to which they felt offered the greatest benefit to their lives: English
(9), science (8), computer related classes (7), Mathematics (4), and Chemistry (2)
(see Table 3).

57

Table 3
Identified Beneficial High School Classes
Subject Number of Participants
English 9
Science 8
Computer Class 7
Math 4
Chemistry 2

I think the class that helped the most was English. It helped me with my
writing and spelling. We spent a lot of time reading but I don’t think that
helped the most. Definitely writing.
(Class of 2009, Female)

I really liked Biology. I want to be a nurse and that’s the class that has most
prepared me for college. I wasn’t that good at some of the other classes
(Class of 2009, Male)

I took a typing class in high school that was really helpful. I used to not be
able to type on the keyboard without looking at my hands and I was really
slow. I didn’t have a computer at home. I had a cell phone that I texted on but
it’s not the same. I would get to school early and use the computer in the
library to type out my papers that were due.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I guess I probably use math the most. I work at Starbucks and am constantly
having to figure out people’s change. If you mess up, the manager gets upset.
I try not to mess up and I think math is very useful.

Everyday I use my writing skills. I work in an office. I have to write emails
professionally. I think my English class really helped me
(Class of 2009, Male)
58
Identified Less Beneficial Courses
Courses of study that were noted of least benefit, in descending order, were:
mathematics (12), physical education (9), foreign language classes (7) and English
(2). Subjects of Algebra and Geometry were specifically mentioned within the study
of mathematics (see Table 4).
Table 4

Identified Less Beneficial High School Classes

Subject Number of Participants
Math 12
P.E. 9
Foreign Language 7
English 2

That’s easy. Math. When am I gonna ever use Algebra in my life. I rarely get
asked to do that stuff. It has no importance in my life
(Class of 2008, Female)

I’ve never had to figure out the sides of a triangle. I probably never will.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I took two years of French in school. I probably can only speak two words of
French. Qui and très bien. I pretty much only took it because I knew I had to
in order to get into college. Ridiculous.
(Class of 2008, Male)

I really don’t see a need for P.E. It was a lot of running. I don’t enjoy running
and have never been chased.
(Class of 2009, Female)

English was the worst. I know you’re gonna laugh but I didn’t find any use
for it after 8
th
grade. By then you should know how to speak and write.
(Class of 2009, Male)

59
The one class that I really don’t understand is Algebra. I took Algebra 1 and
did pretty good in it. But I’ve never used it since.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I had to take a bunch of exams in school in order to get into college, ya know.
A lot of the classes felt like we were only learning the stuff for a test. I was
pretty good in school and did ok on the tests. But I’d say most of the things I
learned in high school were wastes of time.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Identified Extracurricular Activities

Many of the participants did not participate in extracurricular activities. Of
those that were identified, however, 17 were sports related. Seven (7) participants
were involved in basketball, three (3) participants were involved in football, two (2)
were involved in soccer and one (1) was involved in lacrosse (see Table 5).
Table 5

Extracurricular Activities

Activity Number of Participants
Basketball 7
Football 3
Soccer 2
Lacrosse 1
None 17

I didn’t do extra things at schools. I just came and went when I was supposed
to. I wasn’t gonna stay any longer than I had to.
(Class of 2009, Female)

There wasn’t really anything that was offered that I could do or was
interested in. I don’t play sports or chess.
(Class of 2009, Female)
60

When the bell rang, I was out the door.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Nah, me and my friends would race home and play video games or
something. I wasn’t into anything after-school anyways. Baseball, maybe, but
I wasn’t any good and the teams were pretty much already put together.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I played football after school. I didn’t get to do much but I liked being on the
team. You got a jacket for being on the team.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Lacrosse. It was the only way I could play because it’s kinda hard to find a
lacrosse team outside of school. I really enjoyed it. I still play.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Identified Courses of Interest (Non-Music Related)
Only a few participants were able to identify non-music courses that they
would have liked to seen offered during their high school years. Of the courses
identified, there were no reoccurring themes found. Classes proposed were: video
game class (1), astronomy (1), horseback riding (1), painting (1) and electronics (1)
Twenty-five of the participants were unable to identify any non-music related
courses of interest that they would have liked to have seen offered during their high
school years (see Table 6).

61
Table 6
Identified Courses of Interest (Non-Music)
Course Number of Participants
Video Games 1
Astronomy 1
Horseback Riding 1
Painting 1
Electronics 1
None Identified by Participants 25

Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked participants to recollect their high school musical
lives and if they perceived their musical lives to have supported in and/or outside of
school. Research Question 3 asked: Do these students perceive their musical interests
to have been met in and/or outside of school and how?
Musical Lives Met Within School
All but three of the participants (27) felt that their musical lives were not
being met in school. The most frequent theme identified was a lack of relevancy in
the music courses offered at their high schools.
Are you kidding? I was into hip-hop, ya know? They don’t have hip-hop
classes at school. At least not at my school. Maybe somewhere else but not
mine.
(Class of 2009, Female)

62
I didn’t really want to learn music. I wanted to listen to music more than play
anything.
(Class of 2009, Male)

If they would’ve had a class that I was interested in, I would’ve taken it.
That’s not gonna happen. [participant laughs] There’s no heavy metal music
class. They only want to give us classical music.
(Class of 2009, Male)

The music classes at our school weren’t for me.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Some people really got into band. I wasn’t interested in that type of music.
(Class of 2009, Female)

I liked to dance. Music was really just there so that I could dance. I guess I
was probably more of a cheerleader. No, that’s not true. I wasn’t a
cheerleader. I just wanted to dance to music.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Musical Lives Met Outside School
The participants largely had their musical interests met outside of the school
environment. The topics of interest, activities and music genres that were part of the
participants’ musical lives were met in other non-school based mediums.
As the participants’ primary music activity was that of listening, most felt
that their musical interests could have only be met outside of school.
There weren’t any classes that were being taught that I wanted to take. I just
wanted to listen to music on my own. I couldn’t do that in school.
(Class of 2009, Male)

We tried to form a DJing club at school but we needed a teacher to support it.
The band director wasn’t interested. We just met up after school and jammed
and listened to records.
(Class of 2009, Male)

63
The music in school was boring. I could go home and listen to my music. I
could go see the band at shows and stuff. They certainly weren’t gonna come
to school.
(Class of 2009, Female)

My music was in church. We didn’t have church music in school
(Class of 2009, Female)

My music interests were not met in school. If they’d tried to offer something
more than band, it might’ve helped.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Why is it that they don’t offer more music in school? That’s a serious
question. [Researcher: why do you think they don’t?] I think they wanna keep
us busy with math and science. They tested us all the time on stuff that most
of us don’t care about. That’s why we do so poorly on those things. They’re
asking us questions about things we don’t care about.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Research Question 4
Research Question 4 challenged participants to recall the music courses
offered to them during their high school years. Research Question 4 asked: What
music courses do these students remember being offered during their high school
years?
Music Courses Identified
Of the music courses offered at the participants' high schools, band/choir
were the most frequently identified combinations of course offerings (12). Following
band/choir, jazz band/band/choir (7), band/choir (5), unknown (4), choir only (2),
and were reported (see Table 7).

