00001.tif

PDF

Download

Open document

Transcript (if available)

Content INFORMATION TO USERS
This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI
films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some
thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be
from any type of computer printer.
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the
copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality
illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins,
and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete
manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if
unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate
the deletion.
Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by
sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and
continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each
original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced
form at the back of the book.
Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced
xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white
photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations
appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to
order.
UMI
A Bell & Howell Information Company
300 North Zed) Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA
313/761-4700 800/521-0600

EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A
RESTRUCTURED HIGH SCHOOL
B Y
SILVIA YBARRA
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 1995
UMI Number: 9621655
UMI Microform 9621655
Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition is protected against unauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, MI 48103
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation, written by
Sw /a A V A
under the direction o f h ^[-Dissertation Committee, and
approved by all members o f the Committee, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School
of Education in partialfulfillment o f the requirementsfor
the degree of
D o c t o r o f e d u c a t io n
b - ! G ’ t f S
Bate
Dissertation tee
Cpairperson
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express grateful appreciation to the m em bers of my
committee--Dr. Myron Dembo whose comprehensive book gave me
the understanding of some of the results of the study and Dr. Knirk
w hose thought-provoking class expanded my conception of program
design considerably. Special thanks are extended to the
chairperson, Dr. Hocevar, who pressed upon me the importance of
finishing this dissertation and who gave me invaluable advice on
th e statistical analysis.
The pursuit of a doctorate is fraught with many challenges,
but many individuals, through their support and love, assisted in
completing the process. For their support, I am indebted to my
family, friends, and colleagues-notably, my son Jose, my mother
Yolanda, my sisters Martha, Yolanda, and Maria. Special thanks and
admiration to those dedicated EARTH teachers whose daily effort
to make a difference in the lives of kids deserves the highest
praise. Finally I would like to acknowledge the visionary direction
of Jane Hammaker and the invaluable urging of Jack Hamilton.
I am particularly indebted to my husband John whose
encouragem ent, patience, and scholarly advice prevailed
throughout this project.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................i i
LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................vi
ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................viii
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION
Statem ent of the Problem ..........................................................1
Purpose of the Study......................................................................... 3
Specific Hypotheses to be Tested............................................... 14
Importance of Study........................................................................ 1 4
Definitions of T erm s.................................................................15
Methodological Overview......................................................... 1 7
Assumptions of the Study....................................................... 1 9
D elim itatio n s...............................................................................1 9
L im ita tio n s.................................................................................. 20
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In tro d u ctio n ................................................................................. 23
What is Curriculum?................................................................. 24
Curriculum as the Larger Environment..................... 25
Curriculum as Educational Potential......................... 26
Curriculum as a S ystem ............................................... 2 7
Historical Perspective.....................................................................2 8
Cognitive Processing.....................................................2 8
Academic Rationalism .................................................. 31
Social Reconstructivism.....................................................33
S e lf-A c tu a liz a tio n .........................................................36
Curriculum Standards.....................................................................3 7
Holistic Learning Outcomes...........................................................4 4
Brain-Based Approach to Learning and
Teaching .........................................................................4 7
The Nature of Intelligence......................................................55
Interdisciplinary Curriculum ................................................. 59
The Integrated curriculum.......................................... 61
Thematic Teaching..........................................................................6 6
III. METHODOLOGY
In tro d u ctio n................................................................................. 68
Sampling and Instruments.............................................................6 8
Student Learning..................................................................6 8
Parents' and Students' A ttitudes..............................69
Grade Point Average........................................................... 7 0
College Preparatory C lasse s.......................................71
IV . FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
In tro d u ctio n................................................................................. 73
R esults
Hypothesis O n e................................................................ 73
9th Grade Results......................................................7 4
10th Grade Results............................................78
Hypothesis Tw o............................................................... 82
9th Grade Results......................................................8 4
10th Grade Results............................................93
Hypothesis T hree.......................................................... 104
9th Grade Results....................................................105
10th Grade Results........................................... 106
Hypothesis Four.................................................................107
9th Grade Results....................................................107
10th Grade Results........................................... 109
V. ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................112
Curriculum and Instruction..........................................................112
Placement Practices..................................................................... 121
Recommendations for Further R esearch..........................127
iv
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................................................. 132
Summary........................................................................................132
C onclusions................................................................................138
REFERENCES..................................................................................................... 146
APPENDIXES
A. Holistic Leaning O utcom es......................................................... 155
B. EARTH Curriculum.......................................................................... 156
C. Discipline Program - Yellow and Pink C ard s........................169
D. EARTH Teacher Portfolio.............................................................170
E. EARTH Student Portfolio Requirement.......................................... 172
F. ITAS T ests.........................................................................................174
G. EARTH Student Questionnaire.....................................................176
H. RHS Student Questionnaire......................................................... 178
I. EARTH Parent Questionnaire.......................................................179
J. RHS Parent Questionnaire............................................................180
v
LIST OF TABLES
T able Page
1. EARTH Curriculum................................................................................ 50
2. 9th G rade Distribution of Characteristics of Students
Participating in the Study 7 6
3. 9th Grade Mean Pre-NCE ITAS Total Reading.
Test S cores..............................................................................................77
4. 9th Grade Mean Post-NCE ITAS Test Scores................................78
5. 10th G rade Distribution of Characteristics of Students
Participating in the Study 8 0
6. 10th Grade Mean Pre-NCE ITAS Total Reading
Test S cores..............................................................................................81
7. 10th Grade Mean Post-NCE ITAS Test Scores.................................. 82
8. 9th Grade Mean Responses From Student Questionnaire.86
9 9th G rade Percentage Number of Responses from
EARTH Students 8 8
10. 9th Grade Mean Responses From Parent Questionnaire....89
11. 9th Grade Parents' Response to Open Ended Question...... 92
12. 10th Grade Mean Responses From Student Q uestionnaire......96
13 10th Grade Percentage Number of R esponses from
EARTH Students 9 8
14. 10th Grade Mean Responses From Parent Q uestionnaire........99
15. 10th Grade Parents' Response to Open Ended Q uestion.........102
16 9th Grade Mean GPA at the End of First S em ester...................105
17. 10th Grade Mean GPA at the End of First Sem ester..................106
18. 9th Grade Percentage of Students Taking College Prep
Classes...................................................................................................... 108
19. 9th Grade Mean GPA for College Prep C lasses........................109
20. 10th Grade Percentage of Students Taking College Prep
Classes...................................................................................................... 110
21. 10th Grade Mean GPA for College Prep C lasses............................112
ABSTRACT
EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A
RESTRUCTURED HIGH SCHOOL
This study was conducted to a sse ss if EARTH, a multiple
intervention "restructured" school would be more effective in
educating students. "Restructuring" is the system atic change that
is being implemented in schools in order to improve student
learning. In general, restructuring efforts are based on the belief
that all students should be engaged in meaningful learning
experiences, regardless of race, ethnic, linguistic, or
socio-economic background, and that all students should have
equal access to the sam e curriculum.
For this study EARTH students were compared with regular
Roosevelt High School (RHS) students. To operationalize whether
EARTH had an impact on student standardized achievement scores,
EARTH 9th and 10th grade students were compared with 9th and
10th grade RHS students. At the end of the 1993/1994 school
year, EARTH students' and RHS students' NCE scores on the
Individual Tests of Academic Skills (ITAS) in the subtest areas of
reading com prehension and mathematics applications were
viii
compared. The EARTH and RHS students were matched as to degree
of English proficiency, previous academ ic achievem ent as
evidenced by the NCE total reading test scores, and gender.
Multiple t-tests w ere used for statistical analysis. The data for
the ITAS results were collected at the end of the 1993/1994
school year. Students who were absent more than 2 days a week
were not included in the analyses.
To operationalize whether EARTH was effective in improving
students' and parents' attitudes toward school, EARTH students'
and parents' attitudes were compared to RHS students and parents
using an author-constructed questionnaire. Both groups indicated
how they felt about the school's goals and activities by responding
to an attitude questionnaire. Multiple t-tests were used for
statistical analysis.
The student attitude questionnaire was given to all EARTH
students during their English class (five 9th grade classes, and
five 10th grade classes). The sam e student attitude questionnaire
was then given to students in 9th and 10th grade English classes
at the regular RHS. No attempt was made to administer the
questionnaire to students who were absent that day.
The parent questionnaire was sent home the sam e day that
the students took the student questionnaire. The parent
questionnaire was collected the following day. No attem pt was
m ade to collect the parent questionnaires from those students who
forgot to bring it back to school.
To operationalize if EARTH was able to improve students'
overall GPA, EARTH and RHS students overall GPA was compared at
the end of the sem ester. The EARTH and RHS students were
m atched a s to degree of English proficiency, previous academ ic
achievem ent as evidenced by the NCE total reading test scores, and
gender. Multiple t-tests were used for statistical analysis.
Separate analyses were conducted for each grade level. The data
for this research section were collected at the completion of the
first sem ester. Students in both groups who were absent more
than 2 days a week were not included in the analysis.
To operationalize whether EARTH was more successful in
offering equal access to college preparatory classes to all
students irrespective of their previous academ ic achievem ent,
EARTH and RHS students placement was compared. The EARTH and
RHS subjects were matched as to degree of English proficiency,
previous academ ic achievement as evidenced by the NCE total
reading test scores, and gender. The comparison classes were
math, English, and science. Initially, the total number of these
comparison classes taken by each group was compared.
P ercentages were used for the statistical analysis. Secondly, the
GPA of th ese comparison classes was compared for the two
groups. Multiple t-tests were used for statistical analysis. The
d ata for this research question were collected after the
completion of the first sem ester of the 1993/1994 school year.
Students who were absent more than 2 days a week were not
included in the analysis.
The results of the study showed that there were no
statistically significant differences between RHS and EARTH 9th
grade students for the post-test NCE ITAS scores in total reading,
total language, and total math. Results also indicated that there
were no statistically significant differences betw een 10th grade
RHS and EARTH students for any of these areas.
On the attitude questionnaire, EARTH 9th grade students as
compared to RHS students felt that EARTH had really taught them
how to think, made learning fun, and was different from any other
school. EARTH students also responded that they had learned more
at this school than at any other school, and that at EARTH
everybody is given a chance to learn. EARTH 9th grade students
agreed or strongly agreed when they answered the following
questions: 40%-l have completed my portfolio; 49%-l like the
interdisciplinary curriculum at this school; 57%-l like the them es
at this school; 62%-l can learn more with the longer periods that
we have at this school; 63%-l do well in the projects at the end of
the units; 65%-l know what the 7-intelligences are because the
teachers use them when they teach; 70%-l like the field-trips at
this school; 76%-l enjoy working in cooperative groups because I
learn more; 81 %-l think that the video programs that the teachers
use in class are related to what we are studying; 99%-l like to
work with com puters.
Parents for 9th grade students indicated that EARTH parents
attended more activities during the year as compared to RHS
parents. Parents responded to the open-ended question in the
parent questionnaire as follows: RHS-W hat do parents like
b e st? -n o responses: RHS--What do parents like least? improper
placem ent of students (1 response), remove students with
discipline problems (1 response), don't get report card on tim e
(2 responses). EARTH--What do parents like best?-location of
school (1 response), school contacting home when student is
absent (1 response), teaching practices (5 responses), 2-day
schedule (2 responses), too much homework which has the effect
that child is busy (1 response), small classes (1 response);
EARTH-What do parents like least? not enough electives
(1 response), dislike location (1 response), parents are not
involved (1 response), do not know much about it (1 response),
favoritism for students with discipline problems (1 response).
The 10th grade EARTH students a s compared to RHS students
felt that EARTH made learning fun, and was different from any
other school. These students also responded that they have learned
more at this school than at any other school. EARTH 10th grade
students agreed or strongly agreed when they answered the
following questions: 46%-l have completed my portfolio;
47%-l can learn more with the longer periods that we have at this
school; 50%-1 like the interdisciplinary curriculum at this school;
59%-l like the them es at this school; 64% I know what the
7-intelligences are because the teachers use them when they
teach; 80%-l do well in the projects at the end of the units;
83%-l think that the video programs that the teachers use in class
are related to what we are studying; 84%-l like the field-trips at
this school; 84%-l enjoy working in cooperative groups because I
learn more; 94%-l like to work with computers.
Parents of the 10th grade students responded to the
open-ended question in the parent questionnaire as follows:
RHS--What do parents like best?--som e teachers doing a good job
(1 response), school divided into mini-schools (1 response),
opportunity to be noticed by big colleges (1 response);
RH S-W hat do parents like least?--teachers not very professional
(3 responses), do not know much about the program
(1 response), girls sports not supported (1 response), no school
pride (2 responses), safety concerns (2 responses), school-home
contact is missing (2 responses). EARTH-What do parents like
best?--helpful teachers (2 responses), students learning and good
curriculum (5 responses), way school is set-up (3 responses), like
schedule (1 response), location of the school (1 response).
EARTH-W hat do parents like least?-n o parent contact when
student is failing (1 response), not enough parent involvement
(2 responses), no extra curricular activities (3 responses),
students spend too much time studying science (1 response),
disciplines program (2 responses), administrators' apathy
(1 response), not enough enforcement on community work
(1 response), too soon to judge (1 response).
The results of the study showed that EARTH 9th grade
students received a higher GPA in English at the end of the first
sem ester. Both RHS and EARTH 9th grade students received
comparable GPA's in science and mathematics at the end of the
first sem ester. Results indicated that EARTH 10th grade students
received a higher GPA in English, science, and mathematics at the
end of the first sem ester.
Regarding access to college placement classes, the study
show ed that 9th grade students were assigned to college prep
classes as follows: English RHS (84%), EARTH (100%); science RHS
(49%), EARTH (100%); math RHS (49%), EARTH (100%). In addition,
the results indicated that 9th grade EARTH students received a
higher GPA in English in the college prep classes. No differences
were found in GPA in science and math.
Results indicated that 10th grade students were assigned to
college prep classes as follows: English RHS (93%), EARTH (100%);
science RHS (83%), EARTH (100%); math RHS (82%), EARTH (100%).
T hese EARTH students received a higher GPA in English, science,
and m athem atics in these three college preparatory courses.
xiv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
At Roosevelt High School (RHS), an inner city school, students
are not doing well. The grade point average (GPA) for 40% of the
students is 1.9 or below; 38% of the students drop out of school;
33% of the students are absent everyday; 10% of female students
get pregnant every year; and 72% of the students score below the
37th percentile in the Individual Tests of Academic Skills (ITAS).
This problem is exacerbated by a variety of factors. RHS was
built in 1928 to house 1,700 students. In recent years, enrollment
h as hovered at just under 3,000. Projected enrollment for the next
3 years, exceeds 3,500 students. In fact, RHS will have the largest
student body as well as the most overcrowded cam pus in Fresno
County, California.
Another factor is RHS's ethnic and cultural diversity. The
world-wide attraction of Fresno agribusiness, the university and
college system s, the magnet schools, and population growth
patterns have helped to create a student body representative of
over twenty cultural groups. The richness inherent in such
1
diversity has created a tremendous challenge. For years, students
have been relegated to one of three tracks in their academic
subjects: GATE/honors/AP, college preparatory, and remedial (for
those who have not passed the four proficiency te sts for
graduation). This tracking has tended to solidify the apparent
feelings of alienation on the part of those students perceived to be
low achievers.
The curriculum is disconnected. Students com e to school to
find a structure that revolves around subjects taught by
specialists. The students attend approximately six classes a day
of 57 minutes each. This does not allow any time to develop long
term projects or discussions. In all classes, a premium is placed
on coverage instead of thoroughness. More is better, or so it
seem s. Students are forced to memorize a trem endous number of
facts without understanding the concepts. Most of th e information
that is presented to students is contrived, and it does not have
anything to do with real life.
The instruction is mostly traditional and teacher-centered.
Students are lectured most of the time. Cooperation among the
students is discouraged. Technology is almost non-existent and
when available to teachers, it is used to teach only th e advanced
c la sse s.
A ssessm ent practices do not represent the whole scope of
student achievement. There is a reliance on standardized testing
which is used to track the students into remedial classes from
2
which they cannot escape. Parents are only informed that their
students are failing to comply with the Educational C ode.
Teachers' professional development needs to be improved.
They are subjected to many hours of fragmented and unfocused
professional developm ent activities. T hese activities usually
cover the whole spectrum of the latest educational buzzwords.
T eachers feel demoralized due to the limited career advancem ent
possibilities. A teacher has roughly the sam e responsibility at the
end of a professional lifetime as on the first day of work.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to assess if EARTH
(Environmental Academy Roosevelt Thematic High), a multiple
intervention "restructured" school
1. h as an impact on student standardized achievement te st
performance a s evidenced by the ITAS-NCE test scores;
2. is effective in improving students and parents attitudes
tow ard school;
3. is able to improve students' GPA.
4. is m ore successful in offering equal access to college
preparatory classes to all students irrespective of their
previous academ ic achievement;
Restructuring is th e systematic change that is being
implemented in schools in order to improve student learning. In
general, restructuring efforts are based on the belief that all
students should be engaged in meaningful learning experiences,
regardless of race, ethnic, linguistic, or socioeconomic background;
and that all students deserve to have equal access to the sam e
curriculum. Restructuring takes many forms.
Restructuring efforts in California at the high school level are
being driven by the California State Frameworks and by the
statew ide reform initiative, Second to None: A Vision of the New
California High School.
The frameworks have several overarching concepts and
instructional strategies in common. T hese include critical
thinking and conceptual understanding; problem solving based on
real-life problems; m eaning-centered rather than memorization-
oriented learning opportunities; active learning and activity-based
instruction; contextualized learning which m akes connections to
students' experiences; collaborative learning in groups; and
interdisciplinary learning.
Second to None's fundamental goal is to shift em phasis in
education from a teacher-centered focus to a student-centered,
experiential focus. This is intended to encourage students to
becom e more actively engaged in their learning. Since teachers
have the primary responsibility for what takes place in the
classroom s, they will determine the overall success of th ese
reform s.
Initial efforts to encourage school restructuring began with
Senate Bill 1274, Chapter 1556, Statute of 1990, which was
authored by Senator Gary Hart, and sponsored by the California
Business Round Table to establish a Demonstration of
Restructuring in Public Education. The demonstration is intended to
be a five-year effort aimed at improving student learning. SB 1274
provides educators with an opportunity to consider radical changes
in the way schools operate. SB 1274 intended to encourage
innovation and creativity in developing ‘restructured schools*.
In 1992, RHS applied and received a $2,500,000 SB 1274
Restructuring Grant. With this award, RHS was subdivided into ten
mini-schools. One of these mini-schools is EARTH. EARTH is also
funded by a $350,000 grant received from the California State
Department of Education to plan and implement a secondary
specialized high school in environmental studies. EARTH uses
multiple educational interventions in the hope of providing a school
environment in which all students can succeed.
The program for EARTH was developed as a template of the
Essential Schools Model (Sizer, 1984). The students take four
years of English, four years of mathematics, four years of science,
four years of social science, four years of Spanish, two years of
P.E., one year of art, and one year of music. Students at each grade
level share the sam e teachers.
Another strategy that EARTH has applied to break with what
research has indicated to be ineffective institutional tracking
patterns (Oakes, 1985) is to create classroom environments that
are multiculturally and multiability in nature. For example, EARTH
classroom s are composed of various ethnic groups. The school
population consists of Hispanics, South-East Asians, Americans,
Pacific Islanders, and American Indians. In addition, students are
not tracked in different classes. All students are placed in the
sam e classroom regardless of their previous academ ic achievem ent
or program designation (GATE, LEP, college prep, RSP, or remedial).
T eachers use whole-class instruction to ensure that all students
are exposed to the sam e curriculum. In addition EARTH, is
implementing the following interventions:
1. EARTH uses Holistic Learning Outcomes (HLO's) as unifying
and overarching principles (Redding, 1992). The HLO's define what
an EARTH student should be able to do at the completion of high
school. The HLO's drive the curriculum, instruction, and
assessm ent of the program. EARTH teachers design their lesson
plans to support these HLO's, and students are supposed to
demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the HLO's. The HLO's
for EARTH students are: self-directed learner, collaborative
worker, complex thinker, quality producer, and community
contributor (see Appendix A for complete description of HLO's).
2. EARTH offers a thematic and an interdisciplinary
curriculum which spirals from concrete experiences to abstract
principles (Hart, 1983). EARTH integrates mathematics, social
science, science, Spanish, English, art, music and physical
education. There are several reasons validated by Hart that attest
to the benefits of an integrated curriculum. First, the brain
searches for common patterns and connections. Thus, for example,
history, properly enlivened by relevant literature, becom es a way
of making meaning out of other content. Second, every experience
6
actually contains within it the seeds of many, and possibly all,
d isciplines.
For example when we teach the unit on SPACE, we deal with
it in many different ways. In science our students do the
experiment "A Voyage to Mars* in which they study gravity and
related issues. In art, they create models of space craft. In math,
they solve several math problems as to the amount of fuel and the
amount of time needed to get to Mars. In English, they read the
Martian C hronicles. In history, they study the effects of other
civilizations invading native civilizations; em phasis is placed on
local Indians. In Spanish, they learn food staples for survival in
Spanish. In music, they study science fiction musical them es.
The EARTH curriculum is comprised of six themes: SPACE,
EARTH, ATMOSPHERE, POPULATION/INDUSTRY, WILDLIFE, and
WATER. Each them e is taught for approximately six weeks. The
sam e them e is used from year to year. The concepts develop from
concrete ideas and local issues to abstract principles and global
problems. For example, in the WILDLIFE unit, the concept for the
9th grade is "Comparing and Contrasting Domesticated and
Endangered Species". All the activities for this unit deal with
local issues. The concept for the 10th grade is "Survival of the
Fittest." This unit deals with more global issues and becom es a
little more abstract. This philosophy perm eates throughout the
11th and 12th grades.
3. Technology (David, 1991). EARTH uses technology to
support the HLO's, foster student creativity, and expand their
educational horizons throughout all disciplines. Students becom e
quality producers by learning word processing so that they know
how to structure high quality reports for all their classes. In
m athem atics, the students work with the "Oregon Trail" software
reinforcing what they have learned in mathematics. For science,
the students learn how to develop strategies to save the planet by
using software such as SIM Earth and SIM City in which they can
manipulated variables which are essential for the survival of the
planet. With this software, the students obtain information as to
what happens if the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen are
suddenly increased or decreased. For social science, the students
develop their geography and analytical skills by using the various
Carmen San Diego geography games. Students also have access to
encyclopedic information through the use of CD ROMs.
4. EARTH takes students on culminating field trips. At the end
of each unit, the students attend various facilities and field trips
that support the different themes. For example, for the unit on
INDUSTRY, students are taken to the local Fresno Bee Newspaper
printing plant and the Tree Farm (both of which em phasize the
paper industry); for the unit on WILDLIFE, students visit the Fresno
Zoo; and for our unit on SPACE our students are taken to the Ames
Research Center in Moffet Field, CA.
5. EARTH has developed a non traditional discipline program.
EARTH students receive a yellow card as a warning when their
behavior in class is not acceptable. If the student continues to
m isbehave, the student receives a pink card which tells the
students to report to the office immediately (S ee Appendix C for
description of program).
6. EARTH provides a program to enhance students' self
esteem and ethnic pride. The EARTH program nurtures th e students'
self-esteem with a program that includes self-understanding,
communication skills, social skills, decision-making, a n d goal-
setting skills.
The communication program is being developed b ecause of th e
realization that som e of our students are very poor readers, not
because they cannot decode the language but because they cannot
decipher the vocabulary. This assessm ent has sparked an
interdisciplinary vocabulary program in which all teachers in all
disciplines define words used specifically in their field. For
example, students learn such words as firmament, cosm os, stellar
when they are studying the unit on SPACE.
EARTH curriculum also is written to acknowledge and honor
different ethnic groups. For example, when students study the unit
in Recycling, and the topic pertains to the history of papermaking,
the students learn about th e contributions of th e Chinese along of
that of the Europeans in this field.
7. Home or parent involvement (Henderson, 1987). EARTH
parents are involved in an array of activities which include:
recommending speakers for the school; donating materials;
attending meetings and involvement in the governing board;
chaperoning field trips; assisting in fund-raisers; monitoring their
9
students' progress; and providing constructive criticism for th e
program .
8. A critical thinking program (Resnick & Resnick, 1989). A
critical thinking program is infused throughout all the disciplines.
This approach creates rich class discussions involving all students
on such controversial topics as the timber industry and the spotted
owl, or water allocation to farmers and the conservation of th e
Chinook salmon. Students are exposed to different perspectives
and many experts in different areas are invited to participate in
th ese discussions.
9. Cooperative learning (Slavin, 1990). EARTH uses
cooperative learning for various reasons. It broadens the range of
experiences of students, including interactive learning and
presents opportunities representative of the workplace of the
future. It provides a variety of ways of developing skills that are
increasingly in demand in our society, such as communication and
cooperation. The cooperative groups in the classroom s become a
positive model of different socio-economic and ethnic groups
working together.
10. Frequent evaluation of academic progress (Slavin,
Karweit, & Madden, 1989). EARTH students receive a progress
report card every five weeks. They are also evaluated in a weekly
basis in all their classes. In addition, they can obtain their grades
at any time since teachers keep all grades current. Students know
which assignm ents they are missing and what they need to do to
improve their grades.
10
11. A comprehensive professional development program for
&
teachers (Lichtenstein, McLaughlin, & Knudson, 1991). The
teachers who were placed in this program have been involved in
staff development. All of these teachers, regardless of their
discipline, have becom e familiar with the science, English-
language Arts, History-social science, Visual and Performing Arts,
and the Mathematics frameworks. They also have attended
activities sponsored by the California Projects such a s the
Literature Project, Writing Project, Math Project, Arts Project,
and Technology Project. They also have been inserviced in teaching
strategies such a s writing across the curriculum, cooperative
learning, authentic assessm ent, and m eaning-centered curriculum.
These teachers have also gone to many workshops in outdoor
education such as Project Wild, Project Learning Tree, Project
Aquatic, bird-watching, wildflowers, Walking through the
Tidepools, and teachers' inservices at the Yosemite Institute. More
importantly, EARTH teachers have had training in how to teach
multiple ability classes.
EARTH teachers engage in an on-going professional
development program. These teachers have also developed EARTH
Instruction Modules to train new teachers coming to the program.
At EARTH, we are also creating leadership positions for teachers
that have been non-existent in the past.
EARTH teachers are maintaining a portfolio to display their
best efforts, progress, and achievem ents in designing lessons that
Advance EARTH'S program (see Appendix D).
11
12. Cognitive styles and abilities. The EARTH curriculum is
committed to applying the theory of multiple intelligences
(Gardner, 1983). The seven intelligences and related activities
include: (a) Linguistic: book reports, oral presentations, writing,
compositions, tape recordings; (b) S patial: charts, maps, and
pictures; (c) K inesthetic: hiking, walking, jogging, and building;
(d) L ogical-m athem atical: sequencing, predicting, and exploring;
(e) M usical: developing a rap that nam es the concept under study;
(f) In terp erso n al: volunteering in a community project;
(g) In trap erso n al: creating a special place of solitude to study.
EARTH teachers use the constructivist method of instruction
(Brooks & Brooks, 1993).
13. Authentic A ssessm ent (Perrone, 1991). Student
portfolios (see Appendix E), exhibitions, and projects are utilized
to expand the traditional multiple choice tests.
The EARTH program has also adopted many of the reforms
that are sweeping the nation as part of the restructuring movement
and so clearly articulated in A Vision of the New California High
School: Second to None (1992).
Twice a week, EARTH class periods are 112 minutes long.
T hese longer periods provide enough time for students to solve
complex problems, compose effective writing, and design projects
that m easure real problems (p. 53).
The EARTH program works with many community agencies to
provide students with connections to the "world beyond school"
(p. 32). The purpose of the EARTH program is not to indoctrinate
12
students in environmental issues, but to help them becom e critical
thinkers. For example, for our unit on WILDLIFE, speakers from the
Department of Fish and Game, The Sierra Club, and The Farm Bureau
were invited to expose our students to diverse perspectives
concerning the highly polarized issues that surround the
preservation of wildlife.
The EARTH curriculum is concept driven, as opposed to solely
fact or skill based; it is accessible to the broad range of learners.
In mathem atics, for example, the traditional sequence of math,
algebra, geometry, advanced algebra and trigonometry has been
replaced by Interactive Math 1, 2, 3, and 4. The traditional science
classes of biology, chemistry, and physics have been replaced with
Science 1, 2, 3, and 4 (p. 29).
At EARTH, students' work often focuses on projects they
"construct" using experiences that relate to the world outside of
school. They select primary source materials because of the
personal connection to their lives (p. 29). For example, when the
students study the unit on WATER, they determine the cleanliness
of the local San Joaquin River. The EARTH curriculum has authentic
assessm ent or benchmarks at the end of every unit to test students
for what they know instead of what they do not know. For example,
the 10th grade project is to trace any product grown in California
from its origins in the soil through its planting and harvesting,
through its packaging and marketing, through its ingestion and
digestion back to the soil again (p. 39).
13
Specific Hypotheses to be Tested
1. EARTH students will score higher than students
at the regular RHS on the ITAS achievement battery.
2. EARTH students and parents will be more satisfied with
the educational program than the regular RHS students.
3. EARTH students will achieve a higher GPA than RHS
stu d en ts.
4. EARTH will be more successful in offering equal access to
college preparatory classes than RHS.
Importance of Study
EARTH is implementing multiple interventions in an effort to
find new ways of teaching school to foster su ccess for all
students. If EARTH is effective in enabling students to be
academically successful, it will be a breakthrough in education
because EARTH is committed to providing an excellent program to
all students irrespective of their previous academ ic achievem ent
or socio-economic background. This is essential because most of
the high school programs that are successful are the programs that
are working with students who are and have been successful in
school throughout their lives. Poor students are relegated to
remedial and uninspiring courses. Educating the already good
students is not solving the education problems facing our nation.
At EARTH, we work with all students ranging from the very gifted
to special education. We do not track any of the students. They all
attend the sam e classes and everybody is given equal access to the
sam e curriculum. If EARTH is effective, it will provide a tem plate
of an inner city restructured school for the California State
Department of Education. This educational program can then be
replicated in other school districts.
Definitions of Terms
The following term s were defined for the purpose of the study:
College Prep Classes: Classes which are accepted for
adm ittance to th e University of California System and are part of
the a-f graduation requirements.
Educationally Disadvantaged Youth (EDY): Students who place
below th e 45th percentile in all or any of the subtests of the ITAS.
These subtests include total reading, total language, and total
math.
G rade Point Average (GPA): The average of students' grades
where th e alpha values are changed to numerical values (A = 4,
B = 3, C = 2, D = 1, F = 0).
Individual T est of Academic Skills (ITAS): A standardized
norm-referenced test which m easures the reading, language, and
mathematics skills of students in grades 1-12. ITAS has been
statistically normed against the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. The
sam e test, in alternative forms, is administered during each year
of high school.
Limited English Proficient (LEP): Students who place below
five points in the Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM) Test and below
the 36th percentile in any of the subtest of the ITAS.
15
Non-College Prep Classes: Classes which are accepted by
Fresno Unified School District a s meeting the requirements for
high school graduation but are not accepted for admittance by the
University of California System.
Normal Curve Equivalents (NCE): NCEs are similar to
percentile ranks (PRs) in that NCEs have a mean of 50, and range
from 1 to 99. NCEs differ from PRs in that NCEs are equal interval
units of m easure. One NCE represents the sam e amount of
achievem ent anywhere along the scale. PRs are ordinal m easures.
PR s express rank order only. The difference, for example, between
PR s of 90 and 85 and between PRs of 45 and 40, is in both cases 5
PR s, but in actual achievement, the difference between PRs of 90
and 85 is much more (5 NCEs) than the difference between PRs of
45 and 40 (2 NCEs). Consequently, for growth or gain comparisons
betw een students or groups of students, NCEs are the only
appropriate unit of m easure. NCEs were developed specifically for
this purpose - as the standard EDY (Federal Chapter 1) reporting
m etric.
Regular Students: Students not designated as LEP, EDY, or
Special Education.
Resource Specialist Program (RSP): Students whose
academ ic potential does not match their academ ic performance by
two grade levels. This discrepancy cannot be explained by mental
or physical deficiencies.
16
Methodological Overview
As explained earlier, RHS is divided into ten mini-schools.
EARTH is one of these mini-schools. Nine of the mini-schools are
located at a main campus. Because RHS is overcrowded, EARTH is
located at another site approximately ten miles from the main
cam pus. All of the extra-curricular activities and sports are
located at the main campus.
Students register to each of the mini-schools by selecting a
1st choice, 2nd choice, and 3rd choice in the student registration
form. Students are then given their first choice, and when a school
is full students get their second choice or third choice. Students
at RHS sometimes are placed in more than one school because their
needs som etim es require classes taken for two or three grade
levels. For example an 11th grader might be taking 9th grade math
and 10th grade English. Since EARTH is a self-contained program
and is located at a different site, students who are placed in this
program are placed in only one school. In addition, EARTH students
are not placed in different grade level classes simultaneously.
Students are either placed in 9th or 10th grade. At EARTH,
students' previous academic achievement or classes are not a
determ inant of placement.
In summary, the EARTH population can be described as being
very eclectic. Some of the EARTH students are volunteers who
genuinely want to come to EARTH because they like the program or
they like the smallness of the school. Some students do not like to
be at EARTH because they want to be at the big high school. Some
1 7
students are forced to come to EARTH because the main cam pus is
overcrowded. Some students do not like to be at any school.
EARTH has approximately 250 9th and 10th graders. RHS has
approximately 2700 students in the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th
grades. Both populations are very similar in ethnic, socio
economic, and gender composition.
EARTH teachers also comprise a very diverse group. Some
teachers volunteered to work in the program. Som e teachers were
transferred to the program. Some teachers are in the program
because they need a job, and they do not have tenure to transfer to
a school of their choice. The nature of the teaching staff at EARTH,
therefore, very closely resem bles that of any other school.
The dependent variables of this study w ere operationalized
a s follows: for measuring student learning, EARTH students and
regular RHS students were administered the ITAS; for m easuring
students' and parents' attitudes about the program, EARTH
students/parents and RHS students/parents were asked to
com plete author-constructed parent/student questionnaires; for
m easuring students' success in college preparatory classes, the
number of college preparatory classes and the GPA obtained in
th ese classes was compared for EARTH students and RHS students;
for m easuring if EARTH is effective in improving students GPA, the
GPA for EARTH and RHS students was compared at the end of the
first sem ester.
18
Assumptions of the Study
The major premise of this study is that if the educational
program at EARTH is changed students will be: more successful
academically, more satisfied with school, and they will be placed
and be successful in college preparatory classes.
This study assum es that achievement can be m easured by a
single standardized test at the end of the year. It does not take
into account other m easures of success such a s more participation
in class, improved writing skills, or increased use of vocabulary.
This study also assum es that students and parents
satisfaction can be m easured by a self-report questionnaire.
Another assumption of the study is that if students are placed in
college preparatory classes regardless of their previous academ ic
achievem ent, they will be successful in these classes.
This study also assum es that EARTH is being implemented by all
the teachers as initially conceived.
D elim itations
EARTH is implementing many interventions. These
interventions include changing curriculum, instruction, and
assessm ent; providing equal access to all students in a college
preparatory program; offering an specialized staff developm ent for
teachers; using longer class periods; generating multiple progress
reports throughout the school year; and using an alternative system
for teacher evaluation.
19
This study will only concentrate on student achievement,
student satisfaction with the program, equal access for all
students regardless of their previous academ ic achievem ent, and
GPA.
This study will not evaluate students' portfolios, teachers'
portfolios, quality of student work, or teachers' satisfaction with
the program, degree of community involvement, effects of
discipline program, and adherence to the program by the teachers.
L im itations
The limitations of this study are those sources which
com promise its internal and external validity.
Its internal validity is challenged from various sources.
EARTH students become more mature in the course of the study. At
the beginning of the school year, the students are still in the
transition period from middle school to high school. Students at
this age mature considerably in one year. This study also has a
very high experimental mortality. EARTH has a very high attrition
and transiency rates. Some of our students just stop coming to
school, many families move very frequently, som e students are
incarcerated during the year, a few of our female students drop out
because of pregnancy. These threats to internal validity will be
am eliorated somewhat because the statistical analysis will be
done by matching EARTH students with RHS students of similar
academ ic achievement, ethnicity, gender, and socio economic
status. However, matching is never perfect.
T he results of this study will not be too generalizable. This
is because we are dealing with an inner city high school which has
an over representation of socio-economically and academically
disadvantaged youth. Approximately 85% of EARTH students
qualified for free lunch, and about 72% of our population is
classified as EDY.
This study cannot identify which of the multiple
interventions is m ost positively correlated with student
achievement. Also, it assum es that student achievem ent can be
m easured by the ITAS test at the end of the year. This test
com promises the content validity of the study because this test
does not m easure how the classes are being taught. For example,
EARTH teachers teach to the 7-intelligences and use lots of
critical thinking exercises when teaching, but the ITAS test does
not m easure these important components of EARTH instruction.
Another limitation of the study is that this study is not
validating the degree of adherence to the program by the teachers.
For example, how many times a week are teachers using
cooperative learning groups or teaching to the 7-intelligences? Or
how adept are the teachers in using all these multiple
interventions in the classroom ?
In addition, this study is not measuring the effect that a
small high school has on the students. As previously mentioned,
RHS and EARTH are located on two different sites. RHS has
approximately 2700 students and EARTH has approximately 270
students. Teachers at the large high school have to share rooms
21
and have to work long days. Students at RHS can be in more than
one mini-high school and do not have many teachers in common.
EARTH students have the sam e 6 teachers throughout the day. Can
this produce a Hawthorne Effect in which students work harder
b ecause they are being watched more closely than the students at
RHS?
22
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to a ssess if EARTH
(Environmental Academy Roosevelt Thematic High), a multiple
intervention "restructured" school; has an impact on student
learning a s evidenced by the ITAS-NCE test scores; is effective in
improving students and parents attitudes toward school; is more
successful in offering equal access to college preparatory classes
to all students irrespective of their previous academ ic
achievement; is able to improve students' GPA.
The literature reported in this chapter deals with the
research base that supports EARTH'S curriculum and instruction.
It defines curriculum, presents a historical perspective on
curriculum design, discusses the significance of curriculum
standards, provides a framework for a brain-based approach to
learning and teaching, presents a new paradigm on the nature of
intelligence, and describes the different approaches to curriculum
in teg ratio n .
23
What is Curriculum?
Curriculum is a generic term with multiple meanings. It can
refer to an organized field of study as well as to what educators
want to teach students and what students actually learn in school.
The Latin root of the word curriculum m eans racecourse, but
contem porary dictionaries succinctly define curriculum as "the
courses offered by an educational institution" (W ebster's, 1983, p.
316). Eash (1985) holds that curriculum consists of five
components: a framework of assumptions about the learner and
society; aims and objectives; subject m atter with a given scope
and sequence; transaction modes, for example, instructional m eans
and learning environments; and evaluation. For additional
specificity, the curriculum might be viewed as the sixteen
"commonplaces of schooling" (Goodlad, 1985), which are: teaching
practices, content or subject m atter, instructional m aterials,
physical environment, activities, human resources, evaluation,
time, organization, communications, decision making, leadership,
goals, issues and problems, implicit (or "hidden") curriculum, and
controls or restraints.
Eisner (1985) identified three different types of curriculums:
null, implicit, and explicit curriculums. The null curriculum is
what is not taught and not learned in school; it is what is excluded
from the opportunities that students have to learn. The implicit
curriculum consists of those ideas, values, attitudes, and
processes that are not deliberately planned and taught, but which
students learn through a variety of channels, including teacher
24
attitudes, school and classroom rules and regulations, social
interaction in the classroom. The explicit curriculum is generally
what educators discuss. It is the content (broadly defined) that is
planned, organized, taught, reviewed, extended, and evaluated, it is
what students consciously focus on while they are in class. It is
what adults expect students to show evidence of having learned.
An encyclopedia article lists nine other definitions of
curriculum, including "a plan for learning'1 and "all the experiences
a learner has under the guidance of the school" (Connelly & Lantz,
1985). but aside from these brief abstractions, the proposed
definitions show little uniformity about the nature, scope, and
divisions of curriculum.
O ther researchers and academicians see curriculum not as
isolated list of components but present a more philosophical
definition.
Curriculum as the Larger Environment
The curriculum is more than the facts and skills that we plan
to teach. Apple (1990) identified the hidden curriculum. The
hidden curriculum lies beneath what we overtly teach in
mathematics, social studies, language arts, science, and the other
subjects in the planned curriculum. Here, what can be labeled a
selective tradition operates. Some group's knowledge is taught
while other group's knowledge is omitted. For instance, history
textbooks often focus on military cam paigns, presidential
administrations, or industrial m atters and ignore, or only briefly
25
mention, the contributions of populist groups, the labor force,
minorities, and women. Both the presence of the knowledge of a
limited portion of our population and the relative ab sen ce of the
perspectives of working people, minorities, and women create an
imbalance that also contributes to the hidden curriculum. The
hidden curriculum includes three areas: (1) the norms and values
taught by the school and by the classroom interaction between the
teacher and the students, (2) the hidden social m essages in the
curriculum materials them selves, and (3) the knowledge that is
missing in the planned curriculum.
Curriculum as Educational Potential
Curriculum may be defined a s a coherent plan for instruction
and learning, integrating content, and action. The curriculum is not
conceived as a rigid structure to be implemented by teachers.
Rather, curriculum is a text to be interpreted in different ways
leading to varied and productive uses. Curriculum texts may appear
in a variety of forms in the everyday context of schools.
Proponents of the view of curriculum as a text consider the various
forms of texts an expression of educational potential, of intended,
as well as unintended, curricular u ses that may be disclosed
through deliberate interpretation efforts (Ben-Peretz, 1990). The
disclosing of curriculum potential is not conceived a s incidental,
but a s the outcome of teachers' skillful interpretation of
curriculum texts.
26
Curriculum., as. a System
The American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS, 1989) and the National Science Teachers Association
(NSTA, 1990) advocate the less-is-m ore curriculum -few er
elem ents in greater depth-especially in science. They state that
in a fragm ented curriculum, students tend to get exactly what they
see, the tangible bits and pieces, testable knowledge and skills. On
the other hand, an interrelated curriculum implies an integrated
and integrative design in which students have the potential to get
much more than what they see. The whole is more than the sum of
its parts precisely by the num ber of relationships betw een
elem ents that can be developed. Mathematics states that the
num ber of perm utations possible between elem ents if far greater
than the number of elements.
Although the concept of wholeness certainly applies to the
traditional course designations, it applies equally well when
elem ents are grouped as them es or broader concepts, such as
“cooperation and conflict" or "patterns of change." The key
question is "How well do the chunks hold together?" Semantic
mapping or webbing is the tool by which the concept of wholeness
can be tested (Novak & Gowin, 1984).
Such disparity in the conception of curriculum is unsettling
because it suggests curriculum workers lack an agreed-upon,
disciplined core of theory and practice-the hallmark of a serious
profession. To avoid this problem, EARTH adopted a working
27
definition which states that "Curriculum is the m eans of attaining
educational ends" (Schiller,, Schiller, & Walberg, 1989).
Historical Perspective
Ever since the inception of formalized education, there has
been a concern for what human beings are and what they might
become. What schools should teach students is a question that has
created much discussion. In the curriculum literature, four
orientations to curriculum thought em erge with som e persistence*
-the cognitive processing, the academ ic rationalism, the social
reconstructivism , and the self-actualization.
The EARTH curriculum is very eclectic and does not view the
different philosophical orientations as being adversarial. It has
many features adapted from cognitive processing, academ ic
rationalism , social reconstructivism , and self-actualization.
Cognitive Processing
The cognitive processing orientation to curriculum
development stresses that the curriculum provided and the
teaching strategies used should help to develop students' cognitive
processes. According to this view, the major functions of the
school are (a) to help students learn how to learn and (b) to provide
students with the opportunities to use and strengthen the variety
of intellectual faculties that they posses. This orientation to
curriculum date back to the work of the phrenologists of the
nineteenth century and to the progressive era in American
28
education, particularly during the 1920s. For the phrenologists,
the mind consisted of a collection of thirty-seven m uscles that
were located in different parts of the brain. Each section of the
skull show ed the location of these intellectual m uscles. According
to the phrenologists, educational programs needed to em phasize
the importance of strengthening these mental faculties through
practice, especially practice that was tough and demanding (Eisner,
1985).
The findings of Thorndike and Woodworth (1901) contradicted
the assertions of the phrenologists. In testing for the
transferability of learning, th ese researchers proved that transfer
was not general but specific. Learning only transfers when the
second task is identical to the first task. These findings had a
great impact on how the curriculum was constructed. Educators
could no longer assum ed that students would learn to perform
tasks that they had not been taught. For instance when teaching a
lesson in m athem atics, teachers could not longer surm ised that the
students knew that four times four equaled sixteen if they had
been taught that eight times two equaled sixteen.
The cognitive processing orientation to curriculum
development was resurrected by the work of Guilford (1967).
Guilford conceptualized a model of the structure of the intellect
which distinguished over one hundred independent intellectual
operations. The educational implication of these findings is the
idea that th ese intellectual operations can be strengthened by
activities designed to require their use. In this view, curriculum
2 9
should use strategies that maximize the development of th ese
intellectual operations.
A ssociated with this conception of independent intellectual
operations are the categories of educational objectives in the
cognitive domain classified by Bloom (Bloom, Englehart, Furst et
al., 1956). In his classification, Bloom identified six levels which
are arranged along a continuum from simple to more complex:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. According to this taxonomy, educational programs
should be developed to cover the entire range of cognitive
processes and not simply remain at the knowledge and
comprehension level. This view adheres to the belief that
cognitive processes can be cultivated and that test items should be
designed to a ssess the levels of cognitive achievem ent that
students have reached.
Several educational programs have been developed that are
directly related to the belief in the primacy of cognitive
development as an aim of education. What these curriculum
orientations have in common is their em phasis on using curriculum
tasks as a m eans of fostering processes that presumably will
outlive the problems or concepts they were developed from. The
major aim of these programs is the development of intellectual
power rather than the simple dissemination of a body of ideas or
inform ation.
The EARTH curriculum adheres to the cognitive processing
orientation in many different ways. The EARTH curriculum is
30
concept-driven, as opposed to solely fact or skill-based. EARTH
teach es Interactive Math 1, 2, 3, 4. These courses have replaced
the traditional sequence of math, algebra, geometry, advanced
algebra, and trigonometry. This math curriculum concentrates on
important and deep mathematical ideas- numbers, m easurem ent,
geom etry, patterns and functions, statistics and probability, logic
and language, algebra, and discrete mathematics. EARTH also
teachers Science 1 & Science 2. In these courses, all the scientific
disciplines are integrated and the processes of science are
em phasized. The students learn to infer, speculate, solve
problems, visualize, extrapolate, and so on. The EARTH curriculum
concentrates on the big ideas. The curriculum has developed six
them es that spiral from year to y ear-sp ace, atm osphere, earth,
wildlife, population & industry, and water.
Academ ic Rationalism
The academ ic rationalism orientation to curriculum
development argues that the major function of the school is to
foster the intellectual growth of the students in those subject
m atters that are most worthy of study. The main em phasis of this
approach is on great ideas derived from the classics of W estern
intellectual tradition and from the pertinent disciplines of
knowledge. One of the chief proponents to this curriculum
orientation was Robert Maynard Hutchins (1953). Hutchins was
interested in helping students secure what he regarded as a basic
liberal education, a form of education that enables students to ask
basic questions about life, truth, justice, and knowledge and to
read the works of individuals who have provided powerful and
lasting answ ers to such questions. What Hutchins and other
academ ic rationalists argue is that schools should develop m an's
reason so that life can be critically examined and led intelligently.
In more recent times, this view can be found in Mortimer
Adler's Paideia proposal (1982). Adler argues that the great works
are great because they cut to the essential ideas that persons of
all background and from all eras need to consider: truth, beauty,
goodness, liberty, equality, and justice.
Who is to determine which subjects should be taught in
school? Is one subject better than the other? The answ er
according to the academic rationalists is very simple: not all
disciplines have equal status. Some disciplines-biology, for
exam ple-deal with processes that inform the student about the
origin and nature of life, a topic so important that it should be part
of the intellectual endowment of all well educated people. In
addition, students will probably not have an opportunity to study
biology if it is not taught at school. Academic rationalists also
argue that students should be introduced to basic fields of study
because this is the only way that students can discover if they
have any interest or aptitude for an area (Eisner, 1985).
The major premise of academic rationalism is that this
curriculum serves a dual purpose. It not only increases knowledge
and skill acquisition in the important disciplines, but it also brings
32
the learner closer to the deepest concerns of humanity throughout
the ages.
The EARTH curriculum supports the academ ic rationalism
curriculum orientation in many ways. One of the objectives of the
EARTH curriculum is to foster the intellectual growth of the
student in mathematics, science, English, social-science, Spanish,
art, music, and physical education. The EARTH curriculum does not
offer any electives. EARTH students have to be committed to take
th ese classes throughout their high school experience. At EARTH,
students are also exposed to many of the classical books. The
students study Shakespeare, Sophocles, Milton, Thoreau, and so on.
They are also exposed to various art periods such as Classical,
Romantic, Impressionistic, etc. The students are taken to many
theatrical and musical performances.
Social Reconstructivism
The social reconstructivism orientation to curriculum
developm ent stresses that schools should strive to develop critical
social consciousness in students. This way, they will becom e
aw are of what ills affect society and will become motivated to do
something about them . Programs that adhere to this orientation
often deal with very controversial issues. Some of these debatable
issues include: religious values, environmental issues, sexual
orientation, race relations, political corruption, and the like.
According to this curriculum orientation, the aim of education is
not to help students adapt to society but to inspire students to
33
becom e involved in solving some of the problems of society
(Eisner, 1985).
During the Vietnam war, the nation saw an attack on schools
because of the roles students were forced to occupy (Mann, 1974).
At many high schools students becam e politically involved for the
first time. Students were protesting what they perceived were
inequities in society. The government was drafting high school
dropouts while exempting their college bound peers. Students were
protesting what they perceived was an unjustifiable war. At the
college level, protesting students were revolting against courses
that were prescribed and believed to be irrelevant to acute social
needs. The students' conception of relevance was derived not from
the desire to adapt to what many of them regarded as a sick
society but rather to build a new, healthier, and more just social
o rder.
O ther exam ples of the social reconstructivist orientation to
curriculum development can be found in the writings of Galtung
(1974) and Apple (1982). Galtung, a leading advocate of peace
education writes that education has to be compatible with the idea
of peace. Peace, according to Galtung, has to exclude not only
direct violence but also structural violence. Galtung argues that
direct violence in the form of corporal punishment is more or less
gone from education, but what remains is structural violence
which takes the traditional forms of a highly vertical division of
labor and deliberate fragmentation of the receivers. Apple, a
curriculum theorist, believes that much of schooling exploits
students, that the form of the curriculum defines the content of
what students actually learn. The outcome of this state of affairs,
according to Apple, is that students' responses in classes becom e
highly pre-specified and reduced to the m astery of s e ts of
com petencies and skills.
The impact of this orientation of social reconstruction for
specific subjects is profound. In science, students should be
exposed to issues such as the implications of the right to die,
eugenics, and environmental pollution. In social science, schools
should deal with controversial issues such a s the hom eless and
teen ag e promiscuity. In the arts, curriculum content might focus
on the hidden forms of persuasion in advertising or th e
indoctrination of young people by the m ass media. Schools should
not avoid dealing with these issues by only studying the
abstractions of the different academ ic disciplines, but should u se
the knowledge provided by these disciplines as a tool to deal with
what is socially relevant (Eisner, 1985).
The EARTH curriculum has many attributes of the social
reconstructivism philosophical orientation. EARTH students are
asked to work on projects designed to solve social problems and
incite political activism. At the end of each unit, students are
asked to develop projects such as design an em ergency relief
system , adopt an endangered species program, or organize a d ebate
based on animal rights and animal welfare issues. Som e of the
EARTH curriculum concepts are designed to explore different
social, economic, and political problems. Som e exam ples of th ese
35
very thought-provoking concepts are: impact of star wars on
environment, chemicals in our life, human impact on California
wildlife, interdependence: life is the red wagon (you pull for me,
and I'll pull for you), racial dynamics and class struggle, global
conflicts over resources, water pollution, etc. EARTH students are
also required to volunteer to do community service. Our students
have been involved in tree planting, graffiti eradication, parks
clean-up, hospital service, etc.
S elf:A ctU3Liza.tiQn
T he social actualization orientation to curriculum
development stresses that in order for an experience to be
educational students must be involved in selecting their own
course of study. Furthermore, teachers must treat students as
individuals and not as mere members of a class or group. Under
this orientation, teachers m ust establish rapport with the
students. He or sh e must understand how the child actually feels
when engaged in activities in school. Another argum ent which is
advanced in this orientation is that hum ans from birth on are
stim ulus-seeking organism s, not stimulus-reducing organism s.
The duty of schools is to provide a resource-rich environment so
that the students will, without intimidation, find what they need
in order to grow (Eisner, 1985).
Various researchers and educators have supported a child-
centered approach to education. Neil (1960) believed that the
students should play a prominent role in determining what they
36
should study. Holt (1970). a leading articulate of the self-
actualizing curriculum, and a major proponent of this orientation
in the 1960s, linked the role of the teacher a s that of a travel
agent. He stated that if people were to go to a travel agent to plan
for a vacation, it is not the role of the travel agent to tell them
where to go, what to see, or when to go. The travel agent finds out
what people like first, how much money they have, and other
pertinent information. Eventually people select where they want
to go not the travel agent. This metaphor is a conception of the
teacher's role and of a curriculum which values the students'
freedom to choose what to learn.
The EARTH curriculum incorporated som e flexibility in
allowing students to select what they want to study. In the
culminating project from each theme, students are allowed to
select which parts of the project they like to work in. In addition,
students are given the opportunity to decide what type of
community service experiences they want to attend.
Curriculum Standards
Policy makers at every level of the educational system are
currently developing standards that specify "what students should
know and be able to do." At the national level, professional
subject-m atter organizations are following the lead taken in the
1980s by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)
and American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
to set high academ ic standards for their fields. In a recent survey,
37
forty-five states reported that they were developing or
implementing new curriculum frameworks (Pechm an & Laguarda,
1993)
Why is developing standards seen as a key policy solution
today? Remedies to the crisis of low academ ic standards outlined
by the National Commission on Excellence in Education's 1983
report, A Nation at Risk, encouraged states to establish or expand
many familiar policy solutions such as increased graduation credit
requirements, assessm ent programs for students and teachers, a
longer school day and year, and incentive and reward programs
(Murphy, 1990). However, these earlier "excellence" reforms,
which often imposed more requirements without specifying what,
in particular, the content should be, were found to lack the enough
substance necessary for meaningful school-based change. Raising
graduation credit requirements, for instance, did little to ensure
more rigorous content in the delivered curriculum. Research found
evidence that higher credit requirements could simply lead to more
seat time in relabeled, lower-level courses (Firestone, Rosenblum,
Bader, & Massell,1991). Previous state curriculum frameworks
attempting to more directly influence course content were sharply
criticized a s providing little more than lengthy list of behavioral
objectives and laundry lists of isolated "factoids" (Curry & Temple,
1992)
Current standards are, then, an attempt to improve both the
quality and the coherence of the delivered curriculum. They have
38
becom e the heart of a new overall strategy of coordinated,
system ic reform (Smith & O'Day, 1991).
Previous efforts by the National Science Foundation to
upgrade science and mathematics curriculums have failed because
they neglected the importance of gaining broad understanding and
support. In many respects, there is already remarkable consensus
on the broad substance and direction of content reform today. Most
educational policy makers and school professionals agree, for
example, on the need to encourage "higher-order thinking"; more
interdisciplinary learning and understanding; active, student-
centered learning; more in-depth explorations of less content
rather than superficial coverage of a broader range of content
(dubbed the "less is more" or "depth over breadth" goal); and
curriculums that meet the needs of diverse student populations.
They also agree that these reforms should be appropriate for all
students, not just the college-bound, the gifted and talented, the
educationally disadvantaged, or other special needs students (Curry
& Temple, 1992).
And yet, the problem of how to approach these ideas and
operationalize them into standards raises many questions and many
contentious professional and public debates. For example, if all
students should receive the sam e content, does this m ean that
tracking and special programs for at-risk or gifted and talented
students should be abolished? Certainly the prospect of these
m ore dramatic organizational changes prompts pedagogical
disputes and equity concerns, in addition to posing political
39
challenges to established interest groups. With a "less is more"
objective, decisions must be made about precisely what content
should be trimmed down or eliminated. These decisions can
threaten obsolescence for subject-m atter areas or topics in K-12
education. In curriculum policy, it is always easier to ap p ease
interests by adding rather than taking away. In public education
this has resulted in the "shopping mall high school" (Powell, Farrar,
& Cohen 1985). Furthermore, content in certain subject areas like
science or social studies inevitably features such controversial
issu es as evolution of multiculturalism (Massed, 1993b).
Consequently, specifying these broad goals is an enterprise
laden with powerful consequences that can galvanize opposition
from many sides of the political, social, and professional
spectrum s (Massed, Kirst, & Kelley, 1993a). As a result, states
and others engaged in the standard-setting effort are taking care
to launch strategies that build consensus across professional and
lay citizen communities. State policy makers are keenly aw are
that their approach to agenda-setting may improve the legitimacy
a s wed as the quality of their new leadership, ease the thorny
disputes that arise, and facilitate local implementation.
California was an early leader in states' efforts to shape the
core curriculum around more challenging content standards. In
1982 Bid Honig was elected state Superintendent of Public
Instruction on a platform that promised a more academ ic,
"traditional education." To fulfill this pledge, he and his staff
seized on curriculum frameworks as the key instrument to leverage
40
th ese standards. The frameworks becam e the centerpiece of a
long-term strategy for coordinated change, a forerunner of what
we would now call systemic reform.
Although subject-matter frameworks had been used in the
state since 1972 to guide textbook adoption, Honig and others
perceived the existing docum ents as little more than "good
doorstops"— symbolic, vague statem ents with only a minor impact
on the actual curriculum and instruction of classroom s. Over the
next ten y ears, the new administration dramatically altered both
the form and function of the frameworks. For instance w hereas the
older frameworks offered lengthy lists of the content and
behavioral objectives to be covered, the newer initiatives provide
conceptual roadmaps that highlight the "big ideas" of the field,
written in a literary, narrative style to convey the information in a
more compelling and understandable way. They are not highly
detailed docum ents that a teacher can use directly in the
classroom, but they do offer general pedagogical advice. Ju st as
important, the newer frameworks attempt to take more decisive
stan ces on professional or public controversies in particular
fields. The new frameworks provide the intellectual foundation for
the state's staff development agenda, teacher certification,
student assessm ents, and accountability. The frameworks also
serve as the touchstone for the more detailed curricular materials
that the state provides to districts, such a s course models for
particular g rades or recommended reading lists.
41
The EARTH curriculum, w as designed using the various
California Frameworks as references:
Science Framework (1990)~This framework proposes that
science should be taught by unifying all the scientific disciplines,
by using the thematic approach, by expanding the major them es in
science to include all other academic disciplines, and by making
ethics an integral part of the science curriculum.
English-Language-Arts (1987)--This framework is centered
on the construction of meaning. Its focus is an integrated
curriculum in which the language arts of reading, writing,
speaking, and listening are treated together in meaningful contexts
rather than treated separately. With an em phasis on a literature
base, it exposes students to significant literary works, rather than
brief narrative constructed to teach skills.
History-Social Science (1987)-O ne of the them es of this
framework is the importance of "history a s a story well told." It
em phasizes depth over breadth, using the opportunity to examine in
depth the connections amount history, geography, and culture. This
framework m akes clear that controversial topics and discussion of
values are to be embraced rather than avoided.
M athematics (1992)-This framework advocates that the
m athem atics curriculum should transcend computation and should
include the important strands of statistics and probability,
patterns and functions, and logic. The statistics and probability
strand includes the formulation of questions, collection and
42
organization of data in a variety of representations, and
com parisons of empirical results with theoretical probabilities.
Foreign Language (1989)--This framework em phasizes
communication. It subordinates skills to the content that is
necessary for the development of understanding.
Visual and Performing Arts (1989)--This framework is
constructed around four components of arts education: aesthetic
perception, create expression, arts heritage, and aesthetic valuing.
It recom m ends that students use all of their se n se s to observe,
analyze, and synthesize the sights, sounds, and movements in the
world around them.
All EARTH classes have been modified to m eet the
requirem ents of th ese frameworks:
T he mathematics series is a program developed by USC,
Berkeley. This program integrates algebra, trigonometry,
geometry, and calculus. These courses em phasize real-life
problem solving and metacognition. The students are asked to
think about the strategies that they use to solve the problems
assigned and often write their answ ers out in complete sentence
form.
T he science series integrate all the scientific disciplines.
These classes were developed by the EARTH teachers with the "100
Schools Project Grant" from the California Department State of
Education.
The Spanish series was developed by the foreign language
teachers. This series teaches Spanish in the content of our themes.
4 3
The freshman history class was developed by the social
science teachers with the assistance of the Fresno Historical
Society. Since our curriculum spirals from local issu es to global
issues, it was necessary to develop a class that em phasizes our
local heritage and geography.
The P.E. class is a non-traditional class. The students are
taught a very intensive "wellness curriculum." Other skills such as
power walking, relaxation, outdoor skills, and first-aid are also
covered.
The English series not only uses many of the classical works
but also recognizes the importance of using materials that are
sensitive to our diverse cultures. In our English classes, students
are introduced to such works as "Ese Gringo" to address the social
issues encountered by a boy whose father is white and mother is
Mexican. Other fictional works are cognizant of the various
traditions of our South East Asian, Pacific Islanders, and African
American students.
Holistic Leaning Outcomes
Holistic Learning Outcomes (HLO's) are the unifying and
overarching principles which provide linkage to a curriculum
(Redding, 1992). The HLO's define what a student should be able to
do at the completion of an educational program. O utcom e-based
models have been around for centuries in the form of craft guilds,
apprenticeship programs, military and business training, scouting,
parenting, and even "alternative high schools." Its presence in our
44
current schools has evolved out of the theoretical and applied
research of John Carroll (Carroll, 1963) and Benjamin Bloom
(Bloom, 1968).
What does a good problem solver look like? How does an
expert decision maker differ from a novice? What evidence
convinces parents that their child is a self-directed or a
collaborative worker? These are questions that EARTH educators
and educators everywhere are facing as they take on the
responsibility of preparing students for a future that prom ises to
be far different from the present. In the old days, the educator's
job of validating students' recall of information was easy. Today,
judging their abilities to perform complex tasks requires a totally
different type of assessm ent.
At EARTH, the HLO's are use to define what a student should
be able to do at the completion of the program. They drive the
curriculum, instruction, and assessm ent of the program. T eachers
design their lesson plans to support these HLO's, and students are
required to dem onstrate knowledge and understanding of them.
EARTH has instituted 5 HLO's. These five outcomes are
nontraditional, future-oriented abilities students will need to be
productive citizens of the 21st century.
• A Self-Directed Learner.
S ets priorities and achievable goals.
Monitors and evaluates progress.
C reates options for self.
45
A ssum es responsibility for actions.
C reates a positive vision for self and future.
• A Collaborative Worker.
Monitors own behavior as a group member.
A ssesses and m anages group functioning.
D em onstrates interactive communication.
D em onstrates consideration for individual differences.
• A complex Thinker.
Uses a wide variety of strategies for managing complex issues.
Selects strategies appropriate to the resolution of complex.
Issues and applies the strategies with accuracy and
thoroughness.
A ccesses and uses topic-relevant knowledge.
• A Quality Producer.
C reates products that achieve their purpose.
C reates products appropriate to the intended audience.
C reates products that reflect craftsm anship.
U ses appropriate resources/technology.
• A Community Contributor.
D em onstrates knowledge about his or her diverse communities.
Takes action.
Reflects on role as a community contributor.
46
Brain-Based Approach to Leaning and Teaching
Educators are becoming aware of recent research on how the
brain learns. The greatest challenge of brain research for
educators is in comprehending the vastness, complexity, and
potential of the human brain. What researchers are beginning to
discover about the role of emotions, stress, threat in learning, and
about memory system s and motivation, is challenging basic
assum ptions about traditional education.
Brain research establishes and confirms that multiple
complex and concrete experiences are essential for meaningful
learning and teaching. Optimizing the use of the human brain
m eans using the brain's infinite capacity to make connections.
Below is a summary of the research on how we learn compiled by
Caine and Caine (1991). The summary takes the form of 12
principles that can serve as a general theoretical foundation of
brain-based learning.
1. The brain is a parallel processor. The human brain is
always doing many things at one time (Ornstein & Sobel, 1987).
Thoughts, emotions, imagination, and predisposition operate
concurrently. They interact with other brain processes such as
health maintenance and the expansion of general knowledge.
The EARTH program uses a multiplicity of interventions to
ensure that students are challenged in many ways. The teaching
strateg ies include 7-intelligences, collaborative groups,
technology, field-trips, and constructivism. The objective of
teaching is to use whatever technique is appropriate to make
47
orchestration possible. EARTH teachers adhere to the principle
that no one method or technique can adequately encom pass the
variations of the human brain.
2. Learning engages the entire physiology. Learning is as
natural a s breathing, but it can be either inhibited or facilitated.
S tress and threat affect the brain differently from peace,
challenge, boredom, happiness, and contentment (Ornstein & Sobel,
1987). Stress m anagem ent, nutrition, exercise, and relaxation, as
well as other facets of health management, m ust be fully
incorporated into the learning process. Expecting equal
achievem ent on the basis of chronological age is inappropriate
because the timing of learning is influenced by the development of
both the body and brain.
Some EARTH teachers teach students relaxation and
concentration techniques. EARTH also has access to the Student
A ssistance Program in which students with problems obtain
additional help. EARTH also offers an excellent discipline program
by which students who are being disruptive in the classroom are
removed so that teachers and students can continue with the
learning process uninterrupted.
3. The search for meaning is innate. The brain needs and
autom atically registers the familiar while sim ultaneously
searching for and responding to novel stimuli (O'keefe & Nadel,
1978). The learning environment needs to provide stability and
familiarity; this is part of the function of routine classroom
behaviors and procedures. At the sam e time, provision m ust be
48
m ade to satisfy our curiosity and our hunger for novelty, discovery,
and challenge.
EARTH teaching strategies include multicultural education,
field-trips, and constructivism. For the multicultural education,
students are asked to make contributions to the school which
reflect their own cultural experiences. The local field-trips
expose the students to familiar places. With constructivism,
teachers try to relate students' own experiences to the classroom.
In addition, EARTH challenges all the students with an accelerated
program. Students at all levels, gifted or special education, are
involved in the sam e culminating projects which include the use of
technology and the synthesis of all the disciplines.
4. The search for meaning occurs through "patterning."
Patterning (Nummela & Rosengren, 1988) refers to the meaningful
organization and categorization of information. "Meaningless"
patterns are isolated pieces of information unrelated to what
m akes sen se to a student. For teaching to be really effective, a
learner m ust be able to create meaningful and personally relevant
patterns. This type of teaching is most clearly recognized by those
advocating a whole-language approach to reading, thematic
teaching, integration of the curriculum, and life-relevant
approaches to learning.
As indicated in Table 1, the EARTH curriculum is
interdisciplinary and thematic. For instance when students are
studying a unit on SPACE, the students are exposed to it in many
different ways. For science, students do the experiment "A Voyage
4 9
to Mars" in which they study gravity and related issues. For art,
they create models of space craft. For math, they solve several
math problems as to the amount of fuel and time needed to get to
Mars. For English, they read The Martian Chronicles. For history,
they study the effects of other civilizations invading native
civilizations, em phasis is placed on local Indians. For Spanish,
they learn food staples for survival in Spanish. For music, they
study science fiction musical them es. EARTH has instituted six
them es which spiral from year to year.
Table 1
EARTH Curriculum
Unit 1: EARTH
9 th --R e c y c lin g
(Natural R esources)
10th--D ust to D ust
(Soil & Agriculture)
11th--C hem ical in Our
Lives
(Natural Elem ents)
12th--N atural P h en o m en a
(Laws of Motion)
Unit 3: ATMOSPHERE
9th— Lite in a S ea of Air
(W eather)
10th--B asic M eteorology
(Climate)
1 1 th - ln te rm e d ia te
Meteorology
(O zone Depletion)
12th A dvanced M eteorology
(Acid Rain/Rainforest)
Unit 5: WILDLIFE
9th— Call of th e Wild
(D om estic/Endangered)
10th--N asty H ab itats
(Survival of the Fittest)
11th--S ubm arine B lues
(Human Impact on S ea)
1 2 th -O f Mice and Men
(Animal Rights Issues)
Unit 6: WATER
9th— Wild W ater A dventures
(D om esticating Rivers)
10th--T roubled W ater
(CA W ater Pollution)
11 th — In S earch of Gold
(U.S. O ceans)
12th--The Lack of It
(Droughts)
Unit 2: SPA CE Unit 4:POPULATION/INDUSTRY
9 th -H o w Much S p ace 9th~Life in The Red W agon
(R esources Are Finite) (Interdependence)
10th»Y ou're in My S p a c e 1 0 th -B u ild ers & S h a k e rs
(Non-native im pacts) (Demographics)
1 1 th --S tar W ars H th -T h e H um an Condition
(O uter S p ace Politics) (R ace & C lass Struggles)
1 2 th - S p a c e Exploration 12th--W ar of The W orlds
(Collaboration/W ar) (Nationalism)
N ote. S ee Appendix B for a detailed outline of EARTH curriculum.
50
5. Emotions are critical to patterning. Emotions and
cognition cannot be separated (Lakoff, 1987). Because it is
impossible to isolate the cognitive from the affective domain, the
emotional climate in the school and classroom must be monitored
on a consistent basis.
EARTH uses collaborative groups so that students can develop
a se n se of interdependence in which all of them can find success.
EARTH offers a peer-counseling program to which students with
Intrapersonal or interpersonal problems are referred. This program
has a group of students who have been trained to listen and to
facilitate conflict resolution.
6. The brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously. In a
healthy person, the two parts of the brain are inextricably
interactive (Hart, 1975; Levy, 1985). Thus vocabulary and grammar
are best understood and m astered when incorporated in genuine,
w hole-language experiences. Similarly, equations and scientific
principles should be dealt with in the context of living science.
EARTH curriculum is based on students participating in
authentic experiences. For example, students create a puppet show
using an endangered species which they show to elementary school
students and to the community in the area. Students study regional
plants by planting a garden with local drought-tolerant plants.
7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral
perception. The brain absorbs information of which it is directly
aw are and to which it is paying attention. It also directly absorbs
information and signals that lie beyond the field of attention
51
(O'keefe & Nadel, 1978). This means that the brain responds to the
entire sensory context in which teaching or communication occurs
(Lozanov, 1978). Teachers need to engage the interests and
enthusiasm of students through their own enthusiasm , coaching,
and modeling, so that the unconscious signals appropriately relate
to the importance and value of what is being learned.
EARTH teachers use many visuals such a s charts,
illustrations, posters, and works of art to illustrate what is being
taught. In addition, teachers change their displays depending on
what unit is being taught. Music is also used as a means to enhance
and influence more natural acquisition of information and to
support the musical intelligence postulated by Gardner (1983).
8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious
processes. Most signals that are peripherally perceived enter the
brain without the learner's aw areness and interact at unconscious
levels (Campbell, 1989). Much of the effort put into teaching and
studying is wasted because students do not adequately process
their experiences. Students remember what they experience, not
just what they are told. Students learn best when they practice
m etacognition.
EARTH teaches students how to determine their cognitive
learning style and which is their predominant intelligence.
Through the use of portfolios, students monitor their own learning
and select what they think is their best work. Students are also
taught the purpose of the holistic learning outcome that th e school
u ses so that they can learn to judge the quality of their own work.
52
9. We have at least two different types of memory: a spatial
memory system and a set of system s for rote learning. The spatial
memory system that does not need rehearsal and allows for
"instant" memory of experiences. Remembering the landscaping
arrangem ent does not require the use of memorization techniques.
That is because the spatial memory system is designed to register
experiences in ordinary three-dimensional space (O'keefe & Nadel,
1978). The system is motivated by novelty.
The counterpart of the spatial memory system is a set of
system s specifically designed for storing relatively unrelated
information (O'keefe & Nadel, 1978). Facts and skills that are
dealt with in isolation are organized differently by the brain and
need much more practice and rehearsal (Bransford & Johnson,
1972). Sometimes memorization is important and useful. In
general, however, teaching devoted to memorization does not
facilitate the transfer of learning and probably interferes with the
subsequent development of understanding.
EARTH adheres to the principle of "less is more." Teachers
are departing from the traditional rote memorization mode of
teaching. For example, the students are no longer memorizing a
list of unrelated vocabulary words. Instead EARTH offers an
interdisciplinary vocabulary program in which all teachers in all
disciplines define words used specifically in their field. For
example, when the unit in SPACE is being taught, teachers
introduce firmament, cosmos, stellar, etc. Students are also
learning that real success in life com es not from remembering
53
copious amount of information but in knowing how to access and
how to apply this information to real life problems.
10. We understand and remember best when facts and skills
are em bedded in natural, spatial memory. Our native language is
leaned through multiple interactive experiences involving
vocabulary and grammar. It is shaped both by internal processes
and by social interaction (Vygotsky, 1978). Teachers need to use a
great deal of real-life activity, including classroom
dem onstrations, projects, field trips, visual imagery of certain
experiences and best performances, stories, m etaphor, drama, and
interaction of different subjects.
EARTH provides students with realistic context from which
to call on ideas and skills. Rather than ask questions about
com puters, for instance, teachers ask students to build a database
to record environmental data. Students' reading skill is shown in
their ability to fin information on current events a s reported in the
press. Students' ability with numbers involve everything from
creating a hot-air balloon to managing th e finances of a class
outing or field trip. In addition EARTH u ses problem solving
cooperative groups in which students with a wide variety of
learning styles sit in small groups to work on high-level problem
solving groupwork projects such as creating mini-drama about
farming an d the use of pesticides of preparing a p an el discussion
on the rights of farm ers and environmentalists.
11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.
The brain downshifts under perceived threat and le arn s optimally
54
when appropriately challenged. The brain will downshift under
threat (Hart, 1983). Teachers and administrators need to create a
state of relaxed alertness in students.
EARTH uses a discipline program which is designed to prevent
major discipline problems before they happen. EARTH uses a
yellow card to indicate to students that their behavior is not
acceptable. If the student continues to misbehave, then the
student is given a pink card which signals the student to leave the
classroom quietly and report to the principal's office. This way
there are no major confrontations in the classroom which create a
disruptive atm osphere. In addition to this program, EARTH
teachers use music in the classroom to create the condition of
relaxed alertness in the students.
12. Each brain is unique. Teaching should be multifaceted to
allow all students to express visual, tactile, emotional, and
auditory preferences.
The EARTH educational and support system is multifaceted.
It consists of interventions designed to sustain or improve
academ ic success, as well as coordination with a Student
A ssistance Program (SAP) that addresses student's social, health,
or psychological problems that impair learning.
The Nature of Intelligence
An extremely important development during the past decade
involves work that has challenged people's beliefs about the nature
of intelligence. Prior to the 1980s, it was easy to assum e that the
55
goal of improving thinking was equivalent to the goal of
"increasing intelligence" where intelligence w as m easured by
standardized IQ tests. This assumption implies that the best way
to a sse ss thinking skills programs was to use these tests
(Whimbey, 1975). Some people have continued this practice in the
1980s. For example, Lewis and Greene (1982) created a program to
train people on intelligence test-like items and they argue that
improvements in peoples' abilities to solve th ese problems
provides a m easure of their "raised intellectual ability" for all
types of situations. Nickerson (Nickerson, 1988) argues that such
a claim goes too far.
Work begun by Neisser (1976) laid the groundwork for
identifying a number of limitations in the traditional form ats for
m easuring intelligence. N eisser noted that traditional te sts of
academ ic intelligence contain items that (a) are formulated by
other people, hence they do not test problem identification or
problem finding; (b) often have little intrinsic interest; (c) attem pt
to have all the needed information available from the beginning and
hence do not assess information finding and learning skills; (d)
tend to be disembodied from an individual's experience and hence
provide little information about how people make use of their own
personal experiences in solving problems. Neisser argued that the
concept of academ ic intelligence needed to be supplem ented with
another concept that he called "practical intelligence" and defined
a s "intelligent perform ance in practical settings." Differences
betw een academ ic and practical intelligence capture the
56
individuals who seem book smart but who do not function well in
the everyday world. Of course, some individuals do well in both
dom ains.
W agner and Sternberg (1986) discussed several additional
limitations of academically oriented tests. They note that
academ ic tests tend to (a) be well-defined and hence fail to test
people's abilities to solve ill-defined problems; (f) have but one
correct answ er rather than alternate, multiple answers; and
(g) allow but one correct solution method rather than a variety of
m ethods.
Gardner (1983) contends that our culture has defined
intelligence too narrowly, he proposes the existence of at least
seven basic intelligences. In his theory of multiple intelligences,
Gardner seeks to broaden the scope of human potential beyond the
confines of the IQ score. He seriously questions the validity of
determining an individual's intelligence though the practice of
taking a person out of his natural learning environment and asking
him to do isolated tasks he'd never done before-and probably
would never choose to do again. Gardner suggests that intelligence
has more to do with the capacity for (a) solving problems and
(b) fashioning products in a context-rich and naturalistic setting.
G ardner provides a m eans of mapping the broad range of abilities
that hum ans possess by grouping their capabilities into seven
com prehensive categories or "intelligences”: linguistic, logical-
m athem atical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, m usical, interpersonal,
and Intrapersonal.
There are several implications of th ese new understandings.
First, schools should switch from relying heavily on academ ic
tasks to using everyday tasks. Second, the new understandings of
intelligence expand teachers' and parents' notions of what it m eans
to be smart. There now are several arenas, including every day
arenas, in which being smart is a legitimate claim to being
intelligent. Knowing how to make or fix things is intelligence, just
as is knowing how to design things.
Broader conceptions of intelligence take on increased
importance when educators realize that students' belief about the
nature of intelligence can have important effects on their
assessm ents of their own capabilities. Research by Cain and
Dweck (1989) have provided empirical evidence about the
importance of student's beliefs about intelligence. For example, in
studying task performance, these researchers found that children
who believed intelligence was incremental tended to em phasize
developing their skills and improving their abilities. On the other
hand, students who held an entity view of intelligence were
oriented toward demonstrating how smart they were and reacted to
the task as a test of ability. In the face of failure, incremental
views tended to be associated with "mastery" orientations,
w hereas entity views tended to be associated with "helplessness"
responses.
The EARTH curriculum has authentic benchmarks at the end of
every unit. For example, the 9th grade POPULATION/INDUSTRY
benchm ark is to develop a multicultural fair for back-to-school
58
night. For this activity, students write an invitation to parents
and the community, prepare food from different cultures to serve
to the guests, and design the entertainment program. Staff
m em bers only facilitate the process.
EARTH teachers are committed to apply the theories of
multiple intelligences as part of their instructional strategies.
For example, the seven intelligences are used in the following way:
(a) Linguistic-Students prepare book reports and make oral
presentations when studying the Martian Chronicles:
(b) SpatiaF-students use computers spread sheets to chart
w eather patterns during the school year; (c) K inesthetic-students
make hot air balloons during our unit in ATMOSPHERE;
(d) Logical-M athem atical-Students collect pertinent statistics
about endangered species; (e) M usical-Students write songs that
nam e concepts under study, and teachers use music during classes
to support the lecture; (f) Interpersonal-students volunteer in
community projects, and teachers use collaborative groups during
instruction; (g) Intrapersonal-S tudents planted a water-efficient
garden to create a special place of solitude to study.
Interdisciplinary Curriculum
Traditional students at the high school level are confronted
with rigidly separated academ ic disciplines. All classes are
forced into 50-minute time blocks taught by individual specialists.
It should be no surprise then that students look at the arbitrary
divisions for reading, math, social studies, science, art, music, and
59
physical education and begin to define the subject areas as
separate bodies of knowledge with little relationship to one
another. This separation of disciplines was artificially created by
hum ans to organize their world, and were often defined by political
needs (Beane, 1991). Eisner (1992) points out that as early as the
1920s the progressive movement in education advocated curricular
integration through them es because proponents believe the
disciplines prevented student from seeing the relationships
between subjects and therefore decreased the content's relevance.
In the '60s, based on Jerome Bruner's (1960) concept of curriculum
developm ent, there was a shift to discipline-oriented curriculums
where the structure of the discipline was considered to be the
facilitator for the storage and retrieval of knowledge. Another
important consideration is how people learn. Recent brain research
indicates that the brain searches fro patterns and interconnections
a s its way of making meaning (Caine & Caine, 1991). If hum ans do
learn by connection-making, it only m akes sense to tech through
connections.
Still, many students today move from science to history to
math classes and are taught in a fragmented, disconnected way
that has little resem blance to real life. The British philosopher
Lionel Elvin (1977) u ses an analogy to describe the problem of the
false time constraints of the school day. He said "When you are out
walking, nature does not confront you for three quarters of an hour
only with flowers and in the next only with animals" (p. 29).
60
Hirsch (Hirsch, 1987) and Bloom (Bloom, 1987) have also criticized
this fragmentation of the curriculum as lacking focus.
T he Integrated Curriculum
There has been a strong move in som e schools toward the
combination of subjects. The issue has been examined recently by
Heidi Jacobs (1989). There are several reasons why
interdisciplinary teaching is important: (a) The brain search es for
common patterns and connections. Thus history, properly enlivened
by relevant literature, becomes a way of making meaning out of
other content, (b) Every experience actually contains within it the
seed s of many and possibly all, disciplines. Thus recent
developm ents in Eastern Europe involve history, geography,
politics, comparative religion, economics, and social science, as
well as provide fertile soil for dealing with music, math, and
information technology, to name a few disciplines, (c) One of the
key to understanding is what is technically called redundancy. In
other words, if the sam e m essage can be packaged in several ways,
the receiver has a much better chance of grasping what is actually
happening. This lies at the heart of recent developments in
information theory (Campbell, 1982) and reinforces the importance
of immersion.
There are three different ways to structure integrated
curriculum: multidisciplinary focuses on sep arate disciplines
tacking the sam e theme: interdisciplinary which shifts to the
generic that could be found across the curriculum; and
61
transdisciplinary refers to curriculum that transcend the
disciplinary boundaries.
At the heart of these different approaches are important
epistemological questions. Jacobs (1989) recommends that
students should be exposed to epistemological issues such as
"What is knowledge?" and "How can we best access knowledge?"
Curriculum developers should also address these questions because
th e multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary
approaches to integration seem to have different answers. The
multidisciplinary approach is concerned with what is important to
learn within different disciplines. It keeps the integrity of each
discipline; but, it encourages links between fields of knowledge so
that the content has more relevance. Procedural knowledge and the
skills of each discipline are presented in ways that connect them
to the other disciplines. The interdisciplinary approach shifts to
an em phasis on metacognition and learning how to learn. Content
lessens in importance. The major concern here is to teach
students higher order competencies. Students learn that higher-
order thinking skills are generic, and apply to all disciplines, and
that they can be used outside the classroom. The transdisciplinary
approach is how to teach students to becom e productive citizens in
the future. This involves skills such as change management,
dealing with ambiguity, perseverance, and confidence. The
em phasis is on acquiring knowledge through a meaningful, life-
centered approach (Drake, 1993). Knowledge is explored as it is
em bedded in a real-life or cultural context. The content is not
considered to be intrinsically important. It is determined by the
them e and student interest rather than by the rigidities of any
discipline (Drake, 1993). EARTH curriculum uses the
interdisciplinary orientation to the nature of knowledge. Its major
em phasis is on students developing metacognition and learning
how to learn. EARTH students learn that higher-order thinking
skills are generic, and apply to all disciplines, and that they can be
used outside the classroom. For example, at EARTH the nam e of the
scientific method has been changed to the inquiry method. This
way the students will learn to use it outside the science classroom
and apply it to a variety of problems.
The conceptual framework, or the hub from which ideas are
interconnected, is different for the multidisciplinary,
interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches. Perkins
(1989) stresses that investigating a theme is not enough: "One
needs som e kind of conceptual substructure to analyze fundamental
patterns and disclose important similarities and differences
within and across the discipline" (p. 73).
The multidisciplinary curriculum uses sem antic webbing to
make the connections among the disciplines. After selecting a
theme, topics are drawn that pertain to the them e. For example, if
the purpose is to create a semantic web around the them e of "car,"
the subthem es of pollution, transportation, and design are used for
the clustering (Drake, 1993). The interdisciplinary approach uses a
curriculum planning wheel to push the limits of sem antic webbing
by shifting the focus from natural connections to directing the
63
process through the disciplines. This approach is elegantly
described by Jacobs (Jacobs, 1989) and Palmer (1991). The wheel
includes a s many disciplines as desired. It helps to make sure that
no subject matter that is wanted is left out. Jacobs (1989)
recom m ends that several subject areas decide upon a problem or
“big question* to be explored around a series of questions. The
transdisciplinary or real world web is well described by Drake,
Bebbington, Laksman, et al. (1992). They use a curriculum wheel
and develop ideas for a theme around areas such as economics, law,
media, environment, technology, politics, social issues, and time.
In this case, the boundaries am ong the disciplines completely
dissolved.
EARTH conceptual framework uses the interdisciplinary
approach. It directs the process of integration through the
disciplines. EARTH integrates m athem atics, social science,
science, Spanish, English, art, music and physical education. The
EARTH curriculum is also thematic. We have adopted the following
themes: SPACE, ATMOSPHERE, EARTH, WILDLIFE, POPULATION &
INDUSTRY, AND WATER. The various disciplines always relate back
to a major concept so that every component of the course is
connected.
The evaluation is also very different for the
interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approach
to curriculum design. Spady and Marshall (1991) describe a
transform ation occurring in education in the thinking toward
objectives and evaluation. Traditionally, educators plan for
64
educational experiences by written objective identifying the
behavior to be developed by the student. Spady and Marshall
suggest shifting to outcom e-based education (OBE) where the
outcome is synonymous with the goal, purpose, and end. The
traditional objectives, based on content-driven curriculum, shift
to "Outcomes of Significance" based on desired changes in the
learner a s a starting point. OBE is based on the assum ptions that
all students can learn, success breeds success, and schools control
the conditions of success.
In th e multidisciplinary approach, learning outcom es are still
based on the procedural knowledge of the discipline. A ssessm ent
involves m astery of th ese procedures. Spady and Marshall (1991)
point out that this is Traditional OBE. Where the outcomes may not
reflect real life because they are limited to specific content
details that are driven by the curriculum. In the interdisciplinary
orientation, learning outcomes are less concrete. A ssessm ent
becomes m ore performance-based and beyond the boundaries of
disciplines. The em phasis begins to shift to process rather than
product. This process is still evaluated sequentially a s in
"benchmarks" or levels of growth that m easure a student's
perform ance. This approach roughly approximates the Transitional
OBE (Spady, 1991). The transdisciplinary approach shifts
evaluation to core learning that is essential to living life in the
future. This evaluation is based on authentic performance rather
than on examinations. Goals are reached by a variety of m eans.
Normative expectations disappear. How can flexibility, for
65
example, be m easured on a standardized test? Instead, can
students use what they have learned in a practical setting? Can
they teach others? This approach closely parallels the
Transformational OBE, a position promoting "higher-order, life-
role performances" (Spady, 1991).
EARTH uses the interdisciplinary orientation to evaluation.
Learning outcomes have been defined as holistic learning outcomes.
For instance, students who are quality producers must show that
they can generate a report which is well presented and organized.
In addition, EARTH students are exposed to many controversial
issues. These topic such as water rights and endangered species
have no right or wrong answers. The students are asked to present
a well-articulated argument. When grading, teachers are more
interested in the process than in the answer.
In addition, the EARTH curriculum has authentic assessm ent or
benchmarks at the end of every unit. For example, the 9th grade
Population/Industry unit benchmark (project) is to organize a
cultural fair. This project brings to life the abstract concepts of
local demographics that the students engage in during class and
serves as a vehicle for such authentic skill building activities
revolving around effective communication with parents, community
leaders, and local businesses and organizations.
Thematic Teaching
G eared to the self-contained classroom, them atic teaching is
more compatible with the way elementary schools are organized.
66
The approach can also be used at the secondary level-with slight
modifications. The idea, which educators such as Susan Kovalik
(1986) and her associates are implementing, is to adopt som e
event or topic that allows for inclusion of many topics, such as
"communication," "growth," or "cycles," out of which an entire
year's or sem ester's program can be built. The reasoning behind
this approach is that the central theme or set of them es helps
students relate all the information. This way, various subtopics
always relate back to the central theme so that every component of
the course is connected. It is important to remember that the
teacher does not do all the teaching. The students do the
discovering, and the parents and community often are involved.
67
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to asse ss if EARTH, a multiple
intervention "restructured" school, had an impact on student
learning as evidenced by the ITAS-NCE test scores; was effective
in improving students and parents attitudes toward school; w as
able to improve students' GPA's by offering frequent progress
report cards; and was more successful in offering equal access to
college preparatory classes to all students irrespective of their
previous academ ic achievement.
Sampling & Instruments
Student Learning
EARTH students were compared with regular RHS students.
To operationalize whether EARTH had an impact on student
learning, EARTH 9th and 10th grade students were compared with
9th and 10th grade RHS students. At the end of the 1993/1994
school year, EARTH students' and RHS students' NCE scores on the
ITAS in the subtest areas of reading, language, and mathematics
were com pared (See Appendix F for description of ITAS). The two
test subject groups were matched as to degree of English
proficiency, previous academ ic achievement as evidenced by the
NCE total reading test scores, and gender. Because the independent
variable (IV), EARTH and RHS students, represented two
dichotomous groups and the dependent variable (DV), ITAS test
scores, represented a continuous scale, multiple t-tests were used
for statistical analysis. The data for the ITAS results was
collected at the end of the 1993/1994 school year. All students in
the district are administered this test during the month of May.
Students who were absent more than 2 days a were not included in
the analyses.
P arents' and Students' Attitudes
To operationalize whether EARTH is effective in improving
students' and parents' attitudes toward school, EARTH students'
and parents' attitudes were compared to RHS students and parents.
Both groups indicated that they were satisfied with the school's
goals and activities by responding to an attitude questionnaire (See
Appendices G, I, J, & H for a copy of the questionnaires). Because
the independent variable (IV), EARTH and RHS students and parents,
represented two dichotomous groups and the dependent variable
(DV), responses to the questionnaires, represented a continuous
scale, multiple t-tests were use for statistical analysis.
The student questionnaire was given to all EARTH students
during their English class (five 9th grade classes, and five 10th
grade classes). The sam e student questionnaire was then given to
students in 9th and 10th grade English classes at the regular RHS.
No attempt was made to administer the questionnaire to students
who were absent that day.
The parent questionnaire was sent home the sam e day that
the students took the student questionnaire. The parent
questionnaire was collected the following day. No attem pt was
m ade to collect the parent questionnaire of those students who
forgot to bring it back to school.
G rade Point Average
To operationalize if EARTH was able to improve students'
overall GPA, EARTH students were given a total of four grade
reports during the sem ester. The first was a progress report card
at the end of the first five weeks. The second was a progress
report card at the end of the quarter. The third was a progress
report card at the end of the first fifteen weeks. The fourth was
the final report card at the end of the sem ester. RHS students
received two report cards. One was a progress report card at the
end of the quarter. The other was a final report card at the end of
the sem ester. EARTH and RHS students overall GPA was compared
at the end of the sem ester. The test subjects were matched as to
degree of English proficiency, previous academ ic achievem ent as
evidenced by the NCE total reading test scores, and gender.
B ecause the IV (EARTH and RHS students) represented two
dichotomous groups and the DV (GPA) represented a continuous
7 0
scale, the t-test was used for statistical analysis. S eparate
analyses was conducted for 9th and 10th grade.
The data for this section was collected at the completion of
the first sem ester. Students, in both groups, who were absent
more than 2 days a week were not included in the analysis.
College Preparatory C lasses
To operationalize whether EARTH was m ore successful in
offering equal ac c ess to college preparatory classes to all
students irrespective of their previous academ ic achievem ent,
EARTH and RHS students placement w as compared. The test
subjects were matched as to degree of English proficiency,
previous academic achievement as evidenced by the NCE total
reading test scores, and gender. The comparison classes were
math, English, and science. Initially, the total number of these
comparison classes taken by each group were compared. Because
the IV (EARTH and RHS students) represented two dichotomous
groups and the DV (type of class taken) represented a categorical
variable, percentages were used for the statistical analysis.
Secondly, the GPA of these comparison classes were compared for
the two groups. Because the IV (EARTH and RHS students)
represented two dichotomous groups and the DV (GPA) represented
a continuos scale, the t-test was used for statistical analysis.
T he data for this section was collected after the completion
of the first sem ester of the 1993/1994 school year. Students who
71
were absent more than 2 days a week were not included in the
analysis.
7 2
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to asse ss if EARTH, a multiple
intervention "restructured" school, had an impact on student
learning as m easured by the ITAS-NCE test scores; was effective
in improving students and parents attitudes toward school as
m easured by an author-constructed questionnaire; w as more
successful in offering equal access to college preparatory classes
to all students irrespective of their previous academ ic
achievem ent or program designation; and was able to improve
students' GPA. Data were summarized and analyzed, and the
results are presented in this chapter in table and narrative form.
R esults
Hypothesis One
EARTH students will achieve higher than students
at the regular RHS as m easured by the ITAS NCE test scores in
total reading, total language, and total math.
7 3
9th-G rade Results
This question was operationalized by selecting a random
sam ple of 160 EARTH students consisting of 80 9th graders and 80
10th graders. These students were matched with an equal number
of students from RHS.
Results pertaining to the 9th grade student characteristics
are shown in Table 2. Nineteen matched students from each high
school were deleted from the study because it was found that they
did not have a class program at the end of the first sem ester. This
m eant that students were not enrolled in school at this time. In
addition, m atched-students who were found to have been absent for
more than 2 days a week or 55 days during the test period (157
days X .4 = 54.8 days) were deleted from the study.
As shown in Table 2, the sample contained 57% males and
43% fem ales. These students were designated as 30% Limited
English Proficient (LEP) and 70% non-LEP. The sample was also
found to contain approximately 13% Resource Specialist Program
(RSP) students and 87% non-RSP students. The RSP category was
not specifically selected for in the matching. The sam ple w as also
found to have approximately 83% Educationally Disadvantaged
Youth (EDY) students. This is another category that was not
specifically selected for. This sample is very similar to the RHS
over-all population.
Results pertaining to the 9th grade pre-NCE ITAS total
reading scores are given in Table 3. Results indicated that the
7 4
m ean pre-NCE ITAS total reading scores were the sam e for both
populations.
The academ ic achievement of the students w as m easured
using students' NCE scores on the ITAS in the subtest areas of total
reading, total language, and total mathematics. Multiple t-tests
w ere used for statistical analysis. The data for the ITAS results
w as collected at the end of the 1993/1994 school year.
Results pertaining to the post-test NCE ITAS in total reading,
total language, and total math are shown in Table 5. The results
indicated th at there w ere no statistical significant differences
between RHS and EARTH 9th grade students for any of these areas.
7 5
Table 2
9th G rade Distribution of Characteristics of Students Participating
in the Study
D istrib u tio n RHS EARTH
N (%) N
G ender Distribution
Male 35 (57) 3 5 (57)
Female 26 (43) 26 (43)
Program Designation
RSP Status
RSP 8 (13) 7 (12)
non-RSP 53 (87) 54 (88)
LEP Status
LEP 18 (30) 18 (30)
non-LEP 4 3 (70) 4 3 (70)
Economic Status
EDY 50 (82) 51 (84)
non-EDY 11 (18) 10 (16)
7 6
Table 3
9th-G rade Mean Pre-NCE ITAS Total Reading T est Scores
M SD N df t
RHS 39.4 18.3 61
120 .02
EARTH 39.3 18.3 61
p > .05
7 7
T able 4
91h-Grade Mean Post-NCE ITAS T est Scores
M SD N d f t
Total Reading
RHS 41.5 16.7 52
100 .32
EARTH 40.4 17.0 50
Total Language
RHS 42.9 20.1 52
1 0 0 1.22
EARTH 38.3 17.3 50
Total Math
RHS 49.0 17.4 52
102 1.37
EARTH 44.7 14.4 52
p > .05
10th Grade Results
Results pertaining to the 10th grade student characteristics
are shown in Table 5. Nine matched students from each high school
were deleted from the study because it was found that they did not
have a class program at the end of the first semester. This meant
that students were not enrolled in school at this time. In addition,
m atched-students who were found to have been absent for more
7 8
than 2 days a week or 55 days during the test period (157 days X .4
= 54.8 days) were deleted from the study.
As shown in Table 5, the sample contained 49% males and
51% females. These students were designated as 35% LEP and 65%
non-LEP. The sample was also found to contain approximately
10% RSP and 90% non-RSP students. The RSP category was not
specifically selected for. The sample was also found to have
approximately 83% of EDY students. This is another category that
w as not specifically selected for. This sam ple is very similar to
the RHS over-all population.
Results pertaining to the 10th-grade Pre-NCE ITAS total
reading scores are given in Table 6. Results indicated that the
pre-NCE ITAS total reading scores were the sam e for both
populations.
The academ ic achievement of the students w as m easured
using students' NCE scores on the ITAS in the subtest areas of
total reading, total language, and total mathematics. Multiple
t-tests were used for statistical analysis. The data for the ITAS
results were collected at the end of the 1993/1994 school year.
No attempt was made to delete the students who did not take the
test at the end of the school year.
Results pertaining to the post-test NCE ITAS in total reading,
total language, and total math are shown in Table 7. The results
indicated that there were no statistical significant differences
between RHS and EARTH students for any of these areas.
7 9
Table 5
10th-G rade Distribution of Characteristics of Students
Participating in the Study
D istribution RHS
N (%)
EARTH
N (%)
G ender Distribution
Male 35 (49) 35 (49)
Female 36 (51) 36 (51)
Program Designation
RSP. Status
RSP 7 (10)
6 (9)
non-RSP 64 (90) 65 (91)
l e p . status
LEP 25 (35) 25 (35)
non-LEP 46 (65) 46 (65)
Economic Status
ED Y 50 (82) 51 (84)
non-EDY 1 1 (18) 10 (16)
8 0
Table 6
1Qlh-Grade M ean Pre-NCE ITAS Test Scores
M SD N d f t
RHS 40.3 18.0 71
140 .09
EARTH 40.6 18.1 71
p > .05
81
Table 7
10th-G rade Mean Post-NCE ITAS Test Scores
M SD N df t
Total Reading
RHS 38.0 18.0 60
116 .06
EARTH 38.2 16.2 58
Total Language
RHS 42.3 18.8 60
114 .05
EARTH 42.2 17.1 56
Total Math
RHS 42.4 16.6 60
118 .18
EARTH 43.0 15.5 60
p > .05
Hypothesis Two
EARTH will be more effective in improving students and
parents attitudes toward school than RHS as m easured by an
author-constructed questionnaire.
To operationalize whether EARTH is effective in improving
students' and parents' attitudes toward school, EARTH students'
and parents' attitudes were compared to RHS students and parents.
82
Both groups indicated how they felt about the school's goals and
activities by responding to an author-constructed attitude
questionnaire. T-tests were used for statistical analysis. For
analysis purposes, responses were changed from an alpha
designation to a numerical value (A = strongly agree = 5,
B = agree = 4, C = neutral = 3, D = disagree = 2, E = strongly
disagree = 1).
T he student questionnaire, which contained 10 questions,
was given to all EARTH students during their English class (five
dth-grade classes, and five 10th-grade classes). The sam e student
questionnaire was then be given to students in 9th and 10th grade
English classes at the regular RHS. Because of the high
absenteeism rate at the schools, no attempt was m ade to
administer the questionnaire to students who were absent that day.
The parent questionnaire, which contained 14 questions, was
sent hom e the sam e day that the students took the student
questionnaire. T he parent questionnaire was collected the
following day. No attempt was made to collect the parent
questionnaire of those students who forget to bring it back to
school.
EARTH 9th and 10th grade students were given an additional
10 questions which pertain to activities that are only relevant to
EARTH. These questions were analyzed by obtaining the percentage
of each response.
8 3
9th-G rade Results
Results in Table 8 indicate that EARTH students as compared
to RHS students felt that EARTH has really taught them how to
think, m akes learning fun, and is different from any other school.
EARTH students also responded that they have learned more at this
school than at any other school, and that at EARTH everybody is
given a chance to learn.
Results in Table 9 indicate that EARTH students agree or
strongly agree when answering the following questions:
40%-l have completed my portfolio; 49%-l like the
interdisciplinary curriculum at this school; 57%-l like the them es
at this school; 62%-l can learn more with the longer periods that
we have at this school; 63%-l do well in the projects at the end of
the units; and 65%-l know what the 7-intelligences are b ecause the
teachers use them when they teach. Students responded to the
EARTH questions that pertain to this program as follows: 70%-l
like the field-trips at this school; 76%-l enjoy working in
cooperative groups because I learn more; 81 %-l think that the video
programs that the teachers use in class are related to what we are
studying; 99%-l like to work with computers.
Results in Table 10 indicate that EARTH parents have
attended more school activities during the year as compared to RHS
parents. There were no significant differences in all the other
areas included in the study.
8 4
Results in Table 11 indicate that parents responded to the
open-ended question in the parent questionnaire as follows:
RH S-W hat do parents like best? no responses: RHS-W hat do
parents like least? improper placement of students (1 response),
remove students with discipline problems (1 response), don't get
report card on time (2 responses). EARTH--What do parents like
best? location of school (1 response), school contacting home
when student is absent (1 response), teaching practices
(5 responses), 2-day schedule (2 responses), too much homework
which has the effect that child is busy (I response), small classes
(1 response): EARTH-What do parents like least? not enough
electives (1 response), dislike location (1 response), parents are
not involved (1 response), do not know much about it (1 response),
favoritism for students with discipline problems (1 response).
8 5
T able 8
9th G rade Mean R esponses From Student Questionnaire
149 1.94*
147 2.21*
M SD N d f
1. This school has really taught me how to think.
RHS 3.6 1.1 38
EARTH 4.0 1.0 113
2. This school makes learning fun.
RHS 2.9 1.3 37
EARTH 3.5 1.2 112
3. I have learned more at this school than at any other school.
RHS 2.9 1.1 38
148 3.09*
EARTH 3.6 1.3 112
4. At this school, we do things that are meaningful to me.
RHS 3.4 1.2 38
EARTH 3.4 1.2 112
5. This school has inspired me to go to college.
RHS 3.4 1.3 38
EARTH 3.9 1.2 112
*p <.05 p > .05
148 .03
148 1.90
8 6
T able 8--continued
M SD N df t
6. At this school, I feel special.
RHS 2.9 1.2 38
148 .65
EARTH 3.0 1.3 112
7. I find most of my classes very challenging.
RHS 3.4 1.3 38
147 1.93
EARTH 3.8 1.0 111
8. This school is different from any other school.
RHS 3.6 1.4 37
146 5.49*
EARTH 4.6 .8 111
9. At this school, everybody is given a chance to learn.
RHS 3.7 1.3 36
147 2.71*
EARTH 4.2 .9 113
10. This school has positively changed my life.
RHS 2.9 1.3 36
145 .68
EARTH 3.1 1.3 111
*p < .05 p > .05
8 7
Table 9
9th G rade Percentage Number of R esponses From EARTH Students
Strongly d isagree n eutral
disag ree
agree stro n g ly
agree
N (%) N (%) N
(%)
N
(%)
N (%)
1. I like the interdisciplinary curriculum at this school.
10 (9) 16 (14) 30 (27) 39 (35) 16 (14)
2. I like the themes at this school.
8 (7) 19 (17) 21 (19) 45 (40) 20 (17)
3. I like the field-trips at this school.
9 (8) 12 (11) 13 (12) 43 (39) 34
(31)
4. I do well in the projects at the end of the units.
4 (4) 22 (20) 15 (14) 56 (51) 13 (12)
5. 1 have completed my portfolio.
15 (13) 39 (35) 13 (12) 32 (28) 14 (12)
6. I like to work with computers.
1 (1) 6 (5) 6 (5)
40 (36) 59 (53)
7. I think that the video programs the teachers use are related to what we study.
3 (3) 9 (8) 9
(8)
57 (52) 32 (29)
8. I can learn more with the longer periods that we have at this school.
14 (12) 19 (17) 10
( 9)
35 (31) 35
(31)
9. I know what the 7-intelligences are because the teachers use them when they teach
10 ( 9) 20 (18) 10 ( 9 ) 52 (46) 21 (19)
10.. 1 enjoy working in cooperative groups because 1 learn more.
8 ( 7 ) 9 ( 8 ) 1 0 ( 9 ) 34 (30) 52 (46)
8 8
Table 10
9th G rade Mean R esponses From Parent Q uestionnaire
M SD N df t
1. My student is enthusiastic about school.
RHS 3.4 1.2 14
67 .77
EARTH 3.7 1.2 55
2. I feel that my student is obtaining a good education.
RHS 4.1 .7 14
67 .62
EARTH 4.0 1.0 55
3. The teachers are very helpful at this school.
RHS 4.2 .80 14
67 .39
EARTH 4.1 .94 55
4. The school informs me on how my student is doing.
RHS 3.7 1.0 14
67 .22
EARTH 3.8 1.4 55
5. I have attended most school activities this year.
RHS 2.3 1.2 14
66 2.18*
EARTH 3.2 1.4 54
” < 7 o “ 5 p > .05
8 9
T ab le 10--continued
6 6 .40
M SD N d f t
6. At this school, parents really get involved.
RHS 3.4 1.2 14
6 7 .35
EARTH 3.2 1.2 55
7. My students will be returning to RHS/EARTH next year.
RHS 3.6 1.3 14
EARTH 3.8 1.3 54
8. My student talks to us about the school.
RHS 3.4 1.3 14
67
1.15 EARTH 3.8 1.3 55
9. I really like the idea of my student doing community work.
RHS 3.3 1.2 14
6 5
1.65 EARTH 3.8 1.1 5 3
10. My student's grades have improved this year.
RHS 3.1 1.3 13
66
1.36 EARTH 3.6 1.2 5 5
*p< .05 p> .05
9 0
T able 10--continued
M SD N d f t
11. When my student misbehaves, I am informed right away.
RHS 3.2 1.4 14
6 7
1.85 EARTH 3.9 1.2 5 5
12. EARTH has had a positive influence in my student.
RHS 3.8 1.1 14
6 6 .08
EARTH 3.8 1.1 5 4
13. Next year, I plan to be more active in my student's school.
RHS 3.5 1.3 14
6 6
1.12
EARTH 3.9 1.3 5 4
*p < .05 p > .05
91
Table 11
9th G rade Parents' R esponse to Open Ended Question
W hat do you like best about the program/what do you like least?
Please write your answ er on the answer sheet.
RHS
B est
No responses
L&ast
I feel that students are not put into their schools properly.
Students who cause trouble in class and keeps another from
learning should be kicked out into opportunity.
I don't like that he doesn't get his report card all the time.
Doesn't get report card on time.
EARTH
Best
The school is closer to home.
They always inform me when she is absent.
Teachers are teaching higher levels. They help students
understand things better.
I like the effort teachers put to teach students everything.
How much the staff and teachers help students.
The grades that my child has been getting is enough to let me
know that the teachers are encouraging our child.
I like the idea that the whole school gets together to work on
p ro jects.
I like the 2 day schedule. I like the way you handle the fights
before they get out of hand.
More time in each class.
They give too much homework, but then she is always busy.
Small classes.
92
T able 11--continued
What do you like best about the program/what do you like least?
P lease write your answer on the answer sheet.
_____
L east
They don't have classes to choose from.
I don't like the location.
Parents do not get too involved.
Don't know much about the school; nobody has talked to me.
Special treatment to kids who cause trouble. Good kids do
not get special recognition.
10th G rade Results
Results in Table 12 indicate that EARTH students as
com pared to RHS students felt that EARTH; makes learning fun, is
different from any other school. EARTH students also responded
that they have learned more at this school than at any other school.
Results in Table 13 indicate that EARTH students agree or
strongly agree when answering the following questions: 46%-l
have completed my portfolio; 47%-l can learn more with the longer
periods that we have at this school; 50%-l like the
interdisciplinary curriculum at this school; 59%-l like the them es
at this school; 64%-l know what the 7-intelligences are because
the teachers use them when they teach; 80%-l do well in the
projects at the end of the units; 83%-l think that the video
9 3
programs that the teachers use in class are related to what we are
studying; 84%-l like the field-trips at this school; 84%-l enjoy
working in cooperative groups because I learn more; 94%-l like to
work with com puters.
Results in Table 14 indicate that EARTH parents feel that
teachers are very helpful at this school, that they are informed
right away when their student misbehaves, and that EARTH has had
a positive influence in their student. EARTH parents did not feel
any differently in any of the other areas tested.
Results in Table 15 indicate that parents responded to the
open-ended question in the parent questionnaire as follows:
RH S-W hat do parents like b est?-som e teachers doing a good job
(1 response), school divided into mini-schools (1 response),
opportunity to be noticed by big colleges (1 response); RHS--What
do parents like least?-teach ers not very professional
(3 responses), do not know much about the program (1 response),
girls sports not supported (1 response), no school pride
(2 responses), safety concerns (2 responses), school-home contact
is missing (2 responses). EARTH-What do parents like best?--
helpful teachers (2 responses), students learning more and good
curriculum (5 responses), environment and way school is set-up
(3 responses), like schedule (1 response), location of the school
(1 response). EARTH-What do parents like least? -n o parent
contact when study is failing (1 response), not enough parent
involvement (2 responses), no drivers training, physical fitness
program, or extra curricular activities (3 responses), students
9 4
spend too much time studying science (1 response), discipline
program (2 responses), administrators' apathy (1 response), not
enough enforcement on community work (1 response), too soon to
judge (1 response).
95
Table 12
10th G rade. Mean R esponses From Student Q uestionnaire
197 1.09
197 2.71’
M SD N df
1. This school has really taught me how to think.
RHS 3.5 1.2 53
EARTH 3.7 1.1 91
2. This school makes learning fun.
RHS 3.0 1.2 108
EARTH 3.5 1.3 91
3. I have learned more at this school than at any other school.
RHS 3.1 1.3 108
196 2.21’
EARTH 3.5 1.3 90
4. At this school, we do things that are meaningful to me.
RHS 3.3 1.3 109
EARTH 3.4 1.2 88
5. This school has inspired me to go to college.
RHS 3.5 1.3 109
EARTH 3.3 1.4 91
*p < .05 p > .05
195 .68
198 1.33
9 6
T able 12--continued
M SD N df
6. At this school, I feel special.
RHS 2.9 1.3 108
EARTH 3.0 1.3 91
7. I find most of my classes very challenging.
RHS 3.5 1.2 109
EARTH 3.8 1.0 91
8. This school is different from any other school.
RHS 3.8 1.2 109
EARTH 4.5 .69 91
9. At this school, everybody is given a chance to learn.
RHS 3.8 1.3 107
EARTH 4.0 1.1 90
10. This school has positively changed my life.
RHS 3.1 1.4 104
EARTH 3.1 1.3 90
*p < .05 p > .05
197 .06
198 1.51
198 5.05*
195 1.56
192 .04
9 7
Table 13
10th G rade Percentage Number of R esponses From EARTH Students
Strongly d isagree n eu tral
d isag ree
N (%) N (%) N (%)
agree
N (%)
stro n g ly
agree
N (%)
1. I like the interdisciplinary curriculum at this school.
13 (14) 21 (23) 11 (12) 34 (38) 11 (12)
2. I like the them es at this school.
5 (6) 23 (26) 9 (10) 37 (41) 16 (18)
3. I like the field-trips at this school.
7 (8) 5 (6 ) 1 (1 ) 31 (34) 46
(51)
4. I do well in the projects at the end of the units.
3 (3) 10 (11) 5 (6 ) 51 (56) 22 (24)
5. I have completed my portfolio.
12 (13) 31 (34) 6 (7 ) 24 (26) 18 (20)
6. I like to work with computers.
2 (2) 3 (3) 0 (0) 21 (23) 65 (71)
7. I think that the video programs the teachers usei are related to what we study.
1 (1) 10 (11) 5 (6) 38 (42) 37 (41)
8. I can learn more with the longer periods that we have at this school.
18 (20) 25 (28) 5 ( 6) 24 (26) 19 (21)
9. I know what the 7-intelligences are because the teachers use them when they teach,
5 ( 6 ) 19 (21) 9 ( 10) 42 (47) 15 (17)
10. I enjoy working in cooperative groups because I learn more.
2 ( 2 ) 10 ( 11) 3 (3) 31 (34) 45 (50)
9 8
T able 14
10th G rade Mean R esponses From Parent Q uestionnaire
103 .14
M SD N df t
1. My student is enthusiastic about school.
RHS 3.8 1.2 53
103 .42
EARTH 3.9 1.1 52
2. I feel that my student is obtaining a good education.
RHS 3.6 1.1 53
EARTH 3.7 1.1 52
3. The teachers are very helpful at this school.
RHS 3.3 1.3 53
EARTH 3.9 1.0 51
4. The school informs me on how my student is doing.
RHS 3.5 1.3 54
103 .64
EARTH 3.3 1.4 51
5. I have attended most school activities this year.
RHS 3.5 1.3 54
103 .99
EARTH 3.3 1.4 51
_____ p“ o5
102 2.89*
9 9
T able 14--continued
M SD N df t
6. At this school, parents really get involved.
RHS 2.6 1.2 54
103 .96
EARTH 2.9 1.2 51
7. My students will be returning to RHS/EARTH next year.
RHS 4.1 1.2 53
103 .16
EARTH 4.1 1.1 52
8. My student talks to us about the school.
RHS 3.7 1.3 54
104 .27
EARTH 3.7 1.3 53
9. I really like the idea of my student doing community work.
RHS 3.5 1.4 52
EARTH 3.7 1.2 4 9
10. My student's grades have improved this year.
RHS 3.6 1.3 54
EARTH 3.9 1.3 51
*p < .05 p > .05
9 9 .65
103 1.04
100
T ab le 14--continued
M SD N df t
11. When my student misbehaves, I am informed right away.
RHS 2.9 1.3 54
104 3.03*
EARTH 3.7 1.2 52
12. EARTH has had a positive influence in my student.
RHS 3.3 1.3 53
101 2.14*
EARTH 3.8 1.1 50
13. Next year, I plan to be more active in my students' school.
RHS 3.7 1.1 53
103 .37
EARTH 3.7 1.1 52
*p < .05 p > .05
101
Table 15
10th G rade P arents' R esponse to Open Ended Question
What do you like best about the program/what do you like least.
Please write your answer on the answer sheet.
RHS
B eal
Some teachers are doing a good job.
The school is divided into sub-group schools, depending upon
stu d en t's interests.
Opportunity to be noticed by big colleges when student is
su ccessfu l.
Least
Som e teachers very disrespectful and bring student's self
esteem very low.
Some teachers are not doing a good job.
Teachers are not very professional.
I don't really know what I like about this program.
Girl's sports are not highly supported by the school.
No school pride.
Lack of school involvement.
Dislike security system because students leave whenever
they want.
School out of control.
School doesn't inform parents of important concerns.
They don't inform me that my child is not attending school.
102
T able 15--continued
What do you like best about the program/what do you like least.
P lease write your answer on the answer sheet.
EARTH
B e Si
The staff and teacher helping students after school.
I like the way the teachers are very helpful, and that my
daughter enjoys to come to school.
The school teaches excellent skills to my student.
I like that the school is small so students can learn more. My
daughter loves the school and that is important to me.
I am sure my child is getting a good education.
I like the curriculum, the community work involvement, and
the GATE program.
My daughter learns more and does more homework.
Small environment and more teacher/student support.
Close to home.
School doesn't put up with kids who cause trouble.
I like the way the school system is set-up.
I like the environment of the school.
I like the schedule.
L east
No parent contact when child is failing.
Lack of communication
Not too many parents get involved.
Parents should be more involved.
No extra-curricular activities for students; they have to go
to the big school to get activities.
No physical fitness program.
No driver's training with a car.
No information on scholarships and grants for college.
Students spend too much time studying biological things.
School has too many fights.
103
T ab le 15 -c o n tin u e d
What do you like best about the program/what do you like least.
P lease write your answer on the answ er sheet.
_____
Least
Students should not be allowed to disrupt.
School officials separated from teaching process.
Not enough enforcement put on the community work program.
It is too soon to judge.
Hypothesis Three
EARTH students will obtain a higher GPA than students at the
regular RHS.
To operationalize if EARTH is able to improve students' GPA
(Grade Point Average), EARTH and RHS students' GPA's were
compared at the end of the sem ester. The t-test was used for
statistical analysis.
The data for this section will be collected at the completion
of the first sem ester. EARTH students who have been absent more
than 2 days a week will not be included in the analysis. Grade were
changed from an alpha designation to a numerical value (A = 4,
B = 3, C = 2, D = 1, F = 0).
104
9th Grade Results
Results in Table 16 indicate that 9th grade EARTH students
received a higher GPA in English at the end of the first sem ester.
Both RHS and EARTH 9th grade students received comparable GPA's
in science and mathematics at the end of the first sem ester.
Table 16
9th Grade Mean GPA at the End of First Sem ester
M SD N df t
English
RHS 2.1 1.3 59
118 2.00*
EARTH 2.5 1.1 61
Science
RHS 2.0 1.3 31
9 0 .16
EARTH 2.0 1.5 61
M athem atics
RHS 2.1 1.2 58
117 .40
EARTH 2.2 1.3 61
*p < .05 p > .05
1 0 5
10th Grade Results
Results in Table 17 indicate that EARTH 10th grade students
received a higher GPA in English, science, and mathematics at the
end of the first sem ester.
Table 17
10th Grade Mean GPA at the End of First Sem ester
M SD N df t
English
RHS 1.8 1.2 69
138 3.73
EARTH 2.5 .9 71
Science
RHS 1.9 1.2 65
134 2.98
EARTH 2.5 1.0 71
M athem atics
RHS 1.7 1.3 64
133 2.48
EARTH 2.2 1.2 71
* p < .05
1 0 6
Hypothesis Four
EARTH will be more successful in offering college prep
classes to all students regardless of their previous academ ic
achievem ent and program designation.
To operationalize whether EARTH was more successful in
offering equal access to college prep classes to all students
irrespective of their previous academ ic achievem ent and program
designation, EARTH and RHS students placement were compared.
The comparison classes were math, English, and science. Initially,
the total number of these comparison classes taken by each group
was compared by using percentages. Secondly, the GPA of these
comparison classes was compared for college prep classes for
regular, EDY, and LEP students. The t-test was used for statistical
an aly sis. The data for this section were collected after the
completion of th e first sem ester.
9th Grade Results
Results in Table 18 indicated that 9th grade students were
assigned to college prep classes as follows: English RHS (84%),
EARTH (100%); science RHS (49%), EARTH (100%); math RHS (49%),
EARTH (100%). In addition, results in Table 19 indicated that
EARTH students received a higher GPA in English in the college prep
classes. No differences were found in GPA in science and math.
107
Table 18
9th G rade P ercentage of Students Taking College Prep C lasses
English Science Math
N (%) N (%) N (%)
RHS 51 (84) 30 (49) 30 (49)
EARTH 61 (100) 61 (100) 61 (100)
108
Table 19
9th G rade Mean GPA for College Prep C lasses
M SO N df t
English
RHS 2.0 1.3 51
110 2.33
EARTH 2.5 1.1 61
Science
RHS 2.0 1.3 30
89 .26
EARTH 2.0 1.5 61
Math
RHS 2.4 1.1 27
86 .69
EARTH 2.2 1.3 61
* p < .05 p > .05
10th Grade Results
Results in Table 20 indicated that 10th grade students were
assigned to college prep classes as follows: English RHS (93%),
EARTH (100%); science RHS (83%), EARTH (100%); math RHS (81%),
EARTH (100%). In addition, results in Table 21 indicated that
EARTH students received a higher GPA in English, science, and
m athem atics for th ese college preparatory courses.
109
T able 20
10th Grade P ercentage of Students Taking College P rep C lasses
English Science Math
N
(%)
N (%) N
(%)
RHS 66 (93) 59 (83) 5 8 (81)
EARTH 71 (100) 71 (100) 71 (100)
110
Table 21
10th G rade M ean GPA for College P rep C lasses
M SD N df t
English
RHS 1.8 1.3 66
135 3.72*
EARTH 2.5 .86 71
S cience
RHS 1.9 1.3 59
128 2.88*
EARTH 2.5 1.0 71
Math
RHS 1.6 1.3 58
127 2.57*
EARTH 2.2 1.2 71
* p < .05 p > .05
111
CHAPTER V
ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study focused on whether EARTH has an impact on
student learning, is effective in improving students' and parents'
attitudes toward school, and is more successful in offering equal
su ccess to college preparatory classes to all students irrespective
of their previous academ ic achievement. In addition, experience
with the EARTH program showed implications for school
restructuring in three major areas: curriculum and instruction,
student placem ent practices, and parental involvement.
Curriculum and Instruction
The major components of EARTH'S curriculum are
interdisciplinary and thematic units; and a critical thinking
program. EARTH'S instructional strategies include the theory of
7-intelligences, cooperative groups, and technology.
The interdisciplinary and thematic units were very easy to
implement because the teachers were given a topic out of which all
the disciplines em anated. This way teachers retained th e ability
to decide which content areas were more relevant to the theme
being studied. This prevented teachers from feeling that they were
112
being imposed a curriculum that they did not want to teach. For
the other components of the program, challenges arose that needed
to be rectified as the program progressed. These components are
analyzed in the following sections.
EARTH offers a high school program in which students take
four years of science, four years of mathematics, four years of
history, four years of English, four years of technology, two years
of music and art, and two years, of Spanish. This rigorous college
prep courses created many problems. The four years of science
courses generated expenses that were not anticipated such as the
specialized laboratory equipment and the continual expense of the
single use experiment supplies. The science series also required
the expertise of teachers who were science generalists and not
specialists because these teachers needed to integrate biology,
chemistry, and physics throughout the year. Most science teachers
are only credentialed to teach one of the science fields so it
becam e difficult to recruit teachers who wanted to join the staff.
The sam e problems were encountered with the math series.
Technology proved to be one of the most successful
components of the program. Almost 99% of students responded
that they really like to work with computers. It remains to be seen
w hether this effect will be long lasting or if it will disappear once
the novelty of technology wears off. Teachers felt that students
were more attentive and that students' work was neater when done
in the computer. W hether students' work content quality improved
is a topic for another dissertation.
1 1 3
At the beginning, it w as decided that all teachers were going
to integrate technology in their own content areas so that
technology just does not become an isolated class in the program.
This arrangem ent did not work out too well because som e teachers
still do not feel comfortable with the subject. Presently, one
teacher who is trying to develop the expertise in the area, is
teaching the class. Another thing that became a problem is how
fast the hardware and software becam e obsolete. For example at
the beginning, the computers had 80 megabyte hard disks. This
w as sufficient for the students to run a few programs. When the
students needed to start producing projects using hypercards, to
start using spread sheets and data bases, and to start compiling
their portfolio, these computers did not have enough capacity. It
w as then necessary to buy computers with 200 m egabyte hard
drives which severely compromised the proposed budget.
The desire to make the program very homogenous and to offer
Spanish to all students proved difficult to implement b ecause of
the nature of the student population. The native Spanish speaking
students were too advanced for the classes, the South East Asian
students had difficulty with English to begin with so a third
language for them becam e onerous, the Mexican-American students
complained that they did not want to take Spanish but that they
wanted to be exposed to another language such as French. The
problem then becam e on how to hire a teacher who is multilingual
and can teach all these different languages. It needs to be kept in
114
mind that there is not an unlimited amount of money to hire too
many teachers.
EARTH teachers use the 7-intelligences and collaborative
groups a s part of the instructional strategies. Teachers found that
th e logical-m athem atical, linguistic, and Intrapersonal
intelligences were the easiest to implement. The musical
intelligence was sparingly integrated, since none of the teachers
had musical expertise, and som e teachers resorted to just turning
on the radio or playing the students' favorite songs to include this
intelligence when teaching. The interpersonal intelligence w as
utilized when students work in collaborative groups. Even though
students com m ented that they really like to work in collaborative
groups because they feel that they learn more, it w as found that
som e of our students did not have any social skills and did not
know how to deal with peers when placed in groups. Some of the
groups w ere dysfunctional and som e students complained that they
w ere the only ones doing all the work. The bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence was easy to implement in the science and P.E.
classroom s in which students are either doing many laboratories
and/or moving around, but it w as difficult for other classes to
implement. The spatial intelligence was a natural for the art and
history classes. T hese problems show how difficult it is for one
teacher to implement the 7-intelligences. At EARTH, the
interdisciplinary approach make it easier to incorporate all th e
intelligences because teachers from different disciplines are
collaborating with each other.
115
O ne of EARTH'S holistic outcomes is that students will
becom e community contributors. This means that students need to
volunteer to do community work. Som e parents were not
supportive of this requirement, because they felt that their
students were being forced to work for free. This program becam e
very expensive for the school to provide opportunities for students
to fulfill this requirement, the reason being that the majority of
EARTH students do not have transportation to attend som e of the
organized volunteering activities that the school organized for
them. For example, planting trees for Tree Fresno on a Saturday
morning became a real problem. The school had to pay for
transportation and pay for a teacher to supervise the students. In
addition, the workload for the administration and teachers
increased because now there was a need to spend time in
organizing th ese type of activities.
EARTH is trying to use alternative assessm ents, such as
exhibitions and projects, to gauge student performance. This
created a dual problem because of the district and the low
socio-economic level of our students. The district is a headless
bureaucracy which does not allow much creativity at the different
school sites. For example when the students were learning about
w ater conservation, it was decided that students should plant a
xeriscape garden for the project. The central office becam e the
major obstacle in this endeavor. When the collaborating agencies
wanted to see th e blueprints of the school to determine the best
site to plant the garden, th e district took about three months to
1 1 6
provide the plans. When some volunteers wanted to work on the
sprinkler system and the water meter, the union got involved
because their union members were not employed. When a site was
finally selected, the district decided that the site was not
appropriate for some unknown reason. This project then becam e an
exercise of jumping through the obstacles that the district was
creatin g .
The low socio-economic status of our students also becam e a
major problem because the students could not afford to buy the
supplies that were needed to complete many of the projects. For
example, in the WILDLIFE Unit, the students were asked to produce
a puppet show using one of the endangered species. Most of the
students could not do it because they were not able to buy the
materials necessary to complete this project. It w as decided then
that all m aterials for the projects were going to be given to the
students. This became very costly for the school.
EARTH takes students on culminating field trips. Since
funding sources frowned on activities that are not going to be
institutionalized after the funding is exhausted, it was proposed
that students and parents were going to be responsible for raising
the funds necessary for field trips. This worked very nicely with
about 50% of the student body, but it becam e a fiasco with the
other 50%. Many parents refused to help because they think that
education should be free for all students. Other parents did not
want to get involved. In some instances, parents wanted to do a
bake sale which requires a lot of work but still does not generate
117
enough money to cover the expenses of the field trips. Some of the
students were not very responsible with the candy bars that they
were supposed to sell and never turned in their money. Other
students had the candy money stolen. One time, when the
tem perature in Fresno was 105 °F, most of the candy melted and
the school had to replace the spoiled candies at its own expense.
Even though approximately 85% of students responded that
they like the field trips at the school, the school had a higher than
normal absenteeism rate on the days of field trips. Some students
complained that the field trips were boring because they were too
educational. Others stated that they liked staying home or coming
to regular school more than going on field trips. Some of our Asian
and Hispanic girls were not allowed to go by their parents because
of cultural beliefs. This discrepant account presents an ever going
conflict. Should schools cater to students who want to participate
in the field trips? The answer is not that simple because schools
get reimbursed by the state according to how many students are
present. The question then becomes one of economics.
EARTH schedule has been changed to two hours per period
twice a week so that students can work on projects and long term
problems. This portion of the program works beautifully when
teachers are skilled enough to do it, but it becom es a real
challenge for those teachers who do not know how to present a
well connected set of activities that the students can find
interesting and challenging. Some students complained that the
classes were too long and boring because they did not have
118
anything to do. Some teachers complained that it was too difficult
to maintain students' interests for two hours. After 2 1/2 years of
this schedule, it was decided to go back to a traditional schedule
until teachers have had more time to develop the skills that they
need to teach the longer periods.
EARTH offers a comprehensive professional development
program for teachers. This was an area that was greatly
underfunded because there was a miscalculation in the trem endous
number of resources needed to affect the magnitude of the changes
that were demanded from teachers. To begin with, it must be
clarified that the district never gave full support to this program
so at its very inception EARTH lost some of the teachers who have
been trained for a year to work in this program. They were bumped
by other teachers who had seniority in the district but who were
not committed to the program. The district was not willing to
contest the union to protect the teachers who wanted to work for
the program. Of those teachers who came unwillingly to the
program, seven resigned after the first year. Their major
contentions were that this program dem anded too much of their
time, that they did not agree with the philosophy of the program,
and som e of them did not feel comfortable working in close
association with other teachers. The new teachers needed to be
trained. Even though som e of these new teachers becam e great
teachers, this retraining becam e extremely expensive and very
time-consuming when one considers the multiplicity of
interventions that EARTH is trying to implement.
1 1 9
O ther variables make an effective professional development
program difficult to implement. Even though teachers were
exposed to the sam e staff development activities it was found that
about 20% of the teachers learned how to do it and were willing to
implement right away, 60% of the teachers learned how to do it but
found it difficult or cumbersome to implement, and about 20% of
the teachers never understood what the overall plan was supposed
to accomplish.
Another factor that needs to be taken into account is the
issue of teacher efficacy or the belief system that teachers have
that they are capable to teach any student. In the inner city, it is
very easy for teachers to becom e demoralized because of the
nature of the student population. The majority of the students are
academically underprepared and very few read, write, and do math
at grade level. Some students have been totally turned-off and are
not motivated to learn. These students expressed their frustration
by sitting in class staring at the walls or by becoming extremely
defiant of the teacher's authority. It is not unusual for some
students to cuss their teachers or to create such disruptions in the
classroom that it becom es very difficult to teach. It is not rare to
s e e young, energetic teachers lose their sen se of efficacy after a
year or two of these conditions. Staff development then becom es
more attuned to teachers needs instead to students needs.
Administrators' time then becom es consumed in supporting
teachers to control discipline problems and not in maintaining the
integrity and the quality of the educational program.
1 2 0
Placem ent Practices
The fact that all EARTH students are participating in a very
rigorous college prep curriculum and that many of them are being
successful regardless of their previous academ ic achievem ent and
program placement is a great accomplishment for the program.
T hese findings, however, have created som e further questions and
concerns.
EARTH students obtained a higher GPA in college prep classes
than students at RHS. The question then becam e whether EARTH
classes and EARTH grading system were comparable to the classes
at RHS. EARTH classes should be equivalent in rigorousness to the
ones at RHS. The math series w as developed by Lawrence Hall of
Science at th e University of California, Berkeley and th e science
series was patterned after the science framework. Both of th ese
series have been accepted by UC as part of the entrance
requirements. The English series is the sam e at both schools.
The bigger issue then becam e the problem with grade
inflation. The major concern being how is it possible for a
heterogeneous group of students at EARTH to receive a higher GPA
than the more select group of students at RHS taking college prep
classes. Since there are no national standards or district
standards to gauge how students are doing, it is very difficult to
prove that EARTH teachers are not being too lenient with the
grading. As far as the question of heterogeneous groups and the
possibility that teachers' expectations may somehow be lowered by
th e presence of the low level students in the EARTH classroom,
121
som e observations need to be discussed. The student level of
academ ic achievement is not determined by the student's
placem ent. It is the student's motivation that determ ines how
well the student will do. For example, some of the GATE students
were not motivated at all and did not receive good grades. On the
other hand, som e of the RSP students were very motivated and
received good grades.
The real problem with heterogeneous groups is the discipline
problems exhibited by som e students and the disruption in the
classes. On a percentage basis, RSP students seem ed to have more
problems with this area than any other group of students. For
example, 33% of the severe discipline problems came from RSP
students even though they comprised only 17% of the student body.
It w as then speculated that these students were rebelling because
the curriculum was too difficult for them and they felt frustrated.
Upon close inspection of these students' files, it was found that
th ese students have had severe discipline problems in the past
even when they were in the RSP classes.
Another big difficulty that we had was our inability to
attract enough students to come to the program. An academically
rigorous schools is not very popular in the inner city. This meant
that RHS sent all the "late comers" to the school. These students
traditionally have been the ones with discipline and high
absenteeism problems. One thing that was noticed is that teachers
would complain about how miserable it was to have som e of these
students in their classes. This prompted the author to coin the
122
phrase "battered-teacher syndrome" because even though teachers
w ere encouraged to send these disruptive students to the office
som e teachers would not do it but would complain about them
in stead .
Another big concern was whether the really advanced
students w ere hurt because they were placed with low level
students. This question is very difficult to answer because there
are no m easurem ents to prove that these students were not
negatively affected. It was noticed though that classes with
heterogeneous groups are more multi-dimensional. Students in
th e se classes have many different abilities; therefore, in the
culminating projects som e students would contribute in different
w ays. By inference then it can be said that the advanced students
w ere benefiting because they were being exposed to students that
they would not normally see in a highly homogeneous group.
Another major difficulty encountered by this program was
the resistance or ignorance of other counselors to place
transferring EARTH students in college prep courses at their high
schools. For example, the majority of our students when they
transferred to another high school were placed in low level classes
again. When these high schools were contacted, counselors stated
that they w ere not familiar with the classes being offered by the
EARTH; that they did not consider these classes to be college prep;
or that the students had expressed no desire to be placed in a
college prep track. It was then realized that this program could
not change in isolation and a major program dissemination attempt
123
was made. Even after counselors have been informed of the quality
of the courses, it was found that any of the reformed courses are
still not considered college prep. The reason being that counselors
perceived the changed classes as being inferior because they were
developed to be more inclusive of all students. The students
expressing no desire to be placed in a college prep curriculum is
indefensible to use as a reason for placing the students in remedial
classes. At EARTH, students are not given a choice of which
classes to take. The only classes that are available to them are
the college prep classes. It must be remembered that many inner
city students have a very poor academ ic self-concept and very
limited aspirations. They state over and over again that they are
not smart enough to go to college or that they have no desire to go
to college.
Accommodating students coming from other high schools into
EARTH also proved to be a problem. The reason being that about
50% of incoming students were placed in a non college prep track
in their former schools. When these students wanted to transfer to
EARTH, it was almost impossible for them to catch up with their
EARTH counterparts. For example some of the students enrolling in
the 10th grade have never had had any science or math; therefore,
it was very difficult for them to compete with EARTH students
who already were in their second year of these classes and other
highly enriching courses. Students who were in college prep
classes and on track did not have as much difficulty adjusting to
the program.
124
The day of real reflection came the day EARTH students took
the PSAT (Pre Scholastic Aptitude Test). The students who took
the test are considered the best and the brightest at EARTH. It
turned out that even th ese students were flabbergasted by the test.
They complained that they have never seen some of the vocabulary
words and that they were not familiar with some of the math
formulas that they were expected to use to solve the problems.
The question then becam e whether the reformed classes at EARTH
which are supposed to be more inclusive are creating false
expectations in some of our students that they can go to college.
For example, EARTH math classes are not emphasizing mechanical
u se of formulas but critical thinking skills. In addition, EARTH
classes encourage students to expressed them selves in different
ways. The SAT, on the other hand, still em phasizes traditional
linguistic and mathematical skills. These doubts were somehow
ameliorated with a trip to the local bookstore. It was found that
even students attending the most elite college prep schools need
help when taking the SAT. EARTH is now offering an after school
workshop to help students prepare for the SAT.
Parental Involvement
Even though it was very rewarding to s e e how some of EARTH
parents really understood the program and were very im pressed
with the quality of teaching and the thought-provoking nature of
the classes, it was found that the school w as still unable to reach
a great majority of the parents. The school directs a lot of energy
125
in trying to keep parents informed on how their students are doing
at school and in trying to get parents to become more involved with
their student's education.
To keep parents appraised of how their students are doing in
class, EARTH issues progress report cards 8 tim es a year. At the
beginning, the report cards were given to the students to take
home. This arrangement did not work because som e students never
gave the report cards to their parents. It was then decided to mail
the progress report cards at great expense to the school. This
worked for about 80% of the cases. In some instances, students
got to the mail box before their parents did. O ther times because
of the high transiency rate of the student population, it w as very
difficult to find out the current address for the students and a lot
of the correspondence came back. When the school finally made
contact with home, it was too late and the student had already
failed the class. With all this effort, it was found that only a few
parents actually called the school to investigate why their student
was not passing the classes.
To try to keep students in school, the school hired a person
w hose job is to call parents to investigate why the student is not
at school. This person is successful in making home contact about
50% of the time because most of the telephones are disconnected
and there is not a new number. Sometimes even when hom e contact
is m ade, some of the parents excuse their student an unlimited
number of days because of illness. In other cases, parents have
given up in trying to force students to come to school because the
126
student would not get up in the morning or would refuse to come.
As a last resort, the school notifies Student Sen/ices so that a
school official is sent to the home to explain to the parents that it
is against the law not to send students to school. Again, this
rarely works because few families are ever prosecuted under this
law.
When trying to get parents to collaborate with the school in
controlling their student behavior, it was found that th e majority
of the parents are very supportive of the school. Som e parents are
supportive but they are unable to help because their student is also
out of control at home. In a few cases, parents do not even come to
school to the conferences that the school sets up for them to
discuss the discipline problems at school. Some parents become
very irate when informed that their student behavior is
unacceptable because they feel that the school is discriminating
against their student because of its ethnic background or they feel
that teachers dislike their student for some unknown reason.
In trying to get parents to come to school activities, it w as
found that the most successful activities were the ones in which
students were doing presentations and students' work was
exhibited. Successful is a relative term because for EARTH it is
considered great when at least 20% of the parents participate.
Recommendations for Further Research
EARTH was successful in offering a college prep curriculum
to all students regardless of their previous academ ic achievem ent
127
or program placement. To accomplish this, curriculum and
instruction need to be revamped. The question then becom es
whether the new reformed classes are comparable to the
traditional courses. Another issue to be addressed is grade
inflation. This of course can only be resolved by the promulgation
of national standards or district standard.
EARTH teachers had various problems in dealing with the
student population: academically underprepared students,
unmotivated students, and students with severe discipline
problems. Academically underprepared students can be helped by
providing many enrichment opportunities and a thought-provoking
curriculum. The unmotivated students seem ed to be more attentive
with the use of technology and creative instructional strategies.
The students with severe discipline problems presented a real
problem. Further research needs to be conducted to develop
alternative programs to serve some of these students.
It was relatively simple to get teachers to comply with the
interdisciplinary curriculum when they were given a them e to
follow. They also integrated critical thinking activities
throughout all the disciplines very successfully. Changing
instructional practices proved more recalcitrant. Som e teachers
used the 7-intelligences sparingly. Further studies need to be done
to develop methods that induce teachers to change their lesson
delivery practices.
A program cannot change in isolation. One of the major
obstacles in implementing EARTH was the huge bureaucracy at the
128
district level. The district supported the program when the grants
were being written but was not as supportive during the
implementation period. Another problem w as getting other high
schools to accept the restructured classes as being of the sam e
caliber as the traditional classes. These findings present great
opportunities to study strategies which are utilized by districts
which are successful in implementing highly innovative programs.
Professional development opportunities for teachers in the
inner city need to be reassessed. It needs to be considered that
th ese teachers do not only have the challenge of changing
instruction, curriculum, and assessm ent. T hese teachers are
confronted with academically underprepared students and students
with various disciplines programs. More studies need to be
conducted on how to design support system s to maintain teacher's
enthusiasm even when working under these trying conditions.
Educational reform needs tremendous economic resources.
The implementation of EARTH required expenses that were not even
accounted for in the grant proposals. Many of the intended changes
were not implemented because the money allocated to these
programs was spent completing other ones. There is a need to
really scrutinize the real effect of many educational interventions.
Som e of the issues that need to be studied further are: is
technology really improving the quality of work that students
generate, is spending so much money trying to attract reluctant
high school parents worth the energy and money investment, which
type of staff development really m akes a difference in the
129
classroom, can schools really afford to take the place of social
institutions? More research needs to be done to ensure that highly
effective interventions will remain viable even after the funding
has been exhausted.
Restructuring is the systematic change that is being
implemented in schools in order to improve student learning. This
restructuring cannot happen in isolation. Districts and states must
provide the support system that will ensure the perm anency of the
reform s.
The initial fundamental change that the school must accept is
that it is no longer an institution devoted solely to the
transmission of knowledge and culture. It must also becom e an
institution which is highly involved with community agencies to
am eliorate som e of the most pernicious social problems.
Schools also need to heed the call to change from within. As
we enter into a new global economy and as we understand more on
how we learn, it is imperative that schools change their
curriculum, instruction and assessm ent. How are teachers going to
learn to do the kind of adventurous teaching that is advocated by
current reformers? Who is going to teach them about th ese new
practices? The reform policies present a vision of how schools
could be quite different, more exciting, more intellectually
challenging, more successful in preparing students to lead
productive lives. To work out that vision and construct policies to
support it is not a small task. But it is one thing to get policies in
place that give teachers permission to try to do things differently
130
and quite another matter to ensure that educators, from primary
school through graduate school, learn to do the things that the
policies advocate.
Old paradigms in management practices and organizational
structures must also be addressed if schools are to benefit from
the trem endous potential of the various stakeholders upon which
su ccess is dependent. Districts must decentralize and a
multiplicity of new leaders need to em erge to m eet the needs of
our students.
Revamping the educational system will necessitate the
concerted effort of schools, districts, and states. At the school
level we need more focused goals, greater attention to conceptions
of knowledge, and better m anagem ent of instructional tasks,
student-grouping practices, and the use of time. At the district
level, we need to redefine the relationship between district- and
school-level personnel to stress the importance of school-level
responsibility for learning. At the state level we need greater
efforts on goal-setting, assessm ent of overall performance, and
development of capacity at the district and school level.
131
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
This study w as conducted to a sse ss if EARTH, a multiple
intervention “restructured" school would be more effective in
educating students. "Restructuring" is the system atic change that
is being implemented in schools in order to improve student
learning. In general, restructuring efforts are b ased on the belief
that all students should be engaged in meaningful learning
experiences, regardless of race, ethnic, linguistic, or
socio-economic background, and that all students deserve to have
equal access to the same curriculum.
For this study EARTH students w ere compared with regular
RHS students. To operationalize whether EARTH had an impact on
student learning, EARTH 9th and 10th grade students were
compared with 9th and 10th grade RHS students. At the end of the
1993/1994 school year, EARTH students' and RHS students' NCE
scores on the Individual Test of Academic Skills (ITAS) in the
subtest areas of reading comprehension and mathematics
132
applications were compared (See Appendix F for description of
ITAS). The subjects were matched as to degree of English
proficiency, previous academ ic achievement as evidenced by the
NCE total reading test scores, and gender. Multiple t-tests were
used for statistical analysis. The data for the ITAS results were
collected at the end of the 1993/1994 school year. Students who
were absent more than 2 days a week were not included in the
analyses.
To operationalize whether EARTH was effective in improving
students' and parents' attitudes toward school, EARTH students'
and parents' attitudes were compared to RHS students and parents
using an author-constructed questionnaire.
The student questionnaire was given to all EARTH students
during their English class (five 9th grade classes, and five 10th
grade classes). The sam e student questionnaire was then given to
students in 9th and 10th grade English classes at the regular RHS.
No attempt was made to administer the questionnaire to students
who were absent that day.
The parent questionnaire was sent home the sam e day that
the students took the student questionnaire. The parent
questionnaire w as collected the following day. No attem pt was
m ade to collect the parent questionnaire from those students who
forgot to bring it back to school.
To operationalize if EARTH w as able to improve students'
overall GPA, EARTH and RHS students overall GPA was compared at
the end of the sem ester. The test subjects were matched as to
133
degree of English proficiency, previous academ ic achievem ent as
evidenced by the NCE total reading test scores, and gender.
Multiple t-tests were used for statistical analysis. S eparate
analyses were conducted for each class.
The data for this section were collected at the completion of
the first sem ester. Students, in both groups, who were absent
more than 2 days a week were not included in the analysis.
To operationalize whether EARTH was more successful in
providing access to college preparatory classes to all students
irrespective of their previous academ ic achievement, EARTH and
RHS students placement w as compared. The test subjects were
matched as to degree of English proficiency, previous academ ic
achievement as evidenced by the NCE total reading test scores, and
gender. The comparison classes were math, English, and science.
Initially, the total number of these comparison classes taken by
each group was compared. Percentages were used for the
statistical analysis. Secondly, the GPA in these comparison
classes was compared for the two groups. Multiple t-tests were
used for statistical analysis.
The data for this section were collected after the completion
of the first sem ester of the 1993/1994 school year. Students who
were absent more than 2 days a week were not included in the
analysis.
This study showed that there were no statistical
significantly differences between RHS and EARTH 9th grade
students for the post-test NCE ITAS in total reading, total
134
language, and total math. Results also indicated that there were no
statistical significant differences between 10th grade RHS and
EARTH students for any of these areas.
On the student questionnaire, EARTH 9th grade students as
com pared to RHS students felt that EARTH had really taught them
how to think, m ade learning fun, and was different from any other
school. EARTH students also responded that they had learned more
at this school than at any other school, and that at EARTH
everybody is given a chance to learn. EARTH 9th grade students
agreed or strongly agreed when they answ ered the following
questions: 40%-l have completed my portfolio; 49%-l like the
interdisciplinary curriculum at this school; 57%-l like the them es
at this school; 62%-l can learn more with the longer periods that
we have at this school; 63%-l do well in the projects at the end of
the units; 65%-l know what the 7-intelligences are b ecause the
teachers use them when they teach; 70%-l like the field-trips at
this school; 76%-l enjoy working in cooperative groups because I
learn more; 81%-l think that the video programs that the teachers
use in class are related to what we are studying; 99%-l like to
work with com puters.
Parents for 9th grade students indicated that EARTH parents
have attended more of EARTH activities during the year as
compared to RHS parents. Parents responded to the open-ended
question in the parent questionnaire as follows: RH S-W hat do
parents like b e st? -n o responses; RH S-W hat do parents like
least?-im proper placement of students (1 response), remove
135
students with discipline problems (1 response), don't get report
card on time (2 responses). EARTH--What do parents like
best?-location of school (1 response), school contacting home
when student is absent (1 response), teaching practices
(5 responses), 2-day schedule (2 responses), too much homework
which has the effect, however, that the child is kept busy
(1 response), small classes (1 response); EARTH-What do parents
like le a st? -n o t enough electives (1 response), dislike location
(1 response), parents are not involved (1 response), do not know
much about it (1 response), favoritism for students with discipline
problems (1 response).
The 10th grade EARTH students as compared to RHS students
on the student questionnaire felt that EARTH m ade learning fun,
and was different from any other school. These students also
agreed more strongly that they have learned more at this school
than at any other school. EARTH 10th grade students agreed or
strongly agreed when they answered the following questions:
46%-l have completed my portfolio; 47%-l can learn more with the
longer periods that we have at this school; 50%-l like the
interdisciplinary curriculum at this school; 59%-l like the them es
at this school; 64% I know what the 7-intelligences are because
the teachers use them when they teach; 80%-l do well in the
projects at the end of the units; 83%-l think that the video
program s that the teachers use in class are related to what we are
studying; 84%-l like the field-trips at this school; 84%-l enjoy
136
working in cooperative groups because I learn more; 94%-l like to
work with com puters.
Parents responded to the open-ended question in the parent
questionnaire as follows: RHS--What do parents like best?~som e
teachers doing a good job (1 response), school divided into
mini-schools (1 response), opportunity to be noticed by big
colleges (1 response); RHS--What do parents like lea st? -te ac h ers
not very professional (3 responses), do not know much about the
program (1 response), girls sports not supported (1 response), no
school pride (2 responses), safety concerns (2 responses),
school-home contact is missing (2 responses). EARTH-What do
parents like best?-helpful teachers (2 responses), students
learning more and good curriculum (5 responses), environment and
way school is set-up (3 responses), like schedule (1 response),
location of the school (1 response). EARTH-What do parents like
le a st? -n o parent contact when study is failing (1 response), not
enough parent involvement (2 responses), no drivers training,
physical fitness program, or extra curricular activities
(3 responses), students spend too much time studying science
(1 response), disciplines program (2 responses), adm inistrators'
apathy (1 response), not enough enforcement on community work
(1 response), too soon to judge (1 response).
EARTH 9th grade students received a higher GPA in English at
the end of the first sem ester. Both RHS and EARTH 9th grade
students received comparable GPA's in science and mathem atics at
the end of the first sem ester. Results indicated that EARTH 10th
137
grade students received a higher GPA in English, science, and
m athem atics at the end of the first sem ester.
This study also showed that 9th grade students were
assigned to college prep classes as follows: English RHS (84%),
EARTH (100%); science RHS (49%), EARTH (100%); math RHS (49%),
EARTH (100%). In addition, results indicated that EARTH students
received a higher GPA in English in the college prep classes. No
differences were found in GPA in science and math.
Results indicated that 10th grade students were assigned to
college prep classes as follows: English RHS (93%), EARTH (100%);
science RHS (83%), EARTH (100%); math RHS (82%), EARTH (100%).
T hese EARTH students received a higher GPA in English, science,
and m athem atics for these college preparatory courses.
Conclusions
A major issue facing RHS, an inner city school, is that
students are not doing well. The GPA for 40% of the students is 1.9
or below; 38% of the students drop out of school; 33% of the
students are absent everyday; 10% of female students get pregnant
every year; and 72% of the students score below the 37th
percentile in ITAS. In response to th ese dismal statistics, which
are repeated in many inner schools, the California State
Department of Education provided funding for proposals that
promised to arrest the poor performance of students. RHS received
this funding. With this award, RHS was subdivided into ten
138
mini-schools. One of these mini-schools is EARTH. EARTH is also
funded by another grant received from the California State
Department of Education to plan and implement a secondary
specialized high school in environmental studies. EARTH u ses
multiple educational interventions in the hope of providing a school
environment in which all students can succeed. Primarily, EARTH
seek s to revamp curriculum, instruction, and assessm ent.
The review of the literature presented provided the research
b a se that supports EARTH'S curriculum and instruction. It defined
curriculum, presented a historical perspective on curriculum
design, discussed th e significance of curriculum standards,
provided a framework for a brain-based approach to learning and
teaching, presented a new paradigm on the nature of intelligence,
and described the different approaches to curriculum integration.
EARTH students did not achieve any higher that RHS students
a s indicated by the ITAS. T hese results are not surprising because
th e ITAS is an instrument which does not m easure EARTH'S
outcom es. EARTH h as drastically altered curriculum, instruction,
and assessm ent. EARTH does not teach the traditional
m athem atics sequences of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and
calculus. EARTH offers the Integrated Mathematics Project (IMP).
This program integrates algebra, trigonometry, geometry, and
calculus. IMP em phasizes real-life problem solving and
metacognition. The students a re asked to think about the
strategies that they u se to solve the problems assigned and often
write their answers o u t in complete sentence form. EARTH classes
139
em phasize a meaning-centered curriculum. The EARTH "thinking"
curriculum, calls attention to the "importance of developing
student's thinking skills through their experiences in school.
EARTH teachers understand that experiences, not the teaching of
thinking skills, assist students to learn content through processes
similar to those which they encounter in their everyday life
outside of school. ITAS, on the other hand, concentrates
principally on basic skills in reading, language, and math;
overem phasizes routine and discrete skills; and neglects complex
thinking and problem solving. The ITAS multiple-choice format has
limited relevance to either classroom or real-world learning. In
other words, to be valid, fair, and useful, test content m ust match
the knowledge, skills and dispositions that teachers are teaching
and those that students are expected to learn or acquire.
Unfortunately, this instrument was selected because this is the
test recognized by the district that m easures student growth from
year to year.
EARTH students as compared to RHS students felt that EARTH
had really taught them how to think, made learning fun, and was
different from any other school. EARTH students also responded
that they have learned more at this school than at any other school,
and that at EARTH everybody is given a chance to learn. These
statem ents certainly match what EARTH is trying to accomplish.
EARTH hopes to bring to education the ideals of quality and
excellence.
140
EQUALITY means EARTH'S genuine commitment to educate all
students. EARTH has an open door policy and students are allowed
to com e to the program regardless of their previous academ ic
performance. As a result, EARTH has created truly heterogeneous
classroom s in which all students, ranging from GATE to Special
Education, are exposed to a highly stimulating and challenging
curriculum. Students have internalized this equal opportunity for
all students by responding that at EARTH everyone is given a
chance to learn.
O ne of the major outcomes of EARTH is to develop students
who are complex thinkers. EARTH offers an extensive critical
thinking program which is infused throughout all the disciplines.
This approach creates rich class discussion involving all students
on such controversial topics as the timber industry and the spotted
owl or water allocation to farmers and the conservation of the
Chinook salmon. Students are exposed to different perspectives
and many experts in different areas are invited to participate in
these lively discussions. At EARTH, the advanced or enriched
learning opportunities are not reserved only for the talented
students or postponed until the students are deem ed to be ready.
The students acknowledge this by stating that EARTH has really
taught them how to think and that at EARTH they have learned more
than at any other school.
More than 70% of EARTH students responded that they enjoy
working in cooperative groups because they learn more and that
they think that the video programs that teachers used in class are
141
related to what they are studying. These answ ers also support the
curriculum and instructional strategies that EARTH teachers are
using in the classroom.
The EARTH curriculum is thematic and interdisciplinary. This
m eans that the entire school is highly synchronized and all the
disciplines are covering the sam e theme. Each them e changes
every eight weeks. All the instructional support m aterials from
all disciplines must pertain to this theme. As a result, teachers
must choose videos that deal with the theme that the whole school
is covering. EARTH students concede that this is the case. This
finding is pretty significant because one of the major criticisms of
using videos in the classroom is that teachers are using them
regardless of the topic being covered.
One of EARTH'S holistic outcomes is that students will learn
how to be collaborative workers; therefore, a major teaching
strategy of EARTH is to use cooperative groups. EARTH uses
cooperative learning for various reasons. It broadens the range of
experience of students, including interactive learning and presents
opportunities representative of the workplace of the future. It
provides a variety of ways of developing skills that are
increasingly in dem and in society, such as communication and
cooperation. In addition, students stated that they like to work in
cooperative groups because they learn more.
An overwhelming majority, 94% or more, of EARTH students
responded that they like to work with computers. EARTH uses
technology not as an end in itself. Technology is fully incorporated
142
into the educational program not as an additional class but as part
of the curriculum. EARTH uses computers for creative writing,
video cam eras to produce students' work, and VCR's, lasers disks,
and CD-ROM's to punctuate the thematic curriculum. In addition,
these findings give credence to the belief that when students are
engaged in something that they find relevant and interesting they
are move involved in the learning process. EARTH teachers assert
that when students are in the computer room, they are
better-behaved and more willing to participate in the educational
a c tiv itie s.
R esponses to the parents' questionnaire indicated som e
similarities and differences that deserve mention. When
responding to what parents like least about the program, RHS and
EARTH parents gave matching responses. Both groups were really
concerned about safety, disruptive students and the lack of parent
participation in school activities. Unfortunately, the latter w as
not qualified as to who is responsible for parents not getting
involved in school activities. Is it parents who failed to come to
school or is it that the school fails to attract parents to come to
school? When responding to what parents like best about the
program, RHS and EARTH parents gave very different qualitative
responses. RHS parents commented that they liked how the school
is divided into mini-schools and that students are noticed by big
universities. On the other hand, EARTH parents had definite
opinions about the quality of the curriculum, instruction, and
assessm ent. They stated that EARTH teachers are very
143
professional and caring, that their students are learning more at
this school, that they like the teaching practices, and that they
liked how the school has culminating projects at the end of each
unit. These commentaries again are an affirmation that EARTH is
m eeting the holistic learning outcome of developing complex
thinkers. In addition, parents recognized that the school is
engaging to the students. This might be due to the fact that EARTH
teaching strategies include using the 7-intelligences, taking
students on field-trips, and using cooperative groups.
Overall, EARTH students received a higher GPA in science,
mathematics, and English at the end of the first sem ester. One of
the interventions that might be responsible for the higher GPA's is
that EARTH mails home progress report cards every five weeks.
This might alert som e parents that their students are failing and
as a consequence parents put pressure on the students to do better.
This intervention might also raise the students' consciousness that
they are not doing well and might motivate them to try harder.
Another finding w as that EARTH 10th graders received a higher
GPA than the 9th graders. This might be due to the fact that the
10th graders have already been with EARTH for one year; therefore,
becoming accustom ed to the way the program operates.
All EARTH students were assigned to college prep classes
regardless of their previous academic achievement. For RHS 9th
grade classes, about 80% of the students were assigned to English
and 50% of the students were assigned to math and science college
prep classes. For RHS 10th grade classes, about 90% of the
144
students w ere assigned to English and 80% of the students w ere
assigned to math and science college prep classes.
RHS u ses the 9th grade a s a remediation year. For the 10th
grade, RHS students are placed in their first year of college prep
classes. EARTH students on the other hand are placed in the first
year of college prep classes in th e ninth grade and in the second
y ear of college prep classes in th e 10th grade.
Placem ent of students in college prep classes is not a
significant accomplishment if students a re not successful in
th ese classes. The real test then becomes what type of grades are
students receiving in these college prep classes. Results indicated
that EARTH students received a higher or comparable GPA in all the
classe s that were compared.
145
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
AAAS (1989). Pr oject -2Q61; Science for all Americans.
Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of
Science.
Adler, M. J. (1982). The Paideia proposal: An educational manifesto.
New York: Macmillan.
Apple, M. W. (1982). Education and power. Boston: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
Apple, M. W. (1990). Ideology and curriculum (2nd ed.). New York:
Routledge.
Beane, J. (1991, October). The middle school: The natural home of
the integrated curriculum. Educational Leadership. 49(2). 9-13.
Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The teacher-curriculum encounter: Freeing
teachers from the tyranny of texts. Albany, New York: State
University of New York Press.
Bloom, A. (1987). The closing of the American mind. New York:
Simon and Schuster.
Bloom, B. S., Englehart, N. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D.
R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook I.
Cognitive domain. New York: McKay.
Bloom, B. S. (1968). Learning for mastery. Evaluation
C om m ent. 1(2).
Bransford, D., & Johnson, M. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for
understanding: Som e investigations of com prehensive recall.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 11. 717-721.
Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M . G. (1993). In search of understanding:
The case for constructivist classroom s. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
147
Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University P ress.
Cain, K. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1989). The development of children's
conception of intelligence: A theoretical framework. In R. J.
Sternberg (Eds.), Advances in the psychology of human
intelligence (pp. 47-82). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
A sso ciates.
Caine, R. N., & Caine, G. (1991). Making connections: Teaching and
the human brain. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Campbell, J. (1982). Grammatical man: Information, entropy.
language, and life. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Campbell, J. (1989). The improbable m achine. New York: Simon and
S chuster.
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. T eachers College
Hfi£flld(64), 723-33.
Connelly, F. M., & Lantz, O. (1985). Curriculum, definitions of. In T.
Husen & H. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The international encyclopedia
of education: Research and studies Oxford, England: Pergamon
Press.
Curry, B., & Temple, T. (1992). Using curriculum frameworks for
system ic reform. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
David, J. L. (1991). Restructuring and technology: Partners in
change. Phi Delta Kappan. Z2, 37-40 and 78-82.
Drake, S. M„ Bebbington, J., Laksman, S., Mackie, P., Maynes, N., &
Wayne, L. (1992). Developing an integrated curriculum using the
story m odel.
Drake, S. M. (1993). Planning integrated curriculum: The call to
adventure. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
148
Eash, M. J. (1985). Curriculum components. In T. Husen & T. N.
Postlethwaite (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of
education: Research and studies Oxford, England: Pergamon
P ress.
Eisner, E. (1992, June). A slice of advice. Educational R esearcher.
2J_(5), 29-30.
Eisner, E. W. (1985). The educational imagination on the design and
evaluation of school programs (2nd ed. ). New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company.
Elvin, L. (1977). The place of common sense in educational thought.
London: Unwin Educational Books.
English-language arts framework. (1987). Sacram ento: California
Department of Education.
Firestone, W. A., Rosenblum, S., Bader, B. D., & Massed, D. (1991,
Decem ber). Education reform from 1983 to 1990: State action
and district response No. RR-021). Consortium for Policy
Research in Education.
Foreign language framework for California public school. (1989).
Sacram ento, CA: California Department of Education.
Galtung, J. (1974). On peace education. In C. Wulf (Ed.), Handbook on
p eace education Frankfurt, MN: International P eace Research
A ssociation.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple
intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Goodlad, J. I. (1985). Curriculum as a field of study. In T. Husen & T.
N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of
education: Research and studies Oxford, England: Pergamon
P ress.
Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
149
Hart, L. (1975). How the brain works. New York: Basic Books.
Hart, L. (1983). Human brain and human learning. Sedona, AZ: Books
for Educators.
Henderson, A. (1987). The evidence continues to grow: Parent
involvement improves student achievem ent. Columbia, MD:
National Committee for Citizens in Education.
Hirsch, E. D. (1987). Cultural literacy: What every American needs
to know. Boston, MA:
History-social science framework. (1987). California: California
Department of Education.
Holt, J. (1970). What do I do Monday? New York: Dell Publishing Co.
Hutchins, R. M. (1953). The conflicts of education in a democratic
society. New York: Harper.
Jacobs, H. H. (Ed.). (1989). Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and
im plem entation. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Kovalik, S. (1986). T eachers m ake the difference-w ith integrated
them atic instruction. Oak Creek, AZ: Susan Kovalik and
A sso ciates.
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Levy, J. (1985). Right brain, left brain: Fact and fiction. P sychology
Today. 19. 38.
Lewis, D., & Greene, J. (1982). Thinking better: A revolutionary new
program to achieve peak mental performance. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Lichtenstein, G., McLaughlin, M., & Knudson, J. (1991). T eacher
empowerment and professional knowledge (CPRE Research
Report Series No. RR-020). Consortium for Policy Research in
Education.
150
Lozanov, G. (1978). Suqgestology and outlines of suggestopedy. New
York: Gordon and Breach.
Mann, S. (1974). Political power and the high school curriculum. In
E. W. Eisner &. E. Vallence (Eds.), Conflicting conceptions of
curriculum (pp. 137-152). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing
Co.
Massell, D., Kirst, M. W., Kelley, C., & Yee, G. (1993). Formulating
content standards:__ Case studies and implications for national
content standards. Washington, D. C.: National Education Goals
Panel.
M athematics framework for California public schools. (1992).
Sacram ento, CA: California Department of Education.
Murphy, J. (1990). The educational reform movement of the 1980s:
A comprehensive analysis. In J. Murphy (Ed.), The educational
reform movement of the 1970s: Perspectives and cases
Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
Neill, A. S. (1960). Summerhill. New York: Hart Publishing Co.
Neisser, U. (1976). General academ ic and artificial intelligence. In
L. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Nickerson, R. S. (1988). On improving thinking through instruction.
Review of Research in Educationf151. 3-57.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York:
Cam bridge University.
NSTA (1990, May 10). Scope, sequence, and coordination of
secondary scien ce-A rationale.
Nummela, R., & Rosengren, T. (1988). The brain's routes and maps:
Vital connections in learning. NAASP Bulletin. 7 2 . 83-86.
151
O'keefe, J., & Nadel, L. (1978). The hippocampus as a cognitive m ap.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Ornstein, R., & Sobel, D. (1987). The healing brain: Breakthrough
discoveries about how the brain keeps us healthy. New York:
Simon and Schuster.
Palmer, J. (1991, October). Planning wheels turn curriculum around.
Educational Leadership, 4&(2), 57-60.
Pechman, E. M., & Laguarda, K. G. (1993). Status of new state
curriculum frameworks, standards, assessm ents, and
monitoring system s. Washington, D. C.: Policy Studies
A ssociates.
Perkins, D. N. (1989). Selecting fertile them es for integrated
learning. In H. H. Jacobs (Ed.), Interdisciplinary curriculum:
Design and implementation Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Perrone, V. (Ed.). (1991). Expanding student assessm en t.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Powell, A. G., Farrar, E., & Cohen, D. K. (1985). The shopping mall
high school: Winners and losers in the educational m arketplace.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Redding, N. (1992, May). Assessing the big outcomes. Educational
L eadership. 49-53.
Resnick, L. B., & Resnick, D. P. (1989). Assessing the thinking
curriculum: New tools for education reform. W ashington, DC:
National Commission on Testing and Public Policy.
Schiller, D. P., Schiller, W. J., & Walberg, H. J. (1989, Spring). Ralph
Tyler: 20th century patriot. Vitae Scholasticae: The Bulletin of
Educational Biography, 1(1), 193-206.
Science framework. (1990). Sacramento, CA: California
Department of Education.
152
Second to none: A vision of the new California high school. (1992).
Sacram ento, CA: California State Department of Education.
Sizer, T. R. (1984). The dilemma of the American high school.
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Slavin, R. E., Karweit, N. L., and Madden, N. A. (1989). Effective
Programs for Students at Risk. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &
Bacon, Inc.
Slavin, R. E. (1990). Achievement effects of ability grouping in
secondary Schools: A best-evidence synthesis. Madison, Wl: The
National Center on Effective Secondary Schools, University of
W isconsin.
Smith, M. S., & O'Day, J. (1991). Systemic school reform. In S. H.
Fuhrman &. B. Malen (Eds.), The politics of curriculum and
testing Bristol, PA: Falmer Press.
Spady, W., & Marshall, K. (1991, October). Beyond traditional
outcome based education. Educational Leadership. 49(21. 67-72.
Thorndike, E. L., & Woodward, R. S. (1901). The influence of
improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of
other functions. Psychological Review, fi.
Visual and performing arts framework. (1989). Sacram ento, CA:
State Department of Education.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Wagner, R. K., & Sternberg, R. J. (1986). Tacit knowledge and
in tellig en ce
in the everyday world. In R. J. Sternbers & . R. K. Wagner (Eds.),
Practical intelligence: Nature and origins of com petence in the
everyday world New York: Cambridge University Press.
153
W ebster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (1983, p. 316).
Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
Whimbey, A. (1975). Intelligence can be taught. New York: Dutton.
154
Appendix A
Holistic Learning Outcomes fHLO'sl
HLO's define what EARTH students will be able to do when
they graduate from high school. Each EARTH student will be:
1. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNER: (a) SETS PRIORITIES AND
ACHIEVABLE GOALS; (b) MONITORS AND EVALUATES PROGRESS;
(C) CREATES OPTIONS FOR SELF (d) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR
ACTIONS; (e) CREATES A POSITIVE VISION FOR SELF AND FUTURE.
2. COLLABORATIVE WORKER: (a) MONITORS OWN BEHAVIOR AS A
GROUP MEMBER; (b) ASSESSES AND MANAGES GROUP FUNCTIONING;
(c) DEMONSTRATES INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATION;
(d) DEMONSTRATES CONSIDERATION FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.
3. COMPLEX THINKER: (a) USES A WIDE VARIETY OF STRATEGIES
FOR MANAGING COMPLEX ISSUES; (b) SELECTS STRATEGIES
APPROPRIATE TO THE RESOLUTION OF COMPLEX ISSUES AND APPLIES
THE STRATEGIES WITH ACCURACY AND THOROUGHNESS;
(c) ACCESSES AND USES TOPIC-RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE.
4. QUALITY PRODUCER: (a) CREATES PRODUCTS THAT ACHIEVE
THEIR PURPOSE; (b) CREATES PRODUCTS APPROPRIATE TO THE
INTENDED AUDIENCE; (c) CREATES PRODUCTS THAT REFLECT
CRAFTSMANSHIP; (d) USES APPROPRIATE RESOURCES/TECHNOLOGY.
5. COMMUNITY CONTRIBUTOR: (a) DEMONSTRATES KNOWLEDGE
ABOUT HIS OR HER DIVERSE COMMUNITIES; (b) TAKES ACTION
(C) REFLECTS ON ROLE AS A COMMUNITY CONTRIBUTOR.
155
Appendix B
EARTH Curriculum
The EARTH curriculum is interdisciplinary. Each
interdisciplinary unit interacts and builds upon a
perform ance-based, authentic, culminating project that requires
knowledge from each disciplines for maximum success.
The EARTH curriculum is also thematic. The following
themes have been adopted: SPACE, ATMOSPHERE, EARTH, WILDLIFE,
POPULATION & INDUSTRY, AND WATER. The various disciplines
always relate back to a major concept so that every component of
the course is connected.
The EARTH curriculum spirals from year to year. For example
in the WILDLIFE unit, the concept for the 9th grade is "Comparing
and Contrasting Domesticated and Wild Animals." All the
activities for this unit deal with local issues. The concept for the
10th grade of the sam e unit is "Human Impact on California
Wildlife." This unit deals with more global issues and becom es a
little m ore abstract. This philosophy perm eates throughout the
11th and 12th grades.
The EARTH curriculum has authentic assessm ent or
benchmarks at the end of every unit. For example, the 9th grade
Population? Industry unit benchmark (project) is to organize a
cultural fair. This project brings to life the abstract concepts of
local dem ographics that the students engage in during class and
serves a s a vehicle for such authentic skill building activities
revolving around effective communication with parents, community
leaders, and local businesses and organizations.
156
UNIT 1 - EARTH
9TH GRADE EARTH
CONCEPT: RECYCLING (multicultural)
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Observe and analyze recyclable materials/Chemical
break-down; decay (compost project)
a r t - Found Art; appropriation in Art; underground firing
math - Problems related to recycling
English - Magazines that specialize in environmental and recycling
issues (sending away for environmental information)
h isto ry - Local waste management (map areas to determine socio
economic recycling practices)
P.E - Make and test P.E. equipment formed from recyclable
m aterials
Spanish - Interpretive scripts for commercials
m usic - Appropriation in music
PROJECT: RECYCLED ART
Optional: DEVELOP A BILINGUAL, F.Y.I. T.V. COMMERCIAL
UNIT 1 - EARTH
10TH GRADE EARTH
CONCEPT: FROM DUST TO DUST (SOIL AND FOOD PRODUCTION)
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Nutrition/G erm ination/H ybrids/D igestion
a r t - Natural dyes/Earth works/Farm Product handicrafts
math - Increasing and decreasing recipes/Soil m easurem ents
English - Reading ancient texts dealing with territorial land use
h isto ry - Research the history of any product grown in California
P.E. - Compare an exercise program with manual farm labor
Spanish - Staple foods; farming; recipes in Spanish
m usic - The roots of Country and Western music in California
PROJECT: TRACE ANY PRODUCT GROWN IN CALIFORNIA FROM ITS ORIGINS IN THE
SOIL THROUGH ITS PLANTING AND HARVESTING, THROUGH ITS
PACKAGING AND MARKETING, AND THROUGH ITS DIGESTION BACK TO
THE SOIL AGAIN.
157
UNIT 1 - EARTH
11TH GRADE EARTH
CONCEPT: CHEMICALS IN OUR LIFE
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Analyzing commercial chemicals
a rt - Print-making; photography
math - Math problems determining toxicity levels and lethal
doses
English - Silent Spring (historic text for the environmental
movement in the U.S.)
history - Regulatory agencies (U.S.D.A; U.S.P; F.D.A)
Restoration of body fluids after a race: studying the
P.E. - effects of sports drinks (Gatorade etc.)
Spanish - Advertise a chemical in Spanish
music - Compose and analyze advertisement and film music
PROJECT: MAKE, PACKAGE, AND MARKET PRODUCTS OUT OF CHEMICALS
(lotions, lipsticks, soaps, etc.)
UNIT 1 - EARTH
12TH GRADE EARTH
CONCEPT: NATURAL PHENOMENA
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science Laws of motion (inertia); seismographic
measurements
a rt Ash sculptures; sublime art
math Richter scale, longitude and latitude, and other scales
of topographical measurements
English Mythology (excerpts from The Tempest, etc.)
history World wide earthquakes, flooding, typhoons
P.E. Odyssey of the Mind games about motion; earthquake
safety
Spanish Read a short story about a natural disaster in Spanish
music Analyze film music that depicts natural disasters
PROJECT: DESIGN AN EMERGENCY RELIEF SYSTEM THAT COORDINATES
RELEVANT COMMUNITY AGENCIES.
