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THE ROLE OF THE CHORUS MASTER
IN OPERA PRODUCTION
by
Jonathan Draper
A Treatise Presented to the
FACULTY O F T H E SC H O O L O F MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SO U TH E R N CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
D O C T O R O F MUSICAL ARTS
Choral Music
May 1995
Copyright 1995 Jonathan Drap
UMI Number: 9614017
Copyright 1995 by
Draper, Jonathan
All rights reserved.
UMI Microform 9614017
Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition is protected against unauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI
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FINAL TREATISE APPROVAL
This treatise, written by
J o n a t h a n D r a p e r
under the supervision of../u.fGuidance Committee, and approved by all
its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Executive Com
mittee of the School of Music, in partial fulfillment of the requirement
tor the degree of
w ith m ajo r in
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
C h o r a l M u s i c
School Dot*
GUIDANCE COM M ITTEE:
.man Date
1M/5-65
M uj 208
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 1
Chapter Page
I IN TR O D U C TIO N .............................................................................. 1
II OPERA COMPANY ST R U C TU R E.................................................. 3
III THE CHORUS MASTER'S ROLE
Score P reparation................................................................................. 7
Chorus Music Rehearsals .............................................................. 11
Ensemble Call .................................................................................... 13
Production R ehearsals...................................................................... 14
Orchestral R e a d in g s ......................................................................... 16
"Sitzproben" ....................................................................................... 17
Stage Rehearsals with Piano ......................................................... 18
Stage Rehearsals with Orchestra ................................................. 19
Final Dress Rehearsal and Perform ances................................... 22
Ill
IV THE OPERA CHORISTER
A Different Breed ............................................................................ 26
Recruitment and Auditioning......................................................... 29
V THE CHORUS MASTER
A Blend of T a le n ts ............................................................................ 35
VI REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES
Choral Music P rep a ra tio n .............................................................. 39
Memorization .................................................................................... 42
Flexibility............................................................................................... 45
SU M M A R Y................................................................................................... 49
APPENDIX
VII Planning and A dm inistration........................................................... 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................. 59
IV
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
I OVERALL COMPANY STRUCTURE........................................ 5
II ARTISTIC ADMINISTRATION STRUCTURE .................... 6
1
ABSTRACT
The preparation and performance of opera has been the subject of a
significant collection of writings over a considerable period of time. It is
therefore surprising that very little has been written about the role the
chorus master plays in the production of opera.
It is the intention of this treatise to provide a detailed analysis of the
role of the chorus master in opera production. It outlines how the position
of chorus master fits into the structure of an opera company; follows
chronologically through the process of the production of an opera, providing
a study of the role and responsibilities of the chorus master in this process;
examines the demands and pressures placed upon the opera chorister;
summarizes the skills, disciplines and talents ideal to the make-up of a
chorus master; and discusses rehearsal techniques specific to working with
an opera chorus.
The information shared in this treatise is drawn principally from the
author's professional experience, as Associate Conductor with the Los
Angeles iMusic Center Opera, Principal Chorus Master and a conductor
with The Australian Opera, and Assistant Conductor and Chorus Master
with the State Opera of South Australia.
The treatise is presented in the hope that it will help promote a
greater understanding of the role of the chorus master in an opera house,
and provide a useful resource to enable colleagues interested in working in
this medium to embark upon such work forewarned of some of the
expectations and difficulties to be encountered.
1
I
INTRODUCTION
The preparation and performance of opera has been the subject of a
significant collection of writings over a considerable period of time. It is
therefore surprising that very little has been written about the role the
chorus master plays in the production of opera.
Opera is a difficult medium, artistically and fiscally. It is people
intensive, providing opportunity for emotional, intellectual and political
volatility; and it is capital-intensive, subsidized, and, often, loss-making.
Such factors place great pressures upon all the artistic, administrative and
technical people who contribute to the creation and presentation of the
finished product, and come strongly into play when assessing the importance
of the chorus master and his chorus in the process of opera production.
It is the intention of this treatise to provide a detailed analysis of the
role of the chorus master in opera production. It will outline how the
position of chorus master fits into the structure of an opera company; follow
chronologically through the process of the production of an opera, providing
a study of the role and responsibilities of the chorus master in this process;
examine the demands and pressures placed upon the opera chorister;
summarize the skills, disciplines and talents ideal to the make-up of a chorus
master; and discuss rehearsal techniques specific to working with an opera
chorus.
The information shared in this treatise is drawn principally from the
author's professional experience, as Associate Conductor with the Los
Angeles Music Center Opera, Principal Chorus Master and a conductor
with The Australian Opera, and Assistant Conductor and Chorus Master
with the State Opera of South Australia.
The treatise is presented in the hope that it will help promote a
greater understanding of the role of the chorus master in an opera house,
and provide a useful resource to enable colleagues interested in working in
this medium to embark upon such work forewarned of some of the
expectations and difficulties to be encountered.
II
3
OPERA COMPANY STRUCTURE
In three-and-a-half centuries, the role of the chorus in opera has
developed to such a degree that the tone of an opera house can be greatly
influenced by the ability of its chorus master to successfully channel the
significant musical and political power of its chorus. So strong is the
influence of the chorus in a significant part of the repertoire, that the
position of chorus master can be regarded as one of the linchpins in the
company structure.
A broad outline of the structure of a modern opera company is
provided in the attached tables. This structure would be consistent with
most opera companies, with the exception that the terminology might differ.
No attempt has been made to establish a detailed hierarchy in these
diagrams, nor have real structural lines been drawn, as an overall and on
going communication between all areas is fundamental to the artistic and
administrative success of such an organization.
Traditionally, the chorus master is a senior member of music staff,
reporting directly to the music director. On demonstrating a clear
sensitivity to both musical and non-musical aspects of opera production, he
will quickly be given the larger degree of autonomy required for successful
fulfillment of his responsibilities at the highest artistic level.
Increasingly, there appears a movement away from the traditional
opera company leadership, where decision-making was shared between a
music director and a general manager - and, in some enlightened cases a
director of productions - towards the singular, omnipotent, general director.
With the resulting absence of a music director, the chorus master reports to
the artistic administrator, and sustains a close relationship with the head of
music staff, in order that they can assure overall musical standards of the
company are maintained at a high level.
TABLE I
A R T IS T IC A D M IN IST R A T IO N
ARTISTS
MUSIC STAFF
CHORUS
ORCHESTRA
CHILDRENS CHORUS
REHEARSAL CO-ORDINATION
EDUCA TIQN OUTREACH
T V & RADIO PRESENTATION
SUPERTITLES
OVERALL COMPANY STRUCTURE
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
GENERAL DIRECTOR
TECHNICAL A D M IN ISTR A TIO N M A R K E TIN G A D M IN IST R A T IO N
STAGE
WORKSHOP
WARDROBE
WIGS
TICKET SALES
GROUP SALES
ADVERTISING & MARKETING
D EVELO PM ENT A D M IN ISTR A TIO N
PA TRQ/VS & MAJOR GIFTS
SPECIAL EVENTS
CORPORATE DEVELOPMENT
OPERA GUILD
C O M M U N IC ATIO N S A D M IN ISTR A TIO N
MEDIA REPRESENTATIVE
PROGRAM EDITOR
FINANCIAL & BUSINESS AFFAIRS
ACCOUNTS
PAYROLL
CORPORA TE INFORMA TIQN
CORPORA TE PLANNING
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
PLANT MANAGEMENT
TABLE II
ARTISTIC ADMINISTRATION STRUCTURE
ARTISTIC ADMINISTRATOR
A R T IS T S M U SIC STAFF CH O RU S ORCHESTRA
• CONDUCTORS
• SINGERS
• DIRECTORS
• DESIGNERS
• LIGHTING DESIGNERS
• CHOREOGRAPHERS
• HEAD OF MUSIC STAFF
• COACHES
• REPETFTEURS
• LIBRARIANS
• LANGUAGE COACHES
PRINCIPAL CHORUS MASTER
CHORUS MASTERS
CHORUS PERSONNEL
• GENERAL MANAGER
• ORCHESTRAL MANAGER
• ORCHESTRAL COORDINATOR
• ORCHESTRAL PERSONNEL
CHILDREN'S CHORUS
CHORUS MASTER
ACCOMPANIST
CHORUS PERSONNEL
REH EARSAL C O O R D IN ATIO N ED U C ATIO N O U TREACH
SU PERTITLES T V & R A D IO PR ESEN TATIO N
Ill
7
THE CHORUS MASTER'S ROLE
In the process of opera production, the exact stage at which a chorus
master begins his responsibilities may differ slightly from company to
company, depending upon whether he is called in for consultation during
the repertoire selection process. On these occasions his advice might be
sought on such relevant matters as: the minimum number of choristers
required for each opera under consideration; whether sufficient time for
preparation has been allowed within a certain proposed performance
framework; or, if a hectic schedule of closely positioned productions
requiring a significant involvement of the chorus is truly a feasible
undertaking. However, most frequently the chorus master's responsibilities
commence when he is informed of repertoire for future seasons, and he
begins his personal study and preparation of these scores.
Score Preparation
The opening task in score preparation is a reading of the book, if
available, and a literal translation of the libretto. This provides a basic
8
understanding of the plot, the characters, and their dramatic inter
relationships. An understanding of textual architecture, and the motivation
of textual elements, is essential for the promotion of successful dramatic
performance.
A careful reading of the text in the original language, followed by a
word-by-word translation of this text and any stage directions used in the
chorus music should then be undertaken. It is at this point that decisions
are made concerning matters of pronunciation:
• open and closed vowels
• length of consonants
• matching vowels
• consonant articulation
• rolled and flipped 'r'
• use of reiterated vowels for clarity in florid passages and for
dramatic effect, etc.
A close scrutiny of both orchestral and vocal scores should be
undertaken to elicit any note or text differences. Agreed cuts can then be
inserted and checked in both scores, and the possible effect of these cuts on
the work of the chorus duly noted.
Careful attention should be paid to ensuring that rehearsal figures
correlate between vocal and orchestral scores, and that vocal score page
numbers are inserted in the orchestral scores. This will assist ease of
reference between the conductor, chorus master and the chorus during
music rehearsals.
A written outline of sections of the opera employing chorus provides
an invaluable resource on which to base planning decisions concerning
preparation requirements for each opera. Such an outline should detail:
• page numbers
• act and scene number
• title and section
• voice requirements
• solo/principal voices involved
• dramatic nature of section-motivation.
After detailed study of the score, and familiarization with both the
textual and musical architecture, decisions can be made regarding:
• phrasing
• breathing
• dynamics
10
• accents
• cut-offs
and the chorus master can prepare his plan of action for music rehearsals.
Such preparation includes selection of orchestral and vocal cues that are
preparatory to chorus entries, to be used for pitch and preparation during
the rehearsal process. It is vital that singers learn both the orchestral and
vocal aspects of their cues, for in the event that one falters the other will be
the next line of defence. Zakariasen hypothesizes that
. . . overemphasis on counting has often been
responsible for his (chorister) appearing to the audience
like a wooden Indian whose only movements seem to
be tapping feet and an occasional finger pointing at
the conductor. Easier and more befitting the stage is
to listen to instrumental cues from the orchestra,
which, unlike singers, is basically infallible, not having
to entrust its music to memory.1
1 Zakariasen, "The Choristers, Opera News. 30 January 1971, p. 28.
11
Chorus Music Rehearsals
There is a multitude of approaches to the efficient use of allotted
rehearsal time. The chorus master, through detailed score study and
analysis, will best be able to assess how to structure his rehearsal time. For
some, experience has shown that a successful format divides the rehearsal
period into four sections:
1. Familiarization
The initial rehearsal, with full chorus, is given over to sight reading
through all sections of the chorus music. This general reading is
interspersed with a familiarization and discussion of the plot, and the chorus
character outlines and their respective motivations.
2. Repetition
The second section is a group of rehearsals given over to working
with male and female voices separately; and, perhaps, broken rehearsals for
individual voice lines, depending on the complexity of the work and the
experience of the group. Attention in these rehearsals is paid to
pronunciation of the text. Initially the text is freely spoken, with subsequent
12
repetitions employing the rhythm of the music. Breathing, phrasing,
dynamics and dramatic inflection are subsequently introduced sequentially.
3. Detailed Preparation
The third section comprises of rehearsals allotted to detailed
preparation. These may be undertaken either in sections, full chorus, or a
combination of both, depending on the nature of the work and the state of
readiness. Here, emphasis is given to a painstaking and meticulous
preparation of the music, characterization, voice color, dramatic inflection,
emotional clarification, character empathy, clarity of articulation, gradation
of dynamics, quality of sound and identity of a chorus "sound" and its aural
perception.
4. Memorization and Flexibility
The final rehearsals are dedicated to memorization of the music, in-
depth study of the plot, motivational analysis, and the development of
musical, physical, dramatic and emotional flexibility. Memorization, of
words and music, is a continuing process begun at the opening rehearsal.
However, it is in these final rehearsals that consolidation of, and confidence
in, memory, can be instilled.
Ensemble Call
The prudent chorus master will ensure that an ensemble call be
scheduled, to follow immediately after completion of chorus music rehearsals
and just prior to commencement of chorus production rehearsals.
The intent of this rehearsal is to provide an opportunity for the
conductor and the chorus to meet for the first time, and for the conductor
to work through the relevant sections with the full chorus, making any
musical or interpretive adjustments that he may feel necessary. Depending
on the nature of the piece, principal singers may also be requested to attend;
especially where there are large ensembles or complicated sections involving
both chorus and soloists. This gives all parties an opportunity to familiarize
themselves with the authentic aural picture.
This type of rehearsal can sometimes be rather uncomfortable for the
chorus master, for even with the benefit of prior consultation with the
conductor, the chorus master must make a multitude of musical decisions
during the chorus music rehearsal period. With the arrival of the
conductor, there will inevitably be differences of opinion concerning tempi
and other musical matters. The experienced chorus master remains secure
14
in the knowledge that these differences are merely the result of the working
of two different musical minds.
It is at this moment that the chorus master hands over the
responsibility for the musical aspects of the work of the chorus to the
conductor. However, he nevertheless remains very much in charge of the
chorus, and retains responsibility for maintaining the standard of their work
throughout the production processes and the performances.
Production Rehearsals
As the chorus meets the stage director for the first time, the focus is
now directed towards the dramatic aspects of the opera, and rehearsals
move onto the "floor" for setting all the physical and visual elements of the
production.
The stage director sets the large ensembles in various positions for
each scene, outlining the dramatic situations and its motivations, and giving
instruction on the necessary on-stage movement.
Here the chorus master has a responsibility to ensure that choristers
are not placed in situations that will significantly disadvantage the music.
Over-production of a scene can lead to a point where excessive movement
can threaten the quality, quantity and effect of the chorus music. Placement
of the choristers can also greatly affect the timbre, blend and quality of
sound. The chorus master has a responsibility here to strongly influence
where and in what mixture of voices members of the chorus are placed on
stage. Most stage directors welcome input from chorus masters, providing
such input is relevant, effective and expeditiously handled.
By assessing every setting and repetition in production rehearsals, the
chorus master maintains a constant awareness of the implications of aspects
of the production on the choral sound. He also ensures that the music is
not forgotten by choristers now confronted with new demands, for
memorization and motivation, movement and reaction. If necessary he acts
as a buffer between the stage director and the chorus. To achieve this he
must be strong enough to have his voice heard, yet remain tactfully aware
that these are not his rehearsals. He nevertheless remains firm in his
protection of the musical aspects of the work of the chorus, while ensuring it
remains complimentary to the production.
16
Production rehearsals, with their constant repetition of dramatic
scenes, can be physically demanding. This is especially so when rehearsals
contain both dancing and singing. Long days filled with production
rehearsals, although sometimes invigorating, can place increasing strain on
choristers. A sensitive chorus master monitors the members of his chorus,
for problems of health, both physical and mental are by no means
uncommon in such situations. It is in circumstances like these that the
strength of a chorus master's control, the discipline of his group, and the
respect he has earned from them, are increasingly called into play.
Orchestral Readings
Orchestral readings are for the orchestra to rehearse the music of the
opera alone, prior to joining with the other elements of the production.
Where possible, such rehearsals are scheduled not to clash with
production rehearsals. This is done in order that the conductor can be
available for both sets of rehearsals. If this is not feasible, the chorus master
conducts the production rehearsals while the conductor takes the orchestral
rehearsals.
17
The chorus master, where possible, attends all the orchestral readings.
By so doing, he gains an opportunity to gauge any problems that the chorus
may encounter in coping with the orchestral colors in relevant cues and
accompaniments, and to continue his own professional development by
exposing his ears and critical musical thinking to the different aural and
psychological dynamic of orchestral rehearsals.
"Sitzproben"
In the Sitzproben, a German stage term literally meaning "sitting
run-through", all the musical resources of the production are brought
together. This permits the vocal and orchestral elements their first
opportunity to familiarize themselves with each other, and allows them to
do so free of the encumbrances of the visual and physical components of the
production.
With the introduction of orchestral color and weight new factors
come into play. Accommodation must be made for the inevitable
alterations and adjustments of tempi, while initial balances and dynamic
levels, set in chorus and production rehearsals, must now be revisited.
18
Stage Rehearsals with Piano
Upon completion of the initial staging of the physical drama, the
company moves from the rehearsal room into the theater for on-stage
rehearsals.
The transfer of location, and the introduction of sets, costumes,
props, wigs, lighting, fold-back and television monitors is accomplished with
the assistance of large numbers of technical staff. With a substantial
increase in the total number of people involved on the production, emphasis
is placed upon theater discipline. The stage manager now assumes overall
responsibility for the smooth running of all physical elements of the
production, and becomes pivotal in the long-term success of the project.
Stage rehearsals with piano are the territory of the stage director.
Time is given over both to familiarization with sets, costumes, wigs, make
up and lighting and sound, and to ensure that physical and visual elements
of the production are well-timed, properly executed, and fine-tuned.
Theater rehearsals are a period of great mental and physical strain
for all involved. As Zakariasen points out, the chorus is no exception.
19
When the chorus gets to the stage, it may mean the
breakdown of all we have tried to learn in musical
rehearsals. The conductor chosen by the management
may choose to rewrite a score his way, and a director
may, through action and spatial placement, destroy the
balance so painstakingly achieved beforehand.’
With demands on the chorister coming from all angles, the input of
the chorus master becomes increasingly vital. From the simple task of
ensuring that the entire chorus is present and punctual, to the on-going task
of maintenance of musical standards.
Throughout this hectic period, a chorus master who can keep a cool
head, a positive attitude, and an air of confidence, while sustaining a real
concern for his chorus, is an invaluable asset to any opera company.
Stage Rehearsals with Orchestra
From the first stage orchestral rehearsal, control of rehearsals moves
from stage director to conductor, and a new set of challenges faces the
chorus. The chorister must now accommodate not only costumes, lighting,
sets and "in-scene" rehearsals, but also the presence of an orchestra in the
pit.
Zakariasen, p. 28.
20
While the Sitzproben gave the chorus exposure to the orchestral
sound in the rehearsal room, the weight and color of the sound will change
with the transference of the orchestra to the pit. The sound will further be
complicated by the distortion it suffers in its travel from pit to stage through
the "fold-back" system.3
A number of problems will require constant attention from the
chorus master.
• stage and orchestra balances will need to be regularly
revisited, and adjustments made to ensure that the singers can be heard
above the orchestra.
• "fold-back" levels must be balanced to ensure that
choristers can hear the orchestra, but that the fold-back cannot be heard in
the auditorium.
• choristers must be able to see and understand the
conductor's beat, either with direct eye-contact, or through TV relay
monitors. The presence of an orchestra changes the rehearsal dynamic
radically. Whereas, in prior rehearsals the conductor worked solely with a
3 The "fold-back" system provides amplification of the orchestral sound
to the singer on stage by placing microphones in the pit and relaying
orchestral sound through speakers placed in the "wings" of the stage.
21
piano and the stage, he must now communicate and coordinate with a full
orchestra in the pit. Some conductors's techniques change in this situation,
hence the need to ensure that what a conductor does is comprehensible at
all times. The maintenance of good ensemble relies heavily on the
conductor's abilities, through his technique, to successfully communicate
with all participants in a performance.
• all choristers must be seen with no individual voice lost in
the general ensemble. Slight changes in position or direction can
disadvantage chorus sound and possibly the security of the full ensemble.
A problem that sometimes arises when orchestras first come into
stage rehearsals, is for the chorus to cope with orchestras that play behind
the beat. For professional orchestras, constantly working together in a
heterogenous group, playing behind the beat may have advantages and
become second nature. For the chorus to encompass this technique requires
a great deal of confidence and experience as an ensemble. In this situation
it is important that the chorus master be seen to support the chorus without
alienating the orchestra. This can be one of the most vexing problems a
chorus master, and indeed the conductor, can face.
The chorus master must ensure that the conductor and stage director
are kept fully aware of all the problems that the chorus may be
encountering, even at the risk of choosing the wrong moment to advise
them, and thus facing the possibility of a public "dressing-down".
For the most part, however, the chorus master must remain
confident, have trust in the quality of his preparation and, as McElroy
suggests, hope.
At . . . rehearsals the conductor will call upon
Lepore [chorus master] to regulate some phrasing or
adjust his singers volume up or down a quarter
decibel. Otherwise he can only sit in the dark
auditorium and glower if the conductor's beat is
imprecise, or agonize if a delayed beat is interpreted
one way by the instrumentalists, another by the
singers, who, in full cry, cannot hear the orchestra; he
will brood for weeks should a critic blame the chorus
for the imprecise timing. Occasionally, he glows
when, say, the precise beat of a Jean Fournet brings
out the singers' very best.4
Final Dress Rehearsal and Performances
With the arrival of the final dress rehearsal, sometimes in front of an
invited audience, the production gets its first complete airing in sequence.
4 George McElroy, "Birth of an Ensemble," Opera News. October 1971, p. 17.
23
The chorus master's duties include:
• checking that the full chorus are present, and, in the event
of illness, consulting with stage management and the stage director for
suitable replacements for any chorister doing minor roles or an important
part of stage business;
• visiting the conductor for a brief evaluation of the previous
rehearsal or performance; discussion of resulting problem areas and their
resolution; and any other notes that need to be passed on to the chorus.
The prudent chorus master, where possible, will schedule a 15-20
minute session for the full chorus just prior to the final dress rehearsal and
all performances. These sessions are invaluable, because they provide
opportunities for:
• presentation of notes from the previous performance.
• run-through of problem passages, with time for minor
repairs and adjustments of such elements as balances, problems of
intonation, rhythmic and melodic inaccuracies and fine-tuning.
• advisement of any emergency situation, and their
resolution for performance.
24
pep talks, and re-statements of important performance
elements such an ensemble discipline, team work, cool heads, motivated
acting, energized singing, clear articulation, and strong projection of words.
• immersion of the chorister's in the characters, quality, and
style of the ensemble sound and musical direction that the work for
performance that evening requires.
Once on stage, as Richard Hall outlines, the pressures and random
elements of performance must be taken in stride.
. . . singers manage to perform on two planes
simultaneously. One is the level of critical self-
command, remembering to keep in the light, blend the
voice, listen to the orchestra, think of vocal technique.
On this level they know they can never relax; they
must cope not only with musical demands and vocal
mishaps but with their partners. Surprises in stage
business or movement must be handled, "truthful"
relationships must be projected, gestures worked out in
advance must be recreated.0
The press reviews are of interest to the majority of choristers. The
experienced know, however, that while the constructive comments of an
informed critic are valuable, and the remarks of a poor critic best ignored,
5 Richard W. Hall, "Alone with the Voice," Opera News. 5 Sept. 1970, p. 11.
they are both (in the words of one wit) "tomorrow's wrapping in the fish
market."
Throughout the rehearsals and all the performances, the chorus
master is always present. Sometimes in the wings, helping by mirroring the
conductor's beat, encouraging, assisting, making notes and spotting the weak
link or the inevitable mistake or, in the audience, listening to the balances
and for the text, seeing the overall musical and dramatic picture, and
keeping a constant concern for the welfare of the production and his chorus.
IV
2(5
THE OPERA CHORISTER
A Different Breed
The many demands placed upon contemporary opera choristers
during the preparation of an opera have already been outlined. It is in
performance, however, that the magnitude and complexity of such pressures
and demands becomes truly apparent.
Once on-stage, the chorister is required to sing from memory, more
often than not in a foreign language; wear make-up and costume, the style
and weight of which may be unfamiliar; perform under strong and
frequently changing lighting; be constantly changing position on stage;
project their dramatic character and voice through the proscenium and
across an orchestra while surrounded by copious sound deflecting or
absorbing set materials; all the time remaining in contact with a conductor's
beat that they may not be able to see, because movement or positioning
makes them temporarily blind to the beat or sight of relay monitors. In
27
addition, there is every likelihood that at some stage during the
performance, all of the preceding factors will be compounded by the need
for the chorister to be involved in dance sequences.
This frequent movement on stage creates very fluid blend and
ensemble, and constantly changes aural perception. Choristers are thus
required to produce a balanced sound in good ensemble, while moving
through a multitude of different stage positions, where they neither have the
security of consistently hearing the same voice around them, or of
necessarily having other members of their voice line within hearing distance.
The spread of positioning on stage from side to side and front to back also
produces problems of variable levels of articulation and dynamics from
individuals, lines, and male-female voice groups. It also increases the risk of
individual timbres reaching out of the ensemble.
Choristers are often also required to sing off-stage. Such
requirements, with their inherent problems of timing, ensemble and
intonation, can range from a single group on one side of backstage, to any
number of different combinations of voices and groupings in a host of
different locations. These may in turn be working alongside or in
28
alternation with backstage instrumental ensembles. On occasion, choristers
are asked to commence singing off-stage, then walk on-stage, from a
number of different locations, continuing to sing and possibly beginning to
dance; all with an orchestral accompaniment on-going in the pit; and, one
hopes, a flexible conductor.
The development of vocal, aural and physical flexibility thus becomes
a key component in the make-up and training of an opera chorister. Such
flexibility is especially important in busier opera houses, where different
night to night repertoire requires considerable adaptability to stylistic
changes. As Goldovsky attests,
The opera . . . suffers fearfully on ordinary
occasions from the surprising power of the
average . . . chorister to destroy all illusion the
moment he shambles on the scene with his blue jaws,
his reach-me-down costume, his foolish single gestures,
his embarrassed eye on the prompter, and his general
air of being in an opera chorus because he is fit for
nothing better. . . . b
Fortunately, such standards are no longer, generally, acceptable.
Singers now find themselves cast in comparison with high standard opera
6 Boris Goldovsky, Bringing Opera to Life (New York: Appleton-Century-
Grofts, 1968) p. 324
recordings and audiences require live performances to bear favorable
comparison, both visually and aurally, with recorded versions.
Recruitment and Auditioning
The development of an experienced and flexible body of choristers,
and the continuity of such personnel, is a major contributing factor to
successful opera production.
Choristers are called upon to perform a broad range of character
types and styles. The effective chorus must therefore contain a good cross
representation of body types and voice styles from which to draw when
deciding upon chorus character allocations. John Kobler reports that:
People bored by opera usually cite as one of their
main objections their difficulty in reconciling such
supposedly beautiful characters as, say, Tristan and
Isolde, Romeo and Juliet, Alfredo and Violetta, with,
too often, the physical dimensions of the singers
impersonating them. A well-upholstered Violetta,
supposedly dying of tuberculosis, is unlikely to inspire
in her beholders a willing suspension of disbelief.7
7 John Kobler, "The Domingo Method," The Dial. Sept. 1981, p. 42.
30
Though Kobler is here speaking specifically about principal singers, the
same problems are confronted with the chorister. One can no longer
represent a coterie of young maidens with a gaggle of aging Brunnhildes.
Each season will produce its inevitable resignations and requests for
leave of absence from members of the chorus. As a result there is the need
for a continuous process of auditioning - seeking new talent in a variety of
voice types and physiques.
Established choruses normally find themselves with a constant supply
of requests for auditions; while the less well established companies, in the
process of building a chorus tradition may, on occasion, have to advertise.
One proven audition procedure divides the process into two sections:
• general audition
• comprehensive re-call audition for selected candidates.
From the general audition and the submitted resume, the chorus
master seeks to familiarize himself with the following aspects of the
candidate's make-up:
• physical characteristics - height, weight, presentation,
posture, walk, general style and level of coordination.
• voice type— range, timbre, quality, size, power and level of
articulation.
• musicality
• general personal characteristics— intelligence, confidence,
flexibility of personality, and elements of extroversion and
introversion
• musical background and training
• performance background
• language skills
• dance experience
The re-call audition, in a more casual environment, allows the chorus
master to give in-depth testing for:
• voice
range
• ear/pitch
• intonation
• rhythmic sense
32
• rhythmic memory
• melodic memory
• sight reading
There are differing schools of thought about the setting of sight-
reading tests. One school promotes the idea that sight reading ability is an
essential skill for an opera chorister. This is particularly true in the busier
opera houses, where a large repertoire undertaken within a complicated
schedule means that rehearsal time is limited and the learning process must
be rapid. The other school of thought places more importance on the
usefulness of the voice rather than on sight-reading ability, and so does not
incorporate such tests in auditions. This school believes in the premise that,
providing the candidate is relatively intelligent and has a good level of
musicality, and that there is a reasonable rehearsal period, most people will
have time to learn their music by rote. The second school of thought is
more viable for the smaller, less busy houses, where provision of time can be
made to enable a valuable voice, with careful nurturing, to be guided and
developed into an extremely useful chorister. Kagen draws our attention to
the fact that:
One must remember that, in the history of singing,
one can find a great many authenticated examples of
excellent singers who did not know even the elements
of musical notation. Possessing naturally an excellent
musical ear and an excellent coordination between the
ear and the voice, such singers could learn, memorize
and perform most intricate series of pitch patterns by
simply listening to someone else play these pitch
patterns for them on a musical instrument.8
Upon completion of the audition, an audition report with photograph
is completed for each candidate; and, along with any paperwork submitted
by the candidate, is filed in the chorus hank; alphabetically, by voice, under
one of five categories:
• candidates suitable for permanent chorus
• candidates suitable for extra chorus
• candidates to he re-auditioned after a further period
of study
• candidates not suitable
• candidates not to he re-auditioned
In a full-time chorus, the choristers are normally contracted on a
yearly or more permanent basis, with an initial year "on-probation," while
8 Sergius Kagen, On Studying Singing (New York, Dover Publication Inc.,
1 9 5 0 ) , p . 9 .
34
the part-time choruses, are traditionally contracted on an opera-by-opera
basis.
The audition process, although time consuming, provides a valuable
opportunity for the enterprising chorus master to establish, through national
and local auditions, a broad network of contacts in other opera houses,
universities and teaching institutions. Such networks can be extraordinarily
valuable in the identification of both potential choristers and previously
experienced choristers moving into your geographical area. The audition
process itself can also be a valuable public relations exercise, and as such
can be used to enhance the reputation of both chorus and chorus master.
THE CHORUS MASTER
A Blend of Talents
The sheer size and make-up of a professional opera chorus, and its
appearance in a significant part of the opera repertoire, make it a body of
quite considerable musical, political and economic influence.
Not surprisingly, the blend of talents required by the person
commissioned with the day-to-day supervision of such a chorus is quite
considerable. As a result, the role of chorus master can be regarded as one
of the most difficult positions to fill in a busy opera house. Grout here
provides us with some historical perspective on the position.
The leader of the chorus (Choregos, Choryphaios) was
chosen from among the wealthiest and most prominent
citizens of the community. The position was regarded
as a distinction, but since the leader had to train and
equip the chorus at his own expense, he sometimes
found himself ruined by the honor, which the satirists
listed among the possible calamities of life, like lawsuits
and taxes. . . .9
9 Donald Jay Grout, A Short History of Opera (New York: Columbia Univ.
Press, 1965), p. 13.
36
The ideal chorus master must be a good musician equipped with:
a meaningful and resourceful conducting technique
• a sensitive pair of ears
• language skills
• an awareness of a wide range of styles
• an understanding of the vocal mechanism
• a theatrical instinct
• a feel for color and drama in music
• keyboard skills
• successful experience as both a choral and orchestral
conductor.
He should also be:
• a skillful and resourceful teacher, with ability to train and
discipline his adult, professional, multi-ability group, with
diligence, patience, imagination and humor;
able to draw on some skills as a psychologist and
sociologist, enabling him to maintain long-term control
over a volatile group dynamic;
a leader with multinational skills; who can maintain high
levels of committed and informed performances over a
long period of time and encompassing a significant breadth
of repertoire;
a model of calm and confidence, upon which his chorus
can lean, as colleague, friend, protagonist, confidante and
antagonist; especially when everything appears to be falling
apart;
able, with personality and integrity, to protect his group,
acting as a buffer between them and the principal
personalities in the production process;
insightful into performers' requirements, and thus carefully
nurture the choruses self-image;
constantly sustaining a commitment and love for his work
and respect for his chorus;
able as a professional to accept responsibility for what he
has prepared, and be mature enough to sec other people
change his work, (not always for the better), and still
remain calm.
38
It is most advantageous to discuss the talents and skills that the
"ideal" chorus master should possess, but we live in the real world, and few
would lay claim to possession of all the skills listed. Isaac Stern summarizes
the concept well, albeit rather enigmatically,
There is a discipline which has to be answered by
responsibility. We must recognize what makes
disciplines come together to create an art form at its
highest level. And if we don't demand quality
ourselves others will attack us for not doing the right
thing.1 0
1 0 Isaac Stern, "Preserving the Magic of Music in Stressful Times,"
Symphony Magazine. Aug/Sept. 1981, p. 10.
VI
39
REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES
Choral Music Preparation
The role of the chorus in the performance of opera requires that they
be trained to a high level of understanding of both the convolutions of the
relevant plot, and the various motivating forces behind their corporate and
individual actions. In addition, by necessity, they are required to perform
from memory.
The necessity for such depth of textual understanding and reliability
of memory requires a detailed concentration on the text early in the
preparation process. As a result, the chorus master's approach to musical
preparation will be significantly different from that undertaken with a
symphonic chorus.
The following learning sequence has proven successful:
• sight read all the chorus music, interpolating a sequential
reading of the plot of the opera. (Professional choristers
40
enjoy a challenge. Spending part of the first rehearsal
sight reading the chorus music offers such a challenge. It
also provides an entertaining way to commence the
rehearsal period; and provides a step-by-step introduction
to the plot of the opera through interpolation of the text.)
• speak the text in speech rhythm, paying particular
attention to pronunciation and textual phrasing.
• speak the text in musical rhythm; initially without
dynamics, paying particular attention to vowel length,
consonant placement, rhythmical accuracy, good ensemble
and strong articulation.
Sheldon Harnick sets a pragmatic goal when he says:
. . . I grow impatient with audiences that settle for
less than a full theatrical experience . . . when
I see an opera in English, I don't expect to understand
every word . . . But I do expect to be able to
understand at least 80 - 90 percent of the text."
Sheldon Harnick, "Opera as Theatre," The Dial. Sept. 1981, p. 51.
41
• rehearse the music, without text, on a single vowel shape,
and later introduce the relevant text vowels. Emphasis can
here be placed upon intonation and vocal color.
• rehearse the music with full text, placing emphasis on
length and positioning of consonants, and dynamics.
• rehearse all facets of text and music together; paying
particular attention to motivational factors, dramatic
inflection, levels of intensity, character empathy, and
emotional and vocal coloring.
[Domingo] You must color your singing as you do
when you speak. If excited, angry, there will he a
force, a pressure in the sound. If you are speaking
something tender, you color your voice softly, gently.
Coloring reflects emotion and character. Also, you
must color subtly, like a painter who rarely uses
primary colors alone but combines.1 2
• outline the relevant elements, either orchestral or vocal, or
both, that constitute the cue passages that immediately
precede each chorus entry. Highlight the most audible
instruments, or most accessible voice. In an extremely
Kobler, p. 42.
42
complex piece, find an identifiable place from which to
count the number of bars leading up to the relevant
chorus entry.
Memorization
Understanding the motivation for a particular piece of text is the first
and most important element required for constructive memorization. If this
is achieved, then the text will he more easily remembered.
Repetition is the most successful means of memorization. Repetition,
however, needs to be varied and unpredictable in order to maintain the
interest and awareness of the chorister. No matter how talented the
chorister, memorization will always be a demanding mistress.
These are some techniques that can assist memorization:
A. Question the chorus, before each repetition, on the motivation of
a piece of text,
to whom are you singing?
what is your emotional state?
43
what geographical location are you in?
what action has stimulated your singing?
what are you singing?
is your text an opinion, a commentary, an interjection, a
demand, or something else?
B. Employ spatial efforts, such as if the various parts of the chorus
are talking to each other, or in conflict, or one section listening to
another.
C. Use questions or statements that will assist the chorus to link one
textual unit to another.
D. Use creative imagery and key words as early warning hints for
choristers' memories.
E. Play "Spot the cue." Using a jumbled order of cues, prearranged
with your accompanist, you can challenge the memories of the
choristers to hear a specific cue and to sing the relevant chorus
music without prior warning. Because the cues are out of order,
the chorus does not have time to find the correct page in the
score and is therefore forced to rely on memory. This is an
entertaining and stimulating challenge in the form of a game.
F. Use movement and dancing to assist memorization. This series
of exercises should only be undertaken towards the end of a
preparation period. The movements can take a multitude of
forms:
walking in circles
circles inside circles
circles in opposite directions
individual random walking
standing still, eyes closed
marching
running
waltzing in pairs
and many others
In these exercises, not only must the book be put away, but there is the
added burden of the physical movements to compound the pressures on the
chorister's memory. For, as McElroy warns:
45
. . . the maestro [chorus master] will hear any lapse
in diction, belated entry, or muffed cue . . . he
will spot the culprit and his rage will be awesome.
An occasional musical lapse he can understand, but for
unmemorized words there is no excuse at all.1 3
G. Make the chorus sing individual sections of music at different
speeds. This provides yet another pressure on the memory, and
develops flexibility of the mind and ear. It is most effective when
practiced in conjunction with the movement and dancing exercise
above.
Flexibility
Live theatrical performance is demanding and unpredictable; and
when performed through the medium of music, it becomes extraordinarily
difficult. Flexibility is therefore an essential requirement for both the
individual chorister and the opera chorus, in seeking to achieve and
maintain a consistently high level of performance.
Memorization and flexibility of memory have already been discussed.
Flexibility in acting skills is something that can be learned on stage through
McElroy, p. 16.
46
experience, if not already developed in movement and acting classes. It is
fortunate that the teaching of acting skills is not within the brief of the
chorus master. The development of aural awareness, both individual and
ensemble, and the development of flexibility within this awareness, is,
however, very much part of the chorus master's sphere of responsibility.
With the increase in the desire for theatrical realism on the operatic
stage, there has been a significant change in the way in which choruses are
employed by stage directors. Gone are the days when choristers were paid
to stand and sing. Realism has greatly increased the amount of involvement
by the chorus in on-stage movement, both as a unit and as a collection of
individuals.
As a result of this increase in movement, there has come the need for
greater aural awareness from the ensemble. The same voices are no longer
to be found always in the same position. There is a constant change of
positioning, resulting in an enormous fluidity in the mix of sound emanating
from the chorus.
47
For those of us who favor the philosophy of freeing the individual
voice and making good ensemble sound out of the mix of individual vocal
colors (choral heterogeneity), rather than restricting the individual voice and
attempting to make all voices sound the same in the search for vocal purity,
this increase in choristers' movement poses no major difficulties. It does,
however, mean that we need to develop in the minds of the chorus an aural
image of the type, quality and parameters of sound that the ensemble is
after at any particular dramatico/musical movement.
Such an aural image can be developed by highly sensitizing the aural
awareness of the ensemble, and promoting increased confidence for the
chorister to see himself as a unique individual voice that is part of what
constitutes a heterogenous larger group.
The following are techniques that have proven valuable in developing
such skills:
• by voicematching within the vocal sections, you will allow
the true nature of the ensemble sound to establish itself.
48
ensure that you have the equivalent of one or two empty
seats between, behind, and in front of each chorister. By
providing such space you will allow the individual voice
greater freedom and an opportunity to let its unique colors
be heard.
change the ensemble seating plan; both within an
individual rehearsal and from one rehearsal to another.
Employ not only traditional male/female and S.A.T.B.
splits, but also quartets, octets and random groupings.
This will help to create different aural experiences for the
ensemble. In so doing, it will assist the development of
flexibility of ensemble, develop a confidence in the
individual's ability to perceive and understand the
constantly fluid nature of the ensemble, and promote the
group's ability through increased aural maturity to deal
with all potential aural vagaries.
SUMMARY
49
The role of the chorus master in opera production is undeniably
demanding and significantly challenging. It is, moreover, consistently
stimulating and, more often than not, rewarding. Perhaps the greatest
reward for the chorus master lies in his developing the ability to stimulate
his chorus to ask the same questions and draw the same conclusions at the
end of each performance as those of Zakariasen.
Here was an opera about a man alone, attacked
by a not so silent majority unable to understand
human differences. Here were Tyrone Guthrie and
Colin Davis, moving, soaring with us to give the
performance of our lives. At the conclusion of each
performance of "Grimes" we all look out to sea, which
in Guthrie's production is the audience itself. "It
rolls in ebb yet terrible - yet terrible and deep" run
the words.
"Did we get through to them?" we asked
ourselves each time it ended. For such privileged
moments, when one has the power to experience
empathy in this most troubled of worlds, all the
trouble we choristers have endured was worth it.1 4
1 4 Zakariasen, p. 29
APPENDIX
50
Planning and Administration
Considerable planning and administration are required in the smooth
running of an opera chorus, and a large part of such administration falls to
the lot of the chorus master. A detailed outline of checklists and
considerations is provided in this appendix in the hope that it may prove
useful to those undertaking the role of chorus master for the first time.
Checklists and Considerations
1. Weekly
The following details should he checked against each weekly schedule
prior to its publication.
A. General Checks
• rehearsal times
• rehearsal venues (suitability for size of chorus)
• second venues (availability for second/split
rehearsals)
• chorus personnel called
51
• chorus n /a (permitted absences)
(chorus n /a should only be granted after prior consultation
and agreement with the chorus master)
• total number of rehearsal hours the chorus are
working in the week
B. Chorus Music Rehearsals
• pianists (scheduling and suitability)
• music stand requirements
• lay-out requirements
ensure that individual chorus members are not
called for wardrobe or coaching calls during music
rehearsals
C. Production Rehearsals
• is there time available for revision of music
during production rehearsals?
• will conductor be present or will chorus master
be conducting?
52
Day-by-day
The following checks should be undertaken on a day-to-day basis,
relevant to the rehearsal content of that day.
A. General
• ring company office and check for chorus n /a
and absences.
• check also for absences of principal singers, and
how this will affect chorus members undertaking
principal role covers.
B. Chorus Music Rehearsals
First Rehearsal
• make sure chorus scores not already pickup up
from library are sent to the chorus rehearsal
room
• chorus to sign score allocation sheet. Sheet to
be returned at the end of first rehearsal.
All Rehearsals
check rehearsal room for satisfactory set-up;
suitable chairs, piano, music stands, lighting,
heating and ventilation.
• availability of attendance sheets for chorus and
extra chorus sign-up.
• complete chorus master's attendance book at
beginning of rehearsal.
• at completion of each rehearsal, forward
attendance sheets to company office.
Completion of Music Rehearsals
• notify company office and Resident Director of
chorus members doing minor solo roles and
notify company office and Resident Director of
chorus covers for minor solo roles.
54
D. Ensemble Calls
• decide on choice of seating plan and advise
chorus and company office in advance.
E. Production Calls Involving Chorus
• be firm about where and in what voice mixture
you would most like your choristers. Most stage
directors will be understanding. Be polite, but
firm.
• do not allow stage directors to put choristers in
situations which will be disadvantageous to the
music. Also, do not let stage directors over
produce a section to the point where the music
is made to suffer.
• be aware of any implications for off-stage work
for the chorus, and advise stage management of
chorus backstage conducting requirements.
• where possible, run through the music involved
in the specific production call at the start of the
call. Either the chorus master or the conductor
can do this.
• ensure that a suitable alternate rehearsal venue
is available in order that should time be made
available from the production, or should the
chorus be released earlier, then the chorus
master may, if permissible, make use of such
time for a music rehearsal. (Pianist?) (Some
Union agreements will only allow you to
rehearse the repertoire of the scheduled
rehearsal and none other.)
Sitzproben
• decide on a seating plan and inform the chorus
prior to rehearsal. Advise company office.
56
• chorus members covering principal roles will
probably need to attend non-chorus sitzproben
time.
• if the chorus is required for only a part of a
sitzproben, then, if possible, make use of the
remainder of the call for additional music
rehearsal. [Venue. Pianist. Facilities.] Chorus
members covering principal roles may need to
stay in the sitzproben.
G. Stage Rehearsals
If the chorus is unemployed for a reasonable period of a
stage rehearsal, then use it for additional music rehearsal,
but only if absolutely necessary. It is valuable for
choristers to sit in and watch the parts of a production in
which they are not involved, particularly the covers.
Performances
consult with stage director on the necessary
replacements for absent choristers performing
minor roles and important pieces of stage
business. Advise company office and stage
management of any changes.
check warm-up venue, lay-out and pianist.
check backstage set-up for off-stage chorus work
(music stands, lights, monitors, fold-back and
amplifications (if applicable).
visit conductor for discussion of previous
performance, resolution of any problem areas,
and any other notes to be passed on to the
chorus. If necessary, re-visit conductor during
interval.
write memo of notes after each performance
and have them posted on chorus notice board
prior to the next performance of that opera.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adler, Kurt. The Art of Accompanying and Coaching.
Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1965.
Alexander, Alfred. Operanatomv.
Boston: Crescendo Pub. Co., 1974.
Bekker, Paul. The Orchestra.
New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1936
Digaetani, John Louis. An Invitation to the O pera.
New York: Facts on File Pub., 1986.
Ewen, David. The New Encyclopedia of the O pera.
New York: Hill and Wang, 1971.
Gishford, Anthony, Ed. Grand O pera.
New York: Viking Press, 1972.
Goldovsky, Boris. Bringing Opera to Life.
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968.
Grout, Donald Jay. A Short History of O pera.
New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1965.
Griinewald, Eva R. "The Greeks Had a Word for It."
Opera News. 11 March 1973, pp. 9-13.
Hall, Richard W. "Alone with the Voice."
Opera News. 5 Sept. 1971, pp. 51-53.
Harnick, Sheldon. "Opera as Theatre."
The Dial. Sept. 1981, pp. 51-53.
Harries, Meiron, and Susie. Opera Today.
New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.
Hartmann, Rudolf. O pera.
New York: W. Morrow and Co., 1977.
Howard, Patricia. Gluck and the Birth of Modern O pera.
New York: St. Martin's Press, 1963.
Kagen, Sergius. On Studying Singing.
New York: Dover Publ. Inc., 1950.
Kobbe, Gustav. Kobbe's Complete Opera Book.
London: Putnam, 1958.
Kobler, John. "The Domingo Method."
The Dial. Sept. 1981, pp. 39-42.
Lewis, Joseph. Conducting Without Fears.
London: Ascherberg, Hopwood and Crew, Ltd., 1945.
Martin, George. The Opera Companion to Twentieth Century Opera.
New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1979.
McElroy, George. "Birth of an Ensemble."
Opera News. Oct. 1971, pp. 16-18.
Merrill Knapp, J. The Magic of O pera.
New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Mitchell, Robert. "More Than Just Singing."
Anzats Journal. Aug. 1989.
Mordden, Ethen. The Splendid Art of O pera.
New York: Methuen, 1980.
___________ . Opera Anecdotes.
New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1985.
Orrey, Leslie. The Encyclopedia of O pera.
New York: Scribner, 1976.
Pauly, Reinhard G. Music and Theatre.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1970.
Robinson, Michael F. Opera Before Mozart.
London: Hutchinson Univ. Library, 1966.
Rosenthal, Harold, and Warrick, John. Concise Oxford Dictionary of
O pera.
London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1979.
Sadie, Stanley, Ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
London: Macmillan, 1980.
___________ . The New Grove Dictionary of Opera.
London: Macmillan, 1993.
Stern, Isaac. "Preserving the Magic of Music in Stressful Times."
Symphony Magazine. Aug/Sept. 1981, pp. 9-13.
Wechsberg, Joseph. The O pera.
New York: Macmillan, 1972.
Zakariasen, William. "We Choristers."
Opera News. 30Jan. 1971, pp. 27-29.

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