64
Table 7
Identified Music Course Offerings
Course Number of Participants
Band/Choir 12
Jazz Band/Band/Choir 7
Band/Choir 5
Unknown 4
Choir Only 2

The music at our school did not do it for me. I don’t sing and I don’t know
what I’d do with a tuba. It’d be cool to read music but there wasn’t much to
pick from.
(Class of 2009, Male)

The music classes at our school were just band and choir. We didn’t have
anything cool.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I wish our school had had more music classes to pick from. We had a jazz
band and that was the only place to play guitar. I wasn’t into jazz so I didn’t
bother.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I’m a huge rock guy. The only music classes at my high school had boring
music. I’m not sure why anyone would’ve taken it.
(Class of 2008, Male)

We had choir. They did a lot of musicals. I would go to the concerts.
(Class of 2008, Female)

I had zero interests in the music classes at my school. It was band or choir.
That’s it. No thank you.
(Class of 2009, Male)

65
By the time I was interested in music, it was too late. I didn’t take band in
elementary school so I was kinda out of luck. It’s ok though because I learned
the guitar after playing Guitar Hero.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Research Question 5
Research Question 5 asked participants to recall their perceptions of the
music curricular content of the courses being offered during their high school years.
Participants were also asked if these perceptions were reason as to why they did not
enroll in those classes. The question examined: Were these students’ perceptions of
the music curricular content of the courses being offered a reason why they did not
enroll in those classes?
Music Class Perception
By in large, the perceptions of the music classes offered were the chief
rationales as to why participants did not enroll in offered music classes. Many noted
that the classes offered were not music genres or topics in which they were
interested. While some wished to be able to read notated music, musical instrument
offerings were recognized as limitations and therefore were unable or uninterested in
meeting this goal.
I really would’ve liked to have learned piano. There wasn’t a piano class at
school. We had band and stuff but I wasn’t interested in that. I really wanted
to play Elton John songs. If they’d had piano, it probably would’ve been just
Mozart or something.
(Class of 2008, Female)

66
The only classes offered were lame. The people that took those classes were
really into it. I took band in elementary school but I didn’t like it. It was too
hard and I really just wanted to listen to music.
(Class of 2008, Female)

Band wasn’t for me. Choir wasn’t for me. I had to learn the guitar on my
own. My friends and I would get together on weekends and play.
(Class of 2008, Male)

I had friends in choir. They did a lot old songs. I thought it was boring. I went
to a concert once but didn’t really like it. We all just sat there and watched.
(Class of 2009, Female)

They don’t have turntables in band.
(Class of 2008, Male)

Sometimes I wished I had taken jazz band. I play drums and I think that
would’ve helped. I just didn’t have the time. Plus, they only had one jazz
band and the guy that played drums was really into it. I doubt I would’ve
gotten to play.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I want to learn music. Even back in high school I wanted to learn how to
read it. It looks so complicated though. I never had the time.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Research Question 6

Research Question 6 attempted to identify courses that would have enticed
participants to enroll. Participants were asked to identify a wide variety of music
courses in which they believed their musical interests would have been met and
would have procured their enrollment. Research Question 6 explored: What courses
do these students believe should have been offered, that would likely have secured
their enrollment?

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Identified Music Courses of Interest
Participants had a great deal of recommendations as to what music courses
should have been offered at their high schools. Many (20) felt that some form of
music history course with an emphasis on listening would secure their enrollment.
Fifteen participants identified an interest in instrumental instruction on instruments
not found in traditional public school bands and/or orchestras. Thirteen participants
recommended a music class that focused on non-choir voice instruction. Other
participants identified composition and songwriting (12), recording techniques (7),
music industry (6), music theory (2), and critical listening (1) as other potentially
viable courses of music instruction (see Table 8).
Table 8
Suggested Music Course Offerings
Suggested Course Frequency of Positive Responses
Music History 20
Non-Band/Orchestral Instrumental
Instruction 15
Non-Choir Voice Instruction 13
Composition and Songwriting 12
Recording Techniques 7
Music Industry 6
Music Theory 2
Critical Listening 1

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The genres within this music history line of thought were scattered but a
history class on rock-n-roll gained the most frequent response (5). This was
followed by hip-hop (4), Latino (3) and electronic (2) (see Table 9).
Table 9
Music History Genre Breakdown
Genre Frequency of Mention
Rock 5
Hip-Hop 4
Latino 3
Electronic 2

If there was [sic] a history of rock class, I would certainly enroll. No doubt
about it.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I took art in high school because the music classes were not me. If a class on
hip-hop had been offered, I would’ve been all over that.
(Class of 2009, Male)

A class that you go and listen to music would have been awesome. I honestly
don’t care what type of music it is. We could talk about the songs and the
artists. That would’ve been something I would’ve enrolled in.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Instrumental performance classes that focused on non-band types of
instruments were also popular choices (15). These instruments included guitar (12
instances), piano (9 instances), DJ (6 instances), computer software music (6
instances), drum kits (6 instances) and accordion (2 instances). Vocal singing was
also popular with 13 positive responses (see Table 10).
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A class on beats would’ve been packed. At my school, everyone was doing it
anyways at home. To get school credit for that would’ve been nice.
(Class of 2008, Male)

I learned guitar by myself. If that were offered, I would’ve taken it. My
schedule was tight but I would’ve found a way.
(Class of 2008, Male)

Any class that taught an instrument that I was interested in learning. Guitar,
piano or drums… and not the jazz band kind.
(Class of 2009, Female)

I always wanted to learn to sing songs. There was choir but I didn’t want to
sing those types of songs, ya know.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Another popular proposed music course was that of music composition.
Participants (12) that identified this as a music class that would’ve gained their
enrollment were solely interested in composing popular music compositions – rather
than traditional Western European art music (see Table 10).
I would’ve liked to have had a class on writing songs. I think I probably
could have written a hit song with everything that was going on in my life
during high school.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Why not a class on songwriting? Everyone talks about how great the Beatles
were. Did they take band?
(Class of 2009, Male)

If I could write a song for church, I would have loved to do that. I definitely
would have taken it.
(Class of 2008, Female)

While not as popular as the previous music courses, a course on music
recording was mentioned by seven participants as gaining potential enrollment.
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Individuals that were interested in this class were enticed about the potential to
record and help create songs with other musicians that they knew (see Table 10).
Wow, I never thought of that. I had a lot of musician friends. It might have
been cool to record them. Who knows maybe they would have became
millionaires?
(Class of 2008, Male)

I would certainly have taken a class on how to record music. I love music but
I have no desire to learn to play anything.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Additionally, participants (7) were supportive of a music industry class where
professions and business types of topics could be discussed. Many of the participants
had never considered this as a music course before and were curious about its
potential to entice their enrollment.
Participants were less optimistic on gaining their enrollment with classes on
critical listening classes (1) and music theory types of classes (2) (see Table 10).
Table 10
Non-Band/Orchestral Instrumental Breakdown
Suggested Instrument Frequency of Mention
Guitar 12
Piano 9
DJ 6
Computer Software 6
Drums 6
Accordion 2

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Participants with No Interest in Taking Music in School
A notable amount of participants (10) indicated that, regardless of their
musical interests or course offerings, they would have had no interest or ability to
enroll in a school based music class. Participants of this population identified two
rationales for this.
First, participants (6) reported to having had an extremely busy high school
schedule that would not have allowed for music class enrollment (see Table 11).
Those within this population also reported that every class in which they enrolled
was geared towards college entrance and that no allowances were made for “fun”
classes.
Table 11
Participants with No Interest in Taking Music in School
Rationale Frequency of Mention
Schedule Would Have Prevented 6
Would Take Away the Fun 4

I wouldn’t have had room for it in my crazy schedule. I had after school
things and during school I was expected to take classes for college.
(Class of 2009, Male)

