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Implementation of instructional programs targeting African American students to increase academic achievement

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Implementation of instructional programs targeting African American students to increase academic achievement

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Content Running Head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS

IMPLEMENTATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS
TARGETING AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS
TO INCREASE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

by

Phyllis Woods

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2015

© 2015 Phyllis Woods
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the many individuals that supported me through this long
arduous process of obtaining a doctoral degree at the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education. My sincerest accolades go to my dissertation chair, Dr.
Pedro Garcia, who though dealing with his own personal challenges, continued to
encourage and support me throughout the dissertation process. In addition, my
committee members Dr. Amina Humphrey and Dr. Rudy Castruita both provided
invaluable feedback and challenged my thinking and bolstered my commitment to my
research.
Thanks to those that participated in this study through interviews and personal
time. Their contribution to the knowledge that I acquired and was able to translate into
information that can further the literature and research to better the educational
experience of African American students.
I want to acknowledge the contributions my family and friends made, through
encouragement, patience, and support. The experience I gained, the people I met, have
provided me with invaluable insight that I did not possess beforehand. Thank you USC
for the opportunity that was afforded me.

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Dedication
To my mother, Pearl Mae Gilliam. She always expected great things.
“I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.” (Philippians 4:13)

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Table of Contents
Dedication .................................................................................................................6

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................6

Abstract ......................................................................................................................6

Chapter One: Overview of the Study ........................................................................7
Background of the Problem .................................................................................7
Statement of Problem ...........................................................................................10
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................10
Research Questions ..............................................................................................10
Importance of the Study .......................................................................................11
Limitations and Delimitations ..............................................................................11
Definition of Terms ..............................................................................................12
Organization of the Study ....................................................................................14
Summary ..............................................................................................................14

Chapter Two: Literature Review ..............................................................................16
Quality of Educational Experience of African American Students .....................16
Principal Leadership Role ....................................................................................18
Effective Leadership that Improves Instruction ................................................18
Constructing New Meaning of Diversity ..........................................................19
Reshaping School Culture .................................................................................20
Teaching and Learning .....................................................................................21
Bridging Schools and Communities .................................................................22
Teacher Leadership Role .....................................................................................23
Effective Teaching That Improves Practices ....................................................23
Instructional Focus ............................................................................................26
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................27
Socio-Cultural Theory ......................................................................................27
Critical Race Theory .........................................................................................28
Summary ..............................................................................................................29

Chapter Three: Methodology ....................................................................................31
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................31
Research Questions ..............................................................................................32
Research Design ...................................................................................................33
Sample and Population ........................................................................................34
Instrumentation ....................................................................................................34
Data Collection ....................................................................................................35
Qualitative Data Collection ..............................................................................36
Data Analysis .......................................................................................................36
Qualitative Data Analysis ................................................................................37
Summary ..............................................................................................................38

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Chapter Four: Results ...............................................................................................40
Participants ...........................................................................................................41
Findings ................................................................................................................49
Research Question One ....................................................................................50
Research Question Two ...................................................................................59
Research Question Three .................................................................................63
Research Question Four ...................................................................................66
Summary ..............................................................................................................72

Chapter Five: Conclusions and Implications ............................................................75
Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................77
Purpose of Study ..................................................................................................77
Methodology ........................................................................................................77
Research Questions ..............................................................................................78
Discussion of Findings .........................................................................................79
Research Question One ....................................................................................79
Research Question Two ...................................................................................80
Research Question Three .................................................................................81
Research Question Four ...................................................................................82
Summary of Findings Related to Research Observations ....................................83
Summary of Findings Related to Artifacts ..........................................................84
Discussion ............................................................................................................84
Significance of Findings Related to Research Question One ..........................84
Significance of Findings Related to Research Question Two .........................85
Significance of Findings Related to Research Question Three .......................86
Significance of Findings Related to Research Question Four .........................87
Significance of the Findings Related to Theory ..............................................88
Limitations ...........................................................................................................89
Study Limitations of the Sample ......................................................................89
Study Conclusions ...............................................................................................90
Implications ..........................................................................................................90
Future Research ...................................................................................................90
Discussion of Conclusions ...................................................................................91
Ethical Considerations .........................................................................................92

References .................................................................................................................93

Appendix A: Participant Informed Consent .............................................................103
Appendix B: Principal Interview Questions .............................................................106
Appendix C: Other Participant Interview Questions ................................................107

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Abstract
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of programs that seek to
increase African American students‟ academic achievement in order to meet the A-G
requirements for successfully completing high school. For the study, one male high
school principal and ten high school teachers, staff and parents were interviewed to
address the primary research questions. Study findings from a qualitative analysis of the
data were that the principal was concerned with strategic planning, ensuring opportunities
for all, monitoring GPAs, providing support, and bringing culture to the classroom.
Teachers reported opportunities for professional development and student and family
support to improve outcomes and the need to provide students with care, respect, support,
activities for all. Findings were consistent with the socio-cultural theory and critical race
theory regarding what is needed to help students overcome feelings of racial or social
injustice. Implications of findings were that all agreed on the need to provide care and
respect to all students and to ensure that the use of culturally relevant materials.
Conclusions were that all participants were committed and participated in activities
designed to assist all students, and African American students in particular. However,
there is underlying concern that the increase or decrease of African American student
achievement will be attributed to this instructional program. Teacher participants were
all African American; therefore, their motivation for implementing instruction may not
reflect that of the majority of the teaching staff.
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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Historically, the public has been provided with data indicating that the
achievement gap between whites and students of color continues to widen. In response,
the government passed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001, to raise student
achievement and close the achievement gap. The NCLB policy required schools to rely
on scientifically based research programs and teaching methods that involved the
application of rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid
knowledge relevant to education activities and programs. According to NCLB, by 2014
every child was supposed to test on grade level in reading and math. There have been
gains associated with NCLB for many minorities. However, African American students
continue to lag behind other students in public schools. They are more at-risk of not
being able to read on grade level than other students in America. They are most at-risk of
being absent from school due to high absenteeism. African American students‟ high
suspension rate, placement in special education, and school environment are all
contributing factors to the high absenteeism rate. These factors cause the conditions for
African American students‟ lack of quality education and inability to maximize
opportunities to enable them to be college and career ready.
Background of the Problem
Research has been conducted regarding the underachievement of African
American students. However, only a limited amount of research is available on the
successful implementation of programs that targeted African American student
achievement. The non-graduation rate and dismal California High School Exit
Examination (CAHSEE pass rate in high school are indicators that African American
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students are not being successful. Consistent with the graduation rates, the dropout rates
also illustrate that African American students (30.1%) and English learners (31.1%) are
more likely to drop out than their peers are (California Department of Education, 2011).
Among the four largest racial/ethnic groups, Hispanic students were the most likely to
drop out in 2004 (8.9%), followed by Black students (5.7%), White students (3.7%), and
Asian/Pacific Islander students (1.2%) (U.S. Department of Education, 2009). In 2007 of
those aged 18 through 24 years who were not currently enrolled in high school, Whites
and Asians/Pacific Islanders had higher status completion rates (93.5% and 93.1%,
respectively) than Blacks (88.8%) or Hispanics (72.7%) (U.S. Department of Education,
2009). By 2011, the percentage of 25 to 29 year-olds that completed high school was
higher for Whites (94%) and Asians (95%) than for Blacks (88%) and Hispanics (71%)
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2012).
According to a 1998 National Assessment of Educational Progress report, the
average minority high school graduate performs at the same level as an eigth-grade white
student on reading and mathematics. Factors outside of school such as income and
family issues are compounded by urban school characteristics of larger class sizes,
inexperienced teachers, high turnover rates in administration, inadequate supplies, lack of
challenging classes and overall low expectations set for students (American Council on
Education, 2010). It is imperative to understand that there are essential links to between
social interactions, individual characteristics, family background, and parental
involvement influence that poses barriers to African American students‟ academic
success. In 2007, the dropout rate of students living in low-income families was about 10
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times greater than the rate of their peers from high-income families (8.8% vs. 0.9%) (U.S.
Department of Education, 2009).
Previous research indicates that African American students have limited equitable
access to basic conditions, such as effective teachers; rigorous curriculum and instruction
based on academic state standards and common core standards; and effective accelerated
interventions. African American students attend schools that lack the ability to promote
safe learning environments; foster strong, positive relationships between teachers and
students; or bridge the communication between the staff and the community.
The school culture of school where African American students‟ attend does not
promote high expectations for learning; promote a sense of personal accountability; or
provide a sense of school and community pride. Research suggests that African America
students‟ racial identity affects achievement and school behaviors (Carter, 2008). In
addition, African American students‟ awareness of limited labor market opportunities due
to societal racism can manifest as a collective oppositional identity toward schooling,
leading to disengagement from academic tasks (Carter, 2008). A support for African
American students‟ construction of attitudes and beliefs about the utility of schooling, a
framework of the Critical Race Theory, is to analyze the effects of racial inequality in
schools on students of color (Ladson-Billing, 1999).
There are several gaps in the literature regarding the number of successful
instructional programs that have been implemented and continue to be sustained
throughout the District. Research of programs that address the underachievement of
African American students has been limited to programs such as American English
Mastery Program (AEMP), which was not sustained or fully implemented. The program
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was in response to a called for appropriate language instruction for students who did not
speak mainstream Standard English. With the implementation of the program, its goal
was to improve academic achievement and increase student success for Standard English
Learners (SEL). Mexican American, Hawaiian American, Native American, and African
American students were classified as SELs, having differential language backgrounds.
Part of the AEMP evaluation examined the extent to which teacher professional
development impacts program implementation; classroom practices, instructional change,
and most importantly, student achievement.
Statement of the Problem
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of successful implementation
of programs specifically targeting African American students to raise their overall
academic achievement. By understanding the successfully implementation of these
programs, those responsible for curriculum and instruction will be able to replicate these
programs to raise student achievement for African American students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the implementation of a program
targeting African American students to increase their academic achievement enabling
them to meet the A-G requirements for successful completion of high school.
Research Questions
To achieve its purpose, the following research questions (RQs) guide this study:
RQ1: What role did the high school principal play in addressing the academic,
social, psychological, and cultural needs of African students to succeed
academically?
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RQ2: What professional development was implemented to assist teachers‟
instructional practices that target African American students?
RQ3: How did the school evaluate the implementation of the strategies to improve
the achievement of African American students?
RQ4: What role did the counseling department play in facilitating and sustaining
academic achievement for African American students?
Importance of the Study
The current study is significant as it adds to the growing body of literature on
improving the academic achievement of African American students. The study further
adds to the discussion of the replication of successfully implementing programs that
specifically target African American students. In addition, by gathering critical
information and data on successful outcomes from implementation of these programs,
districts that hold the responsibility for educating African American students can ensure
that these programs are funded and sustained to provide continued support for African
American students.
Limitations and Delimitations
Three assumptions were made in this study. First, the selected high school is
representative of how the program is being implemented at all schools that have African
American students. Secondly, any successes or failures are directly attributed to the
successful implementation of the program. Third, and finally, the data collected during
the length of this study would provide substantive evidence of increased academic
achievement.
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Two delimitations include the number of principals, teachers, and students,
including the gender (male) or (female). In addition, limitations are present in the time
available, the small sample of schools, teachers and students, and the principals self-
reporting data. The last two limitations reduce the generalizability of the findings due to
the small sample as well as the depth of perspective, with only three principals‟
perspectives reported through the data-collection process.
Definition of Terms
To understand this study, there are terms that should be defined. The following
relevant terms are defined by the supporting literature.
Culturally Relevant Instruction: is a pedagogy that recognizes the diverse cultural
characteristics of students from different ethnic backgrounds and adjusts teaching
methods to account for this diversity. Culturally relevant teachers display cultural
competence: skill at teaching in a cross-cultural or multicultural setting. They enable
each student to relate course content to his or her cultural context (Perry, 2003, p. 106).
Culturally Relevant Education: educational practices and resources that reflect the
culture, values, customs, and beliefs of students (i.e., help to connect what is to be
learned with the students' own lives) (Bell & Clark, 1998); Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: is used interchangeably with several terms like
culturally relevant, culturally appropriate, culturally congruent, and culturally compatible
to describe effective pedagogy in culturally diverse classrooms. The purpose of
culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) is the maximization of learning for racially and
ethnically diverse students (Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 1995).
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Standard English Learners: students with differential language backgrounds
identified as Mexican American, Hawaiian American, Native American and African
American (Ogbu, 1991).
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB): supports standards based education reform
based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals can
improve individual outcomes in education. The Act requires states to develop
assessments in basic skills (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).
Critical Race Theory: analyzes the underpinnings of legal order from a “race-
based point of view,” focusing on the various ways in which traditions in law adversely
affect people of color not as individuals but as a group, through the history, educational
experiences, and racial awareness of racial minorities in this country (Carter, 2005, p.
102; Ladson-Billings, 1999; Oyserman et.al, 1995).
Social-Cultural Theory: is to explain how individual mental functioning is related
to cultural, institutional, and historical context; hence, the focus of the sociocultural
perspective is on the roles that participation in social interactions and culturally organized
activities play in influencing psychological development (Creswell, 2009).
Self Determination Theory (SDT): the theory begins by distinguishing between
two different types of motivation; namely, autonomous motivation and controlled
motivation and it then considers the different consequences of these two motivations as
well as their different antecedents. SDT also looks at the concept of goals as well as
motivations and considers them in a differentiated manner. This entry discusses each of
these ideas in turn, beginning with an explanation of the types of motivation (Oyserman,
Grant, & Ager, 1995).
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Social Constructivism: the perspective of constructivism, learners construct
knowledge based on what they already understand as they make connections between
new information and old information. Students‟ prior ideas, experiences, and knowledge
interact with new experiences and their interpretations of the environment around them
(Fosnot, 2013).
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters, with an overview, context, and purpose
of the study in the first chapter. A review of current literature on current instructional
programs targeting African American students, interventions programs,
parent/community involvement in the second chapter. The methodology for interviewing
a principals, teachers, and support staff in a comprehensive high school is outlined in
chapter three, and the data gathered through this process is discussed in chapter four. The
study concludes in chapter five with a discussion of findings, implications, and
recommendations regarding the implementation and effectiveness of an instructional
program, specifically targeting African American students to raise student achievement.
Summary
In addressing national data that indicates minority students, in particular, African
American students, the NCLB policy required schools to use scientifically based research
programs and teaching methods that involved the application of rigorous, systematic, and
objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to educational
activities and programs. Integrated into the process of improving the educational
experience for all students, should be those factors that create barriers to increased
academic achievement for African American students. African American students lag
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behind in academic achievement, especially reading and math; graduation rate which is
correlated with their high dropout rate; which may affect future economic and social
mobility. The gaps in the literature regarding the number of successful instructional
programs that increase academic achievement for African American students limit the
implementation of future programs in many school districts. The purpose of the current
study examining the implementation of instructional programs that target the increased
academic achievement of African American students is to contribute to those responsible
for curriculum and instruction in the replication of these programs. In addition, school
districts that are responsible for educating African American students can ensure that
these programs are funded and sustained to provide continued support for African
American students.
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Chapter Two: Literature Review
Introduction
The continued underachievement of African American students, a national
dilemma, continues to perplex both researchers and educators. According the data from
the National Assessment of Educational Progress, African American high school students
score lower than their white counterparts do on standardized reading assessments (Grigg,
Donahue, & Dion, 2007). Lacking in these comparison studies about student
achievement between African American and white students, are the issues and factors
that affect achievement for either group. Test data used wisely can be beneficial in
school reform. However, it is debated that test data is also used to reinforce the
widespread belief that African American students are cognitively inferior to Whites and
Asians (Gould, 1981; Thompson, 2004b). The NCLB‟s emphasis on closing the
achievement gap (U.S. Department of Education, 2010) raised awareness of the
achievement gap without addressing a significant number of underlying factors. Any
regulated reform that targets African American students, must also focus on cultural
and/or structural explanations for the academic outcomes of these students (Anyon, 2005;
Carter, 2005, Ogbu, 2003). This chapter will review the institutional, environmental,
societal factors that affect African American students‟ academic achievement and
represent their educational experience.
Quality of Educational Experience of African American Students
The theory of cultural discontinuity posits that the school culture is very different
from traditional African American culture (Thompson 2004). Euro-centrism dominates
the standard school curriculum and can make the school experience for African American
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 17

students similar to a foreign education (Corwin, 2001; Love & Kruger, 2010; Thompson
2004b). Race continues to remain central across discussions that include psychological,
anthropological, and sociological analyses (Carter, 2005). There remains a “void within
discussions about the educational experiences of African American students that shape
attitudes and beliefs about schooling; and the resulting adaptive or maladaptive
behaviors” (Carter, 2005, p. 12). Research suggests that some African American students
develop an oppositional identity towards schooling and disengage from academia due to
societal racism (Ogbu, 1991, 2003). Researchers continue to find that many teachers
perceive African American students as discipline problems at school more than they
perceive other students (Ferguson, 2001; Hales, 2001, Thompson, 2002b). Some African
American students consider racial barriers stepping-stones to their successful academic
achievement. Today, many African American youth view school as a waste of time,
especially with entertainment and sports competing for their attention. Students‟ access
to quality education is often tethered to the political and social capital of their parents
(Brown, 2005). Students‟ achievement ideologies or beliefs about the relationship
between schooling future success and prosperity also influence academic performance
(Sanders, 1998).
In spite of the fact, that African American students are not prevented from
attending school, they continue to be passed through schools with weak academic skills
(Thompson, 2004). Weak math skills are one of the greatest barriers to higher education
and future economic stability (Drew, 1996). The lack of development of strong reading
and writing skills by African American students is even more detrimental to future
success (National Commission on Writing, 2005). Additionally, academically under-
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qualified teachers staff a large number of schools serving African American students.
Consequently, these students lack empowerment due to the use of ineffective teaching
methods (Comer, 2004; Thompson, 2004b). Prior research indicates the relationship an
African American student has with his or her teacher has an effect on their academic
achievement. This affect can be positive or negative depending on the quality of the
interaction (Love & Kruger, 2010; Thompson, 2002b; 2004b). African American
students‟ associate good teaching with certain strategies and practices. The teacher
makes the curriculum interesting and comprehensible. Teachers that have a desire to
provide African American students with the best instruction possible “see the innate
talents and gifts of these students as assets to their learning” (Thompson, 2002b, p. 165).
Successful teachers of African Americans students treat them humanely, while building
positive relationships that foster and encourage collaborative learning with their peers
(Love & Kruger).
Principal Leadership Role
An expectation for school principals is that they comprehend critical role that
organizational culture plays in developing a successful school. The development of a
school‟s culture as a learning environment could be fundamental to improved teacher
morale and student achievement. While it has been proposed that leadership has a direct
influence on learning outcomes, it does have an indirect influence through the way it has
an impact on school organization and school culture (MacNeil, 2009).
Effective Leadership that Improves Instruction
A major theme in literature are school leaders that improve achievement by
creating learning communities built on respect for teachers, staff, students and parents
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(Thompson, 2004). Historically, the opinions of the students, parents, and teacher of
colors are ignored in low-performing schools. Ethnic/cultural groups and persons from
lower socioeconomic classed have fought diligently with mainstream educators for the
curriculum and instruction that they feel is most appropriate for their children (Riehl,
2000). For optimal achievement to occur, leadership must be effective in establishing
positive relationships that embrace the school constituents (Comer, 2004; Denbo &
Moore, 2002). Effective leaders create learning communities with high expectations,
explicitly stated measurable goals, which leads to a school-wide “cultural transformation”
where a rigorous curriculum results in high achievement (Denbo & Moore, 2002).
Effective principals have a comprehensive knowledge of leadership strategies and are
aware when to use them. They understand how to balance school culture, the student
population, and the community to promote increased student achievement (Nettles &
Herrington, 2007).
One of the central tenets of organizational theory is that tasks are primary
elements around which organizational structures and cultures can be effectively changed
(Bolman & Deal, 1997). School administrators face three broad classes of tasks as they
respond to diversity. These tasks are (a) fostering new meaning about diversity, (b)
promoting inclusive practices within schools, and (c) building connections between
schools and communities.
Constructing New Meaning of Diversity
Administrators can use a variety of rhetorical and dialogic strategies in reforming
schools to respond to the needs of diverse students. Advocacy and critique probably go
farthest to differentiate liberal administrative practice that promotes “learning for all”
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from transformative practice that explicitly seeks justice and social transformation
(Diamond, Randolph & Spillane, 2004). Real organizational change occurs when people
inside and outside of the school construct new understanding about what the reform
means (Riehl, 2000). Opportunities for promoting new understandings can include
official ceremonies, public relations events, meetings, and such (Strike, 1993). Fostering
new understandings and beliefs about diversity and inclusive practices involves
supporting the generation of new meanings within the educational context, but also
communicating them (Rusch, 1998). One key strategy available to school principals to
accomplish this is the promotion of democratic discourse within the school community
(Riehl). Such discourse promotes trust within the community, increasing the capacity for
addressing larger problems, such as existing organizational practices that need detailed
scrutiny (Riehl). To improve organizational performance (Hallinger, 1992), school
leaders focus on individual and collective understandings, skills, and commitments of
teachers. They challenge teachers to examine their assumptions about their work and to
rethink instructional processes establishing expectations for quality pedagogy and support
teachers‟ professional growth (Marks & Printy, 2003).
Reshaping School Culture
Organizational theorists report that the most important action of a school leader is
paying attention to school culture (Hallinger & Heck, 1998). Watson (2001) states that if
the school culture is not conducive to learning then student achievement can suffer. The
school principal has a primary responsibility to ensure that there is a pervasive culture of
teaching and learning in each school (McNeil, Prater, & Busch, 2009). The climate is
often viewed as the behavior, while the culture is seen as comprising the values and
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 21

norms of the school (Heck & Marcoulides, 1996; Hoy, 1990). Climate is the preferred
construct when measuring the organizational health of a school. Neither teachers nor
students are academically motivated in poor schools, nor is academic achievement is not
highly valued (McNeil et al., 2009). Reform efforts over the last 30 years have failed to
improve student achievement in schools because they fail to address the importance of
the culture and climate of schools (McNeil et al.). School principals that view their
organizations‟ environment in a holistic way are more successful. This broad view gives
principals a framework for understanding difficult problems and complex relationships
within the school. A deeper understanding will better equip them to shape the values,
beliefs and attitudes necessary to promote a stable and nurturing learning environment,
which influences students‟ performance (McNeil et al.).
Teaching and Learning
School administrators must help create specific conditions and practices within
schools that address the needs of diverse students. These include promoting forms of
teaching and learning that enable diverse students to succeed and modeling school
cultures that embrace and support diversity. Riehl (2000) found that in schools serving
diverse student populations, the most important contribution administrators could make
would be to help increase teachers‟ certainty about their goals for student achievement
and their ability to meet these goals and to know when they do. Restructuring schools to
be professional communities improves teaching quality and raises student achievement,
especially in urban schools, where other resources supportive of school reform are
limited. Principal have the important role in the development of professional
communities by giving attention to individual teacher development and by creating and
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sustaining networks of conversation in their schools around issues of teaching and
learning (Riehl).
Bridging Schools and Communities
The task of an effective school administrator is to understand the embeddedness
of schools, within the neighborhoods and communities in which they are located and
within the network of organizations and institutions through which students circulate
(Riehl, 2000). The needs of students, particularly African American students, is
becoming increasingly more complex, necessitating an increase in the number of
organizations that function within the neighborhood. It then becomes apparent that
schools cannot operation as isolated entities (Riehl). Effective administrators position
their schools to take advantage of positive resources offered by other institutions, as well
as buffer students from ineffective mandates from outside entities (Englert, 1993). This
is a two-fold task that requires strengthening the communities in which they live and
providing services that meet the needs of the students. Schools operate as mediating
institutions, working to socialize individuals into broader social processes. Other more
common examples of mediating institutions are families, churches, and voluntary
associations. The implications are that schools are central to improving the life
experiences of individuals, and improve the social fabric of neighborhoods and
communities. Community development projects can incorporate schools as a catalyst for
the development of other institutions or the neighborhood as a whole (Miron, 1997).
A sense of connectedness to the African American community provides a sense of
meaning and purpose and ties the self to strategies for school achievement (Oyserman et
al., 1995). Racial centrality is similar to Oyserman et al.‟s (1995) notion of
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 23

connectedness, in which black adolescents describe a sense of self as part of Black
familial and kin networks. Oyserman et al. (1995), suggest that having a sense of self as
a member of an African American community represents one protective factor that
facilitates Black youth‟s development of positive achievement beliefs and subsequent
academic adjustment. Minimizing conflicts between the school and its community and
building positive partnerships between schools and other entities are the foundation for
both educational renewal and communicate regeneration (Kretzmann & McKnight,
1993).
Teacher Leadership Role
A teachers‟ sense of responsibility for student learning is connected with their
beliefs about students‟ academic abilities. Diamond, (2004) asserts that schools where
teachers‟ take an individual and collective sense of responsibility for students‟ learning,
students exhibit greater achievement gains. These teachers exhibit an internal
responsibility for students‟ learning; there is a willingness to adapt teachers‟ practices to
students‟ needs; and there is a sense of efficacy in their teaching practices. In
predominantly lower-income and African American schools, the beliefs and practices
tends towards lower expectations and a decreased sense of responsibility. Studies
indicate that teachers‟ expectations are a more powerful influence on African American
students than they are on whites (Ferguson, 2002).
Effective Teaching that Improves Practices
Teachers can be instrumental in socializing black adolescents to have positive
racial identities that include an awareness of racial discrimination. This does not include
just same race teacher, but all teachers of African American students (Carter, 2005). The
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 24

types of teacher role models prove critical for achievement motivation for African
American youth. Teachers who are willing to be explicit with students of color about the
structural barriers that can often initially impede their social and economic mobility
practice an ethic of care with their students (Nieto, 2004). The teachers and adults in the
school are cultural brokers, leaders, and educators who can provide African American
adolescents with the skills they need to persist in schools and become upwardly mobile
(Carter, 2005). Many urban schools serve students who are primarily low-income and
students of color. The power structure, however, remains oppressive in its practices and
operations. Lowered expectations, inadequate curricula, and low-qualified teachers
plague many urban schools. These schools continue to perpetuate society‟s negative
ideology about Black intellect (Ferguson, 2002; Perry, 2003).
According to Erickson (1987), a culturally responsive pedagogy is a way to foster
a system of trust in the classroom that builds bridges between teachers, students and the
community. In addition, Ladson-Billings (1995), stipulates that teachers must focus on
empowering African American students to achieve academically and that teacher should
aid African American students in challenging existing social systems (Ladson-Billings,
1995). African American students‟ sense of cultural competence is tied to the ability to
preserve their sense of community, language, and family (Hammond, Hoover, &
McPhail, 2005). Studying language experience of African Americans students through
storytelling may also hold greater possibilities for educator who want to study the distinct
feature so African American vernacular and dialect (Flowers & Flowers, 2008, p. 166).
Researchers in support of using a culturally relevant pedagogy assert that the
linguistic difference, cultural heritage, and socioeconomic status are all positive factors
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 25

that teachers should consider within their pedagogy (Asante, 1991; Watkins, 2001;
Wilson, 1991). Educators who employ this approach believe that culturally relevant
pedagogy is important for the academic, cultural, and social development of all African
American students (Gay, 2000; Paul, 2000; Perry, Steele, & Hilliard, 2003). Exploring
the role of a teacher‟s pedagogical practices, perspectives, and their cultural backgrounds
can provide an explanation for the achievement gap of African American students
(Flowers & Flowers, 2008).
Effective teachers provide African American students with the prerequisite skills
for academic success. Weak math skills are one of the greatest barriers to college
admission and future economic success (Drew, 1996). Poor writing skills prevent
students from being successful in the Kindergarten through postsecondary school years,
but can have a negative impact on their future success in the workforce (National
Commission on Writing, 2005). Thompson (2004b) asserts that one of the most obvious
ways for teachers to increase academic achievement for African American students‟ is
ensuring their mastery of good reading, writing, and math skills. As noted in Love and
Kruger (2010), “„scaffolding‟ enables students to build upon their own experiences,
knowledge, and skills, transitioning into more difficult knowledge and skills” (p. )
Teachers must be willing to combine the best instructional practices available to ensure
students read and comprehend what they read (Thompson, 2004b; Love & Kruger).
In order to assist African American students in math, a difficult subject for many
African Americans, they must be patient and use diverse teaching strategies (Drew, 1996;
Thompson, 2002b; 2003c). Teachers must make the curriculum interesting and
comprehensible, using diverse teaching strategies. Reliance upon textbook, lecturing,
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 26

and mechanical style teaching is effective teaching strategies (Comer, 2004).
Cooperative learning groups and believe that African American students can excel at
math are critical to improving their math achievement (Drew, 1996, Thompson, 2002b,
2003c). It is imperative that the teacher possess good skills themselves and remain
current with research in their field of study. Low socio-economic schools usually employ
under qualified teachers.
Instructional focus
Research offers extensive support that a principal‟s success can be measured by
the professional development opportunities that are provided for the teachers (Nettles &
Herrington, 2007). In addition, principals that participate in profession development
activities tend to gain and understanding of classroom practices (Wagstaff, Melton,
Lawless, & Combs, 1998). These principals are unremitting in their ability to acquire
professional resources for the school, include time for training, funding to pay for
training and professional development materials (Bamburg & Andrews, 1991).
A key responsibility of an instructional leader is to maintain schools wide focus
on critical instructional areas. Johnson and Asera (1999) found that effective principals
created opportunities for teachers to plan and work collaboratively regarding instructional
issues. Murphy (1990) stated there are three critical areas for leadership focus. The areas
are (a) creating explicitly school goals that are communicated to stakeholders, (b)
managing the instructional environment by frequent monitoring of instructional process,
and (c) promoting an academic learning climate by maintaining high expectation.
Research suggests that consistent communications of expectations for high performance
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 27

has been linked to positive results in school and student achievement (Leithwood &
Jantzi, 2000; Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2003).
Monitoring school progress by the principal has been shown to be a predictor of
school effectiveness in many studies (Levine & Lezotte, 1990). Murphy (1990) found
that effective principals utilize several monitoring strategies. These monitoring strategies
include (a) using assessment data to inform instruction, (b) communicating information
on student data to all stakeholders, and (c) constantly evaluation the instructional quality
and academic progress of the school. Personal interactions are the best way for a
principal to effect positive change within a school (Deal & Peterson, 1990).
Theoretical Framework
Socio-Cultural Theory
Vygotsky‟s sociocultural theory posits that a child depends upon his response to
the influences of the culture and society in which is born. Children adapt habits of
speech patterns, behavior, written language and literature, through which a child learns to
associate meanings, as a result takes root in the child‟s framework of knowledge and
intelligence. Embedded in Vygotsky‟s theory is the relationship between learning and
development. During the emotional development stages, children utilize various learning
styles that may be influenced by race, ethnicity, religion, gender, social class, family
traditions, peer groups, and age. The sociocultural perspective seeks to understand how
the principles of the social groups and subgroups of each child impacts their personal
behavior and actions.

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Critical Race Theory
In the education of African American students, there is value in paradigms such as
Critical Race Theory, a theory that is valid for assessing organizational context.
Organizational context may have a different meaning for each racial, cultural and ethnic
group (Hopson & Obidah, 2002), and CRT suggests that group privileges should be at the
center of any discussion of a social justice agenda in American schooling. CRT has been
used to analyze the effects of racial injustice in schools on African Americans student
achievement (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995, 1999; Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). CRT
focuses on several basic tenets such as the endemic and ingrained racism that exists in
America and its damage to the educational outcomes of students of color. It challenges
the dominant discourse on race, gender, and class and the social constructs that interface
with minority achievement. CRT theorists propose there is a connection between
structural and institutional racism to the educational pathways of students of color.
According to Ladson-Billings & Tate (1995), racism creates a high rate of poverty among
African American families, and their children are forced by the system to live in racially
segregated, low-quality urban school districts. Research findings suggest that institutions
of learning that typify critical race consciousness facilitate the pursuit of higher academic
achievement for African American students (Carter, 2005; Ward, 2000). However, this
alone cannot guarantee their successful achievement. African American parents that use
historical and personal experiences to socialize their children to embrace their racial
identify cultivate critical race consciousness. Within this context, Ward suggests that
students cultivate healthy psychological resistance to navigate the realities of racial
opposition (2000). Nurturing this development of critical race consciousness in African
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American students, counters the oppositional discourse that the dominant society
proliferates in regards to the intellectual capacity of African American students (Perry,
2003). The connection to the African American community and awareness of racial
discrimination can be significant to the development of black students‟ critical race
consciousness and shape their attitudes about the utility of school.
Summary
The literature is clear that systematic change is needed in order to see true reform
to support African American student achievement. African American parents and
students as contributing members of the school community need to be included in efforts
to reform and improve schools. The literature identifies important attitudinal and
behavioral qualities that influence African American students‟ academic success.
Effective school leaders understand that “improving the quality of instruction is the only
way to improve overall student achievement” (Carter, 2008 p. 9). School leaders and
teachers that receive ongoing, consistent, and thorough professional development is the
catalyst for ensuring that true reform occurs (Guild, 2002; Thompson, 2004b).
Professional development should familiarize teachers with current research and
strategies, and provide support to increase their efficacy (Thompson, 2004b). The
diverseness of schools requires that teachers examine and address their own beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors that might impede student achievement, especially for African
American students. Landsman (2004) suggests that educators have regular and ongoing
discussion about diverse cultures.
There continues to be a lack of sufficient research on the continued
underachievement of African American students. Poor achievement will remain
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prevalent for students of color, especially African American students, as long as the
underlying issues that contribute to inequality of educational opportunities are not a
priority. Additional research is necessary to determine which partnership practices are
most effective for the African American student population; and which are best suited for
those particular types of partnerships.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
In recent years, the NCLB act has emphasized closing the achievement gap (U.S.
Department of Education, 2001). This emphasis has required institutions of learning to
address the obstacles and paucity of support for achievement among African American
students. The paucity of support and educational obstacles should compel schools to take
the necessary steps to provide these students with learning opportunities to optimize
student achievement (Thompson, 2004b). The specific issues and factors that affect their
achievement are often unaddressed. A first step is to address the type and quality of
educational experiences for African American students (Bell & Clark, 1998; Flowers,
2007; Harris, 1990). Many African American students graduate from high school
functionally illiterate because they received passing grades even though they possess
inadequate reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Prior studies correlated functional
illiteracy with prison incarceration rates, school dropout rates, and poverty during
adulthood (Thompson, 2004b). Studies have shown that early language development
affects later reading achievement (Craig, Conner, & Washington, 2003). In many
communities, African American students lack full access to literacy-based experiences
because of the teacher‟s negative assessment of student behaviors and attitudes.
Partnerships with social service agencies can provide trained therapists who work with
behaviorally troubled children to support teachers that find the behavior of some African
American students challenging.
Purpose of the Study
The present study sought to examine the implementation of successful programs
targeting African American students to increase academic achievement. Improving
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African American students‟ achievement begins by creating a learning environment with
a foundation of respect for teachers, staff, students, and parents. Erickson (1987) posited
that using a culturally responsive pedagogy is a way to foster a system of trust in the
classroom that builds bridges between teachers, students and the community. African
American students thrive under teachers that communicate high expectations and believe
all students are capable of academic success. Ladson-Billings (1995) stipulates that
culturally relevant pedagogy includes various approaches within classrooms, such as
linking the school and home culture of students. Thus, the curriculum must be culturally
relevant so that students can make connections to their world experiences. Strategies for
teach life skills can be incorporated into the curriculum through current events and class
discussions (Thompson, 2004). Partnerships with social service organizations in poor
communities provides support for parents overwhelmed by poverty related issues, such as
high crime rates and unemployment. To counter the further marginalization of African
American students, in allowing poor achievement to persist, requires the purposeful
inclusion of successful practices that lead to improved student achievement.
Research Questions
The following RQs guided the current study:
RQ1: What role did the high school principal play in addressing the academic,
social, psychological, and cultural needs of African students to succeed
academically?
RQ2: What professional development was implemented to assist teachers‟
instructional practices that target African American students?
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 33

RQ3: How did he school evaluate the implementation of the strategies to improve
the achievement of African American students?
RQ4: What role did the counseling department play in facilitating and sustaining
academic achievement for African American students?
Research Design
Distinguishing the strategies that constitute a successful program that improves
African American student achievement is a complex undertaking. It was determined that
the use of a mixed-methods design would adequately address the guiding research
questions. This preceded the use of qualitative open-ended question interviews with
principals and classroom observations. The methodology for this research included
qualitative data from surveys and interviews using open-ended questions gathered from a
principal, teachers, and support staff. The qualitative data explores the instructional
programs in place that are targeting African American students to improve achievement.
The mixed methods approach of triangulating the findings is an important step in
checking for consistency of findings between the existent literature, survey data, and
interview data. The use of mixed methods maximized the strength of qualitative research
in providing descriptive information from a small population coupled with in-depth
exploration of the underlying meaning that participants have to the data (Creswell, 2009).
Critical Race Theory and Socio-Cultural Theory were the applied theories as a means of
connecting the findings within these larger perspectives. The unit of analysis in the study
was schools located in California with a significant African American student population.
Criterion sampling allowed the researcher to select principals whose schools were
implementing successful programs that focus on African American student achievement.
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 34

Sample and Population
The purposeful criterion sampling was used identify a high school principal,
teachers, and support staff qualitative inquiry (Patton, 2002). Criterion sampling allowed
the researcher to select a high school principal, teachers and support staff that was
implementing a program that targeted African American students to address academic
underachievement. Qualitative sampling criteria to determine which schools participated
are as follows:
1. A California school
2. Schools that had more than 25% free or reduced meals
3. Schools with more than 1,500 students
4. Schools that had more than 10% African American students
The qualitative sampling criteria were equal for school principals, teachers, and support
staff. The data used for sampling was limited to information reported by the California
Department of Education from 2006 to 2012. Data collected outside the state of
California were not used as the accountability formulae and thresholds for success vary
among other states determinants for performance levels‟ of success.
Instrumentation
Surveys and interviews were used to collect data for this study to ensure a reliable
approach to data collection. The qualitative survey questions were design based on
findings presented in prior research. The questions are based on the themes in the prior
literature on principal leadership and school performance. The qualitative interview
protocol to interview the principal and teachers consisted of ten open-ended questions
that reflected the research questions and scholarly literature that is relevant to the topic
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 35

(Appendix B). The interview protocol was implemented consistently among teacher
participants who consisted of 10 open-ended questions that reflected the research
questions and scholarly literature that is relevant to the topic (Appendix C). In addition
to the preformed interview protocol, the researcher asked probing questions to gain
clarity or attain more specificity about statements given by the participants. The
questions were designed to encourage the principal and teachers to share their
understanding and implementation of instructional programs targets for African
American students.
The qualitative survey given to counselors, deans, office technicians, and parents
consisted of 20 questions. The interview protocol to interview teachers consisted of 10
open-ended questions that reflected the research questions and scholarly literature that is
relevant to the topic (Appendix C). The protocol was implemented consistently among
teacher participants. In addition to the preformed interview protocol, asked probing
questions were posed to the participants in order to gain clarity or attain more specificity
about statements given. The questions were designed to encourage teachers to share their
understanding and implementation of instructional programs targets for African
American students.
Data Collection
The questionnaires were used to collect data among participants in three phases.
The first phase of data collection involved conducting the interviews with the principal
and selected teachers. The second phase of data collection involved distributing and
collecting the surveys from counselors, deans, support staff, and parents. The third phase
of data collection involved gathering artifacts that provided evidence of the development
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 36

and implementation of the school‟s instructional program. In accordance with the
provisions of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Southern
California (USC), applications were submitted to ensure that the research subjects were
protected during the course of the study. All identifiable data was protected from access
beyond this study and the participant‟s identities remain confidential. All participation in
the study was strictly voluntary.
Qualitative Data Collection
The researcher conducted interview with one principal, four teachers, two
counselors, two deans, one office staff person, two parents, from the school that met the
sampling criteria. Only teachers selected by principals as meeting the sampling criterion
were interviewed. The 30-minute qualitative interview took place at the school site. The
interview protocol was used to conduct the interview (Appendices B & C). The
interviews took place in the teachers‟ classrooms, staff members‟ offices, or a selected
room to allow for privacy. At the inception of the interview, the participants confirmed
their willingness to have the interview recorded and was given an information letter
(Appendix A). Information provided to the participants informed them of the right to
receive a copy of the transcribed interview and/or a copy of the finalized dissertation.
Data Analysis
To answer the research questions, the qualitative data was analyzed to evaluate
the leadership strategies and implementation of instructional programs addressing the
academic underachievement of African American students. The research findings were
compared to the current body of literature to further validate its significance.

Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 37

Qualitative Data Analysis
Creswell‟s (2009) model for qualitative data analysis (Figure 1) was used to
analyze the transcription data. Transcriptions of principal and teacher interviews; and
classroom observations notes were collected and organized. The researcher reviewed the
collected data for emerging patterns and themes. Next, the interviews were organized,
managed, and coded in a qualitative analysis software program. Then, a description of
the participants‟ experiences was given compiling similar experiences in preparation for
developing qualitative narratives. Lastly, the organized data were interpreted.

Step 1
Organize and prepare the data for analysis
▼
Step 2
Read through all the data
▼
Step 3
Code the data by organizing the material into chunks before bringing meaning to
▼
Step 4
Describe the setting using the coding process as well as categories and themes for analysis
▼
Step 5
Advance how the description and themes will be represented in the qualitative narrative
▼
Step 6
Interpret the meaning of the data
Figure 1. Model for Qualitative Data Analysis. From Research Design: Qualitative,
Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches by J. Creswell,2008, Thousand Oaks, CA:
Copyright 2009 by SAGE Publicatons, Inc. Adapted with permission.
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The collected data was analyzed using categorizing and contextualizing strategies.
Using the methods of Miles and Huberman (1994), the reconfigured and coded data was
put into categories that focus on the subject of the research. A data matrix developed as a
visual reference of the coding process as conclusions were drawn, then the meaning of
the data is interpreted to form conclusions based on data. Data coding emphasized the
use of terms used by participants to describe their experiences and perceptions. Once the
data from the quantitative and qualitative methods were analyzed and reports written, a
process of triangulating the data between these components and the findings of the
literature review were conducted (Patton (2002). In addition, triangulation between
qualitative sources was conducted through analysis of the responses from multiple
interview participants, surveys, and artifacts. The purpose of triangulating the data was
to find points of similarities and differences between the data sets and data sources
(Patton, 2001). There was no expectation that findings would be consistent between
sources and data sets, allowing further exploration of the depth and complexity of the
topic.
Summary
This chapter explained the purposed of the study, research design, sample
population, data collection protocols, and the data analysis process used in the study. The
mixed-method study design, which included using qualitative interviews with the
principal, teachers, counselor, deans, and support staff and other artifacts, such as
documents, professional development plans, agendas to examine implementation of an
instructional program targeting African American students, was based upon the
purposeful criteria sampling throughout California. The purpose for the data collection
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 39

was made transparent to the participants throughout the process to avoid any impropriety
(Creswell, 2009). In Chapter four, the data is described and analyzed to form the findings
of the current study.
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Chapter Four: Results
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of successful
implementation of programs targeting African American students to increase their
academic achievement enabling them to meet the A-G requirements for successful
completion of high school. Inherent to the study are the efforts of schools to meet the
academic, social/cultural, and psychological needs of African American students that will
prepare them for careers and/or higher education. Concerns that are likely to be raised in
the study are the challenges to tailoring an instructional program that understands the
barriers to student success. A principal‟s ability to implement and sustain change can
pose a barrier to meeting the needs of African American students, considering practices
and policies in place in a school. An addition, to address social/cultural needs of African
American students is essential that there be a critical examination of societal and cultural
challenges to change would be attitudes from students, teachers, and the community. A
set of interview protocols were assembled to guide this process with a semi-structured
approach utilized during the interviews. An interview guide was prepared with
appropriate questions. The interview method combined Patton‟s (2002), “Interview
Guide Approach” with the “Standardized Open-Ended Interview” to promote consistency
from interview to interview in terms of questions asked, while permitting some leeway in
the direction of the interviews to allow for the addition of probing questions.
The interview questions were broken up into three sections, corresponding to the
four research questions in this study. A protocol for the interviews has been included in
the appendices. The research questions are as follows:
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 41

RQ1: What role did the high school principal play in addressing the academic,
social, psychological, and cultural needs of African students to succeed
academically?
RQ2: What professional development was implemented to assist teachers‟
instructional practices that target African American students?
RQ3: How did the school evaluate the implementation of the strategies to improve
the achievement of African American students?
RQ4: What role did the counseling department play in facilitating and sustaining
academic achievement for African American students?
Participants
There were 12 total participants in the study (N = 12). The interview participants
included one male high school principal (n = 1) and four high school teachers (n = 4),
two counselors (n = 2), two deans (n = 2), two parents (n = 2), one office technician (n =
1). The average tenure of the principal, teachers, counselors, deans was 10 years.
Overall, the participants represent over 30 years of educational experience.
The principal, Mr. Smith, a Hispanic male in his middle 40‟s, he has been the
principal at the school for eight years. He taught English for 10 years, and then
accumulated 12 years of out of classroom experience. Mr. Smith gained administrative
experience as he moved around to various schools before returning to his present school
as principal. His passion for education stemmed from his part-time tutoring experience
while in college. His major frustration in tutoring the adults and children in the
community was his lack of effective skills to assist them in learning to read. The
experience as a reading teacher led to him becoming an English major in college. In
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 42

taking the helm of a large comprehensive high school, his vision was to ensure that
decisions made about the school included the impact they would have on the lowest
achieving students. He expressed that he has to be the advocate for those students and
parents, because many times they are not able to advocate for those programs that would
increase the students‟ opportunities for academic success. His consistent vision for the
school requires a forceful vigilance that is rare in many public school principals. He
asserts that he is motivated by the cliché, „the students with the most difficult situation
get the least help.‟ The daily decisions he makes concerning improving students‟
learning can have conflicting outcomes between the advantaged students and the
disadvantaged students. Many schools that serve minority students are underfunded, so
receiving the additional funding to improve instruction for African American students
meant a lot. Pulling together a team of teachers that wanted to develop an instructional
program to support African American student learning, was not difficult. He had many
conversations with teachers about the lack of programs targeting those students. Mr.
Smith commented, “The funding has not been designated as on going, so it could turn out
to be a one-shot deal.” This type of funding can cause frustration for principals and
teacher as it has been perceived as a passing fad. Therefore, while the funding may be to
target African American students, the ultimate goal will be to develop and implement an
instructional program that will increase the academic achievement of all students. He
believes his teachers will be more likely to embrace the professional develop and change
in instruction as on going.
Teacher 1, Ms. Clark, is an African American female, in her early 30‟s. She has
been at the school for approximately five years. Since coming to the school, she has
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 43

taken on numerous roles in advocating for English Learners and African American
students. At the principal‟s request, she became the lead teacher in a steering committee
to develop an instructional program that would target African American students to
increase their academic achievement. The committee has the responsibility in reviewing
everything from curriculum, policies and procedures, data and systems that may or may
not be working for the students. The steering committee also has the responsibility of
bringing in parents and staff members into a collaborative endeavor. She believes that
reform starts with educators looking at their own beliefs about students. Ms. Clark
asserted, “teachers need to separate themselves from a philosophy of as long as we
believe we are good teachers and we teach the content; that is good enough.” She states
that she has a very good rapport with the principal and shares his vision for reforming the
school‟s instructional practices.
Teacher 2, Ms. Jones, an African American female in her early 50‟s, has been
teaching high school Algebra for over 13 years. She participates in meetings with the
steering committee, that supporting African American students and collaborating with
African American parents and their community. In the classroom, she works with the
African American students that are struggling. Ms. Jones commented, “Making changes
means, you throw away what we are comfortable with doing. We have to do and try new
things to get the students interested in learning.” In addition, as the director of the small
learning center, she offers students a variety of activities in which to participate. Many of
the activities help develop good social skills for the African American students.
However, all students are welcome to visit the learning center. Those skills are useful
and transferrable to the classroom in building student confidence. Being one of the few
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African American math teachers at the school, the African American students confide in
her about their classroom experiences. She finds that African American students have
many phobias about math, so she teaches at a pace that can support their learning.
However, she provides that same rigorous math instruction to African American students
as other students.
Teacher 3, Ms. Brown, an African American female, mid 40‟s, has been teaching
English for over 10 years. She got involved in the reform because she sees both bright
and struggling African American students lacking in motivation to do classwork, attend
school and stay actively engaged in school. She is actively engaged in getting African
American parents to participate in school activities. Teacher 3 works with the school in
informing students and parents about the services available to help them overcome many
of the issues that may not be academic, but cause barriers for learning. Her belief is that
African American students need to have a good balance of academic and activities that
are fun. She is highly involved in programs that give guidance and direction, such as
tutoring and leadership. She works to provide African American students with many
options, so the barriers they may encounter do not discourage them.
Teacher 4, Mr. Kent, an African American male in his late 40‟s, teaches special
education classes. He has been a special education teach for over 10 years. He states that
his class is not reflective of the statistics that state that African American students are
overrepresented in special education. However, he points out that the majority of the
African American students are aware of the stigma associated with being in special
education, therefore, they will not admit to learning disabilities, and will continue to
struggle academically. He is also the chairperson for the Black Student Union (BSU) at
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 45

the school. More than 90% of the African American students at the school are part of the
BSU. The teacher found that with the inception of the BSU, the African American
students come for academic tutoring and support for the many challenges in their lives.
The venue gives them a sense of pride and belonging he believes. The BSU it works to
service the African American families in the community. They provide support,
resources, and tools to parents to ensure that their children receive the same services as
other children.
Participant 5, Mr. Trent, a Hispanic male, was serving as the dean of discipline
was a teacher for 10 years before taking the position of dean. He taught at the school, so
he is familiar with the students and staff. He feels that it can be challenging, because in
many instances where he has to enforce disciplinary actions on students for behavior that
interferes with the education and/or jeopardizes the safety of other students, they may be
students he had a better relationship with in the classroom. Mr. Trent stated that:
The students that know me from the class, sometimes expect to escape the
consequences. The good thing is that that prior relationship makes them more
receptive to my guidance and counsel. They know that I have been fair with them
in the past, and willing to listen to them. He has had the same type of relationship
with their parents.
The teachers have confidence in his discipline measures, which is why he has
been able to stay the dean for the past four years. He believes in his role as the dean he
has been able to steer many students, both Hispanic and African American students away
from behavior that could lead to being expelled from school. The dean‟s role, he believes
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 46

is to support and mentor students, because many of them, especially the males, do not
have positive mentors in their life.
Participant 6, Mr. Carter, an African American male, serving as the dean of
discipline, has been a teacher for 20 years at various schools in the district. He was
placed in the position to provide more social and emotional support for the African
American students, especially the males. Everyone agrees, he voiced, that African
American males are suspended or expelled from school more than any other groups of
students. Their behavior is always perceived as disruptive, challenging, and many times
defiant. The district has implemented a policy that students cannot be expelled or
suspended for disruptive and/or defiant behavior. Many teachers were upset that they
believed this policy would make it more difficult to keep order in the classroom, and that
students would believe they could act out in the class without consequences. Both deans
have formed an alliance that their mission is to not only support the teachers, but to work
with students, by mentoring, building self-esteem, teaching self-respect and the ability to
monitor and self-correct their own behavior, so they have a more successful educational
experience in the classroom and at the school.
Participant 7, Ms. Seal, an African American female, guidance counselor for all
grades. She has been a counselor for 13 years. As a counselor, she works to build
personal relationships with the students that provide a certain amount of trust. In her
role, she has found that her counselees do not thrive just because of academics, but
because of her ability to make personal connections. Many of the students have gone to
college and/or started careers. The biggest concern are the students that were at-risk and
destined to be dropouts. The school has a very diverse student population, and works
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with African American students, just as much as she does with other ethnicities. The
attention given to each of her counselees is limited do to the amount of students, and the
many other tasks that counselors have to do on a daily basis. Ms. Seal states:
While we may not be able to devote much more time to African American
students, the counselors‟ approach and focus on their needs, has to be strategic
when meeting with them. Some have great support from home and just need
guidance through school.
The African American students that are struggling academically, emotionally, or socially,
are referred to outside agencies that support the school. There is a Black Student Union,
on campus that she participates in afterschool, where she can give more time to students.
The BUS provides opportunities to bond with students and their families.
Participant 8, Ms. James, an African American female in her late 40‟s, guidance
counselor for all grades. She has been a counselor for 10 years. Counseling is her
passion, because it gives her a chance to bond with students and give them lifesaving
advice, that despite the immaturity of many, they may remember it somewhere down the
line. The biggest challenge is the students who do not believe they have the ability to
learn. Working with students that have issues from family dysfunction, poverty, crime,
unemployment, etc., takes more than the brief time counselors can give each student. She
states:
The African American students reach out to me a lot, because they believe I
understand them and will not judge them by their lack of academic success. They
do not mind sharing their disappointment in their lack of achievement, even
though they put on a good front with their peers, pretending that they do not care.
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The parents struggle to help them because they do not know understand how to
communicate or negotiate with many of the teachers. In her opinion, Ms. James
commented, “I know our teachers are working hard to help our students, and the
counselors work hard to bridge the divide between teachers and students, parents and
teachers, and parents and their children.”
Participant 9, an African American female, parent of a 10
th
grade male student.
Her son enrolled in the school because it is known for its great music program. Her son
loves the band and is doing well academically. She became more involved with the
school after the outreach efforts of the school through African American Family Day.
During the event the parents were given information about opportunities at the school,
grades, the SAT, college entrance, scholarships and financial aid for college. In addition,
the Black Student Union provided workshops and opportunities for parents to get
involved and support their children. She is a working parent, and cannot regularly to
come to school to see about her son, but is happy that there is a place for him to be
supported if he needs help.
Participant 10 is a Hispanic middle-aged female designee to work with parents
and community. She has been at the school for over five years. Her children graduated
from the school, but she continues to support the school and the parents. The majority of
the parents that come to the parent room are Hispanic parents. All parents are welcome;
however, the African American parents do not come. Many prefer to work with the BSU.
She stated, “I have a good relationship with many of the students on the campus, because
they knew my children or know me from the neighborhood.
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The Hispanics come to me because I know the school and I go to many of the
District meetings and bring information back to share with parents. A lot of the
parents do not speak English, so they depend on me for information. She
appreciates the effort the District is making to help the Hispanic students.
She delivers school communication from the principal about what he is doing to help
students be successful. Her final comment was, “I try to get the parents together so they
can talk to their children to help keep the school a safe place to be.”
Participant 11, an African American, middle aged female, office technician. She
has been an office technician for 17 years, but has only recently transferred to this school.
Overall, she believes that the school is better than most schools. The role as the office
technician is to support the front office, assisting the principal, teachers, staff, parents,
and students. However, she has limited interactions with students, as they do not come to
her office location, other than to pick up paperwork for a teacher. Much of her
understanding of the school comes from documents that she prepares for the principal,
teachers or parents. The everyday functions of the school are acknowledged through
announcements on the intercom system. However, support staff is vital to the smooth
operation of a school.
Findings
Outlined below are the relevant findings from each research question.
Summarized analyses as well as direct quotations portray the findings. The analyzed
qualitative data provided the basis for the emerging themes in relation to the investigation
of the implementation of instructional programs targeting African American students.
Each of the themes provided of conceptual understanding of the participants knowledge
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and participation in the implementation process. It is proposed that the relevance of the
findings will support the growing body of literature on increasing the academic
performance of African American students, leading future research.
Research Question One
RQ1: What role did the high school principal play in addressing the academic,
social, psychological, and cultural needs of African students to succeed
academically?
The aim of the question was to explore the developmental processes utilized by
the principal to communicate and/or collaborate with teachers, students, parents and the
community in understanding the needs of African American students. An effective
principal has a comprehensive knowledge of leadership strategies that will balance school
culture, the student population and the community to promote increased student
achievement (Nettles & Herrington, 2007). Principals have access to a variety of
rhetorical and dialogic strategies for reforming schools in responding to the needs of
diverse students. In addition, school principals that view their organizations‟
environment in a holistic way, have a framework for understanding difficult problems
and the complexity of the school. They have a responsibility for creating specific
conditions and practices within schools to address the needs of diverse students, in
particular, African American students (Nettles & Herrington, 2007). Several themes
emerged from the responses to RQ1. The prominent theme, “school data” demonstrated
the impact of data and the implications for reform regarding African American student
achievement. The second theme, “dropout rates,” described how it linked to poor
academic performance and the complexities of addressing the social, cultural, and
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psychological needs of those students. The third theme, “holistic” approach to reform,
referenced to how the school could address the critical role that culture plays in the
academic success of African American students.
The responses from the several of the participants, spoke to their understanding of
how schools utilize available resources to identify the obstacles to student achievement.
The first theme “school data” spoke to the impact of data and its implications for reform
for African American student achievement. The principal, teachers 1, 2, and 4, and
counselors, all discussed the use of “school data”, as the catalyst for change to their
present instructional program and the immediate goals of their reform efforts. They all
agreed that data, the primary tool utilized by all secondary schools was useful for
informing and assessing their current practices, and identifying students that are not
meeting proficiency levels.
The principal expressed that “data has been the indicator of success, and whether
the students are improving or not. Data has to be looked at carefully, because our algebra
scores are very low, but have doubled since I have been here.” Teacher 1 stated:
Looking at the data has shown us that the students that are performing lower in
English are not your new immigrants and students who are English as a second
language, but African American students. Now we have to ask ourselves why this
is happening.
Teacher 2 expressed that “standardized test scores are the first indicators of students‟
success, but we have to consider others assessments to get a better picture of the students‟
academic abilities.” Teacher 4 agreed, “data is the first indicator of success, but there are
other factors to consider.” Both counselors indicated that school data is necessary for
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them to identify students who are achieving, but most important those that need more
academic support.
Another thread to “school data” is that the aggregated data is used to further
categorize students by other identifiers, such as race, culture, and socio-economic status,
which should be considered as part of reform. A fact that prompted the principal to
express a concern with district mandates and data usage:
If the data at an individual school does not show the [African American students]
as a significant subgroup, they are easily overlooked. My goal is to develop a
strategic plan that is long term and therefore have the best results. The problem
that most of us face is that we design responses to issues that are „one-shot deals.
Teacher 1 stated, “We cannot just say they are not passing math so let‟s just offer
tutoring. That is not working.” As in most schools, first response to low performance
has been tutoring. They usually amount to groups of students getting assistance in
homework, not necessarily gaining proficiency in subject area. Teachers 2 and 4
corroborated this fact that the mandated response is that students are offered tutoring
during lunch and afterschool in the class. A second thread the principal and teachers (1
& 2) touched on was that “school data” can elicit “one shot deals” or solutions. The
principal stated that, “[one-shot deals] are not indicative of in-depth planning, thorough
assessment of students, nor exhibit sustainability.” Teachers 1 and 2 both expressed their
concern. Teacher 1 stated, “Data can be misleading, as it does not give an accurate
picture of the academic achievement of all students.” Teacher 2 added, “Students should
be challenged by putting them in classes that motivate them and not just based on
standardized test scores.”
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The counselors affirmed the data is useful, as it provides “At-Risk” indicators.
Those indicators are attendance, free lunch qualified, CST scores, ethnicity, grade point
average, grades, and assessment scores. The student profile helps counselor identify
these students and begin intervention for the student on many levels.
The principal concluded that, „one-shot deals‟ usually only address one aspect of
the data. While much of current data continues to indicate that African American
students have “poor academic performance,” further examination requires that those
factors that contribute to “poor academic performance” be addressed. The principal,
teachers 1, 2, and 4, and counselors all confirmed that while „poor academic
performance‟ would be an immediate area of concern, emphasized that a more thorough
assessment is needed in addressing the needs of African American students. The
principal asserted that “poor academic performance” for African American students is a
complex issue,” and “requires a philosophy of an adoption of meaningful strategies for
teaching African American students.”
Teacher 1 reflected on the data indicating “poor academic performance” for
African American students in math and the implications attached. She stated that, “We
saw there was a huge disparagement in math. What we found was that it was primarily
based on low reading comprehension.” Teacher 2 commented on African American
student achievement from a broader view:
Well, yes, the test scores are pretty much lower for African American students in
math than all the other students. However, in the classroom, I do not see African
American students doing any worse than any other students in Algebra. All the
students seem to be struggling in Algebra...
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Teacher 4‟s response is indicative of an opinion that is repeated often concerning African
American students. While it is evident that not all African American students are doing
poorly, the data continues to show that African American students are testing lower than
other minorities, and every effort needs to be put forth to correct that issue.
…Test scores for African American students are not very good. They are not
doing well in school. I do not believe that all African American students are
behind, but overall the data is the primary indicator.
The counselors provided a different understanding on the low achievement of African
Americans in math and/or English. They agreed that African American students were not
performing well in math and English not because they were not capable, but many times
because of a lack of motivation in the classroom.
A second theme that emerged referenced to “drop out [sic] rate” and how it is
linked to “poor performance.” This supports the principal‟s awareness of the issues
facing many African American students. He stated, “Albeit, many of the problems facing
African American students are unique, which speaks to the complexities of addressing
their social, cultural, and psychological needs as well, that school data does not bring to
light.” To add further validity to his claim that data illicit „one shot‟ solutions. Schools
have responded to the data on the high suspension rate for African American students,
with „transferring‟ these students to other schools. The principal added that:
…If you are an African American boy and you are not doing well academically or
messing up in school, we just transfer you to another school. …They do not want
you to suspend… Students who are pushed out of the system, eventually become
disinterested, give up and drop out...
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In addition, the principal, teachers, counselors, and deans acknowledge that the
“drop out [sic] rate” is a response to several failings on the district‟s part. Funding is
critical in dealing with the myriad of issues surrounding student achievement. The
principal decided to make some hard decisions in his staffing to ensure that there was
adequate support for students as he addressed the “drop out [sic]” issue. He hired two
deans, one African American, to address student discipline issues, and to provide
opportunities for guidance and direction, rather than opting to “suspend” or push students
into the endless cycle of “transferring” from school to school, which ultimately can lead
to “drop out.”
Teacher 2 emphasized that low performing students are not the only students that
fall victims of “drop out” status, “I know a number of bright students that are dropping
out and not showing up and are not interested in school any more. We need to think
about how to get students engaged...” Teacher 3‟s response validated teacher 2‟s
statement, as he also observed disinterest in school by African American students:
I do not believe all African American students are behind... When students lose
interest, they do not do well in school. The perception about African American
students is based on the data on African American students that were dropping out
of school or not graduating.
Overall, the responses from the counselors and deans were in agreement that
many of the African American students do not receive the support they need before
deciding to drop out. The role the counselors and deans play in motivating African
American students is critical, as they have to undo the negative perceptions about African
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American students‟ inability to be academically successful. Many times these are beliefs
that African American students have had long before they arrived in high school.
A repeated and socially held indictment against African American students has
been that they are academically inferior to other students (Ferguson, 2002). Therefore,
they drop out of school or do not graduate. However, the principal and the teachers
believe exploring ways of teaching and learning that reject the cultural deficit model of
education for African American students can reverse this socially held belief. Being
culturally responsive to the educational needs of African American students is critical to
their learning. Students that do not understand the relevance of education to their life
become disengaged. The perception of educators about African American students can
have an enormous impact in African American students‟ being active participants in their
learning.
The last theme that emerged was the “holistic” approach to reform. The principal,
teachers 1 and 4, counselors, deans and parents responses referenced to having a
“holistic” approach to reform to address the critical role that culture plays in the academic
success for African American students. The principal emphasized that,
Holistic education is based on the premise that each person finds identity,
meaning, and purpose in life through connections to the community, to the natural
world, and to spiritual values, and that there are many paths of learning; what is
appropriate for some children and adults, in some situations, in some historical
and social contexts, may not be best for others.
He further shared that “the school‟s Black Student Union provides an excellent
opportunity to provide students with that support necessary to build self-efficacy.”
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Teacher 1 further emphasized that the BSU has provided the venue to draw the
community through activities that draw the African American students but the school‟s
African American community. Teacher 1 posited:
Data does not tell you that African American students are standard English
Learners and need language development just like our Hispanic students. In order
to support African American students academically, we have to address all
aspects of the African American students.
The principal, teachers 1 and 4, counselors, deans and parents each spoke of their
role in ensuring that part of the reform plan included addressing the cultural and social
needs of African American students. The principal states, “I like how we are now having
talks about teaching to the whole child, so the cultural understanding is necessary for
both students and adults. We have started a campaign of „respect‟”. Teacher 1
expressed, “the approach to addressing the needs of African American students, involves
professional development geared towards incorporating culturally relevant material.
Teachers should have the resources to meet and discuss the implementation of those
things in the classroom.”
Teacher 4 states:
We have had a series of workshops talking about sharing about what works with
African American students to engage them in learning. I share with teachers
about what students share in the BSU. We talk about students‟ issues and how
they feel in the class.
Participant 6, a dean, spoke to his relationship with the parents and the community. Since
he used to be a teacher at the school, he has had a good relationship with the families of
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many of the African American students. He uses his connections with the community to
address many of the issues with African American students, especially the male students.
Participant 9 (parent) responded, “the BSU has provided a lot of support by offering the
workshops to the parents. We were able to get information that was relevant to African
American families. There was also the respect given to our culture.”
Overall, based upon the findings the principal shares a deep understanding of
deliberate planning and analysis to address the barriers that impede African American
students in being academically successful. First, while there are no finite processes to
address the encompassing needs of African American students to increase academic
achievement, there is awareness of where to begin the discussion. The participants agree
that responsiveness to school culture and climate was essential in the approach towards
improving the educational experience for African American students. A level of
understanding and commitment for the responsible use of data as the catalyst” was
evident. Second, there is a consensus towards utilizing “data” to support the processes to
address barriers that may have impeded academic success for African American students.
Findings from artifacts, such as written proposals and instructional planning, also show
evidence of goal setting (i.e. Smart Goals). For example, accomplishments for Smart
Goals #1 (African American students with low GPAs will increase this average) and #6
(African American students will graduate at higher levels), included the quick
identification of students struggling, followed by strategies to help students, parents, and
staff change the situation (African American Family Day).

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Research Question Two
RQ2: What professional development was implemented to assist teachers‟
instructional practices that target African American students?
The focus of the question posed was to understand professional development as it
relates to instructional planning that demonstrates knowledge of content pedagogy and its
design to engage students in significant learning that leads to increased academic
achievement. In addition, the questions sought to identify the depth professional
development to integrate instructional strategies that specifically support learning for
African American students.
Several important factors are important in planning and implementing
professional development, such as principal‟s execution of professional development to
the staff; the support and transference to the classroom; and the sustainability of the best
practices learned. The principal and teachers both expressed that professional
development is “standard practice” for secondary schools; however, the principal alluded
to an important factor in implementing professional development to address their
proposed agenda. He states, “The whole area of research and educating African
American adolescents is controversial….” The principal and the teacher responses were
reflective of an understanding that based on research that views linguistic differences,
cultural heritage, and socioeconomic status as positive factors that teachers should
consider within their instructional practices to address the learning challenges for African
American students. The emerging theme from the responses from the participants
referenced relevant and sustainable professional development as critical to the goals of
their proposal.
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The steering committee, which consisted of the principal and the participant
teachers, first tasks in developing their plan was to acquaint the teachers to the target
audience. The principal expressed, “There is an awareness that teachers‟ lack of
openness to questions about race”. Teacher 1 agreed that acquainting teachers with the
target population was crucial before introducing the professional development. She states
that, “We used the monies to pay teachers to come on Saturday, and we are developing
reading lists that include more writers of color... the teachers were making commitments
about reading more books on writers of color.”
Prior studies affirm there is a “void within discussions about the educational
experiences of African American students that shape attitudes and beliefs about
schooling” (Carter, 2005, p. 12; Love & Kruger, 2010). Teachers must challenge those
persistent socially negative ideologies about Black intellect (Ferguson, 2002; Perry,
2003). Teachers that have a desire to provide African American students with the best
instruction possible “see the innate talents and gifts of these students as assets to their
learning” (Thompson, 200b, p. 165). African American students associate good teaching
with certain strategies and practices. The teacher must make the curriculum interesting
and comprehensible.
As part of the preparation for professional development, the principal collaborated
with UCLA to focus on each of the content areas. He states:
The English Department was first given the challenge to update its literature list
… adding writers of color. Coming into the school, I had not adopted any
teaching strategies for African American kids, but now I have hired UCLA Center
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X to come in and do workshops. They are facilitating an ongoing project for
teaching students of color.
Teacher 1 stated, “Teachers going through the workshop saw opportunities to incorporate
books that had cultural relevance for African American students, into their established
curriculum lessons.”
In addition, the proposal to work with UCLA Center X, included training that
would equip the teachers with the ability to work with diverse students, not just African
American students. The principal and Teacher 2 agreed that the intent of the workshops
was to help teachers change how they think about teaching and learning, and how
instruction has a direct impact on the learning of all students.
Teacher 3 expressed, “diversity is key to teaching math. African American
students are not the only students with weak math skills, so teachers need to learn how to
break down lessons and give students support to help them understand.” Teacher 4
responded, “we proposed to make the whole math department better teachers of math
rather than focus on instruction for just African American students.”
Lastly, consistent communication of expectations for high performance has been
linked to positive results in school and student achievement (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000;
Waters et al., 2003). Murphy (1990) found that effective principals utilize several
monitoring strategies (a) using assessment data to inform instruction (b) communicating
information on student data to all stakeholders, and (c) constant evaluation of the
instructional quality and academic progress of the school. The principal described how
the UCLA workshops would provide ongoing monitoring of instruction; continued
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teacher support through communicating with each of the content area teachers on
expectations for continued improvement.
All of the participant teachers spoke on their experiences with professional
development as well as the conversations they have had with faculty. Teacher 1
expressed, “That with the formation of the action committee, there is more involvement
of teachers and more accountability.” Teacher 2 stated, “Teachers were in agreement of
increased funding that afforded teachers opportunities to attend conference, and utilizing
the information to build upon their professional development to improve instruction for
African American students.”
Teacher 3 expressed, “The key to sustained improvement in teaching is making
sure there is accountability and support, through agencies like UCLA Center X.”
Teacher 4 reiterated, “The focus needs to be on supporting teachers in teaching. We have
lost sight on what is important and focus on legislation and programs.”
In summary, the participants were positive about the move towards supportive
professional development. Teacher 3‟s response voiced the complaint heard from many
teachers that “professional development is often disconnected, does not transfer to the
classroom and that the funding and support generally come to an end.” The principal
responded to those concerns by collaborating with UCLA Center X Mathematics Project.
The staff not only participated in workshops to serve students better, not just African
American students. UCLA Center X and the school collaborated over time to prioritize
and focus on their Smart Goals for student achievement. Smart Goal two was to increase
CST Algebra 1 scores for African American students. Smart Goal three was to increase
professional development opportunities for the math department with the UCLA Center
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X Mathematics Project; provide workshops/professional development for the English
department on Saturday and after school to develop summer reading lists with culturally
relevant material; and purchase of culturally relevant resources for faculty. Smart Goal
four was to increase CST ELA Reading Compression scores for African American
students. The findings did not reveal whether teacher beliefs about the academic ability
of African American students, hindered teachers ability to change their current teaching
practices.
Research Question Three
RQ3: How did the school evaluate the implementation of the strategies to improve
the achievement of African American students?
The purpose of the research question was to identify system that provided
progress monitoring and stakeholder feedback on the implementation of instruction
and/or interventions to improve the academic achievement of African American students.
Monitoring school progress can be a predictor of school effectiveness as indicated in
many studies. Effective principals utilize several monitoring strategies (a) using
assessment data to inform instruction (b) communication to all stakeholders regarding
relevant data, and (c) constantly evaluation of the instructional quality and academic
progress of the school (Murphy, 1990).
The primary theme that emerged from the responses of the principal, teachers,
counselors and deans was the in the area of “communication.” The participants‟
collective responses were reflective of the importance of communicating the direction
and focus of instruction within the school community.
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The principal, teachers, counselors, and deans all acknowledge that ongoing
communication about the results of progress monitoring were essential to ensuring the
focus of instruction. The principal spoke of utilizing “satisfaction surveys” to all
stakeholders to get feedback on the implementation of instruction. This would be
coupled with scrutiny of assessment data as schools move away from California State
Standards testing.
Teachers 1 and 3 agreed, “Providing feedback is beneficial but has to be
ongoing.” Past practices have been that programs implemented in the district usually fall
by the wayside or are not fully implemented throughout the school because of inadequate
“communication” to all stakeholders. Many times there is little progress monitoring or
“communication” on the status of the programs being implemented.
All teachers agreed that being involved in the process of developing and
providing input for improving instruction at the school, provided greater opportunity to
communicate with other stakeholders. Teacher 1 stated:
We meet to discuss issues and are constantly looking at the data. As a committee
we are responsible for basically communicating with parents and staff members
into a collaborative effort with students.
Teacher 3 asserted:
In the classroom, we are constantly learning what works and what does not work.
All strategies to not work for every African American student. It depends on the
level of the student. This is information that needs to be communicated to the
committee so that we can continue to make changes.
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Counselors agreed that communication was critical in ensuring their ability to
refer students to tutoring and target „at-risk‟ students not meeting graduation
requirements. Counselors play an integral part in having knowledge of the instructional
direction of the school to ensure students‟ academic needs are being addressed during
classroom instruction. Participant 7, a counselor, voiced concern that “teachers and
counselors need to improve communication about instructional practices, as it becomes
part of the critical conversation in meeting with parents.” Participant 8, a counselor,
voiced that “Teachers should be communicating to African American students that
teachers are implementing instructional strategies to support their academic success.”
The findings support the evidence that the school recognizes that
“communication” to all stakeholders is a critical component in the implementation of
inclusive practices that support academic success for African American students. The
school‟s efforts to initiate progress monitoring will provide the data to indicate increases
or decreases in academic achievement for the African American students. In addition,
on-going communication between the principal, teachers, and counselors about the
implementation of the reformed instructional practices in the classroom will provide the
feedback as to the school is meeting its objective. As part of the new Common Core
component, progress monitoring includes observation of teachers through classroom
visitation, which was not mentioned in any of the responses. This provides a view of
teacher interaction with students and student engagement. This provides a platform for
immediate reflective communication.

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Research Question Four
RQ4: What role did the counseling department play in facilitating and sustaining
academic achievement for African American students?
The questions posed to the principal, teachers, counselors, parents were to identify
systems that will create a learning environment that can promote academic success for
African American students. The ability of school leaders to improve achievement is by
creating a learning environment that fosters respect for teachers, staff, students, and
parents (Thompson, 2004). They understand how to balance school culture, the student
population and the community to promote increased student achievement (Nettles &
Herrington, 2007). Watson (2001) states that if the school culture is not conducive to
learning then student achievement can suffer.
The primary theme that emerged from the responses of the principal, teachers,
counselors and deans was the in the area of “support.” The participants‟ responses
showed an awareness that the “support” needed to sustain academic achievement for
African American students is complex, evidenced by the fact that both low performing
and high performing African American students are susceptible to becoming disengaged
in school. They mentioned the planning and collaboration to provide academic, social,
cultural, and psychological support for African American students.
One way that “support” was addressed was in providing students with staff
support. African American students, especially males, receive school suspensions for
behavior at disproportionate rate when compared to students from other ethnic
backgrounds. This can negatively influence their academic achievement. The principal‟s
response to this issue was to hire support staff that could provide counseling and/or
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psychological support. He states that “We have two deans of discipline...doing pre-
emptive before they get into trouble, to monitor and counsel with them when they do get
into trouble.” Teacher 2 agrees, “African American students in particular, if you do not
understand culturally how they are very social, they like to talk and that is perceived as
disruptive…causing them to be sent out.”
Teacher 3 expressed concern that some teachers “…are not comfortable with
talking about this population and addressing the facts about African American students.
…do not want to address student achievement in terms of color.” This coincides with the
“School Report Card” that reveal African American students comments on “not feeling
as if they belonged or were accepted,” and “did not feel the teacher expected them to
succeed.” Teacher 4 reiterated that students come to the BSU to voice their perceptions
of many of the teachers. They are disappointed that teachers do not express a belief that
African American students will be successful, nor do they feel valued by the teachers.
Teacher 2 states, “Coming into the classroom, I do not look at them any less than others.
The high expectations have for them...teachers should share with them and open up...try
to bring cultural experiences into the classroom.” To this, the principal expressed:
…very important issue is of the respect…my teacher cares about me…we need to
see that African American students are progressing in the academic areas with
many measurements, high GPAs, moving to different grade levels, making
passing grades, high CST scores, and passing the CAHSEE.
In an effort to provide greater academic support the principal hired additional counselors.
The principal and teachers expressed frustration at the barriers to moving forward. The
principal responded:
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My biggest frustration is that I do not have the support staff that I need. I have
hired five counselors, and I allocated dollars to have seven. They can monitor
students‟ academic progress and keep them on the path to graduation.
Schools have the responsibility to ensure that those students are under the same
progress monitoring as other students. Academic support is critical for the success of
African American students. Historically, African American students have been allowed
to pass through the school system with “weak math and reading skills.” Teacher 3
responded to the efforts to monitoring students before they fail in that, “counselors help
target our students whose grade point averages are a 2.0 or below.” Based on available
current school data, African American students are scoring below other students in
English Language Arts. Both Teacher 3 and Teacher 4 affirmed their awareness of the
deficit reading and writing scores for many African American students:
Teacher 3 states, “…besides increasing their math proficiency, African American
students also need to be better writers. We work on their writing ability as they present
arguments about math concepts.” Teacher 4 reiterated that, “I have students struggling to
write persuasive essays. We have an African American literature class. I know that
writing and reading builds stamina for college.” Teacher 1, who works with a variety of
student groups, expressed a growing concern:
I tell the principal that as I look at the data for the English Language students, I
see that African American students are performing lower than our new
immigrants and English as second language students. We cannot just offer
tutoring as a response to African American students‟ not passing math.
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The respondents agreed that African American students must compete for the necessary
support to succeed in school and graduate. Teacher 2 identified additional academic
support to further address the issue:
We use outside providers that have offered to come on-site and work with
students to keep their grades on track. They will have conversations with parents,
even offering incentives, rewards, and praises. They bring additional recognition
to successes as well as address failings.
The counselors‟ responses supported the need for greater progress monitoring. With
more counselors, it reduces the number of students they have. Students that are not
achieving can be the last ones seen because they need extra time. One-to-one counseling
has greater impact than just assigning afterschool tutoring.
Participant 9 (parent) responded, “My child is progressing because the counselor
has provided a lot of support and guidance. Parents do not always know what needs to be
done to make their child be successful in school.” Another system of “support” the
principal, teachers, counselors, deans, and parents emphasized was building connections
through the school community that provides students with a sense of belonging. The
principal posited, “The school understands that socialization is an important aspect of
schooling for African American students will support and provide many opportunities to
build those social skills in an academic setting.”
Teacher 2 stated, “There are other resources that provide support being utilized to
reengage students…is called communities in schools...what their goal is provide social
support by motivating students with experiences, exposures...supplement the regular
program.” Teacher 4 expressed:
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…Want to students to have a voice in the school and in their learning. The
formation of the Black Student Union has given the African American students a
sense of belonging. The majority of African American students in the school
attend many of the activities made possible by the BSU. …Provides the social
and cultural gap for students when they find themselves in a system where they
are the minority.
Teacher 3 responded:
Students like to have a variety of activities to participate in. We have had
Corporate Day, where the students go through mock interviews for jobs. They
come dressed as if they are going on an interview. These preparations assist
students in the classroom and in developing good social skills.
The parents‟ response stressed the importance of schools providing a school environment
that made students feel safe and welcome. It was important to them that students feel that
they belong and that teachers care. The counselors and deans asserted that in “counseling
with students that was a common theme among students that they did not feel that the
school and/or teachers cared.”
Lastly, the principal, teachers, counselors, deans, and parents mention the
importance “support” through community outreach and parent involvement. Research
shows that effective school leaders understand the embeddedness of schools within the
neighborhoods and communities in which they are located and within the network of
organizations and institutions through which students circulate. One of the major
endeavors of the school the principal points out is:
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…the small learning communities and two magnets school. The SLC‟s are better
able to do outreach with smaller groups of students, rather than a total school
population of 3,000 students. Each SLC has on-going workshops to provide
support to students and parents.
Teacher 1 stated:
We provided a series of ten workshops for parents. We had keynote speakers,
detailing topics like the college application process, accessing school information,
and on being an effective parent. Many of parents of African American students
expressed that, previously, they did not see how they were being asked to be part
of the culture of the school.
Teacher 2 expressed the importance of community outreach in which, “We have had one
successful „Family Day‟, that was an outreach to the parents and community for African
Americans.” Counselor 7 expressed that “In meeting with African American parents,
they express their appreciation for the African American Family Day that recognized that
they are concerned about their children‟s education.” Participant 9 stated,
The Family Day was a positive draw for parents, rather than always having to
come to the school because your child is not doing well or is in trouble. I want
the school to see the good things about my child‟s family.
The findings support evidence that the participants have established areas of
support for African American students. Responses from the participants interviewed
affirmed that student support in the form of deans and counselors could address the
academic, social and psychological issues needs of the African American students. The
current financial resources offer the ability to hire extra personnel. However, there was
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no indication of alternative plans in the event those funds were not available. As in the
majority of schools, the principal usually makes the decision to raise class size in order to
fund support staff. This has a negative impact on struggling students in the class. The
findings also show others areas of support are provided to address the social and cultural
needs of African American students through community of schools, the Black Student
Union, and involving the parents through parent workshops and African American
Family Day. Other findings from artifacts (agendas, proposals and/or documents)
support the implementation and purpose of the African American Family Day, and the
workshops that included topics such as; “How to create and maintain a college culture at
home,” “Effective parent-teacher communication,” and “Protecting our children/
students.” At the time of the interview, there was no data to show whether there had been
an impact on academic achievement for African American students.
Summary
After an analysis of the responses from the participants on the implementation of
an instructional program targeting African American students, the study concluded that
the school had made a commitment towards the beginning planning and development
stage of an instructional program targeting African American students. The participants,
comprised of the principal, four teachers, two counselors, two deans, one parent, one
office technician, were part of a committee that collaborated on improving academic
achievement for African American students. Data collected by semi-structured
interviews with the participants around the four research questions created by the study‟s
theoretical framework did not reveal the extent of overall commitment or participation by
teachers at the school. During various points (RQ1) in the interview process, one or two
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of the teachers would express concern at the reluctance of the staff to discuss issues of
race or acknowledge the academic, social, psychological, and cultural needs of African
American students. The participants agreed that school data was the catalyst for change;
and could guide the school in its reform efforts. When it came to providing academic,
social, cultural, psychological support, the principal‟s first step was to use the financial
resources to fund more support staff to take preventive measures to decrease dropout rate,
suspension rates and provide more counseling. However, based on the responses and the
overall operation of most schools, the support staff would not be exclusive for African
American students, but a shared endeavor. The school showed an understanding that the
culture and climate of a school, was essential to improving African American students
perception about school. The school had begun the process of providing workshops,
family day events, community of schools, and the Black Student Union, to embrace the
African American students and the community, to create a sense of belonging.
Evidenced by the responses related to RQ3, the school reliance only on communication
through surveys and discussions could be limiting. The principal did not mention
classroom observation as part of the monitoring process. This could provide immediate
and critical dialogue between the teacher and principal, providing further communication
to all stakeholders. One teacher expressed that past practices have used classroom
observations as a means for disciplinary actions against teachers‟ as to their ability to
teach. This could provide an opportunity for the principal to communicate that classroom
observation be utilized to reflect on the effectiveness of instructional strategies and
practices and student engagement. Lastly, the responses to RQ4 revealed that
professional development would be their greatest area of improvement. The school had
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collaborated with UCLA Center X to provide workshops and professional development
on working with students of color. The principal made comments “that he wanted to
make the math teachers, better teachers of math” It was not clear if this was an indication
that teachers would embrace math teaching strategies that target African American
students versus just improving math instruction. This observation was based on single
isolated comments made by the participants that teachers do not want to address race.
The study detected a minor bias in the selection of participants who were part of
the collaborative committee for planning and developing the instructional program were
all African American, except for the principal. There was no indication that this was
deliberate, or that other teachers did not volunteer to participate. There were no concrete
responses or evidence of the impact on teachers, in response to improving the learning
environment for African American students.
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Chapter Five: Conclusion and Implications
Historically, African American students have been far less academically
successful than white students, and other minorities. There are a myriad of risk factors;
below grade level reading and math proficiency, high absenteeism and dropout rates, high
suspension rate, placement in special education; that create the conditions that prevent
African American students from receiving a quality education. The long-term impact is
that African Americans students are unprepared for college and/or careers. The
American Council on Education, (2010) reports that factors outside of school, such as
income and family issues are compounded by urban characteristics of larger class sizes,
inexperienced teachers, high turnover rates in administration, inadequate supplies, lack of
challenging classes and overall low expectations set for students. As a response to this
crisis, the government‟s compliance measures, NCLB and the current re-authorization of
the Elementary Schools and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, attempted to
mandate student achievement reform through increased accountability (Hentschke &
Wohlsetter, 2004).
While the reform efforts have attempted to resolve issue concerning minority
students, none has specifically targeted African American students. There is much
research currently underway on the underachievement of African American student.
However, this research is limited on successful programs that are actually aimed at
African American student achievement, similar to Master Plan for English Learners. One
particular program, American English Mastery Program (AEMP), to address language
instruction and improve academic achievement for Standard English Learners (SEL), was
not sustained or fully implemented. African American, Hawaiian American, Mexican
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American, and Native American were the designated students that do not speak
mainstream Standard English. Any regulated reform that targets African American
students, must focus on cultural and structural explanations for the academic outcomes of
these students (Anyon, 2005; Carter, 2005, Ogbu, 2003). Test data can be beneficial to
school reform. However, its current use has reinforced the widespread belief that African
American students are cognitively inferior to Whites and Asians (Gould, 1981;
Thompson, 2004b).
Absent from discussion about African American student achievement, is the
educational experiences that shape attitudes and beliefs about schooling. Carter, 2005,
asserts that there is a lack of in-depth examination of how psychological, anthropological,
and sociological factors interact with students‟ individual identities to shape their
attitudes and academic achievement. Research suggests that African American students‟
racial identify affects achievement and school behavior (Carter, 2008). African
American students usually attend schools‟ where the school culture does not promote
high expectations for learning; promote a sense of personal accountability; or provide a
sense of school and community pride. Students‟ achievement ideologies or beliefs about
the relationship between schooling future success and prosperity can influence academic
performance (Sanders, 1998). African American students continue to be passed through
schools with weak academic skills (Thompson, 2004). Poor math skills are one of the
greatest barriers to higher education and future economic stability (Drew, 1996); and the
lack of development of strong reading and writing skills is even more detrimental to
future success (National Commission on Writing, 2005). Consequently, these students
have been disempowered by the use of ineffective teaching methods (Comer, 2004;
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Thompson, 2004b). The power structure, however, remains oppressive in it practices and
operations. Schools continue to perpetuate society‟s negative ideology about Black
intellect (Ferguson, 2002; Perry, 2003).
Thus, this study hopes to add to the growing body of scholarly literature on the
issue. This chapter provides a summary of the study, including the statement of the
problem, a review of existing literature pertinent to the topic, the methodology employed,
and the findings related to the four research questions put forth at the beginning of the
study.
Statement of the Problem
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of successful implementation
of programs specifically targeting African American students to raise their overall
academic achievement. By understanding the successfully implementation of these
programs, those responsible for curriculum and instruction will be able to replicate these
programs to raise student achievement for African American students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of successful implementation
of programs targeting African American students to increase their academic achievement
enabling them to meet the A-G requirements for successful completion of high school.
Methodology
In recent years, the NCLB‟s emphasis on closing the achievement gap (U.S.
Department of Education, 2001) has forced institutions of learning to address the
obstacles and lack of support hindering African American student achievement. This
should compel schools to take the necessary steps to provide these students with optimal
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learning opportunities to increase student achievement (Thompson, 2004). The specific
issues and factors that affect their achievement are often unaddressed. A first step is to
address the type and quality of educational experiences for African American students
(Bell & Clark, 1998; Flowers, 2007; Harris, 1990). A large number of African American
students graduate from high school as functionally illiterate because they have routinely
passed through school with weak reading, writing, and math skills. Research studies
correlate functional illiteracy with prison incarceration rates, school dropout rates, and
poverty during adulthood (Thompson, 2004b). Studies have shown that early language
development affects later reading achievement (Craig et al., 2003). African American
students are often denied full access to literacy-based experiences because of the
teacher‟s assessment of the students‟ behavior and attitudes. Partnerships with social
service agencies can provide trained therapist who work with troubled children to support
teachers that find the behavior of some African American students challenging.
Research Questions
The research questions were as follows:
RQ1: What role did the high school principal play in addressing the academic,
social, psychological, and cultural needs of African students to succeed
academically?
RQ2: What professional development was implemented to assist teachers‟
instructional practices that target African American students?
RQ3: How did he school evaluate the implementation of the strategies to improve
the achievement of African American students?
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RQ4: What role did the counseling department play in facilitating and sustaining
academic achievement for African American students?
Discussion of Findings
Research Question One
RQ1: What role did the high school principal play in addressing the academic,
social, psychological and cultural needs of African students to succeed
academically?
In summary, findings were that the principal reported concerns for prioritizing,
strategic planning, and ensuring opportunities that meet the social needs of all. Teachers
reported opportunities to include professional development, workshops, the BSU, and the
need to care and respect students and participate in activities for all.
The emerging themes revolving around school data indicated that the principal
and teacher participants were aware the data was a catalyst for school reform. The ability
to use the data to gather information on African American students as it related to
academic achievement, absenteeism, dropout rates, graduation rates, suspension rates was
relevant in responding to the needs these students. However, there was no mention of use
of research-based information to understand the significance of the data as it related to
African American student achievement. As one teacher asserted, “we know the data
shows there is a problem, now how do we fix it.” The principal acknowledged that most
schools use the same protocols to “fix” problem, by offering, “tutoring” for example.
Unless there is specificity about the intervention offered, or the target audience needs, it
will not address the underlying issues. Interestingly, the participants expressed the need
to approach student achievement with a “holistic approach” to reform to address the role
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that culture plays in the academic success of African American students. All teachers,
not just same race teachers, are instrumental in socializing black adolescents to have
positive racial identities (Carter, 2005). There appeared to be an understanding the
important of cultural identify for African American students, however, concerns were
expressed that teachers would be slow to embrace cultural changes involving African
American students.
Research Question Two
RQ2: What professional development was implemented to assist teachers‟
instructional practices that target African American students?
In summary, the principal reported the need to bring culture to the classroom with
the help of projects. Teachers reported opportunities such as workshops, committees, AA
literature class, and the need for support. The intent of RQ2 was to discover the how the
school, under the direction of principal would develop professional development that
would improve teaching practices and increase learning for African American students.
The participants agreed that professional development was necessary, so they
collaborated with UCLA Center X, which provided workshops and professional
development for teaching students of color. Professional development should familiarize
teachers with current research and strategies, and provide support to increase their
efficacy (Thompson, 2004b). In probing for the level of commitment from the teachers,
the perception was that teacher‟ beliefs about African American students academic
abilities could be an obstacle. Landsman, 2004, suggests that educators have regular and
ongoing discussions about diverse cultures. UCLA Center X had been funded to work
with the teachers through the year. The principal and teachers‟ expressed optimism that
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the professional development would lead to improved instruction and an increase in
student achievement.
Research Question Three
RQ3: How did the school evaluate the implementation of the strategies to
improve the achievement of African American students?
In summary, the principal used communication through surveys and discussions
as components of the progress monitoring of the implementation of instruction targeting
African American students to increase academic achievement. The teachers agreed that
on-going communication was critical in their ability to improve instruction in the
classroom. Discussions around CST data, assessments, and current practices created an
environment of accountability for the school. Counselors recognized and responded that
they needed to be included in the discussions as they were the link with parents and
students about the academic success of African American students. The counselors
ability to support African American students academically, socially and culturally
depends an understanding of their learning environment. One counselor expressed that
she was not aware of implementation of instructional strategies that target African
American students. The District‟s mandates for intervention and academic improvement
for English Learner students, drives much of the student programming and conversations
about student achievement. There was no overwhelming evidence that communication to
teachers about the implementation of instruction to target African American student
achievement created the same motivation as that for Hispanic student achievement. One
teacher mentioned, “Race is not an easy topic when it comes to African American
students.” Another teacher mentioned, “The strategies will most likely be used to
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improve instruction for all students and not necessarily target African American
students.” The school underwent workshops that provided the staff with an
understanding of educating student of color, there was no evidence of how that
information impacted their perceptions about African American student achievement
and/or interaction with African American students.
Research Question Four
RQ4: What role did the counseling department play in facilitating and sustaining
academic achievement for African American students?
In summary, the principle reported the need to identify the problem, develop plans
and goals, and monitor GPAs. The need for student support by hiring extra deans and
counselors was part of the plan to increase student achievement. Teachers reported
similar goals of targeting GPAs and test scores and the need to provide support such as
with tutoring and mentoring.
It is evident that the principal and teacher participants agree that systems of
support will be necessary to accomplish the intended goals of their reform efforts. The
types of support that would be provided correlated with the areas of improvement
discovered during analysis of the data. Resources were made available to allow two
deans to work with student behavior, counselor, and use preventive measures to decrease
the suspension rate for African American students. The principal commented that one of
the deans was African American. This could be interpreted that the non-black dean
would not be able to relate to the African American students. Funds were provided to
add five additional counselors to provide additional support and to address the academic
and psychological needs of the students. There was no indication that the counselors
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were hired specifically because of the needs of the African American students. Schools
that do not address the importance of culture and climate of schools will fail to improve
student achievement (McNeil, Prater & Busch, 2009). Any regulated reform that targets
African American students, must focus on cultural and/or structural explanations for the
academic outcomes of these students (Anyon, 2005; Carter, 2005; Ogbu, 2003). To
address the social and cultural needs of the African American students, the study
established that within the school a Black Student Union and Community of Schools, was
in operation to give students a sense of belonging, emotional support, opportunities for
career training, and academic support. There was evidence of connecting with the
community and parent involvement (i.e., African American Family Day). One teacher
commented that the event was not well attended, but it was their first big effort and they
would continue to reach out to parents. One key strategy available to principals is to
promote democratic discourse within the school community to promote trust (Riehl,
2000). Parents and community want to feel they have a voice in their child‟s education
and that they are valuable and respected as part of the school community. Ethnic/cultural
groups and persons from lower socioeconomic classes have contended with mainstream
educators for the curriculum and instruction that they feel is most appropriate for their
children (Riehl).
Summary of Findings Related to Research Observations
In summary, findings were that all participants reported being interested and
committed to helping all students and African American students in particular. Thus, all
participants reported being aware of the concerns regarding the African American and
other minority groups such as the need for culturally relevant material, care, and respect
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in the classroom. The principal reported being particularly concerned about the need for
support for students.
Summary of Findings Related to Artifacts
In summary, findings from artifacts are that the principal, teachers, counselors,
deans, and parents implemented and/or participated in activities for all such as the
African American Family Day. In addition, accomplishments regarding Smart Goals
included developing methods for the quick identification of struggling students and
strategies to help them. Staff participated in professional development activities and
Saturday and after school meetings to develop culturally relevant reading lists.
Discussion
The finding that most of the participants in this study reported that African
American achievement was a reason for the need to make changes in the school is
consistent with the previous claim that African American high school students score
lower than White counterparts are on standardized assessments (Grigg et al., 2007). The
reports that these students presented with poor writing and mathematics skills was also
consistent with previous research findings (Drew 1996; Thompson, 2004). An
explanation for these findings may lie in the need reported by study participants, for more
effective teaching methods that do not result in student disempowerment (Comer, 2004;
Thompson, 2004b).
Significance of Findings Related to Research Question One
Findings from the current study suggest the principal was concerned with
prioritizing and strategic planning and ensuring opportunities to meet the social needs of
all, is consistent with previous research results. Nettles and Herrington (2007), find that
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principals need to use leadership strategies to balance school culture and increase student
achievement. The fact that in the current study, teachers reported that they were provided
with opportunities such as professional development, workshops, the BSU, was also
consistent with previous research. Riehl (2000) pointed out that principals need to focus
on teacher development and provide opportunities for this. The current study findings
that teachers and the principal need to provide care and respect students and participate in
activities for all, was consistent with previous research. For example, studies show that
opportunities need to be provided to all stakeholders to promote new understandings and
these include ceremonies, events, and meetings (Strike, 1993).
Significance of Findings Related to Research Question Two
Current study findings that the principal was focused on bringing culture to the
classroom with the help of projects were consistent with previous research. For example,
McNeil et al. (2009) reported that reform efforts in schools should focus on the
importance of culture and climate of the schools. McNeil et al. further noted that the
principal must understand the complex relationships within the school to promote a
positive learning environment, which influences the performance of students. This
means that principals need to understand the needs of diverse students and teachers need
to provide forms of teaching and learning that allow these diverse students to succeed
(Riehl, 2000). Thus, the principal must provide opportunities for professional
development of teachers to ensure that they are able to provide instruction to a diverse
student population (Riehl). Study findings included that teachers reported opportunities
were provided to make changes, such as workshops, committees, and AA literature class,
which was also consistent with previous research findings by Riehl, that principals need
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to provide opportunities for the development of teachers. In the current study, teachers
also reported on the need for support. This findings is consistent with previous research
reports that school leaders need to focus on the commitment of teachers (Hallinger,
1992), the needs of diverse students (Riehl), and relationships (Comer, 2004; Denbo &
Moore, 2002). One teacher in the current study pointed out that it is important to have
high expectations of students and this is consistent with previous research findings that
lower expectations along with inadequate curricula leads to poor student performance
(Ferguson, 2002; Perry, 2003). Participants reported that leadership and teachers must
establish positive, respectful, and caring relationships. This finding is consistent with
results from previous research that point out the need to build positive relationships with
all students and African American students in particular. These relationship need to
encourage and empower students (Comer; Denbo, & Moore; Love & Kruger, 2010).
Significance of Findings Related to Research Question Three
Study of findings reveal that the principal recognizes that on-going evaluation of
the implementation of instruction is critical and a key component of progress monitoring.
Monitoring school progress by the principal is a predictor of school effectiveness in many
studies (Levine & Lezotte, 1990). Evidence from the responses reflect agreement that
communication through surveys and discussions are effective means of evaluating the
implementation process. Teachers‟ will have a platform to discuss what impact
instruction has had on the targeted students and/or obstacles that impede their ability to
implement those practices in the classroom. Lacking was evidence that the principal will
use classroom observation as a way to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of
instruction. Personal interactions are the best way for a principal to effect positive
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change within a school (Deal & Peterson, 1990). A participant expressed concern that
instruction will be used in a broader manner to target all students, rather than specifically
targeting African American students. Further concern, was that the conversation about
race continues to be an uncomfortable discussion for the school. Counselors did not
provide evidence that African American students or parents acknowledged that it was
communicated to them by teachers that there were reform efforts in the school to address
African American student achievement. This was significant in that a counselor
expressed that there was a lack in communication between teachers and counselors about
instruction for African American students.
Significance of Findings Related to Research Question Four
Study findings that the counselors and deans were focused on identifying the
problem, developing plans and goals, and monitoring GPAs, with a particular emphasis
on the need for support with deans and counselors, is consistent with previous research.
Nettles and Herrington (2007) reported that principals should develop positive strategies
to deal with school issues. Current study findings that teachers focused on similar goals
of targeting GPAs and test scores were also consistent with previous research. Carter
(2005) reported on the need for teachers to provide African American adolescents with
skills necessary to achieve in schools. Study findings that teachers reported the need for
support such as with tutoring and mentoring to assist students provided information
regarding how to help students develop these skills. Current study findings reported by
the principal that outcomes are evaluated with the use of test scores, GPAs, and other
monitoring of student progress was consistent with previous research. Levine and
Lezotte (1990) pointed out that principal monitoring of school progress is related to
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school effectives. Principals use methods such as assessment data and evaluation of
instructional quality and academic progress to monitor outcomes (Murphy, 1990).
Significance of the Findings Related to Theory
The socio-cultural-cultural theory and critical race theory, are the theoretical
frameworks for the study since they allow for the understanding that to help students
overcome any feelings of racial or social injustice, it is important for school principals to
address academic, social, psychological, and cultural needs of African American students
in order to increase academic achievement. Study findings were that the principal and all
teachers reported being aware that students need respect and care and that they need
culturally relevant material in the classroom. Activities provided helped to unite
students, parents, teachers, and the community in order to overcome any negative
feelings and promote the welfare of all.
These study findings are consistent with the assumptions of the socio-cultural
theory, that a child is influenced by the culture and society in which he or she is born and
raised (Vygotsky, 1986). The child adapts to the social environment, copies others, and
regulates behaviors based on instructions from authoritative persons. Study findings are
also consistent with assumptions of the critical race theory that helps to understand that
the organizational context is perceived differently based on race, culture, and ethnic
group (Hopson & Obidah, 2002). This theory is used to understand racial injustice in
schools and the effects of this on African American student achievement (Solorzano, &
Yosso, 2001). In accordance with these two theories, study findings that students require
respect and care to overcome feelings of discomfort are consistent. Study participants
reported that the BSU was an opportunity for African American students that helped to
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overcome issues that these students face in the classroom. As noted by the principal,
teachers took the time to become aware of and use more classroom materials that
included writers of color. This is consistent with the finding that it is important to help
African American students feel more comfortable in the classroom, which means
considering the opposition created by the dominant society (Perry, 2003). The reports by
the principal and teachers, that students need relevant materials of interest to increase
motivation, is consistent with previous research findings. For example, researchers report
that African American students may disengage from academia due to social racism
(Ogbu, 1991; 1992; 2003). Thus, changes in high dropout rates and discipline problems
reported by participants of the current study may be explained by the inclusion of
activities and instructional materials that are relevant to the students.
Limitations
Study Limitations of the Sample
Since the sample selected for this study was very small and purposeful and from
an available volunteer population, the results of this research may not be generalizable to
other situations and individuals. The study is further limited by the use of local high
school teachers and a principal only which may not represent those of different ethnic and
socioeconomic backgrounds, limiting generalizability to additional geographic locations.
The study is limited by its design. Since the study variables were not directly
manipulated, results are observed from existing groups, and findings are descriptive only.
The study is also limited by the choice of instrument. The use of an interview protocol,
developed by the researcher, may limit findings. While artifacts were reviewed and
researcher observations were noted, the use of multiple instruments to assess multiple
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 90

aspects of the issues would have resulted in more information and the potential to
compare findings.
Study Conclusions
From this study, the conclusions that can be drawn are that all participants were
interested and committed to helping all students and African American students. All
participants reported the need to provide care and respect to students and the need to
provide activities for all. The principal was concerned with prioritizing and strategic
planning and ensuring opportunities to meet the social needs of all. Teachers reported
opportunities of professional development, workshops through the Black Student Union.
The school developed measureable goals to monitor GPAs and student test scores. The
principal reported the need to bring culture to the classroom with culturally relevant
projects and materials. The teachers reported there were greater opportunities for
professional development and addressing the need for support. Conclusions were that all
participants were committed and participated in activities designed to assist all students
and help African American students in particular.
Implications
Implications of findings are that principal and teachers were in agreement on the
need to provide care and respect to all students and to ensure that materials and culture
were relevant and of interest to the student. These finding indicate that while participants
were focused on helping all students, they also recognized the need to ensure that needs
of African American students were met. Findings also imply that the principal ensured
that opportunities for development were provided for teachers as well as students and
parents. Activities that involved all stakeholders were provided and study results imply
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 91

that these activities benefited students, parents, and teachers. While findings imply the
successful implementation of the program designed to help African American students,
more information is needed to determine if students feel these efforts have made them
more comfortable.
Future Research
This study provides a segue for further discussions and additional case studies of
other high schools finding success in their academic programs to improve the academic
performance of African American students. Since the study is limited by its design and
choice of instrument, it is recommended that a future study explore multiple variables
using multiple instruments. For example, instruments can be used to assess student views
of program elements.
While this study provided important and useful information regarding the success
of the current program, a more comprehensive understanding of the topic would be even
more beneficial. It is therefore recommended that a future study further investigate the
variables and findings from this study. In addition, this future study is needed to
determine if students feel these efforts have made them more comfortable.
Discussion of Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of successful
implementation of programs targeting African American students to increase their
academic achievement enabling them to meet the A-G requirements for successful
completion of high school. This study's findings demonstrated that in fact, the program
has accomplished many goals and the principal and teachers report enthusiasm and
commitment toward helping all students, and African American students in particular. A
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 92

future study is needed to further explore these findings and determine student views of
the program.
Ethical Considerations
This paper was submitted to and approved by USC‟s IRB. The paper was
additionally submitted and approved by the Los Angeles Unified School District IRB.
All participants were be asked to grant permission to use the information obtained by the
research. Participants agreed to take part in this study without any coercion. To provide
transparency, the interview process and information were presented before the interviews
to ensure that all participants will be fully informed. Although interviews were recorded,
the recording device was left in plain sight and any request to comment “off the record”
was acknowledged, and held as privileged. No real names were used in this dissertation,
all participants were given pseudonyms. The research strove to be transparent at all times
in the process in order to limit the appearance of impropriety (Creswell, 2002).
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 93

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Appendix A
Participant Consent Form

Title of Project: A Case Study: Principals‟ Implementation of Instructional Programs
Targeting African American Students to Increase Academic Achievement

Principal investigator:

Phyllis Woods
2550 Gundry Avenue
Signal Hill, California 90755
phyllidw@usc.edu
(310) 619-5216

IRB Contact Information:

University Park IRB
3720 South Flower Street, #301
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of successful
implementation of programs targeting African American students to increase their
academic achievement enabling them to meet the A-G requirements for successful
completion of high school.

Subjects: Subjects for this study, include high school principal and teachers, chosen to
participate in this study due to availability.

Description: You have been asked to take part in a research study to determine effects of
an instructional program targeting African American students to increase academic
achievement. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of successful
implementation of programs targeting African American students to increase their
academic achievement enabling them to meet the A-G requirements for successful
completion of high school. You will be asked to participate in a one-on-one interview
with the researcher to answer questions regarding the following: school principal's
processes used to address academic, social, psychological, and cultural needs of African
American students in order to increase academic achievement; methods used by
principals to evaluate student outcomes; and methods used by principals to ensure that
teachers take part in professional development designed to improve instructional
practices with these students. You will also be asked to verify findings via email or mail
once data has been analyzed. Your participation in this study will require your consent
regarding use of your interview material and the audio recording of the interview. You
can decline to be audio recorded and continue with study participation. All interviews
will take place during the staff member's non-working hours.

Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 104

Benefits: The information will allow for the evaluation of the program, which will help
guide future efforts to provide African American students with academic support and
close the achievement gap.

Risks: There is minimal risk anticipated due to study involvement since there will be no
manipulation of study participants. Any party may withdraw from participation at any
time with no repercussions. Confidentiality will be maintained at all times, and identity
will not be disclosed; names will be omitted from materials.

Confidentiality: Please understand that no one but the investigator will have access to
the study data and identification numbers will be used instead of names to protect
confidentiality. All information will be kept in a locked filing cabinet in the investigator‟s
office.

Participant Rights: Please understand that you may withdraw your information and thus
participation, at any time, without consequence. If you do decide to withdraw from the
study, you can also have any forms or answers you have given destroyed if desired. Any
questions you have will be answered by Phyllis Woods at (310) 619-5216.

I understand that I will be participating in a research study concerning the use of
audio recording of a one-on-one interview with the researcher.

I understand that my participation will take approximately 30 to 60 minutes for
the interview. I understand that my participation is entirely voluntary and that I may
withdraw at any time.

I understand that there is no risk anticipated by the investigator since the
interview questions will regard the school principal's processes used to: address
academic, social, psychological, and cultural needs of African American students in order
to increase academic achievement; evaluate student outcomes; and ensure that teachers
take part in professional development designed to improve instructional practices with
these students. These questions are not expected to result in any psychological or
emotional distress, particularly since all findings will be confidential. I am also aware
that I may benefit from participating in this study by attaining increased personal
awareness. I am aware that I may ask questions at any time during the process to help
eliminate any possible confusion.

Voluntary Consent: I have read this consent form, and I understand the contents. I
understand the procedures that will be involved in this research study. All of my
questions concerning this research have been answered. If I have questions in the future
about this study they will be answered by the investigator listed above or her staff. A
copy of this form will be given to me. This consent ends at the conclusion of the study.

I understand that my participation, is totally voluntary, anonymous, and
confidential, and that I may withdraw from the study at any time. I understand that the
information I provide will only be used for the purpose of this research study, and that all
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 105

names will be omitted to insure confidentiality. I am participating in this study of my own
free will.

Your name below means that you agree to participate in the study.
______________________________ _________
Signature of Participant Date

Your name below means that you agree to being audio recorded during the interview.
______________________________ _________
Signature of Participant Date

Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 106

Appendix B
Principal interview questions

Research Questions Interview Questions
1. What role did the high school
principal play in addressing the
academic, social, psychological and
cultural needs of African students to
succeed academically?

1. What indicators led to the reform for
African American student achievement?
2. What is the principal‟s role in ensuring that
this proposed agenda is implemented?
3. What is the role of the principal in assisting
teachers in planning and teaching the
proposed agenda?
4. How will the social needs of the African
American students be met?
5. What are your first steps in initiating
successful change?
2. What role did the counseling
department play in facilitating and
sustaining academic achievement for
African American students?

6. What are the academic goals at your school
for African American students?
7. What are the “safety nets” or interventions
for African American students?
8. What measures will be used to indicate that
the goals are being met or that it is
working?
3. What professional development was
implemented to assist teachers’
instructional practices that target
African American students?

9. What type of professional development
have you implemented that supports this
agenda?
10. What type of instructional planning have
you participated in that supports this
agenda?
11. How will the school provide rigorous and
culturally responsive instruction for
African American students?
12. How will the social needs of the African
American students be met?
4. How did the school evaluate the
implementation of the strategies to
improve the academic achievement for
African American students?

13. What is the principal‟s role in ensuring that
this proposed agenda is implemented?
14. What measures will be used to indicate that
the goals are being met or that it is
working?
15. How will the principal initiate feedback
from stakeholders to assist teachers in
evaluating, planning and teaching the
proposed agenda?
Running head: INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS 107

Appendix C
Other Participants‟ Interview Questions

Research Questions Interview Questions
1. What role did the high school
principal play in addressing the
academic, social, psychological and
cultural needs of African students to
succeed academically?

1. What indicators led to the reform for
African American student achievement?
2. What is the principal‟s role in ensuring that
this proposed agenda is implemented?
3. What is the role of the principal in
assisting teachers in planning and
teaching the proposed agenda?
4. What are the school‟s first steps in
initiating successful change?
2. What professional development was
implemented to assist teachers’
instructional practices that target
African American students?

5. What type of professional development
have you implemented that supports this
agenda?
6. What type of instructional planning have
you participated in that supports this
agenda?
7. How will the school provide rigorous and
culturally responsive instruction for
African American students?
3. What role did the counseling
department play in facilitating and
sustaining academic achievement for
African American students?

8. What are the academic goals at your school
for African American students?
9. What are the “safety nets” or interventions
for African American students?
10. What measures will be used to indicate
that the goals are being met or that it is
working?
4. How did the school evaluate the
implementation of the strategies to
improve the achievement of African
American students?
11. What type of progress monitoring will
take place.
12. What measures will be used to indicate
that the goals are being met or that it is
working?
13. What type feedback will be utilized in
assisting the school in evaluating,
planning and implementation the
proposed agenda?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of programs that seek to increase African American students’ academic achievement in order to meet the A-G requirements for successfully completing high school. For the study, one male high school principal and ten high school teachers, staff and parents were interviewed to address the primary research questions. Study findings from a qualitative analysis of the data were that the principal was concerned with strategic planning, ensuring opportunities for all, monitoring GPAs, providing support, and bringing culture to the classroom. Teachers reported opportunities for professional development and student and family support to improve outcomes and the need to provide students with care, respect, support, activities for all. Findings were consistent with the socio-cultural theory and critical race theory regarding what is needed to help students overcome feelings of racial or social injustice. Implications of findings were that all agreed on the need to provide care and respect to all students and to ensure that the use of culturally relevant materials. Conclusions were that all participants were committed and participated in activities designed to assist all students, and African American students in particular. However, there is underlying concern that the increase or decrease of African American student achievement will be attributed to this instructional program. Teacher participants were all African American

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Use of Kotter’s change model by elementary school principals in the successful implementation of inclusive education programs for students with disabilities in K-6 elementary schools in Southern ...

Asset Metadata

Creator Woods, Phyllis D. (author)

Core Title Implementation of instructional programs targeting African American students to increase academic achievement

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 10/29/2015

Defense Date 06/15/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag critical race,instruction,OAI-PMH Harvest,socio-cultural

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Garcia, Pedro E. (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy (committee member), Humphrey, Amina (committee member)

Creator Email phyllidw@usc.edu,tate_woods@verizon.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-193876

Unique identifier UC11276398

Identifier etd-WoodsPhyll-4000.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-193876 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-WoodsPhyll-4000.pdf

Dmrecord 193876

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Woods, Phyllis D.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA