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Social environment, self-concept, and social conduct: sense of self as mediator of the relationship between life-change and marital interaction
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Social environment, self-concept, and social conduct: sense of self as mediator of the relationship between life-change and marital interaction
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SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT, SELF-CONCEPT, AND SOCIAL CONDUCT SENSE OF SELF AS MEDIATOR OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIFE-CHANGE AND MARITAL INTERACTION by Rosalie Jonas Gilford A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Sociology) June 1975 UMI Number: DP31760 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dlsssftattort PyMisMng UMI DP31760 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346 v> jg/ 'T? UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y P A R K LO S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 PK. D . S o This dissertation, w ritten by ROSALIE JONAS GILFORD under the direction of h Q X .... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean DateD0^û^cÂJ../.Û.iJS-'2S. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairman ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to many: to the dissertation committee— Dr. CarIfred Broderick, Dr. Daniel Glaser, Dr. Albert Feldman— for careful and concerned guidance, invaluable comments and suggestions, for encouragement and support; to Dr. Vern Bengtson, for communicating to me the excitement in studying the transactions between self system and social system which take place along the life course; to the team of investigators, headed by Dr. Bengtson, who provided the framework of the larger study, "Generational Differences: Correlates and Consequences," from which the data for the present analysis were taken; to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, for support of my graduate studies; to Marijo Walsh, for supervision of data collection and analyses, for consultation, and, with Dr. Kathy Gribbin, for friendship; to Donald, Jim, Bob, and Andrew, for being there for me and for letting me be for myself. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS..................... iii 'LIST OF TABLES .......................................iv LIST OF FIGURES.......................................vi CHAPTER I - STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.............. 1 Issues in the study of self-concept Application of the action theoretic perspective to the study of marital interact ion Relations among the variables CHAPTER II - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................. 34 Method of data-gathering Operationalization of the variables Analytic procedure CHAPTER III - RESEARCH FINDINGS .................... 74 Results of the test of the hypotheses CHAPTER IV - DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS.............. 81 I Interpretation of the negative findings CHAPTER V - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................88 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 91 APPENDIX ........................................ 97 A. Questionnaire items relevant to independent, mediating, and dependent variables B. Additional tables 111 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Characteristics of the Sample............. 38 2. Distribution of Responses on Senses of Self.................................... 46 3. Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Among Senses of S e l f ..................... 49 4. Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Among Balances on Senses of S e l f ........ 51 5. Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Between Senses of Self and Marital Satisfaction ............................ 52 6. Characteristics of the Sample on the Mediating Variables ..................... 54 7. Distribution of Responses on Amount of Recent "Success" Experience and Amount of recent "Failure" experience Items Before Redefinition of Items .... 64 8. Characteristics of the Sample on the Independent Variables ........... 66 9. Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Among Marital Interaction Items, and to Measure of Marital Satisfaction .... 72 10. Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Between Independent Variables and Marital Satisfaction Within Categories of Competence, Sex of Respondent, Income, and Health....................... 76 11. Means and Standard Deviations of Variables Studied ....................... 106 12. Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Between Independent Variables and Marital Satisfaction ..................... 107 iv Table Page 13. Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Between Independent Variables and Marital Satisfaction Within Categories of Age....................................... 108 V LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Relations among social environment, self-concept, and social conduct at three levels of conceptualization ... 26 2. Relations among operational representations of interpersonal environment, self-concept, and social conduct.................................... 34 VI Chapter I STATEMENT OP THE PROBLEM This is a report of an application of the principles and concepts of the theory of action to the study of the function of self-concept as a mediator of human conduct. The theory of action as formulated by Parsons (1951), is 'a conceptual scheme which was designed to cope with the middle level functioning of any kind of human conduct system. The central interest of the scheme is human ! behavior, which is analyzed from the reference points of four systems: organism, psychological system, social system, and culture. Recently, the scope of the general theory of action was extended to encompass some of the I I major dimensions of the individual's structure of self- i conception (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969). Viewing self- j concept as a system from the action theoretic perspective j I invites research on the functioning of the system of self- ; conceptions and on the interrelation of self-conception, social environment, and social conduct (Gordon, 1968b). ! The present study attempts to demonstrate how self- concept mediates the relation between social environment and social conduct by examining the relation among their ; 2 ! empirical referents, using predictors of marital satisfac tion as the indicators of environment, and a measure of 1 marital interaction as the indicator of behavior. It tests the hypothesis that the effect of factors in the social environment— the accumulation of ordinary everyday life events experienced by most people, upon their behavior— everyday marital interaction, is mediated differently by individuals having different types of self-concept. In the remainder of this chapter, the conceptual and substantive problems are discussed, showing the basis for the selection of the variables that were studied. Relations among the variables are stated in the ; form of hypotheses. Chapter II is a discussion of the methodology used in assessing the relationships among the variables. The results of the empirical tests are given in Chapter III, and in Chapter IV, those findings are interpreted. Chapter V consists of the summary and conclusions. Issues in the study of self-concept Self-concept refers to the process by which a person conceptualizes or categorizes his behavior--both external conduct and internal states--and to the system of concepts he then has available in attempting to define himself (Gergen, 1971). Its theoretic utility has been considered its potential capacity to mediate and direct a variety of 'behaviors (James, 1890; Veblen, 1899; Rogers, 1950). Many ,studies have demonstrated the relation of various 'dimensions of self-conception to persons' attitudes, or ! intentions to act, and to their actual conduct. Self- I appraisal processes have been shown to be associated with level of aspiration on various tasks (Chapman and Volkman, 1939; Lewin, Dembo, and Festinger, 1944; Diggory, Klein, and Cohen, 1964), occupational aspirations (Rosenberg, 1957), and aspirations for a particular adult role (Backman : and Secord, 1968). Various dimensions of the content of self-concept have been associated with religious affiliation (Kuhn and McPartland, 1954), role specializa tion within the family (Couch, 1962), and ward behavior of psychiatric patients (McPartland, Cumming, and Garretson, ,1961). Inconsistency in the content of self-concept was shown to be related to failure at an experimental task (Aronson and Carlsmith, 1962). The global self-descriptor self-esteem was found related to esteem for spouse (Black, I 1971). Low self-esteem was associated with low level of imuscle activity expended in task-performance (Maracek and Mettee, 1972 ; Shrauger, 1972). Other studies have 'specified conditions modifying the relation of overall I self-esteem to actual behavior (Maracek and Mettee, 1972; Tessler and Schwartz, 1972). The results of these studies concerning the function ing of self-concept in motivating behavior may be I 4 I questioned on the grounds that they are not equivalent (Spitzer, 1969), not generalizable across situations !(Block, 1952; Crowne and Stephens, 1961), nor consistent ! over time (Crowne and Stephens, 1961). That is, each may I be measuring a different theoretic and conceptual dimension of self-concept; global self-descriptors such as self-esteem may not be generalizable from one situation to another, nor to.all aspects of the self ; and concrete, specific self-representations may be temporally unstable and inconsistent. Thus, it is not clear from these studies exactly what component of self-concept predicts what behavior, nor how dependably. The conceptual and méthodologie issues contributing to these problems are addressed in this research through 1) formulation of self-concept in terms of systemic senses of self (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969); 2) application of the! action theoretic perspective to the functioning of the system of self-conceptions (Parsons, 1959); and ; 3) measurement of systemic senses of self by means of the Persons-Conceptions (P-C) dictionary (Gordon, 1972). The : relevance of systemic senses of self and the action theoretic perspective to the study of self-concept will I be discussed in the following two sections. A description of the P-C dictionary will be included in Chapter II, along with the other methods used to test the hypotheses informing this research. i 5 ! Systemic senses of self^ I Given that self-conceptions vary on the dimension , of generality, formulation of self-conceptions as constituting a type of psychological system permits examination of the system at middle levels of generality. This refers to the 'individual's functioning at a level more abstract than that I connoted by concrete, specific self-designations, but less general than that implied in such comprehensive self descriptors as self-esteem (Gordon, 1968b). Presumably, self-descriptors at a middle level of generality--"a good lawyer"— would be more temporally y stable and generalizable to other individuals, life situations, and test situations i I than concrete, situated self-descriptors— "I won a case | -today," yet have more predictive power than the most \ : I I global, undifferentiated descriptors— "very successful." j The general theory of action (Parsons, 1951, 1959) is | particularly suited to analysis of system functioning at I this mid-level of generality. The action theory framework ; asserts that any human conduct system must solve four problems if it is to function and survive. These are the 'problems of adaptation, goal-attainment, integration, and pattern-maintenance. Each of the four functional I ! :^This section on systemic senses of self draws heavily from Chad Gordon and Kenneth Gergen, The Self in Social , Interaction, New York: Wiley and Sons, 1968. I 6 Iproblems is asserted to have a corresponding "sense of I I I self" available to the individual's consciousness. Senses I of self refer to the individual's subjective interpreta- j tion of his standing in relation to each of his system problems. A correspondence is suggested of the sense of 'competence to the problem of adaptation, the sense of self-determination to the problem of goal-attainment, the sense of unity to the problem of integration, and the sense of moral worth to the problem of pattern-maintenance (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969). The senses of self approximate most closely variables that have been previously studied under the labels of competence, efficacy, ego energy (White, 1959, 1960, 1963); self-actualization (Maslow, 1962); identity (Erikson, 1950, 1959); pride, shame, mortification (James, 1890), self-feeling (Cooley, 1902), and self-respect (Mead, 1934). This correspondence j is detailed in the discussion which follows. j The sense of competence: adaptation at the person : level. Competence refers to the individual's subjective interpretation of his standing in relation to his objective problem of adaptation. Adaptation is the degree to which a system has developed a generalized capacity to ; meet the exigencies imposed by an unstable and varying ,situation (Parsons, 1959:633). The theme of generalized capacity has been used in an equivalent sense by White I (1959, 1960, 1963) in his competence model of human ,development. He introduces competence as a person's existing capacity to interact effectively with his j environment, and sense of competence as the subjective I side of one's actual compétence. White's concept of the sense of competence is selected (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969) as the individual's interpretation regarding his : system problem of adaptation, since it refers to the generalized capacities put forward in action theory as adaptation. In the present study, the sense of competence is defined as those self-descriptors which reflect the individual's sense of his general facilities, resources, and capacities. Examples are: adept, capable, efficient, logical, mature, operator, quick, skillful, well-informed .(but see Gordon, 1972 for all the entries connoting the four senses of self in the P-C dictionary). The sense of self-determination: goal-attainment at the person level. Self-determination refers to the individual's subjective interpretation of his standing in relation to his objective problem of goal-attainment. ;Goal-attainment is a problem for the system of competition ffor gratification among objects in the situation ; the ■concepts of volition, agency, decision-making, achievement, I and commitment to the attainment of high priority goals ; are essential features of goal-attainment (Parsons, 1959: 632, 652, 662). Many of these features have been used to ! 8 delineate the "self-actualizing" individual (Maslow, 1962). i jSuch individuals are motivated to attain the goals of I actualization of potentials, talents, and fulfillment of vocation (Maslow, 1962:23). The concept of self- ; déterminâtion is selected (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969) as ; the individual's interpretation regarding his system problem of goal-attainment. It seems to connote the complex processes needed to establish priorities among goal objects, allocate facilities, and distribute rewards. !In the present study, the sense of self-determination is defined as those self-descriptors which reflect the ! individual's sensed ability to establish priorities among his own goals, to initiate and vigorously pursue the necessary lines of action to attain them, and to act with freedom from control by others. Examples are : aggressive, assured, choose, decide, effort, strive (Gordon, 1972). ! The sense of unity : integration at the person level. ;Unity refers to the individual's subjective interpretation |of his standing in relation to his objective problem of ; integration. The problem of system integration concerns ! the internal harmony and mutual adjustment of the I individual’s personality dispositions, social roles ,(Parsons, 1959:636), priorities of goal objects, loyalties, I transcendent value standards, and the like (Gordon, 1968b). I 9 I ■The concern is with the degree of conflict or ^ inconsistency among these elements linking the individual ,with others. Erikson*s conceptualization of "the sense I of ego identity" (1950, 1959) seems to capture the theme I of interconnections between self and others. It involves the sense of unity among the person’s own self-conceptions, ,the sense of continuity of the attributes over time, and : the sense of mutuality between that individual’s concep-; tions of himself and those that significant others hold of him (Erikson, 1959:89). The sense of internal unity is selected (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969) as the individual’s interpretation regarding his personal system problem of integration. It is defined as those seIf-descriptors which reflect a meaningful connection between self and a unified set of occupational, professional, ideological, membership, family, and interpresonal roles. Examples are : coherent, consistent, identity, rational, serene, stable, well-adjusted (Gordon, 1972). The sense of moral worth: pattern-maintenance at the ■person level. Moral worth refers to the individual’s i subjective interpretation of his standing in relation to his objective problem of pattern-maintenance. The problem ■ of pattern-maintenance concerns commitment to personal actions consistent with values and expectations defined by the culture (Parsons, 1959:657-658). The theme of sensed adherence to a valued code of moral standards runs i 1 0 I .through the literature on self-feeling (Baldwin, 1897; : Cooley, 1902; Mead, 1934). As highly generalized culture ! symbols, value standards are used by others in morally ievaluating actions and attributes of individuals. The ; person generally evaluates his own attributes and actions ; in terms of these same moral standards, and thus has a continuingly available sense of greater or lesser moral worth. The sense of moral worth is selected (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969) as the individual’s interpretation regarding j I the system problem of pattern-maintenance. It is defined as those self-descriptors which connote value standards. 'Examples are: altruistic, charitable, honest, honor, noble, unprejudiced, upright, worthy (Gordon, 1972). In summary, the particular dimensions of self- ,conception which are examined in this study are the senses of competence, self-determination, unity, and moral worth, each corresponding to one of the functional problems held in action theory to be essential features of all human conduct systems. This formulation (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, ,1969) not only subsumes and organizes many important but 'scattered themes in the self literature, it enables the 'application of the action theoretic perspective to a mid- ; level functioning of system-ness which would presumably be available in the self-concept of any person. ! 11 ! The action theoretic perspective on the functioning }of self-concept in mediating conduct I : In the action theoretic perspective, a system tends to maintain itself in a state of equilibrium in relation to its environment until some alteration in the ( environment impinges upon it and disturbs its functional processes (Parsons, 1969:632). The disturbance activates the system’s adjustive mechanisms by which it attempts to restore balance through the increased operation of adaptive, goal-attainment, integrative, or pattern-main- !tenance functions (Parsons, 1959:668-670), tending to stress one or another pair of functions. Two types of ,systems may be identified (Parsons, 1959: 636, 637 footnote): adaptive systems whose adjustive style is : characterized by adaptive and goal-attainment activity in ,exchanges with the external environment; and integrative systems whose adjustive style is characterized by : integrative and pattern-maintenance activity in exchanges ,with the internal environment. In considering human conduct systems, or persons, it [Is customary to identify adjustive style by the person’s observable conduct and subjective states. Behavior characterizing adaptive types tends to reflect an interest in knowledge, mastery, and maximization of power for the purpose of achieving success. Behavior of the integrative ; type tends to reflect an interest in internal harmoniza- !tion, avoidance of conflict, and self-control in the interests of maintaining moderation, balance, and integrity of the personal value system (Parsons, 1969:667). These : 12 i ‘ behaviors are organized symbolically and constitute the structure of the individual’s psychological system ; (Parsons, 1968:16). They are clearly established and !definable to himself, enabling him to select and enact {appropriate courses of conduct in response to a changing ■social and interpersonal context. It seems likely that when the individual is challenged to respond to alterations in his interpersonal environment, and mechanisms of adjustment are activated, the behaviors invested with his adjust ive style would predominate in his awareness, and when asked to describe himself, he would do so in reference to those behaviors. Adaptive types, responding with adaptive and goal-oriented activity, would volunteer one characteristic set of self descriptors; integrative types, responding with integrative and pattern-maintenance activity, would volunteer another characteristic set. This being the case, the content of two different types of self-concept might be examined : 1) adaptive self-types, who .would be expected to conceptualize and describe themselves in terras connoting : the senses of competence and self-determination; and ;2) integrative self-types, who would be expected to refer ■to themselves in terms connoting sensed unity and moral worth. Then the mediating effect of these two I different self-types on the relationship between Che social environment and social conduct could be studied. In the following section, the discussion will present ,the variables which were selected to represent dimensions 13 of social environment, social conduct, and self-type in this research. Application of the action theoretic perspective to the study of marital interaction This section provides the empirical rationale for the action theoretic postulate that changes in the social environment alter conduct. The discussion will consider dimensions of the social environment— everyday life events experienced by most married persons which would be expected to affect the quality of marital interaction. The discussion carries on with the theme that self processes mediate the impact of these life-changing events on satisfaction with the marital relationship. The variables selected to represent social environment, self- concept, and social conduct will be defined. Since husband and wife have experiences that are independent of what goes on in marriage that have impact on the marriage (Black, 1971), it seems reasonable to view marital conduct within the context of the larger social system in which marital interaction takes place. Social system refers to the relatively stable interrelationships normally prevailing among aspects of the social environment (Hoult, 1972). Aspects of the social system with which husbands and wives come in contact and which have significance for them may be called their interpersonal environment. A view of marital interaction i 1 4 within the context of the interpersonal environment of I each spouse attempts to explain behavior in terms of stabilities in the spouses' relations to other persons as well as to each other (see Secord and Backman, 1961). It views individual conduct as the product of the individual's participation in various social environments and the activity of his psychological mechanisms which stabilize the interpersonal environment. The interpersonal environment influences the 1 individual's behavior by determining the frequencies of interaction between him and others, by placing him in various roles, and by prescribing the behavior of others toward him (Secord and Backman, 1964). These changes create incongruencies among three elements of the individual's experience : 1) an aspect of his self, 2) his 'interpretation of his behavior relevant to that aspect of self, and 3) his beliefs about how others feel about that aspect of self. Changed frequencies of interaction with others, a change in the behaviors of others toward one, a change in role categories occupied by him, and a change 'in the personnel who interact with him constitute events 'in the social environment which would be expected to 'alter the balance among self, behavior, and others. This i imbalance activates adjustive self-processes in the I individual which enable him to restore balance. One way 15 I ’he accomplishes this is to modify some aspect of jbehavior (Secord and Backman, 1964). It is implicit in this approach to marital behavior i that changes in the interpersonal environment are somehow related to the occurrence of social events. Therefore, it is reasonable to view social environment as an accumulation of social events. Such events evolve mostly from ordinary social and interpersonal transactions pertaining to marriage, occupation, economics, group and ; peer relationships, and other areas of dynamic significance 'in everyday life. They include such events as dating, ! sexual relations, and marriage; starting or stopping employment, moving to a new home, religious and educational experiences. The occurrence of social events i alters the stable interrelationships which the individual experiences in his interpersonal environment. Efforts at social readjustment are then activated. These are mediated through self-processes which often effect changes in behavior. .Life-changing events and marital satisfaction Recently, Holmes, Rahe, and others (Holmes and Rahe, 1967; Masuda and Holmes, 1967a, 1967b; Rahe and Arthur, 1967; Rahe, McKean, and Arthur, 1967) have suggested that the occurrence of social events creates pressures for social readjustment. They identified one theme common to 16 : all social events, whether socially desirable or not. The I occurrence of each event usually evokes some coping or adaptive behavior on the part of the involved individual, I with negative consequences for him. One of the most interesting results of this focus on : life-changing events is the discovery (Rahe and Arthur, 1967; Rahe, McKean, and Arthur, 1967) of a relation between the amount of life-change and the onset of 'physical illness. In a military sample, life-change 'intensity was found to rise significantly during the observation period before, during, and after a major illness. The negative relation between extensive life- change and physical well-being suggests the possibility of a similar negative relationship between the accumulation of life events and social-emotional well being, most probably accompained by negative changes in the marital ; relationship. Indeed, relations between, on the one hand, i amount of stressful life events and, on the other hand, | I psychological disorders (Dohrenwend, 1973), and traffic j accidents (Selzer and Vinokur, 1974) have been demonstrated; and Black (1971) found a relation of different specific i ' life-changing events to positive and negative experiences I from marital interaction. The concept of life events and their consequences for 'the marital relation is congenial with the developmental view (Duvall, 1957; Rodgers, 1964) of family interaction. i 1 7 i ■ This framework views the marital relation against a back- I 'ground of social time, or the accumulation of social 1 I events, rather than chronological time. The events, such as marriage, child rearing experiences, child launching, and retirement, place the marital dyad at different stages 'in the family developmental cycle. The family development framework asserts that marriages are somehow very different from each other, certainly in terms of spouses' satisfaction (Rollins and Feldman, 1970; Pineo, 1961), as a result of the impact of events associated with stage in the family career. Another way of viewing family development and marital behavior focuses on changes in the relations of family members to persons in their interpersonal environments outside the family. Bell and Vogel (1960) have presented a systems model of family exchange with other units in the society. Black (1971) utilized a system approach in his ' study of the impact of life events outside of the marital system on development of the marital relation . Goode (1960) used a model of family cohesion based upon the role clusters of individual family members. Scanzoni (1965) has pointed out the importance of social networks of relationships within which the family operates in determining family morale. Combining the insights of the family development framework with those of the systems : approach, it seems that events marking the marital career : 18 ! are uniquely related to marital satisfaction. Given that I life events affect marital interaction, this effect should be mediated differently by adaptive self-types and 'integrative self-types. This being the case, and in view of Holmes and Rahe's findings (1967), life events were i : selected as independent variables representing dimensions of the social environment which would be expected to affect conduct. Independent variables. Four variables were selected ■ to represent types of life-change which might be expected to predict marital satisfaction. They consist of life event items found to be related to negative physical consequences (Holmes and Rahe, 1967), or to positive and negative feelings from marital interaction (Black, 1971). : They also include additional event items thought to be common to the experience of a general sample of married persons at various stages of the family cycle. All of the life-changing event items from which the independent ; variables were constructed are presented in Chapter II. The variables are not strictly independent of each other, but are actually a subset of life events which constitute the matrix of the individual’s development over the course 'of his life. I Amount of recent life-change. Because life-change . intensity was found to be associated with the occurrence of physical illness (Holmes and Rahe, 1967), and certain ,types of life change were found associated with marital i I satisfaction (Black, 1971), amount of recent life-change I I was included as an independent variable which is expected to be negatively related to marital satisfaction. No ! attempt was made to distinguish among these events on the I basis of their intensity, that is, the magnitude of social ; readjustment they necessitate. It was simply assumed that the accumulation of events within a short period of time would be an indicator of intensity; the more the life- changing events, the greater the intensity, and the stronger the negative consequences for the involved individual. Amount of life-change is defined simply as ■ the total number of life-changing events experienced by the individual within a particular period. The previous work on life change emphasized the negative consequences to the individual of social read justment to any change from his existing steady state | (Holmes and Rahe, 1967), No distinction was made among the} ' I events evoking adjustive responses as to their social | I ; I desirability. Although some were negative in the conventional sense (i.e. death of spouse), others were socially desirable and consonant with the American values underlying marriage and family (i.e. pregnancy, taking on a mortgage greater than $10,000, vacation). It would seem, however, that the involved individual would interpret these two kinds of events--positive and negative— differently. i ' 20 I I ; and that they would then have different consequences for I his conduct. Events subjectively experienced as negative ,would have stronger negative consequences than those 'experienced as positive. In order to investigate this possibility, variables representing positive life-changing experiences, or subjectively defined successes, and negative life-changing experiences, or subjectively defined failures, were included in this study. j Amount of recent ’’success" experience. This variable | i is defined as the total number of life-changing events defined by the individual as success that he experienced within a particular period of time. It is expected to be negatively related to marital satisfaction. Amount of recent ’ ’failure” experience. This variable i is defined as the total number of life-changing events defined by the individual as failure that he experienced within a particular period of time. It is expected to be negatively related to marital satisfaction. Number of years husband is retired. One independent ; variable is included in this study to represent a life- changing event specifically associated with the later years of the marital career and the life course. This event jis retirement. The husband’s retirement is an alteration in his social environment which dramatically alters the interpersonal environment of both spouses, and would be expected to affect their conduct within the marriage. He 21 ! ’moves out of the network of interpersonal relationships I ; associated with his occupation. She is called upon to render care and companionship to the husband, now more ! consistently present in her interpersonal environment. jHusband and wife are thrust into a more intense, full time relationship than they have probably experienced for years. It seems likely then that changes in the couple's lives associated with the life event husband's retirement would have a negative effect on the quality of their marital interaction (Peterson, 1973; Mitchell, 1972). However, as spouses mobilize coping resources and effect social readjustment with the passage of time, the negative consequences of retirement related life changes would presumably be reduced. Accordingly, number of years the husband is retired is included as a life-changing event in this study which is expected to be positively related to marital satisfaction. Number of years retired is defined as the number of years since the husband has retired. These, then, are the four independent variables representing altered dimensions of the social environment which relations to marital conduct are examined in this study: 1) amount of recent life-change, 2) amount of recent "success" experience 3) amount of recent "failure" experience, and 4) number of years husband is retired. ; 22 ! Dependent variable. Several studies of marriage have ; included variables reflecting the presence of positive and negative feelings in husband-wife interactive experiences ■as indicators of marital satisfaction. Rollins and Feldman (1970) called the variables "positive companionship experiences with spouse," and "negative feelings from interaction." Meyerowitz (1970) used the same items in his study. Orden and Bradburn (1968, 1969) included in their conceptual framework dimensions of satisfaction and tensions that spouses experience. Black (1971) used the ; Rollins and Feldman (1970) items in his study of the development of the marital relationship which he found affected by certain types of life-change. In this study, the items connoting positive companionship experiences (Rollins and Feldman, 1970; Black, 1971) were used together with additional items connoting positive and negative interactive experiences commonly shared by married couples of all ages and stages in the marital career. These are conversational, task-sharing, laughing, and good-time-sharing interactive experiences; sarcastic, abnormal conversational, disagreeing, and angry interactive experiences. The combined items refer to the respondent's I subjective sense of how often pleasurable and displeasurable emotional responses accompany interactions with spouse. They compose the dependent variable frequency of positive marital interaction. J 23 ! Frequency of positive marital interaction. Frequency I j of positive marital interaction is defined as the sum of positive minus the sum of negative interaction experiences that each spouse reports concerning his marriage. Mediating variables. Individuals who define them-' I selves as adaptive self-types tend to value general achievement, success, power, and mastery. They tend to seek money and knowledge as means for accomplishing these ambitions. They tend to be highly disciplined and ! controlled, avoiding commitments to relationships which I would restrict their freedom of action to pursue their goals (Parsons, 1959:662-665). It would seem that these adaptive and self-determining people, involved in goal- seeking exchanges with others in their interpersonal I environment, would be accustomed to change. Disturbances in their social environment would constitute little departure from their steady state of system functioning. These would then evoke minimal pressure for social read- ,justment. Furthermore, they tend to avoid commitment to ; relationships which might interfere with their ambitions. ;It might be expected that any negative consequences for their social-emotional well being would not be reflected 'in their sense of the marital relationship. According to this line of reasoning, in mediating the impact of amount of recent life-change, amount of recent "success" exeri- ence, and amount of recent "failure" experience on 1 24 ! frequency of positive marital interaction, self- ! conception as an adaptive type would attenuate the relationship. ; Adaptive self-type. Adaptive self-type is defined as the individual's sense of his standing in relation to his system problems of adaptation and goal-attainment. 'It is expected to be reflected in self-designations connoting competence and self-determination. Individuals who define themselves as integrative 'self-types tend to place great importance on maintaining ; the integrity of their personality organization and personal value system. In order to do so, they minimize the importance of successful adaptation. They prefer to come to terms with their situation, rather than to j actively strive to improve it. They tend to undertake | only those ambitions designed to insure moderation, and j continued integration and balance in personal functioning I (Parsons, 1959:665-667). Generalizing from this I : i representation, it would seem that for integrative types, , disturbances in the interpersonal environment would | ■ Ï constitute a considerable departure from the ideal steady | state. It would be expected that pressures for social ireadjustment created by the occurrence of life-changing 'events would be particularly disruptive to these individuals, with discernible negative consequences for < the marital relationship. Accordingly, in mediating the I 25 I impact of life-change on frequency of positive marital I interaction, self-conception as an integrative type would function to accentuate the relationship. Integrative self-type. Integrative self-type is I defined as the individual's sense of his standing in relation to his system problems of integration and pattern-maintenance. It is expected to be reflected in I self-désignâtions connoting unity and moral worth. These, then, are the variables which were selected to . test the action theoretic perspective on the functioning of self-conception in mediating the relationship between social environment and social conduct. Relations among the variables at the theoretical, empirical, and operational levels of conceptualization are presented ; in Figure 1. Other mediating variables. The central focus of the present research is primarily on the mediating effect of adaptive self-type and integrative self-type on the relation between amount and kinds of life-change and I frequency of positive marital interaction. Nevertheless, ; three additional mediating variables which previous research suggests are related to satisfaction with jmarital interaction are included in this study. They are included for the purpose of observing their effects separately from those of self-type on marital ' satisfaction. The variables are sex, income, and health. 26 Figure 1 Relations among social environment, self-concept, and social conduct at three levels of conceptualization Level of : conceptualization Relations among variables A Theoretical social __ environment self-concept V social conduct B Empirical life-change events sense of self adaptive integrative self-type self-type ^ marital inter action Operational sensed conpetence self-det erminat ion amount of________ recent life-change amount of ____ recent "success" experience amount of — . recent "failure" experience number of years retired -------- sensed unity, moral worth ^ frequency of posi tive marital inter action 27 ! I I Sex. Patterns of change in satisfaction with marital I .behavior over the life course seem to indicate a different pattern for husbands and for wives. One investigation ! (Rollins and Feldman, 1970) suggests that satisfaction i with the marital relationship may be related to roles each spouse plays other than the role of husband or wife, that satisfaction with marital behavior may be associated with the parenthood role for wives and with the occupational role for husbands. In Black’s (1971) sample, different : environmental variables were associated with satisfaction with the marital system for husbands and wives. If the marital relationship itself is a more salient source of marital satisfaction for wives than for husbands, one would expect it to be a more sensitive barometer of negative consequences of life-change for wives than for husbands. On the other hand, since the life-changing event husband’s retirement has fewer implications for the life style of wives than for husbands (Gumming, 1964; Kerckhoff, 1964), one would expect the impact of retire- :ment on marital behavior to be less salient for wives. ! Consequently, this study includes the variable sex as a mediator of the relationship between life-change and 'marital behavior. Being female is expected to accentuate the relationship between amount of recent life-change, i amount of recent ’’success’’ experience, and amount of recent "failure" experience, and frequency of positive j 28 i I marital interaction. Being female is expected to I attenuate the relationship between number of years husband ! is retired and frequency of positive marital interaction. Income. Several studies (see discussion in Hicks and Platt, 1970; Black, 1971) have reported that couples of a higher socioeconomic status are more likely to report satisfaction in marriage. It has been pointed out (Renne, 1970) that the relations are weak and often irregular ; that at best, socioeconomic status accounts for less than one-third of the variance in marital happiness (Hicks and Platt, 1970); and that the relation between socioeconomic status and marital satisfaction may be mediated by other 'variables. However, the crucial variables seems to be 'income (Renne, 1970; Cutright, 1971). Certainly income ,would be expected to enhance couples' ability to deal with the life-change necessitated by various life events, and to facilitate social readjustment. Because income seems to be related to marital satisfaction, and probably to social readjustment processes, it is included as a variable in this study. It is defined as the total annual income iof all members of the respondent's household. It is 'expected to attenuate the relation between amount and kinds I of life-changing events and frequency of positive marital interaction. Health. Physical health of spouses appears to be related to marital satisfaction, although the direction of I 29 influence is not entirely clear (Renne, 1970; Black, 1971). ; Good health has been mentioned as an important factor in determining morale in retirement (Mitchell, 1972; Streib, 1956), and thus would be expected to be related to marital satisfaction of retired couples. Poor physical health and psychiatric ill health have been linked in the elderly '(Lowenthal, Berkman, and associates, 1967); good health would then be expected to be associated with the presence of adequate coping and adaptive skills which would ‘ facilitate social readjustment to the life event retirement.) For these reasons, health is included as a variable in | this study. It is defined as the respondent's subjective ' evaluation of his physical condition. It is expected to attenuate the relationship between number of years husband is retired and frequency of positive marital interaction. Relations among the variables The ideas presented in the foregoing discussion can be restated more formally as five hypotheses. These hypotheses state the function of self-concept in mediating : the relation between the interpersonal environment and social conduct. Hypothesis 1 : There is negative relationship between amount of recent life-change an individual reports and that individual's report of frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse. I 30 Hla: Negative correlations found for HI will be j greater for integrative self-types than for adaptive self-types. Hlb: Negative correlations found for HI will be ; greater for females than for males. I Hlc: Negative correlations found for HI will be greater for those with low income than with with high income. Hypothesis 2: There is a negative relationship between the amount of recent "success" experience an individual reports and that individual's report of frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse. H2a: Negative correlations found for H2 will be greater for integrative self-types than for adaptive self-types. H2b: Negative correlations found for H2 will be I greater for females than for males. | I H2c: Negative correlations found for H2 will be I I J greater for those with low income than with high income. Hypothesis 3: There is a negative relationship 'between amount of recent "failure" experience an individual 'reports and that individual's report of frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse. H3a: Negative correlations found for H3 will be 31 greater for integrative self-types than for adaptive self-types. H3b: Negative correlations found for H3 will be greater for females than for males. H3c: Negative correlations found for H3 will be greater for those with low income than with high income. Hypothesis 4: There is a higher negative relation ship between amount of recent "failure" experience and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse than between amount of recent "success" experience, and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse. H4a: Differences found for H4 will be greater for integrative self-types than for adaptive self-types. H4b: Differences found for H4 will be greater for females than for males. H4c: Differences found for H4 will be greater for those with low income than with high income. Hypothesis 5. There is a positive relationship between number of years the husband is retired and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse. H5a: Positive correlations found for H5 will be greater for integrative self-types than for adaptive self-types. ! 32 ! ! H5b: Positive correlations found for H5 will be i I greater for males than for females. H5c: Positive correlations found for H5 will be greater for those with low income than with high income. j H5d: Positive correlations found for H5 will be greater for those with poor health than with good health. Operational representations of the relationships ; stated in the hypotheses are presented schematically in Figure 2. On the left side of the diagram the independent variables, operational representations of the interpersonal environment are shown. These are 1) amount of recent life- change , 2) amount of recent "success" experience, 3) amount ,of recent "failure" experience, and 4) number of years retired. On the right side of the diagram the dependent variable, operationalization of social conduct is entered. This is frequency of positive marital interaction. ; In the upper center of the diagram, operational representations of the focal mediating variables are fshown. These are 1) sensed competence and self- determination, and 2) sensed unity and moral worth. At ; the lower left, the other mediating variables, sex, ; income, and health are shown. The arrows connecting the operationalizations of the variables indicate the direction the relations are expected to take. In the I 33 ; next step of this research project, the relationships I among the operational representations of these variables were assessed. Chapter II describes how this was carried out. 34 ( M C D U W) ■ H Ü a o 4 - 4 Ü o r H C Q c d C - H O Ü • H O C Q c d +J a a C D c d C Q 0 » ' f H - P A A 0 0 fH Ü G iH O c d Ü G { O 4 - 4 • H 1 —4 +J 0 d C Q fH 0 ' ' a -p o a 0 b f i g a 0 1 w s = f o •H - P C S d a o 0 œ C D a p C D -p a • H a I P ) 0 O 4 h § o5 I— I G O • H Ü 0 - P G > r HÜ 0 • Hd G - P- pp c r • H• H0 0 W P- p P 4 H O ü SG 4 H O a a • H • H - P • H G - P C Q a=H 4 H >ts I —I • H • H - P 4 H 4 H Ü 4 H Ü • H - P Ü - P - H G G O a IS p 0 a s X C 4 S 0 0 ; D I G Chapter II RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter describes the procedures used in assessing the relationships among the variables discussed in the previous chapter. It is divided into three basic parts. The first is a report of the method of data gathering ; next the operationalization of the variables is discussed; and in the final part, the procedure used in the statistical analysis of the data is presented. Method of Data-Gathering Sampling and data-gathering The data for this research are from a larger study regarding patterns of transmission and contrast in three- generational families.2 These families were drawn from a population of 840,000 members of a metropolitan medical care plan (see Bengtson and Lovejoy, 1973). In an attempt to locate intact, three-generational families of adults, an initial random sample of 7,112 Generational Differences: Correlates and Consequences" supported by the National Institutes of Mental Health (Grant #MH-18101), Vern L. Bengtson, principal investigator. 35 36 potential grandfathers was drawn from this population: men above the age of 55 with at least one dependent (usually a 1 spouse), enrolled in the health plan. These men were sent i a one-page sampling survey to determine if they were : members of three-generation families as specified by the research design (that is, with at least one living child who himself was a parent of a 15-26 year old youth). Of the 70 percent who returned these sampling survey, an amazingly low number (595) reported having such families and were able to furnish addresses of the middle-aged and young adult members. Each eligible member of the three-generation family units thus defined (n=3207) was mailed a lengthy structured questionnaire during the period from November, 1971 to ' May,1972. Completed questionnaires were returned by 2044 individuals during the period from December, 1971 to Septem ber, 1972. The 2044 individuals who participated in this initial wave of data-gathering were subsequently mailed a ,second questionnaire beginning in May, 1972. Of this ; group, 1559 individuals returned the completed second questionnaire by November, 1972, at which time data- collection ceased. I The sample ' The final sample for the present analysis consisted of 1559 individuals. This represents a return rate of 48 percent of the original sample (n=3207). and 76 % __________ I 37 of the sample remaining at the end of the initial wave of data-gathering (n=2044). This indicates a sample of I individuals highly motivated to participate, in view of the fact that each questionnaire took approximately 1-3/4 I hours to complete, with a minimum of 45 minutes and a maximum of 5 1/4 hours reported. The present data are • based on 388 married couples and include a subsample of 104 retired married couples. These are the general characteristics of the entire sample for the present analysis (see Table 1 for more ■ detail [No information is available concerning characteristics of the non-participants]). The average age was 50 years. The couples had been married for an average of 26 years. All respondents, except for those in the youngest age group, had at least one child by the present or a former marriage. The sample was prédominently Caucasian (99%). On religious preference, 60% indicated Protestant, 18% Catholic, 9% Jewish, 4% Mormon, and 9% j i other or athiest. Seventy-six percent had at least a j high school education; 49.5% of the sample had some college. The mean income was $15,000 a year. The sample ' was thus biased toward the upper education and income , groups. Table 1 Characteristics of the Sample 38 Variable P e r c e n t in e a c h category , Age 18 to 29 years 30 to 39 years 40 to 44 years 45 to 49 years 50 to 59 years 60 to 64 years 65 to 69 years 70 to 90 years : Years married fewer than 10 years 11 to 20 years 21 to 30 years TOTAL 11.6% (88) 9.6% (73%) 19.2% (146) 14.6% (111) 12.0% (91) 10.0% (76) 11.7% (89) 11.3% (86) 100.0% (760) 17.0% (128) 19.2% (145) 29.9% (226) 39 Table 1 (con't) Characteristics of the Sample Variable Percent in each (ca Legury) Years married 31 to 40 years 10.1% (76) 41 to 50 years 20.2% (153) 51 to 60 years 3.6% (27) TOTAL 100.0% (755) Education Grade school-1 to 6 years 4.1% (31) Junior high school-7 to 9 years 6.7% (51) Some high school-10 to 11 years 13.5% (102) High school graduate-12 years 26.2% (198) Some college-1 to 3 years 30.8% (234) College graduate-4 years 5.2% (39) Some graduate study 9.4% (71) Graduate degree 4.1% (31) TOTAL Table 1 (con Characteristics of t) the Sample 40 Variable Percent in each (category) Income $3,000 to 4,999 9.3% (67) 5,000 to 6,999 11.9% (85) 7,000 to 10,999 20.2% (145) 11,000 to 14,999 17.9% (128) 15,000 to 18,999 13.4% (96) 19,000 to 29,999 19.6% (142) 30,000 to 50,000 or more 7.7% (54) : 1 TOTAL 100.0% (717) Race Caucasian 75.1% (554) Mexican-American 0.7% (5) Negro 0.6% (4) Other Caucasian 23.6% (171) TOTAL 100.0% (724) Table 1 (con't) Characteristics of the Sample 41 Religion Protestant Catholic Jewish Mormon Other Agnostic, athiest TOTAL 60.0% (442) 17.8% (131) 9.1% (67) 4.1% (30) 1.4% (10) 7.6% (57) 100.0% (737) I 42 ! Operationalization of the variables I , The data in this study were responses of the subjects to sections of a larger self-administered questionnaire. 'This report of the operationalization of the variables consists primarily of a description of the questionnaire items relevant to each of the variables and of the way in which the items were scored. Where appropriate, the values assigned the various responses are indicated in parentheses. A copy of the relevant sections of the 'questionnaire may be found in Appendix A. The research measures the effects of five mediating variables on the relation between amount and types of life-change and 1 frequency of positive marital interaction. These mediating variables are adaptive self-type, integrative self-type, : sex, income, and health. Before reporting their operationalization, the discussion turns to the method of collecting and coding the responses which were operationalizations of the two self-types--adaptive, and integrative. The Persons-Conceptions analytic dictionary Subjects were asked to write descriptions of them- ' selves in response to the written question "Who are you?" !(Bugental and Zelen, 1950; cf. "Twenty statements test," Kuhn and McPartland, 1954; cf. "Who am I? [henceforth ’ WAX?’]," Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969). Twenty numbered ; 43 I ! lines followed. The self-descriptors elicited by the ,question "Who are you?" were coded by means of the P-C analytic system of computer-aided content analysis (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1972). The system has been ; set up as a dictionary for use with the General Inquirer library of IBM System 360/370 computer programs. Used together, the General Inquirer system and the P-C dictionary, can code, summarize, compare, and retrieve large amounts of descriptive text, and can provide data '(in the form or cards, tape, or disk) representing each describer’s pattern of code category usage (Gordon, 1972). The P-C dictionary attempts to capture the major elements of cognitive meaning, positive or negative evaluative tone, and temporal orientation of any kind of personal description. The system includes 228 content categories (for the dictionary’s main framework of conceptual categories, see Gordon, 1969). Approximately 7,500 word entries are recognized by the P-C dictionary, but editing procedures which apply "rules for dis- 'ambiguation" raise the number of meanings distinguished to approximately 20,000 (Gordon, 1972). The P-C analytic system for coding descriptive text ; offers methodological advantages over other instruments for assessing self-conception. First of all, the dictionary consists of specific word entiries. Any self description which matches a particular word entry is I 44 i unambiguously coded into that category. There is no question as to the cognitive meaning of that particular i self-désignâtion. Secondly, the P-C analytic system includes a procedure for editing free-response self- descriptions for the purpose of "disambiguation." In the ^ editing procedure, an extensive series of rules is applied to each self-description which is not identical with an entry in the P-C dictionary. Any response which is not identical to a dictionary entry is classified according to criteria specified by the rules into a content category appropriate to the response's cognitive meaning. These features of the P-C analytic system enhance the probability of obtaining reliable results in repeated assessments of one individual’s self-conception, and comparable results in assessing self-conception of different individuals. In this respect, the P-C analytic system constitutes an | I improvement over other methods for coding free-response seIf-conceptions (see Spitzer, 1969, for a criticism of | equivalence of results of free-response instruments ; see ' ; Franklin and Kohout, 1971; McPhail, 1968; McPhail and ^ Tucker, 1972, for other methodological problems in coding 'free response self-descriptions elicited by the "WAI?.") ; Four of the 228 content categories included in the P-C framework are relevent to this research. These categories are competence, self-determination, unity, and moral worth. Table 2 presents the distribution of self- 45 ’references coded by the P-C system into positive and I negative references to each of these four categories of sense of self. The numerals report the percentage of I sentences elicited by the "WAI?" containing at least one I self-designation to each sense of self, positive or I negative. They show that positive competence was referred to in 1 to 25 percent of sentences by the largest proportion of the sample (67.1%). Positive self- determination was mentioned in 1 to 25 percent of sentences by the next largest group of respondents (58.3%), followed by positive moral worth (52.9%). Positive unity (9.5%) and negative moral worth (9.9%) were least mentioned. Self-descriptions in these four categories were to constitute, in certain combinations, the focal médiatingj variables— adaptive self-type, and integrative self-type. j Mediating variables , Adaptive self-type. Adaptive self-type refers to the respondent’s subjective interpretation of his standing in relation to his objective problems of adaptation and goal- attainment. It is presumably reflected in his self descriptions on the "WAI?" in terms of competence and self- determination. Positive competence and self-determination were to be operationalized as the percent of all sentences I containing at least one self-désignâtion which were coded according to the P-C dictionary as capturing the elements 46 Table 2 Distribution of Responses on Senses of Self Variable Percent of sentences containing at least one reference Percent of sample with sentences containing at least one Posit ive reference Negative reference Competence no sentences 16.1% (118) 66.5% (488) 1 to 25 percent 67.1% (493) 32.8% (241) 26 to 50 percent 15.2% (111) 0.7% (5) 51 to 100 percent 1.6% (12) TOTAL 100.0% (734) 100.0% (734) Self-deter mination no sentences 37.6% (276) 76.4% (561) : 1 to 25 percent 58.3% (428) 23 .3% (170) 26 to 50 percent 4.1% (30) 0. 3% (3) I TOTAL 100.0% (734) 100.0% (734) Unity no sentences 90.5% (665) 88.5% (650) 1 to 25 percent 9.5% (69) 11.5% (84) TOTAL 100.0% (734) 100.0% (734) 47 Table 2 (con't) Distribution of Responses on Senses of Self Varible Percent of sentences coiiLaining at least one reference Percent of sample w i t h s e n t e n c e s containing at least one Positive Negative reference reference Moral worth no sentences 47.1% 90.1% (346) (661) 1 to 25 percent 52 .9% 9.9% (388) (73) TOTAL 100.0% 100.0% (734) (734) I 48 jof cognitive meaning associated with positive references ^ to those senses of self. Negative competence and self- determination were to be operationalized as the percent of all sentences which were coded as capturing the 'elements of cognitive meaning associated with negative references to those senses. Adaptive self-type was then to be operationalized as the balance of positive to negative self-references in terms of competence and self- determination. Operationally, this means that the sum of the percent of all sentences connoting negative competence and self-determination was to be subtracted from the sum of the percent of all sentences connoting positive competence and self-determination. This procedure was to yield a single dimension defined as adaptive self-type. Pearson product moment correlations computed among the four senses of self, positive and negative, provided no empirical justification, however, for the theoretical : orientation guiding the plan to measure two self-types — adaptive, and integrative. Table 3 presents the zero j i 'order correlation coefficients which illustrate this , point. Table 3 shows that positive competence and self -determination are essentially unrelated (0.07), as were ! the negative dimensions of these two senses (0.19). Positive unity and moral worth (0.05), and their negative I ■ dimensions (0.06) were also unrelated. Nonetheless, the : positive and negative dimensions on each sense were CO C D r-{ H 1 o o • rH 44 + o P rH o o C D • • CO rH o 44 O o < <M p W 1 o • O o C D • • W P rH O o Cl 1 C D U1 / — \ + o P P CSI bO o O o o C P • • • • o rH o o o s /-V 1 <3 1 Ü3 Q O 0 0 0 0 l> p - P 1 O O rH o o a U1 • • • • • C D rH o o o o •H 1 Ü /---V •H + 44 o 00 rH o r H o 44 Q o O rH o O o 0 1 • • • • • • o m rH o o o o o o 1 1 1 c o O I> p (M p 00 p •H 1 o o rH O (M o o -p o S o rH o o O O o o rH 1 1 0 P P o ' = ï ' t> p rH C S I o + o O o O O o o o o • . • • • • • • o rH o o o o o o o 1 1 0 P o + 1 o u a C ! 0 o O N •H •H - P - P o S + 1 + 1 C ! c 0 •H •H rH B S p P 0 0 P 4 ! H -p -p o S Ü 0 0 0 / ---V u p •H C Î c P > P + 1 o o U 0 0 0 0 d - P ■ p P P > 0 0 1 1 > 5 > 5 rH rH A a 44 44 - P -p o S c d B B rH rH •H •H p p o 0 0 0 a a 0 0 O o C Z 3 W P P 49 50 I tentatively combined into six single variables. Each variable represents a balance of percent of sentences ,containing at least one positive reference to that sense, ‘to percent of sentences containing at least one negative ,reference to that sense. Correlations were then computed i among the balance variables. These are reported in Table 4. It can be seen that competence balance is unrelated to self-determination balance (0.04); unity balance is unrelated to moral worth balance (0.07); and furthermore, the balance pairs are unrelated (0.07 and 0.12). Finally, it was decided to compute product moment correlations between senses of self and marital satisfaction, using senses of self singly and in several combinations. The purpose was to find any dimensions of self which, by these operations, seemed likely to mediate conduct as measured in this study. The results of this procedure are presented in Table 5. Table 5 indicates competence balance as the sense of self most strongly related to marital satisfaction (0.15). On the basis of these findings, it was decided to I redefine adaptive self-type as sensed competence. ' Competence is operationalized as the balance between the I percent of sentences containing at least one self reference in terms of positive competence relative to the percent of sentences containing at least one self- reference in terms of negative competence. Integrative 0 I —I rO d 4H rH 0 UO 44 O w 0 W G 0 W G O U 2 0 Ü a c d rH c d CQ bO G O W -H C 0 •H Ü •H 44 44 0 O O a o •H -H cd I —I 0 O U 0 '0 o o ? 4 0 N H k 4-» 0 0 0 Ü 13 l a s l a I I 4J 44 cd I ? 4 ? 4 3 0 Ü >v G -p cd •H I —I a c d ^0 ,0 I 0 ■p 0 13 I 0 Ü G G O •H - p 44 cd cd I —I c l I —I 0 *H cd ra S ^ 0 ü a 0 - p 0 a o o 0 rH Xi cd •H a cd > O o o o O O O O O t> o co o CD o o o t> o * LO * LO LO * CD 00 o o * <M * (M G1 * LO O O rH o m o a o a • a 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 a U i 0 X ü o a 0 o a a -P a •H cd a *H a cd cd -p 1 —1 cd -p a rH -P 1 —1 cd cd rH cd cd cd cd a 0 rO cd a 0 X X i •H Ü ,0 -H 0 -P c a X G a a a 0 a cd -p 0 u cd -p cd Ü 0 rH a 0 0 1 —1 a 0 a -p <D cd o a -p 0 ■ cd o •H 0 0 ü X i 0 0 0 X ^ 44 -p 13 a -p 13 a •H 0 1 cd >s rH 0 1 cd t>J 1 —1 a a 44 rH -p cd a4H iH +-> cd b J 3 S 1 —1 cd •H a s r4 cd •H a •H o 0 X i a 0 O 0 .0 a o oo o m a s O 00 a s * 51 52 Table 5 Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Between Senses of Self and Marital Satisfaction Variable Marital Satisfaction Competence (+) 0.10 Competence (-) -0.13* Self-determination (+) 0.01 Self-determination (-) -0.05 Unity (+) 0.01 Unity (-) -0.10 Moral worth (+) 0.07 Moral worth (-) -0.02 Competence balance 0.15* Self-determination balance 0.03 Unity balance 0.09 Moral worth balance 0.08 Competence balance plus Self-determination balance 0.14* Unity balance plus Moral worth balance 0.10 All senses of self (+) and (-) 0.16* *Significant at the .001 level 53 I self-type was dropped from the analysis. This being the I ; case, the corollary 'a' to each of the hypotheses 1 through 5 stated in Chapter I might be restated: . . . . will be greater for persons with sensed low competence than for those with sensed high competence. The analysis thus proceded with one focal mediating variable— competence— and the three others— sex, income, ; and health. Characteristics of the sample on the mediating variable are detailed in Table 6. Sex. Sex was scored as indicated by the respondent. Income. Income refers to the combined annual income, all income, not just wages, of all the members of the subject's household. Sixteen categories of income were presented. The lowest category was less than $5,000. The ,highest category was $50,000 or more. Income was operationalized as the mean of the income category indicat ed by the subject in the first wave of data gathering. Health. Health refers to the respondent’s , subjective evaluation of his physical condition. It is operationalized as his score on the health scale of the I Retirement Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendall, and Hulin, '1969) collected in the first wave of data gathering. The score is computed from the respondent’s reply to each of the following descriptions of his health: 54 Table 6 Characteristics of the Sample on the Mediating Variables Variable Percent in each category Competence balance -26 through -4 7.0% (51) 0 17.9% (131) 1.0 through 5.3 10. 3% (75) 5.3 through 9.6 8.5% (62) 9.6 through 11.2 11.9% (87) 11.2 through 15.2 11.2% (82) 15.2 through 20.5 10.8% (79) 20.5 through 30.9 13.2% (96) 30.9 through 101 9.2% (67) TOTAL 100.0% (730) Income $3,000 to 4,999 9.3% (67) 5,000 to 6,999 11.9% (85) 55 Table 6 (con' t) Characteristics of the Sample on the Mediating Variables Variable Percent in each category Income 7,000 to 10, 999 20.2% (145) 11,000 to 14,999 17.9% (128) 15,000 to 18,999 13.4% (96) 19,000 to 29,999 19.6% (142) 30,000 to 50,000 or more 7.7% (54) TOTAL Competence balance— retired couples 100.0% (717) -26 through 0 -4 4.4% (8) j 18.3% (33) 1.0 through 5.3 9.4% 1 (17) 5.3 through 9.6 6.2% (11) 9.6 through 11.2 15.6% (28) 11.2 through 15.2 15.6% (28) 15.2 through 20.5 8.3% (15) 56 Table 6 (con't) Characteristics of the Sample on the Mediating Variables Variable Percent in each category Competence balance— retired couples 20.5 through 30,9 30.9 through 100 Income— retired couples $3,000 to 4,999 5.000 to 6,999 7.000 to 8,999 9.000 to 10,999 11.000 to 12,999 13.000 to 32,999 ' Health— retired couples I 0 to 6 poor 7 to 10 TOTAL TOTAL 13.9% (25) 8.3% (15) 100.0% (180) 20.6% (20) 35.1% (34) 11.3% (11) 15.5% (15) 11.3% (11) 6.2% (6) 100.0% (97) Husband 8.2% (8) Wife 9.3% ( 9 ) 15.5% 14.4% (15) (14) 57 Table 6 (con’t) Characteristics of the Sample on the Mediating Variables Variable Percent in each category Health— retired couples Husband Wife 11 to 17 26.8% (26) 33.0% (32) 18 to 21 24.7% (24) 22.7% (22) 22 to 24 16.5% (16) 8.2% (8) 25 to 27 good 8.8% (8) 12.4% (12) TOTAL 100.0% (97) 100.0% (97) 58 yes no ? 1. have a lot of minor ail merits 2. need little or no med ical care 3. feel tired all the time 4. must be careful what I do 5. excellent 6. failing 7. never felt better 8. poor 9. better condition than most people my age The subject was instructed to check "yes" beside an item that describes his health; "no" beside an item that does not describe his health; and "?" if that is how he feels or if the question does not apply. Positive descriptions were scored: yes 3 , no 0 , "?" 1 and "no answer" 1 . Negative descriptions were scored : yes 0 , no 3 , "?" and "no answer" 1 . This method of scoring yielded a measure of health status of 0 to 27, with 27 indicating good, and 0 indicating poor health. Independent variables The independent variables in this study were constructed from subjects* responses to a schedule of 35 life events as follows (items identical or equivalent to those used by Holmes and Rahe [1967] are marked by an asterisk ; those used by Black [1971] are marked by two asterisks): 59 In this part of our study we are seeking information about the timing of some events in the course of people's lives. For each event listed, please write down the year (example: 1956) in which that event happened to you. Some of the events may have happened more than once. Whenever that is the case, please indicate the date of each occurrence. Of course, when we ask for Lhe firsL or the last occurrence of"something, put only one date. Since this list covers the whole life-span (for example : retirement), many of the events may not have occurred in your life. If you have never experienced the event, write "Never" (or just ’N’) in the blank. If you can't remember the years, estimate as well as you can. 1. You got your first full-time job (not just a summer job) 2. You began working in your life career occupation (if you've changed careers, when did you begin your first one?) 3. You changed to a new career (remember: if this occurred several times, put down each year that it happened)* 4. You lost a job (fired, laid off, or you quit)* 5. Retirement * ** 6. You began dating for the first time 7. You became engaged to be married 8. You began living with someone outside of marriage i 9. You experienced your first sexual relations 10. You were married* 11. Separation from spouse* 12. Death of spouse* 13. Divorce* 14. You re-entered formal schooling after having left* 15. You ceased formal schooling* 60 16. You gained a child (birth, adoption, or marriage to someone with dependent children* ** 17. Old 18. You 19. You 20. You 21. You 22. You 23. You 24. You institution* 25. You moved to a new residence* 26. A child left home against your will* 27. You permanently left your parents’ home 28. You underwent treatment for an emotional disorder 29. You changed to a new religion or religious denominat ion* 30. You had an important spiritual experience 31. You experienced a major personal success (Please list below each major success experience, if any,i and indicate the date of its occurrence ; each | such event should be listed, even if we have j already included it in our list.)* ** | 32. You experienced a major personal failure (Again, please list each such event, if any, even if we’ve already included it.) 33. You felt like you were going to have a nervous breakdown 34. Death of a parent* 35. Death of a child* 61 ■ The events were selected on the basis of previous i ; research (Holmes and Rahe, 1967; Black, 1971) as life- I changing dimensions of the interpersonal social , environment likely to activate adjustive processes and to negatively affect marital interaction. The items refer to events, both socially desirable and .undesirable, which commonly occur in various arenas of persons’ social interaction. They refer to interactions related to work (items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 19), family (6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, '13, 16, 17, 18, 25, 26, 27, 34, 35), religion (29), education (14, 15), the military and judicial systems (20, 21, 22, 23, 24), to subjective states (28, 30, 33), and to events subjectively experienced as success and failure ; (31, 32). Most of the events are related to marriage and ; the family. The intenti b h ■ was to include as many events as possible which, if they occurred, would be likely; to affect marital satisfaction. Several events related to the military and judicial systems were included, since : these were quite likely part of the social life space of the youngest among this sample in the late 1960’s. All in all, the events are presumed to sample representative dimensions of the contemporary social environment of the I present group of married couples. There were, of course, differences among age groups in the kinds of events experienced within the previous 18 month period. A content analysis of the life event items ; 62 I was made on a subsample of 15 subjects from each of three 1 jage-groups— 18 to 29 years old, 30 to 59 years old, and 60 to 90 years old. The content analysis indicated that I the youngest age group (18 to 29 years old) reported ; experiencing events related to developing a work career (items 1, 2, 4, 19) and a relationship with the opposite sex (7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16); the educational (15), military (20), and judicial (22) systems; change of residence (25, 27); religion (29); and subjective states (30, 33). The next age-group (30 to 59 years old) reported events related to work (item 4); education (15); child-launching (19, 26); subjective states (30, 33); and death of a parent (34). The oldest group (60 to 90 years old) reported child-launching (item 26). Looking at the full sample, there were also differences in the number of events reported by groups defined by age (but not sex) of respondents. In the youngest age group, the percent of respondents reporting no recent life-changing events was about equal to the percent reporting one or more. In the next older group, I the ratio was five with no event, to one. In the oldest group, the ratio was eleven to one. Overall, 82 % I of the sample reported no recent life-change. The discussion of the independent variables now turns to the procedure by which they were operationalized from the schedule of life event items. I 63 I ! Amount of recent life-change. Amount of recent ;life-change refers to the number of life events that each I subject reported he experienced in the approximately 18 'months period prior to his completing the questionnaire. ; It is operationalized as the sum of his responses to the 'items on the schedule of life events: 1971 and 1972 (ex. 0, 1, 2, 3, events). Amount of recent "success" experience. Amount of ■recent "success" experience refers to the number of major personal successes the subject reported experiencing in the approximately 18 months period prior to his completing the questionnaire. It was to be operationalized as the sum of his responses: 1971 and 1972 to the "major personal success" item of the schedule of life events (ex. 0, 1,2, 3, successes). However, the distributions on this and the "major personal failure" item were skewed. Table 2 shows the distribution of responses for the "success" and "failure" items as originally operationalized, and within a five year period. No less than 75% of the sample indicated no "successes" or no "failures." A workable distribution was obtained by redefining the variable amount of recent "success" experience as amount of lifetime "success" | experience and operationalizing it as any response to the "major personal success" item. Nevertheless, 33% of the sample still reported no lifetime "success" experiences, and 66% of the sample reported no lifetime "failure" experiences. Table 7 Distribution of Responses on Amount of Recent Experience and Amount of Recent "Failure" Experience Items Before Redefinition 64 "Success" of Items Variable Percent of sample Within 18 months Within 5 years Amount of recent "success" experience no successes 95.1% 74.1% (724) (565) one success 4.7% 17.6% (36) (134) two successes 0.1% 5.8% (1) (44) three successes 0.1% 2.5% (1) (19) Total 100.0% 100.0% (762) (762) Amount of recent "failure" experience no failures 97 .1% 87.9% (740) (670) one failure 2.8% 10.2% (21) (77) two failures 0.1% 1.9% (1) (15) Total 100.0% 100.0% (762) (762) ! 65 ! Amount of recent "failure" experience. Amount of I recent "failure" experience refers to the number of ! major personal failures the subject reported experiencing in the approximately 18 month period prior to his completing the questionnaire. It was to be operationalized as the sum of his responses : 1971 and 1972 to the "major personal failure" item in the schedule of life events (ex. iO, 1, 2, 3, failures). This variable was redefined amount of lifetime "failure" experience and operationalized as any response to the "major personal failure" item. The final distribution of responses on the amount of lifetime "success" experience and the amount of lifetime "failure" experience variables is presented with the characteristics of the entire sample on the rest of the independent variables in Table 8. Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 might then be rephrased, substituting the phrases lifetime "success" experience for recent "success" experience, and lifetime "failure" experience for recent "failure" experience, i Number of years retired. Number of years retired re- 'fers to the length of time since the husband reported ex periencing the life event retirement. It is operationalized. ; as the husband's response to the item on the schedule of jlife events: retirement (ex. 1970, 1971, 1972, etc.). Only the husband’s response was utilized in determining the 'couple’s retired status. If the husband stated he was retired and the wife was working, the couple was ; considered to be retired. ___ 66 Table 8 Characteristics of the Sample oh the Independent Variables Variable Percent in each (category) Amount of recent life-change no events one event two to six events TOTAL Amount of lifetime "success" experience no successes one success two successes three successes TOTAL Amount of lifetime "failure" experience no failures one failure two failures 82.2% (624) 13.9% (106) 3.9% (30) 100.0% (760) 32.8% (249) 15.4% (117) 14 .5% (110) 37 . 3% (284) 100.0% (760) 65.9% (501) 20.2% (153) 7.5% (57) 67 Table 8 (con’t) Characteristics of the Sample on the Independent Variables Variable Percent in each (category) Amount of lifetime ’’failure’’ experience three failures 6.4% (49) TOTAL 100.0% (760) Number of years husband is retired one to two years 19.6% (19) three to four years 16.5% (16) five to six years 12.4% (12) seven to eight years 16.5% (16) nine to ten years 11.3% (11) eleven to fourteen years 11.3% (11) fifteen to twenty-nine years 12.4% (12) TOTAL 100.0% (97) 6 8 I Dependent variable I Frequency of positive marital interaction. Frequency of positive marital interaction refers to the subjective 'frequency with which the respondent has positive experiences in the marriage. It is operationally defined as the sum of responses on ten items: 5 refer to the frequency of occurrence of positive experience in the marriage; 5 refer to the frequency of occurrence of 'negative experience in the marriage. ! Positive interactive experiences. This dimension ! of the dependent variable refers to the frequency of occurrence of interactive experiences in the marriage that are accompanied by a pleasurable emotional response. i It is operationally defined as the sum of each subject's responses to the following question (items 1 through 4 are taken from Rollins and Feldman, 1970). Now we would like to ask you about some things I husbands and wives may do when they are together. We have listed below the things we are interested in. For each event listed, please indicate— by circling the appropriate number— how often it happens between you and your t spouse. 69 0 c d P 0 0 -p w ^ XI w rp o c d n 0 LO LO LO LO LO s 0 bD 1 — 1 r —1 X O c c d ^ 4^ 0 p 1 — 1 c d -P P a 0 0 0 ^ X 0 ^3 -P "xM "xM "xM "xM -P cr C 0 •H 0 0 f c ü D p X O O ’ ^ 4^ P 0 0 / — X / — X / — X / — X /— X X C O 00 C O C O C O 1 - -1 c P u 0 C 0 •H -p 0 0 bO c d (p X P O o c d P U) 0 e 1 — 1 •H \ \ 1—1 P (M (M C M C M C M c d 0 P > ^3 P > s O W ^3 o 1 2 ;; = s X m m a 1 — 1 0 / — X X T3 P a 1 — 1 1 -1 1 — 1 1 — 1 1 — 1 p 0 a - p c d > c d l-H XI 0 X w P X P w 0 P p 0 ^ 3 X 0 o X Ü P X P 1 w X W 0 P 0 X X o •H bD 0 ts • bD 0 0 o p T 3 O W ) b J D p Ü O ■ x b D 0 P o X c d p P W ) •H X ► > 5 p •H >) 0 c d X X P r— { b O X X •H P 0 s X X p bD 0 p O 0 b D 1 — 1•H p 0 W w X > X > O c d iX o e 0 0 c d X 1 — ( 0 X P Ü P O X •H 1 — 1 X X b D X 0 w m X s X 0 X S X •H X X X •p X X S o O o X T 3 O o O P X o •H tx W k H o X k H |x w Ü > H P 1 — 1 C M C O I 70 I I The five scores (one score for each subject in leach of the five activities) were summed to get each 'subject’s score on the dimension positive experience of the dependent variable frequency of positive marital interaction. Negative interactive experiences. This dimension of the dependent variable refers to the subjective frequency of occurrence of interactive experiences in the marriage that are accompained by a displeasurable emotional response. The response category headings were the same as those for positive interactive experiences ; the following five items were used: 1. One of you is sarcastic 2. One of you refuses to talk in a normal manner 3. You disagree about something important 4. You become critical and belittling 5. You become angry The five scores were summed to get each subject’s score ,on the dimension negative interactive experiences. The sum of the scores for each subject on negative interactive experiences was then subtracted from the sum of his :scores on positive experiences to form a scale yielding a {measure of the dependent variable frequency of positive marital interaction ranging from -20 (low frequency) to +20 (high frequency). . J I 7 1 I Pearson product moment correlation coefficients among I ; the items were computed. The results are displayed in I Table 9. It can be seen from Table 9 that the positive I ' interactive experience items are positively correlated; the negative interactive experience items are positively correlated; and the positive and negative items are negatively correlated. Each of the 10 positive and negative items contributes to the total marital interaction scale between .50 and .75 (chance=.32), the positive items i making a stronger contribution than the negative. The scale was thus assumed to be a valid measure of frequency of positive marital interaction in the present sample. Validity and reliability The questions used in the operationalization of the variables in this study are very direct and easily I understood, and are assumed to have face validity. Because the P-C dictionary is a new instrument, no coefficients of reliability or validity are available for , it. In fact, one purpose of this study is to initiate use of the instrument, thereby contributing toward a body of replicable research findings. The P-C analytic system is assumed, however, to produce valid and reliable data. Support for this statement may be found in Gordon (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1972). Ci 0 rH c d E h C Q B 0 -p a o •H -P Ü c d P 0 -P Ü a o I — I "H -P rH Ü c d c d -p « H •H C Q P -H c d -p ^ c d OQ bc P I —I O c d G -P -H P œ c d -p ^ a - 0 «H •H O O •H 0 4 H P 4 H ^ 3 0 W O c d O 0 O o •H -p -p c d T 3 rH G 0 c d P P O O P 0 P O O p 0 N Ü I — I c d c d 4 H -P W I m + LO I + I co + co I C M + i -p co co o CD o lO CD CD i> d d d d d d 8 8 8 CQ 9 9 C O 8 5? 9 5 6 o I s 9 8 R 9 O r - H l> r - H . O rH C D CM (D CM rH 9 d 9 d d 0 x: ' -p o i> Ci r - H G C D o -p o CM co C O L O C O lO 0 rH 9 d 9 d 9 d 0 O Ci rH Ci r - H 00 o o 0 O rH T P rH 's h rH CM Ü rH . 9 d 9 d 9 d 9 • r H cp • r H O CM C D C D 00 C D s 0 hc O rH rH co r - H CM co • r H i — t 9 d 9 d 9 d d * d C Q C Q * o C O rH C 3 i co o (3i CM rH C 3 i ■ P o CM co lO CM lO C O lO CM 0 rH d d d d d d d p d •H 1 1 1 1 1 Ü • r H 4 H 4 H w p 0 C Q p rH 0 O 0 c d 73 h C t>i Ü Ü -P -p 4 H 0 0 p C Q -p 0 O c d 'r H p b J 3 0 •H ü 0 O bfi rH 0 0 0 O • r H t ü O -p O 0 0 r - H -P S 03 0 • r H -P o -P 0 hc C Q C d -P •H -P -P C Q *p 0 P 0 c d Ü 'r H -P 0 0 0 1 - 1 c d U 'J h J 3 c d 0 • r H r - H bù E r - H S ü p bfi c d x: T3 -P 0 73 o o 0 1 — f P p C H 0 C Q Ü " r H • r H p Q O -P ü P c d c d o 0 c d • r H X P O 0 P O O Q > Q M O O C Q O Ü + 1 + 1 + + 1 + 1 rH 1 f ' 1 . . . <3 _ rH _ Ç Q _ _. co co ^ _ _ H L O * 72 o o I 73 I I Analytic procedure i The statistic used in studying the relationships 'among the variables in this research was the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient. Correlations ! between each one of the independent variables and the dependent variable were computed within subgroups defined by the individual's scores on the mediating variables. The results of this procedure are presented in Chapter III. Chapter III RESEARCH FINDINGS The hypotheses stated in Chapter I provided the structure for this presentation of the research findings. That is, the measure of association obtained between the independent variables and the dependent variable within .categories of the mediating variables will be presented and discussed in terms of the hypotheses. These findings, which constitute the test of the hypotheses, provide the empirical basis for the interpretation of the relation ships among the variables which is presented in Chapter IV. ^Since the findings are interpreted in that chapter, they are presented here with no interpretive comment. Results of the test of the hypotheses The Pearson product moment correlation coefficients which measure the association among the variables in this research are presented in Table 10. The first row in Table 10 presents the correlation coefficients representing the relationship between amount of recent life-change and marital satisfaction within groups of persons characterized by low competence, high competence, male, female, low income, and high income. The second row presents the 74 I 75 I [relations obtained between amount of lifetime "success" ! experience and marital satisfaction for these groups. The i third row presents the relations obtained between amount of lifetime "failure" experience and marital satisfaction for these groups. And the bottom row presents the : relations obtained between number of years husband has been retired and marital satisfaction for groups characterized by low competence, high competence, male, female, low income, high income, poor health, and good health. The discussion now reports these obtained relations in terms of I the hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 and its corrolaries state that a ; negative relationship obtains between amount of recent life-change and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse, and further, that this negative relationship ! ! will be greater for those with sensed low competence than ,with sensed high competence, for females than for males, and for those with low income than with high income. Hypothesis 2 and its corollaries state that a negative relationship obtains between amount of lifetime "success" experience and frequency of positive marital interaction I with spouse, and further, that this negative relationship I will be greater for those with sensed low competence than with sensed high competence, for females than for males, ,and for those with low income than with high income. It i I can be seen from the results presented in Table 10 that I hypothesis 1 and hypothesis 2 and their corollaries receive no support. The values in the cells of the first two rows indicate essentially no relationship between 0 rH G 0 H XT pH 0 0 W 73 0 0 0 0 0 S O W O 0 0 rH Hi 0 •' •H -H ^ 0 0 0 > 73 ' 0 -P O 0 A 0 W 73 0 0 ÇX 0 A 4 H 0 O 73 0 X tH 0 CO 0 < D 0 ) ^ o -p 0 0 0 CQ -P 0 W A 0 o •H Ü 4H •H O 4H 4H CQ 0 0 O -H O u o o bû O 0 •H -H -P 0 0 O rH 0 0 U -H U X i 0 -P O -H 0 0 73 O ^ -H O -p 1 ü o 0 ^ 4H 0 CQ N -H -P 0 OQ 0 •P •H 0 S I 43 00 S I 0 lO F h 7M 0 I> H CO fi I f o o I CM O O I O o I o o I o I co o CD O CD O O I CO o CD O O I CO o CM O ? O I * CD O I * * CM O I * lO o I 00 o o I * CD o I 0 S i 0 S -P •H 0 •H 0 H •H H 0 0 0 Ü 4H O. 4H 0 •H •H 0 U 0 1 — 1 0 rH ü bû 0 <H 0 <H <H 0 O 0 O CQ o 0 •H 43 CQ U U -P Ü H 0 H 0 0 0 1 0 Ü 0 1 — 1 A 0 0 0 Ü 0 •H X O 4H O 0 O 0 0 •H CQ 4H I— 1 X i p> rH 0 0 w 0 I I 00 ï l c S s u rH A I I 0 lO g : -B S3 3 1 I S 05 co 9 lO rH 9 co 9 76 00 9 R 9 CM 9 * a d I t R 0 rH > 0 0 > I — I 0 O I —I O O 0 0 43 X i + J 4 _ > 77 either amount of recent life-change and marital I [Satisfaction (0.03,-0.11, -0.01, -0.07, -0.02, -0.07), or I amount of lifetime "success" experience (-0.02, 0.03, -0.06, 0.03, -0.06, 0.06) and marital satisfaction for any group defined by competence, sex, or income. Hypothesis 3 receives some support from the results of the data analysis presented in Table 10. Hypothesis 3 (States that a negative relationship obtains between amount of lifetime "faulure" experience and frequency of [positive marital interaction with spouse. The third row of Table 10 demonstrates this relationship, although very small, within categories of low competence (-0.16), high competence (-0.08), male (-0.15), female (-0.12), low income (-0.16), and high income (-0.10). The corollaries to hypothesis 3 state a greater negative relationship found for hypothesis 3 for those with sensed low competence than with sensed high competence, for females than for males, and for those with :low income than with high income. Comparison of the values in the relevant pairs of cells in row three of Table 10 demonstrates poor support for the corollaries to hypothesis 3. Differences are in the expected direction ; in the case of competence and income, but there are essentially no differences in the relationship between amount of lifetime "failure" experience and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse between groups I 78 i defined by sensed low competence and sensed high competence (difference = 0.08), by female and male (difference = 0.03), or by low income and high income [(difference = 0.06). Hypothesis 4 states that a higher negative relationship obtains between amount of lifetime "failure" experience and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse than that which obtains between amount of lifetime "success" experience and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse. This hypothesis is supported by the results of the data analysis presented in Table 10. The results show a true negative relation ship between amount of lifetime "failure" experience and marital satisfaction (row three), and no relationship between amount of lifetime "success" experience and marital satisfaction (row two). The significance of the differences in the obtained relationships was estimated by means of the one-tailed t test for the difference between correlation coefficients for matched samples. This procedure indicated a significantly higher negative relationship between "failures" and marital satisfaction than between "successes' land marital satisfaction for groups characterized by low competence (t = 2.50, p^.Ol), high competence (t = 1.78, p^.05), female (t = 2.11, p<.02), low income (t = 1.91, i 79 jP<.05), and high income (t = 2.32, p<. 02). The higher jnegative relationship was not significant for males (t = 1.29). I ! The corollaries to hypothesis 4 state a greater difference in the negative relationship found in hypothesis 4 for those with sensed low competence (-0.14) than with sensed high competence (-0.11), for females (-0.15) than for males (-0.09), and for those with low income (-0.10) than with high income (-0.16). Comparison iof the relevant cells in row two and row three of Table 10 indicate poor support for the corollaries to hypothesis 4. The higher negative relationship between "failures" and marital satisfaction than between "successes" and marital satisfaction is essentially no different for groups defined by low and high competence (difference = 0.03), female and male (difference = 0.06), or by low income and high income (difference = 0.06). Hypothesis 5 and its corollaries state that a positive relationship obtains between number of years the husband is retired and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse, and, further, that this positive relationship will be greater for those with sensed I low competence than with sensed high competence, for males than females, for those with low income than with high income, and for those with poor than with good health. It can be seen from the fourth row of Table 10 that ! _ 80 I hypothesis 5 and its corollaries are rejected. Within i each subgroup, the relationship is in the opposite direction to that hypothesized (-0.28, -0.25, -0.21, -0.32, i-0.18, -0.38, -0.15, -0.39). Since there were differences in both the content and ! the number of events reported by respondents in three different age-groups, it seemed important to examine the relationship between amount of recent life-change and frequency of positive marital interaction within groups defined by age. No differences were found in the correlation between amount of recent life-change and marital satisfaction for each group (see Appendix B, Table 13). In summary, there is no clear pattern of support emerging from the present data analysis for any of the hypotheses informing this research. The strongest relation ship obtained among any of the variables was between number of years the husband is retired and frequency of positive marital interaction with spouse within subgroups defined by | individuals’ scores on the mediating variables, and this | was in the direction opposite to that hypothesized. The discussion now turns to interpretation of these results. ■This will be the subject of the next chapter. Chapter IV DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS The discussion in this chapter examines the meaning of the findings of the analytic procedure which was reported in Chapter III, In keeping with the organization of that presentation, this discussion of the results will focus on the overall pattern of relationships among the variables which were found in the analysis; as a consequence, the individual substantive relationships will be ignored. The main theme of this interpretation of the results will be on the adequacy of the theoretic orientation guiding this research, and of the operations employed to demonstrate the function of self-concept as mediator of the relationship between life-change and marital satisfaction. Interpretation of the negative findings This research has attempted to demonstrate a relationship between social environment and social conduct as it is mediated by self-concept. Predictors of marital satisfaction were used as indicators of the interpersonal social environment. A measure of marital interaction was used as the indicator of social behavior. 81 I 82 I Respondents’ seIf-descriptions of two particular types i I were used as indicators of self-concept. Measures of association were computed on the data which were collected I ; by these measures. The results of the analytic procedures I 'demonstrated no consistent pattern of support for the ! hypotheses concerning the relationships between social environment as measured by life-change events and marital interaction as measured by marital satisfaction, nor for the mediating effect of self-concept. ; In order to interpret these negative results, the discussion proceded to re-examine the theoretic and méthodologie orientât ion which guided this investigation 'into the relationships among these variables. The discussion will focus almost entirely on these aspects of the research process as they bear on the notion of the self as mediator of conduct. The reason for this is that the main purpose of this research was to test Parsonian theory as it has been extended to the system of self- ,conception (Gordon, 1968a, 1968b, 1969), and only I isecondarily to measure marital conduct. The test of Parsonian theory I The test of Parsonian theory undertaken in this research remains largely indeterminate. It does appear 'that behaviors are organized at the symbolic level and available to the individual as seIf-descriptors which can I 83 I I be elicited by means of the "WAI?" It seems that the I ^individual is aware of his functional problems of system- ness to the extent that these are reflected as self designations in terms of competence, self-determination, 'unity, and moral worth. There is no evidence, however, that functional problems shape adjustive styles which may be identified from sense of self as adaptive or integrative types. Nor is there evidence that self-concept functions to mediate conduct. These two issues of process iremain unresolved in this investigation. i One reason for the failure to measure two self-types may lie in the interpretation of action theory which informs this research. On the one hand, it should have . been possible to distinguish two self-types, depending on which pair of functional processes underlying adjustive style was. prominent in seIf-conception (cf. Parsons, 1959: : 636, 637 footnote). On the other hand, priority among ,functional processes of a human conduct system is relative, not absolute ; it varies, within limits, over time and across situations (Parsons, 1959:659). This became obvious in the preliminary analysis of the data on senses of self. By the measures employed in this study, no pair 'of system functions was clearly prominent in self-awareness and discernible in self-concept. Competence and self- determination, taken as indicators of adaptive and goal- attainment functions were not correlated; unity and moral I 84 worth, indicators of integrative and pattern-maintenance i I functions were not correlated; and the measures of the two pairs of functions were completely unrelated. This ! I necessitated redefinition of adaptive self-type as ! competence, and elimination of integrative self-type i entirely. This suggests that it may be outside of the domain of action theory to predict "the" adaptive or "the" integrative self-type, and that the action theoretic principles were too narrowly applied to this instance. ! A second reason that adaptive and integrative self types did not emerge in systemic senses of self may lie in the measures of environment used in this study. System type is most obvious when an action system responds to disturbances in its environment. Changes in the inter -personal environment activate the system's adjustive mechanisms, which characteristically assign priority to one or a pair of functions in effecting readjustment to the situation. If, however, a system is undisturbed, its processes of action continue relatively unchanged, each dimension functioning independently of the others (cf. Parsons, 1959:631-632, 659-660) and adjustive style is not apparent. It seems likely that the indicators of inter personal environment used in this study--life events-- were not sufficient to disturb the congruence among self, behavior, and others, and to activate self-processes j 85 I I discernible in self-conception as self-type. This seems indeed to be the case, judging from the small correlations obtained between the measures of life-change and marital satisfaction within categories of each mediating variable. I [Systemic senses of self I Although senses of self did not vary by adjustive style, they did vary in the frequency with which each sense was mentioned in self-concept. Competence was mentioned most frequently (84% of the sample made at least i one positive reference, 34% at least one negative reference). The second most frequently mentioned sense of self was self-determination (62% and 24%), followed by moral worth (53% and 10%). The least mentioned sense of self was unity (10% and 12%). The data may be summarized with the general statement that the senses of competence and self-determination were the senses most frequently mentioned in self-conception, and that positive dimensions of self were mentioned more frequently than negative. This seems reasonable both from the standpoint of socialization j and of social desirability. Competence and self- ! ■determination would appear to be fundamental to the I I individual’s ability to perform effectively in his social roles for self and for society (Gladwin, 1967). These personal capacities would then be fundamental to his social functioning, and prominently and positively i 86 I [available in sense of self. These data address the issue i I [of equivalence of results of free-respouse instruments I such as the "WAI?", since the raw data were coded ; according to the specific meanings prescribed by the P-C ■dictionary. Thus, the research has produced a body of data on systemic senses of self in a general sample which [lends itself to meaningful comparison with data collected [by means of the same operational procedures on other samples. Social readjustment theory and number of years retired The principles of social readjustment theory (Holmes and Rahe, 1967) were selected to inform the predictions concerning the relationship between life-change and marital satisfaction. It seemed likely that social readjustment necessitated by various life events would be effected with the passage of time, and that with time, the negative consequences would be reduced. Thus, length of retirement would be positively related to marital satisfaction. As Table 10 demonstrates, this hypothesis was not confirmed. Number of years the husband is retired is negatively related to marital satisfaction within categories of I competence and the other mediating variables. An explanation for this finding may lie in the extrapolation which was made of social readjustment theoretic principles for the present analysis. The I japplication departs in several important respects from the theory as originally formulated. In this analysis 1) a ! single event rather than a cluster of life events formed I an independent variable; 2) the amount of social readjust ment in terms of life-change units necessitated by the event was not considered; 3) the stress period in this analysis covered a span of up to 29 years, although the theory postulates negative consequences for a year ; and finally, 4) the negative consequences measured in this research were social-emotional, whereas the theory postulates physical illness. Thus, the present analysis may not have been an appropriate test of theory. Chapter V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The theoretic utility of self has been considered its potential capacity to mediate the relationship between the social environment and social conduct. Many studies have investigated the^content of self-concept in an effort to predict specific behavior. The results of : these studies have been largely non-comparable because the conceptual and empirical dimensions of self they measured were non-equivalent. The purpose of this study was to contribute to a body of knowledge on the functioning of self-conception in mediating conduct which would be free of this limitation. The study was directed toward accomplishment of this objective in two ways: 1) The concepts and principles of action theory were applied to the study of the self-system ,at a theoretic mid-level of functioning common to every i human conduct system. 2) The descriptive content of self- I conception was analyzed according to protocols for standardization specified by the Persons-Conceptions analytic system. 88 ; 89 . The specific conduct which self-concept was ^expected to mediate was positive marital interaction. Four variables were identified from the literature as ; indicators of environment which might be expected to be ipredictors of marital satisfaction. They were: 1) amount I of recent life-change, 2) amount of recent "success" experience, 3) amount of recent "failure" experience, and 4) number of years retired. Two dimensions of self- I concept were selected as mediators of the relationship j I between social environment and marital satisfaction. | These were : 1) sense of self as an adaptive system, and 2) sense of self as an integrative system. Three other variables were included which were expected to affect the strength of the relationship between environment and marital conduct as it was mediated by self-concept. These were : 1) sex, 2) income, and 3) health. Several of the variables required modification before submission to analysis. Recent "success" and "failure" experience were redefined lifetime "success" and : lifetime "failure" experience; sense of self as an adaptive system was redefined competence; and sense of self as an integrative system was eliminated. The variables were operationally defined as items on a self-administered questionnaire. Data were gathered from 388 married couples between the ages of 18 and 90. ! 9 0 jPearson product moment correlation coefficients were I I computed between each independent variable and the I [dependent variable within groups defined by individuals' 'scores on the mediating variables. Data analysis consisted of comparison of the obtained relationships to the hypothesized relationships. Interpretation of the research findings led to these conclusions : I 1. The action theoretic perspective on self as a system and the Persons-Conceptions analytic system of computer-aided content analysis have utility for generating meaningful data on the content of self-concept. They were instrumental in identifying sensed competence, self- determination, unity, and moral worth. However, there is no evidence from the present study that they measure sense of self as an adaptive system or an integrative system. 2. There is no evidence from this research that self- concept mediates the relationship between social environment--measured by life-change, and social I conduct— measured by frequency of positive marital interaction. 91 I BIBLIOGRAPHY ■Aronson, E. and J. Carlsmith. "Performance expectancy as a I determinant of actual performance,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 58, 1962, p. 178- I 182. Baclunan, C. and P. Gecord. "The self and role selection/’ I in C. Gordon and K. Gergen. The Self in Social Interaction. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., ! 1968, pp. 289-296. Baldwin, J. Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental ; Development. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1897. Bell, N. and E. Vogel. "Toward a framework for functional analysis of family behavior,” in N. Bell and E. Vogel i (eds.) A Modern Introduction to the Family. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1960, pp. 1-33. Bengtson, V’ . and M. Love joy. 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"The social readjustment rating j scale: a cross-cultural study of Japanese and Americans ^ Journal of Psychosomatic Research, VdI . 11, 1967(h), p p . 227-237. McPartland, T., J. Gumming, and W. Garretson. "Self- ; concept ion and ward behavior in two psychiatric hospitals," Sociometry, Vol. 24, 1961, pp. 111-124. McPhail, C. and C. Tucker. "The classification and order ing of responses to the question 'Who am I?'" Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 13, (Summer, 1972), ! pp. 329-347. iMcPhail, C. "Respondents’ judgements of self-statements," Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 9, (Spring, 1968), pp. 202-209. (Mead, G. Mind, Self and Society. C. Morris (ed.), Chicago, Illinois : University of Chicago Press, 1934. Meyerowitz, J. "Satisfaction during pregnancy," Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 32, 1970, pp. 38-42. , Mitchell, W. "Lay observations on retirement," in Frances Carp (ed.). Retirement. New York: Behavioral Publications, 1972, pp. 199-217. Orden, S. and N. Bradburn. "Dimensions of marriage happiness," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 73, 1968, pp. 715-731. Orden, S. and N. Bradburn. "Working wives and marriage happiness," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 74, 1969, pp. 392-407. Parsons, T. and E. Shils (eds.). Toward a General Theory of Action. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951. Parsons, T. "An approach to psychological theory in terms of the theory of action," in Sigmund Koch (ed.), Psychology : A Study of a Science, 'Toi. 3, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959, pp. 612-723. 95 Parsons, T. "The position of identity in the general I theory of action," in C. Gordon and K. Gergen (eds.), I The Self in Social Interaction. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1968, pp. 11-23. I Peterson, J. "Marital and family therapy involving the aged," Gerontologist, Vol. 13, (Spring, 1973), pp. 27-31* I I Pineo, P. C. "Disenchantment in the later years of . . j marriage," Marriage and Family Living, Vol. 23, 1961, pp. 3-il'i Rahe, R. and R. Arthur, "Life change patterns surrounding ( illness experience-, " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 11, 1967, pp. 341-345. Rahe, R., J. McKean and R. Arthur. "A longitudinal study of life change and illness patterns," Journal of , Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 10, 1967, pp. 355-366. Renne, K. "Correlates of dissatisfaction in marriage," Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 32, 1970, pp. 54-67, Rodgers, R. "Toward a theory of family development," Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 26, 1964, pp. 262-270. Rogers, C. "The significance of the self-regarding attitudes and perceptions," in M. Reymert (ed.). Feeling and Emotion: The Mooseheart Symposium. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950, pp. 374-382. Rollins, B. and H. Feldman. "Marital satisfaction, over the family life cycle," Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 32, 1970, pp. 20-28. Rosenberg, M. Occupations and Values. Glencoe, Illinois : Free Press, 1957, Scanzoni, J. "A reinquiry into marital disorganization," ! Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 27, 1965, pp. 483-491. I ;Secord, P. and C. Backrnan. "Personality theory and the I problem of stability and change in individual behavior: an interpersonal approach," Psychological Review, Vol. 68, 1961, pp. 21-32. ISecord, P. and C. Backman. Social Psvchologv. New York : McGraw-Hill Company, 1964. 96 Selzer, M. and A. Vinokur. "Life events, subjective I stress, and traffic accidents," American Journal of j Psychiatry, Vol. 131, No. 8, 1974, pp. 903-906. Shrauger, J, "Self-esteem and reactions to being observed ; by others," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1972, pp. 192-200. Smith, P., L. Kendall, and C. Hulin. The Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement. Chicago; Rand McNally, 1969. Spitzer, S. "Test equivalence of unstructured self- evaluation instruments," Sociological Quarterly, ! Vol. 10, No. 2, (Spring, 1969), pp. 204-215. Streib, G. "Morale of the retired," Social Problems, Vol. 3, 1956, pp. 270-276. iTessler, R. and S. Schwartz. "Help seeking, self-esteem, and achievement motivation: an attributional analysis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1972, pp. 318-326. Veblen, T. The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899). New York: Mentor Books, 1953. White, R. "Motivation reconsidered : the concept of competence," Psychological Review, Vol. 66, 1959, pp. 297-333. White, R. "Competence and the psychosexual stages of development," in M. Jones (ed.), Nebraska Symposium oh Motivation. Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press, 1960, pp. 97-141. White, R. "Ego and reality in psychoanalytic theory," Psychological Issues, Monograph 11, 1963. 97 APPENDICES 98 APPENDIX A (Questionnaire items relevant to independent variables) SCHEDULE OF LIFE EVENTS I In this part of our study we are seeking information about the timing of some events in the course of people's lives. For each event listed, please write down the year (example: 11956) in which that event happened ;tô'you. Some of the ,events may have happened more than once. Whenever that is ,the case, please indicate the date of each occurrence. Of course, when we ask for the first or the last occurrence of something, put only one date. Since this list covers the whole life-span (for example: retirement), many of the events may not have occurred in your life. If you have never experienced the event, write "Never" (or just "N") in the blank. If you can't remember the year, estimate as well as you can. EVENT YEARCS) 1. You got your first full-time job_____________________ (Not just a summer job) 2. You began working in your life career occupation (If you've changed careers, when did you begin your first one?) 3. You changed to a new career (Remember: if this occurred several times, put down each year that it happened) 4. You lost a job (fired, laid off, or you quit) 5. Retirement 6. You began dating for the first time 7. You became engaged to be married 8. You began living with someone outside of marriage I 99 i j EVENT YEAR(S) i j 9. You experienced your first sexual ' relations _______ 10. You were married______________________________________ 11. Separation from spouse________________________ _______ 12. Death of a spouse_____________________________________ 13. Divorce________________________________________________ *14. You re-enter formal schooling after j having left _______ 15. You ceased formal schooling__________________________ 16. You gained a child (birth, adoption, or marriage to someone with First________ dependent children): Last 17. Oldest child entered first grade_____________________ 18. You "launched" a child into a life of his own_____________________________________________ (19. You became economically self-supporting _______ 20. You entered military service_________________________ 21. You were dischared from the military service________________________________________________ ,22. You were arrested for a misdemeanor _______ 23. You were arrested for a felony_______________________ 24. You were sentenced to a correctional institution____________________________________________ 25. You moved to a new residence_________________________ 26. A child left home against your will__________ _______ ; 27. You permanently left your parents' home _______ 28. You underwent treatment for an emotional disorder i 100 I I EVENT YEAR(S) ;29. You changed to a new religion or ! religious denomination _______ 30. You had an important spiritual experience____________________________________ _______ 31. You experienced a major personal success (Please list below each major success experience, if any, and indicate the date of its occurrence ; each such event should be listed, even if we have already included it in our list. ) 32. You experienced a major personal failure (Again, please list each such event, if any, even if we've already included it. ) 33. You felt like you were going to have a nervous breakdown 34. Death of a parent 35. Death of a child 101 (Questionnaire items relevant to mediating variables Competence) "WHO ARE YOU?" I People have many different ways of thinking about them selves. Since we are trying to keep some focus on individual differences, even though this is a large-scale survey, we would like you to use the space below to describe yourself in your own words. I Please give as many descriptions of yourself as you like, one phrase or word to each line below. Write as if you were thinking of these descriptions yourself, not giving them aloud to someone else. Write things down in the order that they occur to you. Don't worry about logic or "importance." Do this as quickly as possible. This is probably not something you usually do, so don't worry if you feel like it's getting hard after 10 or 12. Just keep on, writing each description as it comes to mind. 1. _____________ ,2. ^ _____ 3.____________________________________________________________ 4. ____________________ _________________________ ,5 . ___________________________________________________ 6. __________________ ,7.________________ 8. _______ 9.__________ __________________________________________________ ; i o . ______________________________________________________ 11. __________________________________________ 12. 13. 102 14. _ 15. _ 16. _ 17. _ 18. _ 19. _ 20. _ Income How much, approximately, are the combined annual incomes of all the members of your household? Include your parents if they support you. (Circle the answer that comes closest ) . $ 3,000 - 4, 999 $19,000 - 20,999 5,000 - 6,999 21,000 - 22,999 7,000 - 8,999 23,000 - 24,999 9,000 - 10,999 25,000 - 29,999 11,000 - 12,999 30,000 - 34,999 13,000 - 14,999 35,000 - 39,999 15,000 - 16,999 40,000 - 49,999 17,000 - 18,999 50,000 - or more Health Please check "yes" beside an item that describes your general health. Please check "no" beside an item that does not describe your situation. Please check "?" if that is how you feel, or if the question does not apply to you. HEALTH yes no ? have a lot of minor ailments need little or no medical care feel tired all the time must be careful what I do excellent 103 HEALTH yes ho ? failing never felt better poor better condition than most people my age Sex What is your sex? male female 104 0 S 0 o 0 p> ! —1 0 d p> Æ hiD P d -p d 'H o 'H P ^ r4 d cd O Ü S rH P d 0 •H 0 O ;Q Ü > •H d >5 P> rX 0 rO •H 0 P 1 W cd 0 1 • O •H 0 0 a O r4 P> 0 P> cd d <p> •H a cd d 0 >5 •H d Ü ! —1 •H p c 0 d 0 d ^ 0 o b ! —1 0 h*) a* d cd 0 o • 0 d P P r4 d à 0 a cd 1 0 d 1 ■ fe 4- i - > d • 0 d o 0 hfl 0 >) ! —1 o O p> rO P> 0 d cd •H 0 •H 0 r4 0 p P cd Q cd P> p> > M d 0 1-4 0 ^ P> Cd 0 > C Cd X 3 0 0 0 <1P> d 'd 0 a d Ü a 0 0 cd a a o 0 cd 0 I z ; d P w o O p> o Cd d a •H p> c d p> a cd • 0 d o s d p> cd > H •H a > 0 o 0 a 0 d ! —1 HH > 0 0 •H p> o P >-( 0 d a 0 1 m iz;d p 1 S o d 0 p 0 cd P> 0 P> a d ^ •H o 0 •H e c d d 0 a d 0 d P ^ cd P •H G CZ3; 0 cd 0 cd o M4 0 P> a -H K d 0 cd d p > H •H O Ü P •H cd Cd 0 0 a P> P a bfl hflo m 0 d d p 0 P> CQ •H •H a d a % a 0*'H < 3p> p> cd 0 d 0 0 P> 0 ^ -d 0 a O cd d 0 S 0 h fl r —i a a o < 3 cd ^ a 0 P r —i cd P> p d 0 0 0 ^ a 0 d a •P> d 0 •H 0 0 h fl d P a O ' a ^ a 0 > 5 r4 d P 0 d •H p 0 0 cd a a p a o cd 0 i a a a cd 0 p> d a E D 0 d O d rO 0 0 >> d a 0 ■ d p a p 0 a P> cd > cd t-4 0 a U 0 -P 0 lO lO CO CM to CO CO (M LO lO CO CO (M (N lO CO (N LO CO <M rH a a a a a a p Ü 0 hfl a O d d d 0 a d a O cd a a 0 p ■ N 0 S P cd a d 0 0 P 0 0 0 0 a 0 d cd d a 0 0 0 0 a d cd o a Ü a a a a d cd a E 0 .0 P 0 0 a 0 a a E 0 a d cd O •H hfl 0 0 a .Û 0 P hfl a a a o •H hfl'd O p O o 0 0 E a o d a a 0 a d a d cd o P a hfl o Ü hfl o cd hfl hfl S d •H a d a hfl 0 0 cd d a •H a p a P d d > hfl 0 a cd a f | . „ ( 0 o a O « ! - ( a cd c d d -.4 Ü a o cd ^ a o a 43 cd d a 0 Ü 0 d 43 0 d S 0 P d S P 0 a d d Ü d E o O d cd o O cd d cd o o X o O 0 O 0 a 0 O a }a 0 }a 0 1 — 1 C O lO C D l> 105 0 P c d p 0 0 a 0 ^ -d 0 a o c d d 0 S 0 b ü O r — 1 1 — 1rd o < c c d ^ a LO lO «0 0 !> ï p a c d a p d 0 0 0 0 d a a d 0 •H 0 0 h fl d p 43 O O ’ a a p 0 0 ^ 43 a d a P 0 d 0 a a 0 0 h fl c d a 43 P O F P o ^ c d a CO CO CO a o M 0 S •H a 0 3 S 40 0 (M CM CM 0 d r—1 0 d P A p 0 A a c d > c d a 4 3 0 43 0 a S c d a Ü a a a d P a h fl o h fl P d o d Ü a h fl c d a 0 a c d 0 S a S o a 0 P O Ü a > 0 Ü 0 0 c d 43 0 40 40 43 a 40 0 d d d h fl d o d O O o c d > - < 00 Œ, o APPENDIX B Table 11 Means and Standard Deviations of Variables Studied 106 Variable Mean S.D. Entire Sample 1. amount of recent life change 2. amount of lifetime success experience 3. amount of lifetime failure experience 4. competence 5. income 0.24 1.56 0.60 1.28 0.54 0.89 12.68 14.70 $15,029 9.78 Retired sample 6. number of years retired 7. competence 8. income 9. health 7.58 13.22 $8,000 16.22 5.37 14.94 2.48 15.64 107 Table 12 Zero Order Correlation Coefficients Between Independent Variables and Marital Satisfaction Independent Tiriable Marital Satisfaction 1. amount of recent life- change -0.04 2. amount of lifetime "success" experience 0.05 3. amount of lifetime "failure" experience 0.04 4. number of years retired -0.27* ^significant at the .001 level 108 CO 0 a cd 0 0 a c d a P c d > 0 a h fl d < 0 d a d O 0 A 0 0 0 d *H d p a o h fl d 0 0 a 0 c d ^ O a 0 d P3 •H . d 0 a a a d ^ 0 a d Ü O a a a a a Ü 0 c d O a O 0 a d a o c d a w a c d 1 — 1 a c d 0 a P •H P P O c d o s p d 0 d d c d p o o p 0 t s i 0 ,0 P cd 0 >1 LO d o CM 05 I I O s—/ ■ a o CD 0 p cd 0 >) CD a 05 lO I I O a O CO 0 P cd 0 > 5 ^ 00 05 00 CM I I S O a 00 0 1 -1 rO cd •H P cd > a d 0 d d 0 Qh 0 d d 00 o o o I o a d 0 Ü 0 0 P h fl d a cd O 43 Ü a I d 0 d a o a TM O O I CD O 05 O o I * X CO O I * * o I * 00 o I 0 0 Ü Ü d d 0 0 0 0 e a B a a P a P a 0 a 0 0 a 0 a a X a X a 0 a 0 a a a 0 a 0 O 0 O p T M C M 0 d O O a 0 a a • • d d Ü d d d a . c d s / v / o 0 o a a a B B * * <3 < *</p>
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The present study attempts to demonstrate how self-concept mediates the relation between social environment and social conduct by examining the relation among their empirical referents, using predictors of marital satisfaction as the indicators of environment, and a measure of marital interaction as the indicator of behavior. It tests the hypothesis that the effect of factors in the social environment -- the accumulation of ordinary everyday life events experienced by most people, upon their behavior -- everyday marital interaction, is mediated differently by individuals having different types of self-concept. In Chapter I, the conceptual and substantive problems are discussed, showing the basis for the selection of the variables that were studied. Relations among the variables are stated in the form of hypotheses. Chapter II is a discussion of the methodology used in assessing the relationships among the variables. The results of the empirical tests are given in Chapter III, and in Chapter IV, those findings are interpreted. Chapter V consists of the summary and conclusions.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Gilford, Rosalie Jonas
(author)
Core Title
Social environment, self-concept, and social conduct: sense of self as mediator of the relationship between life-change and marital interaction
School
Graduate School
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Sociology
Degree Conferral Date
1975-06
Tag
OAI-PMH Harvest
Advisor
Broderick, Carlfred (
committee chair
), Feldman, Albert S. (
committee member
), Glaser, Daniel (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11256442
Unique identifier
UC11256442
Legacy Identifier
DP31760
Document Type
Dissertation