I wish I could have but honestly there would have been no way. My parents
were pushing me from 6
th
grade.
(Class of 2009, Female)

Realistically? No, I don’t think I could have. Even if I had wanted to I
wouldn’t have had room for it in my schedule.
(Class of 2009, Male)

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Second, some participants (4) reported that, while they did like music, they
did not like it enough to enroll in a music course during high school (see Table 11).
Music was seen as a recreational activity. Participants felt that if music was offered
at school, the “fun would be taken out of it.”
I love music but to sit around and talk about it in school would’ve taken the
fun out of it.
(Class of 2009, Female)

I dunno. I kinda think I would’ve not signed up for any music class. It
[music] was something that I did for fun. Not for school.
(Class of 2008, Male)

I know that you probably want me say that I would’ve signed up but honestly
I doubt I would’ve. There’s nothing worse then having someone take the fun
out of something. What kind of music would we have gotten? A watered
down version. No thanks.
(Class of 2009, Male)

Summary of Results
Based on the responses from participants of this interview study, current
music course offerings are not in line with some of the recent high school graduates'
musical interests or musical lives. Overall, participants had positive high school
experiences but sought fulfillment of their musical needs outside of the school
environment. These needs were largely met with personal listening, computer
websites and other digital technologies.
Participants identified only a small number of types of music courses offered
during their high school years (band, choir and jazz band). Participants proposed
several course ideas (music history class on popular music genres, non-band
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instrumental lessons, non-choir vocal lessons, music songwriting, audio recording
arts, and music industry) that would have potentially gained their enrollment within
their high school years. Some participants would be uninterested in enrolling in any
type of music course due to schedule limitations or perceived suppression that the
school environment might have upon their musical interests and experiences.

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
As evidenced in the literature, music class offerings and students within some
American schools are shrinking (MusicForAll.org, 2006). Also, a growing Digital
Native population appears to be changing the educational expectations of American
Society. Educational institutions and advocacy groups have noted this shift in
behavior and expectations and have challenged educators from all subjects to keep
pace with today’s Digital Native youths and their specific needs (DigitalNative.org,
2010). Additionally through the current educational climate, the political education
climate is placing a continued importance on standardized testing of core subjects,
such as English, mathematics, and science, at the expense of other class subjects.
Due to limited course offerings and a narrowed scope of music instruction, the
current music educational models for high schools appear to be unsustainable and/or
undesirable by a substantial number of individuals. Because of this, music education
within the school environment may be at risk of failing to meet the musical needs of
a great number of students.
The purpose of this interview study was to identify the perceived musical
needs of recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in school music courses
during their high school years. This study also aimed to determine their perceptions
on whether and how these musical needs were met both in and outside of school.
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Finally, this study asked the participants to identify possible additional school music
courses that might have enticed them to enroll during those years.
Thirty participants from six post-secondary institutions within the Los
Angeles Metropolitan area were given a 30-minute interview designed to explore
each of the six research study questions. The research questions were as follows:
1. What do recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in music
courses during their high school years perceive to have been their musical
lives at that time?
2. In relation to courses and extracurricular activities that were offered, what
were these students’ overall school experiences?
3. Do these students perceive their musical interests to have been met in
and/or outside of school and how?
4. What music courses do these students remember being offered during their
high school years?
5. Were these students’ perceptions of the music curricular content of the
courses being offered a reason why they did not enroll in those classes?
6. What courses do these students believe should have been offered, that
would likely have secured their enrollment?
Largely built on listening and social activities around music, recent high
school graduates who were not enrolled in school music courses during their high
school years appear to have rich and active musical lives. Their musical needs
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indicate to be largely met outside of the school environment via digital technologies
and social interactions. Overall perceptions of high school experiences imply overall
positive experiences - yet there appears to be a near total lack of music course
relevancy to this population. Participants of this interview study offered a variety of
music courses based upon their own music interests that would have potentially
garnered their enrollment during high school.
The remainder of this chapter provides a conclusion and discussion of the
study’s findings in regards to the research questions, recommendations for future
research and implications for practice.
Conclusion of the Results
Results to Research Question 1 indicate that participants had very rich and
active musical lives during high school. The roles that music played during those
years ranged from daily behavioral maintenance to spiritual enlightenment. The
participants not only listened to music in large quantities but they also actively
participated in listening behaviors by sharing digital music on their own personal
listening devices and through social digital music interactions. Evidence indicates
that, not only do today’s Digital Natives youths have access to an unprecedented
amount of music, but also there are other social interactions and new cultural
expectations taking place – such as swapping of digital media devices, coordinating
listening experiences, and shaping worldviews.
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Participants identified that they were learning music and music performance
techniques from non-traditional sources. In addition to computer music software
instruction, participants specified instructional lessons from YouTube and discussion
boards for instruments not typically found in traditional band/orchestra music
programs. These mediums appear to be key learning sources for today’s youths.
Participants also recognized the importance that social media played on their level of
interest of music. Many participants recounted moments of repeated viewing of a
website devoted to a musical act and Internet downloading of large quantities of
digital music.
This study also indicates that participants perceive their musical needs as not
being adequately met in a school environment. Contextually, participants reported
positive overall high school experiences (Research Question 2) yet believed that the
music offerings during their high schools were lacking. Participants were aware of
the course offerings (band, orchestra, jazz band and/or choir) at their high school
(Research Question 4) but deemed those to be irrelevant to their own personal
musical activities and interests. A large portion of the participants felt that more
relevant music course offerings would have attracted their enrollment. The
participants offered a variety of curricular suggestions that high school music
educators could implement in in order to serve this population more effectively
(Research Question 6).
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Not all participants, however, were swayed by the prospect of additional
curriculum. These participants cited class workload conflicts and/or tentativeness
towards school’s role in their musical activities.
Discussion of Results
Traditionally, instruments of popular music genres have been largely
learned through self-teaching, without formal lesson from teachers (Green,
2007). Jam sessions and self-teaching have long been noted within the
popular music literature as the central methods for learning popular music.
However, there now seems to be an addition of instruction via the Internet by
means of asynchronous learning moments. Typically, these asynchronous
learning moments occur through user content videos via the popular website
www.youtube.com. This is both encouraging and troubling for educators in
that the more modes of instruction are now viable and socially acceptable
within this population. This open forum is, however, something today’s
digital youth might not be equipped to approach in a critical manner (Bennet
& Maton, 2010). A routine visit to the website turns up multiple incorrect
lessons of song chord structure, rhythmic inaccuracies and potentially
harmful performance practices. These videos can span the spectrum of
educational ingenuity to rudimentary. Anyone can create an instructional
video, yet not everyone should.
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The results from the study seem to corroborate learning behaviors and
generational stereotypes reported by the literature (Selwyn, 2009; Prensky, 2004;
Rainie, 2006; Tapscott 2009) within the Digital Native population; however, there
are some glaring contradictions within the results of the study that are worthy of
further discussion.
First, the participants showed a notable interest in music. Only a small
minority of participants indicated that music did not have a specific role during their
high school years. In many respects, the musical lives of this population seem to be
surprisingly similar in nature to that of older generations. Youth are still going to
music events (Crafts, et.al, 1993): popular music instruments are being learned
outside of the school environment (Green, 2010): music’s roles are typical to those
of the larger population (DeNora, 2000).
This solitary listening phenomenon is curious as the social learning and
behavioral aspects of the Digital Native generation are well noted throughout the
entire body of literature (Coombes, 2010; Friedel, 2009; Livingstone, et. al., 2005;
Prensky, 2001; Rainie, 2006; Tapscott 2009). By and large, the Digital Native
population is that of a social learner. Group work and team oriented educational
techniques are considered indispensable with this younger generation. So what
makes music different? Researcher Tyler Bigford (2011) writes:
Many scholars of education who have addressed popular culture and argued
for its useful pedagogical application have treated children’s popular culture
as a sphere of cultural capital—of widely shared knowledge, taste, and
interest. While much of the material in such educational literature does
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address friendships, family relationships, and social interactions as important
elements, the theoretical and interpretive emphasis is more on textual
material, imagery, tropes, and knowledge of popular or consumer culture.
(Bigford, 2011, p. 256)