UNIT 2 - SPACE
9TH GRADE SPACE
CONCEPT: HUMAN AND NATURAL RESOURCES ARE FINITE
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - A Voyage to Mars (gravity, density, volume)
a r t - Models of mobiles
math - A Voyage to Mars (problems)
English - Westward movements as they apply to the Martian
Chronicles
history - Indians and push to the west - especially local
Indians
P.E. - Survival Skills
Spanish - Name food staples for survival in Spanish
music - Science fiction musical them es
PROJECT: SIMULATION: THE TRIAL OF JEFF SPENDER
UNIT 2 - SPACE
10TH GRADE - SPACE
CONCEPT: IMPACT OF NON NATIVE ELEMENTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science Adaptations
a rt Models of buildings
math Specifications, volumes, circumferences, growing
rate graphs
English Articles on space colonization & Carl Sagan
history Diseases and other things that have impacted
people
P.E. Gam es illustrating carrying capacity
Spanish Translate common community items to Spanish
music Study of the sociological, physical, and psychological
impact of ambient music
PROJECT: BUILDING A MODEL: SCALE MODEL CONSTRUCTION OF A MARS
COLONY HABITAT
159
UNIT 2 - SPACE
11TH GRADE SPACE
CONCEPT: IMPACT OF STAR WARS ON ENVIRONMENT
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Physical and chemical composition of weapons
a r t • Historical paintings of wars and personalization of
conflict
math • Statistics of morbidity of major conflicts
English • "Dune" - Economy of spice trade
h isto ry - Effects of Civil War, WWI, WWII, Korea, Vietnam, and
Iraq on the environment
P.E. - Basic training
Spanish - Star W ars with U.S. History and Art Themes
m usic - National Anthems and conditions and philosophies under
which they emerged
PROJECT: SPACE CONFLICTS (FACTIONS)
UNIT 2 - SPACE
12TH GRADE SPACE
CONCEPT: EXPLORATION OF DEEP SPACE
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Universal Gravitational Laws (satellites and gravitation)
a r t - Real and imaginary models of satellites and planets
math - Proportions, ratios, and models of planets
English - Analysis of short stories and other scientific articles
dealing with deep space exploration
h isto ry - Competition or collaboration - which would result in
better success in space exploration and colonization
P.E. - Basic Astronaut Training
Spanish - Spanish stories using the names of celestial bodies
m usic - Synthesized music reflecting our visions of and feelings
about outer space
PROJECT: ORGANIZING A SPACE-ORIENTED ORGANIZATION (ASTRONOMY
CLUB/PLANETARY SOCIETY)
160
UNIT 3 - ATMOSPHERE
9TH GRADE ATMOSPHERE
CONCEPT: LIFE IN A SEA OF AIR (WEATHER OR NOT, HERE WE GO)
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science • Chemical and physical properties of gases
a rt - Compare professional and am ateur photography
math - Graphing weather maps
English - Naturalists writers (Emerson, Abby, Muir, etc.)
history - Study of Yosemite and history of flight
P.E. - First-Air; respiratory health; and bio feedback
Spanish - Climate and weather words in Spanish (weather report/
in Spanish each day)
music - Romantic music (ties with natural writers and Yosemite)
PROJECT: CREATING A WEATHER STATION (AND BUILDING AND TESTING
MODEL HOT-AIR BALLOONS)
UNIT 3 -ATMOSPHERE
10TH GRADE ATMOSPHERE
CONCEPT: BASIC METEOROLOGY
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Effects of weather on the body
a rt - Mood affecting art
math - W eather statistics
English - Mood stories (High and low pressure situations)
history - California w eather patterns (geography)
P.E - Olympic training at different altitudes
Spanish - Clothing-related words in different clim ates
music - Mood music
PROJECT: BASIC OPERATION OF A WEATHER STATION (access computer
data and track California weather patterns)
161
UNIT 3 - ATMOSPHERE
11TH GRADE ATMOSPHERE
CONCEPT: INTERMEDIATE METEOROLOGY (ZONING OUT: OZONE DEPLETION)
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Pressure, temperature, and volume laws (Charles,
Boyles, etc.)
a rt • Sun motifs in art/Light dam ages art/Layers of meaning in
works of art
math - Pressure, temperature, and volume problems
English • Mars and Venus models for losing ozone/Current literature
dealing with ozone depletion/Layers of meaning of
literatu re
history - Evolution of ozone depletion/Places and people most
affected by ozone depletion/Layers of red tape and
scientific dispute over ozone
P.E. - Burn treatments/skin and health problems stemming from
u.v. radiation-precautions and m ethods of prevention
Spanish - Short story in Spanish dealing with ozone in Argentina
music - Musical layers in orchestration
PROJECT: INTERMEDIATE WEATHER STATION OPERATIONS (link-up with the
National W eather Center in Denver; track U.S. Weather)
12TH GRADE ATMOSPHERE
CONCEPT: ADVANCED METEOROLOGY (Rainforest: The Lungs of the Earth)
I N T E R D I S C I P L I N A R Y C U R R I C U L U M C O N C E P T S
science
a rt
math
English
history
P.E.
Spanish
music
PROJECT:
162
Acid rain (pH effects on plants, animals, buildings)
Building a rain-forest
Projections, rate of destruction, etc.
Forest literature
History of forests
Logger's Jamboree
Write a letter in Spanish defending your position about
the rainforest; send letters to Costa Rica, etc. (pen-pals)
Forest music (Vienna Woods Waltzes)
ADVANCED WEATHER STATION OPERATIONS (World Tracking)
UNIT 4 - WILDLIFE
9TH GFIADE WILDLIFE
CONCEPT: CALL OF THE WILD: COMPARING AND CONTRASTING
DOMESTICATED AND WILD PLANTS AND ANIMALS
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science • Genetics/animal breeding and reproduction
a r t - Photography course
math - Animal-based thought problems
English - Analyze advertising & music videos using animals
history - History of domestic animals emphasizing local
animals used in farming and industry
P.E. - Bird-watching; animal gam es such a s Predator and Prey
Spanish - Translating children's books with animal themes
music - Identify thematic uses of animals in music
PROJECT: ADOPT AN ENDANGERED SPECIES PROGRAM (SENATE BILL 885)
UNIT 4 - WILDLIFE
10TH GRADE WILDLIFE
CONCEPT: NASTY HABITATS: HUMAN IMPACT ON CALIFORNIA WILDLIFE
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Darwinism, survival of the fittest, adaptation, and
evolution
a r t - Create endangered species puppets
math - Wildlife Habitat - percentages and geometry
English - To Kill a Mockingbird
history - Social Darwinism - genocide throughout history
P.E. - Carrying capacity activities; cultural dancing
Spanish - Develop a survival of the fittest puppet show in Spanish
music - Select appropriate music for puppet show
PROJECT: DEVELOP AND PRESENT A BILINGUAL PUPPET SHOW FOR
ELEMENTARY STUDENTS AT THE ZOO BASED ON THE THEME
"SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST"
163
UNIT 4 - WILDLIFE
11TH GRADE WILDLIFE
CONCEPT: SUBMARINE BLUES: HUMAN IMPACT ON MARINE LIFE
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science Chemical composition of different marine organisms
compare with humans
a r t Projects dealing with marine animals
math Volume, percents, and salinity
English Old Man and the Sea: excerpts from Moby Dick
h isto ry History of the fishing industry in the U.S.A.
P.E. Sport fishing including ethical practices
Spanish Fish them es in Spanish including geographical terms
m usic Ocean music them es (especially dolphin and whale
communication songs)
PROJECT: SET-UP AND MAINTAIN A SALT WATER AQUARIUM
UNIT 4 - WILDLIFE
12TH GRADE WILDLIFE
CONCEPT: OF MICE AND MEN: ETHICAL INTERACTIONS WITH WILDLIFE
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Uses of laboratory animals; destruction of natural
resources
a rt - Spatial perceptions; man as seen by different organisms
math - Motion problems (speed, velocity, acceleration)
English - Compare different perspectives of m an's relationship
to his environment based on varying societal beliefs
(Judeo-Christian, Islamic, Native American, Buddhist,
etc.)
h isto ry - Compare and contrast attitudes towards various animals
Egypt and cats, Americans and pets, Bible and
serpents, etc.)
P.E. - Speed comparisons of running animals with man
Spanish - Historical significance of bullfighting
m usic - Animal parts in musical instruments
PROJECT: ORGANIZING A DEBATE BASED ON ANIMAL RIGHTS AND
ANIMAL WELFARE ISSUES
164
UNIT 5 - POPULATION AND INDUSTRY
9TH GRADE POPULATION/INDUSTRY
CONCEPT: INTERDEPENDENCE: LIFE IS THE RED WAGON (you pull for me, and I'll
pull for you).
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science Ecosystems and food webs
a r t Portraits; figure drawing, cultural clothing, & m asks
math Exponential growth, density, demographics, and spread
sheets
English Multicultural short stories (weddings and funerals)
h isto ry A chronology and survey of local population movement
and industrial growth
P.E. Multicultural gam es
Spanish Multicultural proverbs, riddles, and tongue twisters.
m usic Multicultural music and instruments
PROJECT: DEVELOPING A MULTICULTURAL FAIR FOR BACK-TO-SCHOOL-NIGHT
UNIT 5 - POPULATION AND INDUSTRY
10TH GRADE POPULATION/INDUSTRY
CONCEPT: BUILDERS AND SHAKERS: "THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION AND
INDUSTRY"
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Experiments with population growth (meal worms, fruit
flies, grafting, and Ag related industries)
a r t - Cross-cultural art (collage, quilts)
m ath - Exponential growth, linear graph, slope
English - California legends and industrialists-place nam es
h isto ry - TheGoldRush
P.E. - Gold Panning - tent construction
Spanish - Translating different gold products
m usic - Miners songs and folk music of 19th century California
PROJECT: 49ER CAMP
165
UNIT 5 - POPULATION AND INDUSTRY
11TH GRADE POPULATION
CONCEPT: RACIAL DYNAMICS AND CLASS STRUGGLE
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science Eugenics - brain size, etc. (Mismeasuring Man)
a rt Graffiti/murals - freedom of self-expression and its
limits-M arginalized artists in the U.S.
math Distribution of racial groups throughout the U.S. using
computers
English Malcolm x. Cesar Chavez, and Ku Klux Klan. Othello)
history Civil Rights Movement, Japanese Encampment, L. A. riots
P.E. Cultural and regional dances of the U.S.
Spanish A Spanish Day
m usic Regional m usic-Bluestein Brothers Presentation
PROJECT: CULTURAL AND RACIAL DEBATE BASED ON MISCONCEPTIONS AND
REALITY WITH A GREEK DRAMA FORMAT
UNIT 5 - POPULATION AND INDUSTRY
12TH GRADE POPULATION/INDUSTRY
CONCEPT: WAR OF WORLDS: "GLOBAL CONFLICTS OVER RESOURCES"
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science Reproduction and birth control
a r t Feminist Art and fertility symbols throughout history
math World population statistics, etc.
English Creation stories; feminist literature
history Ethics of population control-C ase Studies: Chinese,
Germans, Croatians, etc.
P.E. Competition- Genetic studies to make a better athlete
(NOVA)
Spanish Using a modem, communicate with Spanish speaking
countries
music Feminist music (operas; "Aida")
PROJECT: CREATE A SOCIAL AGENCY TO SOLVE PROBLEM
166
UNIT 6 - WATER
9TH GRADE WATER
CONCEPT: FRESNO'S WATER SUPPLY
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Chemical and physical properties of water
a rt - Posters, ads, and decorations for the rally
math - Volume and area/ handling money for the rally
English - Planning and implementation of the San Joaquin Project
Rally
history - Study the local rules of organizing a rally
P.E. - Organize the rally parade
Spanish - Slogans for banners and posters in Spanish
music - Musical program
PROJECT: DETERMINE THE CLEANLINESS OF A STREAM OR RIVER
UNIT 6 - WATER
10TH GRADE WATER
CONCEPT: BRIDGE OVER TROUBLED WATER: WATER POLLUTION & WATER RIGHTS
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science Water testing
a rt Posters of water cycle
math Problems dealing with water toxicity levels
English Letters to local governments
history Laws on water (government role)
P.E. W ater sports
Spanish Create a children's book on water cycle in Spanish
music Study the emotional and physical impact of various
water sounds
PROJECT: EVOLUTION OF POLLUTION IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY OR STATE WATER
RIGHTS
167
UNIT 6 - WATER
11TH GRADE WATER
CONCEPT: SEA HUNT 2000: OCEANS AND UNDERWATER ARCHEOLOGY
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science - Concentrations, salinity, density, chemistry of water,
effects of saline water in body
a rt - Sand sculptures
math - Concentration and density problems
English - Pirate them es in literature/Treasure Island/Peter Pan
h istory - Pirates past and present/Maritime trade and colonization
from the Atlantic to the Pacific side, Gulf of Mexico/Ethical
problems of underwater recovery of archeological
treasu res
P.E. - Kayaking, rowing, swimming
Spanish - Spanish songs dealing with the sea
music - Music dealing with sea them es
PROJECT: INSERVICE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLTEACHERS ON AN OCEANOGRAPHIC
DEALING WITH UNDERWATER EXCAVATION AND Pirate GOLD
UNIT 6 - WATER
12TH GRADE WATER
CONCEPT: THE LACK OF IT
INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM CONCEPTS
science Dehydration, canning, pollution, etc.
a rt Water colors
math Volumes, evaporation rates, water usage in showers,
washing
English Isaac Asimov - Water shortage short story
history Ethiopian drought, historical ramification of water for
the empire, Arab Emirates (ocean water)
P.E. Dehydration safety factors, drinking enough, perspiration
Spanish Read Spanish newspaper and discuss global water issues
music Analyze documentary film music dealing with famine
and drought
PROJECT: DESIGN A XERISCAPE (DROUGHT-RESISTANT GARDEN)
168
Appendix C
Discipline Program Yellow and Pink Cards
1. Yellow Cards
A yellow card may be issued after any verbal warning for any
kind of minor disruptions, such as: (a) talking, playing, not paying
attention, etc. while the teacher is instructing; (b) not
participating; (c) being out of your seat without permission;
(d) being rude (cussing, ranking, beautifying, listening to your
Walkman, throwing stuff, making racist remarks, etc.; (e) anything
else that stops the flow of the lesson.
2. Pink Cards
A pink card may be issued
A. At any time for any major violation of school rules such
as (a) fighting; (b) for violent arguing; (c) for breaking, vandalizing
or stealing stuff; (d) for not doing assignment; (e) for not having
school supplies to work with.
B. After a yellow card has been issued, and you (a) do
anything else that the teacher believes is a disruption to the class
or (b) argue with or talk back to the teacher for giving you a yellow
card.
3. The Student's Responsibility
If you receive a yellow card, stop what you are doing
that is disrupting the class immediately.
If you receive a pink card, pick up all your belongings and
report to the office immediately.
169
Appendix D
EARTH Teacher Portfolio
Definition
An EARTH Teacher Portfolio is a specifically gathered collection of
instructional materials that display a teacher's best efforts, progress, and
achievem ents in designing lessons, curriculum, instruction, and assessm ent so
comprehensively that all students may receive an excellent, practical, and
well-balanced academic, technological, and social education. The lessons in this
portfolio must be designed to accelerate academic, technological and social learning,
enhance aw areness of the 7 intelligences (Body-Kinesthetic; Spatial; Linguistic;
Musical; Interpersonal; Mathematical/Logical; Intrapersonal), and lead to the
life-long development of a self-directed learning, complex thinking, collaborative
working, community servicing, and quality producing.
Rationale
To sincerely offer our students a well-balanced education that aim s at
providing academic excellence, technological advancement, and a high standard of social
consciousness, EARTH teachers must be on constant guard against such things as
textbook/lecture-driven, teacher-centered delivery system s that have been proven to
be mind-numbing and morale-defeating to the majority of our country's students
during the last 50 years or so. The development of the Teacher Portfolio provides a
safeguard against such educationally ineffective methodologies; it serves a s an
invaluable tool for group and self analysis concerning our unique methodologies; it
serves as an invaluable tool for group and self analysis concerning our unique
curriculum, instruction and assessm ent strategies. It is simple and straightforward
yet open-ended and flexible enough to allow for the reshaping and realignment four
lessons to better fit our program's philosophies in the least restrictive and non-
judgmental atm osphere possible.
Requirem ents
A. Teacher's place their best lessons in their portfolios.
1. Select the one best lesson you've designed.
2. Fill out the check-off form analyzing the lesson.
3. Attach 3 examples of three levels of student work.
a. One excellent example
b. One average example
c. One poor example
1 7 0
B. Self-Analysis
1. What did your lesson do to:
a: accelerate constructivist, meaningful learning?
b. enhance academic excellence, knowledge of self and society,
and/or technological advancement?
c. provide life-long development of holistic learning outcomes?
(Self-directed learner; complex thinker; collaborative
worker; community contributor; quality producer).
G. Group Analysis
1. Meet with your team teachers once a month to talk about the
lessons in your portfolio.
a. What can be done to improve articulation of lessons between
all disciplines?
b What can be added to or subtracted from the lesson to sync it
better with school and interdisciplinary policies?
c. Is what you're teaching really going to be useful to your
students?
171
Appendix E
EABIH. Student Portfolio. Requirement
Definition
At EARTH, a student portfolio is a purposeful collection of work and documents
that exhibit student efforts, progress, and achievements to one or more academic,
social, and technological areas. Processing this collection includes student
participation in selecting the materials that will represent their best efforts and
social values, the criteria for this selection, the criteria for judging merit, and
evidence of student self-reflection.
Rationale
During the course of each school year, the EARTH student portfolio will provide
such an on-going, reinforcingly comprehensive and analytic picture of positive
academ ic consciousness. It must certainly encourages students to develop the abilities
n eeded to become every-increasingly independent, self-directed learners, complex
thinkers, community contributors, collaborative workers, and quality producers.
Your Portfolio Should Address the Following Areas of Your Educational
Experience.
A. Representation of your best academic work.
1. From any one, or all, of your classes, choose the best examples of
work that you've done during the year and put them in your
portfolio.
a. Limit yourself to placing no more than 10 examples at a time,
b. Include only your best work (It is better to have 5 or 6
excellent examples rather than to include a few more average
or poor examples just so that you can reach the 10-limit
maximum).
c. Frequently update your collection of work whenever you complete
something that you think is better than what is already in your
portfolio.
2. Along with each example of your work, attach a written caption that
explains the following:
a. Why you chose this work to include in your portfolio.
b. What specific things you learned about the subject, about yourself
as a learner, and/or about yourself as a person from this work.
c. How you will be able to use what you learned in the future.
172
3. You must show and explain all of the following in your portfolio work:
a. Growth--l used to do it this way; now I do it like this...
b. Complex thinking-1 saw a connection between this and that when I...
c. Collaborative Working-When I was doing this assignm ent, I really felt
that I was helping my group out when I...
d. Self-directed Learning-1 did this without anyone telling me what
to do...
e. Quality producing-This thing took me hours and hours, and it
shows, don't you think?...
B. Documentation of advancement in technological skills
C. Documentation of the development of your social
consciousness and self awareness
1. Community Service
2. Two Character Reference letters
3. A written autobiography
4. An essay on environmental ethics
Portfolio A ssessm ent -
A Student/Teacher Portfolio Conference
1. At least once every quarter your advisory teacher will ask you to
present your updated portfolio during a one-to-one
discussion of
your work and other documents.
2. You will present the best of the best work in your portfolio and
explain why you feel is your best work.
3. Your teacher will listen, write down some of the most revealing
information that you are giving, offer verbal feedback, make
suggestions, and hand you what was written about what you said
during the meeting.
4. During the last week before the end of each sem ester, you must
analyze the content of your portfolio and discuss your conclusions
with your teachers.
173
Appendix F
Individual Test of Academic Skills (ITAS)
The High School Edition of the ITAS was developed a s a joint venture launched by
a consortium of California school districts in cooperation with the California State
Department of Education and School Research and Service Corporation. The purpose of
the program is to reduce redundancy in state and local testing, while better satisfying
the need for detailed curriculum-aligned information about the performance of
individual students, classes, schools, and the district.
The ITAS tests include the sam e skills a s those m easured in the California
A ssessm ent Program (CAP) prior to graduation. The tests provide information about
students' knowledge and skills in English-language arts and mathematics and about
their thinking skills. All items in the test reflect California's model curriculum
standards and frameworks, with a focus on skills currently assessed on the grade 12
CAP tests.
The High School Edition of the ITAS consists of a reading test and a mathematics
test. Tests are designed to be administered in 45 minute class periods. Each test has
two alternate and equivalent forms, Form A and Form B, each with equated norms for
grad es 9-12.
The ITAS Reading Test m easures a student's ability to read and understand
written material and their knowledge of words.
The Reading Test contains three kinds of questions:
Comprehension: These questions m easure a student's ability to respond to
information clearly stated in a reading passage; to read "between the line" in that
passage and respond with ideas or opinions; and to read "beyond the lines"
investigating, evaluating, and combining information and ideas with their own
experience and applying it to the new situations.
Understanding Word Meanings: These questions m easure a student's ability to
recognize the meaning of words in a passage. These include commonly taught literary,
social science, and science vocabulary, as well as general vocabulary.
Study-Locational Skills: These questions measure a student's ability to use
reference and dictionary skills.
The Reading Test contains four reading passages with a total of 56 questions.
The vocabulary and content of each passage are designed to be appropriate for high
school students. Two passages contain English-language arts content, one contains
history-social science content, and one contains science content. The average
readability level of the test is ninth grade as m easured by the Dale-Chall Formula,
with individual passage readability levels ranging from eighth to tenth grades.
The ITAS Mathematics Test m easures what students understand about
mathematical concepts, what skills they have learned during their entire educational
174
program, and how well they can use both the concepts and skills for problem solving.
Like the grade 12 CAP test in mathematics, it focuses on broad understanding of
mathematical ideas and their use in varied situations.
The Mathematics Test contains two kinds of questions:
Problem Solving/Reasoning: These questions measure a student's ability to
formulate problems, to analyze them and develop strategies to solve them, and to
interpret solutions to problems.
Understanding and Applications: These questions m easure a student's
understanding of numbers and how to select and perform operations on them.
The Mathematics Test represents a major shift in focus from emphasizing
computation and rote memorization to problem solving, reasoning and understanding.
It contains a total of 40 questions. Like the grade 12 CAP test, calculators are optional.
175
Appendix G
EARTH Student Questionnaire
Please show if you "agree" or "disagree" with each of the following statem ents by
marking one of the spaces corresponding to the numbers to the left of the answer sheet
as follows:
A equals to strongly AGREE
B equals to AGREE
C equals to DISAGREE
D equals to strongly DISAGREE
E equals to NEUTRAL or DOESN'T APPLY
1. This school has really taught me how to think.
2. This school makes learning fun.
3. I have learned more at this school than at any other school.
4. At this school, we do things that are meaningful to me.
5. This school has inspired me to go to college.
6. At this school, I feel special.
7. I find most of my classes very challenging.
8. This school is different from any other school.
9. At this school, everybody is given a chance to learn.
10. This school has positively changed my life.
11. I like the interdisciplinary curriculum at this school.
12. I like the them es at this school.
13. I like the field-trips at this school.
14. I do well in the projects at the end of the units.
15. I have completed my portfolio.
16. I like to work with computers.
17. I think that the video programs that the teachers use in class are related to
what we are studying.
18. I can learn more with the longer periods that we have at this school.
176
19.
2 0 .
I know what the 7-intelligences are because the teachers use them when they
teach.
I enjoy working in cooperative groups because I learn more.
177
Appendix H
RHS Student Questionnaire
P lease show if you "agree" or "disagree" with each of the following statem ents by
marking one of the spaces corresponding to the numbers to the left of the answer sheet
a s follows:
A equals to strongly AGREE
B equals to AGREE
C equals to DISAGREE
D equals to strongly DISAGREE
E equals to NEUTRAL or DOESN'T APPLY
1. This school has really taught me how to think.
2. This school makes learning fun.
3 . I have learned more at this school than at any other school.
4 . At this school, we do things that are meaningful to me.
5. This school has inspired me to go to college.
6 . At this school, I feel special.
7. I find most of my classes very challenging.
8 . This school is different from any other school.
9. At this school, everybody is given a chance to learn.
10. This school has positively changed my life.
178
Appendix I
EARTH Parent Questionnaire
Directions: Please show if you "agree* or "disagree" with each of the following
statem ents by marking one of the sp aces corresponding to the numbers to the left on
the answer sheet as follows:
A equals to strongly AGREE
B equals to AGREE
C equals to DISAGREE
D equals to strongly DISAGREE
E equals to NEUTRAL or DOESNT APPLY
1. My student is enthusiastic about school.
2. I feel that my student is obtaining a good education.
3. The teachers are very helpful at this school.
4. The school informs me on how my student is doing.
5. I have attended most school activities this year.
6. At this school, parents really get involved.
7. My students will be returning to EARTH next year.
8. My student talks to us about the school.
9. I really like the idea of my student doing community work.
10. My student's grades have improved this year.
11. When my student misbehaves, I am informed right away.
12. EARTH has had a positive influence in my student.
13. Next year, I plan to be more active in my student's school.
14. My student is in t h e grade. Please mark A if in 9th grade or B if in
10th grade.
15. W hat do you like best about the program/what do you like least. Please write
your answer on the answer sheet.
179
Appendix J
RHS Parent Questionnaire
Directions: Please show if you "agree" or "disagree" with each of the following
statem ents by marking one of the spaces corresponding to the numbers to the left on
the answer sheet as follows:
A equals to strongly AGREE
B equals to AGREE
C equals to DISAGREE
D equals to strongly DISAGREE
E equals to NEUTRAL or DOESNT APPLY
1. My student is enthusiastic about school.
2. I feel that my student is obtaining a good education.
3. The teachers are very helpful at this school.
4. The school informs me on how my student is doing.
5 . I have attended most school activities this year.
6. At this school, parents really get involved.
7. My students will be returning to RHS next year.
8. My student talks to us about the school.
9. I really like the idea of my student doing community work.
10. My students' grades have improved this year.
11. When my student misbehaves, I am informed right away.
1 2 . RHS has had a positive influence in my student.
13. Next year, I plan to be more active in my students' school.
14. My student is in t h e grade. Please mark A if in 9th grade or B if in
10th grade.
15. What do you like best about the program/what do you like least. Please write
your answer on the answer sheet.
180

Linked assets