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A comparison of attitudes of university seniors and sales executives toward outside selling, as revealed by clinical interview and questionnaire methods
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A comparison of attitudes of university seniors and sales executives toward outside selling, as revealed by clinical interview and questionnaire methods
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A COMPARISON OF ATTITUDES OF UNIVERSITY SENIORS AND SALES EXECUTIVES TOWARD OUTSIDE SELLING, AS REVEALED BY CLINICAL INTERVIEW AND QUESTIONNAIRE METHODS by- William Monroe Borton A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Social Studies) June 19$6 UMI Number: DP31926 All rights reserved INFORMATION JO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI DP31926 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Elsenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA G R A D U A TE S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y PARK LO S A N G E LE S 7 T h is dissertation, w ritte n by William Monroe Borton under the d ire c tio n o f J^9..G uidance C om m ittee, and app ro ve d by a ll its members, has been p re sented to and accepted by the F a c u lty o f the G raduate S chool, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t o f the requirem ents fo r the degree o f D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Dean Date. Guidance Committee Chairman ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Appreciation is gratefully acknowledged to the members of the guidance committee and to the respondents in this study. Indebtedness is also acknowledged to the Sales Executives Club of Los Angeles, for the fellowship which made the project possible, and to Dr. IVanklin W. Gilchrist of the Marketing Department of the University of Southern California, and Associate Dean George W. Robbins, of the School of Business Administration of the University of California at Los Los Angeles, who administered the fellowship on behalf of the Club. TABLE OP CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................ ; . . , . . . . . 11 LIST OP TABLES................................... . Ix Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . .......................... 1 The Problem Statement of the problem Importance of the problem Plan of Study and Report Groups for study Organization of study and report Definitions and Classifications Attitude Selling Salesman II. HISTORICAL, FUNCTIONAL, STATISTICAL AND LITERARY PERSPECTIVES .......... 14 Historical Perspective Functional Perspective Statistical Perspective Perspective in the Literature Attitude surveys Among college students Other attitude surveys Discussion Studies of social status of selling Studies of influence on vocational aspiration Statements of social attitudes toward selling III. INTERVIEWS AND HYPOTHESES................. 4-3 Selection of Respondents for Clinical Interviews Sales executives Seniors Interview Routine and Rationale Chapter page Word association Sentence completion Cartoon projection Time-line interview Depth interview Seniors’ reactions to printed statements Other interviews Recording and review Selected Results of Clinical Interviews Word association Sentence completion Cartoon projection Summarizations and Hypotheses General social attitudes toward selling Attitudes toward selling as a career perception of sales jobs; advantages- disadvantages; wholesale as example Security, stability Correlates Hypotheses for the questionnaire survey Functional theories IV. QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY . . ^ ............... 86 Method of Collecting Data Development of the Instrument Elimination of subjects Kinds of selling Construction of items Objective vs. open-end Cognitive form, cross-tabulation Other considerations Pretesting and revisions Relationship of selected items to hypotheses for the survey Samples, Mailings, Returns Samples Non-commerce seniors Marketing seniors Sales executives Versions of the questionnaire Mailings and returns Representativeness of the Returns Initial vs. follow-up responses Extreme negative hypothesis processing of the Data Chapter Page Editing and coding Tabulation Tests of statistical significance V. SURVEY FINDINGS REGARDING ATTITUDES TOWARD SELLING . . , , .................. 117 Limitations of the Data Projectability Validity Seniors’ familiarity with kinds of selling Attitudes toward the Social Usefulness of Selling Effect of fewer salesmen Importance of selling Relationship of selling to large- scale production Effect of selling and sales effort on happiness Attitudes toward the Ethics of Selling Purpose of selling Truthfulness in selling Attitudes toward the Social Status of Selling Professional status of selling Education required for selling Beliefs reducing respect for selling Variation in Attitudes by Kind of Selling Perceptions of Wholesale Selling Why graduates take wholesale selling Jobs Why graduates want wholesale selling Jobs Attraction of wholesale selling as a career Objections to wholesale selling Jobs Emotional strains in wholesale selling Economic objections to wholesale selling Jobs Hours and travel objections to wholesale selling Size of company favored Personal Interest in Wholesale Selling Summary of Findings Regarding Attitudes toward Selling Relationship of Attitude Findings to the Hypotheses Chapter Page VI. SURVEY FINDINGS REGARDING CORRELATES OF ATTITUDES . ............... , . . . . . l68 Correlates of Seniors * Attitudes Relationship of seniors* personal interest to attitudes regarding social acceptability of selling Relationship of seniors’ personal interest in selling to attitudes toward economic security Relationship of seniors * personal interest in selling to paternal occupation Relationship of seniors * personal interest in selling to outside sales experience Relationship of seniors * personal interest in selling to curriculum Relationship of seniors’ perceptions of wholesale selling to other attitudes Other relationships with seniors’ attitudes . Correlates of Executives * Attitudes Relationship of executives’ favor to attitudes regarding the social acceptability of selling Relationship of executives’ favor to attitudes regarding monetary income from selling Relationship of executives’ favor to paternal occupation Relationship of executives’ favor to kind of selling done Relationship of executives’ favor to size of company by which employed Relationship between executives’ education and their attitudes Relationships between executives’ personal values and other attitudes Lack of differences related to executives’ perceptions of wholesale selling Summary of Correlates of Attitudes, and Relationships to Hypotheses for the Survey Chapter Page VII. RELATIONSHIPS OF CORRELATIVE FINDINGS TO FUNCTIONAL, THEORIES ..... ........ . . . Social Approval as a Personal Value Economic Security as a Personal Value Working Hours as a Personal Value Pecuniary Maximization as a Personal Value Paternal Occupation as an Early Environmental Influence Outside Sales Experience as a Later Environmental Condition Curriculum Factors as a Later Environmental Condition Familiarity with, and Favor for. Selling Ginzberg's Theory of Occupational Choice Clinical Hypotheses Unconscious origins and rationalizations of attitudes Cues of conflict and repression Quantitative evidence of conflict Other evidence and speculation regarding conflict and tension Summary of Correlative Findings and Relationships to Functional Hypotheses VIII. EVALUATION OF METHODOLOGY IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 281 286 APPENDIXES A. B. C. Methodological findings and conclusions Attitude findings Correlative findings and relation ships to functional hypotheses Concluding commentary BIBLIOGRAPHY Cartoons Used in Clinical Interviewing Original Mailing to University of Southern California Seniors Original Mailing to University of California at Los Angeles Seniors 294 309 Chapter Page D. Questionnaire for Sales Executives Club Members E. Follow-up Cards F. Sticker Employed on Duplicate Questionnaire Mailing LIST OP TABLES | Table Page I 1. Employment, Sales Occupations and Total, ! United States, 1940-1954 21 I 2. Employment in Sales Occupations, by Kinds, j United States, 1950 23 | i 3. Distribution of University of Washington Seniors by Selected Occupational Preferences and Related Curricula, 1953 • 32 4. Frequencies of Associations with Stimulus Word "Selling" , * ............................6l 5. Frequencies of Associations with Stimulus Word "Salesman"......................... 62 6. Frequencies of Associations with Stimulus Word "Salesmanship" ........ 63 7. Frequencies of Associations with Stimulus Phrase "Sales Manager" ......... 64 8. Dispersion of Associations by Seniors and Sales Managers to "Salesman," "Sales Manager," and "Teacher" 66 9. Completions of Sentence, "Most People Think that Salesmen ..." , .......... .. , 67 10. Completions to Sentence, "The Most Good that Salesmen Do . . . " ................ 68 11. Completions of Sentence, "The Biggest Trouble with Salesmen . . . " .......... 69 12. Completions to Sentence, "A Salesman’s Conscience . . 70 13. Completions to Sentence, "As Far as I’m Concerned, Selling 71 14. Mailings, Returns ......................... 103 Table 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 2 3. 24. 2 5. 26. 2 7. 28. 2 9. 3 0. Executives* Omissions of Wholesale Answers, by Kind of Selling .... . . . . . . . Beliefs Regarding Effect of Fewer Salesmen, by Major Groups ............ Unqualified Responses, Effect of Fewer Salesmen . ............ .. Beliefs Regarding Relative Importance and Benefit of Selling, by Major Groups . Beliefs Regarding Relationship of Selling to Production, by Major Groups . . . Beliefs Regarding Effect of Selling and Advertising Effort on Happiness, by Major Groups ...................... Beliefs Regarding Moral Difference between Selling and Other Persuasion, by Major Groups............ .................. Beliefs Regarding Truthfulness of Selling, by Major Groups ............ Unqualified Answers, Truthfulness .... Beliefs Regarding Professional Status of Selling, by Major Groups ............. Beliefs Regarding Premium for College Degree for Selling, by Major Groups ........ Beliefs Regarding Economic Desirability of Degree for Selling, by Major Groups . . Opinion Regarding Belief Which Most Impairs Respect for Selling, by Major Groups Expressions Qualified by Kinds of Selling Beliefs Regarding Why Graduates Take Wholesale Sales Jobs, by Major Groups . Beliefs Regarding Why Graduates Want Wholesale Sales Jobs, by Major Groups . Page 112 122 123 125 127 130 132 134 135 137 139 140 142 145 148 150 Table Page 3 1. Beliefs Regarding Principal Attractions of Wholesale Selling as a Career, by Major Groups............................. I5I 3 2. Beliefs Regarding Most Serious Kinds of Objections to Wholesale Selling Jobs, by Major Groups..................... I54 3 3. Beliefs Regarding Worst Emotional Strain from Wholesale Selling Jobs, by Major Groups ................. 155 3 4. Beliefs Regarding Worst Economic Complaints about Wholesale Selling Jobs, by Major Groups........ .. . . . . .......... 157 35' Beliefs Regarding Worst Hours and Travel Complaints about Wholesale Selling Jobs, ' by Major Groups......................... I58 , I 3 6. Size of Company Favored, by Major Groups . . I60 ' 37. Consideration of Selected Kinds of Sales Jobs as a Career, by Groups I6I ' 3 8. Consideration of Wholesale Selling as a Career, Per Cent, by Groups............ I63 39* Non-Commerce Seniors' Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs Regarding Its Professional Status ................. I70 40. Marketing Seniors' Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs Regarding Its Professional Status ..................... I7I 41. Non-Commerce Seniors’ Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs Regarding Truthfulness of Selling............ 172 42. Non-Commerce Seniors’ Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs Regarding Moral Difference between Salesmanship and Other Persuasion ............ 173 4 3. Non-Commerce Seniors’ Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs Regarding Effect of Fewer Salesmen....................... 174 Table Page 44. Non-Commerce Seniors* Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs Regarding Worst Emotional Strain, . ........ .......... I75 4 5. Non-Commerce Seniors* Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs Regarding Interest in Security....................... I76 46. Marketing Seniors* Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs Regarding Interest in Security ........ .. I78 4 7. Non-Commerce Seniors' Interest in Wholesale , Selling, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation was.Professional-Technical . . 179 48. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Moral Difference between Salesmanship and Other Persuasion, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation Was Selling ..... I80 4 9. Marketing Seniors* Beliefs about Professional Status of Selling, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation Was Selling ....... ............... I8I 5 0. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Professional Status of Wholesale Selling, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation Was.Clerical ........................... 183 5 1. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Why Graduates Take Wholesale Selling Jobs,, by Father's Broad Occupational Group . . 184 5 2. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Relative Importance and Benefit of Selling, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation Was Craftsman-Foreman .... I85 5 3. Non-Commerce Seniors' Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Sales Experience . ........ I86 5 4. Marketing Seniors' Interest.in Wholesale . Selling, by Sales Experience ............. I88 55* Non-Commerce Seniors' Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Beliefs about Worst Hours and ----------Trave.I_ Complaints . . . . . . . . ........ I89 Table Page 5 6. Non-Commerce Seniors’ Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Size of Company Favored . . . 190 57' Marketing Seniors’ Interest in Wholesale Selling, by Size of Company Favored . . . 192 5 8. Executives' Liking for Son to Choose . Wholesale Selling or Sales Engineering as a Career, by Beliefs Regarding Truthfulness of Selling................ 195 59* Executives' Liking for Son to Choose Wholesale Selling or Sales Engineering as a Career, by Beliefs Regarding Relative Importance and Benefit of Selling................................. 196 6 0. Executives' Liking for Son to Choose Wholesale Selling as a Career, by Beliefs Regarding Relationship of Selling to • Production............................. 197 6 1. Executives' Liking for Son to Choose Wholesale Selling as a Career, by Beliefs Regarding Its Professional Status .... I98 6 2. Executives' Liking for Son to Choose Wholesale Selling as a Career, by Opinion Regarding Belief Which Most Impairs Respect for Selling ............ 200 6 3. Executives' Liking for Son to Choose Wholesale Selling or Sales Engineering as a Career, by Beliefs Regarding Premium for College Degree ............ 201 64. Executives' Liking for Son to Choose Wholesale Selling as a Career, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation Was Selling.................................... 203 6 5. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Professional Status of Wholesale Selling, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation was Craftsman-Foreman - . 204 Table ~ ' ” ' ^ Page"' 66. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Why Graduates Take Wholesale Selling Jobs, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation Was Clerical . 205 : 6 7. Executives* Liking for Son to Choose | Wholesale Selling as a Career, by Kind : of Selling Done......................... 207 68. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Why Graduates Take Wholesale Selling Jobs, by Kind of Selling D o n e .................. 208 6 9. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Effect of Fewer Salesmen, by Whether or Not Engaged in Sales Engineering ............ 209 7 0. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Relative Importance and Benefit of Selling, by Whether or Not Engaged in Sales Engineering............... ............. 210 7 1. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Interest in Security, by Whether or Not Engaged in Sales Engineering ................. 211 7 2. Executives' Beliefs about Professional Status of Wholesale Selling, by Whether or Not Engaged in Selling of Intangibles 213 73* Executives' Beliefs Regarding Compromise with Truthfulness of Selling, by Kind of Selling Done.......... .............. 214 7 4. Executives* Beliefs Regarding Moral Difference between Salesmanship and Other Persuasion, by Kind of Selling Done 215 75* Size of Company Favored, by Whether or Not Engaged in Wholesaling of Consumer Durables . .......... 216 7 6. Liking for Son to Choose Wholesale Selling as a Career, by Size of Executive's Company ............ 21,8 7 7. Beliefs Regarding Interest in Security, by Size of Executive's Company....... 219 I Table Page 7 8. Size of Company Favored, by Size of Executive's Company . . . 220 79- Executives' Beliefs Regarding Truthfulness | of Selling, by Educational Level .... 221' 8 0. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Most Serious Kinds of Objections to Wholesale Selling Jobs, by Educational L e v e l............ 223 8 1. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Effect of Fewer Salesmen, by Educational Level . . 224 I 82. Executives' Beliefs about Concern for Hours j and Strain, by Educational Level .... 2251 I 8 3. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Criteria of ; Success, by Educational Level .......... 226 84. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Economic ' Desirability of College Degree for Wholesale Selling, by Educational Level . 227 8 5. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Concern for Hours and Strain, by Beliefs Regarding ! Interest in Security ............ 229 8 6. Size of Concern Favored by Executives, by Beliefs Regarding Interest in Security , 230 87. Executives’ Beliefs Regarding Concern for Hours and Strain, by Whether or Wot Engaged in Wholesaling for Use and Resale 23I 8 8. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Criteria of Success, by Whether or Not Father's Occupation Was Professional- Technical . . 241 8 9. Marketing Seniors * Belief s Regarding Criteria of Success, by Whether Father's Occupation Was Management or Sales . . . 243 9 0. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Concern for Hours and Strain, by Whether Father's Occupation Was Managerial or Craftsman-Foreman ...... 244 Table Page 9 1. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Criteria of Success, by Whether dr Not Father's Occupation Was Selling . ............... 245 9 2. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Relationship of Selling to Production, by Sales Experience . 247 93. Marketing Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Relationship of Selling to Production, by Sales Experience . , . ............... 248 9 4. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Moral Difference between Salesmanship and Other Persuasion, by Sales Experience 249 9 5. Non-Commerce Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Effect of Fewer Salesmen, by Sales Experience...................... 25O 9 6. Marketing Seniors' Beliefs Regarding Effect of Selling and Advertising Effort on Happiness, by Sales Experience ..... 25I 97. Sales Experience, Non-Commerce and Marketing Samples Combined, by Whether Father's Occupation Was Professional-Technical or Sales . . ............ 253 9 8. Outside Sales Experience among Non-Commerce Seniors, by Classifiability of Father's Occupation...................... 254 99* Curriculum, by Father's Broad Occupational Group . ............................... 256 100. Executives' Beliefs Regarding Most Serious Kinds of Objections to Wholesale Selling Jobs, by Opinion Regarding Belief Which Most Impairs Respect for Selling .... 269 101. Executives' Opinions Regarding Belief Which Most Impairs Respect for Selling, by Whether or Not Engaged in Wholesale Selling for Use and Resale ....... 270 jTable Page 102. Executives* Multiple Answers on Attractions of Wholesale Selling as a Career, by Favor for Son's Choice of a Selling Career................................ 272 CHAPTER I ! INTRODUCTION I I I Extensive development of selling activity is a i I distinctive feature of contemporary economic and social I organization in the United States. Indeed, its evangelists are wont to say that selling epitomizes the "American Way of Life." I About four million persons are employed in personal selling occupations, of which about a million and a half are "outside" salesmen. But many such jobs go unfilled. One of the reasons for making this study is that employers complain of the lack of interest in selling, especially among college graduates,^ and, in ^Business Week asks, "Where are those eager young salesmen, anxious to rise to the 'challenge'?" "Not Enough Salesmen for a Hard Sell," March 14, 1953, P* 136. Fortune inquires; "Why, in the land of his birth, has the Great American Salesman apparently vanished? ; "Recent economic history explains . . . part of the idecline. But only a part. . . . There are other trends 1 in American life that have contributed to the depreciation ^of salesmanship, and to grapple with the problem we must ; look at them and the questions they in turn provoke. What, for example, of the salesman's social status? Of the trend in college men's attitudes toward selling as a career? Of the growing shift in salesman's compensation from dollar incentive to security? . . . "The questions lie in trends so deep . . , that this article cannot hope to offer any definitive their opinion, this lack has become more pronounced, despite the high earnings and earning potentials of 2 selling, which are generally known. The Problem Statement of the problem The problem was to apply certain clinical and survey methods to the examination of attitudes toward personal selling and certain outside sales occupations, among university senior men and members of the Sales Executives Club in Los Angeles; to discover differences in such attitudes among seniors and among members of the Sales Executives Club; to note the differences in attitudes shown by these two groups; and, finally, to consider certain correlates of such differences. answers. But it can suggest that finding the answers is becoming a matter of urgency— and not merely for the nation's salesmen, but for all of U. S. management." "Help Wanted: Sales," Fortune, IKLf 1952), 100-101. ^Northwestern University's ninth annual nation wide employment survey indicated that "the graduate hired five years ago at $255 a month is now earning $508, if he made normal progress. In the sales field, average salaries have risen from $254 to $547 a month." News item in Los Angeles Mirror, December 9, 1954. ^Business Week says, "Money isn't stopping them." I Loc. cit. And, referring to the 1955 liberal arts I graduate, it observes, "He scorns sales jobs, though he knows the pay there is sky-high.” ”'55 Class; First of a Generation," June 11, 1955, P* 130. Fortune comments similarly. Loc. cit., p. 101. Importance of the problem Such a project promises to yield information which is useful from social, methodological, and theoretical standpoints. When an activity, in which one out of 16 gain fully employed persons is engaged, is the subject of wide variations in evaluation and of strong negative feelings among future opinion leaders,^ the phenomenon is worthy of the attention of social scientists. It affords an excellent situation for the study of attitudes and their relationships. Identification of factors in any disapprobation of selling should encourage voluntary efforts of individual business men and associations to ameliorate this situation. An analysis of the differences in attitudes and expectations about selling and selling jobs, between sales executives and college seniors who might accept such jobs, should reduce misunderstandings, improve vocational decisions and placement, and thus reduce disappointment, turnover, management problems, and emotional and economic ^Optional written comments on the questionnaires by seniors included such expressions as, "I hate sellingl" "Prostitution . . .," "I look down upon sales work," "Has an unpleasantness, a degrading aspect . . ”I have strong feelings against salesmen . . "Necessary evil . . "Atrophying appendage on the body social," etc. 4 costs. This study is worthwhile because it is, so far as is known to this investigator, the first combined applica tion of clinical and more penetrating questionnaire techniques to the investigation of attitudes toward an occupation. Clinical methods were developed and have been used principally for psychotherapy and psychological ! research.■ * * Increasingly, such methods have been adopted in research in various social science fields,^ and in | marketing research.3 lln addition to a large literature on depth inter- j viewing, there is a journal devoted to projective devices, ■ I and a number of texts, including: Lawrence S. Abt and ! I Leopold Beliak (eds,). Projective Psychology (New York: ! I Alfred A. Knopf, 1950); Harold H. Anderson and Gladys L. ! ! Anderson, An Introduction to Projective Techniques (New ; York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1951); and Lawrence K. Frank, ■ Projective Methods (Springfield, 111.: C. C. Thomas, 1948). ‘ ^Standard works treating such applications include ; Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch, and Stuart A. Cook, Research , ' Methods in Social Relations (New York: The Dryden Press, 1951); Leon Festinger and Daniel Katz, Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences (New York: The Dryden Hress, 1953); and H. H. Remmers, Introduction to Opinion and ' Attitude Measurement (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1954). i For a clinical approach to public opinion and ' propaganda, vide Leonard W. Doob, Public Opinion and ' Propaganda (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1945); or : Alfred MeClung Lee, "The Analysis of Propaganda: A ! Clinical Summary," American Journal of Sociology, LI I (September, 1945), 126-35. 3The only text, as of this date, is George H. Smith, Motivation Research in Advertising and Marketing (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954). However, there is considerable periodical literature, e.g., James Vicary, "How Psychiatric Methods Can Be Applied to Market Research," Printers' Ink, May 11, ,__f)pL. _î42L8<3ri _ _ Flan of Study and Report Groups for study College or university seniors are a most appropriate class of individuals among whom to investigate these attitudes. Students’ viewpoints represent various groups and their interests, weighted or modified in the direction of the more informed or reflective elements of the society. Seniors may be expected to be more capable of analysis than those less advanced educationally, and relatively able to express their opinions and to respond to oral and printed verbalizations. Also, these students have made curricular choices, and have made, or will soon be making, job decisions. Their attitudes toward selling I are of special interest to many employers, who regard I college graduates as preferred sales applicants. Finally, I since college graduates tend to become opinion leaders, the attitudes of seniors may represent aspects of possible I future trends in public opinion. I Sales executives constitute another group, whose I attitudes toward the subject are of primary significance. { Haire, "Projective Techniques in Marketing Research," I Journal of Marketing, XIV, (April, 1950), 649-56; Burleigh ^ B‘ . Gardner, "Row the Social Sciences Are Used in Adver tising," Printers’ Ink, December 11, 1953, PP* 50-60; ! Ernest Dichter, "Psychology in Market Research," Harvard ; Business Review,.XXV (Summer, 1947), 432-43; and Nathan Kelne, "Politz vs. Dichter on Motivation," Printers’ Ink, July 22, 1955, pp. 37-40. They are the persons who administer sales” jobs,"and.. control the conditions of them. And they are the indi viduals who are most directly affected by attitudes toward selling. They are the recruiters for salesmen. They communicate with applicants about sales jobs, reach agreements, and then supervise the activities of individuals whose attitudes toward selling constitute the basis of the relationship. Finally, sales executives, individually or in associations, are the most likely sources for vocational information about sales jobs. I I Organization of study and report I In broad perspective, the plan for the study I involved, first, the development of hypotheses regarding j existing attitudes, by clinical interviews and library research; second, the measurement of certain of these j attitudes and variables believed relevant; and third, I analysis of the findings, with some consideration of ' implications for causal hypotheses. ! In general, this report follows the logical and i chronological sequence of the project. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to definitions of certain terms used in the report. Chapter II presents a historical and functional background for the study, and a review of pertinent literature and statistics. Chapter III describes the original research done for the purpose of ob^tâÂnïng"3[n3TôâtTôn8"15r"lëxl Ihg , attitudes toward selling, differences in these attitudes, I and correlates of such difference^, by means of clinical | interviews with university seniors and sales executives. Summaries of potential attitude scales and correlates j are presented, together with hypotheses for the question- I naire survey, and brief statements of certain pertinent * functional hypotheses. j I Chapter IV describes the questionnaire survey for the measurement of certain of the attitudes toward selling, and potential correlates, among the seniors and j executives. The development of the instrument, selection I I of samples, mechanics of the survey, and the processing | i of the data are discussed. | In Chapter V, the data from the questionnaire survey, relating to attitudes toward selling among seniors and executives, are presented in tabular form. Where significant differences were found between non-commerce, marketing or engineering seniors, the respective data are shown separately. Data regarding differences in attitudes toward selling in general are presented first, followed by those relating to variations in attitudes by kind of selling, perceptions of wholesale selling, and personal interest or favor. Significant relationships are pointed out. Chapter VI' is devoted to relationships between 8 favor for selling and certain other attitude and background variables, from the survey data. The correlates for | seniors are presented first, in tabular form. Correspond-| I ing data for executives are then offered, and compared. I Relationships between these findings and hypotheses for | the questionnaire survey are observed. | In Chapter VII, findings from the questionnaire survey are compared with certain theories regarding the relationship of attitudes to personal values, and early and later environmental conditions. Certain survey findings and interview data are interpreted in terms of clinical theory. In Chapter VIII, methods employed in the study are evaluated. Chapter IX summarizes the study, and sets forth the principal findings and conclusions. Definitions and Classifications Attitude Cuber says that : An attitude is, first, an orientation or "tendency to act" in some way toward some person or situation or object or idea. Stated crudely, attitudes amount to likes and dislikes, attractions and repulsions, interests and apathies.1 W. I. Thomas and Plorian Znaniecki, in their Ijohn P . Cuber, Sociology (2d ed.; New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., Ig^l), P* 216. masterwork known as The Polish Peasant, define an attitude as a tendency to act positively or negatively with reference to some thing, which is called a value. Another useful definition of an attitude is that of Allportt A mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all ^ objects and situations with which it is related. The term attitude may be employed to subsume cognitive, cathectic, and evaluative phenomena,^ also personal values,3 all of which result in predisposition to behave in some particular, systematic manner toward the object of the attitude. That is, "attitude" may be used to include not only evaluative judgments and policy orientations, but also personal values and goals, and perceptions and assumptions which affect them. I Ifalcott Parsons and Edward A. Shils (eds.), ' Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge; Harvard I University Press, I95I), p. 423. More than a symposium, ! this is the report of a noble interdisciplinary effort, i The participants were, in addition to the editors, Edward C. Tolman, Gordon W. Allport, Clyde Kluckhohn, Henry A. Murray, Robert R. Sears, Richard C. Sheldon, Samuel A. Stouffer, and James Olds. ^Ibid., p. 1 2 6. STolman regards attitudes as "beliefs and I resultant positive and/or negative values ..." (Ibid.^ p. 35 8), while Murray apparently would include but distinguish values from action tendencies or vectors. (Ibid., p. 463). 10 I Celling I Selling is defined as the act of one who sells. A definition which is appropriate for this study is to make a sale or sales to someone, especially by devices of salesmanship. Salesman A salesman is defined as one whose occupation is to sell, as goods, merchandise, land, securities, trans portation, etc., either in a store or within a given territory; specifically, a commercial traveler. Sales manship is (a) the art of selling; (b) the condition of being a salesman; and (c) ability in selling goods, skill in the presentation of goods for sale. An aspect of definition is categorization, and the major occupational classifications in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles are; professional and managerial; clerical and sales; service; agricultural, fishing, forestry and related; skilled; semi-skilled; and unskilled Sales and kindred occupations are further sub- classified as; auctioneers; salesmen, brokerage and commission firms, not otherwise classified; canvassers and solicitors; demonstrators; salesmen, insurance; ^U. S., Employment Service, Dictionary of Occupational Titles (2d ed.; Washington: 'U7 3. Government Printing Office, 1949), Vol. II, p. ix. 11 newsboys; hucksters and peddlers; salesmen, real estate; salesmen, stock and bond; sales clerks; salespersons; salesmen to consumers; salesmen and sales agents, except to consumers; sales clerks, dry cleaning and laundry; and 1 shoppers. Most kinds of sales jobs are classified under a few general titles. The terms "Sales Clerk" and "Sales person" are used to identify sales occupations in retail stores.^ The terra "Salesman" is used to denote occupa tions in which the activity is carried on outside the employer's place of business, or partly so, as in the case of the "General Salesman or Retail Salesman," who works both inside and outside, such as in selling auto mobiles and appliances. The "House-to-House Salesman" is identified and characterized by the absence of a retail showroom. The title "Wholesale Salesman" is an inclusive one, and subsumes the titles of Commercial Traveler, Drummer, Road Salesman, Traveling Salesman and Traveler. The description, abridged, is: Calls on prospective buyers in the retail market, or on industrial consumers, solicits orders, the selling of which requires no professional or technical knowledge, but may require a trade knowledge based on familiarity with the product sold. May estimate cost ^Ibid., pp. xl-xii. ^Ibld.. Vol. I, pp. 1129, 1135. 1 2 of installation of industrial equipment, Classifica- ! tions are established according to product sold, as | Foodstuffs Salesman, etc.l : The title "Sales Engineer" is listed in the professional classification under Engineer, defined as meeting "qualifications established by engineering schools or licensing authorities." The title Sales Engineer subsumes those of Sales Engineering Consultant and Industrial Salesman. The abridged description is: Sells chemical, mechanical and electrical equip ment, supplies and services that require professional or technical knowledge over and above a trade knowl edge based on familiarity with the equipment, product or services sold; calls . . . at factories and industrial plants . • . and on engineers, architects, and other professional and technical workers . . . computes . . . makes estimates from blueprints, plans . . . draws up and proposes changes in equipment or use . . . usually specializes in one product or a group of closely related products. Classed by field of engineering specialization— chemical engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering.^ Terminological and taxonomic differences were encountered during the course of the study. The classi fications and definitions of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles were found to be at least as acceptable in ordinary usage as any others. Since they are also the most authoritative, they were employed during the study, and are adhered to in this report, with a few exceptions for special reasons. Unless qualified, the term "selling" is used to indicate "outside selling." llbld.. p, 11 3 5. 2Ibid.. p. II3 0. 