The question is not singularly answered, but to consider the entire musical
experience avenues available to today’s youth does help frame the behavior. Digital
technologies (such as mp3 players, computers and smartphones) that this population
uses on a daily basis allows for a near instant access to an unprecedented amount of
music. This availability allows individuals to “check out” of the daily constant social
interactions that today’s youth experience. Social networking coupled with portable
phones has connected the Digital Youth to everyone all the times. It would not be
difficult to reason that the musical lives in which the participants reported are largely
solitary activities that lend themselves to inner-personal growth. Even in reported
moments of social music moments, the underlying tone of the participants is that of
using music as a vehicle to escape, contemplate, inspire and/or to develop their own
personalities.
Therefore, with this worldview it is not too surprising that a number of
participants would refuse enrollment within a music class even when the topic is of
their own choosing. The experience of listening for music is an escapist experience
from the daily social entanglements that the Digital Natives have encouraged. It
might be that the ultimate purpose and role of music for today’s youth is not
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something found within textbooks or through instrumental instruction, but through
extremely personal construction (Hargreaves & North .
The current educational system is grossly, if not impossibly, unprepared to
tackle such things. The capitalistic educational model is chiefly concerned with
accountability and measured standardized outcomes within the school system
(Beveridge, 2010; Sonstelie, 2007). As the literature shows, music education and
other non-core classes are left with little to no room for exploring the other outcomes
from their subjects (Heffner, 2007; Spohn, 2008; Sonstelie, 2007; Collins, 2007).
Physical education provides for a healthier individual and a potential for healthier
lifestyles. This in turn meets both purposes of the Jeffersonian and capitalistic
purposes of education; healthy citizens, healthy workers, greater productivity within
the marketplace. Art –despite paraxial contentions – offers an aesthetic experience
that can lead to moments of internal creative inspiration or developments in all areas
of one’s life. This, also, meets both the Jeffersonian and capitalistic purposes of
education; new boundaries of knowledge within humankind lend directly to
marketplace advancements that drive new sectors within an economy.
Yet the budgetary and resource ramifications that the current capitalistic
educational climate ties to this educational business mindset of immediately
measurable outcomes does not afford educational opportunities for schools to spur
these sorts of unquantifiable personal growth moments (Beveridge, 2010; Spohn,
2008; Sonstelie, 2007). Instead of developing new educational models and methods
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that having lasting impacts throughout one’s life - and potential future generations -
schools are left with an ever-shrinking monetary bounty for successful standardized
testing results. Publicly funded schools are forced, at least in part, to teach to the test.
This might easily lead one to speculate that this sort of educational attitude,
which has placed an increased emphasis on other core academic subjects (such as
mathematics, English language skills and sciences), is an additional influencing
factor within the population of students that would not have enrolled in a music class
due to scheduling conflicts. As more and more students are being pressured to enroll
in college, the standards of college entrance boards have increased. This mentality
has, it appears, to have nearly totally offset the Jeffersonian purpose of education in
favor of the capitalistic purpose of education - getting a job. Yet instead of a job, the
goal is to get into college.
The 2009 High School Survey of Student Engagement authored by Yazzie-
Mintz reports that:
Of 42,754 student respondents in 2009, 91.4% expect to attain at least
a high school diploma, 87.0% expect to attain some form of
postsecondary degree, 81.8% expect to attain at least a bachelor’s
degree, and 45.2% expect to attain an advanced degree; only 1.5%
expect to leave high school without finishing.
(HSSE,2009, p.1)
And when students were asked via survey “Why do you go to school?” the most
common response (73%) was “Because I want to get a degree and go to college”
followed closely (67%) by “Because I want to get a good job” (HSSE, 2009, p. 5).
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Because the competition for college attendance is very high, the more classes
and extra-curricular activities one can schedule into a day, the better the educational
resume appears to be. This study did not attempt to systematically investigate college
placement (community, public or private) with relation to involvement in
extracurricular activities in favor of limiting the researcher’s focus to the central
purpose and research questions of musical lives and suggested courses. Anecdotally,
however, those enrolled in public or private colleges appeared to have reported
higher instances of extracurricular activities than their community college
counterparts.
The literature indicates that the learning style of the typical Digital Native is a
mixture of social interactions and direct manipulation of the knowledge they wish to
learn (Coombes, 2010; Friedel, 2009; Livingstone, et. al., 2005; Prensky, 2001;
Rainie, 2006; Tapscott 2009). So why does the traditional band/orchestra/choir
model fail to meet the needs of this new generation? Each of these musical
experiences is social in nature and allows direct manipulation of subject matter - or
composition – through musical performance. Yet despite this, music enrollment is
down throughout the American music educational system.
As previously discussed, the suspected role of musical escapism is not
currently suitable for the American music educational climate of accountability and
measured testing; however, the participants responses seem to offer another less
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subconscious rationales as to why the traditional band/orchestra/choir music course
offerings are not appealing.
Many of the participants were able to identify music course options (typically
band or choir) that were available to them during their high school years but
perceived the offered music course(s) as unappealing. A fair number of the
participants reported that the genres of music course offerings were not in sync with
their own musical tastes. Curiously a number of participants appeared to want to be
able to read musical notation but were not so inspired to do so by the subject matter
of the courses offered. The musical style mismatch is, perhaps, to be expected as a
good amount of literature has already highlighted this musical disparity for a number
of years now (Green, 2005; Jorgenson, 2003, North, et. al, 2000; Woodford, 2005) ;
however, one participant’s profound response to Interview Question #17 (see below
paragraph or Appendix D) is worthy of further discussion and potentially underscores
a foundational problem within the traditional music educational model.
Question #17 asked participants to “Tell me [the interviewer] about the types
of music courses that were offered at your [the participant] high school and whether
any were of interest or relevant to you?” Participant “(Class of 2009, Male)”
responded, “By the time I was interested in music, it was too late. I didn’t take band
in elementary school so I was kinda out of luck.”
The traditional band/orchestra education model is built on early enrollment of
students into the instrument regime. Music instrument selection is typically done in
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the elementary or intermediate school years. By the high school years, the prospect
that students will be able to perform on their instruments at more advanced level than
those that start later in years is high. The more time spent on the instrument, the
more likely high musical competency is achieved (Elliott, 2008). Thus, for many
students that do not enroll in early music instrument instruction, enrollment options
are limited to entrance into the band/orchestra –provided the instructor allows
entrance into the ensemble or offers high school beginning instruction at all – at a
competency level much lower than that of their peers. If the instructor at the
institution does not allow for latecomers, the opportunity to enroll in instrumental
music instruction is nonexistent. In fact, the only opportunity available might be that
of outside-of-school private instruction. Neither of these options bode well for high
schoolers with newfound interest in learning a musical instrument.
A good amount of the school experience and student perception literature
indicates that academic success is a substantial indicator of how one might positively
or negatively affect student perceptions (Broh, 2002; Fejgin, 1994; Guest &
Schneider, 2003; Johnsonet.al., 2001; Marks, 2000; Roscigno & Ainsworth-Darnell,
1999; Smerden, 1999). Is it possible that late enrollment students are sensing a
potential skill level gap between them and their band peers and are preemptively
withdrawing their enrollment considerations as a result? Or is the answer simply a
mismatch of musical style?
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North, Hargreaves and O’Neil (2000) indicates that this mismatch of music
curriculum with musical interests has a direct negative impact on you people’s
motivation and interest in music learning at school. In the study, the researchers
report that a mismatch in instrument offerings can also negatively impact motivation
and interest in music learning at school. This is congruent with a majority of the
responses collected by this study in that many participants were not only uninterested
in the musical subject offered but also in the instrument instruction offered. The
North, Hargreaves and O’Neil (2000) study continues by reporting that those that did
play a musical instrument throughout their school years stated a valuing of the
instrument(s) they played and identified positively with a role model who also
played similar instruments (North, et.al, 2000).
In earnest, participants indicated a strong desire to learn about music.
Participants suggested a number of music course offerings that would have
potentially gained their enrollment during their high school years. The recommended
adjustments by the participants were in favor of a broader music curriculum than
commonly found in most school music programs. Traditional band/orchestra/choir
school models initially fell short in obtaining enrollment based on a variety of factors
but most notably due to a lack of alignment with the participants’ musical interests.
Therefore, a strong case for a music curriculum that incorporates popular
music studies is clearly in line with the participants suggested music course
offerings. However, by merely offering these subjects as courses under the
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traditional educational model might not actually gain Digital Native enrollment or
interest.
Under typical music instruction, the teacher, in a less-than democratic nature,
presents topics or musical compositions for student study. Students then learn the
material or composition at the behest of the teacher through systematic practice or
traditional teaching models. Students typically have limited input in their own
education – which is contrary to the learning needs of the Digital Natives. The HSSE
Report (2009) also asked students to rate the degree to which various types of
instructional methods engaged them. The results were very much in line with the
Digital Native body of literature (Coombes, 2010; Friedel, 2009; Livingstone, et. al.,
2005; Prensky, 2001; Rainie, 2006; Tapscott 2009) in that the highest ranked
methods were social and technologically minded: discussion and debate (61%),
group projects (60%), presentations (46%), and projects and lessons involving
technology (55%). The typical instructional nature of the traditional music
classroom, as mentioned beforehand, contains few of these elements and is more
traditionally aligned with an instruction-by-lecture method. The HSSE reports just
26% of the surveyed students found this type of instructional method exciting or
engaging (HSSE, 2009, p. 5).
It should be noted that this is not to say that this is entirely a bad thing as this
sort of instructional method has served “classically trained” musicians well for many
decades and as Estelle Jorgensen (2003) writes “Nor does one wish to throw out the
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old simply because it is old; what is old may be exceedingly precious, to be kept at
all costs” (p. 9).
Courses (such as music history, piano instruction and music theory) that the
participants suggested at times seem to be contrary to the literature on Digital
Natives’ unique learning styles (Coombes, 2010; Friedel, 2009; Livingstone, et. al.,
2005; Prensky, 2001; Rainie, 2006; Tapscott 2009). The problem, however, is that
the status quo prevents new educational and teaching models to come forth and cater
to the different learning style which the Digital Native generation ultimately wants.
Jorgenson also writes:
Like education generally, the specialty of the school music is largely
bureaucratic, leaders have a self-interest in preserving the status quo,
and teachers are trained as technicians to follow directives issued by
educational authorities. Teaching methods remain generally didactic,
emphasize prescribed subject matter and procedures, and assessment
approaches to validate this instruction.
(Jorgensen, 2003, p. 3)
Because of this, it is not too difficult to understand that while different in
subject matter, the participants fell into traditional modes of thinking with
regards to actual implementation of this broader subject matter.
The indicators of this study’s results seems to point towards a strong desire to
explore music through less formal methods. The results indicate that there is a strong
inclination to experience music through exposure while leaving the decision to learn
or not to learn about the music up to the individual. This type of individualistic
learning behavior could be due to the increased practice of individual learning
89
through Internet search engines and solitary listening habits of the Digital Native.
The models for new and exciting courses able to cater to their generational needs are
not readily available within the traditional school environment. In short, the
participants potentially have limited vision in creating their own classroom models
because they have yet to be widely implemented by educators - or even created by
the Digital Native themselves.
Discussion of Procedures and Limitations
This interview study population was limited geographically to the Los
Angeles Metropolitan area and the results are not generalized as being representative
of this population or any larger population across the country.
It is also possible that due to the study site environments (post-secondary
institutions), participants could have a predisposition to report higher than normal
positive high school experiences. After all, the high school system appears to have
served them to a level in which they are now able to pursue an education at the post-
secondary level. The participants could, therefore, also have a predisposition in their
behaviors to enroll in hypothetical music courses during their high school years. This
may also be the case in that the participant self-selected for enrollment within the
study. Again, it is possible that those that responded to the initial call for participants
were largely interested in music.
This study population of recent high school graduates did not incorporate
those that are not enrolled in a post-secondary institution. The site locations were
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chosen as a matter of convenience in which to gain access to younger individuals
that were not enrolled within music courses during their high school years and to
enlist a broad range of participants. This could have, however, unintentionally
skewed the study’s results.
The final limitation that the primary researcher perceives is that the
participants were dealing with hypothetical decisions based on the reality that they
knew in the present. Results from current high school students might result in a
difference in outcomes as their current reality is shaped by their immediate high
school surroundings. Participants were selected with the hope that age and time after
graduation would aid in the reflection process. Again, this could have unintentionally
skewed the study’s results.
Implications for Music Education
Background
This interview study was conducted with the assumption that each of the
participants had varied realities during their high school years and that no one
participant held the one true answer to any of the six research questions.
Through a critical inquiry approach, the study was intended to identify an
often over-looked musically underserved school population and call for a change in
the traditional established school music curriculum. Likewise, this study was
envisioned not just elicit change in the established music education system but to
reshape the way in which we think about music educational issues and knowledge.
91
The following section suggests ways in which music educators might take the
views of the study population into consideration and work in collaboration towards
re-envisioning the ways music is taught within high schools.
Implications
The results of this interview study are troublesome for today’s high school
music classrooms. School budgets are shrinking and arts programs are being cut or
minimized due to the current capitalistic educational climate. Fewer students are
enrolled in school music programs and the larger study body potentially perceives
music programs built on the traditional band/orchestra/choir model to be irrelevant in
their own musical needs or interests. Music education within the school environment
is in a crisis of relevancy. It neither meets the democratic mandate nor the capitalistic
aspects of the American educational system.
In the democratic educational model, citizen participation is based on the
population-at-large receiving adequate information with which to make informed
decisions. It may be argued that, with the current focus on testing, the current music
educational model appears to only service the minority of the student body while the
majority of students receive little-to-no education in which informed decision
making can occur. Are we adequately educating students to make informed decisions
about music? In a forthcoming Oxford publication, Cutietta (TBD 2012) writes:
If the goal of this movement was to provide music education for every child,
the questions explored should have been more along the lines of: how were
we doing in reaching every child; what were the results of the Herculean
effort of providing music instruction to millions upon millions of human
92
beings; did our efforts change society in some fundamental way; did music
instruction really further the goals of education in a democratic society; what
were the arguments that were most persuasive to keeping these programs
alive, flourishing, and vibrant; what were the effective arguments against
music (or for other subjects) that caused us not to be able to maintain our
programs; was the one-size-fits-all large ensemble model appropriate for such
a large and diverse country?
(Cutietta, TBD 2012, p. 2)

The capitalistic purpose of the American educational system also appears to
be out of sync with the current model. Today’s music educational system appears to
be focused on supplying a workforce of music teachers and/or professional ensemble
performers. Along with the reported shrinking of music programs within the schools,
positions within a professional music ensemble are also extremely limited and
organizations that typically employee music graduates are also in a state of
contraction. In short, the supply of today’s music educational model workforce far
outweighs the demands of the marketplace. Where will all these music graduates find
employment within the field? Are we preparing students to get jobs in today’s
marketplace?
It is important that today’s music programs consider the purposes of a 21
st

century American education. Principles and students should both assess their music
programs on the democratic/capitalistic continuum. How is the music program
meeting the needs of the majority of students? To what ends are the music programs
designed? Are they in line with today’s youth and current marketplace requirements?
Without thoughtful considerations, music education within the school environment
may be at risk of failing to meet the needs of a great deal of individuals.
93
In order for music education to recapture a place of importance within the
school environment, music educators might rethink the ways in which they actively
address students’ needs. It is likely that intense considerations by the music
education profession is needed in order to fully address the needs of those not
currently enrolled in music classes. It may be that only through the increased
enrollment of students within school music programs will high school music
education begin to reclaim an evident role within the school and in the lives of
students.
This proposed evolution of music education could take into consideration
today’s digital youths’ educational and music behaviors, music interests and musical
needs. The results of this study appear to indicate that the inclusion of popular music
studies is paramount for increasing student participation within music programs.
This, in turn, illuminates another potential problem within the current music
education teacher model; not enough popular musicians are being included in public
school music teacher training courses. Music teachers within the school environment
are largely from the traditional band/orchestra/choir heritage. They succeeded in
their band/orchestra/choir classes during their own high school years and then rose
through the collegiate ranks of music education until becoming certified teachers.
Those that trained them were probably also successful within the
band/orchestra/choir model and implemented music instruction heavily focused on
this tradition. Today’s music educators are primarily only taught how to function in
94
the band/orchestra/choir standard. Only by enrolling a broader student population,
specifically including popular musicians, and by expanding its curriculum will
higher education institutions be able to prepare teachers for offering popular music
studies in schools.
This adjustment must potentially occur first at the post-secondary level. For it
is at this level that specialists with popular music studies backgrounds and music
technologists could have the greatest impact upon the profession. These specialists
would not only offer validity to this new music educational model but also be given
direct opportunities in which to cultivate tomorrow’s music educators with broader
musical and methodological knowledge.
Future Research Suggestions
A larger sample size from a broader geographical range would increase the
validity of the results found within this study. As the number of recent high school
graduates across the country that were not enrolled in music courses during their
high school years is sizeable, multiple studies would be required in order to paint a
more accurate picture of this population. Research with this population would need
to be held throughout the entire United States in order to get a broader understanding
of their needs.
A better understanding of the musical lives of today’s Digital Natives and
how music educators can engage them within school music programs is essential to
the survival of music education in the 21
st
century. Thus, further research into the
95
musical lives of youth could potentially offer new and exciting ways for music
educators to connect with and retain students within music programs. Studies might
explore how technology and learning behaviors of today’s youth might benefit
educational learning and music education relevancy. This might, in turn, lead
researchers to consider other purposes of education within the United States of
America.
Research into the effects of implementing student recommended music
courses on student participation in and enjoyment of music is also warranted. As
today’s youth expect a more democratic voice in their learning, implementations of
music courses that are recommended by the study body might pose fertile ground for
music sociological and music education research. Findings could help formulate
methodological and philosophical answers in which to foster a love for life-long
music learning. What advantages or disadvantages could be learned by offering
music instruction based on student proposed music topics? How would this affect
music course enrollment and/or influence life-long music appreciation?
Further study of the current capitalistic educational climate and school music
classes could potentially offer a better understanding of the impact the policy has had
on music programs across the country. Findings from these studies might offer music
education advocates sound analytical and qualitative data in which to pursue adapted
capitalistic or Jeffersonian models - or a complete overall of America’s current
educational policy. Additionally, as of 2012, a continued economic recession has
96
potentially put additional strain on music classes around the country. The impacts of
this current recession, coupled with a capitalistic educational policy, offer worthy
investigation opportunities for music researchers. The music education profession
requires up-to-date information on the current state of music in the USA, on what has
led to these conditions.
As the study did not investigate trends of gender, socio-economic or race
within this population, there is a great deal of opportunity for researchers to
investigate these same questions through each of these lenses. Any literature
produced that examines today’s youth through a myriad of social lenses will only
help strengthen the music educational profession and to better understand today’s
youth, their musical lives and their educational needs.

97
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116
APPENDIX A: CLASSROOM ACCESS SCRIPT

Introductory Teacher Email Recruitment Script for Classroom Access

RECENT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES' PERCEPTIONS ON THEIR SCHOOL
EXPERIENCES, MUSICAL LIVES AND CURRICULUM RELEVANCY
Greetings [Instructor Name],
I am writing to see if you would be open to me giving a brief announcement in your
[CLASS NAME] for a research study that I am working on. The address is under 5
minutes in length and can be done at the beginning or end of class.

The study is a music study in which I am looking at the ways in which today’s youth
used music during their high school years in order to better create curriculum for
them. Attached is an informational sheet about the study. Again, I only would
require a brief moment of time to inform the students about the study – the study
itself will be conducted elsewhere.

If I do not hear back from you via email, I will try to catch you before the class starts
on [INSERT DATE].

Thanks,
Delbert S. Bowers
University of Southern California
Doctoral Candidate in Music Education

117
APPENDIX B: PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT SCRIPT

Information Script for Recruiting Participants

RECENT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES' PERCEPTIONS ON THEIR SCHOOL
EXPERIENCES, MUSICAL LIVES AND CURRICULUM RELEVANCY
Hello, my name is Delbert Bowers. I’m conducting a study for my doctorate in
music. In particular, my study is looking at the ways in which you used music during
your high school years. The study pays 20.00$ cash for a 30 minute interview –
which is audio recorded. In order to qualify, you must not have been enrolled in
music during your high school years and you must not have graduated more than 2
years ago.

If you are interested, I would really like to hear what you have to say about your
experiences with music during high school.

The study is completely anonymous. I will not ask for any identifying information
and your personal information will not be linked to this study in any manner. Also,
there is no penalty for not participating. This study is entirely independent of this
class and voluntary.

I think there might be a serious problem with the way in which music is offered in
schools. Most people don’t enroll in music during high school. I don’t see why
schools aren’t offering classes on rock-n-roll, hip-hop, playing the guitar, djing, or
songwriting – and I’m not alone. There are other people out there like me and we
want to change the way things are done. But, ultimately we need to hear it from
people like you. I’d like to hear what you have to say because I think what you have
to say is important.

If this sounds like something you might be interested in participating in, I’d love to
speak with you.

118
APPENDIX C: PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT FORM
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

RECENT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES' PERCEPTIONS ON THEIR SCHOOL
EXPERIENCES, MUSICAL LIVES AND CURRICULUM RELEVANCY
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study was to identify the perceived musical needs of recent high
school graduates who were not enrolled in school music courses during their high
school years. This study also aimed to determine their perceptions on whether and
how these needs were met both in and outside of school. Finally, this study asked the
participants to identify possible additional school music courses that might have
enticed them to enroll. Knowledge gained from this study might help further the
understanding of this population as well as help music educators better design
inclusive curricula for today’s youth.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Participants will be asked to engage in a 30-minute interview in which the researcher
will ask questions about their high school experiences with music. The interview will
be audio recorded. Participants will be informed of the audio recording. Should
participants decline to be recorded they may continue to participate in the study;
however, the interviewer will need to transcribe their answers during the interview.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will be compensated in the amount of $20.00 cash for your participation in the
30 minute interview. You do not have to answer all of the questions in order to
receive the cash. The monetary compensation will be given to you by the researcher
when the interview is complete.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study.
Your name, address or other personal identifiable information will not be collected.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks for this study.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There are no anticipated benefits to you for participating in this study.

Society may benefit from the information that you give in order to help music
educators understand today’s youth and develop music classes for them.
119

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will be given 20.00$ cash for your participation in this study. You do not have
to answer all the questions in order to receive the payment. You may withdraw from
the study at any time.

POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
None

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.

Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored. Data will be stored on a computer hard drive via
password protection software.

The data will kept for a minimum of 3 years after the study is completed. Upon
completion, all audio-recorded data will be discarded. Any electronic documents will
also be deleted.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
identifiable information will be used.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or
loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent
at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any
legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact:
Delbert Bowers [Principal Researcher]
(773) 343-9174
dbowers@usc.edu
Dr. Sheila Woodward [Faculty Advisor]
(213) 740-3011
swoodwar@usc.edu
USC: Waite Phillips Hall - Room 304B

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT
INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research
participant you may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If
you have questions about the research and are unable to contact the research team, or
120
if you want to talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the
University Park IRB (UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research
Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-
5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

CONSENT
By participating in the 30-mintue interview you are agreeing to consent; that you
have read the information provided above; you have been given a chance to ask
question and that your questions have been answered to satisfaction; and that you
agree to participate in this study.

121
APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Interview Script/Questions

RECENT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES' PERCEPTIONS ON THEIR SCHOOL
EXPERIENCES, MUSICAL LIVES AND CURRICULUM RELEVANCY
1. What year did you graduate high school?
2. In which city or town was your high school located?
3. Tell me approximately how many students were in your graduating class?
4. Were you involved in any after-school activities or clubs? If so, what were
they?
5. What are your overall feelings about your high school experience?
6. Did you have any classes that were obviously beneficial to your life outside
of school? What and how?
7. Did you have any classes that were less valuable to your life outside of
school? What and how?
8. Are there any courses that you think should have been offered at your school
that you might have enrolled in?
a. Why would you have enrolled?
9. What sorts of things related to music of any kind would you and your
friend(s) do together?
10. Did you have a favorite music group/artist during your freshman year in high
school?
a. Why do you think they/he/she were your favorite?
b. What was your favorite song by this artist/group?
c. Why do you think was your favorite song?
11. Can you recall any other favorite artists/groups during any of your high
school years?
12. During high school, do you know if you ever looked up anything music
related on the Internet?
a. What sites would you use for this?
1. PROMPT: YouTube, MySpace, FaceBook, iTunes,
file-sharing?
b. Did you ever become a “Fan” of an artist on a social networking site?
i. If so, can you name some of them?
1. PROMPT: MySpace, FaceBook?
ii. Was this something you liked to do because it was a fun thing
to do with friends or because it was an expression of your own
musical interests? Or both.
122
c. Do you recall ever going to an online music discussion board or a
music chat room?
i. If so, could you tell me what sort of things you might have
discussed?
ii. Was the site dedicated to one band/artist or to a type of music?
13. Could you recall for me your music making or music listening experiences
during high school?
i. Tell me if you maybe ever purposely used music just for fun?
If so, how?
ii. Tell me if you maybe ever purposely used music to reinforce
your mood or change it? If so, how?
iii. Tell me about how you maybe ever purposely used music in
order to help you remember? If so, how?
iv. Tell me about how you maybe ever purposely used music for a
spiritual purpose? If so, how?
v. Can you tell me about how music was a part of other things
that you did?
1. PROMPT: During a party, exercising, to sleep with, to
concentrate?
vi. Can you tell me about instances that you went to a live music
concert?
1. What were some of your experiences at the concert?
2. Why did you go?
14. Tell me if and when you got your own device for playing back music and
what it was?
a. PROMPT: A car, computer, an iPod, CD player, smart phone,
television?
b. Do you think this experience made you become more interested in
music during high school?
c. What were some of the activities you did with digital music?
1. PROMPT: Maybe you shared it with your friends,
listened to it on your own, listened together?
15. Is there anything about music that you wish you could’ve learned during high
school?
a. PROMPT: For example, did you ever want to …. (pause after each
question)
i. Learn to play any type – and I mean any type- of instrument?
1. IF YES: What type of instrument(s)?
a. What do you think this activity would have
meant to you?
ii. Learn to sing?
1. IF YES: What type of music?
123
a. What do you think this activity would have
meant to you?
iii. Compose music or write a song?
1. IF YES: What type of music?
a. What do you think this activity would have
meant to you?
iv. Learn to record music?
1. IF YES: What type of music?
a. What do you think this activity would have
meant to you?
v. Learn about music industry?
1. IF YES: What sorts of business things?
a. PROMPT: Copyright, manager, producer, live
music
b. What do you think this activity would have
meant to you?
vi. Learn how music works? Like how melodies or chords work.
1. IF YES: What type of music?
a. What do you think this activity would have
meant to you?
vii. Learn the history of music?
1. IF YES: What type of music?
a. What do you think this activity would have
meant to you?
viii. Learn how to critically listen to music?
1. IF YES: What type of music?
a. What do you think this activity would have
meant to you?
16. Realistically, if a course was offered in *any of the above identified subjects*
do you think you would’ve enrolled in the course?
a. Why or Why not?
b. Considering we’re talking about high school, do you believe it would
affect your decision to enroll in this course if the music was censored?
For example, hip-hop lyrics might have to be censored.
17. Tell me about the types of music courses that were offered at your high
school and whether any were of interest or relevant to you?
a. Were any of the offered music classes relevant to your own musical
interests?
18. Tell me how your music interests were or were not supported in high school?
19. Tell me how your music interests were or were not supported outside of high
school?
124
20. Do you think music is something better to be studied in school or outside of
school and why?
21. Lastly, is there anything else you’d like to add about your general school or
music experiences, or about any other classes that you think should have been
offered during high school?

125
APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AS RELATED TO RESEARCH
QUESTIONS

Interview Construction in Relation to Research Questions

Relationship & Context Building Questions
Q1. What year did you graduate high school?
Q2. In which city or town was your high school located?

Structured & Scripted Prompt Questions Relating to Research Question 1:
What do recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in music courses
during their high school years perceive to have been their musical lives at that time?
Q9. What sorts of things related to music of any kind would you and your
friend(s) do together?
Q10. Did you have a favorite music group/artist during your freshman year in high
school?
a. Why do you think they/he/she were your favorite?
b. What was your favorite song by this artist/group?
c. Why do you think this was your favorite song?
Q11. Can you recall any other favorite artists/groups during any of your high
school years?
Q12. During high school, do you know if you ever looked up anything music
related on the Internet?
a. What sites would you use for this?
* PROMPT: YouTube, MySpace, FaceBook, iTunes, file-
sharing?
b. Did you ever become a “Fan” of an artist on a social networking
site?
i. If so, can you name some of them?
* PROMPT: MySpace, Facebook?
Q13. Could you recall for me your music making or music listening experiences
during high school?
a. Tell me if you maybe ever purposely used music just for fun? If so
how?
126
b. Tell me if you maybe ever purposely used music to reinforce your
mood or change it? If so, how?
c. Tell me about how you maybe ever purposely used music in order
to help you remember? If so, how?
d. Tell me about how you maybe ever purposely used music for a
spiritual purpose? If so, how?
e. Can you tell me about how music was a part of other things you
did?
* PROMPT: During a party, exercising, to sleep with, to
concentrate?
f. Can you tell me about instances that you went to a live concert?
i. What were some of your experiences at the concert?
ii. Why did you go there?
Q14. Tell me if and when you got your own device for playing back music and
what was it?
* PROMPT: A car, computer, an iPod, CD player, smartphone,
television?
a. Do you think experience made you become more interested in
music during high school?
b. What were some of the activities you did with digital music?
* PROMPT: Maybe you shared it with friends, listened to it on your own,
listened to it together?
Q18. Tell me how your music interests were or were not supported in high school?
Q19. Tell me how your music interests were or were not supported outside of high
school?
Q21. Lastly, is there anything else you’d like to add about your general school or
music experiences, or about any other classes that you think should
have been offered during high school?

Structured & Scripted Prompt Questions Relating to Research Question 2: In
relation to courses and extracurricular activities that were offered, what were these
students’ overall school experiences?
Q4. Were you involved in any after-school activities or clubs? If so, what were
they?
Q5. What are your overall feelings about your high school experience?
Q6. Did you have any classes that were obviously beneficial to your life outside
of school? What and how?
127
Q7. Did you have any classes that were less valuable to your life outside of
school? What and how?
Q8. Are there any courses that you think should have been offered at your school
that you might have enrolled in?
a. Why would you have enrolled?
Q21. Lastly, is there anything else you’d like to add about your general school or
music experiences, or about any other classes that you think should
have been offered during high school?

Structured & Scripted Prompt Questions Relating to Research Question 3:
Do these students perceive their musical interests to have been met in and/or outside
of school and how?
Q12 c. Do you recall ever going to an online music discussion board or a music
chat room?
i. If so, could you tell me what sort of things you might have
discussed?
ii. Was the site dedicated to one band/artist or to a type of music?

Q15. Is there anything about music that you wish you could’ve learned during high
school?
* PROMPT: For example, did you ever want to …..
i. Learn to play any type – and I mean any type – of instrument?
a. If yes, what type of instrument(s)?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
ii. Learn to sing?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
iii. Compose music or write a song?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
iv. Learn to record music?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
v. Learn about the music industry?
a. If yes, what sorts of business things?
* PROMPT: Copyright, how to be a
manager/producer, live music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
128
vi. Learn how music works? Like how melodies or chords work.
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
vii. Learn the history of music?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
viii. Learn how to critically listen to music?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
Q17. Tell me about the types of music courses that were offered at your high
school and whether any were of interest or relevant to you?
a. Were any of the offered music classes relevant to your own
musical interests?
Q21. Lastly, is there anything else you’d like to add about your general school or
music experiences, or about any other classes that you think should
have been offered during high school?

Structured & Scripted Prompt Questions Relating to Research Question 4:
What music courses do these students remember being offered during their high
school years?

Q17. Tell me about the types of music courses that were offered at your high
school and whether any were of interest or relevant to you?
a. Were any of the offered music classes relevant to your own
musical interests?
Q21. Lastly, is there anything else you’d like to add about your general school or
music experiences, or about any other classes that you think should
have been offered during high school?

Structured & Scripted Prompt Questions Relating to Research Question 5:
Were these students’ perceptions of the music curricular content of the courses being
offered a reason why they did not enroll in those classes?
Q17. Tell me about the types of music courses that were offered at your high
school and whether any were of interest or relevant to you?
129
a. Were any of the offered music classes relevant to your own
musical interests?
Q20. Do you think music is something better to be studied in school or outside of
school and why?
Q21. Lastly, is there anything else you’d like to add about your general school or
music experiences, or about any other classes that you think should
have been offered during high school?

Structured & Scripted Prompt Questions Relating to Research Question 6:
What courses do these students believe should have been offered, that would likely
have secured their enrollment?
Q15. Is there anything about music that you wish you could’ve learned during high
school?
* PROMPT: For example, did you ever want to …..
i. Learn to play any type – and I mean any type – of instrument?
a. If yes, what type of instrument(s)?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
ii. Learn to sing?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
iii. Compose music or write a song?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
iv. Learn to record music?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
v. Learn about the music industry?
a. If yes, what sorts of business things?
* PROMPT: Copyright, how to be a
manager/producer, live music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
vi. Learn how music works? Like how melodies or chords work.
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
vii. Learn the history of music?
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
viii. Learn how to critically listen to music?
130
a. If yes, what type of music?
b. What do you think this activity would have meant to you?
Q16. Realistically, if a course was offered in *any of the above identified areas of
interests* do you think you would’ve enrolled in the course?
a. Why or why not?
b. Considering we’re talking about high school, do you believe it
would affect your decision to enroll in the course if the music
was censored? For example, hip-hop lyrics might have to be
censored.
Q21. Lastly, is there anything else you’d like to add about your general school or
music experiences, or about any other classes that you think should
have been offered during high school?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this interview study was to investigate the perceived musical lives of high school students as recalled by recent high school graduates who were not enrolled in music courses during their high school years. This study explored student perceptions about their overall high school experiences, the roles that music played during those years and whether or not a broader school music curriculum might have resulted in an increase in music course enrollment. Thirty participants were recruited from freshman level courses at various colleges, community colleges, and universities within the Los Angeles Metropolitan area. This study involved an interview process that required participants to discuss their recollection of their musical lives and school experiences during their high school years. Participants also discussed their views on whether and how their musical interests were met in and outside of school during those years. Furthermore, participants identified additional high school courses that they believe might have met their interests and most likely would have attracted their enrollment. Results revealed a variety of musical interests and roles of music during the participants’ high school years. Overall attitudes towards high school experiences were positive yet a lack of relevancy was found in music course offerings during their high school years. Participants proposed an assortment of possible music courses that would have attracted their enrollment. Results may provide a basis for further research on the implementation of additional music course offerings for high school students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bowers, Delbert S. (author)

Core Title Recent high school graduates' perceptions on their school experiences, musical lives and curriculum relevancy

School Thornton School of Music

Degree Doctor of Musical Arts

Degree Program Music Education

Publication Date 05/04/2012

Defense Date 05/04/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st Century,curriculum,High school graduates,music curriculum relevancy,Music Education,music relevancy,music school relevancy,musical lives,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceptions of music,popular music,school experiences,student perceptions

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Woodward, Sheila C. (committee chair), Cutietta, Robert (committee member), Ilari, Beatriz (committee member)

Creator Email dbowers@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-31361

Unique identifier UC11290401

Identifier usctheses-c3-31361 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BowersDelb-767.pdf

Dmrecord 31361

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Bowers, Delbert S.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA