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The effects of various factors on the academic achievement of Vietnamese students at Gold Coast College
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UMI
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300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA
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THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS FACTORS
ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
OF VIETNAMESE STUDENTS
AT GOLD COAST COLLEGE
BY
Eric Ronald Mooney
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY O F T H E GRADUATE SCH O O L
U NIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN C A LIFO RN IA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
August, 1995
© 1995 Eric R onald M ooney
UMI Number: 9617124
UMI Microform 9617124
Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition is protected against unauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, MI 48103
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90007
This dissertation, written by
Eric Ronald Mooney
under the direction of h.i.f. Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of re
quirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
/
Dean o f Graduate Studies
Date .J3&X.M.A.J.9.S.S..........
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
ii
Dedication
This study is dedicated to Dr. Elma Johnson, Dr. Terrence Wiley, Dr. Evelyn Bibb,
my advisement committee at the University of Southern California, and the students,
faculty and administrators of Gold Coast College. Completion of this dissertation would
not have been possible without their considerable help and encouragement. I am
especially grateful to Dr. John Haskell who, many years ago in Japan, provided the
inspiration for my pursuit of the Ph.D. in Education.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
• Dedication.................................................................................................. ii
• List of Tables............................................................................................ vi
• List of Figures........................................................................................viii
• Chapter I The Problem and Its Setting..................................................x
• Introduction......................................................................................................... 1
• Background of the Problem .............................................................................. 3
• Statement of the Problem..................................................................................4
• Purpose of the Study..........................................................................................4
• The Significance of the Study.......................................................................... 5 *
• Delimitations of the Study.................................................................................5
• Limitations of the Study.....................................................................................5
• Assumptions of the Study................................................................................. 6
• Research Questions............................................................................................6
• Questionnaire Item Groupings........................................................................ 9
• Organization of the Remainder of the Study.............................................. 12
• Chapter II Review of the Literature.....................................................13
• Introduction....................................................................................................... 13
• Factors Influencing Academic Achievement............................................... 14
* Student Characteristics.......................................................................... 15
* Family Background............................................................................... 17
* Student’s Educational Background and Degree Objective................. 18
* Reading and Television Watching....................................................... 18
* Self-Esteem...........................................................................................19
* Cultural Friction.................................................................................... 20
* Zone of Proximal Development........................................................... 23
* Attitudes Regarding Education............................................................ 25
• Rationale for the Study................................................................................... 26
• Chapter III Methodology and Procedures.......................................... 28
• Introduction......................................................................................................28
• Profile of the Sample....................................................................................... 28
* Description of the Sample.....................................................................28
* Selection of the Sample........................................................................29
• Instrumentation................................................................................................30
* Development of the Survey..................................................................30
* Questionnaire Item Groupings............................................................. 31
• Methodology.....................................................................................................32
iv
* Procedures in the Administration of the Instrument............................32
* Data Collection......................................................................................33
* Data Analyses........................................................................................34
* Methodological Assumptions............................................................... 34
* Limitations............................................................................................. 35
• Chapter IV The Research Findings...................................................... 36
• Introduction.......................................................................................................36
• Statistical Measures Used in the Study......................................................... 36
• T-Test Results....................................................................................................36
• One-Way Analysis of Variance Results........................................................ 38
• Summary............................................................................................................ 65
• Chapter V Summary and Recommendations...................................... 66
• The Findings: Summary and Discussion...................................................... 66
* Student Characteristics.......................................................................... 66
0 Summary.......................................................................................... 66
0 Discussion........................................................................................68
* Family Background............................................................................... 68
0 Summary..........................................................................................68
0 Discussion........................................................................................69
* Educational Background and Degree Objective...................................70
0 Summary.......................................................................................... 70
0 Discussion........................................................................................70
* Pleasure Reading and Television Watching.........................................71
0 Summary..........................................................................................71
0 Discussion........................................................................................72
* Self-Esteem...........................................................................................72
0 Summary..........................................................................................72
0 Discussion........................................................................................73
* Cultural Friction.....................................................................................74
0 Summary..........................................................................................74
0 Discussion........................................................................................75
* Zone of Proximal Development............................................................76
0 Summary..........................................................................................76
0 Discussion........................................................................................77
* Attitudes Regarding Education.............................................................77
0 Summary..........................................................................................77
0 Discussion........................................................................................78
• Achievement Profiles....................................................................................... 79
* Profile of the Higher Achievers............................................................79
* Profile of the Lower Achievers.............................................................79
• Overview of the Findings.................................................................................80
• Suggestions and Recommendations.............................................................. 81
• Proposed Questions...........................................................................................83
Appendix A Academic Achievement Questionnaire............................ 85
Bibliography............................................................................................. 91
vi
List of Tables
Table 1 Grade Point Average by Years of Schooling in Vietnam...................................37
Table 2 Grade Point Average by Age............................................................................... 39
Table 3 Grade Point Average by Birth Order...................................................................40
Table 4 Grade Point Average by Years Since Arrival in the U S.....................................41
Table 5 Years Since Arrival in the US by Discrimination...............................................42
Table 6 Grade Point Average by Father’s Occupation in the United States...................43
Table 7 Grade Point Average by Family Income in Vietnam..........................................44
Table 8 Grade Point Average by Years of Schooling in the US......................................45
Table 9 Years of Schooling in the US by Discrimination................................................ 46
Table 10 Grade Point Average by Number of Books Read per Year in Vietnam..........47
Table 11 Grade Point Average by Number of Hours of TV Watched in Vietnam.........48
Table 12 Student’s Belief in the Ability to Make Friends with Americans.................... 49
Table 13 Ability to Make Friends with Americans by Discrimination.......................... 50
Table 14 Grade Point Average by the Rating of Social Acceptance.............................. 51
Table 15 Rating of Acceptance by Discrimination.......................................................... 52
Table 16 Grade Point Average by Discrimination Perceived at the College..................53
Table 17 Grade Point Average by Discrimination Perceived outside of the College.... 54
Table 18 Grade Point Average by Amount of Association with Americans..................55
Table 19 Amount of Association with Americans by Discrimination............................ 56
Table 20 Grade Point Average by Number of Hours Studied per Week........................ 57
Table 21 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Earnings without an Education........58
Table 22 Earnings Expected without an Education by Discrimination.......................... 59
Table 23 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Acceptance with an Education.........60
vii
Table 24 Acceptance Expected with an Education by Discrimination............................61
Table 25 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Acceptance without an Education....62
Table 26 Acceptance Expected without an Education by Discrimination...................... 63
Table 27 Grade Point Average by Attribution of Achievement to Personal Qualities ....64
Table 28 Personal Factors’ Influence on Academic Achievement by Discrimination ....65
viii
List of Figures
Figure 1 Profile of the Sample.............................................................................................29
Figure 2 Grade Point Average by Years of Schooling in Vietnam...................................37
Figure 3 Grade Point Average by Age............................................................................... 39
Figure 4 Grade Point Average by Birth Order....................................................................40
Figure 5 Grade Point Average by Years Since Arrival in the US......................................41
Figure 6 Grade Point Average by Father’s Occupation in the United States.................. 43
Figure 7 Grade Point Average by Family Income in Vietnam.........................................44
Figure 8 Grade Point Average by Years of Schooling in the U S .....................................45
Figure 9 Grade Point Average by Number of Books Read per Year in Vietnam............47
Figure 10 Grade Point Average by Number of Hours of TV Watched in Vietnam.........48
Figure 11 Student’s Belief in the Ability to Make Friends with Americans................... 50
Figure 12 Grade Point Average by the Rating of Social Acceptance.............................. 52
Figure 13 Grade Point Average by Discrimination Perceived at the College................53
Figure 14 Grade Point Average by Discrimination Perceived outside of the College ....54
Figure 15 Grade Point Average by Amount of Association with Americans..................55
Figure 16 Grade Point Average by Number of Hours Studied per Week........................57
Figure 17 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Earnings without an Education.........59
Figure 18 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Acceptance with an Education........60
Figure 19 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Acceptance without an Education ....62
Figure 20 Grade Point Average by Attribution of Achievement to Personal Qualities.... 64
Abstract
The effect of various factors on the academic achievement of 152 Vietnamese-
American students at Golden West College was investigated through the administration
of a sixty-two item questionnaire and a statistical analysis of the responses. Questions
were formulated to investigate the eight main factors in the current literature said to affect
minority student achievement: the student’s personal characteristics; family background;
educational background and degree objective; amount of reading for pleasure and
television watching; the student’s self-esteem; the student’s perception of cultural
friction; the student’s zone of proximal development; and the student’s attitudes
regarding education.
The findings showed that students who did not have a high expectation of social or
financial success, came from a lower socioeconomic background, had resided in the
United States for three years or less and who had not assimilated very much into
American society had the highest grades. Those who came from a higher socioeconomic
background, had high expectations of social and financial success, had resided in the
United States for more than three years and who felt comfortable with and associated
frequently with Americans had lower grade point averages. This was found to be true,
however, mostly for students who reported feeling a fair amount of discrimination or
more at the college or in the community. As a result of the negative impact of the
perception of discrimination on student achievement, further investigation of the genesis
of the students’ perceptions was recommended, along with regular training of the college
faculty and staff in multicultural issues. A longitudinal follow-up study is suggested to
examine the relationship between the degree of assimilation, the perception of
discrimination and student success over time. In future studies, the inclusion of
indicators of success other than academic achievement as dependent measures is
X
reccommended, since they may produce a more global perspective of success relative to
continuing residence and assimilation in the United States.
Chapter I
The Problem and Its Setting
1
Introduction
Over the last 30 years, increasing attention has been given to the academic
achievement of minority groups. Some minority groups have demonstrated poor
performance in the schools; others, however, have been observed to do well despite their
minority status, especially the Asians.
In ethnic minority research, one of the most remarkable phenomena has
been the high educational achievements demonstrated by some Asian-
American groups over the last four decades. Although Asian Americans
have been subjected to similar prejudice and discriminatory practices
encountered by other ethnic minorities, their educational attainments have
been increasing (Sue and Okazaki, 1990, p. 913).
Their superior academic achievement as compared to that of the various other
minority groups has attracted a great deal of interest, and much research has been
invested in the attempt to explain why they do so well while others do not; however,
many large studies have not discriminated well between certain ethnic groups and have
not probed deeply for multiple factors.
. . . Asian-Americans represent a heterogeneous group with marked
within- and between-group variations in a number of characteristics.. . .
. . . although there is growing interest in Asian-American achievements,
research findings have not been able to shed much light on the factors that
account for the achievement levels. This fact is caused in part by the lack
of research on the phenomenon and by the failure to devise adequate or
critical tests. . . . in the search for factors that influence achievement
levels, single explanations cannot adequately account for the observed
performance patterns. (Sue and Okazaki, 1990, p. 913)
The usual approach often incorrectly assumes a homogeneity within groups
composed of Asians of several different ethnicities which does not actually exist.
Vietnamese have usually been combined in studies with Laotians and Cambodians into a
group which is labeled Indochinese, assuming, apparently, that the natives of these three
countries are very much alike. Sue and Okazaki, however, argue that there is often a
divergence between the people from different Asian countries.
Differences among Asian Americans are also important to consider. . . .
Sue and Abe (1988) examined predictors of educational performance
among thousands of Asian-American and White Students. Regression
equations significantly differed not only between Asian Americans and
Whites but between some of the different Asian groups . . . (Sue and
Okazaki, p. 919).
Recognizing that data gathered from students from more than one ethnic
background might obscure distinctions between groups which may actually be unique,
this study will examine the factors pertaining to the academic achievement of the
Vietnamese Americans alone. Other researchers have called for such an approach:
Unfortunately, most institutions and researchers collect aggregated data on
Asians, and not specifically on isolated ethnic groups. There is a need for
further investigation focusing specifically on a specific ethnic group where
research would apply solely and uniquely to that group. (Eaton, 1992, p.
13)
Since Gold Coast College is situated near the largest Vietnamese community
outside of Vietnam, the student population is approximately twenty-eight percent
Vietnamese. Its situation presented an excellent opportunity to examine the factors
thought to be influencing the academic achievement of Vietnamese Americans, who are
considered to be one of the model Asian minorities. It should be noted that due to the
proximity of a large Vietnamese community, the Vietnamese students at Gold Coast
College may not be as strongly influenced by the forces leading to acculturation as
students who live in areas where there are fewer Vietnamese. The Vietnamese identity of
the students at Gold Coast College may be retained longer than that of students who live
at other locations due to the presumed reinforcement of the cultural identity that the large
Vietnamese community would provide.
Background of the Problem
Many studies have been conducted to investigate the academic achievement of
minority students. Theories involving cultural mismatch (Erickson, 1987), language use
(Dolson, 1984), family support (Caplan, Whitmore and Choy, 1989), window of
opportunity (Sue and Okazaki, 1990), perception of discrimination (Ogbu, 1978), and
zone of proximal development (Trueba, 1989) have been advanced which explain the
academic achievement of various ethnic groups . Any difficulties that Asian American
students encounter have generally not been seen to affect their academic progress
significantly. Exhaustive studies of other minority groups, however, have revealed
numerous factors believed to be interfering with the successful schooling of their
members. Although it is usually assumed that these factors impeding the academic
achievement of other minority groups do not seriously affect the Asian Americans, it is a
matter of record in the nation’s media that Asian Americans have suffered many of the
same problems with poverty, discrimination, and ethnic difference as those encountered
by other minority groups. Beside the usual problems besetting an immigrant group, the
Vietnamese Americans at Gold Coast College suffer from an additional disadvantage. In
order to be eligible for financial assistance, which many of them need, the students must
enroll in classes which add up to a minimum of twelve units work per semester. This is
true no matter what their level of ability in English. Consequently, many beginning and
low-intermediate level ESL students must compete for grades with native speakers and
their more accomplished compatriots. The existence of these known disadvantages raises
the question of how the Asian Americans perceive their problems and whether, perhaps,
some are significantly affected by the same forces that affect students from other ethnic
groups. If, in fact, some Asian Americans are being negatively affected by their minority
status, this fact may be revealed by this study and the problem can be addressed in order
to intervene in a process which could lead to the development of another hard-to-reach
disaffected group of minority students. In addition, positive factors may be discovered
that can be appropriately utilized as well.
Statement of the Problem
The research problem, therefore, was to investigate the perceptions of the
Vietnamese American students at Gold Coast College regarding the influence on them of
various factors which are said to affect the academic achievement of other minority
groups in the schools. The extent to which these factors significantly affect the
Vietnamese Americans at Gold Coast College was to be analyzed to scrutinize their
positive or negative effects, especially those factors which might lead to an oppositional
attitude toward the host culture. If the same factors which have had such a negative
impact on other minority groups were found not to significantly correlate with the
academic achievement of the Vietnamese Americans, or if other factors were found to
correlate positively with their academic achievement, then the conclusions that could be
drawn about the Vietnamese Americans based on their characteristics and attitudes as
revealed by the survey might provide further insight into the nature of the educational
experience of minority students in the United States.
Purpose of the Study
This study is intended to show how a distinct ethnic group, the Vietnamese
Americans at Gold Coast College, are being affected by the societal, cultural and other
various factors that have been found to influence significantly the academic achievement
of various minority groups. If there are any trends toward the development of problems
with academic achievement, it is expected that they will be shown in the study. By
examining the various factors in relation to the students' grade point average at the
college, the study will reveal how the students are reacting to the various forces which
5
could affect their study at the college and indicate areas which warrant a closer
examination. A follow-up study could investigate the attitudes of the students toward
American culture and their academic endeavors in greater detail.
The Significance of the Study
This study is unique in its investigation of multiple factors affecting the academic
achievement of one particular ethnic group at one school—the Vietnamese Americans at
Gold Coast College—utilizing eight of the main theories most written about in education
at present. The data, once analyzed, may provide valuable information concerning the
attitudes and characteristics of this particular group of students and it is hoped that the
paradigm o f the study will prove to be useful for other researchers who might wish to
investigate the factors which influence the academic performance of a specific ethnic
group from multiple perspectives.
Delimitations of the Study
The delimitations of the study are the following:
1. The study examines only one Asian American ethnic group at one community
college.
2. The study uses only the grade point average of the students at the college as the
measure of their academic achievement.
Limitations of the Study
The limitations inherent in the study are that the students may not have understood
the questions fully or may have answered them inaccurately due to the wish not to be
impolite and that this particular group of Vietnamese Americans who mostly live in and
around an ethnic center, Little Saigon, may not be completely representative o f other
groups of Vietnamese Americans in the United States.
Assumptions of the Study
The assumptions implicit in the study are:
1. The Vietnamese Americans have unique characteristics as a distinct ethnic group
as compared to the other ethnic groups from Asia.
2. The educational and social setting of Gold Coast College is unique due to its
proximity to and need to serve a very large Vietnamese community.
3. The students will have had sufficient time in the educational and social setting to
develop the attitudes surveyed.
4. Analyzing the data obtained from the survey will yield important information
concerning which factors significantly influence the academic achievement of the
Vietnamese Americans at Gold Coast College.
5. It will be possible to generalize the results of the analysis of the survey to other
groups of Vietnamese Americans.
6. The paradigm of the study will be effective in obtaining the data desired and will
prove to be useful to other researchers.
Research Questions
The study seeks to discover the strength of the effect on the educational
achievement of minority students of eight of the factors currently appearing in the
literature. In addition, it seeks to evaluate the correlation between these factors. The
factors are grouped into six categories in which the following questions are asked:
Factor: Student Characteristics.
1. How do the student's personal characteristics and history correlate with his/her
grade point average at Gold Coast College?
Factor: Family Background
2. How do the parents’ educational and occupational backgrounds correlate with the
student's grade point average at Gold Coast College?
3. How do the past and present income levels of the student’s parents correlate with
his/her grade point average at Gold Coast College?
Factor: Student’ s Educational Background and Plans
4. How does the student’s previous educational background correlate with his/her
grade point average at Gold Coast College?
5. How does the student’s degree objective correlate with his/her grade point
average?
Factor: Literacy and Television Watching
6. How does the amount of past and present reading done correlate with the student’s
grade point average at Gold Coast College?
7. How does the amount of past or present television watching correlate with the
student’s grade point average at Gold Coast College?
Factor: Self-Esteem.
8. How does the student’s rating of the Vietnamese language and culture correlate
with his/her grade point average at Gold Coast College?
Factor: Cultural Friction.
9. How do the student's perceptions of acceptance and treatment by the faculty and
staff of the college and the society at large correlate with his/her grade point
average at Gold Coast College?
10. How does the amount of discrimination perceived by the student correlate with
his/her grade point average at Gold Coast College?
11. How does the student’s perception of cultural mismatch as an obstacle to
academic success correlate with his/her grade point average at Gold Coast
College?
Factor: Zone o f Proximal Development
12. How does the difficulty of the material presented at the college relative to the
student’s knowledge base correlate with his/her grade point average at Gold Coast
College?
13. How do the study conditions and study habits of the student correlate with his/her
grade point average at Gold Coast College?
14. How does the student’s proficiency in English correlate with his/her grade point
average at Gold Coast College?
15. How do the number of English as a Second Language classes successfully
completed and the student's language use correlate with with his/her grade point
average?
Factor: Attitudes Regarding Education
16. How does the perceived opportunity for economic achievement and social
acceptance correlate with a student's grade point average at Gold Coast College?
17. How much does the student’s perception that his/her culture is responsible for the
academic achievement correlate with grade point average?
18. How much does the student’s perception that parental expectation affects his/her
academic achievement correlate with his/her grade point average at Gold Coast
College?
19. How does the student’s opinion of his/her own personal character correlate with
grade point average at Gold Coast College?
Questionnaire Item Groupings
The grouping of the questionnaire items into categories to elicit data pertaining to each of
the eight factors was as follows:
Grouping Questions
Student Characteristics: 1 through 11
1. Sex
2. Marital status
3. Age
4. Number of siblings
5. Birth order among siblings
6. Urban / rural birthplace
7. Ethnicity
8. Time of arrival in the United States
9. Length of residence in the United States
10. Age on arrival in the United States
11. Number of hours worked per week
Family Background 12 through 20
12. Number of parents in the home
13. Mother’s educational level
14. Father’s educational level
10
15. Mother’s occupation in Vietnam
16. Mother’s present occupation
17. Father’s occupation in Vietnam
18. Father’ s present occupation
19. Family’s income level in Vietnam
20. Family’s income level now
Student's Educational Background 21 through 24
21. Years of schooling in Vietnam
22. Level of schooling completed in Vietnam
23. Degree objective in the United States
24. Years of schooling in the United States
Reading and Television Watching 25 through 30
25. Number of books read for pleasure per year in Vietnam
26. Number of books read for pleasure per year in the United States
27. Hours of reading for pleasure per week in Vietnam
28. Hours of reading for pleasure per week in the United States
29. Hours of television watched per week in Vietnam
30. Hours of television watched per week in the United States
Self Esteem 31 through 35
31. Student’s belief in his/her ability to attain educational goals
32. Student’s belief in his/her being worthy of acceptance by Americans
33. Student’s opinion of the Vietnamese culture
34. Student’s opinion of the Vietnamese language
35. Student’s belief in his/her ability to make friends with Americans
Cultural Friction 36 through 43
36. Student’s rating of his/her acceptance as equal
37. Student’s perception of discrimination at the college
38. Student’s perception of discrimination outside of the college
39. Student’s rating of ease of understanding and being understood by faculty
40. Student’s rating of amount of help received from college staff
41. Student’s rating of amount of help received from college faculty
42. Amount of student’s association with Americans
43. Student’s assessment of culture as a problem in his/her education
Zone o f Proximal Development 44 through 55
44. Student’s rating of comprehensibility of college material
45. Student’s rating of his/her ability to study using English
46. Number of students in the home for mutual assistance
47. Person from whom help with homework is received
48. Number of students who study together at home
49. Number of students who study together outside of home
50. Hours studied per week
51. Years of study of English
52. Number of English as a Second Language classes completed
53. Amount of Vietnamese spoken at home
54. Amount of Vietnamese spoken at school
55. Amount of Vietnamese spoken elsewhere
Attitudes Regarding Education 56 through 62
56. Earnings expectations upon completion of education
57. Earnings expectations without completion of education
58. Expectation of societal acceptance upon completion of education
59. Expectation of societal acceptance without completion of education
60. Amount that student’s parents influence his/her academic ambition
12
61. Student’s perception that Vietnamese culture influences his/her academic
ambition
62. Perception that the students own personality influences his/her academic
ambition
For the text of the individual questions, please refer to the appendix.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Following a review of the relevant literature in Chapter II, the methodology and
procedures of the investigation will be presented in Chapter III. Chapter IV will present
an analysis of the statistical outcomes regarding the research questions delineated in this
chapter, and Chapter V will present a discussion of the findings and the conclusions along
with recommendations for further research.
Chapter II
Review of the Literature
13
Introduction
Much research has been directed toward the academic achievement of minority
students in the United States, as well as abroad. Among minority groups, the Asians are
generally thought to stand out as models of success. It is widely believed that as a group,
students of Asian origin do not react to the host society in the ways that bring about poor
academic achievement which are typical of some other minority groups and that
consequently they do not need much special attention; however, recent research has
shown that this is not the case.
Articles in the popular press frequently point to the success story of Asian
American students. However, educational statistics reveal that not all
students from Asia and the Pacific Islands are successful in school. . . .
Examples of low achievement can be identified. The psychological
isolation, and the perception of being ignored . . . often lead Asian and
Pacific Island students to drop out, engage in criminal activities and fail in
school. . . . The lack of services for Asian and Pacific Island students is
related to teacher perception that these students do not need any help.
(Trueba, Cheng and Ima, 1991, p. 61-62)
Indeed, some Asian-American students may present the image of being model
students while just the opposite is true. Stacy J. Lee discusses a student in an academic
high school in Philadelphia who, although he is Cambodian American, is representative
of the disparity between image and reality regarding Asian-American students.
14
Ming Chang was one of these seemingly model achievers who turned out
to be a low achiever. When I met Ming, he was eating lunch with a group
of extraordinarily quiet Asian males. When I arrived at their table, they
acknowledged me and then quickly went back to playing chess. Their
behavior fed into my stereotype of quiet and studious Asian students. . . .
It was Ming’s government teacher. . . who finally told me about Ming’s
academic problems. Ming was on the verge of failing government—a
major course needed for graduation. . . . The most surprising fact,
however, was not that he was having academic difficulty but that many of
his peers assumed that Ming was academically successful. On at least one
occasion a member of the ASA [Asian Student Association] tried to recruit
Ming as a tutor for their peer-tutoring program. (Lee, 1994, p. 420-421)
It is especially important that the factors influencing Asian-American students’
academic achievement be understood since the students themselves may not reveal their
problems or ask for help when they need it.
Ming said that it would be embarrassing to reveal his academic difficulties
and that Asians did not talk about their problems. In his words: “You
know, Asians don’t talk about their problems—We just keep it inside—
My father would kill me if I talk about stuff.” . . . Since academic failure
clearly contradicts the model-minority stereotype, Ming felt that admitting
his academic failure would cause his family to lose face (be ashamed).
(Lee, 1994, p. 421)
Because Asian-American students are mostly viewed as exemplary students and
because they are reluctant to reveal that they do not fit this stereotype, an examination of
the factors which actually influence the academic achievement of Vietnamese-Americans
at Gold Coast College is believed to be timely and appropriate.
Factors Influencing Academic Achievement
Although the factors reportedly influencing the academic performance of minority
students have been examined from many perspectives, eight main factors emerge from
the literature. These eight factors are:
15
The characteristics of the student,
The characteristics of the student’s family,
The educational background and degree objective of the student,
The amount of reading and television watching that the student does and has
done,
The student’s self esteem,
The student’s perception of cultural friction,
The student’s zone of proximal development in relation to the schoolwork, and
The student’s attitudes regarding the benefit of education.
Various theories about each of these factors pertaining to the academic
achievement of minority students are referred to below.
Student Characteristics
Various attributes of minority students which influence their academic
achievement are discussed in the literature. The potential influence of factors such as
gender, marital status and age on academic achievement has been well established. “Four
. . . studies point to the influence of gender on school performance and suggest that the
forces impeding school success for minority students are sometimes gender specific”
(Gibson, 1991, P. 368). The effects on minority students of these and other factors such
as birth order, family size and and location of residence, however, are often found to be
different than their effects on American students.
Although it is well established that American students who live in families with a
large number of children and who are bom later do worse academically than those in
small families who have a higher birth order, this effect has been found not to be true
regarding the Asian-Americans. In a large study of the “Boat People,” who were
16
primarily refugees from Vietnam, it was found that students with a large number of
siblings did as well or better than those with a fewer number.
Studies on the effects of family size and birth order on school achievement
have shown a strong negative correlation: the greater the number of
children, the lower the level of academic achievement, with the later bom
doing less well than their older siblings. . . . Among these refugees,
however, families with four, five and six or more children do as well as or
better than those with fewer children. In fact, there is a positive and
statistically reliable relationship between the number of children in a
household and GPA if one child families are removed from the data set.
Thus, for the refugee families in which a sibship [sic] exists, the
relationship between academic achievement and family size runs exactly
opposite to the expected. (Caplan, Whitmore and Choy, 1989, p. 84)
The grade point average of only children would seem to this researcher to be
important as well; however, there is no reason given by the authors for leaving out the
one-child families.
Urban residence has been associated with better academic achievement compared
to rural residence. A study of the “Boat People” found that refugees from rural areas did
not do as well as the urban dwellers. “... households from rural backgrounds do not
achieve self-sufficiency as those from urban backgrounds .... Similarly,. . . fluency in
English is comparatively poorer in rural populations” (Caplan, Whitmore and Choy,
1989, p. 214).
Ethnicity has also been established as a factor which can influence academic
achievement; in the case of the Vietnamese Americans, this refers to whether they are
Chinese Vietnamese or simply Vietnamese. The study of the “Boat People” found that
there were significant differences in the jobs held and grade point averages obtained by
the two groups.
17
. . . the Vietnamese tended to have higher wages and better jobs than their
Lao and Chinese-Vietnamese counterparts. . . . On GPA we found
statistically reliable deviations among the three ethnic groups. . . . the
mean GPAs for the Vietnamese, Chinese and Lao were 3.17, 2.99, and
2.63, respectively. (Caplan, Whitmore and Choy, 1989, p. 208)
The student’s time of arrival, age on arrival and length of residence in the United
States has also been found to influence academic achievement.
. . . minority students from dominated groups who immigrate relatively
late (about ten years of age) often appear to have better academic
prospects than students of similar socioeconomic status bom in the host
country. . . . These findings have been attributed, in part at least, to the
fact that these students have not experienced devaluation of their identity
in the social institutions (e.g. schools) of the host country.. . . (Cummins,
1989, p. 58)
Family Background
The income level and occupation, both past and present, of the student’s parents, as
well as their level of education is known to influence the academic achievement of
American students. These attributes, when taken together are usually referred to as
socioeconomic status. Coleman, in his report Equality o f Educational Opportunity
(Coleman, et al., 1966), found that socioeconomic status was the single strongest
indicator of academic achievement. Other researchers have come to the same conclusion.
One factor that seems generally to be accepted as having a bearing on
academic achievement is socioeconomic status. . . . It is generally
accepted that children from lower socioeconomic groups do less well in all
these areas than do their counterparts from higher socioeconomic groups.
(Bond, 1981, p. 239)
In the case of Asian-Americans, however, Sue and Okazaki found that
socioeconomic status may have neither a strong positive nor a strong negative influence
on academic achievement.
18
. . . we know that educational achievements of individuals are directly
related to the social class of parents .... Perhaps Asian-Americans are
“advantaged” in terms of socioeconomic standing and provide their
children with special resources and opportunities. There is no strong
evidence that this can explain the racial or ethnic differences. . . . the
median parental income of Asian-Americans was lower than that of
whites, $25,400 and $32,900, respectively; the educational attainments of
the parents were comparable. Yet, Asian-Americans were found to have
higher high school grades and SAT-M scores than did whites. (Sue and
Okazaki, 1990, p. 914)
Because of the various and somewhat conflicting findings concerning the influence
of socioeconomic status on academic achievement, the impact it has on the Vietnamese
Americans is being investigated in this study.
Student’ s Educational Background and Degree Objective
The student’s past amount of schooling both in Vietnam and in the United States,
as well as his/her degree objective are important factors influencing academic
achievement. It has been well established, especially in the field of bilingual education,
that academic proficiency can transfer from the home culture to the host culture.
. . . there is an underlying proficiency which is common across languages.
This “common underlying proficiency” makes possible the transfer of
cognitive/academic or literacy related skills across languages. . . . there is
general agreement that knowledge transfers readily from one language to
another, so that students do not have to relearn in a second language what
they have already learned in a first. In fact, it is clear that the ability to
transfer to English what is learned in the native language applies not only
to content-area subjects like science and math, but also to skills in reading
and writing .... (Cummins, 1989, p. 44— 45)
Reading and Television Watching
The amount of reading for pleasure (free voluntary reading) and time watching
television that the student has spent in the past and spends at the present are considered to
19
be linked to the student’s level of literacy and grade point average. Krashen has found
that moderate amounts of television watching boost academic achievement.
Achievement actually increases (slightly) with moderate amounts of TV
watching, that is, the more TV, the better subjects do on school related
tests up to about two hours of TV per day. After reaching this threshold,
however, the relationship is negative: the more TV, the worse students do,
with TV watching showing a clearly negative impact when it exceeds four
hours per day Interestingly, increased television watching is
associated with better literacy development in English for children
acquiring English as a second language ...; this relationship did not hold
true for beginners, however, for whom English-language television was
probably not comprehensible. (Krashen, 1993, p. 82)
Since none of the students in this study was a beginner, it was expected that more
television watching, up to a limit of twelve to fourteen hours per week, would be
associated with better grade point average.
Reading for pleasure by second language learners is also associated with greater
competency in the language, which in turn should lead to greater academic achievement.
When second language learners read for pleasure, they develop the
competence they need to move from the beginning “ordinary
conversation” level to a level where they can use the second language for
more demanding purposes, such as the serious study of literature, business,
and so on. (Krashen, 1993, p. 84)
For English as a Second Language students, then, a greater amount of reading for
pleasure and television watching are expected to be positively correlated with grade point
average due to their increased competence in the English language.
Self-Esteem
The student’s self-concept and belief in his/her worthiness and ability are seen to
be connected to academic achievement.
20
Research. . . provides insight into the relationship between adjustment and
academic achievement of immigrant children in London schools. Well-
adjusted children tended to have higher academic performance and vice-
versa. . . . a well-adjusted person is able to deal effectively with his
environment when he has an “objective self-concept, is socially accepted,
is personally satisfied, and is free from anxiety.” The results of the study
showed a positive relationship between adjustment and academic
achievement. (Nguyen and Henkin, 1980, p. 106)
The student’s self-esteem was also found to be important in the “Boat People”
study: “Belief in one’s own ability to effect change or attain goals has long been held to
be a critical component of achievement and motivation—and our findings support this
conclusion” (Caplan, Whitmore and Choy, 1992, p. 40).
Cultural Friction
The student’s perception of cultural friction has long been considered to be one of
the forces affecting academic achievement. “Cultural compatibility is a credible
explanation for school success, while, conversely, cultural incompatibility is one credible
explanation for school failure” (Suarez-Orozco, 1987, p. 286). In 1982, Ogbu postulated
two kinds of cultural incompatibility: primary cultural discontinuities and secondary
cultural discontinuities.
Primary cultural differences result from cultural developments before
members of a given population come into contact with American or
Western white middle-class culture or enter American public schools or
Western-type schools. This kind of cultural difference generates primary
cultural discontinuities. Primary cultural discontinuities are often
associated with immigrants attending schools in their host societies and
with non-Westem peoples being introduced to Westem-type schools.
(Ogbu, 1982, p. 293-294)
It is generally thought that primary cultural discontinuities are usually overcome
by students since, at this stage, they have not been exposed to the host culture long
enough to become discouraged or embittered.
21
Secondary cultural discontinuities are seen as being much more damaging,
however, since they cause students to reject the possibility of success through education.
Secondary cultural discontinuities result from interaction:
In contrast to primary cultural discontinuities, secondary cultural
discontinuities develop after members of two populations have been in
contact, or after members of a given population have begun to participate
in an institution, such as the school system, controlled by another group.
Secondary cultural discontinuities usually develop as a response to a
contact situation, especially a contact situation involving stratified
domination. Colonial stratification, caste stratification, and racial
stratification are examples of such a contact situation. This type of contact
situation is also associated with nonimmigrant minorities that I have
designated as castelike minorities.
Castelike minorities are distinguished from immigrants and other types of
minorities in that (1) they have been incorporated into the society rather
involuntarily and permanently, (2) they face a job and status ceiling, and
(3) they tend to formulate their economic and social problems in terms of
collective institutional discrimination which they perceive as more than
temporary. (Ogbu, 1982, p. 298-299)
Ogbu later attempted to define the difference between the two groups more
precisely by terming them voluntary or involuntary immigrants. He apparently intended
the term to apply to the first generation of immigrants. However, despite the fact that
their parents may have been “voluntary” immigrants, research has found that the
development of the attitudes associated with the status of castelike minority can begin to
develop as early as the second generation. In Europe, the so-called second and third
generations are also referred to as the “involuntary migrants,” since their parents chose to
migrate, not them.
22
. . . in the United States Ogbu has argued that one of the key characteristics
of castelike or disparaged minorities is their “involuntary” entry into the
dominant society. The point is that children inhabit a vastly distinct
psychosocial and economic atmosphere when compared with their parents.
Not being immigrants themselves, they often have only fragmentary
knowledge of their ancestral language and codes of behavior. Lacking
their parents’ cross-cultural perspectives and constant comparisons
between the “here” (host country) and “there” (home country), the second
generation tends not to see their ongoing experiences and frustrations
within an immigrant “dual frame of reference”. . . . The country of their
parents is often seen more as a vaguely mythical place of origin than a
viable place to return should the future turn bleak in the new land.
(Suarez-Orozco, 1991, p. 112)
In Europe, beginning with the second generation, immigrants often adopt negative
attitudes due to the lack of jobs. “The ‘problem,’ I would contend, typically begins with
the second generation, with the ‘involuntary,’ or unwanted children of immigrants”
(Suarez-Orozco, 1991, p. 115). Given the scarcity of jobs which pay above the minimum
wage in Orange County, the children of Vietnamese immigrants who were bom in the
United States, or arrived here when they were too young to have absorbed much of an
impression of their home culture, seem susceptible to adopting attitudes similar to those
held by involuntary immigrants. Also, a recent study has identified a group of Asian-
American students who have trouble in school—the “new wavers.”
Most of the students who identified as new wavers were Southeast Asian
refugees from working-class and poor families. . . . Unlike the students
who simply referred to themselves as Asian, the new wavers did not see
school as the key to success in the United States. In fact, the new wave
students were almost flamboyant in their disrespect for academic
achievement.
In reaction to the host culture, new wave students identify closely with their peers
and have negative attitudes toward teachers, characteristics of the group Ogbu terms
involuntary minorities.
23
The peer orientation of the new wavers was likely influenced by the
negative experiences they had with adult authority figures in the United
States. . . . Because of experiences with police and security guards, these
students came to school suspicious of all authority figures, including
teachers.. . .
New wave students complained that teachers were insensitive to them.
They spoke of teachers whom they thought were “anti-Asian.” For their
part, teachers seemed to view new wavers as students who had gone
wrong. . . . The new wavers did not trust the teachers to be fair, and the
teachers did not trust that the new wavers wanted to learn. (Lee, 1994, p.
425)
The new wavers also appear to be similar to a group of students of Mexican-
descent Matute-Bianchi has termed “Cholos.” In her study of Mexican-descent students,
she found that there were a variety of groups with different identificational
consciousnesses (Matute-Bianchi, 1991, p. 207).
. . . we can observe variations in forms of ethnic identification and
consciousness among various groups of Mexican-descent people in the
United States: Mexicanos, Mexican Americans, Pochos, Chicanos, Cholos,
Low Riders, Homeboys, etc. The emphasis on one ethnic category versus
another is best understood as an adaptive strategy; the specific ethnic label,
therefore, is best understood as an adaptive strategy; the specific ethnic
label serves as a cognitive resource developed in an interactive response
that is strategically exploited and manipulated within specific contexts as
the various groups compete for scarce resources (material and/or social)
within a system of structured inequality.
The same forming of groups appears to be taking place among students of Asian
descent, although perhaps to an even greater degree since within the body of Asian-
American students there are multiple ethnicities which are more distinct as compared to
the single ethnicity of the Mexican-descent students.
Zone o f Proximal Development
This concept, originated by Lev Semionovich Vygotsky in the 1920’s, associates
the appropriacy and context of the curricular material presented with the student’s ability
to understand and assimilate it. It is consonant with Krashen’s input hypothesis which
24
states that the material to be learned and its context must relate in a certain way to the
student’s level of knowledge and social situation. “We acquire by understanding
language that contains a structure a bit beyond our current level of competence (/ + 1).
This is done with the help of context or extra-linguistic information” (Krashen, 1987, p.
21). The scope of Vygotsky’s concept refers to more than just the comprehensibility of
the material presented: it refers in addition to all of the factors which make up the
student’s learning environment.
. . . in Vygotsky’s theoretical framework, comprehensibility of what a
child [or adult] learns is not an attribute of the curriculum or of the
instructional process controlled by the teacher; comprehensibility is
determined by the “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) that a child [or
adult] controls with the orientation and the support of more informed peers
or adults. This ZPD encompasses domains, concepts and areas of learning
for which a child [or adult] is ready in an appropriate learning
environment. This can be described as one in which interaction is
meaningful (culturally and linguistically), supportive (with opportunities
for high levels of achievement motivation) and conducive to the child’s [or
adult’s] active involvement in acquiring new knowledge, (interactionally
focused, appropriate and substantive). (Trueba, Cheng and Ima, 1991, p.
159)
The student’s English ability, which reflects the amount of English that has been
studied and the amount of time that the student spends using English, contributes in
forming the student’s Zone of Proximal Development. In addition, the nature and amount
of support that the student receives from family and peers, the number of hours spent
doing homework, and the amount of time that the student spends using his/her native
language also relates to the Zone of Proximal Development. More English study, more
use of the English language, and a high self-rating of English ability would be expected
to place the student in an optimal Zone of Proximal Development. Similarly, less use of
the native language, more study support received from parents (or guardians), siblings
and friends, and a high rating of the comprehensibility of the college material by the
25
student would also be expected be associated with an optimal Zone of Proximal
Development, which should result in greater academic achievement.
Attitudes Regarding Education
Students’ attitudes toward education might very well be the most important
indicator of academic achievement. Some theorists attribute academic achievement to the
influence of culture and the family.
The most popular cultural view is that the Asian family values and
socialization experiences emphasize the need to succeed educationally.
Largely on the basis of anecdotal and observational evidence, rather than
on empirical findings, investigators have identified the following values or
practices in Asian families that may promote educational achievements:
demands and expectations for achievement and upward mobility,
induction of guilt about parental sacrifices and the need to fulfill
obligations, respect for education, social comparisons with other Asian-
American families in terms of educational success and obedience to elders
such as teachers. (Sue and Okazaki, 1990, p. 915-916)
Another determiner of attitude toward academic achievement, however, might be
the student’s perception of opportunities for success and mobility. From the perspective
of a theory known as Relative Functionalism, when academic achievement is virtually the
only avenue to financial success and social mobility, it can assume great importance for
Asian-American students. “To the extent that mobility is limited in noneducational
avenues, education becomes increasingly salient as a means of mobility” (Sue and
Okazaki, 1990, p. 917). Academic achievement as a means of mobility might not be
positively driven, however. A recent study which included some 15,000 minority
students at high schools across the United States has found that instead, the students
might be negatively driven to achieve.
26
Of particular interest, however, is the finding that the extent to which
students believe that there are negative consequences of school failure is a
better predictor of their school performance and engagement than the
extent to which they believe that there are positive consequences of school
success. That is, across ethnic groups, the more youngsters believe that
not getting a good education hurts their chances, the better they do in
school. (Steinberg, Dombusch and Brown, 1992, p. 726)
Additionally, the student’s talents and personality, endowed genetically or formed
by unique experiences or physical attributes, might lead to educational success and
contribute to the student’s attitude toward education. Bond believes that importance must
be given to “the complexity of the relationship between class, individual personality
characteristics, [emphasis added] and the social system of the school” (Bond, 1987, p.
249).
Rationale for the Study
It is important to both schools and to the Vietnamese community that the factors
which are influencing the academic progress of the Vietnamese students be investigated.
It is known that there are students, including recent arrivals, who may be developing
attitudes which lead to poor performance in the schools. As discovered by Stacy J. Lee, a
group of Asian-American Students who resisted schooling in Philadelphia were called
“New Wavers” (see also pp. 22-23).
New wave students resisted any behavior that encouraged academic
achievement. Their resistance challenges the cultural ecological position
that, as a group, recent arrivals to the United States hold positive folk
theories of success. Furthermore, the new wave identity suggests that
identity is not something simply located in minority status (i.e., voluntary
or involuntary), but something negotiated through lived experiences.
(Lee, 1994, p. 427)
Knowing the factors which most strongly influence the Vietnamese-American
students’ success and letting the students know that the school is aware of the factors
which are important to them can help schools to achieve and maintain legitimacy in the
27
students’ view, an important prerequisite to academic success. Erickson points out the
importance of both long-term and short-term legitimacy in student success.
. . . the legitimacy of the school and its teachers, affirmed at the existential
level as trust by individual students, is essential if deliberate instruction is
to succeed in its aims. School success must be earned by the school staff
as well as the students in a process of political rhetoric by which the
subordinates in the institution are persuaded to assent to the authority of
the superordinates.
Legitimacy, trust, and interest are phenomena that are both institutional
and existential. As institutional phenomena, they are located in the social
structure and in the patterns of role relationships that recur over long time
spans and are differentially allocated according to monetary and to cultural
capital. But legitimacy, trust, and interest are also existential and
emergent phenomena that are continually negotiated within the intimate
circumstances and short time scale of everyday encounters between
individual teachers, students, and parents. The institutional legitimacy of
the school is affirmed existentially as trust in face-to-face encounters
between school staff and students and their parents.
Contributing to the legitimacy achieved by this knowledge would be the
examination of the Vietnamese as a distinct ethnic group, since Asian American students
do not see themselves as being all the same. “Asian Americans do not see themselves as
being the same, they do not share a common attitude regarding future opportunities, and
they do not share a common attitude toward schooling” (Lee, 1994, p. 428).
28
Chapter III
Methodology and Procedures
Introduction
The methods and procedures of the study are addressed in this chapter. First is a
description of the sample and how it was selected. Next is an account of the development
of the survey questionnaire which was designed to elicit data concerning the factors
associated with the academic achievement of minority groups hypothesized in previous
research, and the procedures used for administering the survey. Following this, the
statistical procedures used in analyzing it are described. Finally, the assumptions and
limitations pertaining to the data questionnaire are set forth.
Profile of the Sample
Description o f the Sample
The sample was selected from among the approximately 1,000 English as a Second
Language students at a community college of around 12,000 students, Gold Coast
College, in Huntington Beach, California. Only students who were native-born
Vietnamese and whose grade point average was based on at least three graded classes
were included in the sample.
The composite chart below shows the gender, marital status and age of the students
in the sample. The male students made up 47.4% of the sample, while 52.6% were
female. One hundred twenty-eight of the students in the sample were not married,
constituting 84.2% of the sample. The students who were twenty-five or younger
constituted 64.5% of the sample, while 35.5% were twenty-six or older, with the mode
being age twenty-one to twenty-five (43.4%).
29
« 100
Profile of the Sample
N = 152
’ j .
H ’ .'-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' ■ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - — ,- - - - - - - . — S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o
u
4)
-D
B
- 12.
o
-
C t f
O
Figure 1 Profile of the Sample
Selection o f the Sample
Intermediate or advanced level classes were chosen at random from among the
English as a Second Language classes offered at the college during the fall semester of
1993. The number of English as a Second Language students thus obtained for the
sample was 214. Both classes held during the day or at night were chosen and all of the
students in these classes were then surveyed. Beginning level classes were not chosen,
since it was assumed that the students in them would not have studied in the United
States long enough to have accumulated a sufficient number of classes from which to
draw their grade point average, and because they would not have been exposed to
American culture long enough for their attitudes to be valid in the study. One or more
years of exposure to the culture was considered to be the optimum length of time for the
purposes of the study. Despite this precaution, ten students in the sample reported that
30
they had been in the U.S. for under one year; however, it was decided to include them in
the study since their level of knowledge of English indicated the prerequisite amount of
exposure to the culture and because they had completed the minimum of three graded
classes at the college.
Instrumentation
Development o f the Survey
A review of the literature revealed that the data used in the majority of the current
studies regarding the achievement of minority students were derived from ethnographic-
style observation and that no quantitative instrument existed which would gather the type
of data needed to analyze all eight of the factors hypothesized to be affecting the students’
academic achievement. Consequently, a survey instrument was developed to gather the
desired information in a format which could then be subjected to statistical analysis.
The survey questionnaire designed to gather these data consisted of sixty-two
questions which were grouped in eight categories: Student Characteristics, Family
Background, Student’s Educational Background and Objectives, Reading and Television
Watching, Self Esteem, Cultural Friction, Zone of Proximal Development and Student
Attitudes Toward Education. The questions in each category were designed to test the
particular theory regarding the educational achievement of minority students.
A preliminary evaluation of the survey questionnaire was performed with two
sections of approximately thirty intermediate-level English as a Second Language
students. The students were asked what information they thought each question solicited
and what their responses to it could be. Some questions were rewritten to be more
understandable to the students and to conform to the consensus which was reached in the
pilot class regarding the meaning of the question and what the possible responses to it
31
could be based on the students’ cultural perspectives. There appeared to be general
agreement on the values indicated by non-specific quantitative terms such as “mid-level
income.” These terms were difficult to quantify in terms of numbers, due to the
fluctuation in the amount of what constituted a mid-level income in Vietnam at different
times; however, the terms used seemed to be effective in eliciting the desired information,
since each student in the pilot group appeared to be able to judge what constituted a low,
mid-level or high income in accordance with the temporal and situational frame of
reference.
The possible responses to each item on the questionnaire were in the Likert Scale
format, with 1 being the lowest value and 5 being the highest.
Questionnaire Item Groupings
The questionnaire items were grouped into eight categories as follows:
Family Background
Grouping
Student Characteristics
Questions
1 through 11
12 through 20
Student’s Educational Background
and Educational Objectives
Reading and Television Watching
Self Esteem
21 through 24
25 through 30
31 through 35
36 through 43
44 through 55
56 through 62
Cultural Friction
Zone of Proximal Development
Attitudes Regarding Education
For the text of the individual questions, please refer to the Appendix.
32
Methodology
The sample selected for this study was limited to individuals in one ethnic group
due to the assumption that the Vietnamese, as an ethnic group, differ in important ways
from other Southeast Asians, including their level of literacy. “In a 1985 study of 800
Southeast Asian refugees, Strand and Jones found that Vietnamese were far more literate
in both their native language and English than Laotians, Cambodians and Hmongs”
(Morrow, 1991, p. 20). One reason that the survey was conducted at only one location
was due to the difficulty in gaining access to the grade point averages of students at other
schools; however, a more important reason for surveying students at only one school is
that, as suggested by Hymes, the culture of just one school is eminently worth knowing.
Schools do not seem to be thought of as objects that it might take a long
time, many hands, and even more than one generation to come to
understand. Individual schools do not seem to be thought of as individual
in character. They are thought of, perhaps as “urban,” inner-city,” or the
like; but mostly they seem to be thought of as equivalent settings for the
interaction of certain recurrent variables—principals, teachers, curricula,
and methods of instruction. . . . knowledge of schools in the United States
is about one hundred years behind knowledge of American Indian kinship.
(Hymes, 1979, p. 4)
Since a broad collection of data is usually desired so that the results can be
generalized to students at many locations, the accumulation of data concerning one
individual school is often neglected; however, because schools may have their own
distinctive cultures, examining them as separate entities can produce useful information
for the faculty, staff and other interested persons.
Procedures in the Administration o f the Instrument
A preliminary survey was administered to two groups of students composed of
approximately thirty students each. After various adjustments were made in the wording
of certain questions in the interest of clarity, the questionnaire was then administered to a
33
total of 214 students in randomly selected English as a Second Language sections over a
period of two weeks. Instructions were given concerning how to mark the survey and the
researcher was usually present to answer any questions that came up concerning the
meaning and intent of specific questions. During the few instances when the researcher
was not present, the administrator of the survey was given detailed instructions
concerning the method of administration and how to deal with any confusion which
might arise concerning the interpretation of the questions. The students were instructed
to answer candidly and not to collaborate with the persons sitting near them. It was
requested that inquiries about the survey be directed to the person in charge to avoid any
misinterpretation of the questions. The students were given ample time to mark their
responses on a Scantron form from which the data were easily gathered using a Scantron
reader which put the data into a file which could then be read by SPSS. The students
took approximately an hour to answer the sixty-two questions on the survey and were
rarely confused by them. Each student’s answer form was identified by the student’s
Social Security number which was coded at the top of the Scantron form. The Social
Security number was later used to find the student’s grade point average in the records of
the college. The students were thus assured of anonymity, since their names were never
written on any paper connected with the survey.
Data Collection
The data collected on the Scantron forms were read into a file by the Scantron
reader of the college, thus saving many hours of tedious work. Each record, the set of
responses by an individual student, was examined, and those records which were missing
ten or more responses were rejected, as were the records of the few who were not of
Vietnamese origin, leaving 152 records to analyze.
34
Data Analyses
After the rejection of sixty-two cases which were missing ten or more responses,
or lacking other crucial information such as the Social Security number, 152 cases
remained to be analyzed statistically. The sixty-two variables were examined for the
number of respondents in each category, and categories were combined with their
neighboring categories if they contained less than twelve responses. The variables were
than submitted to a t-test if a dichotomous variable, or a one-way analysis of variance if
composed of three or more categories.
In addition to the t-tests and analyses of variance, the mean grade point average
and number of cases for each category of each variable, in other words, each response
possibility for each question, were calculated. Thus the number of responses and the
grade point average trend could be observed in the constituent variables of each factor. A
selective examination of the means was also performed to discover whether there was any
difference in the mean grade point average of responses to one question while answering
a particular way to another. The results of these analyses are presented in Chapter Four in
both table and graph form.
Methodological Assumptions
The following methodological assumptions were considered implicit in this investigation:
1. The subjects used in this study constitute a reasonably representative sample of
Vietnamese American students in comparable programs in the United States.
2. The reliability and validity of the instrument were sufficient for assessment
purposes.
3. The subjects answered the questions honestly.
4. The subjects answered the questions accurately.
5. The data were accurately collected, recorded, stored and analyzed.
6. The findings of the data analyses were interpreted fairly and accurately.
Limitations
35
The methodological limitations are as follows:
1. Since the opinions of the subjects were solicited in the questionnaire, the study is
not based on empirical data.
2. The results of the study may not be generalizable to other schools and groups of
Vietnamese Americans without replications including a broader sample.
3. The extent to which generalizations can be made is constrained by the absence of
the random sampling of individual students.
4. The design and writing of the questionnaire items could be incomplete and could
also be biased.
5. The validity of any inference to be made from the data could be compromised by
any statistical assumptions which were not utilized.
6. The use of grade point average as a single measure of academic achievement may
not be entirely reliable.
Chapter IV
The Research Findings
36
Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the statistical analysis of the survey. The data
were examined in order to discover those variables in which the means of the grade point
averages of the respondents whose responses to a question fell into the same category
were significantly different from each other.
Statistical Measures Used in the Study
The two types of analyses used in the study were t-tests for the dichotomous
variables and one-way analyses of variance for the rest. Categories in which the number
of respondents was less than twelve were combined with their neighboring categories in
order to strengthen the analysis. The results must be interpreted with caution, since the
measure of academic success used, grade point average, is a measure which inherently
contains a lot of statistical “noise,” as it is strongly influenced by teacher variation and a
myriad of other factors.
T-Test Results
Using the computer statistical package SPSS, each of the dichotomous variables,
or those variables which became dichotomous when their five categories were combined
so that only two remained, were submitted to t-tests. These variables were Sex, Marital
Status, Birth Location, Ethnicity (ethnic Vietnamese or non-ethnic Vietnamese), Number
of Years of Residence in the US, Mother’s Occupation in the US, and Years of Schooling
in Vietnam. Only the mean grade point averages of the two categories of the variable
Years of Schooling in Vietnam were found to be significantly different at the p < .10
37
level and the level of discrimination perceived was found to be associated with the grade
point averages.
Research question: How does the student’s number of years of schooling in
Vietnam correlate with the grade point average at Gold Coast College?
The mean grade point averages of the group which had received eight or fewer
years of schooling in Vietnam and the group which had received nine years or more are
given in Table 1. The data indicate that those students who had received nine or more
years of schooling in Vietnam had significantly higher grade point averages,
t (150) = -.31, p<.10.
Table 1 Grade Point Average by Years of Schooling in Vietnam
X 21 Years of Schooling in Vietnam
Y ears of Schooling Mean Standard Deviation N t
One to Eight 2.8 .82 22 -.31
Nine or More 3.3 .77 130 |
Figure 2 Grade Point Average by Years of Schooling in Vietnam
Grade Point Average by
Years of Schooling in Vietnam
|N u m b e r of R e s p o n d e n ts
- G P A
o
s
Number of Years
140
120 3.3
i 100 ..
a
■ g
80 .
.. 3.2
c
a
s
. . 3 . 0 °
40
20
2.7
O ne to Eight Nine or More
38
One-Way Analysis of Variance Results
Each of the variables in which more than two categories remained was submitted
to a one-way analysis of variance. A significant difference between the mean grade point
averages of the categories was found at the p < .10 level in eighteen variables. An
examination of the means revealed an association between the perception of
discrimination and the grade point averages. These findings are presented below.
Three factors were found to be significant pertaining to the broad research question
of how the student’s personal characteristics and history correlated with the grade point
average at Gold Coast College: age, birth order and years since arrival in the United
States.
Research question: How does the student’s age correlate with the grade point
average at Gold Coast College?
The difference between the five age groups was tested using a one-way analysis of
variance (see Table 2). A significant difference was indicated, F (4, 147) = 2.0, p < .10.
The test indicated that the higher grade point averages of the three younger groups was
significantly different than the lower grade point averages of the two oldest groups. The
dramatic drop in grade point average is shown graphically in Figure 2.
39
Table 2 Grade Point Average by Age
X 3 Age
Age Mean Standard Deviation N
20 or Younger 3.3 .72 32
21 -2 5 3.3 .72 66
2 6 -2 9 3.4 .68 22
3 0 -4 0 2.8 1.10 20
41 or Older 3.0 | 1.00 12
Figure 3 Grade Point Average by Age
X 3 Age
70
gN um ber of R e s p o n d e n ts
.G P A
& 40
ft)
a .
*5 30
I
E 20
3
z
10
J j
3.0 q.
20 or Y ounger 21 - 25 26 - 29 30 - 40 41 or Older
Age
Research question: How does the student’s birth order correlate with the grade
point average?
The difference in grade point average of students of different birth order was found
to be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 3), F (4, 146) = 2.1,
p < .10. Students bom third and fifth or later had significantly higher grade point
averages than the rest.
40
Table 3 Grade Point Average by Birth Order
X 5 Birth Order
O rder of Birth Mean Standard Deviation N
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth or Later
Figure 4 Grade Point Average by Birth Order
3.0 .92 33
3.2 .68 36
3.4 .77 18
3.1 .99 20
3.4 .67 44
N um ber of R e s p o n d e n ts
G PA
X 5 Birth Order
S e c o n d Third
O r d e r o f Birth
Fifth or Later Fourth
Research question: How does the number of years since arrival in the United States
correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three arrival groups was
found to be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 4), F (2, 149) =
2.4, p < .10. Students who had been here for three years or more had significantly lower
grade point averages than those who had only been here for one to two years.
41
Table 4 Grade Point Average by Years Since Arrival in the US
X 8 Years Since Arrival in the US
Number of Years Mean Standard Deviation
One to Two
N
Three
Four or More
3.4 .72 88
3.0 .90 40
2.9 .69 24
Figure 5 Grade Point Average by Years Since Arrival in the US
X 8 Years Since Arrival in the US
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
O ne to Two
(N u m b er of R esp o n d e n ts
_GPA
Three
Num bar of Years
Four or M ore
. 3.6
. 3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2 i
\
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
The amount of discrimination perceived was found make a difference in the
relative decrease in the grade point average. Students who perceived a higher amount of
discrimination at the college and outside of the college had a greater decrease in grade
point average and lower grade point averages overall.
42
Table 5 Years Since Arrival in the US by Discrimination
X 8 Years Since Arrival in the US by Discrimination
Amount
GWC
Little
Much
Other
Little
Much
Two factors were found to be significant regarding the broad research question of
how family background related to the grade point average: the father’s occupation in the
United States and the family income in Vietnam.
Research question: How does the father’s occupation in the United States correlate
with the grade point average?
A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant differences between the
occupation groups, F (3,118) = 3.7, p < .10 (see Table 5). Students whose fathers
worked in white-collar occupations were found to have significantly lower grade point
averages than the rest.
Maan GPA by Number of Years
1 to 2 3 4 or More N
3.6 3.1 3.2 88
3.2 2.8 2.8 60
3.5 3.1 3.1 74
3.4 2.9 2.9 73
43
Table 6 Grade Point Average by Father’s Occupation in the United States
X 18 F ath er's O ccupation in the US
O ccupation Mean Standard Deviation N
Unskilled 3.3 .80 57
Skilled 3.2 .69 34
White Collar 2.5 .92 13
Supervisor/Professional 3.2 .75 15
Figure 6 Grade Point Average by Father’s Occupation in the United States
X 18 Father's Occupation in the US
Unskilled Skilled W hile Collar Supervisor/Professional
Occupation
Research question: How does the family’s income in Vietnam correlate with the
grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point average of the three income groups was
found to be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 6), F (2, 147) =
2.4, p< .10. The grade point average for the lowest income group was highest. It
decreased for those who had mid-level incomes and was lowest for those with high
incomes in Vietnam.
44
Table 7 Grade Point Average by Family Income in Vietnam
X 19 Family Incom e in Vietnam
Incom e Level Mean Standard Deviation N
Low 3.4 .72 35
Midrange 3.2 .83 89
High 2.9 .78 26
Figure 7 Grade Point Average by Family Income in Vietnam
X 19 Family Income Level in Vietnam
jN u m b e r of R esp o n d e n ts
.G P A
- -a
o c
O T 3
J S c
c °
§ a.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
r 3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2 i
i
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
Low Midrange
I n c o m e L e v el
High
In response to the broad question of how the student’s educational background
correlate with the grade point average, only one factor, the number of years of schooling
in Vietnam, was found to be significant.
Research question: How does the number of years of schooling in the United
States affect the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three groups was found to
be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 7), F (2, 148) = 2.7,
p < . 1 0 .
45
Those with the fewest years of schooling in the United States had the highest grade
point averages, while those with more years of schooling in the United States had lower
grade point averages.
Table 8 Grade Point Average by Years of Schooling in the US
X 24 Y e a rs of Schooling in the US
N um ber of Y ears Mean Standard Deviation N
One to Two 3.3 .79 117
Three to Four 3.0 .76 23
Five or More 3.0 .90 11
Figure 8 Grade Point Average by Years of Schooling in the US
N um ber of R e sp o n d en ts
GPA
Three to Four
Number of Years
The amount of discrimination perceived also correlated with the grade point
averages associated with the number of years of schooling in the United States. Students
who perceived little discrimination had very small decreases in their grade point
averages, while those who perceived much discrimination had larger decreases and had
higher grade point averages overall.
46
Table 9 Years of Schooling in the US by Discrimination
X 24 Years of Schooling in the US by Discrimination
Amount Mean GPA by Number of Years
GWC 1 to 2 3 4 or Mare N
Little 3.4 3.2 3.3 87
Much 3.1 2.8 2.8 60
Other
Little 3.4 3.1 3.8 73
Much 3.2 2.9 2.9 73
Relating to the broad research question of how reading for pleasure and television
watching correlated with the grade point average, two factors were found to be
significant: the number of books read per year in Vietnam and the number of hours per
week that the student watched television in Vietnam.
Research question: How does the number of books read per year in Vietnam
correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the five groups was found to be
significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 8), F (4,147) = 2.8, p < .10.
Students who had read two or less books per year in Vietnam had the highest mean
grade point average, followed by those who had read twelve or more. Those in the three
middle groups who had read more than two but less than twelve books per year had lower
mean grade point averages.
47
Table 10 Grade Point Average by Number of Books Read per Year in Vietnam
X 25 B ooks R ead per Y ear in Vietnam
N um ber of Books Mean Standard Deviation N
Two or Less 3.5 .53 11
Three to Five 2.9 .82 19
Six to Eight 3.2 .87 19
Nine to Eleven 2.9 1.10 17
Twelve or More 3.3 .71 86
Figure 9 Grade Point Average by Number of Books Read per Year in Vietnam
N um ber of R e s p o n d e n ts
G PA
X 25 Books Read per Year in Vietnam
Twelve Nine to
Eleven
Three
to Five
Num bar of Books
Research question: How does the number of hours of television watched per week
in Vietnam correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three groups was found to
be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 9), F (4, 147) = 2.6,
p<.10.
The grade point averages of the students in the two groups who had watched
television in Vietnam for five or fewer hours per week were lower than those of the
48
students in the three groups who had watched television from six to twelve or more
hours. Students who had watched television for nine to eleven hours per week had the
highest grade point averages of all.
Table 11 Grade Point Average by Number of Hours of TV Watched in Vietnam
X 29 Hours of TV W atched per W eek in Vietnam
N um ber of H ours Mean Standard Deviation N
Two or Less 2.8 .94 17
Three to Five 3.1 .86 30
Six to Eight 3.3 .71 34
Nine to Eleven 3.6 .62 22
Twelve or More 3.2 .79 49
Figure 10 Grade Point Average by Number of Hours of TV Watched in Vietnam
N um ber of R e sp o n d en ts
G PA
X 29 Hours of TV W atch ed per W eek in Vietnam
3.8 60
3.6 50
3.4 40
30
3.0 20
2.6
Six to
Eight
Nine to
Eleven
Twelve Three
to Five
Two or
L ess
More
N u m b e r o f H ours
Only one factor, the student’s belief in his/her ability to make friends with
Americans, was found to be significant relating to the broad research question concerning
the correlation of the student’s self-esteem with the grade point average.
49
Research question: How does the student’s belief in the ability to make friends
with Americans correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the four groups was found to be
significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 10), F (3, 148) = 10.4,
p < .10.
The grade point averages were highest for the students who rated their ability to
make friends with Americans the lowest, and fell successively for those in the next three
categories, with the students who rated their ability to make friends as very good to
excellent having the lowest grade point averages of all.
Table 12 Student’s Belief in the Ability to Make Friends with Americans
X 35 Self-Rating of Ability to M ake Friends
Rating Mean Standard Deviation N
Poor 3.6 .57 34
Fair 3.4 .70 41
Good 3.1 .74 58
Very Good to Excellent 2.5 1.00 19
50
Figure 11 Student’s Belief in the Ability to Make Friends with Americans
N um ber of R esp o n d e n ts
G PA
X 35 Rating of Ability to Make Friends
P o o r Fair Good Very Good
to
Excellent
S elf-R atlnfl
Students who perceived much discrimination had much larger drops in their grade
point averages and had lower grade point averages than those students who perceived
little discrimination when they rated their ability to make friends with Americans as poor.
Table 13 Ability to Make Friends with Americans by Discrimination
X 35 Ability to Make Friends with Americans by Discrimination
Amount Mean GPA by Self-Rated Ability
GWC Poor Fair Good Very Good N
Little 3.6 3.5 3.1 3.2 88
Much 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.1 60
Other
Little 3.6 3.6 3.2 2.9 74
Much 3.7 3.2 3.0 2.5 73
Four significant factors were found relating to the correlation between cultural
friction and the grade point average: the student’s rating of his/her social acceptance, the
amount of discrimination perceived both at the college and outside of the college, and the
amount of association with Americans.
51
Research question: How does the student’s rating of the amount of his/her social
acceptance correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three groups was found to
be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 11), F (2, 145) = 4.5,
p < .10.
The students who rated their acceptance in American society as poor had the
highest grade point averages, while those who believed that they were well accepted had
the lowest. Those who believed that they were fairly well accepted had a somewhat lower
mean grade point average than those who rated their acceptance as poor.
Table 14 Grade Point Average by the Rating of Social Acceptance
X 36 Rating of A cceptance by A m ericans
Rating
Poor
Fair
Good
Mean Standard Deviation N
3.4 .63 38
3.3 .73 68
2.9 .98 42
52
Figure 12 Grade Point Average by the Rating of Social Acceptance
N um ber of R esp o n d e n ts
GPA
X 36 Rating of A cceptance by Americans
Fair
Degree of Acceptance
Good
Students who perceived much discrimination at the college had a mean grade point
average five-tenths of a point lower when they rated their degree of acceptance as good.
Table 15 Rating of Acceptance by Discrimination
X 36 Rating of Acceptance by Discrimination
Amount Mean GPA by Level of A cceptance
GWC Poor Fair Well N
Little 3.5 3.3 3.3 88
Much 3.1 3.3 2.7 57
Other
Little 3.4 3.2 2.9 73
Much 3.4 3.2 P 2.9 70
Research question: How does the amount of discrimination perceived at Gold
Coast College correlate with the student’s grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three groups was found to
be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 12), F (3, 144) = 3.3,
p< .10.
53
Students who perceived no discrimination at Gold Coast College had the highest
grade point averages. The grade point averages gradually decreased as the students
reported perceiving more discrimination.
Table 16 Grade Point Average by Discrimination Perceived at the College
X 37 Amount of Discrimination Experienced at GW C
Amount Mean Standard Deviation N
None 3.5 .58 31
A Little 3.3 .70 57
Moderate Amount 3.0 .86 42
A Lot to Very Much 3.0 .99 18
Figure 13 Grade Point Average by Discrimination Perceived at the College
X 37 A m ount of Discrimination Perceived at GWC
|N u m b e r of R e s p o n d e n ts
_G PA
60
3.5
50
4 3
c
1 4 0
&
£ 30
0
| 20
B
1 10 L
3.4
3.3
3.2 £.
O
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
N one A Little M oderate A m ount A Lot to Very Much
Am ount
Research question: How does the amount of discrimination perceived outside of
Gold Coast College correlate with the student’s grade point average?
54
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the four groups was found to be
significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 13), F (3, 143) = 2.2,
pc.10.
Those students who perceived less discrimination outside of Gold Coast College
had higher grade point averages overall than those who reported perceiving a moderate
amount to very much discrimination.
Table 17 Grade Point Average by Discrimination Perceived outside of the College
X 38 Am ount of Discrimination Experienced O utside of GW C
Amount Mean Standard Deviation N
None 3.3 .71 13
A Little 3.4 .63 61
Moderate Amount 3.1 .85 52
A Lot to Very Much 3.3 .87 21
Figure 14 Grade Point Average by Discrimination Perceived outside of the College
X 38 A m ount of Discrimination Outside of GWC
|N u m b e r of R e s p o n d e n ts
.G P A
70
60 ..
a
g 50
I .
&
S 30
1
E 20
.111
N one A Little M oderate A m ount A Lot to Very M uch
A m o u n t P e r c e i v e d
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3 c l
(5
3.2
3.1
3.0
55
Research question: How does the amount of the student’s association with
Americans correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three groups was found to
be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 14), F (3, 148) = 13.6,
p<.10.
Those students who reported none or some association with Americans had higher
grade point averages than those who associated with Americans more.
Table 18 Grade Point Average by Amount of Association with Americans
X 42 Amount of A ssociation with A m ericans
Amount Mean Standard Deviation N
None 3.4 .74 12
Some 3.5 .61 57
Fair Amount 3.4 .71 46
A Lot to Mainly 2.9 .86 37
Figure 15 Grade Point Average by Amount of Association with Americans
X 42 Association with Americans
|N u m b e r of R e sp o n d en ts
.G P A
5 0
20
■I Ti
3.0
S o m e Fair A m ount A Lot to Mainly
Am ount of Association
56
Students who reported that they associated with Americans a lot or mainly had
lower grade point averages when they perceived much discrimination.
Table 19 Amount of Association with Americans by Discrimination
X 42 Association with Americans by Discrimination
Amount Mean GPA by Amount of Association
GWC Less More N
Little 3.5 3.2 88
Much 3.4 2.8 60
O ther
Little 3.5 3.2 74
Much 3.5 2.9 73
The questions concerning the student’s zone of proximal development yielded only
one significant factor: the number of hours of study per week.
Research question: How does the number of hours of study per week correlate with
the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three groups was found to
be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 15), F (4, 147) = 3.6,
p<.10.
Students who spent more hours studying had higher grade point averages overall,
although the group which reported studying from sixteen to twenty hours had an
inexplicably lower mean grade point average than the two neighboring groups.
57
Table 20 Grade Point Average by Number of Hours Studied per Week
X 50 Hours of Study per W eek
N um ber of H ours Mean Standard Deviation N
One to Five 2.8 .90 11
Six to Ten 3.0 .87 21
Eleven to Fifteen 3.4 .69 32
Sixteen to Twenty 3.0 .85 39
Twenty-one or More 3.5 .69 49
Figure 16 Grade Point Average by Number of Hours Studied per Week
N um ber of R esp o n d e n ts
G PA
X 50 Hours of Study per Week
3.6 60
50
3.4
40
3.2
30
3.0
20
2.8
2.6
Eleven Sixteen Twenty-
one or
More
Six to
Ten
O ne to
Five
Twenty Fifteen
Number of Hours
Four factors were found to be significant relating to the student’s attitudes toward
education: the earnings expectation without completing a college education, the
expectation of social acceptance both with and without completing a college education,
and the student’s estimation of the extent to which his/her own personal qualities
correlated with the educational achievement.
58
Research question: How do the student’s expectations regarding future earnings
without completing a college education correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the four groups was found to be
significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 16), F (3, 146) = 4.9,
p < .10.
Those students who expected to make much less or less than Americans without
completing a college education had significantly higher grade point averages than those
who expected to make the same or more.
Table 21 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Earnings without an Education
X 57 Earnings Expectation without an Education
Amount C om pared
to A m ericans Mean Standard Deviation N
Much Less 3.5 .61 23
Less 3.4 .72 51
The Same 3.1 .81 60
More 2.8 .92 16
59
Figure 17 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Earnings without an Education
X 57 Earnings Expectation without Education
Students who experienced much discrimination had a larger decrease in grade
point average and lower grade point averages overall than students who reported little
discrimination.
Table 22 Earnings Expected without an Education by Discrimination
X 57 Earnings Expected without Education by Discrimination
Amount Mean GPA by Amount Expected Compared with Americans
GWC Much Less Less Same More N
Little 3.7 3.5 3.3 2.9 87
Much 2.9 3.4 2.7 2.8 60
Other
Little 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.3 74
Much 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.3 73
Research question: How does the student’s expectation of social acceptance after
completing a college education correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three groups was found to
be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 17), F (2, 148) = 6.1,
p < .10.
60
The grade point averages of the students who expected to be poorly or fairly well
accepted was highest. The grade point averages decreased as students reported higher
expectations of acceptance.
Table 23 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Acceptance with an Education
X 58 Expectation of Social A ccep tan ce with an Education
D egree of
A cceptance
Poor to Fair
Wei!
Very Well
Figure 18 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Acceptance with an Education
Poo rto Fair Well Very Weil
De gr ee of Ac ce p ta n ce Ex pected
Mean Standard Deviation N
3.4 .63 62
3.2 .78 73
2.7 1.20 16
Again, the students who reported a high level of discrimination had lower grade
point averages overall and their mean grade point average decreased dramatically when
they said that they expected to be well accepted.
61
Table 24 Acceptance Expected with an Education by Discrimination
X 58 Acceptance Expected with Education by Discrimination
Amount
GWC
Little
Much
Other
Little
Much
Research question: How does the student’s expectation of social acceptance
without an education correlate with the grade point average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the four groups was found to be
significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 18), F (3, 148) = 4.4,
p < .10.
The grade point averages of the students who expected to be well or very well
accepted without completing their education were significantly lower than those who had
a lower expectation of acceptance without an education.
Mean GPA by Level of Acceptance
Poor-Fair Well Very Well N
3.5 3.3 3.2 88
3.2 3.0 2.5 60
3.4 3.4 3.3 74
3.4 3.0 2.6 73
Table 25 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Acceptance without an Education
X 59 Expectation of Social A cceptance without an Education
D egree or
A cceptance
Mean Standard Deviation N
Very Poor 3.2 .85 20
Poor 3.5 .63 42
Fair 3.2 .76 67
Well to Very Well 2.8 .97 23
Figure 19 Grade Point Average by Expectation of Acceptance without an Education
X 59 Expectation of Social Acceptance
without an Education
I N um ber of R e s p o n d e n ts
_G PA
70 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3.6
60
S O
- S
o g 40
2 1
113 0 1
z I
20 --
10
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
Very P oor P oor Fair Well to Very Well
D e g r e e o f A c c e p t a n c e
The students who report perceiving little discrimination have very small decreases
in their mean grade point average, while those who report much discrimination have
lower grade point averages overall and a large drop in grade point average when they
report that they expect to be well accepted without an education.
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Table 26 Acceptance Expected without an Education by Discrimination
X 59 Acceptance Expected without Education by Discrimination
Amount Mean GPA by Level of Acceptance
GWC Vary Poor Poor Fair Well N
Little 3.4 3.6 3.2 3.3 88
Much 3.0 3.4 3.1 2.5 60
Other
Little 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.3 74
Much 3.3 3.4 3.1 2.7 73
Research question: How does the student’s belief that his/her own personal
qualities are responsible for educational achievement correlate with the grade point
average?
The difference in the mean grade point averages of the three groups was found to
be significant using a one-way analysis of variance (see Table 19), F (2, 145) = 4.3,
p < .10.
The group which believed that personal factors affected their academic
achievement a good amount had the lowest grade point averages. Those who felt that
personal factors affected their achievement either more or less had higher grade point
averages.
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Table 27 Grade Point Average by Attribution of Achievement to Personal Qualities
X 62 Estimation of Amount Personal Factors Influence Achievement
D egree of Influence Mean Standard Deviation N
None to Fair Amount
Good Amount
Great Amount
3.4 .57 55
3.0 97 63
3.4 .69 30
Figure 20 Grade Point Average by Attribution of Achievement to Personal Qualities
Students who believe that their personal qualities have a good amount of influence
on their academic achievement suffer a drop in grade point average when they report
perceiving much discrimination, while those who report perceiving little discrimination
have no decrease in their mean grade point average.
65
Table 28 Personal Factors’ Influence on Academic Achievement by Discrimination
X 62 Personal Factors' Influence on Education by Discrimination
Amount Maan GPA by Amount of Influence
GWC Fair Good Greatly N
Little 3.4 3.3 3.4 88
Much 3.4 2.6 3.3 60
O ther
Little 3.3 3.5 3.3 74
Much 3.4 2.7 3.5 73
Summary
In all, eighteen multiple-category variables were found to contain significant
differences in grade point average between their constituent groups and the perception of
discrimination was found to be associated with these differences in many instances.. The
implications of the statistical findings are discussed in Chapter Five.
Chapter V
Summary and Recommendations
66
The Findings: Summary and Discussion
The statistical analyses performed on the data obtained by the survey provided
information regarding significant differences in the grade point averages of the students
in accordance with their response to the questions.
The analysis of the responses to the questionnaire, which investigated eight current
theories concerning the academic achievement of minority students, confirmed that some
of the factors set forth in the theories do significantly influence grade point average, often
in ways not predicted by the theory, while others do not. A summary and discussion of
the statistical findings are presented below, followed by profiles of the high and low
achievers, suggestions for intervention and recommendations for further research.
Student Characteristics
Summary
Three of the eleven variables regarding the characteristics of the students were
found to be significant. Age, birth order and the length of time since arrival in the United
States were found to contain significant differences in grade point average according to
the response to the questions. Students aged twenty-nine or younger had higher grade
point averages than students aged thirty or over; students who were bom third or fifth had
higher grade point averages than those bom first, second or fourth; and students who had
been in the United States for three years or more had lower grade point averages than
those who had been here less than three years.
In this population, gender was not found to be a significant indicator of difference
in grade point average, nor were marital status, family size, urban versus rural residence,
67
ethnicity, time of arrival, age on arrival and number of hours worked per week. Students
from families with more than one child had uniformly high grade point averages, with
little difference between those with two children and those with four or more, a finding
contrary to that of Caplan, Whitmore and Choy (1989) that children of larger families
performed better academically and that there was a clear linear relationship between
academic achievement and an increase in the number of children in a family. Indeed, the
grade point averages of families with two, three, and four or more children differed less
than one one-hundredth of a point. The grade point averages of only children, who were
omitted from Caplan, Whitmore and Choy’s study, was about two-tenths of a point lower
than the rest, but this difference was not found to be statistically significant in this study.
Similarly, the two-tenths of a point in grade point average separating males versus
females and married versus single students was not found to be statistically significant.
In addition, the sixteen students who were not ethnic Vietnamese were not found to have
significantly different grade point averages from those who were, nor was there a
significant difference between urban- versus rural-born Vietnamese, recent arrivals
versus longer term residents, and those who worked differing numbers of hours per week.
In fact, students who worked more hours per week had higher grade point averages, but
this was not found to be statistically significant. The findings of the studies of the cited
earlier that ethnic, urban-born Vietnamese were found to have superior academic
performance as compared to their opposites (mainly Chinese-Vietnamese and rural bom
Vietnamese) were not confirmed.
Findings which were significant showed that older students, students lower in the
birth order, and students who have resided in the United States for three years or more did
less well than their counterparts. An examination of the means showed that the decrease
in grade point average for students thirty and over was mostly experienced by the males,
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whose grade point average was eight-tenths of a point lower than the males under thirty.
The corresponding drop for females was only two-tenths of a point.
Discussion
The findings concerning birth order confirm the findings of Caplan, Whitmore and
Choy to some extent. Students’ grade point averages did increase in conjunction with
birth order up to the third-bom, but did not increase for the fourth-bom or later. Also,
Cummins’ theory regarding the degradation of academic achievement associated with
arrival in the United States under ten years of age, followed by exposure to the
devaluation of the native culture, is confirmed in part. Although age on arrival was not
found to make a difference, longer residence in the United States was found to correlate
with a continual drop in grade point average.
Family Background
Summary
Two of the nine variables in this area were found to be significant: the father’s
present occupation and the family income level in Vietnam. The father’s present
occupation correlated negatively with the grade point average overall, indicating that the
students’ grade point averages were higher the lower the father’s occupational level in the
United States, except in the case of professionals such as doctors and lawyers. The
family income level in Vietnam also showed an inverse relationship to the grade point
average. Those who reported that their family income was the lowest in Vietnam had the
highest grade point averages, followed by those whose family income was in the
midrange. Students whose family income was reported as having been high in Vietnam
had the lowest grade point averages of all. The sixty-five students who lived in homes
without both parents present did about as well as those in which both the father and the
mother were present. Interestingly, students whose mothers and fathers had little
69
education did slightly better than those whose parents had completed high school or
more, although not to an extent which could be considered statistically important. The
mother’s occupation in both Vietnam and the United States influenced the students’ grade
point average less than one-tenth of a point, a non-significant finding. Although
insignificant statistically, the students’ grade point averages decreased as the father’s
occupational level in Vietnam rose. The same trend was found to be significant in
association with the father’s occupational level in the United States. There was a large
fall-off from an unskilled to a white collar occupation of eight-tenths of a point.
Consonant with the preceding finding, the other significant finding concerning family
background was that the grade point averages of the students who reported the lowest
family income in Vietnam were higher than those who reported high incomes. The
difference in family income in the United States was found to be irrelevant regarding the
grade point average.
Discussion
The findings concerning family background ran counter to the findings in the
literature that lower socioeconomic status causes students to do less well than those with
a higher socioeconomic status. Students whose families had lower incomes in Vietnam
and whose fathers had a lower occupational status in the United States achieved higher
grade point averages. Although Sue and Okazaki (1990) found that family income had
little to do with the educational attainment of Asian-American students, that was not the
case for this group. The reverse of the relationship between socioeconomic status and
academic achievement for American students appears to be true for the Vietnamese. This
is believed to be due to the fact that traditionally in Vietnam, the children of parents with
a high socioeconomic status usually do not have to compete for entrance to a university
or for good jobs. Money or influence can usually secure preferential treatment for the
child far into adulthood.
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Educational Background and Degree Objective
Summary
Only one of the four variables in this category was found to be significant. The
number of years of schooling in the United States correlated negatively with grade point
average: those who had three or more years of schooling in the United States had lower
grade point averages. Although not statistically significant, the grade point averages of
students who had completed more years and a higher level of schooling in Vietnam were
higher, sometimes by as much as five-tenths of a point. Similarly, those who had higher
degree objectives had slightly higher grade point averages, although not statistically
significant.
Discussion
Again, contrary to Cummins’ theory cited in Chapter Two, the amount of previous
education made no statistically significant difference in the grade point average, except
for the amount of education in the United States, which resulted in a lower grade point
average as the number of years of education increased. The decrease in grade point
average seemed to be associated with the perception of discrimination. The grade point
averages of students who reported a low amount of discrimination at the college
decreased less than one-tenth of a point, while there was a decrease of more than three-
tenths of a point in the grade point averages of those who reported a high amount of
discrimination at the college. Similarly, the grade point averages of students who
reported perceiving a low amount of discrimination outside of the college actually
increased four-tenths of a point, while the grade point averages of those who reported a
high amount of discrimination outside of the college decreased three-tenths of a point.
Also, it was noted that the grade point averages of students who reported a high amount
of discrimination outside of the college were lower than students who reported a lower
amount of discrimination in every case. It seems clear that, for this group, grade point
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average only decreases appreciably when it is associated with a perception of a high
amount of discrimination.
Pleasure Reading and Television Watching
Summary
Just two variables in this category were found to be significant: the number of
books read per year in Vietnam and the number of hours of television watched per week
in Vietnam. Students who read more books for pleasure per year had higher grade point
averages overall, although an inexplicable finding, which could possibly be due to a
sampling error, was that the eleven students who reported reading two books or less per
year had the highest grade point averages of all. Those who read more than twelve books
per year had the next highest grade point averages, followed by those who read from six
to eight books. Students who read from three to five and from nine to eleven had the
lowest grade point averages. Also, students’ grade point averages increased as they
reported more hours of television watching per week in Vietnam up to eleven hours per
week, but fell off somewhat at twelve hours of television watching and above.
It was noted that a high percentage of students who reported reading nine or more
books per year and reading nine or more hours for pleasure per week, as well as watching
television for nine or more hours per week, had fathers who worked in a white-collar
occupation in Vietnam and had a high school education or better. Similarly, the mothers
of a high percentage of the students who reported watching television for nine or more
hours per week and reading nine or more books per year had a high school education but
were unskilled workers in the United States. No relationship between the amount of
reading and television watching and the family income level in Vietnam was noted.
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Discussion
The fact that the amount of reading and television watching in the United States
made no statistical difference in the grade point average while a greater amount of
reading and television watching in Vietnam correlated with a higher grade point average
does not contradict Krashen’s theory that reading and television watching are associated
with academic achievement. The fact that these seemed to make no significant difference
in the United States may be related to the relative incomprehensibility of television and
books in the English language to the students versus their comprehensibility in
Vietnamese, possibly due to the more restricted content of television programs in
Vietnam as compared to the very broad range of programming in the United States.
Since the students surveyed were Vietnamese-speaking English as a Second Language
students, it may be that these media in English do not yet provide sufficiently
comprehensible input. Also, it was noted that the grade point averages for reading and
television watching in Vietnam began lower than the grade point averages for these
activities in the United States, which were uniformly high. This finding appears to
support Cummins’ theory regarding “common underlying proficiency” (1989) in that the
reading and television viewing done in Vietnam were likely to have been mostly done in
Vietnamese and thus probably increased the student’s general fund of knowledge and
proficiency, which in turn led to the ability to earn a higher grade point average in the
United States.
Self-Esteem
Summary
Only one of the five variables in this category was found to be significant. The
students’ belief in their ability to make friends with Americans correlated negatively with
a higher grade point average in a rather dramatic fashion. In each category, from poor to
73
excellent, there was a corresponding drop in grade point average as the students’ rating of
their ability to make friends with Americans increased.
There was little difference in the grade point average related to the students’
perception of the value of the native culture and language or their self-confidence
regarding their social acceptability and educability, although there was a broad
distribution of the responses to these items. Apparently, the perspectives of the students
regarding their personal worthiness and the esteem in which they held their native
language and culture had little bearing on the grade point average. The students’ belief in
their ability to make friends with Americans did have a significant impact on the grade
point average in that the greater the belief in this ability, the lower the grade point
average. An examination of the means, however, shows that there is a much greater
decrease in the grade point averages of students who report perceiving high
discrimination. For those who perceived a low amount of discrimination at the college,
the decrease in grade point average from students with a self-rating of poor ability to
make friends with Americans to those who rated their ability as very good to excellent
was six-tenths of a point; however, the decrease for students who perceived a high
amount of discrimination at the college was one and seven-tenths of a point, more than
twice as much. The perception of a high amount of discrimination outside of the college
resulted in a difference in the decrease of the grade point average that was nearly as
dramatic: seven-tenths of a point versus one and three-tenths.
Discussion
The theory of Nguyen and Henkin (1980) cited in Chapter Two which indicates
that freedom from anxiety regarding the ability to interact socially results in enhanced
academic achievement appears to be partially contradicted by the findings of this study.
Apparently, a good ability to make friends with Americans can have a negative impact on
academic achievement when it is accompanied by the perception of a high amount of
74
discrimination. The result of the combination of these two factors may actually produce a
high amount of anxiety, a variable which was not measured in this survey.
Cultural Friction
Summary
Four variables in this group were found to be significant. The students’ rating of
acceptance correlated negatively with the grade point average. Their grade point
averages decreased the more they felt that they were accepted as equals. The perception
of discrimination at the college also correlated negatively, as expected. Four-fifths of the
students reported a moderate to great amount of discrimination at the college, while
slightly over half reported this amount of discrimination outside of the college. As
expected, the students who perceived a greater amount of discrimination both at and
outside of the college had lower grade point averages. Half of these students rated their
acceptance by Americans high and associated mainly with Americans. Also, it was noted
that a much higher proportion of students who had resided in the United States for four
years or more reported perceiving a high amount of discrimination, indicating that their
awareness of discrimination grew as they resided in the United States longer. Only
thirty-six percent of the students in their third year of residence in the United States
reported perceiving much discrimination at Gold Coast College, while sixty-one percent
of the students who had resided in the United States for four years or more reported
perceiving much discrimination at the college. Regarding the perception of
discrimination outside of the college, only fifty-one percent of the students who had
resided in the United States for under four years reported perceiving much discrimination,
while seventy-four percent of the students who had been in the United States for four
years or more reported perceiving much discrimination.
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An examination of the means revealed that the students who felt well accepted and
associated with Americans a lot but who reported perceiving a low amount of
discrimination had grade point averages at least four-tenths of a point higher in each
instance than the students who reported high acceptance and association but reported
perceiving a moderate to high amount of discrimination. There was little difference in
the grade point averages of students who associated with Americans infrequently, no
matter what amount of discrimination they perceived, but discrimination did make a
difference with those who felt poorly accepted. Students who perceived a greater amount
of discrimination and felt poorly accepted had grade point averages three-tenths of a point
lower than those who perceived little discrimination. It appears that the perception of
acceptance has a greater effect on the grade point average when associated with the
perception of discrimination than does the amount of association with Americans.
Discussion
This area of inquiry appears to have produced the most significant results. The fact
that the students were about equally divided between those who perceived little or much
discrimination overall and that the perception of discrimination made little difference in
the grade point average if the students associated with Americans infrequently suggests
that it is the perception of discrimination which has the greatest effect on the grade point
average. It seems likely that perceiving a high amount of discrimination results in
feelings of doubt or anxiety which impact the grade point average negatively. The fact
that a lower grade point average is associated with neither low acceptance nor a low
amount of association with Americans suggests that a reactive alienation from the host
culture is not the cause of the lower academic achievement. However, it is possible that
the students who associate frequently with Americans and perceive persistent
discrimination may become alienated if nothing is done to ameliorate the situation.
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Zone of Proximal Development
Summary
One of these twelve variables was found to be significant. The more hours per
week that the student studied, the higher the grade point average. Overall, students who
studied more hours had higher grade point averages; however, students who reported
studying from sixteen to twenty hours per week had lower grade point averages than the
students who studied for eleven to fifteen hours or twenty-one or more hours. This is
thought to be a statistical fluke, perhaps resulting from a sampling error.
Remarkably, the students’ ability in English, the comprehensibility of the material
presented at the college and the amount that the native language, Vietnamese, was spoken
had no significant effect on the grade point average. In addition, the number of students
who studied together and the person who helped them with homework in the home made
no significant difference in the grade point average. Although not found to be significant,
it is noteworthy that in this study, students who studied alone or with just one other
person, whether at home or at school, had the highest grade point averages.
Only one significant influence on the grade point average was found—the number
of hours studied per week. The grade point average was higher for students who studied
more hours per week, with the exception of those who studied for sixteen to twenty hours
per week, whose grade point average was about the same as those who studied from six
to ten hours per week. The reason for this exception is not known; however, it was noted
that, for students who reported perceiving little discrimination, there was only a small
increase in grade point average associated with a greater number hours of study per
week—four-tenths of a point— as compared to the one and two-tenths of a point increase
for those who reported perceiving much discrimination.
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Discussion
The findings suggest that for this group, the number of hours spent studying is
important, rather than the students’ pre-existing knowledge or the input of friends and
family. For this group, this contradicts the findings of Caplan, Whitmore and Choy that
students from larger families had higher grade point averages since they studied together
with more individuals. Also, none of the various facets of the Zone of Proximal
Development theory concerning cognitive and emotional readiness to learn with
appropriate input from adults and peers were found to significantly influence the grade
point average. Since approximately eighty-four percent of the students had been in the
United States for three years or less, it is possible that there was not a broad enough range
of proficiency in English to make the questions relating to perceived ability and amount
of English study productive, resulting in the inconclusive findings regarding English in
the study.
Attitudes Regarding Education
Summary
Four items in this category were found to be significant. Students who expected to
be less well accepted and to earn less without completing their education had higher
grade point averages, while students who expected to be well accepted and to earn as
much or more than Americans without completing their education had lower grade point
averages. The same trend, however, was true for students rating their expected level of
acceptance with an education: Students who felt that they would be poorly accepted had
the highest grade point averages. Finally, students who attributed a good amount of their
academic achievement to personal qualities had lower grade point averages than those
who felt that those qualities had either none to a fair amount of influence, or a great
amount of influence.
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Discussion
This was also a very productive area of inquiry. In general, students who feared
that they would not be well accepted or make as much money as Americans seemed
motivated to earn better grades. This confirms the theory of Steinberg, Dombusch and
Brown (1992) that the fear of negative consequences motivates students to do better in
school. The perception of moderate-to-high discrimination had a strong influence on the
variables in this area also, as the mean grade point average of students who reported
perceiving this level of discrimination, in almost every case, was lower than those of
students who reported none or little discrimination. Also, the decrease in grade point
average for each variable in this area was greater for students who reported more than a
little discrimination. Apparently, the impact of the perception of a moderate-to-high
amount of discrimination resulted in a lower grade point average, as well as exacerbating
the decrease in grade point average associated with fear regarding the future
socioeconomic status.
The students’ perceptions of parental expectations and cultural influence were not
found to influence the grade point average significantly, which disproves this often-cited
theory regarding the cause of Asian-American student success. This finding confirmed
the assertion of Sue and Okazaki (1990) that these two factors are not actually as
important as they are considered in the popular view. The students’ association of a good
amount of academic success with personal characteristics resulted in lower grade point
averages only for those who also reported perceiving more than a little discrimination. It
seems that the impact of discrimination most strongly affected students who felt a
moderate degree of personal responsibility for their academic achievement. Students who
felt little responsibility or great responsibility were apparently not so easily influenced,
perhaps because attitudes of unconcern or great concern with personal responsibility
cushion them from its effect.
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Achievement Profiles
The results of the analyses can be used to create profiles of the type of students
who are likely to do well academically and those who are likely to have lower grade point
averages. These profiles could be used to direct attention to the type of student who may
benefit from an appropriate type of intervention.
Profile o f the Higher Achievers
Aged twenty-nine or under
Third or fifth and later in birth order
Residence in the US of two years or less
Other than white collar occupation of the
father in the United States
Lower family income level in Vietnam
Two years or less schooling in the US
Twelve or more books read per year in
Vietnam
Six or more hours of television watched
per week in Vietnam
Low to fair rating of ability to make
friends with Americans
Low rating of acceptance by Americans
Low perception of discrimination at the
college
Low perception of discrimination
outside of the college
None to a fair amount of association
with Americans
Eleven or more hours of study per week
Expectation of low wages without an
education
Low expectation of acceptance with an
education
Low expectation of acceptance without
an education
Belief that the influence of personal
factors on academic achievement is none
to a fair amount or a great amount
Profile o f the Lower Achievers
Aged thirty or over
First, second or fourth in birth order
Residence of more than two years in the
United States
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Father working in a white collar
occupation in the United States
Higher family income level in Vietnam
Schooling of more than two years in the
United States.
Eleven or fewer books read per year for
pleasure in Vietnam
Fewer than six hours of television
watched per week in Vietnam
High belief in ability to make friends
with Americans
High rating of acceptance by Americans
Moderate to high amount of
discrimination perceived at the college
Moderate to high amount of
discrimination perceived outside of the
college
High amount of association with
Americans.
Ten or fewer hours of study per week.
High earnings expectation without an
education.
High expectation of social acceptance
with an education.
High expectation of social acceptance
without an education.
Belief that the influence of personal
factors on academic achievement is a
good amount
Overview of the Findings
The results of this survey show that persons who do not have a high expectation of
doing well in American society, who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds with
a shorter period of residence in the United States and who have been assimilated into
American society very little are the best academic achievers. The finding that the grade
point average of minority students decreases as they become more assimilated is
corroborated by other researchers. Gibson (1991) found that assimilation negatively
correlated with the success of minority students in schools. As a result, she advocates the
policy of additive acculturation in which a strong identification with the ethnic group is
maintained while students acquire the knowledge and proficiency to participate
successfully in mainstream society. For additive acculturation to work, however, it must
occur in a multicultural setting where the minority students’ language and culture are
respected and appreciated.
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For this group of Asian-American students, a high grade point average has been
found to correlate with uncertainty concerning their future socioeconomic status, coupled
with low interaction and little familiarity with Americans. The grade point averages of
these students were not strongly impacted by the perception of discrimination. In
contrast, a lower grade point average resulted when a greater familiarity and amount of
interaction with Americans were associated with the perception of a moderate to high
amount of discrimination.
A lower grade point average associated with a greater degree of assimilation
should not always be viewed negatively, however, since it may result from the
appearance of other means of success. The theory of relative functionalism proposed by
Sue and Okazaki (1990) attributes Asian student success to a perceived window of
opportunity. As opportunities for success increase, an educational route to success in
American society may seem less important. This theory might account for those students
whose grade point averages had decreased associated with a high level of interaction and
acceptance by Americans but who reported perceiving little discrimination. The main
decrease in the level of academic achievement in this study, however, did not seem to be
linked to increased acculturation alone, but mainly to increased acculturation and the
perception of a higher amount of discrimination.
Suggestions and Recommendations
Since grade point average is usually the primary concern of schools, students who
fit the profile of those who are likely to need assistance, as delineated in this study, can be
identified and appropriate action can be taken. Educators should consider, however, that
beside maintaining a high grade point average, social development is important as well
and that a certain amount of decrease in the grade point average of some students may be
expected as they venture farther into the American culture and language. As new
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behaviors and ideas are learned, feelings of insecurity are natural and the grade point
average may suffer as a result; however, the pernicious effect of the perception of
discrimination should be noted and steps to ameliorate this perception can be taken.
The findings of the study that forty percent of the students report perceiving a
moderate to high amount of discrimination at the college suggest that strengthening the
multicultural policy in which the school recognizes and actively supports minority
students’ ethnic cultures may be a means of preventing a drop in the grade point average
of some students. An understanding and appreciation of the perceptions of the
Vietnamese students might allow the modification of some of the causes of their
perception of discrimination and feelings of insecurity. Also, since strong demands that
they perform identically to Americans can have negative effects on minority students’
academic achievement, a broad awareness on the part of faculty and staff that they need
to bridge the gap between the American and Vietnamese cultures would likely have a
positive effect. An orientation to Vietnamese culture that all faculty and staff would
attend could be made part of the college’s regular training activities, since an
understanding of the Vietnamese students’ modes of thought and behavior, as well as the
profound difficulty of studying college level courses in a second language, would allow
faculty and staff to take the middle ground and facilitate the students’ transition from the
Vietnamese way of thinking and doing things to the American way. The means of
providing the appropriate training at the college are readily available, since there is a fully
funded multicultural resource center nearby which provides extensive training in teaching
multicultural students at no charge.
Future studies might investigate in greater depth the factors which were found to
influence grade point average in this study, especially the perception of discrimination.
Fruitful areas of inquiry might be the cause and nature of any discrimination perceived,
the student’s feelings of security regarding his own culture and American culture, and the
83
student’s degree of satisfaction regarding his situation. Also, a more detailed
examination of the students’ estimation of their opportunities for socioeconomic success
could be performed. An earlier survey done by Boyer (1994) discovered that the
Vietnamese students’ choice of majors was narrowly focused on a few fields. It is not
known to what extent the Vietnamese students’ perceived options for success expand
over time and whether there is any associated change in academic achievement.
Proposed Questions
Some questions which might be investigated in future studies in order to further
elucidate the factors associated with the academic achievement of the Vietnamese
Americans are:
Is the length of residence and education in the United States associated with native
culture devaluation?
What are the details concerning their perception of discrimination?
To what extent are the students personally satisfied and free from anxiety?
Does a high ability to make friends with Americans and a high amount of association
with Americans increase the sensing of discrimination and cause resultant anxiety?
Are students more likely to perceive a high amount of discrimination when they are more
anxious?
To what causes do the students attribute their feelings of anxiety?
What avenues to success in the United States do the students feel are open to them?
Is there a difference in the difficulty of classes attempted by recent arrivals as compared
to students who have been in the United States for three years or more and is this an
important cause of a decrease in academic achievement?
The questions above might provide more detailed information concerning the
factors surrounding the Vietnamese students’ academic achievement at the college.
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Multiple question items for each factor of interest on future surveys would yield
additional data and enable a more precise analysis of both its unique influence or that
which it might share with other factors. A larger sample size would be preferable for
subsequent studies if the grade point averages of the students surveyed could be made
available, since more powerful forms of statistical analysis, such as factor analysis or
multiple regression, could be used. Also, a longitudinal approach which would follow a
group of students over a period of six to ten years could track the students’ academic
achievement and attitudes as they integrate into American society. The administration of
a standardized test, such as the California Achievement Test or the Scholastic Aptitude
Test, would provide a more reliable measure of academic achievement; however, it is not
likely that the time required to administer both the standardized test and the survey could
be provided by the colleges. If more data were made available through replications of the
survey as revised, it may be possible to isolate and elucidate the factors which most
strongly influence the Vietnamese students’ academic achievement and to formulate a
causal theory of how their grade point averages can be predicted. In addition to surveys
which provide data for statistical analysis, case studies might be useful to provide in-
depth data which might not be obtained through quantitative methods.
The academic achievement of the Vietnamese students, especially of those who
succeed regardless of background or socioeconomic status, might be explained by the
observation of Sue and Okazaki (1990) that Asian Americans believe that if they study
hard, they can succeed, and that education is the best way to succeed. To this might be
added the provision that they will be more successful if they avoid perceiving
discrimination. The extent to which the grade point average is negatively impacted by
the perception of a greater number of paths to success, and whether or not this is
desirable, must be determined in a future inquiry.
85
Appendix A
Academic Achievement Questionnaire
Please blacken in the letter on the scantron that corresponds to the answer that you
wish to give.
1. What is your sex?
A. Male B. Female
2. What is your marital status?
A. Single B. Married
3. What is your age?
A. 20 or younger B. 21-25 C. 26-30 D. 31-40 E. 41 or above
4. How many brothers and sisters do you have living with you?
A. None B. 1 C. 2 D. 3 E. 4 or more
5. In the family, which number child are you?
A. First B. Second C. Third D. Fourth E. Fifth or later
6. Where were you bom?
A. VN city B. VN countryside C. US city D. US countryside
E. other country
7. What is your ethnicity?
A. Vietnamese B. Chinese-Vietnamese C. VN Minority D. Mixed
E. Other
8. How many years ago did you arrive in the United States? (Choose the closest
number)
A. 1 or less B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5 years or more
9. How long have you lived in the United States? (Choose the closest number)
A. 5 years or less B. 6 years C. 7 years D. 8 years E. 9 years or more
10. How old were you when you arrived in the United States?
A. 1-6 B. 7-12 C. 13-18 D. 19-24 E. 25 or over
86
11. How many hours a week do you work at a job?
A. 0-5 B. 6-10 C. 11-20 D. 21-40 E. 41 or more
12. How many parents (or adults acting as parents) are there in your home now?
A. Father & Mother B. Father only C. Mother only
D. Substitute parents E. None
13. What grade level did your mother complete in school?
A. 3rd grade or less B. 6th grade C. High School
D. College E. Post-graduate school
14. What grade level did your father complete in school?
A. 3rd grade or less B. 6th grade C. High School
D. College E. Post-graduate school
15. What was your mother's occupation in Vietnam?
A. Unskilled (housewife, selling, etc.) B. Skilled labor (sewing, painting,
etc.) C. Government, armed forces, clerical D. Manager, teacher, supervisor
E. Professional (medicine, law, pharmacy, dentistry, etc.)
16. What is your mother's occupation now?
A. Unskilled (housewife, selling, etc.) B. Skilled labor (sewing, painting, etc.)
C. Government, armed forces, clerical D. Manager, teacher, supervisor
E. Professional (medicine, law, pharmacy, dentistry, etc.)
17. What was your father's occupation in Vietnam?
A. Unskilled (housewife, selling, etc.) B. Skilled labor (sewing, painting, etc.)
C. Government, armed forces, clerical D. Manager, teacher, supervisor
E. Professional (medicine, law, pharmacy, dentistry, etc.)
18. What is your father's occupation now?
A. Unskilled (housewife, selling, etc.) B. Skilled labor (sewing, painting, etc.)
C. Government, armed forces, clerical D. Manager, teacher, supervisor
E. Professional (medicine, law, pharmacy, dentistry, etc.)
19. What was your family's income level in Vietnam?
A. Very low B. Low C. Middle level D. High E. Very high
20. What is your family's income level in the United States?
A. Very low B. Low C. Middle level D. High E. Very high
87
21. How many years did you attend school in Vietnam?
A. 1-2 years B. 3-4 years C. 5-6 years D. 7-8 years E. 9 years or more.
22. What education did you complete in Vietnam?
A. Grade school or less B. Middle school C. High school
D. BA degree E. MA degree or higher
23. What degree do you plan to complete in the US?
A. None B. AA degree C. BA degree
D. MA degree E. Doctorate or Professional Degree
24. How many years have you attended school in the US?
A. 1-2 years B. 3-4 years C. 5-6 years D. 7-8 years E. 9 years or more.
25. How many books did you read for pleasure a year in Vietnam?
A. 2 or less B. 3-5 C. 6-8 D. 9-11 E. 12 or more
26. How many books do you read for pleasure a year in the USA?
A. 2 or less B. 3-5 C. 6-8 D. 9-11 E. 12 or more
27. How many hours did you read for pleasure a week in Vietnam?
A. 2 or less B. 3-5 C. 6-8 D. 9-11 E. 12 or more
28. How many hours do you read for pleasure a week in the US?
A. 2 or less B. 3-5 C. 6-8 D. 9-11 E. 12 or more
29. How many hours did you watch TV a week in Vietnam?
A. 2 or less B. 3-5 C. 6-8 D. 9-11 E. 12 or more
30. How many hours do you watch TV a week in the US?
A. 2 or less B. 3-5 C. 6-8 D. 9-11 E. 12 or more
31. How much do you believe that you will be able to succeed in your educational goals
in the USA?
A. Very little B. A little C. A fair amount D. A lot E. Very much
32. How much do you believe that you deserve to be well-accepted in American
society?
A. Very little B. A little C. A fair amount D. A lot E. Very much
3 3. How do you like vour culture and customs compared to the culture and customs of
the United States?
A. Much less B. Less C. Equally D. Better E. Much better
88
34. In expressive power, how do you think that your language compares to English?
A. Much worse B. Worse C. Equal D. Better E. Much better
35. How do you rate your ability to make friends with Americans?
A. Poor B. Fair C. Good D. Very Good E. Excellent
36. How well do you believe that you are accepted as being equal to other Americans in
society?
A. Very poorly B. Poorly C. Fairly well D. Well E. Very well
37. How much discrimination have you experienced at Gold Coast College?
A. None B. A little C. A moderate amount D. A lot E. Very much
38. How much discrimination have you experienced outside of Gold Coast College?
A. None B. A little C. A moderate amount D. A lot E. Very much
39. How much trouble do you have understanding and being understood by the teachers
at the college?
A. None B. Some C. A fair amount D. A lot E. Very much trouble
40. How much help have you received from the staff (not teachers) at the college?
A. None B. Some C. A fair amount D. A lot E. Very much
41. How much help have you received from the teachers at the college?
A. None B. Some C. A fair amount D. A lot E. Very much
42. How much do you associate with Americans at school or at work?
A. Not at all B. A little C. A fair amount D. A lot E. Mainly
43. How much is the difference in culture a problem in your success in school?
A. Not at all B. A little C. A fair amount D. A lot E. Very much
44. How easy is it to understand what is taught in your classes at school?
A. Very hard B. Hard C. A little hard D. Easy E.
Very easy
45. How do you rate your ability to study using English?
A. Very Poor B. Poor C. Fair D. Good E. Very good
46. How many students are there in your home?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5 or more
89
47. Who mainly helps you with your homework at home?
A. Father B. Mother C. Brother(s); Sister(s) D. Someone else E. No one
48. How many students do you regularly study together with at home?
A. None B. 1 C. 2 D. 3 E. 4 or more
49. How many students do you regularly study together with outside of your home?
A. None B. 1 C. 2 D. 3 E. 4 or more
50. How many hours do you study per week?
A. 1-5 B. 6-10 C. 11-15 D. 15-20 E. 21 or more
51. How long have you studied ESL?
A. 2 years or less B. About 3 years C. About 4 years
D. About 5 years E. more than 5 years.
52. How many ESL classes have you completed?
A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four E. Five or more
53. How much do you speak your native language at home?
A. Never B. Sometimes C. Often D. Most of the time E. Always
54. How much do you speak your native language at school?
A. Never B. Sometimes C. Often D. Most of the time E. Always
55. How much do you speak your native language when you are not at school or at
home?
A. Never B. Sometimes C. Often D. Most of the time E. Always
56. Compared to other Americans, how much do you expect to earn after you complete
your education?
A. Much less B. Less C. The same D. More E. Much more
57. Compared to other Americans, how much would you expect to earn without
completing your education?
A. Much less B. Less C. The same D. More E. Much more
58. After completing your education, how well do you expect to be accepted in
American society?
A. Very poorly B. Poorly C. Fairly well D. Well E. Very well
90
59. Without completing your education, how well do you expect to be accepted in
American society?
A. Very poorly B. Poorly C. Fairly well D. Well E. Very well
60. How much of your wanting to succeed in school is to please your parents?
A. None B. Some C. Fair amount D. A lot E. Very much
61. How much do you feel that your native culture affects your wanting to succeed in
school?
A. Not at all B. A little C. A fair amount D. A good amount E. Greatly
62. How much do you feel that personal factors account for your wanting to succeed in
school?
A. Not at all B. A little C. A fair amount D. A good amount E. Greatly
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Mooney, Eric Ronald
(author)
Core Title
The effects of various factors on the academic achievement of Vietnamese students at Gold Coast College
School
Graduate School
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Education
Degree Conferral Date
1995-08
Tag
OAI-PMH Harvest
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11256573
Unique identifier
UC11256573
Legacy Identifier
9617124
Document Type
Dissertation