13 Where retail and other inside selling occupations are also | I referred to, an expression such as "selling generally" is • I I employed• I CHAPTER II HISTORICAL, FUNCTIONAL, STATISTICAL AND LITERARY PERSPECTIVES This chapter presents a historical and functional background for the study, and a review of pertinent literature and statistics. Historical Perspective I i Personal selling may be regarded as the separation and specialization of certain of the functions of trading.^ In the cultures which have most influenced Western social and moral standards, commercial trading has usually been looked upon as less beneficial and worthy than physical production, or religious,spiritual, or military , activities, as far back as written history goes. Among the Hebrews, who were in turn influenced by 2 Hindu thought, trading was not looked upon with favor. Ipor a discussion of the origins of trading, see George W. Robbins, "Notions about the Origin of Trading," Journal of Marketing, XI (January, I94 7), 228-36. I ^Lewis H. Haney, History of Economic Thought (New ; York: The Macmillan Company, 1949), p." 48 et passim. Vide also George W. Robbins, "Is Selling Good for Society?" Vital Speeches, (March 15, 1955)^ PP. 1117-19* 15 The view of the Greek classic philosophers is represented by Aristotle. He maintained that commerce— i for instance, using a shoe not for wearing, but for resale : _ , at a profit— was unnatural and dishonorable. | I I The early Christian ethic, which was based on the I I ■ " ' j I expectation of an early return of Christ and the establish-: I ment of the kingdom of heaven on earth, was non- acquisltive. St. Thomas Aquinas combined this ethic with the 2 teachings of Aristotle in his Summa Theologica, which became perhaps the principal pronouncement of Roman Catholic doctrine. In the sixteenth century, trade and particularly international trade gained some social approval in ! western Europe, because of its believed contribution to I I Mercantilist and Cameralist objectives, aimed at increas- j ing the ability of the newly developing national states : to wage foreign wars.3 The Protestant Reformation brought teachings which I ^Aristotle, The Politics, trans. Benjamin Jowett i (Oxford; Clarendon Press, l9Ô5')7 Bk. 1, chap. ix. I 2«»3cholasticism, " Encyclopaedia Britannica, l4th 1 edition. Vol. XX. Some of Aristotle's writings had been ; rediscovered in Constantinople about 1260 or 1270, and ' Aquinas was much influenced by them. 3Haney, op. cit., p. I3 6. 16 were more congenial to business.^ The formal separation of political economy from moral philosophy began with the i publication of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations in 1776, and! i political economy or economics thenceforth devoted itself | to material concerns• Smith and others advocated an I individualistic, competitive, laissez faire philosophy | for maximizing physical product. j The invention of the steam engine by Watt in I769 is generally regarded as being the precipitant of the Industrial Revolution, dating from about I8OO in England. There then existed simultaneously a vast need for physical necessities and comforts, an improved technology for producing them, an economic philosophy which promised the most profitable and productive application of the new I machines, and a religion which gave at least qualified I blessing to such pursuits. The ensuing century saw great advances in techni- ' cal efficiency, specialization of labor, and increases in ! physical production and consumption. The lead shifted i from England to the United States, and even greater ’ increases have occurred in the last fifty years. Here, in I ! spite of the shortening of the average work week by about ^"Moral justification of worldly activity was one of the most important results of the Reformation. ..." Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,trans. Talcott' Parsons (Newfork;dHarles Scribner's Sons, 1930), P* 8l. 17 a third during that period, output so increased that disposition of it became critical. The earlier manufacturer had himself performed the adaptive*functions of dealing with the market. The enlarging scale of enterprise and the growing Importance of distribution were reflected in the growth, delegation, and specialization of selling;^ in changes in the amount, purposes, and methods of marketing effort; in evolution of marketing institutions; and in the development of an academic discipline for the study of these phenomena. Functional Perspective Classical, competitive economic theory developed I before the day of the salesman, and provided little place for him. In terms of classical theory, his excuse for ; existence lies principally in the imperfections of the ! : market, especially lack of knowledge. His activity would be regarded as exploratory and communicative, in the adaptation of supply to demand conditions. Recent theorizing regarding non-price competition recognizes other activities which are performed by sales men, such as facilitating ordering, and supplying 1 In small firms, or where there are few buyers, the proprietor still typically handles sales. In many larger firms, the sales manager handles all or part of the dealings with Important customers. 18 Incidental services!'' "Obhër^ëGënb'bhëôrlës^'ôI^lnbnopollstlCj I competition and product differentiation permit recognition ! of another function of the salesman, that of endeavoring | I to show that his ware is different in one or more respects | from other similar ones, and, as a result, yields more j satisfaction or is more salable. | I In an effort to improve and secure markets for their products, manufacturers also undertake to modify the demand for them through personal selling and advertising. In some economic theories, demands are regarded as fixed coefficients, at least for the short run; these theories i are unable to deal adequately with want-influencing ac- ! I tivities. Economic theorists usually dismiss such ; activities as ineffective, or ignore them entirely.^ But | marketing practitioners regard the influencing of wants I as the most important function of selling and advertising. I I Many scholars agree with the latter evaluation, although not all of them subscribe to the view that the effects are i I salutary. I Another approach to the functional analysis of I salesman's activities may be made from the standpoint of ! the intermediate position of the salesman with respect to his firm and to the market. The salesman stands at the focal point of the adaptive process— at the very crux of ^"Why Do People Buy?" Fortune, XLV (April, 1952), 1, 104. 19 competition and change. Adaptation between the firm and the market may occur in several ways. One way is to vary the product or price, to agree with the preferences of known prospective buyers. In most kinds of selling, these means are not available to the salesman, over any short-run period. Another way is that of searching for uninformed buyers whose demands are well filled by the product and price which the salesman can offer. This course of action is open to the salesman, and constitutes one of his principal activities. Where two or more products are known to be acceptable, facilitation and service may increase the degree of adaptation. If there is pressure for the disposal of still more goods, the salesman may endeavor to effect adaptation by two other means. He may attempt to change prospects * perceptions of the product and price so that they appear to meet existing demands better. Or the salesman can attempt to change preferences, demands, or values, thus creating new demands and prospects. Once custom is obtained, the salesman attempts to 1 create a monopoly. ^McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.'s "Six Sales Steps . . . For Men and Magazines," are "(l) contact, (2) arouse interest, (3) create preference, (4) specific — proposal,._(5)- close_.the_prder,__and (6) protecting 20 Without assessing their importance, effectiveness,! i or contribution, the functions performed by salesmen may j be listed as contacbual or exploratory, communicative, I facilitative and service, differentiative, interpretive, want-influencing, and monopolization. Such then are the activities, the attitudes toward which are the subject of this study. Statistical Perspective Table 1 shows that, by 1940, sales workers con stituted about 6.5 per cent of employed persons. During the war, the number of male sales workers declined, and the total fell to less than 5 per cent in 1945. By 1950, the prewar ratio had been reached and exceeded, but the proportion may have declined slightly by 1954. Male sales workers constituted 6 2 .7 per cent of total sales workers in 1954, and 5*91 per cent of employed males.^ markets" [against other suppliers who are engaged in steps 1, 2, and 3l • Advertisement in Business Week, June 18, 1955, pp. 192-93. A psychologist concluded that the economic functions of salesmen are those of education, motivation, and service. Verne Steward, "The Development of a Selection System for Salesmen," Personnel, XVI (February, 1940), 124. ^U. s.. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Fact Book on Manpower, September 1954 (Bull. II7I; Washington; U. S, Government Printing Office, 1954), p. 54. 21 TABLE 1 EMPLOYMENT, &ALE8 OCCUPATIONS AND TOTAL, UNITED STATES, 1940-1954* {On April 1) Year Sales Occupations (Thousands of Persons) Total (Thousands of Persons) Sales Occupations, Per Cent of Total 1940 2 ,9 8 0 46,100 6 .4 7 1945 2 ,6 6 0 53,65 0 4 ,9 6 1950 3 ,8 9 0 5 8 ,6 7 0 6 .6 3 1954 3 ,9 6 0 6 0 ,6 0 0 6.53 *U. S., Bureau of Labor Statistics, Fact Book on Manpower, September 1954, Bull. II7I (Washington, D. C.: U. 8. Government Printing Office, 1954), p. 54. 22 The distribution of sales workers by kind of selling, in I95O, is exhibited in Table 2. It may be observed that there were about 1.5 million outside sales men, constituting 2.6 per cent of employed persons. The largest subgroups were manufacturers * and wholesalers' salesmen, followed by insurance agents and brokers. Most outside sales workers are men. Tables 1 and 2 are from different sources, and their 1950 totals do not exactly agree. It is presumed that both are internally consistent. Since the former portrays trends and the latter, distribution, the dis crepancy is not material. Perspective in the Literature This section reports past research on attitudes toward selling, influences affecting vocational aspirations, and certain secondary sources of statements of attitudes toward it. Additional bibliographical material is introduced in connection with discussion of the findings. In the truly enormous mass of literature on sell ing, there is very little dealing with why people take sales jobs, or with attitudes toward selling and sales jobs. Attention is concentrated on sales methods. In one bibliography of almost a thousand publications, there 23 TABLE 2 EMPLOYMENT IN SALES OCCUPATIONS, UNITED STATES,.I95O& BY KINDS, ................................................. Occupation Number Employed , ................................................... ....................................................................................................... .................... All 5 6,225 ,3 4 0 Sales Workers 3,92 6,510 Retail Store 2,44 5,510 Outside 1,481,074 To Business 744 ,8 6 1 Manufacturing 320,7 23 Wholesale trade 39 1,757 Advertising agents and salesmen 32 ,3 8 1 Investments 43 4,299 Insurance agents and brokers 30 4,0 88 Real estate agents and brokers 12 0,325 Stock and bond 9,886 Other 30 1 ,9 1 4 Newsboys 9 6 ,1 6 8 Hucksters, peddlers 21 ,95 0 Auctioneers, demonstrators 18 ,58 8 All other, including industry not reported - -.................. - ................ ....................................... 16 5 ,2 0 8 I *Adapted from U. S., Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1954, 75bh ed. j(Washington, D. C.; U. S. Government Printing Office, 1954), iTable 238, pp. 209-1 7. 24 TABLE 2— Continued i J Per Cent of Total Employment Per Cent of Total Sales Employment Per Cent of Total ; Outside Sales Employment ; 100.0 ... 7 . 0 100.0 ... 4.4 62.3 1 2.6 37.7 100.0 1 1 1 . 3 1 9 .0 50.2 1 . 6 8.2 21.6 . 7 10.0 26.4 . 1 .8 2.2 i . 8 11.1 29.3 . 5 7.8 20.5 . 2 3 . 1 8.1 . * .2 . 7 . 5 7 . 7 20.4 .2 2.4 6.5 . • . 6 1 . 5 . . . 5 1.3 . 3 4.2 1 1 . 1 25 is a single reference to such attitudes.^ Nor does there appear to be much unpublished material resulting from competent consideration of this subject. In a list of outlines of unpublished graduate studies relating to marketing, none deals directly with such questions.^ j Attitude surveys I Among college students.— In 1940, in a survey I sponsored by National Sales Executives, National Analysts I asked a total of one thousand liberal arts and commerce j students, at twelve universities, "Would you like to take I up some form of selling work after graduation?" Results were reported to be: Per Cent Definitely interested 31*3 Leaning to 13*9 Total 45.2^ ^Glen M. Merry, Sources of Information for Sales Executives and Specialists in Marketing" '(New Ÿork: National Sales Executives, Inc., 1954)7 The reference is to the Maynard study, reported infra. 2j. S. Schiff, Current List of Unpublished Studies for Sales Executives and' Specialists in Marketing Prepare? by Graduate Students (New York: National iSales Executives, Inc., 1954). The nearest approach is by two Master's theses about college recruitment processes and advantages. The same information is summarized in another form in J. S. Schiff, "Theses in Marketing," Journal of Marketing, XIX (October, 1954), 170-71* 3philip Salisbury, "How l,0l4 College Seniors Rate Selling Work as a Career," Sales Management^ July 1, 1948, pp. 37-3 9. 26 Smeeton reports from 370 personal Interviews with students at Indiana University in 19^5, that a "negligible number would enter selling, " 126 showed some interest, and 207 stated that they were not interested. Their reasons were listed as: Don't like selling Wouldn't be successful Too risky, financial rewards uncertain; gamble; at mercy of other forces Obliged to force people to purchase things they do not want or need Educational training has not prepared them for sellingl Maynard surveyed 500 commerce freshmen at Ohio State University in 194?. He asked them to assume that ! they were going to "work for several years after gradua- I I tion in a large, reputable company, manufacturing and I selling its own products," and asked, "How do you rate your interest in the following departments?" Results were given as : ^Brooks Smeeton, "Sales Executives and University Promote Selling as a Career," Printers' Ink, August 10, 1945, p. 38. 27 Per Cent Like Undecided Do Not Like Sales 60 18 22 Production Control, Supervision 56 30 l4 Operating 39 30 31^ Those favoring sales were queried as to why, and about 40 per cent gave the reason, "Desire to travel," and another 40 per cent, "Desire to meet interesting people." Lack of interest in selling was explained by "Aversion to travel," and, "Do not like to sell." Maynard also asked the respondents to rate seven kinds of workers— physician, salesman selling to tire dealers, bookkeeper, life insurance salesman, worker in automobile factory, and department store clerk--on a number of scales. They included service to public, opportunity for advancement, hardness of work, and willingness to recommend to a son. The results which are reported are presumed to be the more clearcut ones. The tire salesman was ranked lowest in public service; but second, after the lawyer, in opportunity for advancement. The work of both the tire salesman and the ^H. H. Maynard, "Are Collegians Warming Up in Their Attitudes Toward Selling?" Sales Management, October 15, 194?, pp. 90-94. 28 insurance salesman were rated as "easy." The career as an insurance salesman scored high on willingness to recommend to son, but the tire salesman was scored low. Maynard concluded that there is interest in,sales work, and "not any great amount of aversion to it." Further, he concluded that there is ignorance of both the demands and financial rewards of various kinds of jobs. In 1948, in another survey for National Sales Executives, National Analysts interviewed l,0l4 commerce and business administration seniors on three campuses. Instead of the biasing question used in the 1940 survey, the respondent was first asked, "Have you definitely decided what type of work you wish to do after graduation?" Percentage preferences for certain kinds of business activities were reported as follows; Per Cent Selling 34.3 Accounting 24.0 Management, adminis- . tratlon 9.0 Respondents who named selling were asked, "What are your reasons for choosing selling (or sales) as a career?" with these results; 1 Salisbury, loc. cit. 29 Per Cent Financial reward greater than other careers 35*1 Had experience and/or like it 3 4 .2 Like to make contacts and meet people 24.2 Have qualities needed for sales, tests indicate 22.4 Follow in family's business, have connections 14.9 Greater opportunities than other careers 13 *8 Freedom of action, own boss, use own ideas, not confining 11.2 Work is varied, interesting 9*5 Advancement more rapid than in other careers 5*7 Good experience toward later work in other fields 5*2 Stepping stone to executive work 2.3 Like to travel 2.0 Perform a public service 2.0 Those who indicated some career other than selling were queried, "How do you feel about selling as a career for yourself?" with distribution of replies reported as; 30 Per Cent Not interested, don't believe would like it, doesn't appeal 2 6 .8 Lack personality or knack required 1 7 .2 Dislike particular phase (traveling, house-to- house, poor pay, people one must meet) 5.1 Tried it and didn't like it 4.5 Like my choice of career better 3.9 Insecure, unstable, cyclical 3.2 Doubt if would be successful 2.3 Dislike forcing people to buy things 1.4 Miscellaneous 3*6 It was also reported that two-thirds of these students had decided on their career before the senior year. Preferences for selling, representing three universities, were reported as follows: Per Cent Wharton (University of Fensylvania) 39*9 Northwestern University 29.4 University of California 24.5 31 In 1953, a . survey of all seniors at the University of Washington revealed that 9 .3 per cent preferred some sort of sales work after graduation, while only 3*6 per cent were enrolled in a curriculum relating to selling. Selected findings are shown in Table 3. Other attitude surveys.— Cantril reports asking a national cross section of high school students, in 1942, "What occupation are you planning to enter?" Answers of boys were: Per Cent Professions; engineering, teaching, arts, medicine, law 3 6 .1 Factory work, skilled trades, mechanics l4.1 Business 8.0^ In a survey by Scholastic Magazine in 1947, in which 72,973 high school students were interviewed, 5 per cent of the boys and 2 per cent of the girls indicated an interest in selling.^ What is referred to as a survey among high school ^Hadley Cantril (ed.). Public Opinion, 1935-1946 (Princeton: Princeton University 'l^ess, 1951), p. 5^8. 2"Sales Careers Attract only 5$ of Boys Queried by Magazine," Printers' Ink, April 11, 194?, p. 137* 32 TABLE 3 DISTRIBUTION OP UNIVERSITY OP WASHINGTON SENIORS BY SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL PREFERENCES AND RELATED CURRICULA, 1953^ Occupational Classification Employment Preference, Per Cent Curriculum Related to. Per Cent Business 31.4 24.5 Sales 9.3 3.6 Accounting 4.4 5.4 Engineering 10.5 18.5 ®Carl Dickinson, "How College Seniors' Preferences Compare with Employment and Enrollment Data," Personnel and Guidance Journal. XXXI (April, 1954), 485-8B1 33 students^ reported reactions to selling ^'^'c8Lrêër""à^: Per Cent Wouldnit mind, much 2 No 3 Noll 95 Reasons given for negative responses were listed as : Dishonest, insincere No educational requirement Uninteresting Advancement limited Pay insecure It is reported that about one-third of respondents i visualized selling as door-to-door selling. I In 1939, a national cross section of businessmen I was asked, "If you had a son twenty-two years old, what : business or profession would you like to see him go into?" I ; Results are reported as follows; I I Per Cent j Medicine 10.6 ! Chemistry 9.5 I Law  8.9 ^Danny 0‘Keefe, "How Youth Looks at Selling," .Printers^ Jnk,_ July 1945 iPO-104 34 Per Cent Anything he wants 8.8 Engineering 8.2 Same as father‘s 8.2 Retailing 8.0 Selling 3*1^ Results of presentation of a similar question to a general cross section of United States opinion, by Roper, for Fortune, in 1945, were: Per Cent Medicine 22 Engineering 12 Law 7 2 Salesman 1 : Fortune interviewed 82 college placement directors ! 3 ; and 35 housewives in preparing the article already cited,^ : but results are presented only in narrative form. I The Research Institute of America surveyed 3,000 ^Cantril, op. cit., p. 529 2lbid. 3** Help Wanted: Sales," loc. cit., pp. 101-102. 35 wives of trucking industry salesmen, and found that less than 50 per cent wanted their husbands to continue as salesmen. Sixty-five per cent of them gave "too little chance for advancement," as the reason. Only 9 per cent * 1 of wives wanted their sons to become salesmen. In a questionnaire study of attitudes toward occupations, Kay obtained comparative social evaluations, but for broad occupational classes— business, engineering, politics, etc Discussion.— The wording of the first question in ; the 1940 National Sales Executives study is so biasing ! that the results have little significance. The method of : I selecting respondents is not reported. The report of | Smeeton's study does not describe the method of selection I of respondents, the questions or type of interviewing, and affords little quantitative data. Several comments are appropriate to the Ohio State University study. Marketing is emphasized at Ohio State, and Maynard is one of selling's strongest academic supporters.? The assumption of a "large, reputable ^"The Salesman's Wife— The management Counselor," Sales Management, July I5, 1955, p. 6 7. ^Lillian Wald Kay, "The Relation of Personal Frames of Reference to Social Judgments," Archives of W ' T . . . . . . . . .....-Ill III I I Psychology, CCIXSXIII (May, 1943), 1-53• 3An article, based on a speech by Maynard before an insurance group, is cited infra as one of the catalogs ' of .favorable beliefs__abput selling. 36 company" which manufactures and sells its own products, reduces the applicability of answers. The moot extensively reported survey, that con ducted in 1948 for National Sales Executives, comes I closest to the present study. An analysis of the I explanations given by those who were not interested in I selling, indicates that most of them were restatements of disinterest, or evasions. Almost half were classified as "Not interested, don't believe would like it, doesn't appeal." This suggests that even the "public and conscious" attitudes^ were not tapped. Studies of social status of selling A study of the social status of occupations, which I was done by Counts in 1925, was repeated with certain 2 j simplifications by Deeg and Patterson in 1946. Very I little change was found to have taken place. The ; traveling salesman had dropped from just above the middle i . of the scale, to below. However, the insurance agent had I j risen from below the middle to just above, almost I exchanging places with the traveling salesman. The physician, who was rated second to the banker in 1925, ^George H. Smith's term. Motivation Research in Advertising and Marketing (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954), p. 20. ^Maethel E. Deeg and Donald G. Patterson, "Changes in Social Status of Occupations," Occupations, XXV. (January, 1947), 205-208. 37 replaced him in the top position in 1946, and the banker was tied with the .lawyer for second place. Other repetitions of this study^ indicate bhat this order is remarkably resistant to influence by time, sex, education, experience, and even occupation of the ranker. Another approach to the measurement of the social standing of occupations is that of Centers, who, after asking a sample of persons to indicate the social class to which they belong, had them assign a number of occupations to social classes.2 There was less consistency in ranking| salesmen than some other occupations. More business, ! professional and white collar rankers tended to put salesmen in the working class, than did manual workers. I A substantial percentage of middle class rankers put salesmen in the middle class. Studies of influence on vocational aspiration A number of studies have dealt with various concurrent and precedent conditions to occupational objectives. Wren, working with adult counselees, found vocational aspirations related to family occupations. ^Maryon K. Welch, "The Ranking of Occupations on the Basis of Social Status," Occupations, XXVII (January, 1949), 237-41. ^Richard Centers, "The American Class Structure: A Psychological Analysis," Readings in Social Psychology, ed. Theodore M. Newcomb and Eugene L. Hartley (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1947), pp. 481-93. 38 amount and kind of education, certain abilities and personality traits (especially dominance), and income.^ One suspects interrelations among these factors. He also discerned tendencies to "move up," occupationally, and for asplrabion to rise with present occupational level. Nelson, from a study of 3,211 college students, found occupational preference related to father's occupation, particularly in banking, commerce, dentistry, and the ministry.^ Prom a study among 1,136 high school students, I Samson, and Steffire concluded that there was both a I i significant correlation between the occupational ; objectives of students and the occupation or occupational ‘ class of the father, and also a tendency to aspire to I "higher" levels.^ That personal values and attitudes are also related to occupational aspirations is shown by several 1 Harold A. Wren, Vocational Aspiration Levels of Adults (Contributions to Education, No. 855; New Ÿork: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1942). He found the following factors not related to vocational aspira tion; age, marital status, dependents, employment stability, occupations of siblings, abilities not related to occupational level, and length of supplementary education. ^Erland Nelson, "Father's Occupation and Student Vocational Choices," School and Society, October 28, 1931. pp. 572-76. ^Ruth Samson and Buford Steffire, "Like Father . . . Like Son?" Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXI (October, 1952), 35-39. 39 studies. Lentz and Nickel reported that, "Opinionaire items of both a social and personal nature show distinct relationships with vocational preference,and Nelson found that vocational choices related to responses on 2 religious and conservative-radical attitude scales. More general conclusions to the effect that parents' "influence" is dominant in determining student vocational objectives were arrived at in England by Jahoda, after use of sentence completion and job attitude tests among secondary school students,^ and by Peters, based on self-analysis by high school students attending a guidance conference in the United States.^ ^Theo. F. Lentz and E. F. Nickel, "Opinionaire Correlates of Vocational Preference Factors, II," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXV (October, 1941), 514-23. ^Erland Nelson and Narda Nelson, "Student Attitudes and Vocational Choices," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XXXV (April, 194o), &79-b&. Nelson had j already found father's occupation related to son's I occupational preference ("Father's Occupation and Student I Vocational Choices," loc. cit. ), and to student value I attitudes (Erland Nelson, "Father's Vocation and Student I Attitudes," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, I XXXIV [April, 19391 , 275-7^, and this study confirmed i the hypothesis that there should therefore be an i association between social attitudes and vocational I attitudes. I I 3custav Jahoda, "job Attitudes and Job Choice ; among Secondary Modern School Leavers," Occupational ' Psychology, XXVI (October, 1952), 206-24. j ^Edwin F. Peters, "Factors which Contribute to Youth's Vocational Choice," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXV (August, 1941), 428-30. 40 Based on self-analysis by students at Washington State College, Slocum concluded that Job experience is the most important factor affecting occupational intent.^ However, the population was highly restricted with respect to occupational background, since almost half had lived on farms. The fact that the majority of men who planned to farm had already lived on a farm suggests that father's occupation is an earlier determinant, which affects experience. Statements of social attitudes toward selling The literature includes assertions regarding the socio-economic benefits of selling by persons engaged in both the practice and teaching of marketing. One of the most extensive declarations by an academician is that of ! Maynard before an insurance group, the text of which was later published.^ Others are by Martin,3 Robbins,^ ^Walter L. Slocum, Occupational Planning by Undergraduates at the State College of' Wasblngton (Bull. 547; Buliman; Washington Agricultural Experiment ' Stations, 1954). ^Harold H. Maynard, "The Place of Personal Salesmanship of Services in Our Economy," Journal of the American Society of Chartered Life Underwriters, VI (September, 195%), 300-3T5:--------------------- 3l. R. Martin, "Answers for People Who Dispute the ' Economic Benefits of Selling," Sales Management, October 1, I 1953, pp. 7 0-7 3. ^George W, Robbins, "Is Selling Good for Society?" Vital Speeches, March 15, 1955, PP. 1117-19. ' : 41 Nielander,1 and Kelley Lay statements of the affirmative case for selling include those by Lipscomb,3 Bill,^ Aspley,^ vanderZee,^ Ward,? and Hillebrandt.^ Published indictments of selling, aside from complaints of individual abuses, usually treat both advertising and personal selling, and concentrate attention on the former. One critic, who singles out selling and salesmanship for some of his accusations, is ^William A. Nielander, "Selling and Sales Management," Marketing Handbook, ed, Paul H. Nystrom (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1948), pp. 723-25, 762. 2Pearce C. Kelley, Consumer Economics (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, 1953), p. 217 e t passim. 3Charles T. Lipscomb, "I Want My Boy To Be a Salesman," Look, February 24, 1954, pp. 98-100. 4Raymond Bill, "Foreword," Opportunities in Selling (U. S., Department of Commerce, Industrial Series No. 6 5, Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 19 47), pp. iv-viii. Raymond Bill, "The Fifth Freedom: The Right to Sell— and Be Sold," Sales Management, July 1, 1949, pp. 70-74. 5John Cameron Aspley (ed.). The Sales Manager's Handbook (6th ed.; Chicago : The Dartnell Corporation, 1950), pp. 397-99, 628-30. ^A. vanderZee, "If I Were 21," American Magazine, November, 1953, p. 20 et passim. 7Percy W. Ward, Make Selling Your Career (New York: Longmans, Green & Company, 194b), p. 5 et passim. 8susan Hillebrandt, "The Importance of Selling to Our Economy," Sales Management, July 1, 1955, p. 48. 42 1 Jastrow. Academic analyses which tend to be disenchanting o; 6 include those by Gordon,^ James,^ Galbraith,^ Stigler,^ and Jeuck. Vocational guidance writers who offer statements regarding the social contribution of various sales occupations include Myers, Little and Robinson,? and Prosser and Sifferd.^ ^Joseph Jastrow, The Betrayal of Intelligence (New York: Greenberg, Pub1isher, Inc., 1938), p. 59 et passim. 2Leland J, Gordon, Economics for Consumers (New York: American Book Company, 1953pp. 178, 194-95, 356. ^Clifford L. James, Principles of Economics (New ; York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1952), pp. 82-83, IO6 i et passim. ^John Kenneth Galbraith, American Capitalism; The Concept of Countervailing Power(Boston; Houghton Mifflin Company, I9 5 2),pp. 105-108 et passim. , 5George J. Stigler, The Theory of Price (rev. ed.; ; New York: The Macmillan Company, 1952), pp. 207-209. Gjohn E. Jeuck, "Is Selling the Key to Sustained , Prosperity?" Commercial and Financial Chronicle, I February 1, 1954, p. 676 et passim. j ? George E. Myers, Gladys M. Little, and Sarah A. ; Robinson, Planning Your Future (4th ed.; New York: McGraw- , Hill Book Company,Inc., 1953), P. 212. ^Charles A. Prosser and Calvin S. Sifferd, Selecting an Occupation (Bloomington, 111.: MeKnight and MeKnight Publishing Company, 1953), pp. 48-49. CHAPTER III INTERVIEWS AND HYPOTHESES This chapter describes original research done for the purpose of obtaining indications of existing attitudes toward selling, differences in these attitudes, and correlates of such differences, by means of clinical interviews with members of the groups to be surveyed. The selection of the respondents, and the methods employed in the interviews, are described. Selected results from the structured methods are exhibited. Summaries of possible attitude scales and correlates are presented, together with hypotheses for the questionnaire survey, and brief statements of certain pertinent functional hypotheses. Selection of Respondents for Clinical Interviews Sales executives Interviewees among sales executives were selected by a systematic random process. Serial numbers were assigned to the names listed in the 1954-1955 Membership 4 4 Roster of the Sales Executives Club of Los Angeles.^ Sampling numbers were constructed by taking three digits at a time, reading from left to right in the first thousand Kendall and Smith Sampling Numbers.^ The sampling numbers were applied, one at a time, to the serial numbers. Sampling numbers beyond the range of serial numbers were passed. Individuals thus selected were telephoned. All members had previously been in formed of the project by letter from club headquarters. When reached, the selected members were told again of the purpose, and qualified for active, direct supervision of salesmen according to the following definition: An individual responsible for the management of selling.activity, who exercises the principal hire- and-fire authority over a force of five or more outside selling employees; or, who occupies a func tionally similar position, such as with respect to five or more outside salesmen who have the legal status of independent contractors. A few were away on extended trips, one had moved out of town, a number did not qualify, and one did not cooperate. The process was continued until fifteen interviews were arranged, for an uninterrupted period of at least an hour and a quarter. Agreement was obtained l(Los Angeles: The Club, 1954. Privately circulated.) ^Robert Berber, Statistical Techniques in Market Research (New York; McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949), p. 225. 45 for tape recording the interviews which, in every case butl I one, took place in the executive's office. The method selected a wide variety of sizes, kinds; I and locations of businesses. Numbers of employees ranged j from 16 to 42,000. Industrial and wholesale selling was included, and a variety of products and services such as insurance, advertising, food and petroleum products, building materials, accounting supplies, chemicals, and scientific instruments. One individual was interviewed outside of Los Angeles County. Seniors Fifteen university senior men were selected by a haphazard random process. Male students sitting in the student lounge, grill, or cafeterias at the University of Southern California were canvassed, and qualified as to senior standing. To those eligible, a brief explana tion was given, and an invitation extended to participate. Since at least an hour was required, class schedules frequently precluded acceptance. Otherwise, good cooperation was obtained. A variety of course majors was thus obtained, including marketing, business administration, physics, history, political science, telecommunications, mechanical engineering, zoology, Spanish, public administration, and others. ________ Mhile__it . is__not_ Hkeiy_that _thls. sample is 46 statistically representative of the universe, it is believed that the purpose of this step— the obtaining of a list of hypotheses concerning important attitudes of university seniors toward outside selling— was adequately served. Interview Routine and Rationale With sales managers, the justification and purpose of the interview had been briefly explained during the telephone call by which it was arranged. Upon arrival, while setting up the recorder, the purposes were reviewed. It was repeated that the objective was ultimately to improve understanding between college seniors and sales managers, and that the immediate purposes were to get a background of understanding of sales managers* viewpoints, and to get ideas for questions for a written question naire. The university supervision was mentioned, and the executive was assured of anonymity, and urged to speak his own personal opinions freely and frankly. It was pointed out to the respondent that, if he answered as he thought a sales manager ought to answer, the purposes would not be achieved. It was then explained that the larger part of the time would be devoted to discussion of whatever aspects of the subject he felt to be most important, but, first, it 47 was desirable to obtain some of his reactions in a special form. The respondent was asked, "Have you ever done any word association?" Word association^ In word association, selected stimulus words are spoken and the respondent is asked to reply with the first word that comes to his mind. The rationale assumes that such responses are not governed by chance, and words representing ideas which are most closely associated with the idea conveyed by the stimulus, are more likely to I suggest themselves. Since the responses do not ostensibly represent complete thoughts or attitudes for which the respondent is responsible, the technique is claimed to at least partly evade certain ego defenses or social j expectations and reveal unconscious associations. I Instructions were given, and the respondent was I assured that, "You are not being tested, and your ' individual answers are not of interest. The important j thing is similarities in answers among groups of people. So don't take time to think— just reply immediately with the first word that comes to mind— it doesn't have to make any sense or even be decent. You won't be asked to The devices employed during the Interviews are discussed in the standard texts cited supra, pp. 4-5, G. Smith; Remmers; Festinger and Katz; Jahoda, Deutsch, and Cook; Abt and Beliak; Anderson and Anderson. 48 explain it. All right?" With assent, the first stimulus word, "bread," was spoken. The list of stimulus words was modified somewhat during early interviews. For instance, the word "sell" was originally included, but several seniors responded to its homonym, "cell," with the word "jail." One associated "pitch," however. The list employed during most of the interviews was as follows: Bread Fear People Salesman Advertising Education Republican Security Work Salesmanship Teacher Freedom Business Money House Help Selling Sales Manager Automobile Clothes Success Government Friend Responses delayed more than about three seconds were noted. Upon conclusion of the word list, the respondent was told, "That’s very good. Now, the next part is .Similar.#" ___________ ___________ 49 Sentence completion In sentence completion, carefully selected words constituting the first part of a short sentence are spoken, and the subject is asked to complete the sentence with the first words which come to his mind. The stem of the sentence permits directing attention into desired areas and, while the sentence remains uncompleted, the respondent is under time pressure, and burdened with the effort of formulating a more or less logical and i grammatical ending. ! I Under such stress, it is presumed that the respondent will be driven to make the easiest or readiest , response, which represents the closest or most significant i I association with the stimulus subject. Delays in response ! are usually taken to indicate conflict, such as between I I the readiest response and social taboos, although other : interpretations, such as unfamiliarity with the subject i matter, are not excluded. The stems employed for the sentence completion , were also revised somewhat during the earlier interviews. Those employed during most of the interviews were; Most salesmen . . . The biggest trouble with salesmen . . . Most people think that salesmen . . . The kind of people who become salesmen . . . 50 The most successful salesmen . . . The best thing about a selling job . . . Salesmen earn . . . The worst thing about a selling job . . . The most good that salesmen do . . . Salesmen become dissatisfied • • • As far as I’m concerned, selling • . . Most sales managers . . A salesman’s conscience * • . The last was suggested by some of the early interviews. Cartoon projection Pictures are also employed to create a situation in the area of inquiry, but leave it relatively i 1 I unstructured and ambiguous. The respondent’s inter- ! prêtâtions indicate his frame of reference with respect to I the situation, and his standards of evaluation. And the : reactions must depend upon his beliefs and associations, I p based on his experiences. However, the respondent does I ^This technique is a modification of Rosenweig’s Picture Frustration Test or Murray’s Thematic Apperception Test, which are discussed in the standard sources cited supra. 2 I A review of empirical evidence relating to the ; TAT, while incomplete and not fully consistent, tends to ! be favorable and encouraging. Gardner Lindzey, "Thematic Apperception Test; Interpretive Assumptions and Related Empirical Evidence," Psychological Bulletin, XLIX (January, 1952), 1-25. 51 not realize that he is "projecting” himSelf in this fashion*^ Following the sentence completion, cards with the cartoons^ were picked up with the explanation, "Here are some pictures, purposely not drawn very clearly." The j first card was handed to the respondent with the request, I "I would like for you to read aloud what this first i ! person says, and then tell what this second person might j I say. In other words, fill the blank balloon.” In the I I first few interviews with sales executives, attempts were I made to obtain more extensive thematic protocols. That is, the respondent was asked to imagine a story about the situation— who the characters are, how the situation came about, what is taking place, what the characters are t ' thinking and feeling, and what the outcome will be. I ! This was an unfamiliar and not patently productive ; activity, to sales managers. And, while a considerable amount of time had been scheduled for the interview, it was not entirely free of time pressure. The nature of the I situations pictured in the cartoons is rather transient 1 ! and casual. Possibly for these reasons, questions with j l"One of its chief virtues is that the subject : reveals some of his innermost fantasies without being : aware that he is doing so." Henry A. Murray, ' Explorations in Personality (New York; Oxford University I Press, 193W),p. 5 4 5. j ^Reproduced in smaller scale as Appendix A, and also briefly described infra. 52 immediate pertinence--concerning the roles or positions of the characters, and overt and covert thoughts— were relatively more productive. Follow-up questions in later interviews were limited accordingly. Depending upon the particular preceding responses, Ihey included such stimuli as, "Who is this person?" or "What is this person doing here?" "Why does he (she) say this?" or "What is he I (she) really thinking?" and "What else is he (she) I thinking?" i I Time-line interview I Interviewing "along the time line,or the I p j "camera-action" interview, as it is sometimes called, I ! asks the respondent to recall a specific instance in which the subject of inquiry is centrally involved. I He is then asked to describe in great detail what took I Ipaul F. Lazarsfeld, "Psychological Aspect of : Questionnaire Development," The Technique of Marketing Research, Prepared by the Committee on Marketing Research Technique of the American Marketing Association (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1937), P* 64. Lazarsfeld has more recently reiterated the value of the time-line interview technique for research into reasons for decisions, and recommends that one use "tentative interpretations [from its application] in planning the inquiry and let the collection and analysis of data aim at checking upon and modifying preliminary views." Paul P. Lazarsfeld and Morris Rosenberg (eds.). The Language of Social Research; A Reader in the Methodology of Social Research (Glencoe, 111The Free Press, 1955), 399. ^William A. Yoell, "A Technique of Depth Inter viewing," Printers’ Ink, January 31, 1947, p. 33* 53 place. Several purposes are served. First, it is an aid to the respondent’s memory. Second, it helps avoid generalizations and rationalizations, by confinement to a real case. Next, it serves as a cognitive device, in that the aspects which the respondent chooses to describe, and the frames of reference and evaluation, either stated or implied, are diagnostic. Again, it affords the inter viewer a sort of vicarious observation, in which he can I compare the described overt behavior with the respondent’s I analysis. Interpretations of affect and policy orienta- I tion may also be made. I After all the cartoons had been presented, sales I executives were asked to recall the last sales applicant I interviewed, who had not, or who had not yet, been hired. ! The executive was then asked to tell a detailed I story, beginning with when and how the applicant came to I his attention, of exactly what he and the applicant did and said during all dealings between them. ; Following the executive's beginning statement, he I was pressed for minutiae to establish the degree of detail I desired. For instance, if he said that the applicant had I , first been mentioned to him by a business associate, he was asked, "Do you recall just what he said about him?" : Or, if he said his secretary brought the applicant in, I the executive was asked, "Would you describe him?" or 54 "What did you first notice about him?" One such answer was, "He was dressed pretty much like Joe College." The specifying question was asked as what was meant by that, to which the answer was, "Well, he had on a coat that didn’t match his pants, and a bow tie, and a crew haircut." Depth interview The term "depth interviewing" is applied to a 1 wide variety of techniques, from simple follow-up questions for checking or specifying the meanings of answers to fixed questions, to various kinds of intro spective, associative, cognitive, projective, and analytic methods. Self-analysis was largely avoided in the interviewing for this study.^ good treatment of depth interview techniques is offered by George H. Smith, op. cit., pp. 29-57 et passim. For another discussion of the various applications”"b'f "the' , term "depth interviewing," vide Julian L. Woodward (chair man) "Depth Interviewing," Journal of Marketing, XIV (April, 1950), 721-24. ^Self-analytic procedures include asking the respondent what his attitudes are, and how he acquired them. Manifest responses to such stimuli are often misleading. The individual may be unaware that his view point constitutes one of many possible attitudes toward a subject. It may have been acquired unconsciously, from the social milieu, or uncritically by suggestion, or from ' unanalyzed experience. The real attitude may be repressed,; if consciousness of it would make the individual uncom fortable. The respondent may be unable to verbalize an orientation, or reluctant to express it, if it violates a social taboo. Conscious statements are also subject to various positive influences, such as prestige-striving, rationality-striving, and self-interest. Rationality- atriying_may_.produce .particularly deceptive expressions by_ 55 From the preceding, time-line, phase of the interview, the discussion was allowed to widen, and the depth interview stage was then conducted as permissively 1 as possible. Respondents were given maximum latitude in selecting the aspects for development. Under such condi- * tions, responses tend to be indicative of the interviewee’s cognition of the subject-,-what aspects represent threats supplying answers where the real ones are not known. Conscious Introspection is also subject to the limitations which affect all verbal communication— semantic, motivational, and situational. Another form of depth-interviewing by intro spection which follows psychoanalytic principles, is seeking to obtain expressions regarding the emotional affect— the feelings and sensations— associated with, or produced by, the subject matter. For a discussion, vide Ernest Dichter, "A Psychological View of Advertising I Effectiveness," Journal of Marketing, XIV,(July, 1949), ' 61-66. David Bakan concluded that self-analysis may be properly employed to yield hypotheses for independent testing. "A Reconsideration of the Problem of Intro spection, ", Psychological Bulletin, LI (March, 1954), 105-18. ^Two other useful outlines of depth interview procedure are ; Isidor Chein, "Notes on a Framework for the Measurement of Discrimination,and Prejudice," Jahoda, Deutsch and Cook, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 38I-9O; and L. M. Paradise and A . g'y ' Bl anke nship, "Depth Questioning,"' Journal of Marketing, XV (Janaury, 1951), 274-88. A treatment of depth interviewing procedure, and detailed examples of application in attitude research are provided in Henry A. Murray and Christiana D, Morgan, "A Clinical Study of Sentiments," Genetic Psychology Monographs, XXXII (August-November, 1945), l-3il• Illustrations of interview routine and analysis are also offered in Felix Deutsch, Applied Psychoanalysis (New York; Grune & Stratton, Inc., I9 4 9). 56 or promises, or have other meaning to him; through what frames of reference he sees the subject; what standards of evaluation he applies, etc. Discussion was then encouraged to proceed associatively, by the use of neutral prods, and relationships and linkages were noted. Where introduction of different subject matter was necessary, it was done as non-directively as possible, with such prefaces as, "What about . . . or, "Some people say that. . . . What do you think?" Indications of strengths of attitudes or emotional linkages were sought by informal content analysis, and observation of overt behavior. Content analysis— compari sons of amount of time or attention given various aspects of the subject— gives a suggestion as to their importance to the Individual. Motor behavior clues include fidgeting, behavior toward symbols, pantomime, expressions, and pitch, volume and inflections of voice. Responses of the subject may be analyzed for hesitancy, avoidance, and humor, and for the operation of such mechanisms as identification, projection, and reaction formation or overreaction, to suggest emotional linkage and re pression.^ Policy-orientation questions— "What ought to be done about . . .?"— were useful for stimulating such responses. ICalvin Hall, Freudian Psychology (Cleveland; The World Publishing Co., 1954), 86-9 8. 57 ISëniors* reactions to" printed statements The procedure with seniors differed in only a few respects. The introduction was similar, and the word association, sentence completion, and cartoon projection phases were identical. Instead of the time-line account, however, seniors were presented with a copy of a publica tion by National Sales Executives, entitled Your Career in Selling, and their attention directed to certain j passages dealing with the characteristics, social use- I I fulness, and status of selling.^ I ; They were requested to read them aloud and to I express their reaction to them. Further discussion was I allowed to lead into the depth interview phase, similar j to that with the sales executives. I Other interviews ^ Six interviews were also obtained with placement I personnel in university, two-year college, governmental and commercial employment agencies, regarding attitudes ; of college graduates and sales managers toward selling, and outside selling jobs. These ranged from twenty to ninety minutes in length, and written notes were taken. Discussions of the subject were also had with a number of other persons during the course of the project. Ijohn M. Wilson (chairman). Your Career in Selling (New York: National Sales Executives, Inc., [n.d. ] ), pp. 1-2. 58 More than sixty qualify as interviews on the basis of having been recorded in one form or another. In connection with some preliminary ranking experiments,^ discussion of selling occurred with each of twenty-eight seniors and four other young persons who participated. During lulls at two social gatherings, I involving a total of about fifteen persons, the inter- ! I viewer was able to lead the conversation to the subject I of selling, and one of the ensuing discussions was tape I recorded. Written notes were taken on the other. In : addition, discussions on which notes were taken, were j had with perhaps fifteen additional persons, encountered I I haphazardly, such as table neighbors at a Sales I Executives Club meeting, and other graduate students. Recording and review I Since the senior and sales executive interviews were tape-recorded in their entirety, written notes were : taken only to record physical behavior, to remark certain ; especially interesting statements, and to register the ' interviewer’s interpretations and inferences. I i After an interview, the record was played back, ! privately. The word associations were transcribed ! verbatim, except in a few cases where reproduction was ; unclear, or the response was a phrase. The sentence ^Vide infra, p. 9 0. 59 completion was also transcribed verbatim except for a few connecting words. The protocols from the cartoons were also set down word for word, save only for a few repetitions, conjunctions, false sentence starts, etc. The unstructured part of the interview was played back and attitude implications sought. Some of the more significant statements were set down in their entirety, others were summarized, and for some, the inference alone was written out. I For later interviews, the part dealing with the i questionnaire items^ was then reviewed. I Parts of some interviews were played back six or j j more times. All notes on other interviews were reviewed. I Selected Results of Clinical Interviews i The qualitative stage of this study is the t equivalent of a not unsubstantial project in itself. However, in relation to the five separate but simultaneous surveys which followed it, the interviews and library I research are principally sources of hypotheses to be ; tested by the surveys. Therefore, the qualitative find- ! : ings do not appear to justify the complete reporting I which would be accorded the principal results of a i : project. Some representative or significant results are ^Vide infra, p. 96j . 60 presented, by way of Illustration. Word association The frequencies of word association responses for stimulus words "selling," "salesman," "salesmanship," and the term "sales manager" are shown in Tables 4, 5, 6, and T, respectively. Among the responses to the stimulus words selling, salesman, and salesmanship, the relatively frequent association of the word "advertising" is notable. It may also be observed from the tables, that certain ' associations occurred exclusively to seniors. These i I included job, money, talk, hate, crook, honest. This | I I I suggests that ethical considerations are significantly j I related, that there is some violent dislike, that selling ! : is seen as "just a job," which has the advantage of making , money, and which principally involves talking. I Conversely, certain other associations occurred exclusively to sales managers. They included profession, I career, education, profit, need, young, prima donna, psychology, extrovert, work, worker, working, calls, and I security. This would seem to imply a higher status j evaluation of selling, consciousness of demanding work, ' emotional and psychological problems, and security matters, and perception of profits as the purpose. I A comparison of the number of different associa- tlpn^wlth. the terms _8ale8man,___8ales .manager, . and_ teacher, 61 TABLE 4 OP ASSOCIATIONS WITH STIMULUS WOKD "SELLING” Response Word By Seniors By Sales Executives Buying 3 1* Advertising 1 1 Sales 1 1 Merchandise 1 Product 1 Money 1 Non-selling 1 Job 2* Marketing 1 Disposition 1 Profit 1 Career 1 Customer 1 People 1 Psychology 1 Giving 1 Security 1 Tangibles 1 Unselling 1 Advantages 1* ♦Delayed more than about three seconds. 62 TABIE 5 FREQUENCIES OF ASSOCIATIONS WITH STIMULUS WORD "SALESMAN" Response Word By Seniors By Sales Executives Selling 1 1 Advertising 1 Seller 1 Salesperson 1 Person 1 Buyer 1 Consumer 1 Hate 1 Crook 1 Honest 1 Friend 1* Prospect 1* Worker 1 Men 1 Working 1 Contact 1 Extrovert 1 Young 1 Prima donna 1 Product 1 Sales 1* Employee 1* Representative 1* Education 1* No association (stated) 1 1 *Delayed more than about three seconds 63 TABLE 6 FREqUBNCIES OP ASSOCIATIONS WITH STIMULUS WORD "SALESMANSHIP" Response Word By Seniors By Sales Executives No association (stated) 2 3 Ability 3 (1*) Advertising 2 Talk 2 Buying 1 Tactfulness 1 Skill 1 Sales 1 1 Selling 3 (1*) Work 2 Profit 1 Intelligence 1 Need 1* Profession 1* Calls 1* ♦Delayed more than about three seconds. 64 TABLE 7 FREQUENCIES OF ASSOCIATIONS WITH STIMULUS PHRASE "SALES MANAGER" Response Word By Seniors By Sales Executives Advertising 2 Selling 1* Man 1 Employee 1 Individual 1 Manager 1 Charge 1 X Politician 1 Intelligence 1 Salesman 1 2 Boss 1 1 Leader 1 Assistant 1 Assister 1 Ability 1 Instruction 1 Direction 1 Transmitter 1 Work 1 Goat 1 Brute 1 Sales 1 ^Delayed more than about three seconds 65 for seniors and sales executives combined, is shown in j Table 8. The wider dispersion of responses to "salesman" ! and "sales manager" suggests that there is less uniformity] of attitudes toward salesmen than toward teachers. The I larger number of delays to the word salesman may indicate ' the existence of inconsistent attitudes. Sentence completion The completions, by seniors and sales executives, for certain sentence beginnings, are shown in Tables 9 through 1 3. Completions to the stem, "Most people think that salesmen ..." may be especially significant. In addition to the resistance-evading pressure of sentence completion, this phrasing reduces the need for defense, by I attributing the attitude to others. Unless the respondent I has made a study of such attitudes, he can only offer his I ; own, however. The repetition, in the sentence completions, of a ' number of themes suggested by the word association to be I significant, may be noted; the lower evaluation by seniors, ! doubts about ethics and social usefulness, resentment I I against aggressive behavior, recognition of personality ! considerations, and relationship of verbal fluency. I Executives’ negative associations related primarily to performance by salesmen. In addition, executives i 66 TABIÆ 8 DISPERSION OF ASSOCIATIONS BY SENIORS AND SALES MANAGERS TO "SALESMAN," "SALES MANAGER," AND "TEACHER" Stimulus Term Responses Different Associations Delayed Responses^ No Association Salesman 26 24 6 2 Sales Manager 26 22 1 Teacher 28 12 ®-More than about three seconds. 67 TABLE 9 COMPLETIONS OP SENTENCE, "MOST PEOPLE THINK THAT SALESMEN . . By Seniors : By Sales Executives are out to make a fast buck# are hucksters• are trying to cheat them, are out to hoodwink them, are trying to put something over on them, are trying to sell them something against their will, live off the land, are extroverts. have a glib tongue, talk too much, try to sell too hard, need sales. don’t work hard enough. are good-time Charlies. are playboys. are playboys. are playboys. have a soft job, have a lush job. are unnecessary. are unnecessary. are guilty of duplicity, are trying to sell them something. are trying to sell too much. are high pressure boys. are peddlers. Puller Brush men. are little less than prima donnas. 68 TABLE 10 COMPLETIONS TO SENTENCE, "THE MOST GOOD THAT SALESMEN DO , . By Seniors bring new things to the public, bring to the public. inform people how to handle a new product. give people a product they want. inform people about different products, introduce products. sell things. sell, I guess. sell the product for the manufacturer, promote public relations. is far outweighed by the bad they do. fcan’t think of a thing) (nothing) (no answer) By Sales Executives ; is promoting their product. obtain profitable business for the company. is to move goods. building up goodwill for their company, rendering service to their customers. service to customer, help people they are selling to. helping people. move products, move new products, encourage desires and wants. bring new ideas to the public rapidly, create better methods of production, better the American Way. greater comforts for everyone, sell security for the country. 69 TABLE 11 COMPLETIONS OF SENTENCE, "THE BIGGEST TROUBLE WITH SALESMEN . . By Seniors : By Sales Executives too aggressive* lack of incentive, some get overanxious to sell. attitude. way they antagonize you, their appeals are aimed too low don't work hard enough. don't work hard enough. their personalities. they high-pressure you. aggressiveness. too persistent, work too hard. have a glib tongue. lack of knowledge. lack of initiative. lack of making calls. difficulty in planning their work, organization. overlook future outlook. lack of motivation. have not sold during rough times. don't plan. lack of initiative. lack of research. planning their day's work. not making enough calls. inability to organize their work. 7 0 TABLE 12 COMPLETIONS TO SENTENCE, "A SALESMAN'S I I • * . By Seniors ; is his guide. should be his guide. should be a good one. should be strong. sometimes has been thwarted. sometimes is lacking. is sometimes debatable. may not necessarily be his guide. after a while, doesn't bother him much. has nothing to do with what he sells. doesn't bother him a bit. is nil. By Sales Executives ; is a very powerful thing— it does work, is his guide to business. (delayed) should be clear. (delayed) is, generally speaking, clear, is a measure of his character, should bother him if he don't [sic] work, must be lived with, and should necessarily be his guide, is his worst enemy. (unable to make any response) 71 TABm 13 COMPLETIONS TO SENTENCE, "AS PAR AS I'M CONCERNED, SELLING,. . ." By Seniors : By Sales Executives would be a good occupation. would be a good career. is an admirable job. would be a profitable career. is very lucrative. is interesting. is a good job if you like it. is for other people, is somebody else's job. is not for me. is not for me. is not ray field. is something I'd rather leave alone is the best business in the world, is the greatest opportunity in the world for success, is the best field, is a wonderful career, is a glamorous occupation, is an excellent profession, offers tremendous possibilities, is a wonderful profession with marvelous opportunity to express one's self, fascinating, and in my blood, is one of the country's most important occupations. offers an attractive profession to those qualified. is a career. is the answer to the American Way of doing business. is necessary in a free economy. 72 indicated sensitivity on ethical matters, and apparent reaction formation, on personal attitude statements. These findings proceed from the complete responsesj to the word association and sentence completion stimuli ; reported supra. Results of the application of the other | stimuli were similar, and also afforded certain additional! indications. Cartoon projection Further verification of the indications from word association and sentence completion, and some additional ; I hypotheses, were obtained from the cartoon projection. | 1 I Each of the cartoons is briefly described here, followed i by a few examples of the protocols from seniors and sales i managers. The role or position of the second character in the cartoon, as perceived by the respondent, is reported first, Direct quotations attributed to that character are in quotations. Other comments by the respondent are given, but sharply edited for brevity. Most promptings by the investigator are omitted, but where required for continuity, are in parentheses. Certain significant words or passages are underscored. Panel I. Man, seated back of desk, says, "Some people are the salesman type and some aren't, and it's ^Reproductions, in smaller scale, of the cartoons are displayed in Appendix A. 73 better to find out about it as quickly as possible." Younger man, seated across desk, says . . . (Senior) Applicant. "I think I am the salesman type." (Is he sincere?) People who are interested in salesmanship have the sort of personalities— I don’t know that it's sincerity— to me, sincerity and salesmanship don't coincide too much— but they must feel’ themselves adequate 'to"selT."'' (Senior) Applicant. "I agree." Has to agree. He wants something, so he has to go along. (Senior) Salesman. "In other words, you think I am not the salesman type?" Employer is dissatisfied with his sales record. (Sales executive) Applicant. "I want a job of any kind." All he wants to do,is get on a payroll. He's been unemployed, and he doesn't care whether there are any unusual problems about selling or not. (Sales executive) Applicant. "My friends all say I'm the life of the party." Needs to impress sales manager with his personality. Panel II. Woman looking at newspaper, says, "Honey, some of these ads for salesmen look pretty good— why don't you look around a little bit?" Man, watching television, says . . . (Senior) Husband. "I don't think I will because I don't trust the ads." Probably already been fooled. (Senior) Husband. "Well, dear, I don't think I will, because there isn't enough security in the job as a salesman. If there comes a depression, people won't have the money to buy the products." Saying what he thinks, because talking to a member of his immediate family. (Sales executive) Husband. "I don't want to belittle myself by contacting people." 74 (Sales executive) Husband. "They do look good. I wonder how much money I could make out of selling." Panel III. Two men seated in waiting room outside purchasing agent's office. One says, "My neighbor is a car salesman and he makes a lot more dough than I do, but I don't envy him." Second man says . . . (Senior) Another salesman. "Our line of selling has more dignity." His satisfaction is more in the way of psychic income. Little higher type of product tHan‘ '''automobï'1'es,"'"""perhaps" wholesale, or represents chemical manufacturing company of some sort. Car salesmen do have a kind of shabby reputation, as compared with other kinds of sales people. ' (Senior) Another salesman. "I don't envy him .. I either, because I don't think that car salesmen— ' well, their conscience probably bothers them." | (Sales executive) Another salesman. "Neither j would I. To me, it's a low profession. I'd hate i to have to make my money preying on people. After all, they're not salesmen^ anyhow. They're a bunch of order takers." Lower type of person— uneducated. (Sales executive) Another salesman. "There may be specific reasons why you don't envy him." Is implication that he is getting his money under shady circumstances, or what? Does he have personal problems^ Is he working night and day and his wife is unhappy, or what? Panel IV. Two women in kitchen. Younger says, "Mom, Jack's got a job selling— and his boss says he ought to be making at least $500 a month inside of a year." I Second, older woman says . . . (Senior) Mother. "That's fine. I hope he keeps at it and works hard." Daughter priming mamma on the boy friend. Mother is suspicious of the selling ' ________job, _and, j us t. as_spon__he r daught e r hooked up wlth_ 75 something else. Suspicious of security, prestige, and contInuing to make that mucH'T" (Senior) Mother. "Don't bank on this future figure. Bosses are always telling salesmen that they will be making much more inside of a year, to keep morale high, and keep sales high." Mother being more practical and down-to-earth than the daugliter. (Sales executive) Mother. "Why does he want to be a salesman? I'd be happier.if my daughter were married to a professional man of some sort. Someone associated with a more stable type of employment." (Sales executive) Mother. "Well, will you and he be happy— because of the neglect he will probably show you because he has to "put" in a great many hours on his job? Probably take many hours from your own home life." Any mother having a daughter who is being associated with a salesman has a certain amount of misgivings. Let's face it. The wife of a salesman has to put up with many things which a white collar worker doesn't have to be confronted with. She would be thinking just a whale of a lot more than she says. I know my mother would. And my mother-in-law would. Panel V. Man, standing behind desk, says, "We're just a small company, but you can make some real money on this job." Second man, standing in front of desk, says .... (Senior) Applicant. "I'm not so much interested in making real money as in an opportunity to gain a real position within a growing organization." Interest in this real money, yet a little sus-. picious of the way this guy is throwing it out at n'lm. (Senior) Applicant. "It's not the kind of job I'm’ looking for." This man has ideals— he's not so much interested in making reaTlnoney. I think maybe he's got some initiative and some ideas of his own. Maybe he 'd rather take a job at" less ; money, depending on what kind of work he had ' 76 (Sales executive) Applicant. "Well, I'm looking for opportunity and security in my job. I don't care whether or not it's a small company. Probably gives me greater opportunity." (Sales executive) Applicant. "Yes, Mr. X, I would like to know more about it," Wondering about the ethics— how a small company could pay him a lot of money. It's possible that it's perfectly legitimate, but I'd certainly want to look at that, first thing. Implications of these results repeat those for word association and sentence completion— the negative orientations by seniors, concern about honesty and sincerity, security, and social status. Executives again displayed concern about performance by salesmen. New ideas introduced by findings from this method relate to concern for hours and personal satisfaction, and to differences in evaluation by kind of selling or proposi tion sold. Findings not reported were essentially parallel. Most of these themes reappeared in the results of the les8-structured methods employed, along with some j additional ones. These less-structured approaches were I the focussed, depth interview, with both seniors and I sales executives; the reaction to printed statements, by j I seniors; and the time-line or caraera-action approach to I the last interview with an applicant, with sales I ! executives. Although these techniques occupied the i ! larger part of the interview time, it does not appear to 77 be practical to try to report samples of the proceedings. It would appear to be preferable to report the summaries which were made up from them. However, the next step is the organization of indications from all sources— library, and the various interview methods— into a general outline of attitudes toward selling, and it does not seem worth while to separately report a summary for only certain of the methods. Summarizations and Hypotheses The interview methods produced a number of major areas of attitude toward selling, and congeries of scales or dimensions within them, positions on the scales, degrees of structuring, and variations by background characteristics. And the library research had produced another collection of them. The task of sorting and organizing these elements was accomplished principally by the use of cards onto which bits or elements were entered. There are neither natural nor agreed classifications for such data, and various, arbitrary organizational schemes were tried. The one which appeared to be most useful is followed in I the partitioning of the subject area below. Although not fully consistent, either logically, or in degree of detail or development, the listings may be regarded as possible _sc,alea__Qr_dimensions^of attitudes toward selling, and 78 especially outside selling, on each of which a number of distinguishable positions or viewpoints exist. In other words, they represent potential subjects for items in an attitude questionnaire. They are worded in highly abbreviated form. General social attitudes toward selling Overall evaluation of socio-economic usefulness Comparative usefulness Comparative importance Effect of less selling, fewer salesmen Prerequisite to high level of material consumption Socio-economic contributions Most useful functions Increase vs. switch demand, consumption Create wants; good, bad Cause large-scale production Maintain employment, prosperity Accompany vs. cause tertiary industry growth Preserve freedoms, defend against dictatorship Precipitate decisions Morality Purpose, service to whom Salesmanship as human relations Everyone is a salesman, all persuasion is selling Salesmen shade truth, salesman "con" man Truth vs. obtaining sale Comparative integrity, sincerity Idealistic role, consistent with religious teachings Difference in conscience Effect of job on morals, personality General exaggeration, distrust Social standing, prestige Comparative standing Why no higher As profession 79 What distinguishes profession Can it be profession Comparative intelligence, ability, demand Education required Variation by company size Variations in social attitudes toward selling By kind of selling By size of company Attitudes toward selling as a career Personal orientation Would consider what kinds of sales jobs Would prefer what kinds of sales jobs Trends Future number of salesmen Requirements Knowledge of Education needed Abilities needed; origin of Personality requirements Ambition, motivation Extraversion Dominance-individualism vs, company or team man Sales manager afraid of too good a man Perception of sales jobs; advantages- disadvantages; wholesale as exampi" Advantages, reasons for taking Why take Why want Advantages, as lifetime career Comparative incomes Advancement, comparative opportunity Advancement, to president "Irrational" objections reduce supply, raise price 80 Complaints, disadvantages Emotional, nervous; from management pressure for more sales Emotional, nervous; in selling Hours Travel; away from home, nervous demand vs. variety, excitement Financial, overall Work where sent Drinking, entertaining Security, stability Overall estimate, comparative By kind of selling or product By commission vs. straight salary Commission advantages Commission disadvantages By size of company I Voluntary loss, or change I Involuntary loss i Vulnerability to changes in conditions ! Vulnerability from no measure of performance 1 Old age I From poor placement ‘ ' From lack of job description From inability to measure or teach ability to sell, Correlates Possible correlative variables suggested by j library research and interviews, were: Personal values, ethics Pecuniary interest Motivation-aspiration level Achievement vs. adjustment Materialistic orientation Economic security Hours of work Avoidance of strain, tension Ethics of persuasion Social responsibility Allport-Vernon-Lindzey scale values 81 Antecedent conditions— seniors Social class Father's occupation Sales or other work experience College major Knowledge of, contact with, different kinds of selling jobs Religion Occupations of relatives Antecedent conditions— sales executives Kind of selling— to whom, use or resale Kind of products Size of company Exact duties of job Age Education— kind i Education— amount Father's occupation , Parents' social class i Number of salesmen employed by company j Number of salesmen supervises i ! Hypotheses for the questionnaire survey ; At the outset of the project, the problem was stated in rather general terms. A review and consideratioi of the results to this point permitted the development of the following formal hypotheses for the questionnaire survey: 1* Attitudes exist among university non-commerce and marketing seniors and sales executives with respect to social evaluations of selling— usefulness, ethics, status. I 2. These valuations vary by kind of selling. 3. Differences in the distribution of these attitudes exist between these groups. i 82 4. Perceptions of certain kinds of sales jobs— I advantages and disadvantages— exist among these groups. i 5. Differences exist in the distribution of ^ ! these perceptions between these groups. j I * 6. Personal interest in a particular kind of | selling job is related to (a) social evaluation of sellingj I (b) other personal values, (c) perceptions of the job, (d) certain early environmental conditions, (e) certain I concurrent or recent environmental conditions. I ! 7 • Clinical methods produce indications regarding i differences in attitudes, such as those toward selling, I : which are confirmable by objective methods. ! Functional theories ; In the interest of conceptual soundness in the ' ! : development of the instrument, and in anticipation of the I discussion of the findings, it was deemed desirable to briefly note certain relevant functional hypotheses, from a number of disciplines. Economic theories emphasize pecuniary values. I Vocational choice should, accordingly, be governed by ' price— income and income probabilities, adjusted for I training and other pecuniary costs.^ A security I ^George J . Stigler, The Theory of Price (rev. ed.; I New York; The Macmillan Company, 1952}. Stigler opines , that prestige follows income (p. I9 8). Vide also Harold F. Clark, Economic Theory and Correct Occupational Distribution (New Ÿork; Bureau of Publications, Teachers 1 College, Columbia University, 1931), pp. 1-2. 83 hypothesis, of avoidance of risk and uncertainty, might be regarded as economic. Anthropo-sociological assertions emphasize prestige and social approval, or avoidance of disapproval of group members, as important personal values or goals.^ A hypothesis that liking depends upon familiarity, and that favor for selling varies with the accuracy of knowledge about such work, is asserted by some business men, and is acceptable academically. With respect to the origins of attitudes toward selling, or of value attitudes which govern them, a social-psychological, early-environment hypothesis holds , that conditions surrounding the child influence later j attitudes. Such conditions include social class, | paternal occupation, and religion. Sub-hypotheses deal with the extent to which such influence is exerted through various possible mechanisms. One is by directing ' the value and goal attitudes by which selling is later judged. Another is by affecting personality character istics which might affect the individual's reactions to selling. Another means by which early influence could operate is by determining the perceptions and interpre tations of selling and sales jobs. Still another might ^Vlde, e. g., Clarence Deuba, The Natural Man (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1954), p. 64. 84 be by engendering specific attitudes and emotional associations toward certain kinds of selling or salesmen. Certain family environments might encourage, or offer better opportunity for, experience with selling jobs, or afford a more favorable introduction to them. Another hypothesis regarding influences upon attitudes is that later environmental conditions, such as I education, associates, belief system surrounding one’s I occupation, and the like, modify attitudes. Various I sub-hypotheses may be erected regarding the mechanisms I j by which such influences operate. They may serve to modify goal and value attitudes, change perceptions of selling and sales jobs, afford differential opportunities for familiarity, or simply introduce additional and differing ; judgments of the acceptability and position of selling. Certain possible hypotheses regarding determina- ' tion of attitudes toward selling are excluded from consideration. Supernatural, constitutional difference, I and instinct theories will be disregarded. Genetic, Neo- Freudian, or infant-training,^ and personality or personality trait theories (as distinguished from attitude %o such systematic hypotheses for attitudes j toward selling were encountered. Fromm relates three ; other "unproductive orientations" to oral models, but does inot give a genetic prototype for the fourth, or "marketing orientation." Erich Fromm, Man for Himself (New York: Rinehart & Company, Inc., 1947J, pp. 67-7 6. 85 differencesWill not be considered. Ipor a treatment of distinctions, see Gordon ¥. Allport, Personality; A Psychological Interpretation (New York: Henry koit and uompany, 1937), P* 293. CHAPTER IV QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY This chapter describes the questionnaire survey for the measurement of certain of the attitudes toward selling, correlates, and antecedents. Reasons are given for the use of mailed questionnaires. The selection of topics or scales, the development of items, and the I pretesting and revision of the instruments are discussed. I The selection of samples, and the mechanics of the survey are described, followed by a description of tests of representativeness of the return, and conclusions there- j from. The editing, coding, and tabulating of the data, I and the testing of statistical significance are discussed. I I Method of Collecting Data i I The attempt to quantify attitudes introduces a I number of problems. One relates to the method of obtain- j ing information. The principal objective of this stage of j the study was to quantify certain attitudes, rather than j to obtain additional hypotheses. If necessary, then, I freedom in response would be sacrificed to obtain maximum uniformity of presentation. A mailed questionnaire avoids variation due to differences in interviewers, and has the 87 additional advantages of more confidential character, and of allowing the respondent to address himself to it at the most convenient time. This last advantage presumably results in better-considered answers, which is of special importance in this study, in view of the rather demanding. Judgmental nature of many of the questions. Finally, mailing questionnaires permits directing them to a widely distributed sample, economically. A low return would, however, expose the results to question regarding representativeness. Reliance was placed on several indications that a substantial and representative return would be received. In a somewhat similar study among seniors at the University of Washington, a response of 83 per cent was ' j achieved with almost no significant differences between I the 51 per cent responding to the original mailing, and i the additional 32 per cent subsequent to the follow-up mailing. , Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Raymond Franzen directed a I careful test, employing mail questionnaires and personal I follow-ups, among a cross section of 3,000 subscribers to j Time Magazine, "who possess a rather high degree of I , I homogeneity from the standpoint of education and income." ICarl Dickinson, "How College Seniors’ Preferences Compare with Employment and Enrollment Data,"-Personnel 1 and Guidance Journal, XXXI (April, 1954), 483-881 88 It was concluded that; The results show clearly that in groups of this kind, the persons who reply by mail (the mail sample) are similar in moot practical respects to those who do not reply. Generally speaking, they show that the mail sample can satisfactorily represent the universe of a relatively homogeneous group. It is conceivable that Some mail samplesmay be even better than those obtained by interview— for it must be remembered that personal interviews themselves are by no means immune to bias. University senior men represent almost the ultimate in homogeneity with respect to educational level. Robinson and Agisism, after studies of nine mailed-Questionnaire surveys for Crowell-Collier Publishing Co., and Cowles Magazines, Inc., came to similar conclusions; When replies to questionnaires do reach the high levels of 70 per cent or better, it would appear from tests made by the authors that non-repliers may have little effect on the results, provided that the questionnaire is not of a specialized or self-sorting type. Research intothe reasons why people do not answer even the well-organized mailing showed the major causes to be neglect in answering or loss of the questionnaire. Pew people said they failed to reply because of lack of interest or refusal to answer the questions.2 ^David Wallace, "Mail Questionnaires Can Produce Good Samples of Homogeneous Groups," Journal of Marketing XII (July, 19 47), 53-6 0. ^R. A. Robinson and Philip Agisism, "Making Mail Surveys More Reliable," Journal of Marketing, XV (April, 1951), 415-24. 89 Although the information is subject to some discounting, interviews with seniors had indicated a high response. When questioned on the point, most students stated that they would return such a questionnaire. They frequently volunteered that they regarded the accumula tion of such information as a constructive activity, and one with which they felt they should cooperate, providing the demands were not too great. This suggested that response would not depend upon degree of personal favor for selling, and reemphasized the need for making the ; instrument as brief, simple, and clear as possible. i Development of the Instrument ! I Elimination of subjects From the list developed from the qualitative investigation, and presented in the preceding chapter, possible subjects for items for testing the hypotheses for the study were considered, and eliminations were made on several bases. Items were removed on which the interviews indicated little variation in opinion. For instance, there were relatively uniform manifestations of belief that personality characteristics are important determinants of sales aptitude and success, and that traits of extro version and aggressiveness are needed, and verbal fluency. ^ ________ Subjects were also, eliminated which were top 90 complex for presentation in the format tentatively selected. For example, comparisons of sales occupations against others, on a social status scale, are logically I needed in the analysis. Considerable effort was devoted I to developing alternate-choice items for this purpose. I Several pilot experiments were conducted, in which students (other than those interviewed at length) were asked to rank various occupations on a number of scales including social usefulness, social standing, social distance, income, personal integrity, and others. One | conclusion from this preliminary work was that occupations | can not be satisfactorily ranked on a single composite j continuum, which parallels those of other investigators.^ While ranking on subscales is apparently not I impractical, the ranking of any considerable number of i items on a written questionnaire is cumbersome. The ; investigator was unable to translate comparative state ments, resulting from the preliminary rankings, into a , satisfactory multiple-choice item, and none was carried i f . I into the instrument. ' As reported supra, related secondary I ; evidence is available. Subjects were also excluded, on whichcpinion was I _ I A. F. Davies, "Prestige of Occupations," British I Journal of Sociology, III (June, 1952), 134-47; Paul k. j latt, "Occupation and Social Stratification," American Journal of Sociology, LV (May, 1950), 533-43; and Theodore Caplow, The Sociology of Wprk (Minneapolis: Univers ity_ofJMinn^8UtnZTreE§3ZT95%TTchap.. 2. ___ ______ 91 found to be weakly crystallized. For Instance, it would j be useful in the analysis to have answers to a question j regarding the criteria or qualifications for professional status. Preliminary drafts of such an item grew to require at least six alternate answers. Some respondents were quite unable to select an answer, or to rank answers, and others would, upon additional reflection, change their answers. Other subjects were eliminated because of apparent Inhibition, rationality-striving, or other results of social pressures; or where reasonably adequate I data were already available from secondary sources. Still| others were excluded after repeated revisions failed to | I produce an item which conveyed the intended meaning, as i indicated by "playbacks" by respondents. Special effort was applied to developing one or more workable items under each of the headings under which the attitude hypotheses were grouped, and to include alternative statements to produce evidence with respect to as many of the attitude and correlate hypotheses as possible. Kinds of selling Advance work had given strong notice of differ entiation of attitudes according to kind of selling, and much consideration was given to the problem of the kinds : _ofl8ellliig_j^jwhlçh_AW_.di^ and__eyalu#lye_ 92 questions should be applied. The decision was to employ three stages of particularization. First, to apply questions about social evaluations to selling broadly or inclusively. Secondly, to include certain measures of the degree of variation from the broad generalized attitudes, which might exist with respect to various, more specific kinds of selling jobs. And thirdly, to apply questions about advantages, disadvantages, and requirements to one kind of selling job, which would serve as a sort of benchmark. Construction of items Objective vs. open-end.— The problem regarding ■ j objective vs. open-end form of question was resolved in i favor of the objective type, for several reasons. The i purpose of this stage of the study was to quantify expressions regarding selected attitudes, which involves classification of the responses. The objective form substantially eliminates the judgmental classification of answers, and correspondingly reduces the opportunity for bias or suspicion of bias. Secondly, this form reduces the demand upon the respondent for constructing answers, and thus favors a higher return. The disadvan tage of suggesting answers, was not considered to be objectionable, in view of the purposes. If the principal viewpoints are offered and quantified, it is not , 93 necessary that small minority positions be identified. If the offering of a specific statement "suggests" that answer, this constitutes recognition or selection of, or sympathy for, that viewpoint, and yields an acceptable datum. Cognitive form, cross-tabulation.--Extensive use was made of the cognitive principle in the framing of the questions. A question might be worded: Is your personal concern about economic security . . . Greater than average ........... Q About average............ . . fl , Dess than average..............Q Many persons do not have an adequate basis for comparing their relative position on the matter, and tend ; to regard their own viewpoint as the normal one. Or, even; if they had some indication that their opinion was not the "average" one, they might avoid recognizing it, or admitting it. Consequently, a large proportion might be expected to select the middle alternate, and defeat the purpose of the question. Instead, in this study, a cognitive construction was employed; Generally speaking, do you think there is too much, not enough, or about the right amount of interest in security of work and income today? 94 Here, the person feels himself to be merely stating an obvious fact. However, to another person, the "obvious fact" is different. The difference between the two answers is not in the subject of the question-- that is common and fixed. The difference is in the cognition of it by the respondent. The term "projective" is sometimes applied to this principle, but is less precise, since it also implies attribution. It will also be observed that the applicability of such questions is not reduced by the respondent’s being poorly informed or even misinformed about the subject of the question. The expression of his cognition, 1 whatever it may be, is the datum. Then, classification and cross-tabulation attempts to reveal differences in expressions which are systematic with respect to some other variable of attitude, situation, experience, etc. These relationships yield indications which may be quite 2 separate from the manifest meaning of answers. Or, to put it another way, the method differs from the naive one %here accuracy or amount of information possessed by the respondent or the strength of opinion are signifi cant, other measures can be applied. ^The principle is discussed in the standard sources cited. Examples are presented in Fred T. Schreier and Albert J. Wood, "Motivation Analysis in Market . Research," Journal of Marketing, XIII (October, 1948), 172-82; and' ’ in "Rehavior' Research : To Get Answers, Ask the People," Business Week, August 21, 1954, pp. ^3Q-43; and elsewhere. 95 of asking respondents to indicate how they would view the subject of inquiry if they were in a different situation. Instead, reports are obtained as to how the subject of inquiry appears, to persons actually in the alternate situations. Other considerations.— A host of other questions presented themselves, many of whose answers were inter dependent. Shall the articulation of subjects follow popular or academic conceptualization? May some items be scalar along one dimension, and others require comparisons of dimensions? Must items be uniformly dichotomous, trichotomous, or may they vary with the structuring of the particular .subject? Shall the order of items follow some logical plan, or be arranged with respect to structuring effect upon the respondent? Shall ideas be presented in the fewest possible words, or should explanatory and enlarging words or phrases be added? May forced-choice construction be employed where there is strong tendency to escape to neutral or equivocal alternates if offered? How long, or how demanding, can the instrument be? And what shall be the actual wordings of all the questions? Quite evidently, the various possible combinations could not be subjected to quantitative test. Ultimate decisions were, of necessity, judgment ones, aimed at 96 producing the most useful information,and guided largely by the results of the pretesting. Pretesting and revisions The development and pretesting of items, typed on cards, was begun following the sixth sales executive interview and the second senior interview. Thereafter, the latter part of all interviews was devoted to con sideration of items in their current state. Respondents were asked to read all of them, aloud, which furnished clues as to their understandability. At any hint of difficulty, the respondent was asked to paraphrase, or | "play back" the question. If his wording varied material-i ly from the intent of the question, the investigator I restated it, at greater length, and then discussed with j the respondent as to how the question might have been worded to have conveyed the intended meaning. Respondents also answered the questions. Revisions were made following almost every inter view. By the completion of the tenth senior interview and the tenth executive interview, the items had stabilized sufficiently for the questionnaire to be mimeographed. It was offered in this form in the remaining five senior and five executive interviews, and discussed, and additional changes were made during and following these applications. Certain deletions, and still further 1 changes and refinements on some of the items, were made as 97 a result of suggestions by members of the committee. Relationship of selected items to Hypotheses' f or' the survey As a result of this process, items were selected and developed for testing the hypotheses^ for the i questionnaire survey. As explained infra, three versions of the I questionnaire were required, and copies of the final forms are exhibited in Appendixes B, C, and D. Employing the column code numbers (above the check boxes on the questionnaires), items relating to the hypothesis of difference in social evaluation of selling are numbers 21 and 24, dealing with over-all social usefulness of selling; 22 and 23, relating to contribu tions or effects of selling; 25 and 26, regarding ethics; I 29, regarding professional status; 28 and 31, dealing with I education needed; and 27, dealing with a comparison of the , relative importance of ethics, usefulness, etc., in , determining the standing of selling. i : Items relating to the hypothesis of differentia- I tion in social evaluation by kinds of selling are 21, 26, j and 29, which permitted answers thus qualified, i Items relating to the hypothesis of difference in perception of a sales job are 33 through 39* i Personal interest or favor is measured by items ________^Stated on pp. 81-82.____________________ 98 30 and 32. Personal values (in addition to social approval, items 21-2 9) which were selected for measurement are security, 18; hours and strain, 19; achievement vs, adjustment, 20, Personal values may also be reflected by responses on certain of the items of perception of sales jobs, 33-39* Father’s principal occupation was selected as a variable for testing relationship of early environmental influence, 16-17. For seniors, later or concurrent environmental variables are represented by curriculum, 12-14; and sales experience, 15. For executives, the later environmental variables selected for measurement were level of education, 11; kind of selling in which engaged, 7-10; and number of employees in company by ! which employed, 6. ' Samples, Mailings, Returns ' Samples i The opportunity was afforded of sampling from I seniors in the two major universities in Los Angeles,^ and from the membership of the Sales Executives Club of Los Angeles,2 which determined the geographic area for the ^At the University of Southern California, through the help of Dr. Franklin W. Gilchrist; and at the University of California at Los Angeles, as a result of the assistance of Associate Dean George W. Robbins. ^As sponsor of the study. 99 study. Since a sample drawn from two universities is likely to be more representative of senior opinion in the area than one drawn from a single institution, advantage was taken of the opportunity to draw from both. Non-commerce seniors.--Systematic random samples of 200 non-commerce senior males each, from the University of Southern California and the University of California at Los Angeles, were selected in the following manner. I At the University of Southern California, a file I of declarations of expectation to graduate was utilized I in the Registrar’s office. Qualifying requirements were: j Male first name I Expectation of graduating in June, 1955 Major not in the School of Commerce I Since the exact number of qualifying individuals I was not known, estimates were made from analysis of the I first part of the alphabet, and a decision was made to I take off every other name and address. This procedure I produced 263 names. The total was reduced to 200 by ! I deleting every fourth name, starting with the sixteenth. I At the University of California at Los Angeles, a similar I process was applied to corresponding records, with certain I exceptions. Data for Letters and Science seniors and i i Applied Arts seniors were obtained from the Registrar’s office, and for Engineering students, from the Engineering department office. The few male students in other schools. 100 such as Agriculture and Nursing, were not included in the ' population sampled. Marketing seniors♦— A list of the names and I , addresses of all graduating seniors majoring in marketing | and advertising at the University of Southern California, j was obtained from the Marketing department office. A list' I of names and addresses of all graduating^ seniors majoring in marketing at the University of California at Los Angeles' was supplied by the office of the School of I Business Administration. I Sales executives.— The list of sales executives I I consisted of every other name on the 1954-55 Membership i p j Roster of the Los Angeles Sales Executives Club, less I associate (academic) and retired members. Although I practically all members are concerned with selling and sales management, there is a wide variation in title and exact function among them. There was no indication that attitudes varied significantly by title, and difficulties were encountered in developing classifications suitable for self-application. So, none was included in the version of the questionnaire directed to them. The kinds of selling engaged in constitutes one of the ^Individuals having 113 or more units of credit on February 20, 1955. 2(Los Angeles : The Club, 1954. Privately circulated.) 101 classification variables. Versions of the questionnaire I Three forms of the questionnaire were required. I The questions dealing with attitudes were identical for all groups, except the stem of one,^ which necessarily differed between seniors and sales managers. The back ground variables or classification questions and the "cover letter" varied between sales executives and seniors, and mailings to University of Southern California seniors differed from those to University of California at Los Angeles seniors in the letterhead and the signature, which was that of the head or chairman of the respective department of psychology. Mailings and returns The mailing consisted of a printed four-page questionnaire, and a printed return envelope bearing a three-cent postage stamp, enclosed in an envelope bearing a three-cent stamp and a gummed address label, upon which the individual’s name was typed. The explanatory note or "cover letter" formed a part of the questionnaire. Samples of the mailing to University of Southern California seniors form Appendix B of this report. Samples of the mailing to University of California at Los Angeles seniors form Appendix C. The questionnaire ^Column code 30* 102 to sales executives is presented in Appendix D. The same envelopes used for Southern California seniors were employed with questionnaires to executives• The first mailing was made on February 23, 1935. Twelve days later, a reminder post card was mailed to all addressees. The forms varied slightly between sales executives. University of Southern California seniors and University of California at Dos Angeles seniors. Samples are exhibited in Appendix E. Two weeks after the mailing of the reminder, a second follow-up was sent. It consisted of an exact duplicate of the original mailing, except that a sticker (Appendix F) was attached to the upper left hand corner of the first page of each questionnaire, and the first line of the letter to sales executives was underlined with red pencil. The quantities mailed, returned, and usable are shown in Table 14. Over 75 per cent of seniors returned questionnaires, and over two-thirds of sales executives. Representativeness of the Returns Initial vs. follow-up responses Two kinds of evidence regarding the representa tiveness of the return are cited. The first is the result of sorting by postmark. Returns from each of the three .maJp]&_grpup8_T^npnTPqm^ seniors., marketing _8eniprs, _ 103 8 3 H 3 t5 d ( U -P •H rH ( Ü (0 M :3 'O (DO •H C q - i p 4 •H d r*} 4 . 3 § s (3 * SUTTTBW 9At%08JJ8 %9N JO JU90 J9a pXqtquenb axqBsnun SuTxxew 9ATJ09Jja 49N JO %U90 J9& qXqTqueT%) SuxttiBW 9ATS09jja %9M gXjxquenb 'P8TJTien& %0M 'paiTVW a I LAlA LA B 0\ 00 CO 3 d * CA3d* i —1 CM MO 3 d * LA MO BOO 00 B B B B MO B (V cn B O 1 —I 3 d * CM mod LA 3t LA 1 —1 B g? 3 d * CO (M B m (A • m MO cn BlA CM CM ON lA o B 3 d * 00 VÛ 3 d * MO LA B B 00 00 00 B B B- B MO cncn MO 3t O 3 d * O LA cocd LA 3t LA B B G\ CM LA OO MO B o\\o LA 3 d * LA o\ 3 d * 3 d * fOOJ MO o\ o\ 1 —1 B 00 cn LA 3 d * 3 d * CM 00 <M O B MO LA B B B CM • BOO LA O O o LA 3d* ■ = t CM B O O o B 3 d * B CM CM 3 d * < D s < D I 3 d * 0 3 U o CM g . t 3 id o o u m tD M 4 - 3 I (d r~i c d +3 o o E4 0 M 1 O O cm c ê o 0 1 c ê I —I c d 43 o B •H c (D m I —I c d 4 3 O B 0 3 < D > •H 4 3 c o (D C Q < D iH c d CO lA c O B - o \ cn B * 3 d * I—1 LA 0 0 o \ VD I —j OJ ON B ÎB B c d 4 3 g 104 ■a i • H g o I I 3d B B C * c d • o d 0 4 3 U ^■0 n o d d u < D 4 3 c 0 0 d j C 0 C Ô B a 0 4 3 U A 0 B 0 0 0 u 4 3 f O 0 U 0 0 0 B 0 0 c ü 0 0 A •0 c 0 A d c d 0 Tî B s ^ 0 0 $ 4 0 A A 0 ü d C D A B • H Ü 0 B U Ü A l > 5 ^r l 0 0 ü A « B 0 S B " O C d B E A B a d < 0 5 d S d a * 0 0 r ^ A P 4 , 0 0 C d " U ü c id A 0 43 0 0 d 0 • 4 3 0 B B 0 n o n o c d 4 3 a a 0 C n C d d d A D D B 0 0 0 c d 0 C d A B B U 4 3 a 0 0 A a b O c d 0 c a ^ B B 0 s 0 0 n T3 0 a i • H Ü 0 c d A 0 0 B 1 — 1 P 4 C s •rl d b O ( d c d A 0 0 d B 0 0 • » 0 0 ( d A 0 T 5 Î 4 - B B > 0 C 0 0 n o • H C b O A 0 c d B 0 *H d > A A 0 > B 0 c d d n o • H A A 0 d C B b O d A 0 C 0 C n o B A A 0 0 A B B A •• C B • d > ( d m C • H n o d B C ^ c d 0 b O P > s U d u ? 4 S m • H c d 0 A c • 0 o j 0 e 0 4 3 ü D A 0 0 u "'A 0 C 4 3 > ? 4 0 0 id u •ri 0 *H 0 B 0 d 5 4 m 4 3 d 0 0 0 !> > B 0 0 B B A 1 — 143 f* 4 3 n o 0 0 A a b u C B m ( d C 0 B B d ? 4 B A > 0 0 ^ 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 Tî C d A d 0 id o S B 4 3 4 3 S 0 ^ > t n 0 0 d s d B U C d 0 A 0 0 â 0 0 % c d b O A A b O 0 A { 4 C A c d • •ri 4 3 0 0 4 3 d 0 0 0 0 0 0 •rl isî Xù 0 ü B U 0 a qS B 0 S 4 0 S H a a J 4 105 sales-executives— were divided into those returned 1 I following the initial mailing, and those returned I subsequent to follow-ups. For each of these divisions, | answers were tabulated on each of eight questions, | selected to be representative of the major headings into which the attitude variables had been grouped. , These included questions relating to personal interest (column code 30) ; relationship to production (22); truthfulness (2 6); beliefs impairing respect (2 7); professional status (2 9); chief attractions of wholesale selling (34); most serious complaints about wholesale selling (3 8); and personal attitude toward work hours and strain (I9). The only consistent difference which proved significant at the .05 level^ was greater liberality among later respondents of all three groups in assigning professional status to selling (2 9). This would be consistent with a lower level of interest, and disin clination to apply the mental effort necessary to make discriminations. The alternate hypothesis, that persons more ready to respond were less favorably disposed toward selling, is disproved by the low significances of dif ferences on the other evaluative and personal interest questions, which reached even a .10 level oni^r among lyide infra, "Tests of statistical significance," pp. 113-1% for formulae. 106 marketing students, on two items. One of these findings also tends to refute the alternate hypothesis: a larger proportion of first marketing respondents credited selling with being the cause of production (22). And a larger proportion of first marketing respondents opined that the belief that "anyone can get a sales job" is the principal one reducing respect for selling (2 7). For non-commerce seniors and sales executives, these comparisons indicate little difference in attitude between the first respondents and those who returned questionnaires after follow-ups, and suggest that addressees who might have responded to further urging, do not have attitudes toward the subject under study, which are much different from earlier respondents. The conclusions of the Lazarsfeld-Franzen study! not only support this contention, but the stronger one that all remaining individuals are not likely to differ importantly in this respect. Since the response from marketing seniors constituted more than 80 per cent of the universe, there was limited opportunity for non-respondents to differ from respondents. And the findings suggest that any real ^David Wallace, "Mail Questionnaires Can Produce Good Samples of Homogeneous Groups," Journal of.Marketing, XV (April, 1951), 415-2%. Principal conclusions are quoted supra, p. 88. 107 I difference among them was In the direction of later I respondents having less rather than more favorable I I attitudes toward selling. Extreme negative hypothesis The second kind of evidence results from testing against the limiting negative assumption. This is, that all non-respondents would have taken the position adopted by the minority of those who did respond, in their respective groups. Even under this assumption, there remain significant differences in the same direction on two important and typical questions. Specifically, among the l62 usable responses from sales executives, I3I agreed with the statement, "Aggressive selling in the United States is the principal cause of large-scale production, and the high (material) standard of living." If none of the non- I ' ' respondents felt that way, still I3I out of 244, or ! 53*7 per cent, are known to agree. Eighty-six seniors ; agreed with that statement. If all non-respondent i I seniors, IO6, would have agreed, there would be a total I of 192 agreements among 454 seniors, or 42.3 per cent. I The difference between 42.3 and 53*7 per cent is, for the i number of cases involved, significant at well beyond the I ,01 level. A similar calculation for agreements with the 8Mtem&nt^_2lfL.8elllng.^d_ad]æ_rt j^ing _ in^^ pr _cre^e 108 consumer wants, the effects are principally to make people happier by getting them to change habits and buy more and different things," leaves a difference which is significant at the .02 level. Attitude differences thus established for the entire samples are logically consistent with differences on other questions which will not defeat the extreme unfavorable assumption. In view of the relatively high percentage returns, the results of the two kinds of tests applied, and secondary evidence regarding non-respondents, it is concluded that the expressions are substantially repre sentative of the samples of non-commerce seniors and sales executives addressed, and of the universe of marketing seniors addressed. The samples of non-commerce I seniors and executives were precision random ones, which I must be regarded as representative, within limits of I sampling error, of these populations. It is therefore concluded that the expressions are substantially repre sentative of university male non-commerce and marketing seniors in Los Angeles, and of members of the Sales Executive Club of Los Angeles. Processing of the Data Editing and coding ________ All_-.ret urnS- W.ere,_inspected.___ 109 All attitude items on the questionnaire had been pre-coded, and editing was required only in a few cases where alterations or additions by respondents materially I changed the meaning of the statement checked. i Categories had to be established foi* mosL of the j I classification variables. Analysis of preliminary hand- sorts had suggested possibly significant differences between engineering majors and other non-commerce seniors, on certain items. Accordingly, a classification of seniors into marketing, engineering, and other non commerce, was set up. | 1 To provide for all combinations of work experience' among seniors, a secondary classification was set up. j Fathers* principal occupation was categorized ! based upon census classifications,^ which are, in turn, based upon Dictionary of Occupational Titles headings. A category was set up for responses on which the paternal occupation was omitted, or where indicated only as deceased, retired, or disabled. Judgment had to be applied in assigning certain responses to categories, but more ambiguous ones were consigned to a "not classi fiable" group. After inspection of sales executives’ returns, to ^U. S., Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States; 1954 ed.; Washington: United S'tates' Government" Printing Office, 1954), pp. 209-17* 110 obtain impressions regarding distributions, classifica tions were established for number of employees in the concern by which the executive is employed, and by kind of selling. The intervals employed for number of employees was 1-19, 20-99, 100-499, 500-2499, 2500 (xr more, and "other answers" which included omissions and information given for local office only. The intervals coincide with combinations of standard census classifications. After some consideration, the following categories' were established for kinds of selling principally engaged j in by employing concern: Wholesale— consumer soft goods (for resale) Wholesale— consumer hard goods (for resale) Industrial— services, intangibles (for use) Industrial'— supplies, parts, materials, etc., (for use) Industrial— machinery, equipment, etc., (for use) Wholesale and industrial— supplies, parts, materials, etc., (for use and resale) Other--direct sales to consumers, etc. For all the items for which classifications were established after the return, questionnaires were hand coded, Multiple answers and omitted answers were tabulated separately. In a few cases they reached Ill significant levels, and are commented upon. Where a respondent discontinued answering questions and did not resume, the omitted answers on subsequent questions were coded separately, and excluded from totals for those questions. Twenty-six sales executives discontinued answering at the instruction, "Remaining questions deal with wholesale salesmen . * ." There is evidence that these executives interpreted the instructions to mean, "Answer the following questions only if you are engaged in wholesale selling." Prom tabulation of the dis continuances at this point, by kind of selling, among executives (Table 15), it may be observed that there was only one discontinuance among sales managers engaged in strictly wholesale selling. There were a few more among combination wholesale and industrial sellers. The proportion was still larger among industrial sellers,^ and highest in the consumer sales group. There were no discontinuances at this point among marketing seniors. There was a negligible number (five) among non-commerce seniors. While unanticipated, the discontinuances among non-wholesale sales executives may make comparisons more meaningful. In comparing ^The Dictionary of Occupational Titles would classify some of these industrial sellers as "wholesale." 112 TABLE 15 EXECUTIVES' OMISSIONS OP WHOLESALE ANSWERS, BY KIND OP SELLING Kind Number of of Selling Returns Number Discontinuing with 31^ Per Cent Discontinuing with 31^ Wholesale consumer soft goods 23 1 4.3 Wholesale consumer hard goods 12 Industrial services, intangibles 31 8 2 5 .8 Industrial, supplies, parts 31 5 16.1 Industrial, machinery equipment 17 4 23.5 Wholesale and industrial 29 2 6.9 Retail and other 19 6 31.6 Total 162 26 16.0 ^Column code number. First question following instruction about remaining questions dealing with wholesale selling. 113 seniors* perceptions and expectations of wholesale selling with those of executives, it might be regarded as preferable to consider only the perceptions of wholesale sales managers, or managers who felt qualified, perhaps by reason of past experience, to state opinions about it. This is the effect apparently produced by the self-selection. Tabulation Tabulation was begun April 11, 1955* Data were transferred to punch cards, and machine-sorted by seniors and sales managers on all items, and cross-sorted by background variables and certain other hypothesized relationships. Where signifi cant differences were indicated, data for seniors were separated into marketing, engineering, and other non- commerce majors, and tabulated separately. The second series of tabulations was completed April 29, 1955* Tests of statistical significance All tables were inspected, and where it appeared that a statistically significant difference might exist, a test of reliability was applied. Comparisons of percentages, where neither was based on fewer than 30 cases, were tested by the formula 114 Pi - Pg T = ----------------------------- Pl^l ^ Pg^ «1 N2 where T = critical ratio for evaluation by area under the normal curve of error - proportion of cases in first sample exhibit ing characteristic being considered = proportion of cases in first sample not exhibiting characteristic being considered N]_ = number of cases in first sample Pg = proportion of cases in second sample exhibiting characteristic being considered Qg proportion of cases in second sample not exhibiting characteristic being considered Ng - number of cases in second sample. Where either statistic was based upon fewer than 30 cases, the formula employed was t = Pi -1 where t = critical ratio for evaluation by interpola tion in a table of values for t, employing the smaller N-1 for the number of degrees of• freedom. It may be observed that this usage is conservative since both percentages are being evaluated on the basis of, the H for the smaller. 115 The appraisal of statistical significance in this study is quite conservative, for an additional reason. The approximate sizes of all universes were known, and the samples represented substantial proportions of them. The marketing response constituted over 80 per cent of its population. Under such conditions, some authorities recommend that the resulting reduction in the opportunity for sampling variance be adjusted for by multiplying the variance by where P = number of cases in the universe sampled. Some authorities even regard such an adjustment as obligatory. Perber says Where the sample comprises 10 per cent or more of the total population, the adjustment term should cer tainly be employed . . . there is no reason why the adjustment term should not be employed in all cases where the sample constitutes 4 per cent or more of ' the population.! Such an adjustment would have somewhat increased the measured significance of statistics from the non commerce seniors * data, substantially increased those from sales executives, and greatly increased those for marketing seniors. Since, upon advice of Professor ^Robert Perber, Statistical Techniques in Market Research (New York; McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949), p ; w . .. 116 Warren, these adjustments were not made in this report, | I reliabilities used are quite conservative. In a few j cases, where more inclusive relationships were involved, j I chi-square analysis was applied. And for significance of I I the number of omitted answers on a certain question, as | I I compared with omitted answers on other questions among thel I same group of respondents, the standard deviation was computed. Unless otherwise specifically indicated, all subsequent tables in this report contain one or more relationships significant at or beyond the .05 level of confidence. And unless specifically qualified, all direct text references are to findings significant at or beyond the .05 level. CHAPTER V SURVEY FINDINGS REGARDING ATTITUDES TOWARD SELLING In this chapter, the data from the questionnaire survey, relating to attitudes toward selling among seniors and executives, are presented in tabular form. Where significant differences were found between non- commerce, marketing, or engineering seniors, the respective data are shown separately. Limitations of the data are noted. Indications regarding differences in attitudes toward selling in general are presented I first, under headings of social usefulness, ethics, and I social status including education. Data regarding I variations in attitudes by kind of selling are shown i ' next, followed by indications concerning perceptions of I wholesale selling and personal interest or favor. I Significant relationships are pointed out. I j Limitations of the Data I Projectability ; The expressions of attitudes are believed to be j ! substantially representative of certain groups, viz., university non-commerce senior men in Los Angeles, 118 university marketing senior men in Los Angeles, and members of the Sales Executives Club of Los Angeles. The attitudes of the seniors may not represent those of seniors in other geographic areas, or in other kinds of educational establishments. In one reported study, moderate differences were found in interest in selling as a career, among three universities.^ Both original and secondary evidence points to differences in attitudes toward selling by paternal occupation, and the distribu tion of students by father*s occupation undoubtedly varies among educational institutions. It is not asserted that the attitudes of the sales executives are representative of those of members of other sales executives clubs. And there is greater question as to the degree to which their attitudes exemplify those of sales managers who are not members of sales executives clubs. Membership in such organizations often is associated with superior competence in the field, and greater personal acceptance, which might be associated with differences in attitudes toward selling. Validity The selection of the subjects or scales and the construction of the items aimed at content validity, but it cannot be demonstrated that the final questionnaire !yide supra, p. 30 119 either included all important aspects of the total subject area, or that the opportunity for expression of attitudes ' is proportional to their relative importance in the area. Since this test undertook only the exploratory and diagnostic work in the subject area, tests of predictive efficiency of findings were not included. Comparative or ranking questions, or inquiries which did not name any occupation, might have produced responses less favorable to selling. However, use of such questions would have greatly reduced the amount and range of information about attitudes toward selling which could be obtained from a given number of questions or amount of effort. Any such differences in favor would be in degree, not in direction. Recognizing this, the analyses in this study, other than by major groups, are largely directional and dichotomous. Indications of intensity are obtained from interlockings, and parallelisms, as well as T-values. Seniors * familiarity with kinds of selling It might be expected that seniors would be more familiar with retail, house-to-house, auto, and insurance selling than with wholesale or industrial selling, and I I that they might generalize from the kinds with which they I were best acquainted. This possibility was investigated I in all senior depth interviews. An item on this point I wa9__inoluded_in those, presented on cards, beginning with _ 120 early interviews. Variations were tried, such as asking j the respondent to list three kinds of sales Jobs, or | I things that salesmen sell, or kinds of salesmen, or kinds ; of customers salesmen sell to. No satisfactory wording was developed, and the Item was not carried into the final versions of the questionnaire. From the depth interviews, and the experience in testing items related to this matter, it was concluded that seniors are generally aware of the existence of wholesale and industrial salesmen, and have some idea of the nature of their Jobs. Support was afforded by the finding that no significant difference in perception of wholesale selling Jobs accompanied experience in outside selling. In other words, persons who might be expected to have a wider knowledge of kinds of sales Jobs did not see wholesale selling differently from those with less experience. Another indication is that non-commerce seniors differentiate even more sharply between kinds of selling on the three social evaluation items which permitted it, than did either sales executives or marketing majors. If they were evaluating only consumer selling, one individual might rate selling high and another low, on a certain scale, but any one individual would be unlikely to indicate that there is a wide variation between kinds of sales Jobs on that scale. 121 While it may be that answers are weighted somewhat 1 for attitudes toward consumer selling, it is confidently | i believed that they do, nevertheless, recognize a con- I siderable variety of kinds of selling jobs. j Attitudes toward the Social j Usefulness of Selling Effect of fewer salesmen A number of attitudes toward selling relate to its contribution to the general welfare. A measure of the believed over-all usefulness of selling is provided by expressions regarding the effect if there were less of it, as shown in Table l6. The small number of respondents who failed to answer or gave multiple answers suggests i that the question was meaningful, that opinion is fairly I well structured with respect to this subject, that I alternate statements were adequate, and that little ! psychic conflict was aroused. I The majority of seniors subscribed to the ; "qualified" answer. The subject of differences in attitudes toward various kinds of selling is treated separately, later in this chapter. Attention is here focussed on respondents who do not discriminate between kinds of selling on this item. Table 17 presents comparisons for these individuals only. ________Among, tbese.jipn^^om^^ the minority 122 TABK 16 BELIEFS REGARDING EFFECT OP FEWER SALESMEN, BY MAJOR GROUPS If there were 10 Seniors Sales per cent fewer salesmen in the United States, Non-commerce Marketing Executives No. % No. % No. fo We would be better off 41 14.1 2 3 .8 4 2 .5 We would be about as well off 37 12.7 3 5 .7 6 3.7 We would be worse off 47 16.2 20 3 7 .8 106 6 5 .4 . . . of some kinds, we would be as well off, or better off 157 53 .9 28 5 2 .8 39 24.1 Multiple answers 1 .3 5 3.1 No answer 8 2 .7 2 1.2 Total 291 100.0 53 100.0 162 100.0 123 TABLE 17 UNQUALIFIED RESPONSES, EFFECT OF FEWER SALESMEN If there were 10 per cent fewer salesmen in the United States, Non- Seniors commerce Marketing Sales Executives No. No. No. % We would be better off 41 3 2 .8 2 8.0 4 3.4 We would be about as well off 37 2 9 .6 3 12.0 6 5.2 We would be worse off 47 37.8 20 80.0 106 91.4 Total 125 100.0 25 100.0 116 100.0 124 felt that a reduction of 10 per cent in the number of salesmen would adversely affect the general welfare. The majority indicated belief that at least this many sales men either contribute nothing or have a harmful effect. Sales executives who made unqualified responses were nearly unanimous in expressing the conviction that such a reduction would be harmful, although a few individuals indicated dissident views. The expressions of marketing seniors who gave unqualified answers fell between those of sales executives and non-commerce seniors, but were much closer to the sales executives on this item. In fact, the differences from them were not statistically significant, with the small number of cases involved. Importance of selling Another indication of attitude regarding the social usefulness of selling generally, was afforded by comparisons of its importance and benefit with "other functions in our economic system." Opinion on this matter is presented in Table 18, and appears to be well defined. Both marketing seniors and non-commerce seniors were far less favorable in their evaluation of the importance and benefit of selling in our economic system than were sales managers. Compared with marketing seniors 125 TABLE 18 BELIEFS REGARDING RELATIVE IMPORTANCE BENEFIT OF SELLING, BY MAJOR GROUPS AND Seniors Sales Selling is • . . Non-commerce Marketing Executives No. 0 No. f o No. # The most important and beneficial function in our economic system 15 5.2 6 11.3 89 54.9 One of many inter related functions in our economic system 236 81.1 45 84.9 72 44.4 Perhaps a little less important and beneficial than some other functions 38 13.1 2 3 .8 1 .6 Multiple answers 1 .3 No answer 1 .3 Total 291 100.0 53 100.0 162 100.0 126 and sales executives, a significantly larger proportion of non-commerce students indicated the belief that sell ing is, if anything, somewhat less important than some other functions in the economic system. The proportion of non-commerce seniors expressing this opinion was significantly greater than the proportion evaluating selling as "most important and beneficial," Relationship of selling to Targe-scale product!on In addition to over-all evaluations of the use fulness of selling, there are beliefs about the specific contributions of selling which were measured. It is frequently maintained that aggressive selling in the United States is the principal cause of large-scale production and the high, material standard of living. In framing a question on this point, an alternative statement relating to reciprocal relations between selling and large-scale production was omitted for several reasons. The principal reason was that advance work had indicated that many persons, who tended somewhat toward one or the other of the polar positions, would select the relatively neutral one in order to avoid the effort of defining their own attitudes more clearly. An additional reason was the difficulty encountered in attempting to develop a short, clear wording for the alternate. Table 19 shows that a moderately large proportion 127 TABLE 19 BELIEFS REGARDING RELATIONSHIP OF SELLING TO PRODUCTION, BY MAJOR GROUPS Seniors Sales ! Aggressive selling in the United States . , . Non-commerce Marketing Executives j No. i o No. i o No. i o \ 1 Is the principal cause of large- scale production, and the high (material) standard of living 66 22.7 20 37.7 131 i j j 80.8 Is principally needed as a result of large-scale production 134 46.0 22 41.5 18 11.1 Other opinion, or no opinion 90 30.9 11 20.8 10 6.2 Multiple answers 1 .3 3 1.9 Total 291 100.0 53 100.0 162 100.0 128 of respondents among non-commerce seniors were not able to subscribe to either of the polar statements, and checked "Other opinion, or no opinion." Of those who found one or the other of the polar statements acceptable, by far the majority believed that large-scale selling is a result of large-scale production, rather than the converse. In contrast, by far the majority of sales executives asserted that selling is the cause. Among marketing students, a moderate proportion checked "Other i opinion, or no opinion." The remainder divided about j evenly as to whether aggressive selling is more the cause or result of large-scale production. Effect of selling and sales effort’ bn happiness — — Some fairly strong and opposing attitudes toward the want-influencing efforts of selling, and of their ' effect on happiness, had been found as a result of the preliminary interviews. During early stages of the development of the questionnaire, one item was devoted to , opinion as to whether selling and advertising^ influence or create wants. For those who replied affirmatively, a ^The tendency to associate selling and advertising was demonstrated by word association, sentence completion and other indications during the qualitative interviews, particularly among seniors. As far as possible, this study confined itself to selling, but in this particular ; context, pretesting indicated that meaningfulness would _be_jLnoreased_by _ln(üj;dinguzefer^^^ advert lslng_.______ , 129 follow-up question inquired into believed effects on happiness. Responses on the former question were so uniformly affirmative that it was telescoped into the second— "If selling and advertising influence or create consumer wants, ..." The alternates were expanded by including popular justifications for those views, and an equivocal answer was offered. Table 20 sets forth the findings. Rela tively few persons were obliged to resort to the "Other opinion, or no opinion" alternative, which suggests that the pertinent opinion was well structured, and that the alternates were satisfactory. Among non-commerce seniors, only about one in five subscribed to the affirmative statement that the effects of selling and advertising are to make people I I happier. A not significantly larger proportion selected ! the definite negative alternate, that the effect is j mainly to keep people discontented. The largest propor- I tion subscribed to the equivocal answer. I Four-fifths of sales executives indicated the belief that the effects of selling are principally to make people happier. Beliefs of marketing seniors fell between those of non-commerce seniors and sales execu tives, and differed significantly from both of these groups. 130 TABLE 20 BELIEFS REGARDING EFFECT OF SELLING AND ADVERTISING EFFORT ON HAPPINESS, BY.MAJOR GROUPS If selling and advertising Seniors . . . . .. . . . 1. '. . . . . . . . I n , . Sales influence or create consumer wants, the Non-Commerce Marketing ' Executives effects are . . . No. No. No. % Principally to make people happier, by getting them to change habits and buy more and dif ferent things 61 21.0 32 60.4 130 80.3 Mainly to keep people discontented, try ing to satisfy artificial wants, and to keep up with ; the Jones’ and with fashion changes 70 24.0 4 7.6 4 2.5 .Partly to make people ' happier, partly to make them discontented 114 39.2 11 20.8 25 15.4 ; Other opinion, or no j opinion 45 15.5 6 11.3 3 1.9 [Multiple answers 1 .3 • • • • I 1 Total 291 100,0 53 100.0 152 100.0 i 131 Attitudes toward the Ethics of Selling i Purpose of selling I Sales managers and other persons not infrequently j asserted that salesmanship, as practiced by salesmen, is I only different from the persuasion which everyone exerts, I in that salesmen do it better. Contrary views were also encountered during the preliminary work, and Table 21 presents results of a question used to gauge opinion on the subject. Approximately a half of both non-commerce and marketing seniors indicated the belief that, morally, salesmanship is not different from persuasion used by everyone. About a third of non-commerce seniors were of I the opinion that it is different, by reason of its I I purpose. A significantly larger proportion of marketing I seniors than of non-commerce seniors was unable to adopt I either of these positions. : Two-third of sales executives indicated the ! belief that it is not different, and one-sixth resorted j to the "Other opinion, or no opinion" alternate, j Truthfulness in selling I There were numerous clues uncovered during the I advance work, regarding beliefs that a sales job forces I the individual to compromise with strict truthfulness. Experimentation was done with a variety of wordings for 132 TABLE 21 ] B I S I j I 3 S P ; 3 B3S(MÙRÏ)I]NG D Ï ( ) f U l I , I)IP]?E:R]SrTC]S J B I S T ' I W G K E & N - 82S&[,:[IfG j l N T ) C K T t C B R I % S R 8 U ; U 3 ] [ C N N i , 3 3 Y 24jL J()R C l R O U f Z S Compared with the persuading or "selling" which everyone.does, the salesmanship Non- Seniors commerce Marketing Sales Executives exerted by sales men is . . . No. % No. f o No. % Different, morally, since its purpose is to influence the prospect for the self-interest of the salesman and his employer 95 32.6 10 18.9 20 12.3 Not any different, morally, since self-interest may often be involved 148 50.8 27 50.9 109 67.3 Other opinion, or no opinion 46 15.8 15 28.3 27 16.7 Multiple answers 1 1.9 1 .6 No answer 2 .7 .... 5 3.1 Total .291 100.0 53 100.0 162 100.0 133 an item to measure this belief, and Table 22 sets forth results of the one finally employed. j The majority of seniors, and over a fourth of the I executives, selected the qualified statement. Since | variations in attitudes toward different kinds of selling will be dealt with separately. Table 23 is more useful for the present purpose of analyzing opinions of respond ents who .did not discriminate between kinds of sales jobs, but were willing to generalize on this subject. Among these, nearly three-fourths of non-commerce seniors acquiesced to the statement that selling' jobs require more compromise with the truth. Over 90 per cent of executives indicated the statement to be untrue, although a few agreed. The distribution of marketing seniors’ unqualified answers fell between those of non commerce seniors and executives, differing significantly from both. Attitudes toward the Social Status of Selling Professional status of selling The preliminary investigation revealed a con siderable degree of agreement as to the relative eligibility of several kinds of selling, to professional status. Technical, sales engineering is generally accorded the best claim, with wholesale selling ranking 134 TABLE 22 BELIEFS REGARDING TRUTHFULNESS OF SELLING, BY MAJOR GROUPS It has been said that a salesman’s Seniors Sales job requires him to "shade the truth" more than Non-commerce Marketing Executives some other jobs. This is . . . No. i o No. No. % True 80 27.5 8 15.1 11 6.8 Untrue 27 9.3 17 32.1 105 64.8 True for some kinds of selling."jobs, not for others 182 6 2 .6 27 50.9 46 28.4 No answer 2 .7 1 1.9 Total 291 100.0 53 100.0 162 100.0 135 TABIE 23 UNQUALIFIED ANSWERS, TRUTHFULNESS It has been said that a salesman’s Job requires him to shade the truth more than some other jobs. This is . . . Non- Seniors commerce Marketing Sales Executives No. No. f o No. True 80 74.0 8 3 2 .0 11 6.9 Untrue 27 2 6 .0 17 68.0 105 93.1 Total 107 100.0 25 100.0 116 100.0 136 below, and retail selling still lower. Somewhat greater variation was encountered in the placement of insurance selling, real estate brokerage, and door-to-door selling, but the first two tended to be placed near the level of the wholesale salesman, and the door-to-door salesman was ■ ranked near the retail sales person.^ i I This ranking permits the development of a scale j for determining how far "down" the respondent is willing I to apply the term "profession." Table 24 presents the ; results of such a question, I Seventy per cent of sales executives extended professional status to wholesale salesmen, while 50 per cent of marketing seniors did so. Only 25 per cent of i I engineering seniors accorded professional status to ‘ wholesale salesmen, and less than 40 per cent of other 'non-commerce seniors did so. i Rating of sales engineering as a profession was significantly higher among engineering students than ; among any of the other groups. j Education required for selling I Another factor affecting the social status of I occupations is the educational requirement. Business men I ' express varying degrees of preference for college trained ^Cf. findings by Deeg and Patterson, reported on pp. 36-37. 137 OJ a s I § 1- 3 u C Î 3 s I ê CO I CO § H 00 I o H g 00 I 8 o • H c ( D 00 C O C D > m «H Q) - P r - i ^ 3 W o CO o -P I C 5 ( 1) U C D I O 0 1 c ê g • H U 0 ) 0 ) c •H I u m X ! ë ( d o s - p r - o d 0 o »H •H 1 —1 CQ ÇL, m Q , 0 ( d ( p o 0 !h X ) a r ^ rp E U 0 0 a - p o 0 a g ê S S, ê en cA L T V HI C M d m V D r — I 00 C M en C M C M m o n t - xt o • 1 - 3 0 0 I —) c d 0 CP O " B 3 S o H 3 d - P 0 \o I H on on 0 1 — 1 C M 3 d " 0 P v o 3 d - C M L A C M C M 3 d * 0 - C D 1 — 1 O 0 0 G \ 0 0- t H 3 d " 1 — 1 0 1 — 1 r P o n 0 1 — 1 o \ o \ 0 0 P o n H L A t H k O P C M 0 m o n P P 0 - = t i p P 0 1 — 1 o- ( — 1 C T v P 1 — 1 on H 0 0 C M on on 0 0 \o o n 3 d " 1 — 1 0 C M H C M 0 1 — 1 l A 0 0 P C M 0 in C M L A p C M b O ' - ^ - — s C 0 0 • p 0 • r 4 ü T 3 0 o ( d T 5 $ 4 4 3 0 0 * • % - p 0 d 0 0 P X H 0 0 c d 4 - 1 ü 1 ( d f H « \ c 0 o 0 0 0 0 • H 4 3 • H n m X 5 ^ 0 0 " — 1 c m 0 ^ 0 ' H 0 X + 3 *H H 0 $ 4 0 0 O ü U T J c d 4 3 0 X 0 0 0 o C 0 0 4 3 0 0 g _ , sx> c d 0 0 •o X ? o I — 1 0 C d U (d n 0 4 3 < P 0 " O q 0 4 - > ' < P b O X 0 0 C 0 C g 0 P 0 • H C o • H 0 4 3 0 • H 4 3 U u Î 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 T J $ 4 0 0 f e $ 4 a (p 0 C > a 0 ^ c d 0 4 3 • H ^ 4 H ♦ H 4 3 0 1 — 1 b O 0 0 b O b O 0 n 0 ! h 0 X C Ü C g 0 0 Tî , P 0 P 0 • H » H 0 • H * P f — 1 0 P g 0 X S I — I a 0 P 0 0 P m 0 0 0 r — 1 O J 0 4 3 c 0 c d X 0 0 0 0 0 0 i H s 0 r P 0 G $ 4 P $ 4 ( d c d 1 — 1 G 0 0 0 0 < S sales applicants. An attempt was made to measure the effectiveness of such preference by opinion as to whether a premium should be paid for it. Table 25 shows that by far the majority of sales executives did not feel that any premium should be paid for a college degree, for salesmen. Opinion among both marketing and non-commerce seniors was about evenly divided as to whether a premium should be paid for a college degree, in starting upon a sales job. It is sometimes asserted that, starting from the same base pay or on the same commission rate, the college-trained salesman will soon be able to sell enough more to repay the time, cost and effort required for a degree. Replies to a question on this point, restricted to wholesale selling for more precise measure ment, are shown in Table 2 6* There are reasons for believing that the affirmative answers with respect to the value of the degree are substantially inflated by related considerations. Discussion in the preliminary interviews, and comments written in on the questionnaire^ suggest that answers partly reflected convictions about the social or cultural benefits of a college education, or of the desirability of such an education if the ^"Education is a wonderful thing," "None of these would hurt a person," "I’m all for a college education," etc. 139 TABLE 25 BELIEFS REGARDING PREMIUM FOR COLLEGE DEGREE FOR SELLING, BY MAJOR GROUPS When starting on Seniors Sales a certain sales job, a college graduate should Non-commerce Marketing Executives be paid . . . No. No. No. More than a similar non-college man 133 45.7 23 43.4 25 15.4 The same as a similar non college man 107 36.8 22 41.5 120 74.2 Other opinion, or no opinion 49 16,8 7 13.2 15 9.3 Multiple answers 1 1.9 No answers 2 .7 11 11.1 2 1.2 Total 291 100.0 53 100.0 162 100.0 140 TABLE 26 I BELIEFS REGARDING ECONOMIC DESIRABILITY OF DEG ; FOR SELLING, BY MAJOR GROUPS ■ ■ — T " ' " —- r — . : . ..., —- V . , ' . , , From the standpoint of actually in Seniors Sales creasing His sales, il would repay a wholesale sales Non-commerce Marketing Executives man's time and ef fort, to . . . No. f o No, % No. f o Have devoted four years to a college course in business 123 43.0 26 49.1 78 57.3 Have devoted two years to a college course in business 69 24.1 16 30.2 28 20.6 Just take evening courses in sales manship, or study at home 35 12.2 4 7.5 12 8.8 Other opinion, or no opinion 58 20.3 7 13.2 13 9.6 Multiple answers 1 .4 ♦ • • ♦ 5 3.7 Total 286 100.0 53 100.0 136 100.0 I4l salesman were later promoted to a managerial position, and the like. Even so, less than 60 per cent of executives and I less than 50 per cent of seniors indicated belief that a I four-year college course in business is economically I desirable for a wholesale salesman. Others favored a I two-year course, evening classes or home study, or I indicated "Other opinion or no opinion." I Some of the "other opinions" may have related to I ... ' I curricula other than business, but the general adequacy I of the alternates offered is indicated by the fact that i I the "other opinion" and "no opinion" answers totaled I only about 20 per cent among non-commerce seniors, and I considerably less among marketing seniors and sales i ! executives. I I Beliefs reducing respect i 'for' selling Î In addition to measuring the distribution of ! opinion on various attitude scales relating to selling, it is desirable to attempt to determine their relative I influence or weight on the net standing of selling. To I avoid self-consciousness, the question was put in I attributive form, and results are reported in Table 2 7. I I Among non-commerce seniors other than engineers, the largest number indicated that the belief regarding exaggeration and insincerity is the most critical. Also, 142 0 -= t 0 0 e u MO en tn e n o 0 > 0 0 V O o - m t n e u 0 - o 0 •iH CM e u e u o 0 4 3 1 —1 1 —1 d • 0 ü o V X rH ■ = t C 3\ rH 0 * E - e u 0 3 0 s # rH ■ = t 0 * v o 1 —1 k O O en en 0 0 , o w • * d e u h- 0 0 rH o • • o •r - e u 1 —1 eu H eu » o 43 1 —! 0 * o OJ o \ m V D rH • • e n S s 1 —f rH H t n 0 w 3 ± 0 - o \ o \ v o eu eu o $4 d • # O •H en 3 j" t n 0 - OO v o rH o •H $4 eu eu e u M o 0 0 iH 0 O 0 m g. d • 0 *H o o 1—{ 0 - rH t n rH H E w % rH eu eu H 0 0 e d o M ü 1 t n v o o en 0 * m t n o c . o ( 0 \ E — o 0 * 0 - e n o s $4 rH rH ■ 0 ' rH o 0 rH X X # o o 1 —1 0 - 0 " o \ e u t H H o s cn 0 0 0 " 1 —1 e u X o u • o 0 î>a X 4 3 0 0 d 1 0 rH 0 X 0 !>s d 0 Q , rH G . 0 d o $4 O 0 X o u 0 •H bO 0 0 o 4 3 rH 0 d a d 1 —1 H 0 0 0 0 0 X o b û 0 0 H X 0 O 0 O • O H 0 X $4 a ,isî d 0 c 4 3 d 0 0 o n ü X X o 0 0 0 • bO X 0 0 •H o *H d 0 O ^ a X S $ 4 0 4 3 $4 0 • d 0 E a 0 $4 o a x 0 d 0 U •H s ?4 O 0 d • o •H 0 0 bO 0 U 'O 0 bO X X 0 0 d rH 4 3 0 X u b û 0 d g 0 0 r H 0 d 0 X, 0 0 d 0 o 0 O 0 X o d K d 0 o d • r i d T 3 4 3 a x X, * » v 0 d " d 0 d 0 rH O •H d ' O 0 •H $ 4 0 b O 0 O x ; 0 d 0 d 0 O d • X 0 0 X C a d d 0 X 0 X d 0 bû o rH 5 O • H 0 H i H X s *H s X - H E d X 0 E - ( r 4 0 d X 0 0 > 0 d 0 0 H $4 •H d rH d a x O 0 d 0 U d 0 X 0 X 0 0 E r H H r H 4 3 H i H X X rH m r H 0 0 0 X d o < 03 0 3 03 o S s 143 in comparison with sales executives, they accorded less importance to the belief that "Anyone can get a sales | job," and more to the consideration that salesmen push in I where not invited, and press people to buy. Engineers were significantly different from other non-commerce seniors only in lower concern about exaggeration and insincerity, perhaps reflecting identification with sales engineering. The largest number of executives selected the belief that "Almost anyone can get a sales job" as the principal reason selling does not enjoy greater respect. A not significantly smaller number indicated that the belief regarding exaggeration and insincerity by salesmen is the principal one. Marketing students differed significantly from sales executives only in being more concerned about salesmen pushing in and pressing people to buy. The significantly larger proportion of "Other opinion or no opinion" and omitted answers among sales executives than among non-commerce seniors suggests that this question was disturbing to the executives. Variation in Attitudes by Kind of Selling Consideration has thus far been confined to responses which were not differentiated by kind of zit-bjgçngj: to _quMtify._the_ varl^ior^ in ___ 144 attitudes toward different kinds of selling, one question dealing with social usefulness, one with ethics, and one with social status was framed to permit responses qualified in this respect. A recapitulation of these qualified answers is presented in Table 28. On all of these questions, the majority of both non-commerce and marketing seniors did select the quali fied alternate, which indicates that attitudes toward a certain kind of selling Job may vary widely from generalized attitudes toward selling. Substantially smaller proportions of sales executives agreed with the qualified statements, which suggests that the conscious attitudes of sales executives are less differentiated according to type of selling than are those of college seniors, or are more rigid. Perceptions of Wholesale Selling A set of questions relating to perceptions of sales Jobs and the taking of sales Jobs, was included for a number of purposes. One purpose was to determine belief regarding the conditions under which a person would take a sales Job. Another was to determine, insofar as possible, the advantages and disadvantages of which respondents were most aware, or about which they were most concerned. Still another purpose was to make possible a p_qrr^latipnjwith personal interest in selling. 145 TABLE 28 EXPRESSIONS QUALIFIED BY KINDS OF SELLING Per Cent of Answers Qualified Seniors Sales Non-commerce Marketing Executives "If there were 10 per cent fewer sales men in the United States, of some kinds, we would be better off 53.9 5 2 .8 24.1 "It has been said that a salesman’s job requires him to ’shade the truth’ more than some other jobs. This is true for some kinds of selling jobs, not for others 6 2 .6 50.9 2 8 .4 "The term ’profession* may properly be applied to only some kinds of sales jobs. 7 8 .4 64.2 5 2 .4 aiable 16, p. 122. ^Table 22, p. 134. ^Table 23, p. 135- Total for answers other than "All kinds of sales jobs." 146 for determination of most critical perceptions. The final purpose was to identify differences in expectations about sales jobs, between potential sales applicants and employers• The exploratory work indicated that these perceptions and differences vary from one kind of sales job to another, just as they indicated that social evaluations vary. To obtain meaningful responses for perceptions of sales jobs, it was believed necessary to narrow consideration to one kind of selling job. Whole sale selling was selected as best meeting the following requirements: (a) between the extremes on the prestige scale for sales jobs ; (b) authoritatively described; (c) common usage substantially agrees with authoritative description; (d) reasonably homogeneous; (e) generally known about; (f) important numerically; and (g) not excluded to anyone by reason of educational or other formal requirements. The wording of the questions was directed to college students, in order to best reflect their own attitudes toward selling jobs. It is not likely that most respondents would choose different answers for non college graduates, and so the answers probably approximate those for the more general wording, "Why does any body . . ." 147 Why graduates take wholesale se One approach to measuring personal orientâtion toward selling is that of determining beliefs regarding the conditions under which— "why"— people take sales jobs. Different beliefs on this point, which were fre quently encountered during the preliminary work, were cataloged and particularized to college seniors and wholesale selling. The results are shown in Table 29. The majority of sales executives were of the opinion that the principal reason college graduates take wholesale sales job is by preference and plan. A significantly smaller percentage of non-commerce seniors believed this, and a larger proportion than of sales executives indicated that the principal reason is that such jobs are easy to obtain. A significantly larger percentage of non-commerce seniors than executives checked "Other opinion or no opinion." Expressions of marketing seniors, with one minor exception, again fell between those of non-commerce seniors and sales executives. Why graduates want wholesale selling jobs Table 29 indicates that many persons did not believe that college graduates take wholesale sales jobs principally by preference. To ascertain the strongest ■xe.ag-Qns for preferring such Jobs, a^separate_questlon was^ 148 TABIE 29 BELIEFS REGARDING WHY GRADUATES TAKE WHOLESALE SALES JOBS, BY MAJOR GROUPS The principal reason Seniors Sales why college grad uates' taice whole sale sales jobs Non-commerce Marketing Executives probably is . . . No. No. No. Preference (After logical considera tion; planned) 124 43.3 28 52 .8 74 55.2 Chance (Family con nections, friends, past contacts, etc. ) 38 13.3 7 13.2 28 2 0 .9 Easy to get into (Hot prepared for any other specific work, or couldn’t get preferred work) 58 20.3 7 13.2 14 10.5 Other opinion, or no opinion 62 21.7 11 2 0 .8 14 10 .5 Multiple answers 4 1.4 2 1 .5 No answer . 2 1.5 Total 286 100.0 53 100.0 134 100.0 149 applied to graduates taking such jobs by preference. Such a question invites the respondent to project what are, to him, the most appropriate conditions or cogent reasons for taking such a job. Results are shown in Table 30. A clear majority of all groups thought graduates take such jobs principally as stepping stones to other jobs. The qualitative interviews indicated that the "other" preferred jobs were usually managerial, although some regarded sales positions as entrees to jobs in ; other departments. I A significantly smaller proportion of non-commercej seniors selected the reason, "Good lifetime career," and j a larger proportion selected "Good general experience and ' a chance to look around," than sales executives. Marketing seniors were significantly lower than either non-commerce seniors or sales executives on "Good lifetime career," and significantly higher on "Stepping stone." Attraction of wholesale selling as a career As indicated supra, a minority of executives and a few seniors conceived of wholesale selling as a lifetime career. The principal attractions such jobs have, as a lifetime career, were judged as shown by Table 31. Among all groups, the largest proportion selected income or income possibilities as the principal 15 0 TABLE 30 BELIEFS REGARDING WHY GRADUATES WANT WHOLESALE SALES JOBS, BY MAJOR GROUPS — --- ----- - — .— College graduates who take wholesale sales jobs by Seniors Sales preference and plan, probably do so principally Non-commerce Marketing Executives because they believe such jobs afford , . . No. No. 0 No. % A good lifetime career for them 44 1 5 .4 3 5.7 34 2 5 .4 A good stepping stone to other jobs in the company or industry 166 58 .0 42 7 9 .3 86 64.2 Good general exper ience, and a chance to make some money while looking around 49 17.1 4 7 .5 8 6.0 Other opinion or no opinion 20 7 .0 4 7 .5 4 3 .0 Multiple answers 7 2 .5 1 .7 No answer 1 .7 Total 286 100.0 53 100.0 134 100.0 151 TABLE 31 BELIEFS REGARDING PRINCIPAL ATTRACTIONS OF WHOLESAIE SELLING AS A CAREER, BY MAJOR GROUPS The chief, actual attraction about Seniors ...... Sales wholesale sell ing, as a life time career. Non-commerce Marketing Executives probably is . . . No, f o No. No. % Opportunity to deal with people 42 14.7 5 9.4 28 20.9 Income, income possibilities 115 40.2 20 37.7 73 54.5 Freedom, "own boss" 43 15.0 10 18.9 5 3.7 Variety, travel, action 40 14.0 5 9.4 4 3 .0 Other opinion, or no opinion 34 11 .9 12 2 2 .5 8 6.0 Multiple answers 11 3 .8 1 1.9 16 11.9 No answer 1 .4 • • Total 286 100.0 53 100.0 134 100.0 152 attraction, bût a signifieantTÿ~Targer proportion bf | sales managers indicated it, than non-commerce or market- ! ing seniors* The second largest number of executives I I pointed to "Opportunity to deal with p e o p l e Marketing | I I I seniors marked this alternative significantly less I frequently. Non-commerce and marketing seniors gave I approximately equal number of votes to "Opportunity to j deal with people," "Freedom, ’own boss,’" and "Variety, I travel, action." i I Apparently the executives found that the listed I alternates adequately recognized the advantages of I wholesale selling, since only 6 per cent indicated I "Other opinion, or no opinion," A significantly larger I number of marketing seniors checked this answer. A I significantly larger proportion of sales managers, than I of non-commerce or marketing seniors, marked multiple ; answers. I : Objections to wholesale m selling jobs Turning to negative aspects, respondents were offered lists of three categories of complaints about wholesale selling jobs and asked to indicate which item of each category they supposed to be most frequent and serious, Then, they were asked which category of com plaints they judged to be most serious. For analysis, the results of the last question are presented first, in 153 Table 32. All three categories received substantial recognition, among all groups, Among marketing seniors, the distribution of vote was so nearly even that the differences are not significant for the number of respondents concerned. The largest proportion of non-commerce students pointed to emotional and nervous strain as the worst objection. The majority of executives, on the other hand, felt that complaints relating to hours and travel are the most serious. Emotional strains in whole's ale " " " s e 11 ing' ! On the question regarding emotional and nervous | I strain, a choice of five kinds of causes was offered, as portrayed in Table 33* A significantly larger number of sales executives than seniors did not answer, which | suggests that they had difficulty in dealing with the subject. Frustrations, uncertainties and disappointments were selected as worst by the largest number of all groups, except that marketing seniors gave the same number of votes to "Pressure from management," which was second among all the other groups. A smaller proportion of non-commerce seniors, though a significantly larger ratio than of sales i 154 TABLE 32 BELIEFS REGARDING MOST SERIOUS KINDS OF OBJECTIONS TO WHOIESALE SELLING JOBS .....-.. — - - -- - , BY MAJOR GROUPS Of the complaints about wholesale selling jobs, in Seniors Sales the above three questions, do you feel that the Non-commerce Marketing Executives most serious are those relating to . . . .. ... No. f o No. % No. f o Hours and travel 50 17.7 15 28.3 55 41.7 Economic or financial matters 83 2 9 .3 17 32.1 32 24.2 Emotional and nervous strain 143 5 0 .5 21 39.6 40 30.3 No answer 7 2 .5 • • ♦ • 5 3 .8 Total 283 100.0 53 100.0 132 100.0 155 15 I H p i s B O g S §i H H » |i p: O JH p g M og I I m CQ M r x , 3 M S pq S o C 0 8] m 0 > 0 *H 0 43 r H 0 0 O C Q 0 bO i d • H X I 0 u 0 I o 0 1 G ê G • H s q 0 0 C • H I $ 4 © X ë p ê ê ê o\ v o o L A r H o i N O O ç n m 0 1 r H N O C M b- O 0 " 01 O t H U) t - 0 C M o O e n O O J m 0 r H e n r H o O 0 0 Ol , O N O 0 " 0 o \ O N r H • 1 — 1 o m o i r H • o r H 00 00 m L A N O , 1 — 1 e n r H HI L A LQ O o L A O L A L A O b — in L A O J L A O J C M o m C M r H r H o 1 — 1 o o C M O 0 C M C M o 01 O J r H H e o 0 - v o 0 0 0 d L A O o U) b - 00 O J O J r H r H o e n O J 1 — 1 I — 1 o r H 0 b— v o L A o i C M e n b - m r H O J ( M o H 1 0 I- - 1 X $ 4 d 1 u J s J 0 o O X •H 0 0 X d X d d 0 o 0 X s d d C k o d p o d • V 0 X 0 • f H X d 0 O 0 0 $ 4 X 0 0 d S X 0 o o O X X O O X X X X 0 o 0 lo ••N d X U • H o • H > d T D 0 •H d S 0 0 0 0 0 o X d O 0 0 E d H > a X 0 > 0 0 o a s • i H •H a 0 0 0 ^ 4 0 o •H a 0 b O o X o • * \ 5 rH s X 0 b O 0 X 0 X X 0 d 0 0 0 0 1 — 1 0 0 a D u o O 0 0 $ 4•H d Ch 0 d d d p X X p 0 d û, 0 o o s 0 0 d 0 O " 0 E O 0 H X X 0 0 H O d p X o 0 X o 0 0 0 X X J 4 d 0 S m X d •H X o X rH 0 d X 0 0 O 0 p X a 0 H X 0 X 0 0 H 0 rH $ 4 0 0 X p O 0 d d rH 0 0 0 0 X 1 — 1 b O d 0 « V a 0 0 H t o O 0 0 0 0 0 0 H u O P X X O •H X X 0 0 H 0 0 H X d 0 u 0 X 0 0 X r H H X X X O X o X H r H g: X o d 9 * Ü d d d 0 O X X • iH •H 0 a 0 o s d O d 0 * ( H O 0 U u > $4 d « H d • iH 0 o ^ d X 0 X 0 o H 0 rH d 0 H a X 0 0 X 0 0 B 0 a < D•H X P d H O S S , A P OJ rH 0 X g 156 executives, pointed to "Obliged to play role," and "Push in, press people to buy," and, except for engineers, to "Inferior positions," as the worst serious source of emotional strain from such jobs. Economic objections to wholesale selling jobs’ Among economic complaints about wholesale sales jobs. Table 34 reveals that non-commerce seniors were most concerned about uncertainty and insecurity— "Income varies too much," and "Insecurity; not building security for later years," and few indicated "Earnings too low," or "Not enough opportunity for increase or advancement." In contrast, executives were least conscious of insecurity disadvantages, and chose disputes as the most serious objection. Significantly more executives than non-commerce seniors pointed to low earnings and inadequate opportunity for advancement as most objectionable. Marketing seniors’ answers again fell between those of sales executives and other seniors. Hours and travel objections bo wholesale selling As shown in Table 35> the largest proportion of all groups indicated "Travel away from home" as the most serious of complaints relating to hours and travel. Executives and marketing seniors felt that paper work and other home work was the second most serious, while irregular hours and night work were indicated by a larger 157 \cn CQ K O r4 in 0- CO 00 p o (D > c n (3\ o vo o CO VO o CQ• f ~ p (\] p CO o C D , p p 1 —1 'P • w O o CO C\] 0- CM o in 00 CM CO p P CVJ CVJ CO P in ch K O -St » O s o Ü0 c in -=t CO Oi VO • p o •r; C\J rH (M CM o p p CD • O CO CO o CM • 1 —I CO a p p P P in m o in o O in CM 00 o U d 'eR. o p in tr o in [>- P CO o •H Hi 1 —1 p p o Q> <D p 0> O 0 m d • (D H o -=t CD 00 <M 1 —I CO o ; 2 hO CO p p 00 5 o I -=t o\ 00 o\ p in -St ■ o 3 in o o t- I —f p CM o CO p CM CM o 0 p P P O ' • p CO OJ tP CO CO in •=t o p VO C\J in -St o s CM P 3 o O T3 • V O o p u m 0 p «5 CQ O P U 0 0 o P O" p d bOcO •H •H CQ D ta 0 d 0 ? - i • » S P •I-5P P p f>> s P î>5 O 0 o d ta c 3 o P 0 no p d d •HI f c l O O T4 p P o p ^ •H O o (Ü d S d E d d •H 0 Sh ‘ H o rH •H 0 P cO P P 0 QiP CQ CQ o p > P cd 0 0 e M •rJ o di P p P P 0 Q) o CD o p O cO p s u CQ o m 0 p a o u P E 0 CD CQ CO m a d d o d o SZ r-i <D O o 0 o o p o o 0 -P CO 1 —1 o*p o •H p d p (0 a d p b p 0 cO n cd 1 —1 o CQ P 0 cO bO 0 p p 0 u cS o d <D 0 P > P (0 P 'rl 0 0 0 0 p cO P_l cr bO O 0 u u 0 bO i —! o md d D P 0 d 0 d u p p p d a 0 EH O *H P o p s 0 o O Ü P (0 •H d •H W 2 d o d 0 0 OiP P cd d g p p m 0 0 O P (0 d o d T4 P o M p H Q s % 158 in C O E4 m U O P d 0 CO ra © > m p 0 P H P c d o CO 0 d p p I 0 u 0 o 0 1 d ê d 44 d l 0 d •H I 0 u 0 P ë P 0 o* P P 0 o c d0 P P 0 0 O c d 0 O P p A U 0 O Oi 0 P P P 0 d ^ 0 p P c d d d d P o O c d a G P P O 0 o d o > P 0 ( d P 0 u 0 o’ 0 p p 0 0 O Î H p p '"-ap p d c dbOP p d 0 O 0 P o P s P P r * i Ü o 0 0 p p 0 P p ;s 0- o P CM CM o 03 v o VO m CM CD m CM O P P CM V O in CO • S t P 0- CO CO p 00 CM c o 03 * 03 o CO CO CM CO • P o P VO P * o p g CM l > - CO o * P CO CO p in CM CM in 00 ; CM o VO P CO • 1 — 1 o CO sf p • o p P m in CO p P o CM CO p CO o\ VO CO CO o in o ■ = t p 1 —1 (33 CM CD CM VO O P O o - S t in o zt p s d " ^ 4 p - S t CM CM CD P CM 0 p G O O O P P P G • V G • O O Ü o u P p < p 0 S h c d c d u p c d O 0 P ^ G 0 b O p o u w 0 0 U P 0 d > 0 o C d C u p 0 p P d l U c d c d d o P Qi c d P o o g 0 C d o o P p d 0 0 p p p p o o o P o p p d TÎ O, 0 EH 0 0 b O G G P d d i d P 0 P c d p p d O O P P o o o o d o P p E h E h 159 proportion of non-commerce seniors. Size of company favored From Table 36, size of company appears to be an Important consideration, since only about a fifth of each group felt that It should be disregarded by a graduate seeking a wholesale sales job. The greater proportion of each group Indicated preference for the larger company, although the differ ence was not so great among sales executives as among seniors. Personal Interest In Wholesale Selling One of the Important attitudes to be measured was the personal orientation of seniors toward sales jobs. Since differences In attitudes by kind of job were Indicated as being so Important, the question was scaled by type of selling, rather than "prefer-conslder- not consider,” as applying to a single kind of sales job. Earlier versions Included other kinds of selling, and the Item was revised several times. The stem of the question had to be altered for sales executives' version of the questionnaire, as shown In Table 37, and their results are, therefore, not strictly comparable. Almost a half of engineering seniors Indicated ±hat_.they_jwould -C.onside r_s a le s_ engineering jobs... . . When___ 160 TABLE 36 SIZE OP COMPANY FAVORED, BY MAJOR GROUPS A young college' man, married, is con sidering applying for wholesale sales positions. He would be wiser to . . . Seniors Non-commerce Marketing No. No. $ Sales Executives No. Apply at larger, better known, better established companies which often have better selection, training and advertising programs [Apply at smaller i companies for a : chance at higher Income, faster j growth and ! advancement Disregard these mat ters, and consider other factors Multiple answers I No answer 159 56 .2 29 54.7 60 4 5 .4 63 2 2 .3 12 2 2 .7 45 34.1 59 2 0 .8 11 2 0 .7 23 1 7 .4 .7 .8 1 1.9 3 2 .3 Total 283 100.0 53 100.0 132 100.0 161 S 8 ë s M O 0 V O O L A zt O 0 • > r 4 r - i O 0- O 0 •H vo C M t — 1 o 0 - P i H K 1 — 1 0 C d O o 0 3 zj - O - C M C M m 0 0 3 cn r-i r - i v o g r — i w L A L A I — 1 0 3 O Ü O O o- C M r - i o •H L A en o - P r - i 0 # U o i H ! > - r - i e n â s en 1 — i L A 0 w e n C M V O o U a • o • r i t >- 0 0 zt « o • r i fi 1 — i zt en • o d 0 0 r- i 0 O 0 m G • 0 • r i o zt 0 3 00 • r - i G r — i en C M • 0 0 S C O M o 1 r- i V O 0 0 L A O d • o 0 0 t - en o % u C M vo o 0 1 — 1 X : 4 ? O 03 v o zt r - i o s lA iH I en r-i r - i C M 0 > 0 < W X I * o fi O • 0 o 0 4 - 3 0 O • I — 1 b O 0 - 4 0 0 C d a •H ^ 0 0 • r i •H 0 r - i 0 i ~ i O U r H I r — i 0 f - - 1 O O c 0 Î H r - i 1 3 X : o 0 b O (0 " 0 c d f — I O q O i — i • 0 w b O 0 • r i 0 O 0 0 r - i U ( d O • O g d •H •H c d 0 r - i fi 0 0 0 • H e r — i h O 0 0 C < a % H 0 0 0 0 r - i n - i 0 • » ô - l 0 •H c O b O * » 0 > 0 o fi • r i X : C r - i 0 0 - 4 T J • r i U 0 0 b O g 0 fi c d M r — t •H - P 0 c r - i 0 C 0 - p O 0 0 0 0 o C d C 0 fi 0 o •H 0 C O f i 0 0 Ti 0 0 0 B C ! > 5 o 0 c d 0 h O 0 . XI r-i c s S o o c d r-i 0 0 - P C d c d m M O 0 r-i • r i 0 î S c d 0 O 0 3 S 162 engineers are combined with other non-commerce students, as in Table 38, about a fourth would consider wholesale selling jobs. About six out of ten marketing students would consider wholesale sales jobs. And a similar proportion of sales executives Indicated that they would be pleased If a son chose wholesale selling as a career. The proportion of omitted answers to this question was significantly higher among executives than among the other groups* These omissions were also enough greater than the rate of omission among executives on all . questions to be significant. This suggests that the ! question aroused conflict among them, and throws doubt | upon the validity of the result. These data may be | compared with the findings of an earlier national survey. In this national study, businessmen were asked the less leading question, "If you had a son twenty-two years old, ! what business or profession would you like to see him go Into?" Selling received about 3 per cent of preferences.^ Further attention Is given to this matter Infra, In con nection with "Clinical Hypotheses." Summary of Findings Regarding Attitudes toward Selling The seniors did not credit selling in general with ^Hadley Cantrll (ed.). Public Opinion, 1935-1946 (Princeton: Princeton Univers It y Pres s, 1'9 51) » P. 163 TABIE 38 CONSIDERATION OP WHOLESALE SELLING AS A CAREER, PER CENT, BY GROUPS Group Per Cent Considering Seniors Non-commerce Other 28.1 Engineering 17.3 Total Non-commerce 25.1 Marketing 58.5 Sales executives^ 61.6 &Would like son to choose. 164 much contribution èiiher'To “ material standard of living' T I or to human happiness. But they indicated that respect ! for it is impaired principally by ethical judgments, ; relating to exaggeration, part truths, insincerity, I purposes and methods* Sales executives* evaluations of ■ the ethics of selling were substantially higher, and | their estimates of its social contributions, and | professional status, were.far more favorable. ! Sales engineering was more highly regarded than j wholesale selling, and seniors discriminated between kinds of selling more sharply than executives. On most ' items, expressions of marketing seniors fell between i those of non-commerce seniors and executives. | I Seniors indicated that income and income I possibilities are the principal attractions about wholesale selling jobs as careers, but that graduates regard such jobs principally as traineeships. Most executives agreed that graduates take wholesale sales jobs principally as stepping stones, but accorded more importance to income than seniors did. Seniors felt that the worst objections were various uncertainties and insecurities, and emotional strain, from frustrations, disappointments, and pressure from management. More executives were conscious of complaints about travel, disputes (about territories, commissions, changes, etc.) and lack of opportunity for 165 j advancement, on wholesale sales jobs. I More of the club members favored the larger than I the smaller organization for the starting graduate I salesman, and the proportion was still greater among i I seniors. ! One executive in six, and less than half of ! I seniors, felt that any premium should be paid a starting I salesman for a college education. A little more than half of executives, and less than half of seniors indicated belief that a four-year college course in business wouldIrepay itself to a wholesale salesman, in increased sales. About four out of ten non-commerce seniors believed that college graduates take wholesale selling jobs principally by preference, and one-fourth of them, and 60 per cent of marketing seniors, indicated that they would consider such jobs themselves. Six out of ten executives indicated that they would like to have a son choose wholesale selling as a career. Relationship of Attitude Findings to the Hypotheses Significant relationships in the data presented in this chapter support the first five hypotheses for the quantitative stage of this study. The first of these hypotheses was that attitudes 166 exist among university seniors and sales executives with I I respect to social evaluations of selling. The distribu tions of responses on all items of social evaluation of selling among non-commerce seniors, marketing seniors and I sales executives, differed sufflcienbly from those which i could occur by chance at a .reasonable level of | probability, to Justify the conclusions that such | attitudes do exist among these groups, and that the hypothesis is supported. The second hypothesis was that these social ! evaluations of selling differ by kinds of selling. i Significant differences in expressions on items of social ; I evaluation, by kinds' of selling, were found among all i these groups, supporting this hypothesis. ‘ The third hypothesis was that differences in social evaluation of selling exist between the groups. The distributions of answers on all items of social evaluation differed significantly between non-commerce seniors and sales executives. Distributions of responses of marketing seniors almost without exception fell between those of non-commerce seniors and sales executives, differing significantly from one or the other group on every item, and from both on some items. Differences in social evaluations of selling between these groups were thus demonstrated, supporting the hypothesis. 167 The fourth hypothesis was that perceptions of certain kinds of sales jobs exist among these university seniors and sales executives. With the exception of one item among the fewer marketing seniors, distributions of answers on all items of perception of wholesale selling, among all groups, differed from those which could occur by chance at normal levels of confidence, demonstrating the existence of such perceptions, and confirming the hypothesis. The fifth hypothesis was that differences in the perceptions of certain kinds of sales jobs exist between these groups. The distributions of answers on all items of perception of wholesale selling differed significantly between non-commerce seniors and executives. Distribu tions of marketing seniors' responses again tended to fall between those of the other groups, differing significantly from one or the other group on every item, and from both on some items. In a few cases, significant differences were found between engineering majors and other non-commerce seniors. Differences in the distribu tions of these perceptions between these groups were demonstrated, confirming the hypothesis. CHAPTER VI SURVEY FINDINGS REGARDING CORRELATES OF ATTITUDES This chapter is devoted to relationships between favor for selling and certain other attitude and back ground variables, from the survey data. The correlates for seniors are presented first, in tabular form. Corresponding data for executives are then offered, and compared. Relationships between these findings and hypotheses for the questionnaire survey are observed. Correlates of Seniors * Attitudes Among non-commerce or marketing seniors, or both, significant relationships to personal interest in whole sale selling were found with five statements of social evaluation of selling, one perception of wholesale selling reflecting social values, one statement relating to security, two perceptions of wholesale selling reflecting personal values, and three background conditions— paternal occupation, sales experience, and college curriculum. Relationship of seniors* personal interest to attitudes regarding social acceptability of selling Personal interest in wholesale selling was found ToJbe_^Ignifleantly_related tp_expre8^1pns_reg^dlng _ ____ 169 professional status of selling, truthfulness, moral difference between salesmanship and other persuasion, effect of fewer salesmen, believed emotional strain from feeling obliged to be insincere, and public opinion regarding ethics of selling. Belief that wholesale selling is properly regarded as a profession was significantly related to willingness to personally consider a wholesale sales career, among both non-commerce seniors (Table 39) and marketing seniors (Table 40). Among non-commerce seniors, lack of personal interest in wholesale selling was associated with the beliefs that; (a) selling requires more compromise I with the truth than some other kinds of Jobs (Table 4l); ^ (b) salesmanship is morally different from other I persuasion by reason of its purpose (Table 42); (c) society would be benefited by a reduction in the number of salesmen (Table 43); and (d) the worst source of emotional strain in wholesale selling Jobs is feeling obliged to be insincere (Table 44). Relationship of seniors * personal interest in' ‘ selTing"Tb‘ attitudes' " toward" economic'' security Personal interest in wholesale selling was also found to be significantly related to expressions regarding economic security. Favor was related to assertions that there is "too much interest" in security of work and income, among non-commerce seniors (Table 45) and also 170 TABLE 39 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE SELLING, BY BELIEFS REGARDING ITS PROFESSIONAL STATUS Wholesale Selling Is . . . Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Properly a Profession Not Properly a Profession No No Yes 38 38.4 35 1 8 .2 No 6l 6l .6 157 8 1 .8 Total 99 1 0 0 .0 192 1 0 0 .0 171 TABLE 40 MARKETING SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOIESAIE SELLING, BY BELIEFS REGARDING ITS PROFESSIONAL STATUS Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Wholesale Selling Is Properly a Profession ! Other Answers i No. % No. ^ : Yes 9 100.0 22 5 0 .0 ' No 22 5 0 .0 Total 9 100.0 44 100.0 172 TABLE 41 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE SELLING BY BELIEFS REGARDING TRUTHFULNESS OF SELLING Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Sales Jobs Require More Compromise with Truth? Yes Other Answers No,. ^ No. 1 Yes 12 1 5 .0 61 2 8 .9 No 68 8 5 .0 150 7 1 .1 Total 80 100.0 211 1 0 0 .0 173 TABLE 42 WON-COMMERCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE SELLING, BY BELIEFS REGARDING MORAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SAIESMANSHIP AND OTHER PERSUASION Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Salesmanship by Reason of Different, Purpose? Yes Other Answers No. % No. % Yes 14 14.7 59 3 0 .1 No 81 85.3 137 6 9 .9 Total 95 1 0 0 .0 196 1 0 0 .0 174 TABLE 43 NON-GOMMERCB SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE SELLING, BY BELIEFS REGARDING EFFECT OF FEWER SALESMEN Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self We Would Be . . Better Off Other Answers No. % No. f o Yes 5 12.2 68 2 7 .2 No 36 8 7 .8 182 7 2 .8 Total 41 100.0 250 100.0 175 TABLE 44 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE SELLING, BY BELIEFS REGARDING WORST EMOTIONAL STRAIN Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Worst Cause of Strain Is 1 • • • i Obliged to Play Role, Tell Part Truths, Use Gimmicks Other Answers No. 9% No. $ Yes 3 10.3 70 26.7 No 26 89.7 192 73.3 Total 29 100.0 262 100.0 176 TABLE 45 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE BY BELIEFS REGARDING INTEREST IN SECURITY Consider Wholesale Selling as Career There Is Too Much Interest in Security Other Answers | for Self No. No. 1 Yes 32 3 3 .3 41 21.0 ! No 64 66.7 154 79.0 Total 96 100.0 195 100.0 177 among the fewer marketing seniors (Table 46), This finding indicates that desire for security, or for avoiding risk and uncertainty, is significantly related to college seniors' attitudes toward selling, and that the direction is negative with respect to personal favor. Relationship of seniors * personal interest in selling to paternal occupation A significant negative relationship was found between personal interest in selling, among non-commerce seniors, and father's occupation having been in the professional and technical category (Table 47), And a number of significant associations were discovered between paternal occupation and the social evaluations of selling which were found to be related to personal interest. Among non-commerce seniors, father's occupation having been in sales was associated with the belief that salesmanship is not morally different from other per suasion (Table 48), a belief which characterized non- commerce seniors displaying personal interest in whole- 1 sale selling. Among the fewer marketing seniors, a larger proportion of those whose fathers were in selling accorded professional status to wholesale selling, to the .09 confidence level (Table 49). Belief in the ^Table 42, p. I7 3. 178 TABLE 45 MARKETING SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE SELLING, BY BELIEFS REGARDING INTEREST IN SECURITY Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self There Is Too Much Interest in Security Other Answers j 1 No. % No. ^ : Yes 15 83.3 16 45.7 j No 3 1 6 .7 19 54.3 i Total 18 1 0 0 .0 35 10 0 .0 179 TABLE 47 NOM-COMMERCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE SELLING, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS PROFESSIONAL-TECHNICAL Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Father's Occupational Class Professional- Technical Other ! No No. % Yes 8 1 3 .3 65 2 8 .1 No 52 86.7 166 7 1 .9 Total 60 100.0 231 1 0 0 .0 180 TABLE 48 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS’ BELIEFS REGARDING MORAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SALESMANSHIP AND OTHER PERSUASION, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS SELLING Father’s Occupational Class Salesmanship Morally . , . Sales Other No. % No. Different 8 20.5 87 34.5 Other answers 31 79.5 165 65-5 Total 39 100.0 252 100.0 I8l TABLE 49 MARKETING SENIORS' BELIEFS ABOUT PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF FATHER' SELLING, BY WHETHER OR NOT 8 OCCUPATION WAS SELLING . Father’s Occupational Class Wholesale Selling Is • • • Sales Other No No. % Properly a profession 7 77.8 20 45.4 Other answers 2 22.2 24 54.6 Total 9 100,0 44 100.0 182 professional status of selling typifies those who personally favor wholesale selling. Among non-oommcrco seniors, a smaller proportion of sons of clerical workers were willing to assign professional standing to wholesale selling, at the .08 confidence level (Table 50)• A significantly larger proportion of sons of "blue-collar" workers believed that college graduates take wholesale selling Jobs principally out of preference, than among sons of white-collar workers. And the proportion was still higher where the father’s occupation i was ambiguously stated (Table 51). A significantly ' i larger proportion of non-commerce seniors whose fathers | were in the craftsman-foreman group, indicated that ; selling is less important and beneficial than some other functions in the economy (Table 52). This evidence establishes that there is systematic relationship between the father’s occupation and the attitudes of these university seniors toward selling. Relationship of seniors’ personal Interest in "selling to "outsidF sales experience Another of the background variables which dis criminated personal interest in wholesale selling was sales experience. The association of interest in whole sale selling with having had outside sales experience was found among both non-commerce seniors (Table 53) and 183 TABLE 50 NOM-COMMERCE SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF WHOLESALE SELLING, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS CLERICAL Father’s Occupational Glass ; Wholesale Selling Is • • • Clerical Other 1 No No. Properly a profession 1 11.1 98 3 4 .7 Other answers 8 88.9 184 65-3 Total 9 100.0 282 100.0 184 TABIB 51 2 ü & N : [ C y R g 3 ' l a E O / l E I F X S B B S C k A J l D I I ü C } I W H Y C Ü F U l I ) U J M ? E i 3 T j& K B V f l B O l j Ë N S j L l J S SüSIjE/lIfG jr O ]3 Z 3 , I3Y ItA/TIIBIl* 8 I S R O f L D C )C ( ]U P jL T : I C ) B Ü U j (IROUI? Graduates Take Wholesale Selling Jobs Principally as a Result of . . . Father 1 *s Occupational Group | 1 White Collar# Blue Collar^ Unclassi- 1 fiable No i o No. i o No. 0 Preference 19 10.6 15 21.8 10 35.7 Other answers 160 89.4 44 78.2 18 64.3 Total 179 100.0 69 100.0 28 100.0 ^Professional, technical, managerial, business proprietors, clerical, sales. ^Craftsmen, foremen, operators, laborers, service and agricultural workers. 185 TABLE 52 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING RELATIVE IMPORTANCE AND BENEFIT OF SELLING, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS CRAFTSMAN-FOREMAN Father’s Occupational Class Importance and Benefit of Selling • • • Craftsman- Foreman Other No. No. $ Less than other functions 10 2 5 .0 28 1 1 .1 Other answers 30 75.0 223 8 8 .9 Total 40 1 0 0 .0 251 1 0 0 .0 186 TABLE 53 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESALE SELLING, BY sAias EXPERIENCE Outside Sales Experience j Consider Wholesale Selling as Career Yes No for Self No. 0 No. ^ ! Yes 40 42.2 33 l6 .8 No 55 57,8 163 8 3 .2 Total 95 1 0 0 .0 196 1 0 0 .0 187 marketing seniors (Table 54). Relationship of seniors’ personal interest in seiI'ing"' to curriculum The third critical background variable for personal interest in wholesale selling was course of study. Such interest was highly correlated with the marketing (and advertising) curriculum.^ Relationship of seniors’ perceptions of wholes ale s e lling To other attitudes" Several perceptions of wholesale sales jobs, which were significantly related to personal interest in them, reflected personal values. Among non-commerce seniors, a smaller proportion of those who felt that long hours are the worst of the hours-travel objections to wholesale sales jobs, would consider wholesale sales jobs (Table 55). This suggests that persons less concerned about length of working hours— and relatively more concerned about irregular hours,, travel, and homework— are more likely to consider wholesale selling. Another of the opposite findings for non-commerce and marketing seniors was that among non-commerce seniors, personal interest in selling was associated with less favor for the large company (Table 5 6), while liable 37, P. l6l. 188 TABLE 54 MARKETING SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOIESALE SELLING, BY SALES EXPERIENCE Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Outside Sales Experience Yes No No. i o No. Yes 19 7 6 .0 12 42.8 No 6 24.0 16 57.2 Total 25 1 0 0 .0 28 1 0 0 .0 189 TABLE 55 NOH-COMMBRCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOIESALE SELLING, BY BELIEFS ABOUT WORST HOURS AND TRAVEL COMPLAINTS Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Hours Too Long Other Answers No. No. Yes 1 6.7 72 2 6 .1 No 14 93.3 204 7 3 .9 Total 15 1 0 0 .0 276 1 0 0 .0 190 table 56 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' INTEREST IN WHOLESAIE SELLING, BY SIZE OP COMPANY FAVORED Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Starting Graduate Should Apply at . . . larger Companies Other Answers No. 0 No. ^ Yes. 30 1 8 .9 43 3 2 .6 No 129 8 1 .1 89 6 7 .4 Total 159 100.0 132 10 0.0 191 among marketing seniors, interest was related to less favor for small organizations (Table 57). Possible explanations are that persons planning to sell for larger organizations are more likely to obtain specialized preparation, or that better informed students I tend more toward larger organizations, or that the marketing training orients students toward larger companies. On 33 statements in eight items of perception of wholesale selling, the only statistically significant relationship to personal interest was less favor for smaller organizations among marketing seniors who would personally consider wholesale selling. In other words, there was little difference between the way seniors I who would consider such jobs see them, and the way they i are perceived by seniors who would not consider them. I : So, in comparing seniors* perceptions with those of ; sales managers, those of all seniors may be used to ; represent those of seniors who indicate that they would ' personally consider wholesale sales jobs. ; Other relationships with I seniors * attitudes' I A network of relationships was found between a j number of personal value expressions among seniors, but ' it was somewhat tenuous and is not fully reported here. I More or less connected and consistent relationships were n 192 TABLE 57 MARKETING SENIORS* INTEREST IN WHOLESALE BY SIZE OF COMPANY FAVORED SELLING, Consider Wholesale Selling as Career for Self Starting Graduate Should I Apply at . . . j Smaller Companies Other Answers No. 0 No. ^ I 1 Yes 2 16.7 29 7 0 .7 No 10 8 3 .3 12 2 9 .3 Total 12 100.0 41 100.0 193 found between beliefs that there is too much interest in security, that there is too much concern over hours and strain, that the effect of selling is principally to make people happier, that success means achievement, and that selling causes production. Correlates of Executives’ Attitudes Among sales executives, significant relationships with the factor of liking for a son to choose wholesale selling as a career were found with five statements of social evaluation of selling, one personal value statement— concerning pay, and three background factors— paternal occupation, kind of selling in which engaged, and size of company by which employed. ; Relationship of executives' favor^ Fo altitudes regarding the social acceptability of selling The social evaluation items which yielded reliable . relationships with executives’ liking for a son to choose wholesale selling as a career related to truthfulness, I importance and benefit of selling, relationship to pro- ' duction, professional status, and reason for impaired I respect. ! A significantly larger proportion of executives ^To avoid a number of excessively long subsection headings, the expression "sales executives' favor for a son's choice of wholesale selling as a career" is abbreviated to "executives' favor." 194 who felt that a salesman’s job requires more compromise with the truth indicated dislike for a son to choose either wholesale selling or sales engineering as a career (Table 5 8). The same item discriminated personal interest in wholesale selling, among non-commerce seniors. And, among executives, the factor of not liking for a son to choose either wholesale selling or sales engineering was associated with unwillingness to agree that selling is the most important and beneficial function in the economy (Table 59)* Belief that aggressive selling is the principal cause of large-scale production and the high (material) standard of living was associated with liking for son to choose wholesale selling as a career (Table 6 0), These findings of critical relationships between beliefs about the social usefulness of selling and personal favor parallel the relationship among non- commerce seniors between beliefs about the effect of 2 fewer salesmen and personal interest. Belief that wholesale selling is properly described as a profession was characteristic of executives who would like to have a son choose it as a career (Table 61). This belief was also found to be critical 1 ^Table 4l, p. 172. It will be recalled that the number of marketing seniors was so small that indications had to be very highly pronounced, to be statistically significant, for them. iTafele 43, P. 174. 195 TABLE 58 EXECUTIVES' LIKING FOR SON TO CHOOSE WHOLESALE SELLING OR SALES ENGINEERING AS A CAREER, BY BELIEFS REGARDING TRUTHFULNESS OF SELLING Sales Jobs Compromise Require More with Truth? Like Son to Choose • • . Yes Other Answers No. % No. Neither wholesale selling or sales engineering 5 45.5 12 7.9 Other answers 6 54.5 139 92.1 Total 11 1 0 0 .0 151 100.0 196 j TABIE 59 ! EXECUTIVES' LIKING FOR SON TO CHOOSE WHOLESAIE SELLING OR I SALES ENGINEERING AS A CAREER, BY BELIEFS REGARDING . RELATIVE IMPORTANCE AND BENEFIT OF SELLING Importance and of Selling Benefit . . . Like Son to Choose . • . More than Other Functions Other Answers No. $ No. Neither wholesale selling or sales engineering 5 5.6 12 16.4 Other answers 84 94.4 61 83.6 Total 89 100.0 73 100.0 197 TABLE 60 EXECUTIVES' LIKING FOR SON TO CHOOSE WHOIESALE SELLING AS A CAREER, BY BELIEFS REGARDING RELATIONSHIP ' OP SELLING TO PRODUCTION Selling Is # # # Like Son to Choose Wholesale Selling? Cause of Production Result of Production No. 0 No. 0 Yes 86 6 5 .7 7 3 8 .9 No 45 3 4 .3 11 6 1 .1 Total 131 1 0 0 .0 18 1 0 0.0 198 TABLE 6l EXECUTIVES' LIKING FOR SON TO CHOOSE WHOIESALE SELLING AS A CAREER, BY BELIEFS REGARDING ITS PROFESSIONAL STATUS Wholesale Selling Is • • • Like Son to Choose Wholesale Selling? Properly a Profession . Not Properly a Profession No. $ No. % Yes 82 70.7 17 37.0 No ^ ( 34 29.3 29 63.0 Total 116 100.0 46 100.0 199 among both non-commerce and marketing seniors.^ j Among executives, liking for son to choose | wholesale selling was reliably related to expression that | I the belief which most reduces respect for selling is that | salesmen are unproductive— are parasites (Table 62). Thisj finding is consistent with the importance which executives! place upon the relationship of selling to production. ' Certain other implications are explored infra under "Clinical Hypotheses." Relationship of executives’ favor to' attitudes regarding monetary income from selling A larger proportion of executives who felt that a premium should be paid a starting salesman with a college degree, indicated that they would not favor a son’s entering either wholesale selling or sales engineering (Table 6 3). This item, which reflects personal values, did not discriminate between seniors who favored or disfavored selling jobs. A larger proportion of seniors than executives believed that such a premium should be paid, but personal interest did not vary with this belief. Evidently, executives’ attitudes toward selling are more affected by monetary income than are those of seniors. 1 Table 39> p. 170 and Table 4o, p. 17I. 200 TABLE 62 EXECUTIVES' LIKING PGR SON TO CHOOSE WHOLESALE SELLING AS A CAREER, BY OPINION REGARDING BELIEF WHICH MOST IMPAIRS RESPECT FOR SELLING Like Son to Choose Wholesale Selling? Respect Impaired because People Principally Think . . . Salesmen Don’t Produce Anything, Are Parasites Other Answers No. $ No. ^ Yes 9 100.0 90 5 8 .8 No 63 41.2 Total 9 100.0 153 1 0 0 .0 201 TABLE 63 EXECUTIVES' LIKING FOR SON TO CHOOSE WHOLESALE SELLING OR SALES ENGINEERING AS A CAREER, BY BELIEFS REGARDING PREMIUM FOR COLLEGE DEGREE Graduate Starting Should Be Wholesale Paid . . • Selling I 1 Like Son to Choose . • , More Other Answers No No. $ ' Neither wholesale selling or sales engineering 7 2 8 .0 10 7 .3 Other answers 18 7 2 .0 127 9 2 .7 Total 25 1 0 0 .0 137 1 0 0 .0 202 Relationship of executives’ favor i ty'p'aternaï occupation ^ ^ ^ I I Relationship between father’s occupation and son’sj attitudes toward selling, which was found among seniors, j ! was not only confirmed among executives, but in addition, there was indication that such influence extends to the second generation! A significantly larger proportion of sales executives whose fathers had been salesmen indicated that they would like a son to choose wholesale selling as a career (Table 64). At the .06 confidence level, a smaller ratio of executives whose fathers were in the craftsman-foreman classification, accorded professional status to wholesale selling (Table 6 5). This tends to confirm the lower evaluation of the importance and benefit of selling among non-commerce seniors whose fathers were in this group.^ At about this level of confidence, a smaller ratio of sales managers whose fathers were in the clerical category indicated belief that college graduates take wholesale selling jobs principally out of preference (Table 66). This appears to confirm the indication, also j below normal levels of significance by Itself, that a I smaller proportion of non-commerce seniors whose fathers ; were in clerical occupations, were willing to assign 2 I professional status to wholesale selling. iTable.P. 185._______fTaLle_50, p.,_l83.. 203 TABLE 64 ' LIKING FOR SON TO CHOOSE WHOLESALE SELLING AS A CAREER, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER’S OCCUPATION WAS SELLING Like Son to Choose Wholesale Selling? Father’s Occupational Class Sales Other No No. Yes 23 82.2 76 56.7 No 5 1 7 .8 58 4 3 .3 Total 28 100.0 134 100.0 204 TABLE 65 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING PROFESSIONAL STATUS 0F WHOLESALE SELLING, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS CRAFTSMAN-FOREMAN Father's Occupational Class Wholesale Selling Is • • • Craftsman- Foreman Other _ No. 0 No. % Properly a profession 2 28.6 114 7 3 .5 Not properly a profession 5 7 1 .4 4l 2 6 .5 Total 7 1 0 0 .0 155 1 0 0 .0 205 TABLE 66 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING WHY GRADUATES TAKE WHOLESALE SELLING JOBS, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS CLERICAL Graduates Take Wholesale Selling Jobs Principally as a Result of . . . Father’s Occupational Class Clerical Other No. % No. f o Preference 74 57.5 Other answers 3 100.0 57 42.5 Total 3 100.0 131 100.0 206 Relationship of executives’ favor to kind of selling done" Liking for son to choose wholesale selling as a career was more characteristic of sales managers engaged in wholesaling for resale and industrial use, than in sales engineering or in selling to consumers (Table 6 7). Lines sold for use and resale included paper products, paint, hand tools, building materials, and other parts and supplies. The selling of machinery and equipment for use tends to be more specialized and technical, and such sellers are classed as sales engineers. 1 Additional indication of poorer regard for whole- , sale selling among sales engineers and retail sellers is | I afforded in Table 68, which shows that smaller proportions I among both of these classes of sellers than among the balance of executives, believed that college graduates take wholesale jobs principally by preference. As compared with all other kinds of sellers, engineers viewed selling generally with more reserve. A larger proportion of sales engineers indicated that it would be better if there were fewer of some kinds of salesmen (Table 6 9), and a smaller proportion of executives engaged in engineering selling were willing to agree that selling is the most important and beneficial function in the economy (Table 7 0), or that there is too much interest in security (Table 71)• ' 207 TâBIÆ: 67 EXECUTIVES' LIKING FOR SON TO CHOOSE WHOLESALE SELLING AS A CAREER, BY KIND OF SELLING DONE lA k e Son to Choose Whole sale Selling? Kind of Selling ! Wholesale For Use and Resale Sales Engineering Retail Etc ' i No. No No. ^ Yes 23 7 9 .3 8 4 7 .0 8 42.1 ' No 6 2 0 .7 9 5 3 .0 11 57-9 Total 29 100.0 17 1 0 0 .0 i 19 1 0 0 .0 208 TABLE 68 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING WHY GRADUATES TAKE WHOLESALE SELLING JOBS, BY KIND OP SELLING DONE Graduates, Take Wholesale Kind of Selling Selling Jobs Principally as a Result of . . . Sales Engineering Retail Etc. Other No. f o No. 0 No. Preference 3 25.0 4 30.8 67 61,5 Other answers 9 75.0 9 69.2 32 38.5 Total 12 100.0 13 100.0 109 100.0 209 TABLE 69 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING EFFECT OF FEWER SALESMEN, BY WHETHER OR NOT ENGAGED IN SALES ENGINEERING Kind of Selling 1 If There Were Fewer Salesmen Sales Engineering Other ; 1 No 0 No. % ! Of some kinds, we would be better off 8 47.0 31 2 1 .4 Other answers 9 53.0 114 7 8 .6 Total 17 100.0 145 100.0 210 TABLE 70 executives; beliefs regarding relative IMPORTANCE AND BENEFIT OF SELLING, BY WHETHER OR NOT ENGAGED IN SALES ENGINEERING Kind of Selling Importance and Benefit of Selling . . • Sales Engineering Other No. # No. io More than other functions 5 29.4 84 57.9 Other answers 12 7 0 .6 61 42.1 Total 17 100.0 145 100.0 211 TABLE 71 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING INTEREST IN SECURITY, BY WHETHER OR NOT ENGAGED IN SALES ENGINEERING Kind of Selling There Is . • • Sales Engineering Other No. f o No. f o Too much interest in security 3 17.6 75 51.7 Other answers 14 82.4 70 48.3 Total 17 100.0 145 100.0 212 Executives engaged in the selling of intangibles and services also tended to depreciate wholesale selling and to entertain doubts about the ethics of selling. A greater proportion of them than of other kinds of sellers declined to assign professional status to wholesale selling (Table ?2), and a larger ratio of them than of wholesalers of consumer non-durables agreed that sales jobs require more compromise with the truth (Table 73)* Wholesalers of consumer non-durables, and retail sellers, had even more doubts in connection with another ethical matter— difference between salesmanship and other persuasion— than did other kinds of sellers, particularly wholesalers of consumer durable goods.. Smaller propor tions of retail and wholesale consumer non-durable sellers : asserted that salesmanship is not different (Table 74) in I this respect. In certain respects, sales engineers, sellers of intangibles, and retail sellers looked with less favor upai I both wholesale selling and selling in general than did i ' wholesale sales executives. i Another relationship, the significance of which is i I not understood, was that a smaller ratio of executives I engaged in wholesaling consumer durable goods favored the ' I larger concern for the starting graduate salesman (Table ’ 75). 1 213 TABLE ,72 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS ABOUT PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF WHOLESALE SELLING, BY WHETHER OR NOT ENGAGED IN SELLING OF INTANGIBLES Kind of Selling Wholesale Selling Is • • • Intangibles Other No, No. f o Properly a profession 15 48.4 101 7 7 .1 Not properly a profession 16 5 1 .6 30 2 2 .9 Total 31 100.0 131 100.0 214 TABLE 73 EXECUTIVES' BE OF REGARDING COMPROMISE WITH TRUTHFULNESS SELLING, BY KIND OF SELLING DONE Kind of Selling 1 Sales Jobs Require More Compromise with Truth? Wholesale Consumer Non-durables 1 Intangibles No. No. ^ ; 1 Yes 5 16.1 Other answers 23 100.0 26 8 3 .9 Total 23 100.0 31 100.0 215 TABLE 74 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING MORAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SALESMANSHIP AND OTHER PERSUASION, BY KIND OF SELLING DONE Kind of Selling 1 i 1 Salesmanship Different by Reason of Purpose? Wholesale Consumer Durables Wholesale Consumer Non-durables Retail Etc. i other No. 0 No. No. ^ No • 0 No 11 9 1 .7 12 5 2 .2 9 4 7 .3 77 7 1 .3 Other answers 1 8 .3 11 4 7 .8 10 5 2 .7 31 2 8 .7 Total 12 1 0 0 .0 23 1 0 0 .0 19 10 0.0 108 1 0 0 .0 216 TABIE 75 SIZE OF COMPANY FAVORED, BY WHETHER OR HOT ENGAGED IN WHOLESALING OF CONSUMER DURABLES Graduate Should Apply at . , . Kind of Selling Wholesale Consumer Durables Other No. No. Larger companies 2 16.7 58 48.3 Other answers 10 83.3 62 51.7 Total 12 100.0 120 100.0 217 Relationship of executives* favor to size of company' By whichemploye# The third critical background factor with respect to favor for son's choice of a wholesale selling career, was the (total) number of employees in the company by which the executive was employed. A significantly larger proportion of executives in small concerns (employing fewer than 100 persons) omitted answers to the question, failing to indicate favor (Table 76). A larger proportion of executives in small ! companies believed that there is too much interest in I security (Table 77), and fewer indicated favor for the I larger company, for the starting graduate salesman I I (Table 7 8). Possible meanings will be explored under i i "Clinical Hypotheses," infra. I Relationship between executives' ! education' ' an^^^ 'tB'elr ''attitud'es" i Among the special class of individuals which the I members of the Los Angeles Sales Executives Club consti- I I tute, relationship between level of education and favor for son's choice of wholesale selling as a career did not reach the .05 fiduciary level. At the .07 level, higher education was associated I with the belief that selling requires more compromise ! with the truth (Table 79), approaching the position of seniors. At a significant level, postgraduate education 218 TABLE 76 LIKING FOR SON TO CHOOSE WHOLESALE SELLING AS A CAREER, BY SIZE OP EXECUTIVE'S COMPANY Number of Employees Executive * s Company in Like Son to Choose Wholesale Selling? 1 to 99 100 or More No. 0 No. $ Omitted answers 8 14.3 4 3.8 All answers 48 86.7 102 96.3 Total 56 100.0 106 100.0 219 TABLE 77 BELIEFS REGARDING INTEREST IN SECURITY, BY SIZE OF EXECUTIVE’S COMPANY Number of Employees in Executive's Company There Is • • • 1-1 9 20-499 500 or More No. # No. f o No. f o Too much interest in security 14 82.3 38 44.7 23 40.3 Other answers 3 17.7 45 55.3 34 59.7 Total 17 100.0 85 100.0 57 100.0 220 TABLE 78 SIZE OF COMPANY FAVORED, BY SIZE OF EXECUTIVE'S COMPANY Number of Employees in Executive's Company 1 1 I Graduate Should Apply at . , . 1-99 100-499 ! 500 or More No. No. % No. Larger companies 13 3 0 .2 16 40.0 29 6 3 .0 Other answers 30 6 9 ,8 24 6 0 .0 17 3 7 .0 Total 43 1 0 0 .0 40 100.0 46 1 0 0 .0 221 TABLE 79 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING TRUTHFULNESS OF BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL Sales Jobs Require More Compromise with Truth? College Graduates and Postgraduates ' ....---- ——r 1 Other No. No. 1 Yes 8 11.1 3 3.3 : Other answers 64 88.9 87 9 6 .7 Total 72 100.0 90 1 0 0 .0 : 1 222 was related to the belief that emotional and nervous strain is the most serious objection to wholesale selling j ! (Table 80), again resembling seniors' viewpoints. College j ; education was negatively related to beliefs that the general welfare would suffer if there were fewer salesmen (Table 8l), paralleling seniors' position; and that there is too much concern about hours and strain (Table 82), again paralleling the seniors. It appears that, among these executives, advanced education is inconsistent with favorable attitudes toward selling. j I Higher education was associated with higher indi- ; ' cated level of achievement motivation (Table 8 3), which : j 1 I tends to confirm the finding for seniors whose fathers 1 i 1 I ! were professional, technical, or managerial. At almost the .05 level, a smaller proportion of I executives with some college education indicated the econo mic desirability of a college degree for wholesale selling, as compared with those who had no college training, or were graduates or postgraduates (Table 84). Interpretations will be considered under "Clinical Hypotheses." I Relationships between executives' I personal values and ! other attitudes i ---------------- I ' The only relationship between executives' personal values and favor for son's choice of a wholesale selling ^Table 88, p. 24l and Table 89, p. 243. 223 TABLE 80 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING MOST SERIOUS KINDS OF OBJECTIONS TO WHOLESALE SELLING JOBS, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL Most Serious Kind Postgraduates Other of Complaint No. No. Emotional and nervous strain 11 55.0 29 25.9 ! Other answers 9 45.0 83 74.1 Total 20 100.0 112 100.0 1 224 TABLE 81 I EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING EFFECT OP FEWER SALESMEN, I BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL If There Were Any College No College 1 Fewer Salesmen No. No. We .would be worse off 90 62.9 16 84.2 Other answers 53 37.1 3 15.8 Total 143 100.0 19 100.0 225 TABLE 82 ! EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS ABOUT CONCERN FOR HOURS AND STRAIN, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL There Is • . . Any College No College No. 0 No. $ Too much concern about hours and strain 89 62.2 16 84.2 Other answers 54 37.8 3 15.8 Total 143 100.0 19 100.0 226 TABLE 83 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING CRITERIA OF SUCCESS, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL Success Means . . . Graduates, Postgraduates Other No. f o No. Achievement 59 8 2 .0 58 64.5 Other answers 13 18 .0 32 35.5 Total 72 100.0 90 100.0 227 TABIE 84 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING ECONOMIC DESIRABILITY OP COLLEGE DEGREE POR WHOLESALE BY EDUCATIONAL LE7EL SELLING, Business Degree • . . Some College (Not Graduates) No College, and Graduates and Postgraduates No. f o No. Would repay in increased sales 29 48.3 49 64.5 Other answers 31 51.7 27 35.5 Total 60 100.0 76 100.0 228 career was that involving pay, reported supra. None of the other personal value items— security, hours and strain, achievement-adjustment--related significantly to favor for a son to take a wholesale sales job. Nor were differences in favor associated with differences in social evaluations of selling. There were other statistically significant relationships with and between personal value or goal attitudes. Not only did a larger proportion of executives than seniors feel both that there is too much interest in economic security and too much concern for shorter working hours and avoiding strain, but there was j j reliable conjuncture of these beliefs among executives I (Table 85). And there was less favor for the larger concern, for the starting graduate wholesale salesman, among executives holding that there is excessive preoccupation with security (Table 86). There was one other statistically significant association with executives' personal values, whose meaning is not clear. A smaller proportion of sales managers engaged in wholesaling for use and resale than in other kinds of selling indicated that there is too much concern for hours and strain (Table 8 7). 229 TABLE 85 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING CONCERI'Î FOR HOURS AND STRAIN, BY BELIEFS REGARDING INTEREST IN SECURITY Concern for Hours and Strain Interest in Security There Is Too Much Other Answers No. No. There is too much 61 7 8 .2 44 5 2 .4 Other answers 17 2 1 ,8 40 47.6 Total 78 100.0 84 100.0 230 TABLE 86 SIZE OP CONCERN FAVORED BY EXECUTIVES, BY BELIEFS REGARDING INTEREST IN SECURITY Interest in Security Graduates Should Apply at . . , There Is Too Much Other Answers No. f o No. larger companies 24 36.9 36 53.7 Other answers 41 63.1 31 46.3 ' Total 65 100.0 67 100.0 231 TABIE 87 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING CONCERN POR HOURS AMD STRAIN, BY WHETHER OR NOT ENGAGED IN WHOLESALING FOR USE AND RESALE Kind of Selling Concern for Hours and Strain . . . Wholesale for Use and Resale Other No. No. There is too much 13 44.8 92 6 9 .2 Other answers 16 55.2 41 3 0 .8 Total 29 100.0 133 100.0 232 Lack of differences related to executives' percept1ons of wholesale selling There were no significant differences in state ments of perception of wholesale sales jobs between executives favoring and those not favoring son’s choice of such work. This lack of difference supports the observation for seniors, that liking or not liking wholesale selling jobs does not appear to result from a difference in the perception of them. Those favoring and not favoring "see the same things," but the former | "like what they see," and the latter do not. I I Summary of Correlates of Attitudes, i I and Relationships to Hypotheses I for the Survey Hypotheses for the survey Included the proposi tions that personal interest in a particular kind of selling job is related to (a) social evaluation of selling, (b) other personal values, (c) perceptions of the job, (d) certain early environmental conditions, and (e) certain concurrent or recent environmental conditions. Among both seniors and executives, personal favor for wholesale selling was found to be related to favorable attitudes regarding the ethics, usefulness, and status of selling, supporting the hypothesis that personal favor is related to social evaluations of selling. 233 Among seniors, favor for wholesale selling was found to be related to the belief that there is too much interest in economic security, and to less concern about length of working hours. Among executives, belief that a premium should be paid a starting wholesale salesman with a college degree was associated with not liking a son to choose either wholesale selling or sales engineer ing as a career. These findings confirm the hypothesis that such favor is related to personal values. I i Among seniors and executives, favor for selling I was related to father's occupation having been in selling or "blue-collar" jobs, but not in professional, technical or clerical occupations, which confirms the hypothesis of relationship to early environmental conditions, i Among seniors, personal interest in wholesale i j selling was found to be related to having had outside sales experience, and with marketing or advertising curricula. Among executives, favor for wholesale selling 1 was found to be associated with being engaged in whole- j sale selling, and negatively related to being employed ! by a larger organization, and to higher levels of j educational attainment. These findings support the I , hypothesis that favor for a selling job is related to ; later environmental conditions. With one minor exception, no relationships 234 were found between any perceptions of wholesale selling and favor for it, among either seniors or executives. The hypothesis that perceptions of a kind of selling job are related to interest in it was not supported. Among the sales executives, belief that there is excessive preoccupation with economic security was associated with the belief that there is too much concern for shorter working hours and avoidance of strain, and with less favor for the larger organization for the graduate starting as a wholesale salesman. CHAPTER VII RELATIONSHIPS OP CORRELATIVE FINDINGS TO FUNCTIONAL THEORIES In this chapter, findings from the questionnaire survey are compared with theories regarding the relationship of attitudes to personal values, and early and later environmental conditions. Certain survey findings and interview data are interpreted in terms of clinical theory. Social Approval as a Personal Value Greater personal favor for selling was shown by those giving higher social evaluations of selling, on five different questions, among both seniors and executives. This array of evidence indicates that approbation and prestige are important personal goals or values. This conclusion holds, even if the expressions about selling result from rationalization of an uncon scious attitude, or from a special perception. If from rationalization, the need to rationalize social approval attests to its importance to the individual. If a result of a special perception, such as might occur from father's having been a salesman, the expressions still reflect 236 greater personal favor for an activity believed to have higher acceptance. Economic Security as a Personal Value On the questionnaire responses, among both non- commerce and marketing seniors, there were substantial correlations between personal interest in wholesale selling, and assertions that there is too much interest I in economic security. These findings are consistent I I with a hypothesis that economic security is an important I ! personal value, at least for some persons. Working Hours as a Personal Value Among non-commerce seniors, a smaller proportion i of those who felt that long hours are the worst of the I hours-travel objections to wholesale sales Jobs, 'would i ; consider wholesale sales Jobs. This finding indicates I i that length of working hours is related to a significant I personal value, at least for some seniors. I Pecuniary Maximization as a j Personal Value 1 I I The clinical interviewing among seniors indicated I that the monetary rewards of selling were generally i regarded as favorable, but not much interest was directed 237 to them, and monetary striving was rather depreciated.^ In the questionnaire, three items offered opportunities for importance of monetary considerations to be evidenced, and for relationships with personal interest in selling to be exhibited. The qualitative indications of belief regarding income and income possibilities were supported by the finding that the largest number of both non-commerce and marketing seniors checked them as the principal attraction of wholesale selling Jobs, as a lifetime career.2 And less than 6 per cent indicated that "earnings too low" is even the most serious of the economic of financial objections to such Jobs,3 and this class of complaints was rated less serious than emotional 4 and nervous ones. I But even though non-commerce seniors believed ! i that such Jobs pay well, only about one-fourth indicated that they would consider such Jobs^— substantially fewer i than indicated income as the chief attraction*— and then ; principally as a stepping stone, not as a career.^ I If desire for income were instrumental, it might ^Vide pp. 60, 75, ZTable 31, p. 151. STable 34, p, 157. 4rable 32, p. 154. Slable 38, p. 163. ^Table 30, p. 150. 238 be expected that persons who think that Income is the j chief attraction would tend to be more interested in such j jobs. Not only did the relationship not reach the levels of significance applied elsewhere in this report, but could have occurred by chance in four cases out of ten. Conversely, if income were a consideration it might be supposed that there would be less interest in such jobs among the few persons who felt that low income was a serious complaint about them. This relationship also failed to reach significant levels, and could have occurred by chance in four cases out of ten. Further, if pay were a consideration, it might be supposed that seniors who felt that college graduates should be paid more than similar non-college graduates starting on a sales job, would be less likely to consider wholesale selling as a career. This did not prove to be true at any significant level, and the association could have occurred by chance in nearly one case out of four. The effect of this variety of evidence is interpreted to be negative with respect to a hypothesis of striving to maximize pecuniary income, for explaining findings regarding attitudes toward selling, among these seniors ^Assertions to this effect are not novel. They are, in fgot, corollaries of accepted theory in several behavioral disciplines. Vaughan says, "Many are the motlves__that. impels people_to__work_ . . . . _the profit .motive 239 Paternal Occupation as an Early Environmental Influence Even though the fathers' occupations were imprecisely categorized, a number of significant relationships with attitudes toward selling were developed, among both seniors and executives. Paternal occupation was significantly related to personal favor for selling, both among seniors and executives, and significant relationships were also discovered between such occupations and attitudes which discriminated personal interest. As to the direction of causation, the son's is of minor importance." He lists as other motives the , dislike of inactivity, satisfaction of doing something useful, curiosity, avoiding censure for idleness, gaining ; social approval and self-approval, etc. Wayland P. Vaughan, Social Psychology (New York: The Odyssey Press, 1948), p.“74j: ■ Hoppock, in his important work, said, "Self-esteem means more to most individuals than money; and . . . when they seek riches they do so principally because of the effect that wealth has upon the respect in which they are held by others, and consequently upon the respect with which they feel justified in regarding themselves." Robert Hoppock, Job Satisfaction (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935), p. 34. Vide also T. North Whitehead, "Social Motives in Economic Activities," Occupational Psychology^ XII (Autumn, 1938), 273-90. In a report of "interviews with professors, deans, students, and job-placement experts at campuses across the nation," Business Week reports that the liberal arts graduate "scorns sales jobs, though he knows the pay there is sky-high." "'55 Class: First of a Generation," June 11, 1955, pp. 125-32. 240 attitude toward selling could not have affected the father's choice of occupation. It is possible, but exceedingly unlikely, that the son's attitude toward selling would alter his perception and statement regarding the paternal occupation, with sufficient uni formity to give the results obtained. The possibility exists of another or other influences— such as religion or other family occupations— affecting both the father's occupational choice and the attitude of the son toward selling. Again, however, it is very unlikely that any | such influences could operate with sufficient strength I and uniformity to yield the observed phenomena. | The evidence, then, is taken to support the | hypothesis that factors related to the father's occupation' exert significant influence upon attitudes of their sons, ; such as those toward selling. j Findings from the survey indicate that such attitudes may be influenced by paternal occupation through the mechanism of shaping personal values. Among seniors, three significant relationships were discovered between paternal occupation and personal value expressions. Among non-commerce seniors, a larger proportion of sons of professional fathers, than of all other kinds, indicated that success means achievement (Table 88). Among marketing seniors, a larger proportion . 241 TABI£ 88 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING CRITERIA OF SUCCESS, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS PROFESSIONAL-TECHNICAL r " ■ Father's Occupational Class Success Is • • • Professional- Technical Other ..... , .......... . No. f o No. f o Achievement 37 61.7 100 43.3 Other answers 23 3 8 .3 131 56.7 Total 60 100.p 231 100.0 242 of sons whose fathers were in business and management than sons of fathers in selling indicated that success means achievement^ (Table 8 9). Among non-commerce seniors, a larger ratio of sons of craftsman-foi*eman fathers than of managerial fathers indicated that there is not enough concern about working hours and strain (Table 90), A larger proportion of executives whose fathers were engaged in selling, asserted that success means achievement, rather than adjustment (Table 91). The hypothesis that the influence of father's occupation upon attitudes toward selling could be exerted through shaping value attitudes by which selling is later Judged, is supported by the above findings. Outside Sales Experience as a Later Environmental Condition Among seniors, personal favor for wholesale selling was found to be associated with having had outside sales experience. A number of explanations for these findings may be considered. One might be that having had such Jobs was determined by chance factors and that different, more Ipor a treatment of philosophies of vocational success, and their development, vide Donald E. Super, "The Criteria of Vocational Success," Occupations, XXX (October, 1951), 5-9. 243 TABLE 89 MARKETING SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING CRITERIA OP SUCCESS, BY WHETHER FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS MANAGEMENT OR SALES Father's Occupational Class Success Is * « # Managerial, Business Sales No. f o No. f o Achievement 13 81 .2 1 ' 11.1 Other answers 3 18.8 8 88.9 Total 16 100.0 9 100.0 ' 244 TABLE 90 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' BELIERS REGARDING CONCERN FOR HOURS AND STRAIN, BY WHETHER FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS MANAGERIAL OR CRAFTSMAN-FOREMAN Father's Occupational Class Concern for Hours and Strain Managerial, Business Craftsman- Fore man No. No. There is not enough 9 12.7 12 30.0 Other answers 62 8 7 .3 28 7 0 .0 Total 71 100.0 40 . 100.0 245 TABLE 91 EXECUTIVES' BELIEFS REGARDING CRITERIA OF SUCCESS, BY WHETHER OR NOT FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS SELLING Father's Occupational Class ' Success Means . . . Sales Other No. No. % ! Achievement 25 89.3 92 68.7 Other answers 3 10.7 42 31.3 Total 28 100.0 134 100.0 246 favorable attitudes toward selling resulted from the experience. However, there were no statistically j significant differences on any of the 33 statements in I the eight items of perception of wholesale selling, i associated with this difference in experience. On these I I aspects, at least, persons with outside sales experience I see wholesale jobs no differently from those without it. I A second possibility is that the experience produced more favorable judgments of the social value or position of selling. The evidence is conflicting, as is shown in Tables 56 to 62. Having had outside sales experience is associated with the belief that selling causes production, among non-commerce seniors (Table 92), but with the opposite viewpoint among marketing seniors : (Table 93)• And among non-commerce seniors, such i experience was related to the belief that selling is not morally different from other persuasion (Table 94), but also with omitted answers on effects of selling (Table 9 5). And among marketing seniors, experience was associated with equivocal answers on effects of selling i on happiness (Table 9 6). ! A third hypothesis for explaining the association I : of outside sales experience and personal interest in : wholesale selling is that the seniors did not take such I jobs by chance, but were influenced by pre-existing I Lfavorable_.at^itudes_tqwar^ selling. . This hypothesis could 247 TABLE 92 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING RELATIONSHIP OP SELLING TO PRODUCTION, BY SALES EXPERIENCE Outside Sales Experience Selling Is • • • Yes No No. No. f o Cause of production 32 33.7 34 1 7 .4 Other answers 63 66.3 162 82.6 Total 95 100.0 196 100.0 248 TABLE 93 MARKETING SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING RELATIONSHIP OP SELLING TO PRODUCTION, BY SAIES EXPERIENCE Outside Sales Experience Selling Is . • . Yes No No. No. Cause of production 5 20.0 15 53.5 Other answers 20 80.0 13 46.5 Total 25 100.0 28 100.0 249 TABLE 94 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING MORAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SALESMANSHIP AND OTHER PERSUASION, BY SALES EXPERIENCE Outside Sales Experience Salesmanship Is, Morally Yes No No. No. Different 22 23 .2 73 3 7 .3 Other answers 73 7 6 .8 123 6 2 .7 Total 95 100.0 196 100.0 250 TABLE 95 NON-COMMERCE SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING EFFECT OF FEWER SALESMEN, BY SALES EXPERIENCE Effect of Fewer Salesmen Outside Sales Experience Yes No No. No Omitted answers 6 6.3 2 1.0 Answers 89 93.7 194 99.0 Total 95 100.0 196 100.0 251 TABLE 96 MARKETING SENIORS' BELIEFS REGARDING EFFECT OP SELLING AND ADVERTISING EFFORT ON HAPPINESS, BY SALES EXPERIENCE Outside Sales Experience Effect of Selling Is Yes No No. f o No. Partly to make people happy, partly to make discontented 9 3 6 .0 2 7 .1 Other answers 16 64.0 26 92 ,9 Total 25 100.0 28 100.0 252 be directly tested only by determining differences in attitudes toward selling among persons at the time of considering, seeking, or accepting jobs. An indirect indication regarding this third I hypothesis is obtained by comparison of seniors' outside I sales experience with fathers' occupations, which have : been found to be related to attitude. At a confidence j level of .0 7, a larger proportion of sons of salesman fathers were found to have had outside sales experience than sons of professional-technical fathers (Table 97)* Also at the .07 level, a larger proportion of seniors who gave ambiguous Information about paternal occupation, I had had outside sales experience (Table 9 8). These are i I presumed to be sons of fathers in occupations enjoying : less prestige, and they showed the highest regard for ! 1 j selling, on another item. I Summarizing, there are no differences in percep- I ' tion of wholesale selling, and no consistent evidence of ! change in social evaluation, associated with having had ; outside sales experience. On the other hand, there is i some evidence of relationship of outside sales experience j to the paternal occupations associated with favorable i attitudes toward selling. Therefore, the evidence is ! interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that the I experience is more the result of pre-existing favorable J:Table.51, p. 253 TABLE 97 SALES EXPERIENCE, NON-COMMERCE AND MARKETING SAMPLES COMBINED, BY VfflETHER FATHER'S OCCUPATION WAS PROFESSIONAL-TECHNICAL OR SALES Father's Occupational Class ! 1 Outside Sales Experience Professional- Technical i Sales No. No. Yes 19 27.5 21 43.8 No 50 72.5 27 5 6 .2 Total 69 100.0 48 100.0 254 TABLE 98 OUTSIDE SALES EXPERIENCE AMONG NON-COMMERCE SENIORS, BY CLASSIPIABILITY OF FATHER'S OCCUPATION Outside Sales Experience Father's Occupation Unclassifiable Classifiable No. % No. Yes 14 5 0 .0 81 3 0 .8 No 14 5 0 .0 182 6 9 .2 Total 28 1 0 0 .0 263 1 0 0 .0 255 attitudes, than that the attitudes are a result of the experience. Curriculum Factors as a Later Environmental Condition Among seniors, personal favor for wholesale selling was highly correlated with the marketing or advertising curriculum, as compared with non-commerce maj ors• One explanation might be that choice of curriculum I is uninfluenced by attitudes related to selling, and that ! favorable attitudes are a result of the studies. But I I this assumption is contrary to the very concept of I selecting a curriculum. I A second explanation might be that persons with pre-existing favorable attitudes toward selling are more likely to choose a marketing major. These alternate hypotheses could be properly tried only by learning I ! attitudes toward selling at the time of curriculum choice, I I and determining if there is a relationship. An indirect ! measure may be sought through relationship to paternal j I occupation. As indicated in Table 99, a larger proportion I of students whose fathers’ occupations were in managerial, business, and sales categories chose marketing curricula than where the fathers were in other "white-collar" occupations. 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U N I V E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L I F O R N I A LO S A N G E L E S 7 Dear Senior: Please help in this study of attitudes of college seniors toward selling. There is a wide range of opinions about it, and you will probably enjoy registering yours. It is expected that the results will be pub lished and available to you, and that they will help students to make better decisions about courses of study and jobs. This questionnaire requires about 15 minutes to fill out. You do not sign your name, and your reply will remain anonymous. Will you fill it in, privately, and return it, right away? Thanks. H - C J i Wx Neil D. W, Head, Department of Psychology Neil D. Warren A bout your background— A. In what college or school are you enrolled ?. B. W hat is your course or m ajor subject? . C. Please check kinds of paid w ork experience you have had: Selling in retail s to re ............................. □ Selling, outside of a retail store....................................................................................... O ther (non-selling) w ork.......................................................... □ D. Your father’s principal occupation is, or w a s _____________________________ ________ Instructions: After each item, p lease check the one statem ent which m ost nearly expresses your ow n opinion. (You m ay find th at none of the a lte r n ates exactly conform s to your point of view , or th a t several statem ents h ave som e truth to them . Do not bother ab o u t refinem ents, but check the one which com es closest to stating your opinion.) First, about som e of your general attitudes— 1. Generally speaking, do you think there is too much, not enough, or about the right amount of interest in security of work and income, today ? a. Too much interest in security................................................. ...[] b. About the right am ount .............................................................. □ c. N ot enough.............. ...................................................................................... ........................□ 2. Generally speaking, do you think there is too much, not enough, or about the right amount of insistence today on shorter hours, and work that requires less in itiative and nervous strain? a. Too much of this insistence......................................................... □ b. About the right am ount.............................................................................. .................. c. N ot enough ................. _□ d. O ther opinion...... ........................................................... .□ 3. W hile they often go together, "success” in a career means, principally, a. Achievement; accom plishm ent................................................................. .................... b. Adjustm ent; doing w hat one enjoys d o in g ...................... □ A bout personal selling, generally— 4. If there were 10 per cent fewer salesmen in the United States, a. W e would be better off ........................................................................................ □ b. W e would be about as well o ff ...... □ c. W e would be worse o ff......................................................................... □ d. . . . of soff/e kinds, we w ould be as well off, or better off ............ □ 5. Aggressive selling in the United States . . . a. Is the principal cause of large-scale production, and the high (m aterial) standard of living ...................... ..ry b. Is principally needed as a result of large-scale production ........................... n c. O ther opinion, or no opinion ............ ...□ 6. If selling and advertising influence or create consumer wants, the effects are . . . a. Principally to make people happier, by getting them to change habits and buy more and different things............... ....... .................. ................ ......... .......... b. M ainly to keep people discontented, trying to satisfy artificial wants, and keep up w ith the Jones’ and v/ith fashion changes ........... n c. Partly to make people happier, partly to make them discontented ......... ...□ d. Other opinion, or no opinion ................................ □ 7. Selling is... a. The most im portant and beneficial function in our economic system ....... □ b. One of many inter related functions in our economic system ............... ...□ c. Perhaps a little less im portant and beneficial than some other fu n ctio n s ... □ 8. Compared with the persuading or "selling” which everyone does, the salesman ship exerted by salesmen is... a. Different, morally, since its purpose is to influence the prospect for the self-interest of the salesman and his employer ..................................... .□ b. N ot any different, morally, since self-interest may often be invoh ed ................. c. O ther opinion, or no opinion ........................................... □ 9. It has been said that a salesman’s job requires him to "shade the truth ” more than some other jobs. This is... a. True .................................................... □ b. U ntrue ...... □ c. True for some kinds of selling jobs, not for others ....... □ 10. Selling does not enjoy greater respect and prestige principally because people think th a t. . . a. Almost anyone can get a sales job __ n b. Salesmen push in where not invited; press people to buy ........... □ c. Salesmen exaggerate, tell part truths, use gimmicks, are insincere ....... □ d. Salesmen don’t "produce” anything; are parasites .... □ e. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n .................................................................................□ 11. W hen starting on a certain sales job, a college graduate should be paid . . . a. M ore than a similar, non-college man ....... □ b. The same as a similar, non-college m a n .... □ c. O ther opinion, or no opinion ..... ...□ 12. The term "profession” may properly be applied to... a. N o kind of sales j o b ......................... □ b. Sales engineering (Technical; machinery, instruments, chemicals; to factories, etc.) ....................... ....□ c. Sales engineering, and wholesale selling (F or wholesalers and m anufac turers; to stores for resale, and to factories, etc.) ........ □ d. All kinds of sales jobs (Including retail store and house-to-house) ...................□ 13. As a career for myself, I xvotdd consider . . . a. W holesale selling, or sales engineering (Described above) ........................... □ b. Sales engineering only .................... □ c. N either wholesale selling or sales engineering ..................... ....□ Rem aining questions d eal w ith w holesale salesm en— w ho represent w h o le salers an d m anufacturers, an d sell to retail stores for resale, an d to fac tories, etc. Traveling salesm en are included, but not technical sales engineers. 14. From the standpoint of actually increasing his sales, it would repay a wholesale salesman’s time and effort, to... a. Have devoted four years to a college course in business ......... □ b. Have devoted two years to a college course in business ____ □ c. Just take evening courses in salesmanship, or study at home ............ ......... d. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n ........... ...□ 15. The principal reason why college graduates take wholesale sales jobs probably is .. . a. Preference (A fter logical consideration; planned)-------- □ b. Chance (Fam ily connections, friends, past contacts, etc.) ......... □ c. Easy to get into (N o t prepared for any specific work, or couldn’t get pre ferred w ork) ................... -..... □ d. O ther opinion, or no opinion ----- □ 16. College graduates who take wholesale sales jobs hy preference and plan, prob ably do so principally because they believe such jobs afford . . . a. A good lifetime career for th e m ________ □ b. A good stepping stone to other jobs in the company or in d u stry ..................□ c. C ood general experience, and a chance to make some money while look ing around ................ □ d. O ther opinion, or no opinion ------------- □ 17. The chief, actual attraction about ivholesale selling, as a lljetlm e career, probab ly is... a. O pportunity to deal w ith people ......... □ b. Income, income possibilities ................................................................................... □ c. Freedom, "own boss” ............................................................. □ d. Variety, travel, action ................................................................................... □ e. O ther opinion, or no opinion ....... □ 18. W hich of these complaints about hours and trax el on ivholesale selling jobs do you suppose is most frequent and serious? a. Hours too long ...................... □ b. H ours too irregular; too much n ight work ............................ □ c. Too much travel away from h o m e ................. [] d. Too much paper work, etc., to be done at home ............... □ 19. W hich of these economic or financial complaints about ivholesale selling jobs do you suppose is most frequent and serious? a. Earnings too lo w .............................................. □ b. Income varies too m u c h ..... □ c. N ot enough opportunity for increase or advancem ent..................... □ d. Insecurity; not building security for later years ............... □ e. Disputes about territories, changes, commissions, etc. ..... □ 20. W hich of these causes of emotional and nervous strain on ivholesale sales jobs do you feel to be most unpleasant? a. Obstacles, frustrations; uncertainties and disappointments about sales ................□ b. Pressure from management to make more sales .............................. □ c. Feel obliged to play a role, tell part truths, use gimmicks ............................... O d. Feel forced to push in where not invited, press people to b u y ............................... □ e. Inferior position; have to subordinate self to prospect, "put up w ith” too much; rejection .................................. □ 21. O f the complaints about ivholesale selling jobs, in the above three questions, do you feel that the most serious are those relating to . .. a. Hours and tra v e l.............. ..□ b. Economic or financial matters ......................... □ c. Emotional and nervous strain ...... □ 22. A young college man, m arried, is considering applying for ivholesale sales po sitions. He would be wiser to .. . a. Apply at larger, better known, better established companies which often have better selection, training, and advertising program s ................ □ b. Apply at smaller companies for a chance at higher income, faster grow th and advancem ent .............. □ c. Disregard these matters, and consider other factors ........ n 23. O ptional: Any comments? Explanations of answers? Summary of your feelings about selling? (If desired, use additional sheet) ----- --------------------------------------- ------------------ 312 APPENDIX B ORIGINAL MAILING TO UNIVERSITY OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SENIORS THE QUESTIONNAIRE ATTITUDE SURVEY-SELLING C/O DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES 7 A T T IT U D E SU RV E Y - S E L L I N G ü D E P A R T M E N T C P P S Y C H O L O G Y c RSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L I F O R N I A LOS ANGELES 7 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES 24 Dear Senior; Please help in this study of attitudes of college seniors toward selling. There is a wide range of opinions about it, and you will probably enjoy registering yours. It is expected that the results will be pub lished and available to you, and that they will help students to make better decisions about courses of study and jobs. This questionnaire requires about 15 minutes to fill out. You do not sign your name, and your reply will remain anonymous. Will you fill it in, privately, and return it, right away? Thanks. J. A. Gengerelli Chairman, Department of Psychology A bout your background— A. In what college or school are you enrolled ?_______________________________ ___________ B. W hat is your course or m ajor subject? .................... ........................... .................. ......... C. Please check kinds of paid w ork experience you have had ; Selling in retail s to re .............. -........ □ Selling, outside of a retail store ...................................................................................□ O ther (non-selling) w ork................................ ...□ D. Your father’s principal occupation is, or was _____________________________________ Instructions: After each item , p lease check the one statem en t w hich m ost nearly expresses your ow n opinion. (You m ay find th at none of the alte r nates exactly conforms to your point of view , or th a t several statem ents hav e som e truth to them . Do not bother ab o u t refinem ents, but check the one which com es closest to stating your opinion.) First, about som e of your general attitudes— 1. Generally speaking, do you think there is too much, not enough, or about the right am ount of interest in security of v/ork and income, today? a. Too much interest in security............................................. n b. A bout the right am ount.................... □ c. N o t enough.............................................................................................................................. □ 2. Generally speaking, do you think there is too much, not enough, or about the right am ount of insistence today on shorter hours, and work that requires less in itiative and nervous strain? a. Too much of this insistence. ................................................................................... □ b. About the right am ount.................. □ c. N o t enough.............................................................................................................................. □ d. O ther opinion .............................................. □ 3. W hile they often go together, "success” in a career means, principally, a. Achievement; accom plishm ent...........................................................................................□ b. A djustm ent; doing what one enjoys d o in g ................................. □ A b o u t personal selling, generally— 4. If there were 10 per cent fewer salesmen in the United States, a. W e w ould be better off .................... □ b. W e would be about as well o ff........................ □ c. W e w ould be worse o ff.................................... □ d. . . . of some kinds, we w ould be as well off, or better off ........................... n 5. Aggressive selling in the United States . . . a. Is the principal cause of large-scale production, and the high (m aterial) standard of living ............................. □ b. Is principally needed as rf of large-scale production □ c. O ther opinion, or no opinion ....... □ 6. If selling and advertising influence or create consumer wants, the effects are . . . a. Principally to make people happier, by getting them to change habits and buy more and different things.......................................................................... □ b. M ainly to keep people discontented, trying to satisfy artificial wants, and keep up w ith the Jones’ and w ith fashion changes .............................. □ c. Partly to make people happier, partly to make them discontented...........................□ d. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n ................................................................................... □ 7. Selling is... a. The most im portant and beneficial function in our economic system .................... □ b. One of many inter related functions in our economic system .................................□ c. Perhaps a little less im portant and beneficial than some other fu n ctio n s............. □ 8. Compared with the persuading or "selling” which everyone does, the salesman ship exerted by salesmen i s . .. a. Different, morally, since its purpose is to influence the prospect for the self-interest of the salesman and his employer ............................................ □ b. N ot any different, morally, since self-interest may often be in v o lv ed .........[7 c. O ther opinion, or no opinion ....... □ 9. It has been said that a salesman’s job requires him to "shade the tru th ” more than some other jobs. This is . , . a. True ................................................. .□ b. U ntrue ......................... □ c. True for some kinds of selling jobs, not for o th e rs............................................... □ 10. Selling does not enjoy greater respect and prestige principally because people think th a t . . . a. Almost anyone can get a sales jo b ..................................................................................□ b. Salesmen push in where not invited; press people to b u y .....................................□ c. Salesmen exaggerate, tell part truths, use gimmicks, are insincere.......................□ d. Salesmen don’t "produce” anything; are p arasites.................................................. □ e. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n ..................................................................................□ 11. W hen starting on a certain sales job, a college graduate should be paid . . . a. M ore than a similar, non-college man ......................................................................□ b. The same as a similar, non-college m a n ..... □ c. O ther opinion, or no opinion ..... □ 12. The term "profession” may properly be applied to . . . a. N o kind of sales job ..................... □ b. Sales engineering (Technical; machinery, instruments, chemicals; to factories, etc.) ....................................................................................................................... □ c. Sales engineering, and wholesale selling (F or wholesalers and manufac turers; to stores for resale, and to factories, etc.) ..................................................... □ d. All kinds of sales jobs (Including retail store and house-to-house) ...................□ 13. As a career for myself, I w ould consider . . . a. W holesale selling, or sales engineering (Described above) ....................................□ b. Sales engineering only ................... □ c. N either wholesale selling or sales engineering ..........................................................□ R em aining questions d eal w ith w holesale salesm en— w ho represent w h o le salers an d m anufacturers, an d sell to retail stores for resale, an d to fac tories, etc. Traveling salesm en are included, but not technical sales engineers. 14. From the standpoint of actually increasing his sales, it would repay a ivholesale salesman’s time and effort, to . . . a. Have devoted four years to a college course in business ............................... . b. Have devoted two years to a college course in business.......................................... □ c. Just take evening courses in salesmanship, or study at h o m e .............................. -□ d. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n ...................................................................................□ 15. The principal reason why college graduates take wholesale sales jobs probably is . .. a. Preference (A fter logical consideration; planned)......................................................□ b. Chance (Fam ily connections, friends, past contacts, etc.) ....................................... □ c. Easy to get into (N o t prepared for any specific work, or couldn’t get pre ferred w ork) ........................................................................ □ d. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n ................................................................ □ 16. College graduates who take wholesale sales jobs by preference and plan, prob ably do so principally because they believe such jobs afford . . . a. A good lifetime career for them ............. □ b. A good stepping stone to other jobs in the company or in d u stry .................□ c. Good general experience, and a chance to make some money while look ing a ro u n d ............................ □ d. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n .............. □ 32- \ 17. The chief, actual attraction about ivholesale selling, as a lifetim e career, probab ly is .. . 34- a. O pportunity to deal with people .......................... i b. Income, income possibilities .................... □ 2 c. Freedom, "own boss” .................................................. □ 3 d. Variety, travel, action ............................... □ '* e. O ther opinion, or no opinion ...... = 18. W hich of these complaints about hours and travel on ivholesale selling jobs do you suppose is most frequent and serious? 35. a. Flours too long ................... □ > b. Hours too irregular; too much night work ......................................... □ 2 c. Too much travel away from home □ ^ d. Too much paper work, etc., to be done at home □ ^ 19. W hich of these economic or financial complaints about ivholesale selling jobs do you suppose is most frequent and serious? 35- a. Earnings too lo w ............................... □ ' b. Income varies too much ...... □ 2 c. N ot enough opportunity for increase or advancem ent ................ ..□ 3 d. Insecurity; not building security for later y e a rs............................................................ □ e. Disputes about territories, changes, commissions, etc. .............................. □ ^ 20. W hich of these causes of emotional and nervous strain on ivholesale sales jobs do you feel to be most unpleasant? 37. a. Obstacles, frustrations; uncertainties and disappointments about sales ..... □ ' b. Pressure from management to make more sales □ 2 c. Feel obliged to play a role, tell p art truths, use gim m icks □ 3 d. Feel forced to push in where not invited, press people to b u y ..................... □ e. Inferior position; have to subordinate self to prospect, "put up w ith” too much; rejection ........ □ ® 21. O f the complaints about ivholesale selling jobs, in the above three questions, do you feel that the most serious are those relating to . . . 33- a. Hours and tra v e l...................................................................... ...........................................□ ' b. Economic or financial matters □ 2 c. Emotional and nervous strain n ^ 22. A young college man, married, is considering applying for ivholesale sales po sitions. He would be wiser to . . . 39- a. Apply at larger, better known, better established companies which often have better selection, training, and advertising programs ....... □ ’• b. Apply at smaller companies for a chance at higher income, faster grow th and advancem ent .................. □ c. Disregard these matters, and consider other factors ....................................... □ 3- 23 . O ptional : Any comments? Explanations of answers ? Summary of your feelings about selling? (If desired, use additional s h e e t) -------------------------------------------------------------- 314 APPENDIX C ORIGINAL MAILING TO UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT L08 ANGELES SENIORS THE QUESTIONNAIRE ATTITUDE SURVEY— SELLING C/O DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES 24 ATTITUDE SURVEY— SELLING C O DEPARTM ENl OF ESYCHOI OGY' UN1YERSTUÏ OI CALMORNIA LOS ANGELES 24 U N I V E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L I F O R N I A L O S A N G E L E S 7 Dear Sales Executives Club Member; This is your survey— being conducted for your Sales Executives Club. Results, with those from similar surveys being made among college seniors, will help guide educa tional and other Club activities. This questionnaire requires less than 20 minutes to fill out. It lists some of the various attitudes toward selling which exist. Your opin ions are needed, and you will probably enjoy regis tering them. You do not sign your name, and your reply will remain anonymous. Findings, in the form of totals, will be reported through your Club. You'll help, by filling out the questionnaire, privately, and returning it right away? Thanks, William M. Borton Sales Executives Club Research Fellow About your com pany and your background — A. T otal num ber of employees in your company (approxim ate) _____ _ _ ______ _ ________ B. General kind of products or services sold_________________________________ __________ _ C. Sold to what kind of buyers, principally___________________ _______ ____________ D. For their use, or resale ................................ ................................. ..................................................... E. Your own form al education: please check highest grade completed 8th ...................................... - . -□ 12th, high school graduate .................. □ Some college ........................................ □ College graduate ............................................................................................... .□ Graduate study ...................................................................... .□ F. Your father’s principal occupation was, or is. Instructions: After each item, p lease check the one statem en t which m ost nearly expresses your ow n opinion. (You m ay find th at none of the alter n ates exactly conform s to your point of view , or th a t several statem ents have som e truth tc them . Do not bother ab o u t refinem ents, but check the one which comes closest to stating your opinion.) First, about som e of your general attitudes— 1. Generally speaking, do you think there is too much, not enough, or about the right am ount of interest in security of work and income, today ? 's a. Too much interest in security ............................... * b. About the right am ount □ 2 c. N o t enough..................................... □ ® 2. Generally speaking, do you think there is too much, not enough, or about the right am ount of insistence today on shorter hours, and w ork that requires less in itiative and nervous strain? ’9 - a. Too much of this insistence □ > b. About the right am ount...................................................................................................... □ 2 c. N o t enough...............................................................................................................................□ ® d. O ther opinion..........................................................................................................................□ 3. W hile they often go together, "success” in a career means, principally, 20. a. Achievement; accom plishm ent........................................................................................... □ ' b. Adjustm ent; doing w hat one enjoys d o in g ................................................................... □ 2 A b o u t personal selling, generally— 4. If there were 10 per cent fewer salesmen in the United States, 21- a. W e w ould be better off □ ' b. W e would be about as well o ff............................................................................................□ 2 c. W e w ould be worse o ff □ ^ d. . . . o f some kinds, we w ould be as well off, or better off ........ * 5. Aggressive selling in the U nited S tates. .. 2? .- a. Is the principal cause of large-scale production, and the high (m aterial) standard of living ............................. □ i b. Is principally needed as a result of large-scale production □ 2 c. O ther opinion, or no opinion □ 3 6. If selling and advertising influence or create consumer wants, the effects are . . . 23- a. Principally to make people happier, by getting them to change habits and buy more and different things. □ i b. M ainly to keep people discontented, trying to satisfy artificial wants, and keep up w ith the Jones’ and w ith fashion changes □ 2 c. Partly to make people happier, partly to make them discontented............................□ 3 d. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n ............................................................................................□ 4 7. Selling is . . . 24. a. The most im portant and beneficial function in our economic system □ ' b. One of many inter-related functions in our economic system .................................. □ 2 c. Perhaps a little less im portant and beneficial than some other fu n ctio n s □ 3 8. Compared w ith the persuading or "selling” which everyone does, the salesman ship exerted by salesmen is . . . a. Different, morally, since its purpose is to influence the prospect for the 25. self-interest of the salesman and his employer □ ' b. N ot any different, morally, since self-interest may often be in v o lv ed ...................[J 2 c. O ther opinion, or no opinion □ ^ 9. It has been said that a salesman’s job requires him to "shade the tru th ” more than some other jobs. This is .. . a. True ....... □ b. U ntrue .................................................... □ c. True for some kinds of selling jobs, not for others ..................................................□ 10. Selling does not enjoy greater respect and prestige principally because people think th a t. . . a. Almost anyone can get a sales jo b .................................................................. n b. Salesmen push in where not invited; press people to buy .......................................□ c. Salesmen exaggerate, tell part truths, use gimmicks, are insincere........................ □ d. Salesmen don’t "produce” anything; are parasites ...................................................□ e. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n ..................................................................................□ 11. W hen starting on a certain sales job, a college graduate should be paid . . . a. M ore than a similar, non-college man ..................................................................... Q b. The same as a similar, non-college man ..................................................................... □ c. O ther opinion, or no opinion ..... □ 12. The term "profession” may properly be applied to . . . a. N o kind of sales j o b ...........................................................................................................□ b. Sales engineering (Technical; machinery, instruments, chemicals; to factories, etc.) ................. □ c. Sales engineering, and wholesale selling (For wholesalers and manufac turers; to stores for resale, and to factories, etc.) ....................................................... □ d. All kinds of sales jobs (Including retail store and house-to-house) ......................□ 13. O f all kinds of careers, I would like to have a son of mine choose . . . a. W holesale selling, or sales engineering (Described above) ................................... □ b. Sales engineering only .................... □ c. N either wholesale selling or sales engineering ..........................................................□ Remaining questions deal with w holesale salesm en— w ho represent w hole salers and manufacturers, and sell to retail stores for resale, and to fac tories, etc. Traveling salesmen are included, but not technical sales engineers. 14. From the standpoint of actually increasing his sales, it would repay a ivholesale salesman’s time and effort, to .. . a. Have devoted four years to a college course in business ............... [j b. Have devoted two years to a college course in business....................................... ..□ c. Just take evening courses in salesmanship, or study at h o m e .......................□ d. O ther opinion, or no o p in io n ................................................................................... □ 15. The principal reason why college graduates take ivholesale sales jobs probably is . . , a. Preference (A fter logical consideration; planned) ........ □ b. Chance (Fam ily connections, friends, past contacts, etc.) ......... ..□ c. Easy to get into (N o t prepared for any specific work, or couldn’t get pre ferred w ork) ...................................... □ d. O ther opinion, or no opinion ....... □ 16. College graduates who take ivholesale sales jobs by preference and plan, prob ably do so principally because they believe such jobs afford . . . a. A good lifetime career for th e m ........................................... ............................................□ b. A good stepping stone to other jobs in the company or in d u stry — ...... □ c. Good general experience, and a chance to make some money while look ing around ............ □ d. O ther opinion, or no opinion ....................... □ 17. The chief, actual attraction about ivholesale selling, as a lifetim e career, probab ly is . . . a. O pportunity to deal with people ....................................................................................□ b. Income, income possibilities ................. □ c. Freedom, "own boss” .................. □ d. Variety, travel, action .......................................................................................................... □ e. O ther opinion, or no opinion ...... □ 18. W hich of these complaints about hours and travel on ivholesale selling jobs do )Ou suppose is most frequent and serious? a. Hours too long ........................................................... □ b. Hours too irregular; too much night work .................... □ c. Too much travel away from h o m e ................ □ d. Too much paper work, etc., to be done at home...... ......... □ 19. W hich of these economic or financial complaints about wholesale selling jobs do you suppose is most frequent and serious ? a. Earnings too low ........ □ b. Income varies too m u c h .................... □ c. N ot enough opportunity for increase or advancem ent.............. ...n d. Insecurity; not building security fo r later y e a rs..................................................... □ e. Disputes about territories, changes, commissions, etc ................................. □ 20. W hich of these causes of emotional and nervous strain on wholesale sales jobs do you feel to be most unpleasant? a. Obstacles, frustrations; uncertainties and disappointments about sales .......... [] b. Pressure from management to make more sales ...... ...□ c. Feel obliged to play a role, tell p art truths, use gimmicks ............ ...... ................ d. Feel forced to push in where not invited, press people to b u y ............................ e. Inferior position; have to subordinate self to prospect, "put up w ith” too much; rejection ..................................................................... ..[] 21. O f the complaints about wholesale selling jobs, in the above three questions, do you feel that the most serious are those relating to . . . a. Hours and tra v e l ........... □ b. Economic or financial matters ...........................................................................................□ c. Emotional and nervous strain ............................. □ 22. A young college man, married, is considering applying for wholesale sales po sitions. He would be wiser to . . . a. Apply at larger, better known, better established companies which often have better selection, training, and advertising programs ............. □ b. Apply at smaller companies for a chance at higher income, faster grow th and advancement .................................................................................. - c. Disregard these matters, and consider other factors ...... □ 23. O ptional: Any comments? Explanations of answers? Summary of your feelings about selling? (If desired, use additional s h e e t) --------------------- ----------------------------------------- 316 APPENDIX D QUESTIONI^AIRE FOR SALES EXECUTIVES CLUB MEMBERS A T T IT U D E S U R V E Y - S E L L I N G C / O D E P A R T M E N T O F P S Y C H O L O G Y U N I V E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L I F O R N I A If you have returned the questionnaire about selling which was sent to you recently, thanks a lot, and please disregard this card. If you have not yet returned it, it is important that you do so. The mailing was made to a sample or cross- section of seniors. This means that your personal opinion represents that of a number of other persons, and should not be left out. The return of every questionnaire is needed, to help in educational and vocational guidance. Won't you please fill it in and mail it today? . Neil D. Warren Head, Department of Psychology ATTITUDE SURVEY—SELLING C /O DEPARTMENT OF PSY CHOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF CALllORNIA LOS ANGELES 2 I If you have returned the questionnaire about selling which was sent to you recently, thanks a lot, and please disregard this card. If you have not yet returned it, it is important that you do so. The mailing was made to a sample or cross- section of seniors. This means that your personal opinion represents that of a number of other persons, and should not be left out. The return of every questionnaire is needed, to help in educational and vocational guidance. Won't you please fill it in and mail it today? 4 v ^ J. A. Gengerelli Chairman, Department of Psychology A T T IT U D E S U R V E Y — S E L L I N G C / O D E P A R T M E N T O F P S Y C H O L O G Y U N I V E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L I F O R N I A If yuu have returned the questionnaire about selling which was sent to you recently, thanks a lot, and please disregard this card. If you have not yet returned it, it is important that you do so. The return of every questionnaire is needed, to help your Sales Executive Club to get better qualified people interested in selling. The questionnaire takes less than 20 minutes to fill out, and you do not sign your name. Won't you please return it, today? William M. Borton Sales Executives Club Research Fellow 319 APPENDIX F STICKER EMPLOYED ON DUPLICATE QUESTIONNAIRE MAILING uuruLAit (If you have already returned a questionnaire iike this, please disregard this one. And thank you.) if you did not return the fint quertionnaire, it may have been because it was mislaid Piease return this duplicate. Your opinions are needed in this research.</p>
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Borton, William Monroe
(author)
Core Title
A comparison of attitudes of university seniors and sales executives toward outside selling, as revealed by clinical interview and questionnaire methods
School
Graduate School
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Social Studies
Degree Conferral Date
1956-06
Tag
OAI-PMH Harvest
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11256412
Unique identifier
UC11256412
Legacy Identifier
DP31926
Document Type
Dissertation