University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Colón in San José Oeste

(USC Thesis Other)

The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Colón in San José Oeste

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON PARTICIPATION IN THE COSTA
RICAN NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS
AT ESCUELA COLÒN IN SAN JOSÉ OESTE
by
Mathew Kodama
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016
Copyright 2016 Mathew Kodama
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my family. Collectively, they have been the source of my
inspiration, my determination to overcome any obstacle, and my reason to persevere. First of all,
the completion of this manuscript would have been nearly impossible were it not for the loving
support, encouragement, and patience of my beautiful wife Heather. She has been my rock, my
greatest cheerleader, and my most effective critic throughout this process. Secondly, I dedicate
this work to the memory of my mom, knowing that she would have taken great pride in the
manifestation of our shared dreams. Ultimately, like everything that has come before it, this
work is dedicated to my son Caleb. I hope that when he comes of age, this dissertation lives up
to his expectations and reminds him that he is far more gifted and talented than his dad.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 3
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the guidance and assistance of my dissertation committee:
Dr. Michael Escalante, Dr. Pedro Garcia, Dr. David Cash, and Dr. David Verdugo. They are
outstanding educational leaders, and I count myself as incredibly fortunate to have had such
adept guides on this journey. I offer special thanks and deepest gratitude to Dr. Escalante for his
guidance, wisdom, and encouragement. Dr. Escalante has been an incredible mentor and model
of leadership. I have been blessed by the opportunity to benefit from his expertise and learn from
him.
I would also like to acknowledge the amazing educators and students I encountered in
Costa Rica. Were it not for their willingness to innovate and their open and generous nature, this
project would not have been possible.
I would like to acknowledge the support of the entire Trojan Family. The past 3 years
have been an incredible and life-changing experience. Collectively, the faculty and students of
Rossier have been instrumental in my development as a scholar and have had an indelible impact
on my practice as a professional.
To all of the members of the Tico Thematic Group of 2016, I offer my congratulations
and heartfelt gratitude for being partners and friends on this journey. I am certain that we will
remain close and look forward to all that we will accomplish for students with the skills that we
have developed through our work and association. Most importantly, I know that together we
will make a difference.
Fight On!
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
List of Abbreviations 9
Abstract 11
Chapter One: Introduction 13
Background of the Problem 14
Globalization 14
Costa Rican Educational System 15
Twenty-First-Century Learning Skills 16
STEM and PBL 17
Professional Development 18
Educational Leadership 18
Statement of the Problem 19
Purpose of the Study 20
Research Questions 20
Significance of the Study 21
Limitations and Delimitations 22
Assumptions 22
Definitions of Terms 23
Organization of the Study 24
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 25
Globalization 26
History of Globalization 27
Globalization and the Modern Economy 29
Globalization and Education 31
Brief History of Costa Rica 34
Geography and Demographics 34
Political Governance 35
Economic History 39
Contemporary Economics 42
MNCs and the Costa Rican Economy 43
Costa Rican Education System 45
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT 52
Twenty-First-Century Skills 54
STEM and PBL 58
STEM Education 58
Project-Based Learning 59
Conceptual Framework of STEM PBL 60
Professional Development 62
Characteristics of Effective Professional Development 63
Professional Learning Communities 63
Educational Leadership 66
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 5
Four Frames of Leadership 67
Eight-Step Change Model 69
Summary of the Literature Review 71
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 72
Frameworks 73
Research Design 74
Research Team 75
Sample and Population 76
Public Sector Participants 77
School-Based Participants 80
Instruments 84
Interviews 84
Surveys 85
Observations 86
Data Collection 86
Data Analysis 87
Reliability and Validity 88
Ethical Considerations 89
Chapter Summary 90
Chapter Four: Research Results 91
Restatement of Purpose and Research Questions 91
Findings for Research Question 1 92
Theme 1: Leadership of School Directors Is Necessary for PRONAFECYT
Success 93
Theme 2: School Directors Responsible for Acquiring PRONAFECYT
Resources 98
Theme 3: School Directors Establish Direction, Communication, and Motivation 108
Findings for Research Question 2 113
Theme 1: Teachers at Schools with High Levels of Participation in the
PRONAFECYT Displayed Student Work 116
Theme 2: Teachers Differed in Their Perception of Changes Resulting from the
PRONAFECYT
Findings for Research Question 3 124
Theme 1: MEP and MICITT Play a Primary Role in Training 125
Theme 2: Teachers Reported Awareness of 21st-Century Soft Skills 130
Findings for Research Question 4 131
Theme 1: Instructional Impact of STEM–PBL Practices Occurred on Continuum
of Development 132
Theme 2: PRONAFECYT Instructional Practices Differed Across School Sites 135
Chapter Summary 139
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 141
Purpose of Study Restated 141
Research Questions 141
Overview of Methodology 142
Summary of Findings 143
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 6
Finding 1: Leadership Provided by School Director Is Among the Most Crucial
Aspects of Successful PRONAFECYT Implementation 143
Finding 2: 21st-Century Skills Are Well Ingrained in the Consciousness of Costa
Rican Teachers and Students but Not Consistently Translated Into
Observable Classroom Practices 147
Finding 3: Curriculum–Pedagogy Changes Related to PRONAFECYT
Inconsistent Across School Sites 148
Implications and Recommendations for Practice 150
Implications and Recommendations for Leadership 150
Implications and Recommendations for 21st-Century Skills 151
Implications and Recommendations for Pedagogy and Instruction 152
Opportunities for Future Research 153
Conclusion 154
References 155
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 164
Appendix B: List of Research Sites 165
Appendix C: Consent Form 166
Appendix D: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 168
Appendix E: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 170
Appendix F: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 172
Appendix G: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 174
Appendix H: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 176
Appendix I: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 178
Appendix J: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 182
Appendix K: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 186
Appendix L: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 190
Appendix M: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 194
Appendix N: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 198
Appendix O: Observation Protocol 202
Appendix P: Summary of the Research Proposal 208
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Mean Costa Rica Programme for International Student Assessment,
Scores, 2012 51
Table 2: Summary of Study Participants From the Public Sector 78
Table 3: Summary of Data Collection From Schools in West San José Region 81
Table 4: Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 1 97
Table 5: Government and Business Leaders’ Responses to Survey Question 8 102
Table 6: Responses From Militaria School Participants to Survey Question 8 104
Table 7: Colón School Participants’ Responses to Survey Question 8 107
Table 8: Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 10 111
Table 9: Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 19 111
Table 10: Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 23 114
Table 11: Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 21 119
Table 12: Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 7 128
Table 13: West San José Region Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 9 131
Table 14: West San José Region Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 11 133
Table 15: West San José Region Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 14 136
Table 16: West San José Region Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 21 138
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Globalization of education situated around Appadurai’s flow of ideas 32
Figure 2: International ranking of Costa Rica’s educational quality 47
Figure 3: Twenty-first-century skills framework for student learning 57
Figure 4: Differences between traditional and project-based learning (PBL)
classrooms 62
Figure 5: Conceptual framework of the development of professional learning
communities (PLCs) 66
Figure 6: Management versus leadership roles 70
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 9
List of Abbreviations
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CINDE Coalicion Costarricense de Iniciativas para el Desarrollo (Costa Rica
Investment Promotion Agency)
CITI Collaborative IRB Training Initiative
COMEX Ministry of Foreign Trade
CONARE Consejo Nacional de Rectores
CONESUP National Council of Higher Education Private Universities
FDI Foreign direct investment
FTA Free trade agreement
FTZ Free trade zone
GNP Gross national product
ICT Information communications technology
IRB Institutional Review Board
ITCR Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (Costa Rica Institute of Technol-
ogy)
IISEF Intel International Science and Engineering Fair
MEP Ministerio de Educación Pública (Ministry of Public Education)
MICITT Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologia, y Telecommunicaciones (Ministry
of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications)
MNC Multinational corporation
NGO Nongovernmental organization
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PAC Partido de Acción Ciudadana
PBL Project-based learning
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 10
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
PLC Professional learning community
PLN Partido Liberación Nacional
PROCOMER Promotora del Comercio Exterior
PRONAFECYT Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (National Pro-
gram of Science and Technology Fairs)
R&D Research and development
STEM Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
UCR University of Costa Rica
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
USC University of Southern California
WTO World Trade Organization
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 11
Abstract
This study applied the following frameworks: (a) Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal’s 4-frame
model; (b) John Kotter’s 8-step model of leading change; (c) Tony Wagner’s 7 survival skills for
the 21st century; (d) the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) project-based
learning (PBL) framework of Robert Capraro, Margaret Capraro, and James Morgan; and (e) the
professional learning community (PLC) model of Richard DuFour, Rebecca DuFour, Robert
Eaker, and Thomas Many to understand the impact of leadership on the Costa Rican Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PRONAFECYT). The purpose of this study was to
identify leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at
Costa Rican primary school sites to identify key components attributed to successful implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT. Through emergent design, this case study developed a grounded
theory related to the influence of leadership on educational practices and the outcomes of the
PRONAFECYT. As a bound system, the unit of measurement was individual Costa Rican
schools that currently participate in the National Inform and Executive Decree 31900. Data
drawn from the firsthand accounts of policymakers, educational leaders, school directors, and
teachers were coded, analyzed, and triangulated to derive a theory of action related to the influ-
ence of leadership practice on implementation, classroom instruction, and participation in the
PRONAFECYT. Key findings from this study indicated that leadership provided by the school
director is among the most crucial aspects of successful PRONAFECYT implementation; 21st-
century skills are well ingrained in the consciousness of Costa Rican teachers and students but
have not been consistently translated into observable classroom practices. Moreover, curriculum
and pedagogy changes related to the PRONAFECYT have been inconsistent across school sites.
This study integrated several key themes related to the current era of globalization and its impact
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 12
on education as a critical driver of economic prosperity through the production of human capital.
It contributes to a new line of work within educational leadership studies with generalizable
findings across geographic and cultural contexts.
Keywords: educational leadership, STEM, PBL, science fairs, 21st-century skills, PLC,
leading change, globalization of education
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 13
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Fifty years ago, the United States and Western Europe were predominant global powers
with educational systems aligned to predictable industries and stable economic cycles (Zakaria,
2011). During this period, the average American or European worker possessed a reasonable
expectation of working a single career or in a few different jobs over the course of a lifetime
(Kay & Greenhill, 2012). Now, due primarily to changes attributed to the collective processes
that comprise globalization, workers from the current generation of students can expect to hold
between 10 and 12 jobs before reaching the age of 40 (Darling-Hammond, 2010).
The factors that contribute to modern globalization and that affect modern education
systems can be grouped into three broad criteria: (a) the rapid evolution of the knowledge econ-
omy, (b) the shift from limited access to information into virtually unlimited and expansive
availability of information, and (c) the increasing influence of media and technology on the
development of world culture (Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2010).
In response to changing economic conditions, national education systems have been
forced to analyze student learner outcomes beyond the basic acquisition of academic or voca-
tional skills. As advances in technology and communication become universally available,
students are faced with a future in which competition for jobs and careers is on an increasingly
global level (Clifton, 2011). In response, national educational strategies are shifting toward the
progressively complex task of building human capital. In these times of rapid change, systems
that are unable to adapt risk becoming obsolete (Kotter, 1996), and educators have been tasked
with preparing students for jobs that may not yet exist (Darling-Hammond, 2010).
According to the Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency (Coalicion Costarricense de
Iniciativas para el Desarrollo [CINDE], 2013), Costa Rica has chosen to meet the challenges of
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 14
the modern era through focusing on the formation of human capital through public education.
Consequently, Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase its competitiveness.
For example, changes have been made to increase the development of student competencies in
science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) areas. One of those changes being mandated
is participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity
in the levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the PRONAFECYT at
individual school sites.
Background of the Problem
Globalization
Globalization may be viewed as a process through which disparate economic, political,
cultural, and educational systems interact with and influence autonomous communities and
nations in an increasingly interconnected world (Spring, 2008). To understand the development
of the Costa Rican educational system and the context from which the PRONAFECYT was
created, an understanding of the processes of globalization is beneficial. As a nation with limited
natural resources, Costa Rica has been dependent on the export of agricultural goods such as
bananas and coffee as an economic strategy throughout much of its early history (Bucheli, 2008;
Palmer & Molina, 2004). This economic strategy changed in the mid 1990s, when multinational
corporations (MNCs) such as Intel and Baxter Pharmaceutical chose Costa Rica as an attractive
location for investment, based on the quality of the educational system, the high literacy rate, and
a stable democratic government (Cordero & Paus, 2008). Over the past 2 decades, Costa Rica’s
transition from a nation that exports unfinished agricultural products to high-tech manufacturing
products has increased the inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) from approximately $400
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 15
million in 2000 to $2.1 billion in 2011 (World Bank, 2012). By 2014, the city of San José, Costa
Rica, was ranked as the number one destination for MNC outsourcing in Latin America (CINDE,
2014a).
Costa Rican Educational System
As one of the first nations to make education compulsory and free for all citizens in
1869 (Palmer & Molina, 2004), Costa Rica has a long history of aligning the mission of the
country’s schools with the demands of an increasingly globalized job market. Biesanz, Biesanz,
and Biesanz (1999) noted that Costa Ricans proudly tell visitors, “We have more teachers than
soldiers” (p. 9). Funding for this robust school system is rooted in Article 78 of the 1949 Costa
Rican Constitution (as cited in Biesanz et al., 1999). According to Biesanz et al., to provide
sufficient resources to guarantee universal access to quality education, the government is consti-
tutionally required to allocate at least 8% of Costa Rica’s annual gross domestic product (GDP)
to educational programs. This system of prioritized funding for education has yielded positive
results. As of 2014, the adult literacy rate of Costa Rica had risen to 96.3%, with the quality of
the education system ranked at 21st in the world, ahead of all other Latin American nations and
the United States (CINDE, 2014b).
The Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (Ministerio de Ciencia,
Tecnologia, y Telecommunicaciones [MICITT], n.d.) reported that the PRONAFECYT is an
educational initiative intended to instill Costa Rican students with an interest in science, technol-
ogy, engineering, and math. In its current state, the PRONAFECYT policies and programs are
coordinated by the PRONAFECYT in collaboration with the Ministry of Public Education (Min-
isterio de Educación Pública [MEP]) and Costa Rican university partnerships. According to the
MICITT (n.d.),
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 16
the Science and Technology Fairs are learning processes in which interest in science and
technology, development of critical and creative thinking from an early age, through
educational experiences at preschool, primary and secondary, are encouraged to promote
the acquisition of attitudes, skills, values, and intellectual processes that enable students
to function and properly understand their environment and explore scientific and techno-
logical careers. (para. 1.)
Twenty-First-Century Learning Skills
Wagner (2010) stated that the seven survival skills necessary for students to be successful
in the 21st-century globalized workforce are critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration
across networks and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneur-
ship, effective oral and written communication skills, the ability to access and analyze informa-
tion, and curiosity and imagination. Although these are often described as soft skills, Wagner
(2012) argued that school systems must rapidly adapt to the continual changes elicited by increas-
ing globalization to develop and implement programs to prepare students for entry into a
knowledge- and innovation-based economy. To do so, approaches such as project-based learning
(PBL) are needed, whereby teachers promote active learning and act as facilitators during instruc-
tion. The rationale for the adoption of this approach is directly related to the need to assist
students with the development of skills to discern the quality of data for analysis brought about
by the unprecedented availability of information afforded by 21st-century technology (Wagner,
2010).
As such, Wagner (2010) is a proponent of PBL, given its long-term benefits for the
development of human capital in the 21st century. Given the nature of the PRONAFECYT com-
petition, critical thinking and problem-solving skills are foundational components of successful
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 17
participation for students in all grade levels. In addition, students must develop effective written
and oral communication skills to successfully present, describe, and defend their projects at the
local and national levels. Further, students who are unable to access information for analysis and
synthesis were at a distinct disadvantage. Finally, students who are not encouraged to develop
their creativity through play and imagination in elementary grades may struggle with higher order
thinking skills in later academic experiences (Wagner, 2010), such as participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
STEM and PBL
According to Friedman (2007), STEM education has become increasingly relevant and
predictive of future employment prospects for students. In the case of Costa Rica, degrees in
STEM-related fields are underrepresented among current college graduates (Consejo Nacional de
Rectores [CONARE], 2012). This problem could pose as a significant challenge as Costa Rican
policymakers consider a shift from an economic model based on the attraction of FDI to an
economic model based on innovation. As cited in the National Academies report, Rising Above
the Gathering Storm (Olson & Arrison, 2005), to successfully compete in the modern economy,
students will have to develop skills in adaptability, complex communication, social skills, non-
routine problem solving, self-management, and systems thinking associated with the field of
engineering. Through learning the engineering design process as a collaborative problem-
solving approach, students were able to develop skills related to communication and critical
thinking that are key to the development of 21st-century learning skills frameworks (Kay &
Greenhill, 2012; Wagner, 2010) as well as successful participation in the PRONAFECYT.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 18
Professional Development
School improvement is human resource improvement (Fullan, 2011). In other words,
student achievement or efforts toward school reform initiatives such as the PRONAFECYT often
have a direct relationship to the quality of professional development provided to teachers. Hun-
zicker (2011) noted that effective professional development consists of five broad criteria: being
supportive, being job embedded, being instructional focused, being collaborative, and ongoing.
According to Fulton, Doerr, and Britton (2010), participation in professional learning communi-
ties (PLCs) for STEM teachers increases their overall levels of content knowledge, pedagogy,
and effectiveness, as measured by student engagement and achievement. Specifically, participat-
ing in learning teams through a PLC model has resulted in teachers implementing a wider variety
of research-based methods for teaching mathematics and science, paying additional attention to
students’ reasoning and understanding, and experimenting with more diverse modes of engaging
students in problem solving. As such, an exploration of research-validated approaches to PLCs
may be useful to guide analyses of Costa Rican professional development practices to support the
PRONAFECYT.
Educational Leadership
Ballestero and Wright (2008) stated that school and system leaders in Costa Rica face
many of the same complex challenges as do educational leaders around the world. They contend
with long hours; high-stakes, test-based accountability; complex and multilevel bureaucracy; and
students and families with diverse levels of need. To examine the characteristics of leadership
exhibited by Costa Rican educational leaders accountable for the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT, Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership (i.e., structural, human
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 19
resource, political, and symbolic) are useful. The authors described these four frames, or lenses,
by which leadership can be perceived or expressed.
As noted, the process of globalization in Costa Rica has been an underlying cause of
pervasive educational change. Kotter (1996) asserted that as the pace of change accelerates, there
is an increased need for effective leadership to guide the change process. At the present time,
there are limited data on the effectiveness of Costa Rica’s educational leaders as they navigate
the change process related to implementation of the PRONAFECYT through the adoption of
21st-century learning skills paradigms to build the human capital of Costa Rican students.
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed
in an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education
system must occur (Biesanz et al., 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has necessitated a
change in the skills that students must develop to compete in an increasingly global workforce
(Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer competing with
other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation but rather with school systems around
the world (Wagner, 2012).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et al.,
1999). Since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2006). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 20
adapted and reformed itself from a rural, agrarian society to a high-tech hub of innovation in
Latin America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract FDI, which have included tax incentives and investments in infrastructure as well as
changes to the educational system (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
[OECD], 2012a).
To continue attracting FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools that
produce knowledge- and conceptually based workers with skills in STEM in addition to essential
21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2012). However, according to the Americas
Society and Council of the Americas (2011), 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish
their secondary school experience. Moreover, to ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017, including
among those in rural and poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must ensure that all
students have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based educational outcomes in all
schools (CINDE, 2012).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the role that educational leaders play in imple-
menting the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative. The study provides an examination of
leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at primary
school sites to identify key components of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 21
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with the
21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Significance of the Study
At the present time, there is limited research on the broad effects of globalization on
education in Costa Rica. As such, the aim of the present study was to increase the availability of
data to inform future inquiries and initiatives. In a similar fashion, there is a general lack of
empirical data on how the PRONAFECYT has affected leadership and instructional practices in
Costa Rican primary schools. Further, there is scant literature on the implementation of STEM
programs as a 21st-century skills initiative in Costa Rican schools. Therefore, the research con-
ducted in this study should be used to inform policymakers, educational leaders, and other
stakeholders in Costa Rica.
As a comparative case study, the findings of this research should provide useful analysis
and recommendations for a broad audience. By comparing observed and reported practices with
research-validated frameworks, strategies to increase effectiveness related to educational leader-
ship on participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica may emerge.
Because the study identified the role that school leaders have in the development and implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT initiative, emergent themes in the data were used to develop gener-
alizable conclusions. Additionally, because the study provides an exploration of how schools
may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 22
teacher training, strategies to bolster the effectiveness of current practice were uncovered or
validated. Specific recommendations from this study may be utilized in assisting Costa Rican
policymakers and program implementers to identify leadership strategies and characteristics that
are associated with successful primary schools practices with regard to participation in the
PRONAFECYT. Most importantly, the findings of this study may be used by stakeholders to
improve current leadership practices aimed at increasing the effectiveness of an innovative
program as a means to build the human capital of Costa Rican primary school students.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study included international travel; thus, the distance between southern California
and Costa Rica was a limitation as data were collected only over a 10-day period. In addition,
language fluency was a limitation, as each research team was comprised of one fluent Spanish
speaker and one primary English speaker; interviews were translated into English.
The sampling of schools from which data were drawn also posed a limitation. Eighteen
primary-level school sites were visited for data collection. The schools were selected based on
recommendations from the Costa Rican MEP; therefore, findings may not be generalizable to
other Costa Rican schools based on demographic or socioeconomic differences.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made about the study:
1. That the MEP provided accurate information about the schools;
2. That responses to interview and survey questions were authentic, accurate, and
trustworthy;
3. That classroom observations were natural and not contrived for the duration of the
school visit;
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 23
4. That data collection protocols were accurately aligned with the conceptual frame-
works on which they were based; and
5. That STEM and PBL are necessary components of the instructional program of
primary schools that participate in the PRONAFECYT.
Definitions of Terms
Globalization: According to the World Bank (as cited in Soubbotina and Sheram, 2000),
globalization refers to the “growing interdependence of countries resulting from increasing
integration of trade, finance, people, and ideas in one global marketplace” (p. 66). When specifi-
cally referring to the globalization of education, Spring’s (2009) framework was used.
Project-based learning: PBL refers to a constructivist approach to pedagogy wherein
students build understanding through experiential projects based on a collaborative cycle of
inquiry (Rosenfeld & Ben-Hur, 2001).
Professional learning community: A PLC, as described DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and
Many (2010), is a structured approach to professional development that features an ongoing
process of educators working in collaboration. Through an ongoing cycle of inquiry and action
research, teams of teachers engage in strategic and largely autonomous professional development
for increasing student achievement.
STEM: STEM refers to the integration of science, technology, engineering, and math
(Capraro, Capraro, & Morgan, 2013).
Twenty-first-century skills: These skills are a blend of academic and nonacademic skills
and competencies that many scholars agree are important for students to develop in the modern
era. According to Wagner (2010), the seven survival skills necessary for students to be success-
ful in the 21st-century globalized workforce are critical thinking and problem solving,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 24
collaboration across networks and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and
entrepreneurship, effective oral and written communication skills, the ability to access and
analyze information, and curiosity and imagination. This definition of 21st-century skills, as well
as that of Kay and Greenhill (2012), which includes critical thinking, communication, creativity,
and collaboration, were utilized in this study.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation contains five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction and overview
of the comparative case study. It includes a statement of the problem to be studied, the purpose,
research questions, and significance of the study. Chapter 1 also includes the definition of key
terms, limitations, delimitations, and assumptions related to this study.
Chapter 2 offers a review of the literature related to the current study. Chapter 2 is
organized by the following topics: (a) an overview of globalization and its impact on worldwide
economic and educational systems and (b) a discussion of the historical development of Costa
Rica’s economic and educational systems as viewed through the lens of globalization; (c) the
Costa Rican educational system and PRONAFECYT, (d) a discussion of 21st-century skills, (e)
the integration of STEM and PBL as an instructional approach, (f) PLCs and teachers’ profes-
sional development, and (g) educational leadership.
Chapter 3 presents the proposed methodology for this study. In Chapter 3, the methodol-
ogy, research design, sampling method, instrumentation, data collection process, data analysis,
and thematic structures are described. Chapter 4 presents the research findings, identifies
themes, and analyzes data with regard to each research question and the conceptual frameworks.
Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study, conclusions, possible implications for practice, and
suggestions for future research opportunities relating to the same phenomena.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 25
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Changes to the global economy have necessitated a paradigm shift in how national
education systems prepare students to enter the 21st-century workforce (Wagner, 2010). As
competition for jobs has shifted from local markets to the global stage, employers seek candi-
dates who were
comfortable with ideas and abstractions, good at both analysis and synthesis, creative and
innovative, self-disciplined and well organized, able to learn quickly and work well as a
member of a team and have the flexibility to adapt quickly to frequent changes the labor
market as the shifts in the economy become faster and ever more dramatic. (New Com-
mission on the Skills of the American Workforce, 2007, p. 8)
Costa Rica has experienced numerous changes over the past several decades, brought
about by forces attributed to globalization. Based on the demands of a globalized economy, the
Costa Rican educational system has adapted, focusing efforts on the development of 21st-century
skills (CINDE, 2013) and national initiatives such as the PRONAFECYT (MICITT, n.d.). As a
result of focusing on the creation of human capital toward building capacity for entry into the
high-tech and knowledge-based sectors of the global economy, Costa Rica has emerged as an
economic leader among Latin American countries (Gerrefi, Bamber, Frederick, & Fernandez-
Stark, 2013). The scope of this review includes globalization and its effects on the Costa Rican
educational system, with a focus on leadership practices specifically suited to promote successful
participation in Costa Rica’s PRONAFECYT.
The literature review is comprised of six sections: globalization, a history of Costa Rica,
the Costa Rican educational system, 21st-century skills, STEM and PBL, and educational lead-
ership. The first section will provide a brief history and a working definition of globalization,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 26
drawing from the conceptual framework developed by Spring (2009). Following that will be
subsections on Costa Rican governance and economics. Next, the Costa Rican educational
system is described and leads to a discussion of the purpose of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
In the third section, 21st-century skills are defined using the framework developed by Wagner
(2010) and contrasted with the framework proposed by Kay and Greenhill (2012) to provide a
multidimensional analysis useful in the proposed inquiry of Costa Rica’s current educational
reforms.
STEM and PBL are explored using the conceptual framework developed by Capraro et al.
(2013) as a means to identify indicators of research-based STEM–PBL implementation in Costa
Rican schools. In addition, an inquiry into effective professional development, drawn from the
PLC framework (DuFour et al., 2010; DuFour & Marzano, 2011), is synthesized with existing
research on STEM–PBL professional development to guide the current study. Finally, issues of
leadership are presented. There is a particular focus placed on Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four
frames of leadership framework and Kotter’s (1996) framework of leading change to ground an
exploration and discussion of generalized leadership practices and characteristics useful in
guiding an inquiry about how Costa Rican leaders contend with leadership challenges while
navigating the change process.
Globalization
Globalization, as defined by the World Bank (as cited in Soubbotina & Sheram, 2000),
refers to the “growing interdependence of countries resulting from increasing integration of trade,
finance, people, and ideas in one global marketplace” (p. 66). In the following section, a brief
sociohistorical context of globalization is presented to situate the development of the Costa Rican
education system. Particular attention to the globalization of education, as presented by Spring’s
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 27
(2009) conceptual framework, is presented to ground the definition of globalization used
throughout this study.
History of Globalization
The term globalization, first coined in 1985 by economist Theodore Leavitt, refers to
changes in global economics that affect production, consumption, and investment (Spring, 2009).
Globalization has been a consistent theme in modern history. Although most commonly attrib-
uted to the realm of economics, Chanda (2008) asserted that the prime movers of globalization
are rooted in the universal human impulse to seek novel opportunities through exploration. The
majority of educational research reviewed indicated that globalization consists of multifaceted
processes, with influences extending well beyond economic market forces (Chanda, 2008;
Friedman, 2007; Hallissy, Butler, Hurley, & Marshall, 2013; Kay & Greenhill, 2012; Spring
2009; Zakaria, 2011).
Rather than an isolated force or set of discrete outcomes, globalization may be viewed as
a process through which disparate economic, political, cultural, and educational systems interact
with and affect diverse nations in an increasingly interconnected world (Spring, 2009). To
understand the impact of globalization on the 21st century, a brief synthesis, presented through
an historical lens, is necessary. When viewed through this lens, the initial migration of modern
humans from Africa 50,000 years ago may be interpreted as the genesis of globalization (Chanda,
2008). Toward that end, subsequent migrations of people, material resources, concepts, and
beliefs have been led by actors collectively referred to as traders, preachers, adventurers, and
warriors, who have all contributed to the shaping of the modern world (Chanda, 2008). Traders
sought profit by establishing trade routes, international economic systems, and spheres of influ-
ence. Preachers spread both religions and secular philosophy through proselytization and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 28
subjugation, thus laying the groundwork of interwoven cultural identities across nations and
tribes. Adventurers sought new opportunities and, in the process, expanded markets and bound-
aries. Warriors established empires through conquest, spreading the structures of government
across large areas of the globe.
Zakaria (2011) noted that three major shifts over the past 5 centuries have shaped the
course of world history toward its current state. Zakaria referred to these shifts as the “Rise of
the West” (p. 78), “Rise of the United States” (p. 194), and “Rise of the Rest” (p. 2). In a similar
fashion, Friedman (2007) identified three cycles of globalization during the same time period, in
which the world “shrank” or became more interconnected through the flow of ideas and the
establishment of trade. The Rise of the West, beginning with the voyage of Columbus, was
characterized by advancements in technology and science, the establishment of intercontinental
trade routes, capitalism developing as the world’s preeminent economic philosophy, and the
spread of Western forms of governance with formalized bureaucracy through conquest and
colonization (Zakaria, 2011). Friedman described this period, from the 1500s through the 1800s,
as “Globalization 1.0,” as the world began its journey of interconnectedness through the efforts
of nation states to generate wealth through trade, thus metaphorically shrinking the world from
large to medium.
In Zakaria’s (2011) framework, the second major shift was the Rise of the United States
as a dominant global power. This period, between 1900 and 2000, was marked by isolated
industrialization in the 1800s to U.S. political, cultural, scientific, economic, and military domi-
nance across the globe following two world wars and the Cold War. Similarly, Friedman (2007)
identified “Globalization 2.0” as occurring within the same period and noted the rise of the
United States in conjunction with a rapid phase of technological innovation, culminating in the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 29
emergence of personal computing and the Internet as well as the development of U.S.-based
MNCs. During this middle phase of globalization, MNCs developed infrastructures to support
international supply chains and built international partnerships based on economic benefit for the
MNC as well as for the host nation, thus further shrinking the world from medium to small.
Globalization and the Modern Economy
The current postmillennium era has been referred to as the Rise of the Rest (Zakaria,
2011), the “Digital Age” (Neubauer, 2007), or “Globalization 3.0” (Friedman, 2007). Techno-
logical advancement has been a hallmark of this era (Kay & Greenhill, 2012), resulting in new
industries and challenges to educational paradigms due primarily to unprecedented access to
information. Digital information has multiplied at an exponential rate, with over 5 exabytes,
or 500,000 times the volume of information stored in the U.S. Library of Congress, of new
information generated during 2002 alone (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Much of this rapid expan-
sion of knowledge can be attributed to the ability of researchers and scholars to communicate and
collaborate across international boundaries in real time using technology (Friedman, 2007). In
this era of collaboration and communication, it has been estimated that the amount of new tech-
nical information available to the citizens of the world via the Internet triples daily (Darling-
Hammond, 2010). This rapid advance of information technology has deeply affected educa-
tional, economic, and social systems across the globe (Chanda, 2008; Clifton, 2011; Friedman,
2007; Zakaria, 2011).
From an economic perspective, globalization refers to the liberalization of trade, invest-
ment, and finance, thereby leading to an “open economy” (Van Der Bly, 2005). Free trade,
largely facilitated by advancements in trade technology, information communications technology
(ICT), and the establishment of global value chains has led to increased opportunities for
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 30
developing nations as well as the rise of new industrialized states, such as China and India
(Friedman, 2007; Zakaria, 2011). Although the liberalization of trade policies has been benefi-
cial to increasing the GDP of both MNCs and developing nations, these policies have been
greeted with some apprehension and skepticism in technologically advanced nations due to the
movement of manufacturing and low-skilled service jobs to less expensive job markets (Darling-
Hammond, 2010; Friedman, 2007; Hargreaves, 2003; Spring 2009). Likewise, these changes
have been controversial in both developing and developed nations, with critics’ citing unfair
advantages posed by increased levels of cooperation between MNCs and national governments as
resulting in the unequal distribution of profits through exploitative labor practices (Spring, 2009).
According to Zakaria (2011), this shift in the world economy, facilitated by ICT, has
resulted in both the rapid acceleration of Asian economies and the economic rise of developing
nations in Latin America. Functions once exclusively controlled by governments, such as the
funding of research and development (R&D) and the setting of educational agendas, are increas-
ingly influenced by the decisions of MNCs, international bodies, and international nongovern-
mental organizations (NGOs; Spring, 2009; Zakaria, 2011). Capital is no longer bound to its
country of origin but rather flows freely to the most attractive regions in which to conduct
business (Friedman, 2007; Hargreaves, 2003; Zakaria, 2011). With the flow of capital, through
global value chains, free-trade agreements (FTAs), and FDI, jobs are created with potentially
mutual benefit to MNCs and the regions in which they invest (Gereffi et al., 2013).
This free flow of information and migration of capital have transformed the world labor
market from a skills-based model, originating during 19th-century industrialization, to a global,
knowledge-based economy (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Friedman, 2007; Hallissy et al., 2013;
Hargreaves, 2003; Kay & Greenhill, 2012; Spring, 2009). Clifton (2011) has projected that
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 31
under these conditions, an intensification in global competition for jobs necessitates a renewed
focus on the development of human capital through education. As the collective global GDP is
projected to increase from its current $60 trillion per year to an annual rate of $200 trillion over
the course of the next 30 years, nations able to capitalize on innovation through human capital
development will reap the greatest benefit (Clifton, 2011). As stated by Hargreaves (2003), “we
live in a knowledge economy, a knowledge society. Knowledge economies are stimulated and
driven by creativity and ingenuity. Knowledge-society schools have to create these qualities;
otherwise, their people and their nations were left behind” (p. 1). In essence, as affirmed by
Friedman (2007), individuals will need to adapt to new technologies and adopt the self-
motivation and mental flexibility of lifelong learners to thrive in the new global economy.
Globalization of Education
Because globalization is largely defined and measurable in economic terms, a definition
of globalization from the perspective of other social sciences is elusive (Friedman, 2007; Spring,
2008). To portray the underlying mechanisms of globalization, anthropologist Arjun Appadurai
(as cited in Spring, 2009) discussed the flow of ideas, practices, institutions, and people who
interact with local populations with the following descriptors: ethnoscapes—the movement of
people; mediascapes—the movement of images and ideas in popular culture; financescapes—the
global movement of trade and capital; ideoscapes—the global movement of ideas and practices
regarding government and other institutional practices; and technoscapes—the global movement
of advances in transportation, communication, and information technology. Although discrete
phenomena, each of these flows interacts across global networks through electronic media and
the process of international exchange, subsequently resulting in the globalized society of the 21st
century (Spring, 2009).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 32
Figure 1. Globalization of education situated around
Appadurai’s flow of ideas. Adapted from Globaliza-
tion of Education: An Introduction, by J. Spring,
2009, London, UK: Routledge, p. 19.
Spring (2009) stated that the globalization of education refers to flows of information
through four lenses: the world culture view, the world systems approach, a postcolonial world-
view, and the culturalist approach. Underlying each lens are assumptions regarding the aim and
purpose of education from within a globalized frame. The globalization of education situated
around Appuradai’s flow of ideas is presented in Figure 1.
Adherents of the world culture view perceive globalization of education as fundamentally
rooted in the development of human capital to further the generation of a multinational culture.
Further, they posit that current flows, as identified by Appadurai, result in the emergence of a
shared global culture (Spring, 2009). While proponents of this worldview cite decreasing levels
of poverty and rising literacy rates among developing nations (Friedman 2007; Zakaria, 2011),
critics often cite the homogenization of world cultures through the dominance of English, the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 33
propagation of consumerism, and loss of cultural identity (Burity, 2012). In contrast, culturalists
acknowledge the potential benefits and disadvantages of the world culture view but place
primary focus on how individual cultures adapt world educational models to meet local needs
(Roniger, 2011). Rather than seeing the world culture as a hegemony or threat to national ident-
ities, they acknowledge the influence of a developing world culture as secondary to the unique
cultures of individual nations and communities (Spring, 2009). While acknowledging the
importance of English language skills and facility with technology as necessary skills in the 21st
century, culturalists place primary importance on the maintenance of unique cultural identities,
despite globalization.
The postcolonial perspective posits that the current phase of globalization is aimed at
reaffirming the traditional relationships between developing nations and world powers, with
MNCs fulfilling the role once held by global super powers, such as the United States and Russia
(Spring, 2009). Within this schema, education is viewed as a means of developing human capital
to ensure a consistent supply of skilled workers to meet the demands of a globalized economy.
As discussed, this worldview may contribute to perceptions that globalization is inherently
exploitative. Similarly, world systems theory holds that the globalization of education serves the
interests of a world divided by socioeconomic lines, with the United States, European Union, and
Japan representing a powerful cabal that works together to exploit the populations of developing
nations for the benefit of maintaining economic and cultural dominance. A working understand-
ing of these views of the globalization of education is beneficial in the current inquiry, as it may
provide insight into the perspectives of policymakers and educational leaders in Costa Rica as
well as their actions related to implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 34
Brief History of Costa Rica
To contextualize the development of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT as a 21st-century
learning initiative, it is useful to understand the political, economic, and educational history of
this unique nation. The following provides a longitudinal perspective of the origin and purpose
of the PRONAFECYT within the Costa Rican educational system and places its function and
importance within a dynamic evolutionary context.
Geography and Demographics
Costa Rica is located on the isthmus of Central America, between the Caribbean Sea and
the Pacific Ocean, bordering Panama to the southeast and Nicaragua to the north (Sohn, 2013).
A small nation, Costa Rica encompasses 51,100 square kilometers and is comparable in size to
the U.S. state of West Virginia (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2014). World renowned for
its natural beauty, diverse wildlife, rainforests, and tropical climate, Costa Rica caters to the
world’s growing demand for ecotourism and has become an attractive destination for MNCs over
the past 30 years (Kahle-Piasecki, 2013).
With an estimated population of 4.8 million citizens (CIA, 2014), Costa Ricans, or Ticos
as they refer to themselves, have the highest standard of living in Central America, with an
annual per capita income averaging approximately $12,000. Nearly a third of the population is
concentrated in Costa Rica’s urban capital of San José (Kahle-Piasecki, 2013). Firestone,
Miranda, and Soriano (2010) explained that Costa Ricans enjoy a higher average life expectancy
than do Americans and pride themselves on a stress-free way of life, colloquially referred to as
pura vida.
Costa Rica’s citizenry is relatively young, with a median age of 30 years, and has an
available workforce of 2.15 million (CIA, 2014). Of the total workforce, 66% is concentrated in
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 35
metropolitan areas, with an overall national unemployment rate of 10.4% and a low unemploy-
ment rate of 2.9% to 3.5% in urban areas that feature high-tech and service sectors of the econ-
omy (Gereffi et al., 2013). Kahle-Piasecki (2013) noted that 98% of the Costa Rican population
self-identify as ethnically White or Mestizo, with the remaining 2% self-identified as having
primarily African, Asian, or indigenous ancestry. Upwards of 10% of the Costa Rican population
are undocumented immigrants from Nicaragua. While Spanish is the official language, English
is taught in the public school system and frequently used in commerce and tourism. According to
the Costa Rican Constitution (Costa Rica & Organization of American States [OAS], 1965),
Roman Catholicism is the officially recognized faith of the nation.
Political Governance
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence from Spain in 1821
(Palmer & Molina, 2004). During a brief period of union with Mexico and the United Provinces
of Central America, Juan Mora Fernandez was selected as Costa Rica’s first head of state and
ushered in a period of oligarchy led by prominent coffee barons prior to complete independence
in 1839. In 1848, José Maria Castro Madriz was selected by Costa Rica’s congress to become
the first president. After declaring itself a republic, Costa Rica adopted a constitutional govern-
ment and prioritized education and social services as a means of national human development.
Palmer and Molina (2004) explained that President Madriz was forced to resign due to
the growing economic influence of cafelateros (coffee barons) in 1849. Replacing Madriz, Juan
Rafael Mora, through family connections to cafelateros, ascended to the presidency of Costa
Rica. During Mora’s reign in 1857, U.S. imperialist William Walker took control of Nicaragua
and intended to invade Costa Rica. Despite successfully repelling Walker’s attempt to invade
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 36
Costa Rica, a military junta ousted Mora and a period of political instability followed for the
proceeding decade.
In 1870, General Tomas Guardia seized control of the Costa Rican government. High-
lights of his regime included the adoption of the Costa Rican constitution of 1871, which despite
being frequently modified, guided Costa Rica’s development until 1949. This document pro-
vided many of the basic frameworks of the social reforms and progressive policies attributed to
modern Costa Rica. According to Booth (2008), although Guardia was a dictator, his policies of
strengthening education, providing public health services, and establishing the Atlantic railway
system created government structures that were instrumental in preparing Costa Rica for democ-
ratization in the 20th century. Guardia’s policies provided the basis for Costa Rica’s early
national identity. The constitutional focus on public education raised the nation’s literacy rate;
bureaucratic structures paved the way for the emergence of a middle class; and the railway
system increased Costa Rican access to international commerce and the flow of political ideolo-
gies. Further, as a result of Guardia’s autocratic tendencies and increased taxation to support
social welfare programs, the political influence of cafelateros was significantly reduced, thus
advancing Costa Rica’s preparedness for democratic reform (Booth, 2008).
Following President Guardia’s death in 1882, Costa Rica entered into an extended period
of political instability as agricultural oligarchs attempted to regain control of the government.
According to Sharman (2005), this period of Costa Rica’s history was marked by widespread
corruption that led to the election of Dr. Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia in 1940. Calderon,
initially supported by the cafelateros, aligned his policies with the Catholic church and the Com-
munist Party shortly following his election. Calderon’s philosophy of governance, aligned with
the tenets of Liberation Theology (Spring, 2009), focused on social reforms. He received
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 37
widespread support from Costa Rican’s citizenry through extensive expansion of social welfare
programs, including social security, a progressive pension system, universal healthcare, and the
establishment of a minimum wage. Upon leaving office in 1944, Calderon was replaced by his
chosen successor, Teodoro Picado, who continued Calderon’s policies until the 1948 presidential
election (Sharman, 2005).
Despite the popularity of Calderon, political rivals claimed that Picado rose to power
through election fraud. Under a cloud of suspicion and after losing his bid for reelection in
1948, Calderon counter-claimed election fraud due to disparities in congressional and presiden-
tial vote tallies. As the Costa Rican congress attempted to settle the dispute, after declaring the
election null and void, a Costa Rican expatriate backed by the Social Democratic party took steps
to seize the presidency. José Maria “Don Pepe” Figueres Ferrer, with support from a coalition of
Costa Rican citizens and international anti-communist supporters, took control of the Costa
Rican government following a bloody, 6-week civil war (Booth, 2008).
Although rooted in turmoil, Figueres’s presidency became one of the most influential in
Costa Rican history (Booth, 2008). Within 18 months of the end of the war, Figueres’s regime
amended the Costa Rican constitution and established electoral reforms that resulted in Costa
Rica’s current reputation for fair and free elections. Figueres’s amended constitution featured a
sweeping expansion of civil rights and financial and social reforms. Women’s and Black suf-
frage were established, the Communist party was declared illegal, banks were nationalized, and
the military was permanently abolished (Booth, 2008). In many respects, the 1949 constitution
marked the beginning of Costa Rica’s modern period.
Today, Costa Rica is among the most stable and successful of Latin American democra-
cies (Biesanz et al., 1999; Booth, 2008; Palmer & Molina, 2004). Costa Rica’s political success
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 38
can be partially attributed to high voter turnout and participation in elections, which as averaged
over 80% since the 1960s (Booth, 2008). According to Sohn (2013), Costa Rica has been gov-
erned by either the politically progressive Partido Liberación Nacional (PLN) or the center right
Partido Unidad Social Cristiana (PUSC) since 1948. The Partido de Acción Ciudadana (PAC), a
liberal faction of the PLN, emerged in 2000 as a result of voter dissatisfaction with partisan
gridlock between the two traditional political parties but did not gain momentum until political
scandals in the mid 2000s called the legitimacy of the two-party system into question, which
legitimized and advanced popular support for a third party.
Until the 1980s, Costa Rica experienced a period of relative political calm (Palmer &
Molina, 2004) in which the country built strong economic ties with the United States through
exportation of agricultural products. This situation changed in the 1980s due to regional con-
flicts, with the influence of civil wars in El Salvador and Nicaragua compounding the effects of
an economic recession in the United States. In the midst of these crises, then-president of Costa
Rica, Luis Alberto Monge, strengthened diplomatic ties with the United States while implement-
ing a program of fiscal austerity to curb a growing national debt. In 1987, a regional peace plan
was developed to end the civil war in Nicaragua and to restore peaceful relations between
affected states in Central America. Costa Rican President Oscar Arias led this effort, for which
he received a Nobel Prize. With the region politically stabilized, the Costa Rican government of
Arias began the aggressive development of productive development policies (Monge-González
& Tacsir, 2014) to stimulate the economy through the attraction of FDI.
During the 1990s, in the midst of a lingering economic recession, Costa Rica began the
process of liberalizing trade policies that initiated a concerted effort to attract FDI through the
establishment of free-trade zones (FTZs) and tax incentives for foreign investment (Nelson,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 39
2008). According to Nelson (2008), many of the economic developments associated with FDI
linked to high-tech and STEM-related enterprises can be attributed directly to the presidential
vision and leadership of José Maria Figueres between 1994 and 1998. Figueres’s long-term,
transformational vision resulted in sweeping changes to national economic and educational
systems and created the foundation for Costa Rica’s entry into the knowledge society and even-
tual shift into the knowledge-based economy of the 21st century.
Despite scandals in the mid 2000s that involved members of both of Costa Rica’s major
political parties (Sohn, 2005), Costa Rican presidents have come into office through an honest
election process (Biesanz et al., 1999). In 2006, Oscar Arias served a second term as president
and then relinquished his office to a former advisor. In 2010, Costa Rica elected its first female
president, Laura Chinchilla. Her term was noteworthy for her continued support of environmen-
talism and her focus on economic development through the attraction of high-tech MNCs. She
was succeeded to the presidency by Luis Guillermo Solis, the first Costa Rican president from
the liberal PAC party. Since assuming office in May of 2014, President Solis has publicly
avowed his support of 21st-century-based education that is aligned with the further development
of the Costa Rican economy through continued attraction of FDI (CINDE, 2012).
Economic History
During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian
society to a high-tech hub of innovation in Latin America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). When
compared to neighboring countries in the region, the economic rise of Costa Rica may seem
aberrant; however, a cursory exploration of its economic history and early international strategies
reveal that this progression was deliberate, strategic, and often guided by the decisions of a
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 40
central government to align governmental programs such as education with economic develop-
ment strategies (Gereffi et al., 2013; Palmer & Molina, 2004; Sohn, 2013).
During the 1800s, Costa Rica’s economy was driven by the cultivation of coffee. Palmer and
Molina (2004) noted that coffee was first harvested and processed in the region surrounding San
José but rapidly spread as a cash crop through Costa Rica’s central valley, eventually spreading
throughout the lowlands across the nation. Wealth generated through the production and trade of
coffee for the international market resulted in the rise of the cafelateros as a politically influential
and powerful merchant class, with early governmental projects largely determined by the eco-
nomic agendas of the cafelateros. To facilitate trade, cafelateros promoted construction of Costa
Rica’s road and railway systems as well as marine ports of trade. As a lucrative monocrop, by
1890, the sale of coffee accounted for 90% of Costa Rica’s export earnings and became a corner-
stone of Costa Rica’s early economy and national identity.
In 1871, bananas were introduced into the Caribbean region of Costa Rica by American
Minor Cooper Keith as an inexpensive food supply for workers on Costa Rica’s national railroad
(Bucheli, 2008). The railroad, completed in 1890, was commercially unsuccessful as a commut-
er system with few passengers. In an attempt to recover the expense of construction, the railroad
was used by Keith to export bananas from plantations originally founded to feed railroad workers
to the United States. Bananas proved to be very popular in the U.S. market; profits from regular
shipments of this Costa Rican fruit soon covered the cost of railroad construction and were
eventually invested in the establishment of the United Fruit Company.
By the early 1900s, Costa Rica’s export economy began to retract due to events around
the world. As a result of World War I, coffee exports to western Europe were interrupted and
weakened the economic stability of Costa Rica’s tax base (Booth, 2008). In addition, Costa
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 41
Rica’s fruit exports to the United States declined due to new supply chains in global fruit produc-
tion, coupled with a regional blight on banana crops (Bucheli, 2008). Saddled with mounting
debt due to constitutional commitments to social welfare programs, Costa Rica entered into a
period of economic instability. During this phase of economic development, power struggles
between workers’ unions, inspired by the international Communist movement, and wealthy
agricultural oligarchs jockeying for political power were frequent and disruptive to social and
economic stability (Booth, 2008). This era of economic unrest persisted until the decade follow-
ing the end of World War II.
Following the era of fiscal struggle, culminating in the 1949 Costa Rican civil war, the
central government turned its focus to internal policies to stabilize the economy and developed an
import substitution strategy while maintaining reliance on agricultural exports (Palmer & Molina,
2004). Through the early 1980s, Costa Rica followed its inward economic strategy of stimulat-
ing the growth of internal industries through limits on foreign imports. By restricting imports to
the local economy and relying on exports of agricultural products to the United States and
western European markets (Monge-Gonzélez & Tacsir, 2014), Costa Rica received very little
FDI outside of investments associated with the tourism and agricultural industries.
In the 1980s, Costa Rica began a national effort to stimulate its economy through the
attraction of FDI. According to Cordero and Paus (2008), this shift was facilitated by a 1985
governmental agreement with the World Bank to lower tariffs and establish FTZs. Costa Rica’s
early strategy of liberalization aimed to increase FDI through the creation of conditions to
promote tourism and international trade through low-skilled manufacturing (Cordero & Paus,
2008). One facet of this policy that proved to be attractive to MNCs was the lowering of tariffs
and creation of FTAs and FTZs. In the period between 1985 and 2004, average tariff rates
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 42
declined from approximately 60% to 5.8%, thus further facilitating the development of interna-
tional and regional trade agreements. Through these actions, which included a range of tax
incentives and investments in infrastructure as well as changes to the educational system
designed to attract FDI, Costa Rica transformed itself into a top regional and global competitor
for MNC investment (OECD, 2012a).
Contemporary Economics
CINDE has been a key organizational component of the economic growth and develop-
ment of modern Costa Rica (Kahle-Piasecki, 2013). As a not-for-profit NGO, CINDE has acted
independently from the ebb and flow of the Costa Rican political cycle, focusing its efforts on
marketing and branding Costa Rica as a nation conducive to business and MNC partnership and
investment (Cordero & Paus, 2008). Originally funded through the U.S. Agency for International
Development (USAID) and established in 1982, CINDE’s initial work included attracting
investors from a wide range of industrial sectors, such as the textile industry, to hire workers in
maquiladoras (manufacturing factories where goods are imported for processing on a duty-free
and tariff-free basis; Monge-González & Tacsir, 2014). By the mid-1990s, CINDE’s mission
shifted to a targeted strategy of attracting high-tech, medical, and telecommunications-based
MNCs that forever changed the Costa Rican economy and educational system (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001).
In the 1990s, Costa Rica experienced an economic decline that resulted from a decreased
demand for its unskilled labor force due to a shift in U.S. trade policies and FTAs with Mexico
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In response, CINDE coordinated the development of an economic plan
to attract MNCs involved in the medical, electronics, and telecommunications industries as a
means to stimulate the Costa Rican economy. Citing Costa Rica’s history of political stability,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 43
low rate of political corruption, and high rate of literacy and English proficiency, CINDE initi-
ated a globalized strategy to attract foreign investors (Kahle-Piasecki, 2013). During this same
period, the Costa Rican government began to explore the implementation of FTZs and FTAs.
According to Cordero and Paus (2008), implementation of these policies was successful and
increased the inflow of FDI from an average of $40 million per year in the 1980s to an average of
$416 million per year by 2004.
MNCs and the Costa Rican Economy
The rapid acceleration of the Costa Rican economy has been largely attributed to Intel’s
1996 decision to locate a $300 million manufacturing plant near San José (Rodríguez- Clare,
2001). Although in direct competition with nations more firmly established in the high-tech
global value chain, such as Ireland and Israel, Intel was impressed by the level of coordination
provided by President José Maria Figueres and his commitment to modernize the Costa Rican
economy (Nelson, 2008). To attract Intel to Costa Rica, CINDE, working in close partnership
with Costa Rican governmental agencies, portrayed Costa Rica as an ideal location for high-tech
investment, based on its level of developed human capital as well as Costa Rican workers’ poten-
tial to compete in a knowledge-based economy. Although an independent agency, CINDE
partnered closely with Figueres’s government and coordinated efforts with the Export Promotion
Agency, Promotora del Comercio Exterior (PROCOMER), and the Ministry of Foreign Trade
(Ministerio de Comercio Exterior [COMEX]) to convince Intel to locate the company’s plant in
Costa Rica (Nelson, 2008; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). As a result of this initial major investment,
Costa Rica’s credibility as a destination for MNCs was bolstered.
Under a provisional agreement with Intel, the government of Costa Rica enacted numer-
ous educational reforms to align the skills of students with the employment expectations of a
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 44
high-tech MNC (Mundial, 2006). According to a report prepared for the World Bank Group
(2006), the following improvements in technical education were reinforced and supported by
Intel: (a) a renewed focus on technical training in the areas of information and communication
technology and engineering in Costa Rican high schools and universities; (b) the establishment of
certification programs in semiconductor manufacturing and microelectronics, as well as materials
science; and (c) a reinforcement of English language skills necessary for service sector employ-
ment and the technical aspects of computer science. In addition, Intel invested in Costa Rican
secondary schools, donating microprocessors and professional development to teachers to
stimulate student interest in STEM-related fields through the PRONAFECYT.
Within 3 years of relocating its plant to Costa Rica, Intel had invested $390 million into
the economy, created 2,200 jobs, and accounted for over 60% of total economic growth through
40% of total export revenues (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). With the added credibility from Intel’s
success, high-tech and medical MNCs began to relocate operations to Costa Rica throughout the
1990s and into the 2000s (Cordero & Paus, 2008). By 2006, there were 51 MNCs from the
electronics-manufacturing sector operating in Costa Rica. Additionally, 22 foreign producers of
medical devices, including Baxter, Boston Scientific, and Inamed, began production in Costa
Rica. Over the past 2 decades, Costa Rica’s transition from exporting unfinished agricultural
products to exporting high-tech manufacturing goods has increased the inflow of FDI from
approximately $400 million in 2000 to $2.1 billion in 2011 (World Bank, 2012). In 2014, San
José was ranked as the number one destination for MNC outsourcing in Latin America (CINDE,
2014a).
Through the adoption of FTZs and FTAs and participation in the World Trade Organiza-
tion (WTO), Costa Rica continues to strive toward further opening its economy through an
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 45
export-trade model of growth (Villalobos & Monge-González, 2011). Despite its growing rele-
vance to the global value chain associated with several high-tech MNCs, Costa Rica must
continue to invest in the education of its populace to remain competitive in a globalized economy
(Gereffi et al., 2013). Monge-González and Tacsir (2014) felt that human capital formation must
be a renewed focus to transition Costa Rica from an export manufacturing country to an inde-
pendent global competitor in the emerging innovation economy.
In the knowledge-based economy of the 21st century, the number of international patents
and trademarks filed within a country may serve as a broad indicator of economic innovation
(Friedman, 2007). In this regard, Costa Ricans file for few trademarks compared to other FDI-
intensive economies (OECD, 2012a), which may be in direct relation to low levels of private and
public investment in research. To illustrate, Costa Rica’s R&D ratio of 0.5% is on par with the
average R&D investment of Latin American countries but below the average 2.5% expenditure
of other OECD nations. As an economic indicator, this low percentage of international patent
filings may be indicative of underdeveloped potential in regard to innovation. As the Costa
Rican economy has evolved to meet the changing demands and increased competition of a
globalized economy, the school system has adapted, focusing its efforts to prepare students to
compete in an increasingly integrated, knowledge-based economy (MEP, 2014).
Costa Rican Education System
Since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). As one of the first nations to make edu-
cation compulsory and free to all citizens (Palmer & Molina, 2004), Costa Ricans have estab-
lished a long history of aligning the mission of the country’s schools with the demands of an
increasingly globalized job market. To understand how the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT reflects
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 46
a strategy toward the development of a 21st-century economy based on STEM skills and innova-
tion, a discussion of the Costa Rican educational system is necessary.
According to Biesanz et al. (1999), Costa Ricans proudly tell visitors, “We have more
teachers than soldiers” (p. 69). Funding for this robust school system is rooted in Article 78 of
the 1949 Costa Rican Constitution (Costa Rica & OAS, 1965). According to this article, to
provide sufficient resources to guarantee universal access to quality education, the government is
constitutionally required to allocate at least 8% of Costa Rica’s annual GDP to educational
programs. This system of prioritized funding for education has yielded positive results. As of
2014, the adult literacy rate of Costa Rica had risen to 96.3%, with the quality of the education
system ranked 21st in the world, ahead of all other Latin American nations and the United States
(CINDE, 2014b; see Figure 2).
Costa Rican students have one of the shortest school years in the world. They attend
school for 176 days per year between February and December with frequent instructional breaks
due to teacher professional development, holidays, and national observances (Biesanz et al.,
1999). Although pre-K education is available for students as young as 3 years old, many Costa
Ricans do not access these services and prefer to keep young children in the home (CINDE,
2012). Approximately 70% of Costa Rican children aged 5 and 6 attend a half-day kindergarten
in public school (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Prior to college, schooling is broken into four cycles, with students typically starting in
first grade and concluding in the 11th or 12th grade. Cycles I and II comprise primary education.
In the first cycle, Grades 1 to 4, Spanish, social studies, science, mathematics, agricultural edu-
cation, foreign language (English), laboratory computer science, religion, home education or
industrial arts, physical education, music, and art are taught. During the second cycle in Grades
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 47
Figure 2. International ranking of Costa Rica’s educational
quality. Based on Annual report, 2013, by Costa Rica In-
vestment Promotion Agency, 2014a, available from http://
www.cinde.org
5 and 6, students are taught the same subjects, with a culminating assessment in Spanish, mathe-
matics, social studies, and science (MEP, 2014).
Cycles III and IV comprise secondary education and are divided into academic or techni-
cal concentrations. All students take coursework in Spanish, English, French, mathematics,
social studies, religion, civics, science, and electives during Cycle III in Grades 7–9. Beyond
ninth grade, students differentiate their studies, choosing between technical and academic
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 48
pathways to match their academic potential and career objectives. Technical high school requires
6 years of study through Grade 12, while academic high school is competed in 5 years, through
Grade 11. Within the 113 technical high schools in Costa Rica, up to three concentrations are
offered: service, industrial, and agricultural. Academic programs are noncareer specific and have
the aim of preparing students to enter institutions of higher learning. Courses of study in English
language and computer science have been made mandatory in all Costa Rican schools to develop
a workforce with 21st-century skills (CINDE, 2012). At the completion of high school, Costa
Rican students must pass a test on all subjects that have been studied to earn a diploma, or
bachillerato. Earning a bachillerato and passing a separate entrance exam are required for
admission to Costa Rican colleges and universities (MEP, 2014).
Costa Rica is home to five public universities and 54 private institutions of higher learn-
ing. Among the private universities, Harvard has established an accredited extension program,
Instituto Centroamericano de Administración de Empresas, in Costa Rica. This program consis-
tently ranks among the top business programs in Latin America (CINDE, 2014b). Among public
universities, the Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR) is considered Costa Rica’s premier institution
of higher education. With this university being funded primarily through the Costa Rican central
government, students pay tuition based on an 11-point scale determined by income. As such,
nearly 25% of students pay no tuition to attend one of Costa Rica’s most prestigious universities.
Costa Rican public schools are directly governed by the MEP (2014) under the direction
of the Minister of Public Education. The latter individual is appointed by and reports directly to
the president. Duties of the Minister of Public Education include oversight of all public schools
and leadership of both the National Council of Higher Education Private Universities
(CONESUP) and the Superior Council of Education. Biesanz et al. (1999) explained that the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 49
Superior Council of Education makes all decisions related to school policy and controls all
aspects of operations, ranging from curriculum to classroom supplies. Costa Rican schools are
standards based and employ test-based accountability measures to assess the readiness of
students prior to matriculation. The current Minister of Public Education in Costa Rica is Sonia
Marta Mora Escalante, who has been serving in this office since May of 2014.
Costa Rican school enrollment has been rising since the end of the 1990s, when enroll-
ment rates began to show vast improvements. The World Bank (2014) noted that school enroll-
ment has demonstrated steady growth, rising from 65% in 2001 to 99% in 2010. Interestingly,
the Americas Society and Council of the Americas (2011) attributed rising school enrollment
rates to the installation of computer labs in Costa Rican schools. Despite this positive trend in
enrollment, daily attendance rates in Costa Rican schools is an ongoing issue of concern. Ac-
cording to a report generated by the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
(UNICEF; 2013), the likelihood of children and adolescents attending school as they age has
shown significant declines. Data from UNICEF (2013) indicated that although 93% of 12-year-
olds regularly attend school, 7% fewer, or 86%, of 14-year-old students attend school. The same
report noted that retention is often used as a remediation strategy for struggling students, with
11% of Costa Rican children’s repeating first grade and 14.5% of students’ repeating seventh
grade in 2012.
Although known for an excellent school system, Americas Society and Council of the
Americas (2011) reported that 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish secondary
school. The World Bank (as cited by Aedo & Walker, 2012) reported that the number of 25- to
35-year-old nonstudents with partial or complete secondary schooling remained stagnant at 36%
of the population between 1998 and 2008, while the percentage of students who had attended
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 50
tertiary institutions showed a marginal increase, from 13% to 18%, within the same period of
time.
CINDE (2014b) explained that the development of competitive job skills, such as English
and computer science, is a priority for Costa Rican schools as a means to continue producing
students ready to enter the 21st-century workforce. In addition, the MEP has set a 100% literacy
rate as a goal by 2017. Evidence of Costa Rica’s emphasis on student acquisition of technologi-
cal skills was presented in a 2005 study in which it was determined that Costa Rican schools
were found to have one of the highest concentrations of computers per pupil in the Americas
(Borthwick & Lobo, 2005). In addition, Borthwick and Lobo (2005) identified the Omar Dengo
Foundation, a charitable organization whose purpose is to equip Costa Rican students with access
to computer technology, as an important contributor of resources to Costa Rican schools.
Despite this situation, disparities in education exist among schools. Schools in poor areas
experience overcrowding, with student attendance divided into two daily shifts of 5 hours each
(Biesanz et al., 1999). According to an OECD (2012b) report of performance on the 2012
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) exam, Costa Rican students have con-
tinued to perform below the mean in the areas of math, reading, and science. PISA scores are
internationally acknowledged indicators of the overall health of a nation’s education system and
are broadly accepted as corresponding to the level of college or career readiness among assessed
15-year-old students. Although not directly related to the PRONAFECYT, the performance of
Costa Rican students on the science portion of PISA is problematic when considered in the light
of national science initiatives. The mean OECD and Costa Rica PISA scores for math, reading,
and science (OECD, 2012b) are presented in Table 1.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 51
Table 1
Mean Costa Rica Programme for International Student Assessment Scores, 2012
Group Math Reading Science
OECD mean 494 496 501
Costa Rica mean 407 441 421
Note. Based on data from PISA Results in Focus, by Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development, 2012b, retrieved from http://www.oced.org/dev
Although Costa Rica’s PISA scores are below the OECD mean, they are above average
when compared to other Latin American nations. In addition, surveys of beliefs about schooling,
administered in conjunction with the academic tests, show that the majority of Costa Rican
students regard schooling as a positive experience and see the correlation between what is being
taught and the prospect of higher education and meaningful employment as adults (OECD,
2012b).
In addition to concern about the academic achievement of Costa Rican 15-year-old
students, improvements in human capital formation through tertiary education continues to be a
high priority for educators and policymakers. According to Monge-González and Tacsir (2014),
over 40% of Costa Ricans are currently enrolled in tertiary education. Nevertheless, students are
not graduating with advanced degrees in areas most sought after by MNCs. According to
CONARE (2012), 70% of all tertiary degrees awarded in 2012 were in the social sciences and
education, while only 13% of graduates possessed technology- or science-based degrees.
Monge-González and Tacsir (2014) attributed this outcome to limited capacity, infrastructure,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 52
and faculty in STEM disciplines at the university level. They asserted that only 1.1% of Costa
Rican citizens in the science and technology fields possessed a graduate degree.
To ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017, including among those in rural and poor commu-
nities, principal and teacher leadership must ensure that all students have equitable educational
access to rigorous, project-based educational outcomes in all schools (CINDE, 2012). To
support students in developing their human capital for a globalized economy, Costa Rican
schools may measure their participation in mandates such as the PRONAFECYT as broad
indicators of the development of 21st-century skills.
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
The MICITT (n.d.) stated that the PRONAFECYT is an educational initiative that aims to
instill Costa Rican students with an interest in STEM areas. In its current state, the policies and
programs are coordinated by the PRONAFECYT in collaboration with the MEP and Costa Rican
university partnerships:
The Science and Technology Fairs are learning processes in which interest in science and
technology, development of critical and creative thinking from an early age, through
educational experiences at preschool, primary and secondary, are encouraged to promote
the acquisition of attitudes, skills, values, and intellectual processes that enable students
to function and properly understand their environment and explore scientific and techno-
logical careers. (MICITT, n.d., para. 1)
Although Costa Rican national science and creativity fairs began in the 1960s, participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT did not become mandatory for all students until the Executive Decree
31900 in 2004 (Valencia-Chacón, 2011). Prior to this, compulsory science fair participation was
limited to secondary students in Cycles III and IV, as stipulated in Costa Rican Law 7169, the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 53
1990 Law of Promotion of Scientific and Technological Development (Valencia-Chacón, 2011).
Implications of this law for the development of Costa Rica’s STEM and a 21st-century skills
educational focus are further discussed in the following section.
Science fair project experiences are encouraged for Costa Rican students as early as
preschool and involve increasing levels of competition and rigor as students progress through the
grades. According to the MICITT (n.d.), all projects must fall within one of the following broad
categories: biology, environmental science, computer science, earth science and space, behav-
ioral and social sciences, physics and mathematics, engineering and technology, health and
medicine, or chemistry. Students may present their projects as monographs, demonstrations,
research projects, or technological R&D projects. Monographs typically comprise a literature
review, interviews, and observations of topics of scientific interest and are open to students of all
grade levels. Demonstrations are conducted by students between the first and ninth grades and
are designed to solidify and assimilate existing scientific knowledge within a concrete experi-
ence. Research projects involve academic research as a means to develop conclusions and
recommendations from the collection, organization, and interpretation of existing knowledge.
Technological research projects are
a set of activities that utilize existing knowledge (theoretical and empiric) and techniques,
as well as the abilities and practical experience, in the creation of new products, materials,
devices, processes, systems, services, or to improve preexisting ones. These projects
have practical purposes and are therefore aimed at satisfying a specific need, expectation
or demand by applying a reflective, systematic and explicit method resulting in the solu-
tion of the problem specified. The difference between this type of project and scientific
research projects is that the latter are mainly aimed at increasing scientific or technical
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 54
knowledge, while the intent of technological projects is the introduction of new applica-
tions. This type of project includes adapting existing technologies to conditions other
than those for which they were originally developed. (Valencia-Chacón, 2011, p. 14)
As a national initiative, the PRONAFECYT is arranged in an annual cycle, with students
competing at the school site and going on to national levels. At the institutional level, student
projects and presentations are judged by the school’s principal, the school’s science coordinator,
site teachers, and community members who serve in an advisory capacity to the institutional
science review committee. From that level, students progress to the circuit level, where they
compete with winners from multiple schools and judges. Top competitors from the circuit level
continue to regional and national level competitions, with increasing participation from univer-
sity faculty and judges assigned through the MEP. Institutional competitions take place in June
and July; circuit and district fairs are conducted in August. Students then compete at the regional
level in September, with the culminating national competition in November. Winners from the
national competition often advance to the international competition, where they compete on a
global level with young innovators from around the world (Valencia-Chacón, 2011).
Twenty-First-Century Skills
As noted, the development of 21st-century skills in Costa Rican schools is a national
priority (MEP, 2014). These skills were discussed within the context of the current Costa Rican
educational system to situate them within the 21st-century skills frameworks used in the present
study.
As demonstrated by the goals of MEP’s National Inform and the Executive Decree 31900
(both as cited in Valencia-Chacón, 2011), the Costa Rican educational system has placed a high
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 55
value on the development technological and scientific skills. The objectives for technological
and scientific skill development are specifically cited in the six National Inform indicators:
1. Close the existing gap between urban and rural areas.
2. Train human resources to raise the competitiveness for international market.
3. Strengthen fundamental values.
4. Strengthen technical and scientific education.
5. Focus on comprehensive development to include sports and culture.
6. Raise awareness of individuals about their commitment to future generations, ensur-
ing a sustainable economic and social development in harmony with nature and the
environment. (p. 18)
The subsequent sections of this review will focus more narrowly on Indicators 1, 2, and 4
due to their relevance to the present study. To understand the implications of Indicators 2 and 4,
further discussion of the 1990 Law of Promotion of Scientific and Technological Development is
useful. As noted, this law created a bureaucratic framework for which technology and the
integration of scientific advancements through human capital formation would become a national
initiative to modernize the Costa Rican workforce and align the Costa Rican education system
with the skills related to global scientific and technological advancements (Monge-González,
Rivera, & Rosales, 2010). Specifically, this law called for the development of a general govern-
mental objective to facilitate scientific research and innovation through educational mechanisms,
such as a national science fair competition for secondary school students, increased alignment of
secondary and tertiary school science and technology programs, and increased collaboration
between governmental agencies and private companies (Monge-González & Tacsir, 2014).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 56
As can be inferred by Indicator 1 of the National Inform and Executive Decree 31900, a
disparity between rural and urban schools exists in Costa Rica, starting prior to 1990. Subse-
quently, this condition has been cited as a systemic problem (Biesanz et al., 1999; CINDE 2012).
If left unchecked, unequal access to high-quality education could potentially limit Costa Rica’s
efforts to transform itself from a participant in the knowledge-based economy based on the
attraction of FDI to an independent participant in the innovation-based economy (Monge-
González & Tacsir, 2014). To understand Costa Rican school efforts to prepare students to meet
the challenges of the 21st century through implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative, the
framework presented by Wagner (2010) were used in the present study. If gaps exist in the 21st-
century skills presented among schools with varying degrees of success in implementation of the
PRONAFECYT, these gaps may be key to understanding why disparities persist.
An additional conceptual framework that may be useful in rounding out the understand-
ing of 21st-century learning skills is provided by Kay and Greenhill (2012). Similar to Wagner
(2012), Kay and Greenhill posited that a key challenge for modern educators is to prepare
students for a rapidly changing economy that features jobs that may not yet exist due to the rapid
acceleration of global technological innovation. Kay and Greenhill developed a framework of
foundational attributes to develop in students across settings, referred to as the four Cs: com-
munication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking. As seen in Figure 3, students need to
develop specific skills in conjunction with the research-validated attributes associated with the
four Cs for career and life success in the 21st century (Kay & Greenhill, 2012). The top portion
of the figure shows the needed skills and attributes, including the ability to process and discern
digital media through technology, as well as core subjects, as defined by national accountability
systems such as No Child Left Behind. In addition, students must be instructed in soft skills,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 57
Figure 3. Twenty-first-century skills framework for student learning. Taken from
The Education Leader’s Guide: 7 Steps Toward 21st-Century Schools and Districts,
by K. Kay and V. Greenhill, 2012, Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p. 119.
such as navigating social negotiations, leadership, as well as civics responsibility, morals, and
ethics. A high value is placed on career awareness and the ability to develop transferrable skills,
such as collaboration and inquisitiveness, to develop habits of mind associated with becoming a
lifelong learner. In the lower half of the figure, school structures, which research indicates foster
the development of students with 21st- century skills, are presented (Kay & Greenhill, 2012). On
the outermost semicircle, learning environments are displayed. Kay and Greenhill noted that
each of the eight components of this diagram are infused with processes and procedures that
integrate the 4 Cs.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 58
STEM and PBL
STEM refers to the integration of science, technology, engineering, and math (Breiner,
Harkness, Johnson, & Koehler, 2012). According to Friedman (2007), to prepare students for the
world of the 21st century,
we should be embarking immediately on an all-hands-on-deck, no-holds-barred, no-
budget-too-large crash program for science and engineering education. Scientists and
engineers don’t grow on trees; they have to be educated through a long process. (p. 373)
The following discussion of STEM and PBL best practices provides the background for this
study’s analysis of the data related to participation in the PRONAFECYT.
STEM Education
In the era of Globalization 3.0 (Friedman, 2007), STEM education has become increas-
ingly relevant and predictive of future employment prospects for students. Sousa and Pilecki
(2013) stated that, during the height of the recent US recession, there were 3.6 unemployed
workers for every available job; however, in careers the require STEM degrees, there were twice
as many vacancies as applicants. In the case of Costa Rica, as previously noted, degrees in
STEM-related fields are underrepresented among current college graduates (CONARE, 2012).
Bybee (2010) noted that the most critical aspect of STEM education most often neglected in
academic settings is the design process associated with engineering. As cited in the National
Academies report, Rising Above the Gathering Storm (Olson & Arrison, 2005), to successfully
compete in the modern economy, students need to develop skills in adaptability, complex com-
munication, social skills, nonroutine problem solving, self-management, and systems thinking
associated with the field of engineering. Through learning the engineering design process as a
collaborative, problem-solving approach, students develop skills related to communication and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 59
critical thinking that are key to the development of 21st-century learning skills frameworks (Kay
& Greenhill, 2012; Wagner, 2010).
Capraro et al. (2013) felt that STEM education in the 21st century should afford students
the ability to develop broad knowledge that allows them to be successful on high-stakes assess-
ments while simultaneously developing a depth of knowledge to allow them to reflect on the
strengths and limitations of their solutions. Capraro et al. asserted that rather than relying on rote
memorization or procedural understanding to solve problems, STEM professionals should
engage in complex problem solving from a range of correct solutions and choose a course of
action based on careful analysis of its strengths and limitations. As such, to reap the full benefits
of STEM education, research suggests that PBL integrated into a STEM curriculum is an effec-
tive approach to instruction (Capraro et al., 2013).
Project-Based Learning
Rosenfeld and Ben-Hur (2001) defined PBL as a constructivist approach to learning
wherein students build understanding through experiential projects based on a collaborative
cycle of inquiry. By its nature, PBL is integrative of academic disciplines and adaptable to meet
the diverse needs of a wide range of learners through hands-on experiences related to student
driven curiosity (Bell, 2010).
Thomas (2000) stated that PBL consists of five criteria: centrality, question driven,
constructive investigation, autonomy, and realism. According to Thomas, the notion of centrality
is rooted in two complementary concepts. The primary criterion is that the project is not periph-
eral to the curriculum but rather is the de facto curriculum. Related to this is the second concept,
that projects that are outside of or supplemental to the curriculum are not examples of PBL but
are simply projects. The second criterion, that of the driving question, relates to the role of
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 60
inquiry-based learning in PBL. This aligns with Capraro et al.’s (2013) notion that during PBL,
students engage in ill-defined tasks to arrive at well-defined outcomes through interpretation of
the problem, constraints, and criteria informed by their subject area knowledge in the formulation
of diverse solutions. The third criterion on constructive investigation concerns PBL as an
inherently goal-directed process that involves inquiry, knowledge building, and resolution.
These investigations may be design, decision-making, problem-finding, problem-solving,
discovery, or model-building processes, as exemplified in the project criteria of the
PRONAFECYT (Valencia-Chacón, 2011). A key indicator of these investigations as PBL
criteria, according to Thomas, is that the central activities of the project must involve the trans-
formation, synthesis, and construction of new knowledge on the part of students. The fourth
criterion, autonomy, indicates that PBL is inherently student led. Students take an active role
through inquiry and discovery, with the teacher acting as a facilitator rather than as the sole
authority or disseminator of knowledge during instruction (Ravitz, 2008; Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari,
& Thi, 2014). The fifth criterion, realism, indicates that PBL is related to authentic, real-life
problems or questions for which solutions have the potential to be implemented, as can be
contextualized within the PRONAFECYT.
Conceptual Framework of STEM PBL
Research has consistently demonstrated that the integration of PBL and STEM yields an
increase in student achievement (Bell, 2010; Rosenfeld & Ben-Hur, 2001; Sousa & Pilecki,
2013). To explore the extent to which PBL has been integrated into STEM instruction associated
with participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT, an understanding is required of the
conceptual framework of Capraro et al. (2013). According to Capraro et al., there are several
qualitative differences between traditional and PBL classrooms. Capraro et al. defined PBL a
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 61
“model for classroom activity that shifts away from the classroom practices of short, isolated
teacher-centered lessons and instead emphasizes learning activities that are long-term, interdisci-
plinary, student-centered, and integrated with real-world issues and practices” (p. 50). As such,
observable features would include cooperative group learning configurations in classrooms,
hands-on experiential learning, student-generated artifacts that demonstrate an application of the
scientific method, and the teacher as facilitator rather than as lecturer. A summary of the differ-
ences between traditional and PBL classrooms is presented in Figure 4.
Capraro et al. (2013) described the implementation of STEM PBL as occurring on an
evolutionary continuum with specific indicators of developmental levels, including traditional
hands on, novice, informed novice, expert, and researcher. At the traditional hands-on level, the
teacher gives students low levels of control or autonomy and maintain control of assessment,
instructional design, analysis, and output modalities. This style of instruction is often dominated
by worksheets and other procedural-level tasks. At the novice level, factual knowledge is
explored. Students generate novel factual knowledge rather than verifying factual knowledge
from previous instruction. Although a lab and its components are determined by the teacher, this
approach is more constructivist, thus allowing the learner increased autonomy to analyze data
and determine the outcomes. At the informed novice level, chunks of factual knowledge are
connected to construct a conceptual understanding. Students provide the rationale for relation-
ships and connections among multiple pieces of knowledge. At this level, community is vital;
students must be given opportunities for discourse with each other, with experts, and with the
teacher.
At the expert level, the goal is for students to be able to transfer their understanding of the
material to novel situations. The student or community of learners must be given a certain
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 62
Traditional Classrooms PBL Classrooms
Defined task Ill-defined task
Loosely defined outcomes Well-defined outcomes
Individual learning Cooperative group learning
Teacher the giver of knowledge Teacher the facilitator of knowledge
Objective driven Standards driven
Single subject/topic Multidisciplinary
Textbook driven Problem driven
Teaching based on covering skills Teaching based on learning and curriculum
needs
Success based on grades Success based on performance
Individual activities with teacher-directed
challenges
Cooperative activities with self-directed chal-
lenges
Focused on segmented coverage Focus on culminating performance
Dependent problem solving Independent problem solving
Narrow curriculum Comprehensive curriculum
Tests and quizzes to assess knowledge acqui-
sition
Culminating artifacts/experiences at the end
of PBL to determine knowledge gained
Figure 4. Differences between traditional and project-based learning (PBL) classrooms.
Adapted from STEM Project-Based Learning: An Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics (STEM) Approach (2nd ed.), by R. M. Capraro, M. M. Capraro, & J. R.
Morgan, 2013), Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense, p. 51.
amount freedom of choice when determining how to approach the problem, which resources to
use, how the data are analyzed, and how the results are interpreted. The expert level not only
requires deep factual knowledge and a solid conceptual framework but also the ability to work
more independently than in the past. At the researcher level, learners are in control of their
learning. This level requires years of practice, and learners must be scaffolded at each step.
According to Capraro et al. (2013), one cannot expect a student or a teacher to effectively
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 63
operate at this level without the teacher’s receiving effective professional development and
having cumulative experience.
Professional Development
Fullan (2011) felt that school improvement is human resource improvement. In other
words, student achievement results are often in direct relation to the quality of professional
development provided to teachers. To understand whether the potential for a causal link between
the professional development of Costa Rican teachers and participation or student success in the
PRONAFECYT exists, a discussion of the characteristics of research-validated, effective ap-
proaches to professional development is necessary.
Characteristics of Effective Professional Development
Hunzicker (2011) stated that effective professional development consists of five broad
criteria: supportive, job embedded, instructionally focused, collaborative, and ongoing. These
criteria were developed based on a longitudinal review of published works on the impact of
professional development models over the previous 30 years of educational research. Hunzicker
felt that without these components, professional development is at risk of having a limited
measurable effect on student achievement.
In supportive professional development, according to Hunzicker (2011), the task of
developing as a professional educator must be intrinsically motivating to teachers. To accom-
plish this, the author suggested that professional development providers act from the locus of a
transformational leader, tapping into the moral imperative of their faculty to drive motivation.
The notion of professional development as being job embedded refers to a teacher’s ability to
contextualize and practice new learnings acquired through professional development with
immediacy and relevance. In other words, when teachers feel disconnected or there is little
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 64
immediate value or personalization, there are predictable levels of resistance to professional
development and diminished impact on student achievement (Hunzicker, 2011).
Instructional focus is the notion that effective professional development is always framed
through the lens of student achievement (Hunzicker, 2011). This is of particular importance for
effective STEM professional development (Fulton et al., 2010). Rather than presenting informa-
tion in an abstract or disconnected fashion, effective professional development provides teachers
with an opportunity to consider how to deliver, analyze, plan, and assess curriculum with a
strategic focus on measurable student achievement outcomes. Hunzicker (2011) also identified
collaboration as a key component of effective professional development and noted that much like
students, adults are social learners. When able to collaborate, teachers take more ownership of
student learning and are far more likely to transfer skills acquired during professional develop-
ment into classroom instruction (Garmston & Wellman, 2009). Another aspect of effective
professional development is that it is ongoing. Teachers meet to collaborate and learn at regular
intervals as a means to problem solve and plan. As such, 1-day workshop models of professional
development have been found to be highly ineffective in regard to STEM teaching (Wilson,
2011). Finally, the process of collaborative planning, analysis of student work, and student
evaluation through ongoing and collaborative professional development creates distributive
learning teams that are key to the PLC model of professional development (DuFour et al., 2010).
Professional Learning Communities
According to Fulton et al. (2010), participation in PLCs for STEM teachers increases
their content knowledge, pedagogy, and effectiveness, as measured by student engagement and
achievement. Specifically, participating in learning teams based in a PLC model results in
teachers implementing a wider variety of research-based methods for teaching mathematics and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 65
science, paying additional attention to students’ reasoning and understanding, and experimenting
with more diverse modes of engaging students in problem solving. As such, an understanding of
research-validated approaches to PLCs may be useful to guide the analysis of Costa Rican
professional development practices to support the PRONAFECYT.
PLCs, as described by DuFour et al. (2010), are a conceptual framework that includes an
ongoing process of educators’ working collaboration. Through an ongoing cycle of inquiry and
action research, teams of teachers engage in strategic and largely autonomous professional
development toward increasing student achievement. DuFour et al. noted that the three primary
concepts of PLCs are:
1. The purpose of our school is to ensure that all students achieve at a high level.
2. Helping all students learn requires a collaborative and collective effort.
3. To assess our effectiveness in helping all students learn, we must focus on results—
evidence of student learning—and use results to inform and improve our professional
practice and respond to students who need intervention or enrichment. (p. 14)
Through PLCs, teams of teachers collaborate and co-create the mission, vision, values,
and goals of their respective schools to align their practices within the broad context of external
agents of accountability, such as district or national priorities. As such, internal accountability is
bolstered, thus allowing for methods of external accountability, such as Costa Rica’s compulsory
PRONAFECYT policy, to be more effectively realized (Elmore, 2002).
To assess the level of development of PLCs as a feature of Costa Rican professional
development, the continuum of PLC development, as created by DuFour et al. (2010), should
prove to be a useful tool of analysis. The conceptual framework of the development of PLCs
(Figure 5) in Costa Rican schools was used in this study. As such, it was included as a tool for
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 66
Figure 5. Conceptual framework of the development of professional learning
communities (PLCs). Taken from Learning by Doing: A Handbook for Profes-
sional Learning Communities at Work (2nd ed.), by R. DuFour, R. DuFour, R.
Eaker, & T. Many, 2010, Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree, p. 42.
the development of survey and observation protocols to evaluate the implementation stage of
PLCs in Costa Rican schools.
Educational Leadership
Second only to teacher quality, school administration is a key to increasing student
achievement (Fullan, 2011). As such, leadership practices to guide Costa Rican schools and
educators in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT are important to the current study. A
discussion of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership model will provide an under-
standing of leadership practices, while Kotter’s (1996) conceptual framework of leading change
is presented as a foundation to evaluate school- and system-level leadership issues in the current
study.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 67
Four Frames of Leadership
Ballestero and Wright (2008) stated that school and system leaders in Costa Rica face
many of the same complex challenges as do educational leaders around the world. They contend
with long hours; high-stakes, test-based accountability; complex and multilevel bureaucracies,
and students and families with diverse levels of need. Bolman and Deal (2008) presented four
frames or lenses by which leadership can be perceived or expressed: structural, human resource,
political, and symbolic.
In the structural frame, leadership is perceived as being highly structured and reliant on
organizational skills. Bolman and Deal (2008) used the analogy of the organization as a highly
ordered factory with highly developed schedules and procedures to monitor inputs and outputs.
When effective, this leader may be described as an analytical architect who leads with inten-
tionality and by design. In contrast, when a leader is structurally ineffective, he or she may be
perceived by followers as petty and micromanaging.
In the human resource frame, the leader interacts with the members of an organization as
a family or clan (Bolman & Deal, 2008). People and their relationships to one another are the
focus, as well as to the core mission of the organization. Leaders with strong human resource
frames know their followers well enough to provide direction when needed and to lessen support
to foster independence. When effective, these leaders are servants for their organizations and
assign subordinates to tasks that match their personal interests and strengths. These leaders
develop the professional and human capital of their teachers and perceive their collective
strengths at the core of the organization (Fullan, 2011). When the human resource frame is weak
or undeveloped, leaders may be perceived as weak or more focused on relationships than measur-
able results. Strength in the human resource frame is essential for distributive leadership
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 68
(Spillane, 2006), as such leaders need to know how to empower situational leaders from within
the ranks of their subordinates.
In the political frame, the organization is viewed as an arena of conflict and competition.
Leaders with strong political skills advocate for their organizations and negotiate for advantage
when the opportunity presents itself. This frame is most closely associated with the wielding of
influence, building of consensus, and acquisition of resources. Strength in this frame is essential
in resource-poor organizations. Through advocacy and the building of alliances and coalitions,
these leaders often rise in power in bureaucratic systems, such as education. Leaders with
ineffective political frames may be seen as abusive of their power and manipulative (Bolman &
Deal, 2008).
The symbolic frame (Bolman & Deal, 2008) is most closely linked with the transforma-
tional leadership style described by Northouse (2013), who views the organization as the fulfill-
ment of a vision. This frame is often associated with the development of group identity through
the definition and expression of organizational values and mores. When effective, symbolic
leaders may be viewed by their followers as poets or prophets, based on their ability to inspire
and instill collective vision. This leadership frame is of particular utility in large bureaucratic
systems, such as school systems, where procedural compliance, rather than effective practice,
may be the measure of effectiveness (Fullan, 2014).
Bolman and Deal (2008) contended that leadership practice is integrative, multiframed,
and contextually bound. An effective leader will understand how and when to apply or develop
strengths from multiple frames to address leadership challenges from a dynamic perspective.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 69
Eight-Step Change Model
As with many educational systems, Costa Rican schools are in the midst of continual
change due to the influence of globalization and associated changes to the economy (Spring,
2008). Compulsory participation in the PRONAFECYT is one indicator of Costa Rica’s goal of
fostering innovation as an adaptation to changing economic conditions (MEP, 2014), which is a
potentially complicated process of change for educational leaders. According to Kotter (1995),
organizational change is characterized by common mistakes and two important patterns related to
a multistep process for building momentum for change through motivation and high-quality
leadership as opposed to management. Kotter’s (1996) conceptual framework is discussed as a
means to inform an analysis of the process of change guided by Costa Rican school leaders for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Kotter (1996, pp. 16–17) identified eight common mistakes that organizations make that
prevent improvements via the change process: (a) “allowing too much complacency,” (b) “failing
to create a sufficiently powerful guiding coalition,” (c) “underestimating the power of vision,” (d)
“undercommunicating the vision by a factor of 10 or more,” (e) “permitting obstacles to block
the new vision,” (f) “failing to create short-term wins,” (g) “declaring victory too soon,” and (h)
“neglecting to anchor changes firmly in the corporate culture.”
Kotter (1996, p. 23) presented an eight-step process to lead change through the develop-
ment of motivation. Each of the eight steps in this model corresponds with a step provided in the
list of actions to avoid. The steps are (a) “establishing a sense of urgency,” (b) “creating the
guiding coalition,” (c) “developing a vision and strategy,” (d) “communicating the change
vision,” (e) “empowering broad-based action” (f) “generating short-term wins,” (g) “consolidat-
ing gains and producing more change,” and (h) “anchoring new approaches in the culture.” The
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 70
Figure 6. Management versus leadership roles. Taken
from Leading Change, by J. P. Kotter, 1996, Boston, MA:
Harvard Business Press, p. 26.
first four steps are designed to interrupt the status quo, while the next three steps are methods to
introduce novel practices. The final step of the change process concerns achieving fundamental
change in the beliefs of organizational culture toward cementing change.
Similar to Bolman and Deal (2008) and Northouse (2013), Kotter (1996) distinguished
between the act of management and the art of leadership. Management maintains the status quo,
while leadership involves navigating change. According to Kotter (1996), management affords a
degree of predictability and order. Managers consistently produce short-term results to maintain
the status quo. In contrast, leadership facilitates change with the potential to guide organizations
toward long-term results. Figure 6 presents the differences between management and leadership.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 71
Summary of the Literature Review
The forces of globalization have fundamentally altered the approach to education of many
nations around the world (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Due to changes in the global job market
and the need to develop skills that match the demands of globalized competition for jobs, educa-
tors around the world have sought to infuse development of 21st-century skills into their aca-
demic programs (Kay & Greenhill, 2012; Wagner, 2010). As a nation, Costa Rica has attempted
to address these challenges through the adoption of programs such as the PRONAFECYT
(MICITT, n.d.). Through implementation of the PRONAFECYT, the Costa Rican educational
system has placed great importance on the development of human capital, with 21st-century
learning skills and STEM education as economic development strategies (CINDE, 2012).
Nevertheless, there is a lack of research on how educational leadership and instructional strate-
gies have adapted to meet the demands of the PRONAFECYT. As such, this literature review
presented the theoretical frameworks that guided this study. Among these frameworks were
Spring’s (2008) globalization of education, Wagner’s (2010) seven survival skills for the 21st
century, Kay and Greenhill’s (2012) 21st- century learning skills, the STEM PBL framework of
Capraro et al. (2013), and the PLC framework of DuFour et al. (2010). In addition, Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership and Kotter’s (1996) leading change framework provided
a discussion of generalized leadership practices and characteristics useful in guiding the inquiry
about how Costa Rican leaders are contend with leadership challenges while navigating the
change process.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 72
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In the current era, globalization has fundamentally altered societal systems through
advances in communication, technology, and commerce (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Friedman,
2007; Zakaria, 2011). As national economies continue to evolve in reaction to the forces of
globalization, educational systems have been required to adapt to provide students with the
requisite skills to compete in an increasingly global economy (Spring, 2008). To meet the chal-
lenges of globalization, many national school systems have shifted their focus to the development
of 21st-century learning skills in an attempt to align educational programs with the expected
demands of a globally competitive job market (Kay & Greenhill, 2012).
During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian
society to a high-tech hub of innovation in Latin America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition,
Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to attract FDI, which have included tax incentives and
investments in infrastructure as well as changes to the educational system (OECD, 2012a). In
response to the influence of globalization on education, Costa Rica has focused efforts on the
development of 21st-century skills (CINDE, 2012) through initiatives such as the
PRONAFECYT (MICITT, n.d.). The PRONAFECYT initiative, aimed at increasing Costa
Rica’s technological human capital (Valencia-Chacón, 2011), has resulted in changes to the
instructional programs in Costa Rican schools as well as new demands on their educational
leaders.
At the present time, there is a lack of empirical data on how the PRONAFECYT has
affected leadership and instructional practices in the Costa Rican educational system. The
current literature does not reference the role of system or site leaders in the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. In addition, information on the impact of leadership and instructional practice
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 73
toward participation in the PRONAFECYT is absent in the literature. The overarching goal of
this research is to gain an understanding of the role of leadership in participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT. The purpose of this study was addressed through the answering of the
following research questions:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with the
21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Chapter 2 presented the literature on the forces of globalization associated with current
shifts in the Costa Rican educational system as evidenced by the PRONAFECYT as well as
frameworks related to educational development. This chapter focuses on the conceptual frame-
works, research design, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis,
and ethical considerations.
Frameworks
To frame the current inquiry, the following frameworks were utilized: (a) Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) four-frame model, (b) Kotter’s (1996) eight-step model of leading change, (c)
Wagner’s (2010) seven survival skills for the 21st century, (d) the STEM–PBL framework devel-
oped by Capraro et al. (2013), and (e) the PLC model developed by DuFour et al. (2010).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 74
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames, or lenses, were instrumental in examining the
actions, words, and attributes of leaders interviewed, surveyed and observed in this study.
Kotter’s (1996) eight common mistakes and eight-step process to lead change provided an addi-
tional lens through which leadership was analyzed. Wagner’s (2010) seven survival skills
necessary for students to be successful in the 21st century provided a useful reference point when
analyzing stakeholder perceptions of the importance of soft skills related to the PRONAFECYT.
In addition, Wagner’s (2012) assertion that school systems must rapidly adapt to the continual
changes elicited by increasing globalization to develop and implement programs to prepare
students for entry into a knowledge- and innovation-based economy provided a useful frame of
reference during the interviews. The descriptors of qualitative differences between traditional
and PBL classrooms used by Capraro et al. (2013) provided a frame of reference in regard to
classroom observations. The authors’ descriptors of the implementation of STEM PBL as
occurring on an evolutionary continuum with specific indicators of developmental levels (i.e.,
traditional hands on, novice, informed novice, expert, and researcher) was used as a frame of
reference. Finally, the conceptual framework of PLCs, as described by DuFour et al. (2010), was
useful in the analysis of survey and interview responses related to teacher collaboration and
leadership associated with the PRONAFECYT.
In sum, these frameworks were used to provide structural indicators in the protocols
developed for the study. They were also used comparatively with the findings, from which
conclusions were drawn.
Research Design
Maxwell (2013) asserted that research design is driven by well-defined research ques-
tions. As such, and given the open-ended, contextually bound nature of the research questions, a
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 75
case study method was deemed the most appropriate. As an approach to qualitative inquiry, case
study has many advantages, including an emergent design accompanied with rich descriptions of
subjective experiences toward the development of a theory of action (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam,
2009). Creswell (2013) presented a six-step method for conducting research: (a) identification of
a research problem, (b) a review of current literature, (c) a defining purpose for the inquiry, (d)
data collection, (e) data analysis, and (f) reporting research findings. Prior to collecting data, the
research team met to collaboratively identify the research problem, review current literature, and
define the purpose of the current inquiry. Data were collected using the following instruments:
survey questionnaires, interviews, document analysis, and direct observation. The development
of instrument protocols and their proposed use are detailed later in this chapter.
Through incorporation of an emergent design, this case study developed a grounded
theory (Maxwell, 2013) related to the influence of leadership on educational practices and
PRONAFECYT outcomes. As a bound system (Merriam, 2009), the unit of measurement was
individual Costa Rican schools that currently participate in the National Inform and Executive
Decree 31900. Data drawn from the firsthand accounts of policymakers, educational leaders,
school directors, and teachers were coded, analyzed, and triangulated to derive a theory of action
related to the influence of leadership practice on implementation, classroom instruction, and
participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
Research Team
The research team was led by Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft of the
University of Southern California’s (USC) Rossier School of Education. This dissertation group
was comprised of 18 USC doctoral candidates. The group began meeting during the summer of
2014 to formulate the inquiry. Initial research to develop the literature review was conducted by
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 76
members of the group throughout the fall of 2014. Meetings for this collaborative group took
place approximately 2–3 times per month beginning in July 2014. Collaborative group work
consisted of conducting a literature review; presenting independent research; and developing
survey, interview, and observation protocols as well as other shared projects for the design of the
present study. As the third iteration of Costa Rica research led by Dr. Escalante, literature and
instruments from previous projects were reviewed and used as references for the current study.
Due to the collaborative nature of this thematic group process, some level of similarity may be
present among dissertations.
Sample and Population
Purposeful sampling was used to gather research participants. According to Merriam
(2009),
two levels of sampling are usually necessary in qualitative case studies. First you must
select “the case” to be studied. Then, unless you plan to interview, observe, or analyze all
the people, activities, or documents within the case, you will need to do some sampling
within the case. (p. 81)
The research team requested access to school sites from Costa Rican officials (Appendix
A) in the MEP and the MICITT. Requests were made via email to Alicia Vargas Porras, Aca-
demic Vice-Minister of Public Education, and Ms. Nathalie Valencia-Chacón, Director of the
PRONAFECYT, as part of the MICITT. Access was granted to 18 elementary school sites
(Appendix B). Because the school sites that were visited were selected for the research team, the
first level of sampling did not apply. This study involved a comparison of the level of success in
implementing the PRONAFECYT at each of the sites where access was granted. The roles that
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 77
educational leaders played in implementing the PRONAFECYT were compared to identify
practices leading to and supporting successful participation in the PRONAFECYT.
This research team of 18 doctoral students was divided into three groups. Each group
was assigned to collect data from schools within a specific geographic area of San José, Costa
Rica. In addition, each group was subdivided into three pairs of researchers; each pair consisted
of one Spanish-speaking bilingual researcher and one non-Spanish-speaking researcher. Each
pair of researchers collected data from two primary school sites to develop a comparative case
study.
For the present study, the sample population included government officials, business
partners, university faculty, school directors, assistant school directors, teachers, and students.
Surveys were conducted with these participants so as to understand their beliefs, experiences, and
personal perceptions regarding the role of leadership related to the PRONAFECYT. A represen-
tative sampling of all populations were interviewed, with the exception of students. Students
were excluded from participating in interviews upon the request of school directors.
Due to their status as Costa Rican public figures, nonschool-based participants have been
identified by name. In order to maintain confidentiality, individual schools, teachers, and stu-
dents have not been identified by name or other descriptors. Schools have been assigned pseu-
donyms.
Public Sector Participants
Table 2 presents a summary of the numbers of study participants surveyed and inter-
viewed by category. Following is a list of the public sector individuals who participated:
1. Government officials: Javier Cambronero Arguedas, Costa Rican legislator; Alicia
Porras Vargas, Vice Minister of Academic Education, MEP; Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 78
Table 2
Summary of Study Participants From the Public Sector
Number Number
Participant type surveyed interviewed
Government officials 7 6
Business partners 3 4
University faculty 0 2
Regional PRONAFECYT Coordinator 1 1
Totals 11 13
Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
Minister, MICITT; Natalie Valencia-Chacón, MICITT official; Patricia Arias, Regional Science
Advisor, Occidente Region; and Sylvia Ugaide Fernandez, Consular General of Costa Rica.
2. Business partners: Vanessa Gibson, CINDE; Mary Helen Bialas, Consejo de Promo-
cion de la Competividad; Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluation, Omar Dengo Foundation; and
Maria Santos Passamontes, Director, Estado de la Nacion, Unidad Nacionales.
3. University faculty: Alejandra Mata-Segreda, Dean of Primary Teacher Education,
UCR; and Hugo Navarro, Dean, School of Technical Education, Costa Rica Institute of Technol-
ogy (Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica; ITCR).
4. Regional PRONAFECYT Coordinator: Patricia Arias, Occidente Regional Science
Coordinator affiliated with MICITT and MEP.
All participants selected to play a part in this research study were chosen due to their
direct or influential role on government policy decisions related to the PRONAFECYT. Follow-
ing are brief introductions of participants who made the most significant contribution to the
present study and who were drawn from the public sector:
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 79
Congressman Javier Cambronero, a Costa Rican legislator passionate about education,
began his career as a teacher, rising to the rank of president of the Education, Science and Tech-
nology Commission. At the time of his interview, Congressman Cambronero was still serving on
this commission. His heart is in education, and he feels that students need hands-on instruction
to prepare and help continue building Costa Rica’s economy.
Alejandra Mata-Segreda is a lifelong educator who is passionate about developing teacher
capacity and successful implementation of PRONAFECYT. Dr. Mata-Segreda’s career began in
1971 when she served as a preschool teacher until 1984. Dr. Mata-Segreda transitioned to
becoming a professor in the UCR School of Education. Through the years, Dr. Mata-Segreda
held various positions at UCR ranging from professor to coordinator to director. In 2006, Dr.
Mata-Segreda became the Vice Ministra Academica in Educacion for the MEP. Dr. Mata-
Segreda then returned to UCR to a position that she previously held from 1996 to 1999 as the
Dean of the School of Education.
Ms. Nathalie Valencia-Chacón currently serves as a Director with the MICITT. She is the
chief coordinator of the PRONAFECYT as well as other projects that promote science and tech-
nology in Costa Rican schools. Originally a biology teacher, she transitioned to her current
position after one of her students won the national science fair and qualified for the Intel Interna-
tional Science and Engineering Fair (IISEF). As the teacher of such a successful student, she was
then provided with the opportunity to participate in programs for science teachers at the IISEF
and later as director of the PRONAFECYT.
At the time of this study, Vanessa Gibson had worked with CINDE for 14 years and saw a
strong correlation between education and economic development. She began her career as an
economic researcher. Three years later, she assumed the position of manager for the Service
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 80
Sector and in 2009 was promoted to Aftercare Director. Prior to that, she worked at the Central
Bank of Costa Rica as an economic assistant to the Agricultural Economics Department. During
her years as Service Sector Manager, Ms. Gibson promoted a series of initiatives not only to
attract but also to consolidate the Service Sector Cluster. Along with these initiatives was an ag-
gressive company attraction strategy, as well as the development of public-private partnership
programs to invite the already installed firms to expand and diversify their operations in the
country. In her current position as the Director of Aftercare, she is in charge of providing guid-
ance to the companies throughout the installation stage, thus smoothing this process. As the head
of department, she oversees the coordination of several public-private partnership projects and
programs aimed at improving the investment and business environment of Costa Rica.
Alicia Eugenia Vargas-Porras is the current Vice Minister of Educational Programs at the
MEP. Mrs. Vargas-Porras has held various positions throughout her career including being a
professor at the UCR, Director of the Institute for Research in Education at UCR since 2012, and
researcher at the Institute for several years. Between 2007 and 2010, Mrs. Vargas-Porras held the
position of Regional Coordinator of the Capacity Building of Academic Networks.
School-Based Participants
The school sites involved in this study were preselected by the MICITT in conjunction
with the MEP. Although 16 schools were visited by the research team, this chapter presents data
and findings gathered during visits by this researcher. In total, five school sites were visited by
this researcher. All schools considered in this chapter were located in the West Region of San
José. While visiting schools, site directors, teachers, and students completed surveys developed
in alignment with the research questions. School directors and teachers were interviewed at their
respective sites, and classroom observations were conducted across learning environments at
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 81
school sites to triangulate research data findings. At the request of school directors, students
were not interviewed. Table 3 contains a summary of the data collection in the West San José
Region. For reasons of confidentiality, pseudonyms were substituted for the actual school
names.
Table 3
Summary of Data Collection From Schools in West San José Region
Directors Directors Teachers Teachers Students
School
a
surveyed interviewed surveyed interviewed surveyed
Militaria 2 2 18 5 63
Colón 2 2 20 7 79
Santa Barbara 1 1 20 6 85
Universitaria 3 2 15 5 125
Central 2 1 18 6 77
Totals 10 8 91 29 429
a
Pseudonyms were used for school names.
Although the primary focus of the present study was Colón School, located in the West
Region of San José, data drawn from four additional schools from the same geographic region
were included to provide a comparative analysis. Data from interviews, surveys, and observa-
tions of Militaria were highlighted in the present study due to its proximity to Colón, demo-
graphic similarities, and disparities in PRONAFECYT participation. Multiple data sources were
included to derive comparisons and contrasts related to conclusions to support emergent themes
linked to the research questions.
Colón is located in the heart of San José in an urban area. The school was founded in
1965 and, according to Colón’s director, is considered a desirable school of choice for families
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 82
residing in the surrounding neighborhoods. In addition, the director asserted that Colón is known
in the community for its annual Arts Festival and Student Drum Line. Like other schools in the
West Region of San José, Colón provides students with meals as well as other services including
access to a dental clinic and mental health counseling. The current school director has served in
a leadership capacity at Colón for the past 15 years. Although the research team requested a tour
of the school by Colón’s director, the director did not provide one.
Colón School serves approximately 900 students from kindergarten to 12th grade. For
the purpose of the present study, 79 students in Grades 5–6 were surveyed as a representational
sample. The school is divided into four sections or cycles: (a) kindergarten to third grade, (b)
fourth to sixth grade, (c) seventh to ninth grade, and (d) 10th to 12th grade. Depending on grade
level, students attend Colón on an alternating schedule with elementary grades in either morning
or afternoon sessions. According to Colón’s director, this educational model has been adopted
due to the limited availability of school space to conduct classes. In practice, this scheduling
configuration results in elementary students and secondary students attending school for 4-hour
blocks in alternating shifts. Elementary-age students through Grade 6 receive instruction in
self-contained, single-grade classrooms with all academic subjects taught by the same teacher.
Secondary students move between classes and are instructed by different teachers over the course
of an instructional day. Secondary-level teachers are assigned classes based on their content area
knowledge in specialized courses such as Spanish, algebra, or chemistry; elementary students are
taught multiple subjects by the same teacher.
In addition to the school director and one assistant director, there are approximately 24
teachers assigned to the students of Colón School. Twenty teachers from Colón were surveyed,
and seven were interviewed as a representative sample. In addition, the school has been assigned
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 83
two full-time science coordinators. One coordinator is responsible for providing training and
support to elementary staff and students in relation to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
The other coordinator works with secondary staff in relation to the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. The elementary science coordinator was surveyed and interviewed for this
study. Finally, 79 upper-grade students were surveyed as a representative sample. Students were
not interviewed based on the request of Colón’s director. Parents were not available for inter-
views or surveys during visits to Colón.
Militaria School is located 3 miles west of Colón and serves a virtually identical demo-
graphic of students. One key difference is that Militaria does not serve secondary students and
has limited enrollment to elementary grades. The school is divided into two sections, kindergar-
ten to third grade and fourth to sixth grades. There are approximately 21 teachers assigned to
Militaria, in addition to the school director and the assistant director. The school also has a
science coordinator who is responsible for providing training and support to the staff in relation
to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Unlike Colón, which was built in 1965, Militaria
is housed in a retired military fort building that was erected in the early 1800s. The director of
Militaria has served in her current position for over a decade. She took great pride in the physical
improvements to her campus, as evidenced during a tour given to the research team of her
facilities that highlighted brightly painted murals and desks in all classrooms. While giving this
tour, her eager tone and enthusiastic warmth were pervasive and energizing. She took great care
in describing the programs at her school and stopped to smile and interact with all students and
staff encountered during the tour.
In addition to the school director and one assistant director, approximately 20 teachers
from Militaria were surveyed and were interviewed as a representative sample. In addition, the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 84
science coordinator was surveyed and interviewed for this study. Finally, 63 upper-grade
students were surveyed. Students were not interviewed based on the request of Militaria’s
director. Parents were not available for interviews or surveys during visits to Militaria.
Instruments
Instruments designed for the present study consisted of survey questionnaires, semi-
structured interview protocols, and semistructured classroom observation protocols. All instru-
ments were collaboratively designed with input from the thematic dissertation group. This work
was conducted during the spring of 2015. Each question and observation criterion was designed
based on one of the four research questions and related to the conceptual frameworks already
described. The recruitment–consent letter (Appendix C) was created in the spring of 2015 and
was in alignment with USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) processes.
Interviews
According to Maxwell (2013), qualitative research questions focus on (a) the meaning of
events, (b) the social context of events, and (c) the processes and outcomes of events. This
framework was used as a reference point when developing open-ended interview questions for
the semistructured interview protocol, which was based on research questions developed for this
study. A semistructured interview format was used to provide structured questions necessary to
address the research questions while allowing interviewers flexibility in the form of follow-up or
probing questions. Six sets of interview questions were created to address the six groups of
individuals being interviewed: teachers (Appendix D), school directors (Appendix E), govern-
ment officials and business partners (Appendix F), parents (Appendix G), and students (Appen-
dix H). The questions stemmed from the same root question but were worded differently to
make each applicable to its audience; however, again, the root of the question remained to
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 85
provide triangulation from the responses. Triangulation refers to the act of comparing and
cross-referencing different sources of data to increase the reliability of findings and to limit the
effect of subjective interpretation that stems from the researcher or informant (Maxwell, 2013).
When establishing interview questions, the cohort worked collaboratively to include the follow-
ing six types of questions that Patton (2002) identified as necessary to stimulate responses from
the interviewee: (a) experience and behavior, (b) opinion and values, (c) feelings, (d) knowledge,
(e) sensory, and (f) background/demographic.
Surveys
Fink (2012) stated that surveys are useful instruments for gaining insight into what
respondents believe, know, and think in regard to a topic of inquiry. For the present research
project, the overarching survey questions and protocols were collaboratively designed by the
thematic dissertation group and organized by research question and theoretical framework.
Survey questions were modified to match the perspectives of targeted respondents by criteria:
teachers, school administrators, government officials, business representatives, and students.
Responses were presented on closed-ended, forced-choice scales with the following response
indicators: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree, and not sure. Similar to the inter-
views planned for this study, six sets of survey questions were created to address the six groups
of individuals being interviewed: teachers (Appendix I), school directors (Appendix J), govern-
ment officials (Appendix K), business partners (Appendix L), parents (Appendix M), and
students (Appendix N). The questions stemmed from the same root questions but were worded
differently to make each applicable to its audience; however, the root of the question remained to
provide for clear triangulation from the responses.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 86
Observations
According to Merriam (2009), observation is a useful tool for validating the authenticity
of other forms of data as well as for gaining firsthand contextual experience of the subject of
qualitative inquiry. Thus, an observation protocol was developed to collect data on the role of
educational leaders in preparing teachers for participation in the PRONAFECYT. Additionally,
the protocol was designed to collect data on classroom practices and the presence of observable
instructional practices and artifacts related to the PRONAFECYT. An observation protocol was
developed by the research team in February 2015 and refined in March 2015 to assess the PBL
and strategies that were encouraging development of 21st-century skills in the classroom (Appen-
dix O). The protocol was created using Merriam’s (2009) checklist of observable elements that
included the physical setting, participants, activities and interactions, conversation, subtle factors,
and the observer’s own behavior. In utilizing this observation protocol, each researcher assumed
the role of observer as participant, whereby the group knew the researchers’ observer activities,
but the participation of the observer in the group was secondary to the role of information
gatherer (Merriam, 2009). On March 1, 2015, the research team communicated a summary of the
research proposal (Appendix P) to stakeholders in Costa Rica.
Data Collection
The research team traveled to Costa Rica in June 2015 to collect data through survey
questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Survey data were collected from teachers, school
administrators, government officials, business representatives, and students. In addition, teach-
ers, school administrators, government officials, and business representatives were interviewed.
To provide triangulation of data collected through survey and interviews, direct observations at
school sites were conducted.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 87
A variety of data were collected to guide the emergent design aspect of the study and to
facilitate triangulation. In addition, investigator triangulation (Merriam, 2009), a technique that
involves the comparison of data collected by different researchers based on the same inquiry, was
utilized.
Due to the limited window of opportunity afforded by the time constraints of travel to
Costa Rica, survey data were used to assess the thoughts, beliefs, and perceptions of teachers,
school administrators, government officials, business representatives, parents, and students in
regard to the role of site and system leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT, as well as the
impact of the PRONAFECYT on instructional programs at school sites. Costa Rican policymak-
ers, educational leaders, and teachers were interviewed as a means to understand, from multiple
perspectives, the role of the PRONAFECYT in educational leadership and distributed leadership
practice. Finally, direct observations of practices at Costa Rican schools in support of the
PRONAFECYT were made using a semistructured observation protocol.
Data Analysis
According to Creswell (2013), a qualitative data analysis consists of six steps:
1. Organize and prepare data for analysis.
2. Read through all the data.
3. Begin a detailed analysis with a coding process.
4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as
categories or themes for analysis.
5. Advance how the description and themes were represented in the qualitative narrative.
6. Make an interpretation of the data by answering the question, “What were the lessons
learned?” (p. 200)
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 88
These steps were individually and collaboratively completed by the research group. In addition,
the tasks were facilitated through the use of Dedoose, an online tool useful for data analysis,
coding, and storage for collaborative projects.
Emergent design, based on the initial collection of data, is a common feature of qualita-
tive inquiry (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam, 2009). Data analysis was conducted during the
collection of data to detect the presence of emergent themes to guide the development of codes.
Upon the completion of all survey questionnaires, interviews, and observations, data were
uploaded to Dedoose for individual and collaborative review. In preparation for this step, all
interviews were transcribed and translated. Following this step, the process of coding according
to theme, framework, and research question occurred as a means to identify themes and link data
to conclusions based on research questions.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability, as traditionally defined in research, refers to the ability to replicate results
from a given study (Merriam, 2009). As a case study within a bound system, this standard is less
appropriate to the current study than the standard presented by Merriam (2009):
Replication of a qualitative study will not yield the same results, but this does not dis-
credit the results of any particular study; there can be numerous interpretations of the
same data. The more important question for qualitative research is whether the results are
consistent with the data collected . . . rather than demanding that outsiders get the same
results, a researcher wishes outsiders to concur that, given the data collected, the results
make sense—they are consistent and dependable. (p. 221)
The dissertation group utilized the above standard to ensure reliability through collaborative data
analysis and coding to arrive at consistent and dependable themes that led to consistent
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 89
conclusions. The members of the thematic group bolstered reliability of the study through col-
laboration and consultation by utilizing the following strategies described by Gibbs (as cited in
Creswell, 2013, p. 203): (a) “checking transcripts for accuracy,” (b) “consistent and uniform
application of codes,” (c) “coordinated and regular communication by the research team,” and (d)
“cross checking of codes to develop intercoder agreement.”
Creswell (2013) associated qualitative validity with trustworthiness, authenticity, and
credibility. To promote validity in qualitative work, Creswell recommended eight primary
strategies:
1. Triangulation of data to gain multiple perspectives.
2. Member checking to determine the accuracy of findings.
3. Use of rich, thick description to convey findings.
4. Clarifying of researcher bias through self-reflection and self-disclosure in findings.
5. Inclusion of negative or discrepant information.
6. Spending of prolonged time in the field.
7. Use of peer debriefing to enhance the accuracy of the account.
8. Use of an external auditor to review the entire project. (pp. 202–203)
Each of these strategies was employed throughout the data collection and analysis phases of the
study, with the exception of spending prolonged time in the field. This strategy was not utilized
due to the time constrictions posed by international travel.
Ethical Considerations
All 18 members of this study, including the research leaders, Drs. Escalante and
Wiedoeft, completed the IRB application process. As a component of this process, all members
completed the online Collaborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI). To successfully complete the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 90
CITI program, each researcher reviewed eight modules on the vital importance of ethical conduct
toward human subjects in all research projects. Upon review of the module, each researcher took
an assessment and scored a minimum of 80%, which was required to become CITI certified.
In addition, all phases of this research proposal were reviewed and approved by USC’s
IRB process. The IRB process was utilized to ensure that the research conducted met the neces-
sary ethical considerations and did not cause harm to participants in the study.
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the proposed methodology for this study that sought to provide an
understanding of the role of leadership in instructional practice, implementation, and participa-
tion in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The proposed research design, sampling method,
instrumentation, data collection process, data analysis, and thematic structures were presented
and discussed.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 91
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings of this study through analysis of
interviews, surveys, observations, and the literature review. The chapter is divided into three
main sections: (a) a restatement of the study’s purpose and research questions, (b) an overview of
the participants, and (c) a presentation of the findings related to each of the research questions.
Four theoretical frameworks were utilized in the analysis of the collected data: (a) Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership, (b) Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change process, (c) the
STEM–PBL framework developed by Capraro et al. (2013), and (d) Wagner’s (2010) seven
survival skills for the 21st century.
Restatement of Purpose and Research Questions
Over the past 40 years, Costa Rica has utilized education as a human capital development
strategy to drive economic growth and widen opportunities for its citizenry (Monge-González &
Tacsir, 2014). As part of this effort and in order to attract FDI through participation in global
high-tech value chains, Costa Rica has placed an emphasis on students developing 21st-century
skills and competencies in STEM subjects (CINDE, 2014b). In recent years, a key component of
this initiative has been student participation in the PRONAFECYT. In order to successfully
implement this initiative in schools, site and system leaders have played a key role in guiding the
process of change. The purpose of this study was to identify the role played by educational
leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. Central to the purpose of this study was
an examination of the leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development
practices at Costa Rican elementary schools to identify key components of successful implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 92
The following research questions were developed to guide this study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with the
21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role that educational leaders play in implement-
ing the PRONAFECYT initiative?”
The collective forces that comprise globalization have impacted multiple aspects of
modern society, thus inspiring local and national educational systems to adopt innovative ap-
proaches to education (Wagner, 2010; Spring 2008). Being no exception, Costa Rica has been
developing systemic changes such as the PRONAFECYT in response to the needs posed by an
increasingly globalized world economy. One rationale for Executive Decree 31900 and sup-
ported by interview and survey data is the need for students to develop skills related to innova-
tion and the challenges posed by a technologically advanced society. In order for schools to
successfully implement PRONAFECYT, educational policy leaders from multiple agencies and
with disparate responsibilities have played key roles in defining processes and evaluating results.
Chief among these stakeholders are the leaders of schools, or directors. In the discussion of these
findings, the role of the school director will be the primary focus. Although several themes
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 93
emerged relating to the specific role of educational leaders involved in PRONAFECYT, three
dominant themes related specifically to the role of school site directors are addressed in this
section.
Theme 1: Leadership of School Directors Is Necessary for PRONAFECYT Success
As a human capital development initiative, the Costa Rican government has taken a
multipronged approach in aligning outputs of the educational system with the needs of private
and public sector interests (Monge-González & Tacsir, 2014). Although government, business,
and university faculty have assumed a primary role in the development of PRONAFECYT
policies and procedures, survey and interview data convey agreement among these stakeholders
that school directors play a critical role in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT at school
sites.
In the words of Javier Cambronero Arguedas, a Costa Rican legislator and key policy-
maker for the education system,
the leaders of the education system have a strong challenge. First, they have to motivate
the families of the students to participate, but they also have to convince politicians, those
who make decisions, that it is worth doing. Again, this is something that will render
benefits in the short and medium term and we should not see the money we pay in taxes
as expenditure but on the contrary, as an investment. In fact, there are a great number of
Costa Rican scientists who are leaving the country and working elsewhere.
As implied by this interview comment, the task of educational leaders, who in this case would be
directors or principals, must act with a sense of urgency in order to promote the benefits of the
PRONAFECYT at both the site and system levels. As a significant investment of public funds,
directors have been given the twofold task of creating conditions for success while
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 94
simultaneously demonstrating a rationale for increased resource allocation from policy makers.
Although directors are in the middle, between politicians and community members, their role is
critical to the long-term success of the PRONAFECYT through creating conditions for and
promoting the success of the fairs. This fact is particularly relevant from the perspective of legis-
lators as a primary rationale for Executive Decree 31900, as discussed in Chapter 2 and sup-
ported by the interview and survey data—the need for students to develop skills related to
innovation and the challenges posed by a technologically advanced society.
On a similar note, Alicia Porras Vargas, Vice Minister of the MEP, noted the following
during an interview when asked about the specific role of the school director in relation to
PRONAFECYT:
In our country we have national advisors, we have regional advisors, and so they are
related in the sense that they get involved in the schools to support the educational pro-
cesses at their school. The main person that is responsible for the development of the
school is of course the principal. He or she is the person who should enable the process
to be carried out. The scientific fair and all type of activities that we have in the schools
have norms and regulations that are given at the national level, so they are very well reg-
ulated, and the principal is the person who should establish how the activities are going to
develop, according to the norms and regulations that are, of course, provided.
In other words, although a system of supports has been created at a governmental level, the
realization of procedures and ultimate success regarding the PRONAFECYT is largely dependent
upon the direct actions of school-level directors.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 95
University leaders with a stake in the outcomes and associated processes of the
PRONAFECYT were in agreement. Hugo Navarro, principal of the ITCR School of Technical
Education, noted:
You see the leaders—well, in any area or field they are very important. But if we talk
about education, the principals or directors of colleges or educational centers are very
important, because that leadership is going to have a great impact in the students, right?
So then that will define in a lot of students, their career choice. This kind of leadership
that is focused on science and technology will define if a students is a lawyer or is an
engineer, right? So then that is the importance of these kind of leaders.
According to stakeholders from the business community, school directors play a critical
and discerning role in regard to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT at their schools.
During an interview with the research team, Ana Hernandez of the Omar Dengo Foundation
stated that in her experience, each school director determines the rules and processes for his or
her individual school. This view differed widely from the perceptions of the MEP and MICITT
reports collected during interviews. Although various stakeholders viewed the procedural role of
directors from differing perspectives, all governmental and business partners interviewed
expressed agreement on the importance of the school director in implementing the
PRONAFECYT. Mary Helen Bialas of the Costa Rican Council for Promotion of Competitive-
ness stated:
At all levels, if the teachers don’t believe in it and if the directors don’t believe in it, and
we definitely saw problems where teachers believed and wanted to do it but the director
. . . The director is the principal. I’m sorry. That’s a translation. If the principal does not
agree, doesn’t want to do the work, doesn’t want to do that, then it dies. Unfortunately,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 96
all those kids in that school don’t have the opportunity to participate, and it becomes a
tradition in that school not to participate.
This comment supported the notion echoed throughout the interview responses of the preponder-
ance of nonschool-based stakeholders that the school director established a culture in which the
PRONAFECYT either thrives or has limited impact on the instructional programs of Costa Rican
schools.
In addition to interviews, stakeholders from government and business sectors were sur-
veyed regarding their beliefs. Question 1 of these surveys asked participants to indicate their
level of agreement with the following statement: “School Directors play a critical role in assuring
teachers implement PRONAFECYT.” Of the business leaders surveyed, all strongly agreed that
school directors played a critical role in implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Results from
government official surveys were largely in agreement, with 71.4% expressing strong agreement,
14.3% expressing agreement, and 14.3% expressing strong disagreement. Teacher responses to
the same survey question indicated a much wider range of opinions across school sites where
data were collected (see Table 4).
Although these data seemingly contradict the perceptions of government and business
leaders, the differences in teacher opinion may be related to the critical role of leaders’ attitudes
toward PRONAFECYT implementation, as alluded to by Mary Helen Bialas. Further findings
from Table 4 will be discussed in a subsequent theme related to Research Question 1 as well as
how these perceptions impact PRONAFECYT student participation rates, as discussed in relation
to Research Question 2.
Despite government and business leaders largely in agreement that the school director
plays a critical role in supporting teachers with respect to implementation of the PRONAFECYT,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 97
Table 4
Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 1
Strongly Strongly
School
a
agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria 88.9% 11.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón 35.0% 30.0% 25.0% 5.0% 5.0%
Santa Barbara 70.0% 25.0% 0.0% 0.0% 5.0%
Universitaria 53.3% 33.3% 0.0% 6.7% 6.7%
Central 55.6% 16.7% 5.6% 5.6% 16.7%
Note. Question 1: “The school director plays a critical role in assuring teachers implement the
PRONAFECYT.” PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
a
Pseudonyms used for school names.
teachers’ opinions varied. When interviewed, five of seven teachers at Colón indicated that the
director played a primary role in implementing PRONAFECYT at that school. Universally, their
responses alluded to a procedural role related to the establishment of schedules, the sharing of
memoranda, and adherence to timelines established by the MEP. These data were supported
during observation of a staff meeting where Colón’s director discussed scheduling logistics for
an impending fair as well as other procedural or structural tasks assigned to teachers.
This discrepancy in results between the accounts of policy makers and Colón’s teachers
may be related to the specific actions and characteristics of the school director when analyzed
through the four frames model of Bolman and Deal (2008) or Kotter’s (1996) leading change
framework. According to Bolman and Deal’s symbolic leadership frame, effective leaders must
possess the ability to create narratives to motivate followers. This same skill, according to
Bolman and Deal, is useful from the political frame to build a sense of urgency with decision
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 98
makers, thereby leading toward action plans related to clarified processes and procedures as well
as the allocation of resources to school sites. Likewise, Kotter’s (1996) framework identifies
motivating and inspiring stakeholders as a key leadership skill toward similar ends.
Overall, the importance of school directors in establishing and maintaining a culture
conducive to the PRONAFECYT was a predominant theme among all government and business
partners interviewed from the private sector. With near universal agreement, these stakeholders
characterized the support provided by directors to teachers as a critical component for successful
PRONAFECYT participation. In contrast, teachers at Colón did not agree that the director
played a crucial role, as evidenced by survey and interview responses. As will be discussed in
subsequent sections, this perceived lack of support from the director may be an underlying cause
of low student participation in PRONAFECYT at Colón.
Theme 2: School Directors Responsible for Acquiring PRONAFECYT Resources
Regardless of grade level, students who participate in the PRONAFECYT are expected to
produce a physical deliverable that consists of materials ranging from poster board presentations
to complex materials involved in scientific experimental design (Valencia-Chacón, 2011).
During interviews, government policymakers identified governmentally provided resources for
student participation in the PRONAFECYT at varying levels of competition. When asked an
interview question regarding material resources to support PRONAFECYT at the school-site
level, Costa Rican legislator Javier Cambronero Arguedas stated:
No, in this case the Ministry of Public Education provides support and the injection of
resources is not very big. That is why there is a need for a law of the Republic which
forces the investment in this type of process. Currently, most of the expenditure is
financed by the education center, by the teachers who use their own money to make
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 99
contributions and from the parents of those children who are participating in the process.
The contribution is very small and it should be increased.
MEP Vice Minister Alicia Vargas shared that a small budget exists in order to pay the cost of
human resources to staff fair events as well as to produce and publish manuals and protocols for
the PRONAFECYT. When asked about funds to support student projects, she shared that
other supports that we give is through the advisors that are in charge of a company, the
people who are advising it, the people how to go on with the scientific fairs, for example,
or the technological fairs. Also, one important aspect is the infrastructure support that is
given. For the national affairs, usually we have been using the space at the University of
Costa Rica, but for the regional fairs, they are done at a school or high school or usually a
big space where they can present what the work has been done. I must say that the
resources are financial, are human resources, and are infrastructure, and materials also.
Most of the experiments are done by the students with the participation of the parents,
with the support of the parents.
Carolina Vargas Soto, Vice Minister of the MICITT, stated that material supports are provided
for student projects but only after they have successfully completed competitions at the school
and regional levels. She asserted:
Of course there are resources, resources provided for this—initially the institutions assign
their science teachers who are there to guide students but they not necessarily support
them with the materials used by the student for his/her project. When we have had an
approach with these students in the national fairs, they suggest it would be really appro-
priate to have resources to buy these materials because it’s very expensive. It is very
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 100
expensive for them to design their experiments, and it would be good to have three or
four times to help students to design a viable project.
So when they have to pay three or four times in different stages of the experiments
and as they go forward through the project, they consider this very costly. But in this first
stage until the district process, the Minister of Public Education supports and participate
on this. Then the MICITT participates in regional fairs. They participate in the organiza-
tion of regional fairs; several districts participate—they gather in one district in order to
do this event. We have 27 regional events where MICITT provides financial support for
the installation, feeding, stands organization, and other type of support. After that the
national fair is organized and the resources are assigned to the University of Costa Rica,
and they run the project of national fair.
And finally during the awarding process, MICITT through the incentive fund,
participate, providing the plane tickets to each one of the winners of the national fair in
order to go to the international fair. So there is an important support, what is the addi-
tional support? Well, some youngsters need more support with regents and materials to
develop the experiment itself or robotic parts and help them to make the cost more afford-
able for them.
These interview excerpts demonstrate that the material supplies necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are not provided to students by government agencies at the institutional level.
When asked if the university systems of Costa Rica provided material support for school
aged students to participate in the PRONAFECYT, Alejandrina Mata-Segreda echoed her gov-
ernmental counterparts, stating that UCR provided human resources and facilities but did not
directly contribute to material resources. In a similar vein, Hugo Navarro of ITCR stated:
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 101
Well, you know that Costa Rica is a country that is still developing. It’s not a developed
country in the sense that its resources are very limited. However, the investment that the
state makes in education is very significant. In fact, there is an initiative to make it reach
8% of the gross national product. That is a lot, right? Probably one of the highest invest-
ments at an international level in education. And education is free and mandatory. So
then it’s not that you don’t want to go to school and you can stay home—no, you have to
go because it’s mandatory and the state pays for it. It’s both free and mandatory. So then
from that perspective, the state has already complied with providing the resources to offer
a good education.
As demonstrated in the interview excerpts highlighted above, governmental and business
leaders widely acknowledged a lack of material resources to support PRONAFECYT at the
institutional or school level. This notion was also supported by survey data that demonstrated
that the majority of business leaders surveyed were unsure whether schools were provided with
adequate resources, while a majority of government leaders surveyed felt that school sites were
underresourced in regard to the PRONAFECYT. This theme was predominant in all data
analyzed from nonschool participants in this study.
As can be gleaned from the data presented in Table 5, schools that experience success in
PRONAFECYT may have directors or principals who place a strategic emphasis on providing
students and teachers with needed resources. If schools lack necessary resources, it follows that
student participation will be suppressed. When resources are scarce, Bolman and Deal (2008)
asserted that leaders must work from the political frame to acquire needed supports. This asser-
tion works in concert with Kotter’s (1996) first and second steps in the change process: creating a
sense of urgency and creating a guiding coalition. As cited by Ballestero and Wright (2008),
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 102
schools in Costa Rica have guiding boards comprised of parents who make decisions regarding
the allocation of state funds and who set priorities in concert with the school director. In success-
ful schools such as Militaria, a positive relationship between school stakeholders exists to
facilitate the acquisition of resources. This acquisition of resources may be a key factor in the
success rates of Militaria when compared to the relative low participation rate of students at
Colón.
Table 5
Government and Business Leaders’ Responses to Survey Question 8
Strongly Strongly
Participants agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Government leaders 0.0% 42.9% 57.1% 0.0% 0.0%
Business leaders 0.0% 0.0% 33.3% 0.0% 66.7%
Note. Question 8: “Schools are provided adequate resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.” PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
When asked during an interview about resources needed for students to participate in the
PRONAFECYT, the Militaria School Director stated:
The Education Board and the School Board provide the resources. The Education Board
provides the money from the government for the awards and all that, and the School
Board is a group of parents who are here. Besides, we are blessed to have the contribu-
tion from private companies because we are the biggest school in San José. For example,
people from the company Sardimar have just left. They came to talk about the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 103
environment, so they sponsor our theater play, they provide the music, they give them
products, and they show the play about the environment which is very beautiful.
This response indicated that Militaria’s school director conducts regular work with a guiding
coalition and, as Kotter (1996) suggested, acts with a sense of urgency to seek political support
from stakeholders to achieve the vision of PRONAFECYT participation. Despite having limited
resources, this Director acts to overcome a barrier through strategic leadership.
The student-focused attitude permeated the responses of teachers at Militaria School.
One teacher at Militaria reported the following during an interview:
First, when they are projects at the classroom level, they first bring their resources. When
the candidates to the science fair are chosen, what’s needed for signs, or extra material for
experiments, or something is provided by the school. In this case, the Board of Education
was who supplied the materials, but usually they aren’t costly materials—it’s something
that the institution with the Board of Education gives because, they’re presentation
materials—or if it’s a PowerPoint
®
presentation, the one in charge at the laboratory helps
us, so it’s provided by the school.
And if the parents are the ones who want something like that, they take charge of
it. You can usually predict. You think, “This one will be good because besides the fact
of being really good at presenting, the parents are very committed; and if I ask the parent
for help, I know they will say yes,” because, the parents show a lot of support. If it were
something like—if it’s someone who doesn’t have many resources, then the school would
help.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 104
Another Militaria teacher noted:
Well, in general, we now count on a council, so through the council and the school board,
we do activities to collect funds, so that she can buy the materials. A lot of time it comes
out of her [the Director’s] pocket to help the children who can’t buy things like posters
for the signs, and everything. She always looks for a resource to implement that. She
also does it through activities.
In general, we sell pizza to the children, so we collect funds, or through activities
like a bounce house—different kinds of sales to be able to collect funds. But now, the
education council is who is giving those resources, so we actually got part of that money.
Actually that’s where I was going today—to get some things for decoration, the little
prizes, and things, but my co-worker didn’t come, so I wasn’t able to go. But there is a
little bit of money there set aside exclusively for that.
Survey data from the Militaria school director, teachers, and students supported the
findings of interviews, thus demonstrating that a majority of stakeholders agreed that students are
provided with adequate resources to participate in PRONAFECYT (see Table 6).
Table 6
Responses From Militaria School Participants to Survey Question 8
Strongly
Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Director 50.0% 50.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Teachers 38.9% 33.3% 27.8% 0.0% 0.0%
Students 57.1% 28.6% 1.6% 3.2% 9.5%
Note. Question 8: “My school has adequate resources to prepare students for PRONAFECYT.”
PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 105
These results indicate that students were provided with adequate materials and supplies at
Militaria, as supported through direct observations conducted by the research team. During visits
to the school site, student-generated PRONAFECYT projects were visible in three classrooms.
Three teachers interviewed at Militaria expressed that the school director had a direct role in
ensuring that students received necessary materials and supplies to participate in the
PRONAFECYT. According to direct observations, teacher surveys, and interviews, the director
at Militaria has taken an active and direct role in acquiring materials for students related to the
PRONAFECYT.
Although Colón School is located less than 3 miles away from Militaria and faces the
same systemic challenges regarding school resources for the PRONAFECYT, the Director has
taken a more passive stance and reported a far less optimistic outlook when interviewed. When
asked about resources for students to participate in the PRONAFECYT, the Director at Colón
replied:
Director: What do you mean by resources?
Interviewer: Like materials you need, posters—depending on the project.
Director: Yes. They have to be by their own. Only those who reach the institutional
fair, we have to give them the requirements. You have to fix the—how do
you say, poster? Poster—and that measures 140 for 90, and you have to
put the objectives on the processor, and the conclusions. You’re not al-
lowed to use laptop or [inaudible] and you have to—there are many things
we ask for the children, but it’s simple. You do it with the materials that
you can. Parents, or the community—depends on the project.
Interviewer: The [inaudible] has a parent committee to select the—
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 106
Director: Fairs.
Interviewer: The fair, or budget—
Director: Yes, when they get to the next level, the administrative board pays the
materials. “Wow, we have a project—it’s going to the Circuit Science
Fair.” So we tell the parents, “We need transportation, food expenses, and
materials for them.” “That's fine, with pleasure.” But at the institutional
level, no.
In a different vein, teachers at Colón School did not share the bleak outlook of the
director in regard to providing students with resources for institutional level participation in the
PRONAFECYT. One Colón teacher commented: “Well, here we normally have a meeting, an
administrative meeting, they [the school board], we tell them our needs and then they . . . are very
attentive in getting us the different materials and equipment they get.”
Another Colón teacher described how students acquire resources for the PRONAFECYT:
Through donations from parents, through funding through the boards because the team
that is chosen institutionally, the institution gives them a certain amount of support. At
the ministerial level, what we receive is training, but as far as resources, no. They don’t
do it like that.
A third Colón teacher simply said, “I think they are sponsored by the Board of Education. There
is a proposal at the national level for each school.”
In total, five of seven Colón teachers interviewed expressed the belief that the local
board of education sponsored student supplies for the PRONAFECYT. None of Colón’s teach-
ers mentioned the director as having an active role in the acquisition of resources for science
projects.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 107
Survey data related to the availability of resources for PRONAFECYT at Colón school
were also inconsistent when triangulated against interview responses (see Table 7).
Table 7
Colón School Participants’ Responses to Survey Question 8
Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Director 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Teachers 25.0% 35.0% 15.0% 20.0% 5.0%
Students 30.4% 24.1% 8.9% 8.9% 27.8%
Note. Question 8: “My school has adequate resources to prepare students for PRONAFECYT.”
PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
Observation data collected at Colón revealed a virtual absence of student-generated
science projects. Of the seven classrooms visited, only one had student-generated science fair
projects. These projects consisted of labeled plastic insects on poster boards. When asked
directly, a student who proudly displayed his poster board covered in oversized plastic spiders
reported that he had produced the project at home with materials provided by his parents.
When compared, the survey and interview data from Militaria and Colón School provided
stark contrasts. Although both leaders faced a similar challenge in meeting the resource needs of
students related to the PRONAFECYT on the institutional level, they had taken different ap-
proaches. Interview data suggested that the Director of Militaria School has created a guiding
coalition and approached the task of securing resources with a greater sense of urgency than the
director of Colón School. These data supported Kotter’s (1996) conceptual framework of
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 108
change, thus suggesting a more successful leader who acted with a sense of urgency compared to
a less successful leader who seemingly responded with complacency.
In sum, school directors who took an active role in acquiring resources for students
produced schools with higher PRONAFECYT participation rates. This notion was supported by
interviews, surveys, and direct observation by the research team.
Theme 3: School Directors Establish Direction, Communication, and Motivation
According to Friedman (2007) and Spring (2008), the collective forces of globalization
have led national school systems to adapt to changing economic conditions. In response to these
pervasive changes, developing nations such as Costa Rica have adopted numerous approaches for
changing the educational system to produce knowledge-ready workers for the 21st century
(Monge-González et al., 2010). This change to the educational system has placed unique
demands on Costa Rican school directors through mandated participation in the PRONAFECYT.
In the following section, data drawn from interviews, surveys and direct observation serve to link
specific actions of the leaders of Militaria and Colón Schools with successful implementation of
the PRONAFECYT.
According to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership model, school directors
must establish a vision of learning for their organizations. In a similar fashion, Kotter (1996)
agreed that leaders of change must overcommunicate their goals and vision in order to cement
positive change in organizations. According to Bolman and Deal, one powerful method of com-
municating a vision is through the symbolic frame by recognition of success within organiza-
tions. Likewise, Kotter (1996) suggested celebrating short-term successes as a method of
solidifying change and establishing productive organizational cultures. When interviewed and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 109
asked about recognizing teachers for their efforts related to PRONAFECYT, the responses of the
Directors of Militaria and Colón Schools provided a stark contrast. Militaria’s Director noted:
We all work together, so we don’t give them anything because it’s forbidden, but we
stimulate them. For example, on Teachers’ Day or on Mother’s Day, the children orga-
nize the civic act for their teachers, because we’re not allowed to receive anything
because it’s forbidden. And as principal, I stimulate them—maybe I just give them one of
these things, and I thank them for their effort.
For example, we have a Facebook
®
page where we inform that the children won
the first place in the fair and we thank their teachers. Let me show it to you. Here we
have the school and for example, last Monday was the Day of the Tree, so here you can
see the activities they are doing with the trees. And here we indicate all the activities that
we are carrying out.
In contrast, when asked the same question, the Director of Colón responded as follows:
Interviewer: Okay. The teachers here on your campus—how are they recognized when
they participate in the fair?
Director: How they are recognized?
Interviewer: Let’s say that a teacher helps a student, or guides a student to do their
project—is this teacher given a certificate, or a prize, or something in
recognition?
Director: The teacher?
Interviewer: Yes.
Director: No, nothing. It’s our duty—they pay us for that. We don’t have to give a
medal, or a diploma.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 110
Teachers’ responses from Militaria and Colón demonstrated a similar contrast. Teachers
from Militaria answered interview questions related to recognition in a manner that supported the
sentiments of their Director. One Militaria teacher noted: “Well, in general, the principal sends
them a little certificate, or recognition, and the MEP also gives us recognition with certificates.
These certificates are part of our teaching career, so they are worth like personal points for us.”
Another Militaria teacher responded:
I would say the same way. They are motivated through the speakers, “Congratulations to
those teachers”—they are always encouraging them. Also, if a student did a great job on
a project, sometimes he or she will get an award or a cake to share with his or her group
because they had a huge participation or a movie or something like that that gets their
attention and motivates them so they can continue building.
Similarly, teachers at Colón echoed the sentiments of their Director. One Colón teacher
responded, “Well, in that part, I feel that they aren’t very recognized,” while another Colón
teacher reported, “I don’t think in any form, no.” A third Colón teacher elaborated:
Recognition? Well, more than anything that is done at a level—like the incentive and the
motivation of having seen that the process was carried out. The fact of having worked
with the students and to see that they are satisfied that they consider you for activities
related to the fairs. Basically that is it. It is a matter that is more of . . . aptitude as such,
right?
These contrasts in the perceived communication of the Directors at Militaria and Colón
Schools were also supported by surveys from stakeholders. At Militaria School, survey data sug-
gested that teachers were in agreement that the Director communicated overarching goals for
participation and the impact of soft skills (21st-century skills) on student achievement related to
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 111
participation in PRONAFECYT. Colón teachers reported different perceptions of the same
questions, as illustrated in Tables 8 and 9.
Table 8
Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 10

Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 72.2% 27.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón teachers 30.0% 15.0% 30.0% 15.0% 15.0%
Note. Question 10: “The director communicates the importance of soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.”
Table 9
Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 19
Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 77.8% 22.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón teachers 25.0% 30.0% 40.0% 0.0% 5.0%
Note. Question 19: “The goals for PRONAFECYT participation are communicated by the
director. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
The data in Tables 8 and 9 suggested that the leader of Militaria school possessed a
strong, multiframed leadership skillset (Bolman & Deal, 2008). She has effectively aligned
resources to her stated goals from the structural frame, leveraged positive relationships with
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 112
faculty through communication from the human resources frame, worked with outside agencies
to acquire resources from the political frame, and celebrated teachers and students through social
media from the symbolic frame. In stark contrast, the director of Colón school has been less
successful in the acquisition of resources, communication of PRONAFECYT goals, and ac-
knowledging the efforts of his followers. Student outcomes and teacher perceptions related to
these differences in change management and leadership provided by the directors of each school
may also be affecting the overall success of the PRONAFECYT at their respective schools and
will be addressed in the next section of the results.
Observations of each school director revealed additional contrasts. While in her office,
the director of Militaria proudly displayed a Facebook
®
page dedicated to the success of students
and teachers regarding the PRONAFECYT. When she discussed her teachers and students, she
conveyed an overwhelming sense of warmth, optimism, and positive regard for their efforts
related to PRONAFECYT. When asked how teachers were celebrated at Colón during an
interview in his office, the director of Colón expressed confusion at the question. He described
his teachers and students in a cynical manner, implying that teachers were not deserving of
recognition as they were paid for their service and that students were unsuccessful at his school
due to factors such as low motivation and lack of resources.
Interview, survey, and direct observation data were consistent in confirming that the
impact of school directors is a critical factor in successful PRONAFECYT implementation.
Based on these data, nonschool-based educational leaders maintained a consistent perception of
the primary importance of school directors while teachers’ perceptions varied according to the
success of their respective schools. In a successful school such as Militaria, the impact of the
director was described in positive terms by teachers and highlighted her role in acquiring
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 113
materials and recognizing the efforts of students and teachers. At Colón, a less successful school,
teacher interview responses did not indicate the school director as providing recognition for staff
or students or as having an active role in the acquisition of learning materials. Alongside survey
and observation data, these results lend credibility to the notion that the effectiveness of leader-
ship by school directors has a direct impact on the PRONAFECYT.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?”
To define the criteria for success in relation to Research Question 2, an analysis of
observations, teacher survey data, and director interview data were compared against defining
characteristics of STEM PBL, as defined by Capraro, et al. (2013) and the PLC framework
described by DuFour et al. (2010). According to these definitive comparisons, Colón School was
determined to be the less successful school and Militaria school, the more successful school in
terms of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. When surveyed and asked about the level
of participation in the PRONAFECYT, the differences between Militaria and Colón Schools
were immediately apparent (see Table 10).
To support these findings, data from the school director and teacher interviews from both
sites were cross analyzed. Interview responses from school directors were widely divergent.
When asked about how teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT, the
director of Militaria school succinctly responded: “It [PRONAFECYT] is included as an
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 114
Table 10
Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 23

Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 44.4% 44.4% 5.6% 0.0% 5.6%
Colón teachers 15.0% 30.0% 45.0% 5.0% 5.0%
Note. Question 23: “There is a high level of participation at my school in PRONAFECYT.”
PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
extracurricular project. The extracurricular projects have a very high score. The science project
is an extracurricular project, so they all participate.”
In addition, the Director of Militaria clarified that nearly all students at her school pro-
duced a project related to the PRONAFECYT, despite the fact that very few advanced to compe-
tition beyond the institutional fair. When posed the same question, the Director of Colón school
responded with a more elaborate answer:
Interviewer: And here, at your school, how do teachers make sure the students partici-
pate in the science fair?
Director: Nice question. We have to do it by law, do you understand? We have to
push them. “Please teacher, talk to your students, participate in the science
Fair.” They don’t want to participate anymore; they are so lazy. “How can
I participate?” “How can I participate?” “Looking for a scientific project.”
So they find a science project in Google, or they find it on a website. A
famous one is www.elbago.com—have you heard of it?
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 115
Interviewer: No, I didn’t know.
Director: I have to tell you the truth. Elbago.com is—
Interviewer: TheLazyPerson.com.
Director: “I want to do a static electricity project.” So it says, “How to make a
project so that you can eat with the teacher.” It’s nothing new—it’s all
been invented already. In other words, you can’t innovate. Of course you
can, make some changes, but what’s sad is what’s been promoted is to gain
some points. So what’s trying to get done is—at least the educational
process of the science fair—investigation, the scientific curiosity, the goal
to improve the environment, of promoting ideas of protection, and to make
life easier. I’ve seen it only at one school—a science teacher promotes
innovative ideas. How can you protect the environment? How do you
recycle? How do you use a science [inaudible] with used reusable materi-
als? I see it as a nice program, but it’s not new. He’s not proposing a new
—a new solution. It’s all old and repetitive. When you visit over and over
another—the science fair, “I’ve seen this 4 or years ago” . . . but we try to
be hypocrite—how do you say it?
Interviewer: Hypocrite.
Director: “Beautiful, very nice—that’s innovative, excellent. Yes, of course because
you’re protecting the environment that way—you’re improving the social
and community situation. She can commercialize this and make so much
money.”
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 116
By the end of his interview, the director of Colón School expressed embarrassment that only 15
PRONAFECYT projects were completed by primary grade students during the last institutional
science fair.
As a result of the contrasts in student participation in the PRONAFECYT, as well as
geographic proximity and demographic similarities, data from Colón and Militaria Schools were
contrasted and compared to the frameworks of Capraro et al. (2013) and DuFour et al. (2010)
when analyzing the two dominant emergent themes related to Research Question 2.
Theme 1: Teachers at Schools with High Levels of Participation in the PRONAFECYT
Displayed Student Work
Question 5 of the teacher survey asked the degree to which respondents agreed to the
statement, “I provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as part of my
instruction.” In a related domain, Question 6 of the teacher survey asked respondents to rate their
agreement with the following statement: “I utilize project-based learning in my classroom.”
Responses to these questions showed little variation when results from Militaria and Colón were
compared. Teachers at both sites strongly agreed or agreed with each statement at a frequency of
more than 80%.
Both survey statements served to assess the degree to which teachers perceived that
STEM PBL (Capraro et al., 2013) strategies were being implemented so as to determine whether
instructional strategies conducive to the PRONAFECYT were in place. According to Capraro et
al. (2013), there are several qualitative differences between traditional and PBL classrooms. The
authors defined PBL as a “model for classroom activity that shifts away from the classroom
practices of short, isolated teacher-centered lessons and instead emphasizes learning activities
that are long-term, interdisciplinary, student-centered, and integrated with real-world issues and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 117
practices” (p. 50). As such, observable features of daily instruction would reasonably include
cooperative group learning configurations in classrooms as well as a student-centered rather than
teacher-centered method of instruction. This type of instruction would be distinguished by
observed evidence of hands-on experiential learning, student-generated artifacts that demonstrate
an application of the scientific method, and the teacher as facilitator rather than as lecturer.
Although teacher data drawn from the survey was supported by observational evidence at
Militaria, it was not supported by observation data collected at Colón. To illustrate, classroom
configurations were vastly different between Militaria and Colón Schools. According to Capraro
et al. (2013), STEM PBL is characterized by a high degree of student interaction. Although not
present in every classroom visited, many classrooms at Militaria School were set up so that
students could work in small collaborative groupings, with desks arranged in pods, pairs, or
quartets. On the other hand, every classroom visited at Colón School had desks arranged in
straight rows, thereby limiting the ability for students to work in collaborative groupings.
In addition to room configuration, the features of instruction at Militaria were more
closely aligned with the framework presented by Capraro et al. (2013). In two of the five class-
rooms observed, teachers assigned students to inquiry-based tasks. In one classroom, students
who appeared to be in the third grade worked in small groups on table tops and on the floor to
construct multiplication matrices. Students were overheard discussing methods to group strips of
paper to produce a matrix, and a high level of engagement was noted. During this time, the
teacher circulated around the room, monitoring student activities and providing support but not
direct instruction. This feature of student-centered instruction was also in alignment with the
framework of Capraro et al. (2013), with teachers intentionally planning lessons designed to
engage students in ill-defined tasks with the purpose of arriving at well-defined outcomes
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 118
through interpretation of the problem, constraints, and criteria informed by their subject area
knowledge in the formulation of diverse solutions.
In contrast, all instruction observed at Colón School consisted of teacher lectures with
students taking notes or completing independent practice. Evidence of transdisciplinary teaching
or PBL was not observed at Colón School. When asked during interviews about instructional
practices used to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT, teachers from Colón School re-
sponded with varying answers. One teacher stated, “More than anything, I think they meet and
give support. There’s a guide. Depending on the theme that the students choose, they are the
ones that guiding them more than anything.” Another teacher responded:
Yes, of course, because I’m the computer science educator. It’s different from the teach-
ers. The material is different. But let’s say, in our case, the computer science educators,
whether it’s in the entire space—because the dynamic in computer science is different.
It’s creating a learning environment, learning from their peers, helping their classmates.
So, from my part, it’s as if they see everything because it’s the practice—it’s through
computer science materials.
A science teacher at Colón School shared:
The practice is like, in my opinion. I have seen in other places that are private, so then the
way that I motivated the kids to make drawings and written papers and whatever they
have learned—the motivation is that they work on a project that has to do with discover-
ing and knowing more about nature, in my case.
The above comments were presented as representational samples of the predominant
themes that emerged in the interview and survey responses of Colón teachers. According to their
responses, Colón’s teachers understood core aspects of PBL instruction and inquiry-based
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 119
learning. Despite this fact, direct observation of classrooms provided limited support for the
presence of these practices.
Evidence of transdisciplinary and PBL was more readily available at Militaria School.
Though not specifically referred to as the interactive notebooks cited by Capraro et al. (2013),
students in all observed classes at Militaria School used notebooks relating to the definition of
STEM–PBL procedures by Capraro et al., whereby students record observations and thoughts as
a transdisciplinary learning tool (p.100). Interactive notebooks were so pervasive at Militaria
School that the Director proudly presented her personal notebook and allowed members of the
research team to take photographs.
Although observation data support the claims made by Militaria School regarding survey
Questions 5 and 6, observation data provided far less support related reports from Colón School.
Despite this, a majority of teachers at both schools also perceived that their respective schools
had a curriculum plan related to PRONAFECYT, though this was only observed at Militaria
school through evidence of student work and collaborative instruction (see Table 11).
Table 11
Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 21
Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 61.1% 27.8% 11.1% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón teachers 40.0% 45.0% 15.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Note. Question 21: “There is a school curriculum plan in place to help prepare students for
PRONAFECYT.” PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 120
Survey data collected from both sites regarding teacher practice were similar. Direct
observation and interviews suggested that successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT was
related to the degree to which teachers used transdisciplinary instruction. In addition, visual
examples of student projects, design of learning spaces conducive to student collaboration, and
other artifacts such as interactive notebooks contributed to significant differences between
successful and less successful schools implementing the PRONAFECYT.
Despite inconsistencies in survey and interview data with direct observation, one observ-
able characteristic distinguished practices at Colón and Militaria. At Colón, student work related
to the PRONAFECYT was scant and was observed only in one classroom. In contrast, student
work at Militaria was more prevalent across classrooms. Although the presence of student-
generated work samples may have been more prevalent due to higher participation in the
PRONAFECYT at Militaria, displaying student exemplars, even when drawn from a small
sample, may have been a successful motivator for students to increase their participation in the
PRONAFECYT at Colón. According to DuFour and Marzano (2011), display of exemplars
drives student motivation and may increase participation in featured academic pursuits. As such,
the disparity in the display of student work may be a causal factor in discrepant participation
rates.
Theme 2: Teachers Differed in Their Perception of Changes Resulting from the
PRONAFECYT
The PRONAFECYT is a STEM-based initiative (Valencia-Chacón, 2011). As such,
Costa Rican teachers who may not be STEM content specialists are responsible for providing
STEM-based instruction in support of the PRONAFECYT. Research by Fullan (2011) suggested
that instructional improvement is more closely aligned to improving teachers’ skills than to
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 121
specific programs. According to Dufour et al. (2010) and Fulton et al. (2010), participation in
collaboration for teachers increases their content knowledge, pedagogy, and effectiveness, as
measured by student engagement and achievement. Based on this concept, it follows that Costa
Rican teachers who participate in collaborative learning may implement a wider variety of
methods for teaching mathematics and science by paying additional attention to students’ reason-
ing and understanding and experimenting with more diverse modes of engaging students in
PRONAFECYT-related activities.
To understand whether a relations existed between teacher collaboration and student
outcomes on the PRONAFECYT, survey questions were administered to teachers from Militaria
and Colón Schools, asking whether teachers collaboratively planned for the PRONAFECYT at
their schools or whether they felt a sense of shared leadership in decisions related to the
PRONAFECYT. At Militaria School, 78.8% of teachers agreed that they had collaboratively
planned for the PRONAFECYT. Teachers at Colón School agreed at a rate of 65% when asked
the same survey question. A similar pattern was noted when teachers from both sites were asked
about the capacity to make decisions regarding the PRONAFECYT. Although survey data were
inconclusive in this regard, interview data revealed stark differences in the perceptions of Mili-
taria and Colón teachers.
When asked about how PRONAFECYT had changed the culture of the school during
interviews, a majority of Colón teachers responded with answers indicating that either the culture
of the school had not changed or that PRONAFECYT was viewed as a mandated activity with
little impact on teaching practice. At Militaria school, answers to the same question were
significantly different. One Militaria teacher stated:
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 122
How it has changed? Well, we have to have lessons besides what’s the normal science
schedule. . . . Also, on the evaluation, we take out a percentage out of what’s established
as homework to assign it to the science fair, so we have to accommodate that. We have to
get organized with the calendar so that the institution programs besides the time you
dedicate in the classroom, an extra day for the project presentations at the school level—
so that’s time organization, as well.
And the culture—ever since the child is in preschool and kindergarten, they have
gotten used to knowing that they have to give their presentations and do their experi-
ments. So they—like I said, there comes a time in which you don’t have to tell them, but
they have gotten used to that process on their own, and they know that has to happen. So
sometimes, you forget, or you haven’t started with it yet, and they are reminding you. So
the culture in them of inquiry, experimentation—it’s in them, so that’s nice, overall. Like
I said, it’s in the curricula, so it’s not something that’s like, “Wow, changes” because it
has been going on for many years.
Another Militaria teacher shared:
It hasn’t been easy, because the teachers, like they say, it’s a little more structural, so
perhaps that fear of discovering, to create, because you always say, we have to meet a
plan. So that fear of not meeting that plan makes you stall a little bit. But I can see that
little by little, since it’s been part of this new program for quite some time, we are now
somewhat more opened to that new change, discovery, and even the kids now, they know
that it’s not just writing and writing, receive and receive, but that they’re also capable of
creating and discovering, and proposed for new information as well.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 123
Yet another Militaria teacher summed up her perception of changes brought about by the
PRONAFECYT as follows:
As I said in the beginning, we get training, but in general, as a coordinator. So generally,
the principal personally chooses—not by preparation because, we’re all prepared, but to
motivate the educational motivation using what is the scientific method of research,
giving the children that aspect with regards to education. And to improve the science
system because, usually those classes are sometimes monotonous, so using it in a more
creative way, everything that’s educational to motivate them to participate.
One teacher from Colón, however, did mention the changes to school culture in a positive light:
Well, it’s changed because the children desire to research more or know more things.
And, yes, they like to participate. It’s true—they like to participate in the science fair.
And you note this because they participate in various projects.
The contrasting beliefs conveyed during interviews between teachers at Colón and Mili-
taria demonstrated a key insight into belief differences between teachers. Militaria teachers
expressed the belief that the PRONAFECYT resulted in a host of benefits to the school
culture, while a majority of teachers at Colón maintained that the PRONAFECYT had limited
impacts. The majority of Colón teachers described either no changes to the school culture or
limited changes related to procedures and mandates.
Although current research would suggest that a PLC framework would have a positive
impact on teacher practice relating to the PRONAFECYT, scant evidence of this practice was
discovered in data collected at Militaria and Colón Schools. On the other hand, data from
interviews and surveys suggested that teachers’ perceptions of the changes resulting from the
PRONAFECYT implementation were either supportive or unsupportive of student participation.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 124
These divergent teacher interview and survey responses mirrored the interview responses of
directors. This pattern of responses provided additional support to the critical role of leadership
practices, as identified in Research Question 1, and the pervasive influence of school directors on
the PRONAFECYT.
Survey and interview data regarding PRONAFECYT-related practices revealed few dif-
ferences between the responses of Colón and Militaria teachers. In addition, student surveys
were virtually identical, with no significant discrepancies to warrant further analysis. Given
these emergent themes in the interview and survey data, observation data were key in highlight-
ing differing practices between successful and unsuccessful schools. When viewed through this
triangulated lens, contrasts became apparent between the physical presentations of classroom and
student projects, hence leading to further analysis of teacher and director interview responses.
Results of this analysis led to the emergence of two primary themes:
1. Teachers at schools with high levels of participation in the PRONAFECYT displayed
student work in classrooms and common areas and also integrated the PRONAFECYT across
disciplines.
2. Although teachers at successful and less successful schools shared similar perceptions
regarding collaboration and decision making, they differed in their perceptions of changes
resulting from the PRONAFECYT implementation
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?”
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 125
Due to changes in the global job market and the need to develop skills that match the
demands of globalized competition for jobs, the Costa Rican educational system and site leaders
have sought to infuse development of 21st-century skills into their academic programs (Kay &
Greenhill, 2012; Wagner, 2010) through the adoption of programs such as the PRONAFECYT
(MICITT, n.d.). By so doing, the goal of Costa Rican educational leaders is to develop students
with 21st-century learning skills necessary to successfully enter the global workforce. Although
several themes emerged in answer to this research question, two predominant themes regarding
how these priorities are communicated to school sites will be discussed.
Theme 1: MEP and MICITT Play a Primary Role in Training
According to Wagner (2010), the seven survival skills necessary for students to be suc-
cessful in the 21st-century globalized workforce are critical thinking and problem solving, col-
laboration across networks and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and
entrepreneurship, effective oral and written communication skills, the ability to access and
analyze information, and curiosity and imagination. In Costa Rica, these attributes are referred to
as soft skills. The acquisition of soft skills in students is seen as a driving rationale for the
National Inform and Executive Decree 31900 (as cited in Valencia-Chacón, 2011) outlining the
PRONAFECYT. According to survey data, 100% of government officials strongly agreed that
they were familiar with soft skills. Similarly, all school directors and teachers surveyed indicated
strong agreement or agreement that they were familiar with soft skills. This view was supported
during interviews across a wide variety of stakeholders where a linkage to soft skills, the
PRONAFECYT, and the development of an innovation-based economy were related themes. In
the words of MEP Vice Minister Alicia Vargas,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 126
economic growth is also a main concern of the government, and in that field, innovation
is important. We have innovation not only for economic growth but also for scientific
development and for all areas of social development. In education we see innovation also
related to a global citizenship that we are trying to promote. For us in education, it is very
important to develop the people who may have the soft skills and the hard skills that
enable them to live and to relate in a country of global frontiers. For us, that education
innovation must be related to those skills that have to be developed in order for the people
to become a global citizen.
When asked the same question, Nathalie Valencia-Chacón stated:
Regarding students, there are many skills, not only in the scientific and technological field
but also the development of scientific thinking, creativity, communication, the compre-
hensive development. . . . In my experience with students in the fair process, I think that
the most valuable thing was not the competition itself but it was to see students with
special education needs motivated by a subject—how he committed himself and how he
managed to communicate with other people to make a presentation of what he had
learned.
Mary Helen Bialas of the Council for Innovation expressed:
A future workforce and future scientists and future economy of the country, and so I think
it is very linked . . . It is as I’ve talked to many teachers and done a little bit of research
myself on it—they think it’s the area where kids are actually innovative. In all the class-
room stuff they do, their science fair projects and their science fair activities as well as
other type of project-based activities that they might do, this is the opportunity for kids to
actually do something that challenge them, and it helps develop the 21st century skills.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 127
We know what the 21st-century skills [inaudible]. Working with the team, being
innovative, we know all those skills. I think teachers really feel that this has . . . Actually,
we did some research last year, and we found not only that the teachers felt that this was
the opportunity for the kids. They also felt it changed the way they taught.
These interview excerpts were representative of the broad support and deep level of
understanding regarding 21st-century skills, as documented in interviews and surveys of govern-
ment and business partners. Broad agreement existed among these stakeholders relating to the
importance of the development of these skills for Costa Rican students.
In terms of direct training regarding instruction, pedagogy, or other facets of teacher
preparation regarding soft skills, all school directors interviewed stated that they had a limited
direct role. They described their role as secondary in influence, citing the MEP and MICITT as
the primary facilitators of knowledge. In a similar fashion to teachers at their respective sites,
they received training directly from the MEP or from Regional Science Coordinators working
with the MICITT. Following these trainings, directors characterized their roles in supporting the
development of soft skills through the PRONAFECYT as managerial, creating committees,
creating schedules, and providing space for teachers to meet. None of the directors interviewed
for this study described their role as instructional leaders. Directors at more successful schools
such as Militaria described influencing teacher practice and student achievement through the
provision of motivation. At less successful schools such as Colón, the director described his role
as primarily structural in nature.
According to survey data, teachers at Militaria and Colón Schools had somewhat differ-
ing perceptions regarding the adequacy of their training related to the PRONAFECYT (see Table
12). Upon further analysis of interview data, it became apparent that not all teachers had been
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 128
trained to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT. Teachers whose primary responsibilities did
not include science instruction, such as in the case of a language teacher, were not necessarily
trained; however, this decision was made at the discretion of the site director when forming
committees. This lack of universal training may be a root cause of disparity in PRONAFECYT
outcomes between Colón and Militaria. During interviews at Militaria, a majority of teachers
reported that they had received at least partial training in THE PRONAFECYT. In contrast, three
of seven teachers at Colón stated that they had never been trained regarding PRONAFECYT due
primarily to the subjects that they teach.
Table 12
Militaria and Colón Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 7
Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 38.9% 38.9% 22.2% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón teachers 30.0% 25.0% 35.0% 10.0% 0.0%
Note. Question 7: “I am provided adequate training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT.”
PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
Data regarding teacher training were drawn from surveys and interviews. Due to the time
frame in which data were collected, direct training of teachers was not observed in any schools.
When asked about the source of their trainings in interviews, teachers at both sites identified the
school science coordinator as their primary trainer. This response was supported during inter-
views with the directors, who universally referenced regional and site science coordinators as the
primary trainers of teachers.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 129
Nathalie Valencia-Chacón, PRONAFECYT Coordinator with the MICITT clarified this
rationale during her interview:
I believe we have to empower the teachers more so that they understand what an investi-
gation process implies, because they can’t teach something they don’t know, and that’s
where we find our limitations because the teachers don’t know how to investigate, so they
prefer not to do the process or they don’t do it in an optimal way.
So, promoting students’ investigation and their participation in the science and
technology fairs ensures a comprehensive development of the student, and it’s an oppor-
tunity for a personal and professional development for the teachers because we learn a lot
from the different subjects the children focus on. And at institutional level the capacity to
consolidate a process which is optimal for the fairs is also very important. Therefore,
there are different actors that benefit from the science and technology fairs.
The theory of action implied in Ms. Valencia-Chacón’s comment captured the essence of
what a majority of policy leaders alluded to during interviews. A preponderance of policy-level
leaders perceived the benefits of the PRONAFECYT as extending beyond students and impact-
ing teacher pedagogy in relation to the development of 21st-century skills to further advance
Costa Rican economic goals.
According to data collected regarding the measures that site and system leaders employed
to equip students with soft skills, data analysis revealed that the training was centralized through
the MEP and the MICITT. Although directors stated that they were aware of soft skills and their
importance to students, they assumed more managerial responsibilities than direct raining roles to
support preparation of teachers. This emergent theme was instrumental in further clarifying the
multifaceted role of school directors in implementing the PRONAFECYT.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 130
Theme 2: Teachers Reported Awareness of 21st-Century Soft Skills
When asked about the benefits to students associated with participation in the
PRONAFECYT, a majority of teachers described their perceptions in diverse manners, citing
specific skills such as learning to conduct research or using broad criteria such as creativity,
critical thinking, and communication. Collectively, these interview responses could be inter-
preted as evidence of the efficacy of trainings provided through the MEP and the MICITT
regarding both the definition and the importance of soft skills in Costa Rica’s national education
program. During interviews with teachers from schools that self-identified as having high rates
of participation, an additional theme emerged. More than 70% of respondents from schools with
self-reported high PRONAFECYT participation rates mentioned enhanced student motivation
derived from this participation, whereas only two of seven teachers interviewed from Colón
School mentioned an increase in student motivation as an outcome or benefit associated with the
PRONAFECYT.
According to survey data, teachers at all schools visited reported a high degree of aware-
ness regarding soft skills, thus supporting claims made during interviews. According to survey
data, teachers across all schools where data were collected reported a high degree of awareness
regarding soft skills and their associated benefits and potential for development through the
PRONAFECYT. Interviews with individual teachers across all schools visited confirmed that a
high degree of emphasis had been placed on the development and associated benefits of soft
skills development for Costa Rican students (see Table 13).
Through triangulation of observation, survey and interview data of school site personnel
as well as an analysis of interview data provided by policy makers, two predominant themes
emerged in response to Research Question 3:
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 131
Table 13
West San José Region Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 9
Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 55.6% 38.9% 5.5% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón teachers 45.0% 50.0% 5.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Santa Barbara teachers 45.0% 45.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Universitaria teachers 53.3% 40.0% 6.7% 0.0% 0.0%
Central teachers 44.4% 38.9% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6%
Note. Question 9: “I am familiar with soft skills (i.e., critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, analysis, curiosity, and imagination).”
1. The MEP and MICITT played a primary role in training science coordinators and
communicating priorities to school directors regarding the development of soft skills.
2. Universally, teachers reported high levels of awareness regarding 21st-century soft
skills, but limited evidence was present for direct observation.
Findings for Research Question 4
Research question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practices?”
As an initiative, the PRONAFECYT was designed to embed STEM PBL across all four
cycles of the Costa Rican educational system (Valencia-Chacón, 2011) through inquiry-based
learning. Despite this, interviews with the MEP and MICITT staff indicated that implementation
of STEM PBL was inconsistent in the primary levels of Costa Rican schools, as measured by
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 132
Although the analysis of survey, observation, and interview data related to instructional
practices that have resulted through implementation of the PRONAFECYT, two primary themes
emerged.
Theme 1: Instructional Impact of STEM–PBL Practices Occurred on Continuum of
Development
According to Capraro et al. (2013), STEM PBL implies a transdisciplinary method of
instruction. As a teaching approach, STEM PBL shifts away from teacher-directed instruction
toward student-centered classroom activities (Capraro et al., 2013). One positive feature of this
instructional shift is the opportunity for students to learn, practice, and hone soft skills such as
Wagner’s (2010) seven survival skills and Kay and Greenhill’s (2013) four key skills of collabo-
ration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking. Therefore, a key indicator of this instruc-
tional shift can be found in direct observation, survey, and interview data.
According to survey data, directors, teachers, and students from schools in the Western
Region of San José Rica were in agreement that PRONAFECYT participation has been benefi-
cial to the development of soft skills. Although teachers at all sites visited were in agreement
that the PRONAFECYT projects had supported the development of 21st-century skills, imple-
mentation of these efforts occurred on a continuum across school sites with schools that provided
evidence of student participation through observable PRONAFECYT artifacts or instruction (see
Table 14). Although all schools reported the development of soft-skills, only Militaria, Santa
Barbara, and Central Schools featured artifacts related to the PRONAFECYT implementation in
a majority of classrooms observed. To add to the notion of a continuum, examples across all
schools varied in depth of complexity or rigor, with few directly correlating with the framework
of Capraro et al. (2013).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 133
Table 14
West San José Region Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 11
Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 72.2% 27.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón teachers 65.0% 25.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Santa Barbara teachers 66.7% 33.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Universitaria teachers 73.3% 26.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Central teachers 45.0% 45.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Note. Question 11: “Students develop soft skills through participation in PRONAFECYT.”
PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
The finding that students were developing 21st-century skills through participation in the
PRONAFECYT was supported by surveys conducted with government and business partners.
Interviews with government and business partners further suggested that the development of soft
skills leading toward a culture of innovation not only extended beyond the benefit of students but
also supported improved teacher instructional practices as a secondary result of the
PRONAFECYT. In the words of Mary Helen Bialas,
I have a few statistics on that. Teachers who participate in science fairs felt that they
became much more innovative in their teaching. They became much more open to the
children exploring new things, and they did that as a process of helping the kids develop
their projects as well as the challenge they had by the kids of “I want to go on the science
fair.” I think this, this and this. Many teachers knew nothing about research itself. All of
our science fairs are not necessarily science-based, scientific methodology. They start at
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 134
different levels, but it’s an approach to learning and exploring . . . Now that’s the base of
the innovation.
In a related response, Nathalie Valencia-Chacón indicated:
I believe we have to empower the teachers more so that they understand what an investi-
gation process implies because they can’t teach something they don’t know, and that’s
where we find our limitations because the teachers don’t know how to investigate, so they
prefer not to do the process or they don’t do it in an optimal way . . .
So, promoting students’ investigation and their participation in the science and
technology fairs ensures a comprehensive development of the student, and it’s an oppor-
tunity for a personal and professional development for the teachers because we learn a lot
from the different subjects the children focus on. And at institutional level the capacity to
consolidate a process which is optimal for the fairs is also very important.
Direct observation of school sites revealed that although the benefits from the
PRONAFECYT for students were held in positive regard by all stakeholders and that evidence of
explicit instructional shifts drawn from student work samples and examples of projects occurred
on a continuum of development. At Militaria, although student work samples of the
PRONAFECYT were not directly observed in the five classrooms observed, every student
observed possessed an interactive notebook with documentation of STEM–PBL-related instruc-
tion in themes ranging from natural science to health. At Colón, only one of seven observed
classrooms observed indicated evidence of PRONAFECYT transdisciplinary instruction. In a
kindergarten class, the teacher worked with students on a basic understanding of the scientific
process. During this observation, the teacher indicated to the research team that kindergarten was
the only class in which students all participated in PRONAFECYT. Although evidence of
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 135
PRONAFECYT projects were observed at Colón in third- and fifth-grade classrooms with poster
boards on the life cycles of spiders and the mechanics of volcanoes, teachers reported that these
projects were completed in the students’ homes and not as a classroom project or assignment.
On the other hand, observations and interviews with teachers at Santa Barbara and Central
Schools revealed that virtually all students in primary classes had produced PRONAFECYT
projects either at home or at school and that these projects contributed to student knowledge and
development of soft skills through communication in the presentation phase of the projects and
through creativity in the production of projects. In support of this claim, teacher survey data
from schools with high rates of student participation in the PRONAFECYT were aligned with
the observation data collected, with a correlation between teacher-reported participation and
observations made by the research team.
In summary, schools that reported high levels of student participation had correspond-
ingly observable evidence of student participation. As these observational and survey data
occurred on a correlated range, a continuum of development may be developed to provide a
diagnostic of PRONAFECYT implementation across school sites.
Theme 2: PRONAFECYT Instructional Practices Differed Across School Sites
According to Capraro et al. (2013), STEM–PBL implementation requires an increase in
teacher collaboration to develop transdisciplinary projects. Although strong evidence of in-
creased teacher collaboration related to PRONAFECYT was not observed during the present
study due to the limited window of time in which to collect data, teacher surveys indicated broad
agreement with the notion that they collaborated to plan for student participation in the
PRONAFECYT (see Table 15).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 136
Table 15
West San José Region Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 14
Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 55.6% 22.2% 22.2% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón teachers 25.0% 45.0% 20.0% 5.0% 5.0%
Santa Barbara teachers 75.0% 15.0% 5.0% 0.0% 5.0%
Universitaria teachers 53.3% 40.0% 0.0% 6.7% 0.0%
Central teachers 38.9% 50.0% 5.6% 0.0% 5.6%
Note. Question 14: “Teachers at my school work together to plan and prepare for
PRONAFECYT.” PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
During the course of data collection, the research team observed one faculty meeting that
lasted approximately 20 minutes at Colón School. Although the team was present for the entirety
of the meeting, a sample of this event was recorded and coded for references to curriculum or
instruction. During the meeting, it was interesting to note that the Director discussed procedural
items for the fair, such as schedules and materials, but did not discuss the instructional implica-
tions of the PRONAFECYT. In addition, during interviews with the Director and teachers at
Colón school, it was widely agreed that all grade levels, with the exception of kindergarten,
assigned the PRONAFECYT as a homework project. Other school sites in the same region
where data were collected indicated a much higher level of school involvement related to the
development of PRONAFECYT projects but also reported that many primary-age students
completed their projects at home, often with resources provided by the school.
Interviews with teachers and directors at school sites indicated that rather than a struc-
tured and collaborative effort characterized by a PLC structure (DuFour et al., 2010),
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 137
collaboration for the PRONAFECYT occurred in the form of committee work to plan managerial
aspects of the institutional fair. Interviews with multiple teachers and directors revealed that a
committee of teachers met to discuss the calendar of events and procedural aspects of the fair.
Interviews did not support the notion that curriculum and instruction related to the
PRONAFECYT were the basis of teacher collaboration. A teacher from Militaria noted:
Well, we are guided by the regional science counseling, which is the one who sends all
the protocols to different institutions, of the circuit they are assigned to. We belong to the
regional direction of West San José for some years, which the metropolitan was divided
into different educational regions, so now, we belong to West San José. In the aforemen-
tioned regional direction, there are different counselors as far as subjects, and one of them
is science, which the science counselor is the one in charge of the connection with the
Ministry of Science and Technology referring to what is science fair and everything
related to science programs.
A science coordinator from Colón elaborated on this sentiment:
Yes, since the beginning of the school year, according to the established timeline. Well,
we prepare all of the activities in advance, up to the date of conclusion. So during the
process, first we are clear on everyone’s position and the committees that must exist, like
for example the promotion committee, finding a logo, to tell our colleagues the different
aspects of the science activities. For instance, what is a monography, that they under-
stood that—normally the kids come and they want to prove something.
We try to convince them also that it could also be a monography, because through
a monography we can learn or we can research more about a subject that already exists.
So then under that [inaudible] we also try to take advantage of the monography portion.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 138
In the part of the presentation, what the kids like are things like why does the water rise
and this and that, but the written part, they don’t back it up. So then, that is why it is
important that they get to know the bibliographic aspect, where the information came
from, why this phenomenon happened, so they can explain things a lot better.
Although the PRONAFECYT is a required activity for all students in Costa Rican
schools, findings from these data suggested that a strong correlation might exist between the rate
of student participation and the time devoted to completing projects in school as opposed to as
additional homework (see Table 16).
Table 16
West San José Region Teachers’ Responses to Survey Question 21
Strongly Strongly
Respondents agree Agree Disagree disagree Unsure
Militaria teachers 44.4% 44.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0%
Colón teachers 15.0% 30.0% 45.0% 5.0% 5.0%
Santa Barbara teachers 45.0% 45.0% 10.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Universitaria teachers 26.7% 40.0% 20.0% 13.3% 0.0%
Central teachers 38.9% 38.9% 5.6% 5.6% 11.0%
Note. Question 21: “There is a high level of participation in PRONAFECYT at my school.”
PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
Four of five schools surveyed and observed had integrated the PRONAFECYT into their
instructional programs with varying degrees of success. A negative relationship between student
participation and teacher collaboration appeared to exist when PRONAFECYT was regarded as a
homework project. For schools that have widely adopted this practice of assigning the
PRONAFECYT projects as homework, a limited impact on PBL, STEM achievement, and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 139
decreased student participation may result. Not only do schools that have integrated the
PRONAFECYT into their instructional routine benefit from increased student participation, but
they also create the opportunity for teachers to collaborate, thereby establishing professional
practices conducive to student achievement.
Through triangulation of observation, survey, and interview data of school site personnel,
as well as an analysis of interview data provided by policymakers, two predominant themes
emerged in response to Research Question 4:
1. The instructional impact of STEM–PBL practices related to PRONAFECYT occurred
on a continuum of development across school sites, with more successful schools demonstrating
more advanced indicators of development.
2. To extend the potential positive instructional impact of PRONAFECYT, STEM–
PBL methods should be incorporated into ongoing instructional practices at all school sites.
Chapter Summary
The Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative represents a unique and innovative oppor-
tunity for schools to provide the development of 21st-century skills to students entering an
increasingly globalized job market (Valencia-Chacón, 2011). In order for this effort to produce
positive results, leadership must occur at multiple levels to provide a coordinated effort from
students, teachers, directors, business partners and government policymakers. To gain a deeper
understanding of the research questions developed for this project, interviews, surveys, and
observations were conducted to triangulate data for the purpose of determining emergent themes.
Chapter 4 presented the findings resulting from research to describe the role of educa-
tional leaders in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Furthermore, qualitative differences
were analyzed related to schools that experienced a high degree of participation in the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 140
PRONAFECYT and a school with a lower degree of participation. In addition, themes related to
how site and system leaders have prepared schools for PRONAFECYT implementation were
presented. Finally, data were analyzed to arrive at themes related to how PRONAFECYT
implementation has affected instructional practices at participating sites in the West Region of
San José, Costa Rica.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 141
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this chapter is to present final conclusions and recommendations based on
the literature review, methodology, and findings of this study. This chapter is divided into four
sections: (a) an overview of the study’s purpose, research questions, and methodology; (b) a
summary of main findings; (c) implications and recommendations for practice; and (d) opportu-
nities for future research.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the role that educational leaders have been
playing in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative. The role of globalization on
Costa Rican economic and educational policy was considered. Further, leadership practices,
instructional strategies, and professional development practices at primary school sites were
analyzed to provide a deeper understanding of the role of leadership on the success of the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT initiative. Particular focus was on differences in teacher and leader
practices that supported student participation in PRONAFECYT alongside an analysis of how
site and system leaders have responded to challenges in preparing schools to equip students with
21st-century skills. Finally, an examination of teacher practices related to student participation in
PRONAFECYT was conducted.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 142
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with the
21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Overview of Methodology
Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions and the bound nature of the study,
a qualitative comparative case study was used to conduct this research. According to Creswell
(2013), a qualitative case study consists of a six-step method for conducting research: (a) identifi-
cation of a research problem, (b) a review of current literature, (c) a defining purpose for the
inquiry, (d) data collection, (e) data analysis, and (f) reporting research findings. The qualitative
approach to data collection and analysis allowed for collection of rich information to inform the
researchers regarding the experiences, feelings, and perceptions of participants in order to estab-
lish findings from multiple perspectives (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). A comparative case
study is a comprehensive description and analysis of more than one unit in a bounded system
(Merriam, 2009). Although the primary source of data was a single unit, Colón School, data
collected from other school sites were analyzed to determine contrasting themes from schools
with high participation and low participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Data collection procedures used in this study included the following:
1. Surveys (government officials, business partners, school directors, teachers, students);
2. Semistructured interviews (government officials, university partners, business part-
ners, school directors, teachers);
3. Observation (school sites and classrooms); and
4. Analysis of documents provided by government and school.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 143
Summary of Findings
A total of nine themes emerged from an analysis of data generated to answer the four
research questions. As a result of overlapping concepts among these nine themes, three over-
arching themes that emerged from a comprehensive analysis of the data collected were useful in
describing these results:
1. Leadership provided by the school director is among the most crucial aspects of suc-
cessful PRONAFECYT implementation.
2. Although the concept for 21st-century skills is well ingrained into the consciousness
of Costa Rican teachers and students, these practices have not been consistently translated into
observable classroom practices.
3. Curriculum and pedagogy changes related to the PRONAFECYT have been inconsis-
tent across school sites.
Finding 1: Leadership Provided by School Director Is Among the Most Crucial Aspects of
Successful PRONAFECYT Implementation
Research Question 1 targeted the role that leaders played in the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. While gathering data through surveys, interviews, and observations, it became
clear that all stakeholders with a leadership role (i.e., government partners, business partners,
university leaders) held a common vision of the purpose of the PRONAFECYT. These system-
level leaders also indicated their belief that the leadership of site directors played a critical role in
the PRONAFECYT. This assertion was supported by research conducted by Bolman and Deal
(2008), Fullan (2011), and Kotter (1996) in that leadership actions and perspectives possess far-
reaching implications for the overall health and functioning of organizations. Fullan (2008)
identified school directors, or principals, as having the greatest impact on student achievement,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 144
second only to that of teachers. Bolman and Deal asserted that organizational strengths and
weaknesses are in direct relation to the skills of leaders from the human resource, structural,
symbolic, or political frames. In addition, Kotter (1996) identified eight specific steps that
leaders must take to successfully navigate the change process.
In alignment with the assertions of Fullan (2008), directors interviewed and observed in
high-performing schools approached their tasks of implementing the PRONAFECYT with a
sense of purpose and moral imperative. They were enthusiastic and optimistic when discussing
the potential effects of PRONAFECYT to benefit students. Their responses to interview ques-
tions expressed an innate sense of optimism and student focus; they described the fairs as moti-
vating for students while acknowledging their personal challenges to acquire adequate learning
supplies and resources for students so as to provide meaningful learning experiences for them.
Although Fullan (2008) expressly stated that hope is not a strategy, school directors’ actions
could be described as optimistic and filled with a sense of a greater purpose. On the other hand,
the director from the lowest performing school answered interview questions using words that
can be described as lacking in moral imperative, expressing a sense of frustration with teachers
and students, and often referring to either or both as lazy or lacking motivation. Colón’s director
described PRONAFECYT participation as a compliance issue with national law and was critical
of the overall mission and goals of the PRONAFECYT. Colón’s director was critical of the
overall purpose, and his teachers shared an overarching sense of pessimism in their responses.
Turning to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership, direct observations and
interviews of directors at higher performing schools demonstrated their use of the
PRONAFECYT as leverage to enact their vision of student learning. Each of the higher perform-
ing directors applied his or her strengths from a frame of leadership to empower teachers and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 145
students. For example, the director of Militaria demonstrated her strength in the human resource
frame through communication and celebration of teachers and students who excelled in the
PRONAFECYT. Likewise, the director of Santa Barbara demonstrated his strength in the
political frame when discussing how he communicated a sense of urgency with local government
to secure additional funding for supplies and materials related to the PRONAFECYT. The
director of Universitaria demonstrated strength in the structural frame when he provided written
schedules and procedures related to his school’s participation in the initiative. Central’s director
demonstrated adept skill from the symbolic frame by arranging for the research team to observe a
motivational assembly and student presentations in all classrooms observed. Unlike his counter-
parts, the director of Colón demonstrated limited capacity from the four frames model (Bolman
& Deal, 2008). In stark contrast to his director colleagues, Colón’s director was unprepared for
the research visit and had neglected to record the event in his calendar despite prior communica-
tion from the regional science coordinator—thus demonstrating a weakness in the structural
frame. While answering interview questions, he described many of his teachers and students as
lazy and unmotivated, thus possibly suggesting underdeveloped or underutilized potential from
the human resource frame. In addition, unlike neighboring directors, Colón’s director lamented
lack of access to material resources to implement the PRONAFECYT at the institutional level
but did not describe actions that he had taken to address the situation. This lack of drive to
secure resources for his organization suggests weakness in the political frame (Bolman & Deal,
2008). Finally, unlike the other campuses visited, where displays of STEM-based student work
were on display in classrooms and common areas, Colón’s campus and classrooms had limited
visual displays of STEM-based student work. The absence of featuring stated priorities may be
associated with weakness in the symbolic frame of leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 146
Finally, turning to Kotter’s (1996) eight-step model of leading change, four of the five
directors observed, surveyed and interviewed showed skill in managing the change process; this
skill was indicated in teacher survey and interview data. Conversely, the director of Colón
demonstrated limited skill in leading change associated with the PRONAFECYT implementa-
tion. One key indicator of this assertion was found in an analysis of teacher survey responses
across school sites. At Colón, when the roles and responsibilities of the director were mentioned
in survey questions, Colón teachers demonstrated disagreement with statements at a much higher
rate than their counterparts at similar schools. For example, Colón teachers indicated disagree-
ment or strong disagreement on the following survey item at nearly twice the rate of their coun-
terparts at neighboring schools: “Teachers need the support of the school director to implement
PRONAFECYT.”
Other indicators of the Colón director’s struggle with the change process became evident
during an observed staff meeting. During this meeting, where Colón’s director discussed an
impending institutional science and technology fair, teachers were largely disengaged and
maintained side conversations with colleagues while the director spoke. According to Kotter
(1996), in addition to building a guiding coalition, change leaders must celebrate short-term wins
in order to promote and cement organizational change. Interview data suggested that Colón’s
director did little to celebrate the successes of teachers involved in PRONAFECYT, thus limiting
his ability to solidify change in his organization.
Despite the apparent struggles of Colón’s director to lead his organization through
change related to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT, each of the other directors ob-
served, surveyed, and interviewed demonstrated wide-ranging and unique leadership skillsets.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 147
Ultimately, research data collected in this study suggests that the level of skill exhibited by
leaders has had a direct impact on the rate of student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Finding 2: 21st-Century Skills Are Well Ingrained in the Consciousness of Costa Rican
Teachers and Students but Not Consistently Translated Into Observable Classroom Prac-
tices
Research Question 3 centered on the how leaders prepared faculty and students with 21st-
century skills related to PRONAFECYT participation. Although broadly addressing teacher
practices toward the same end, Research Question 2 also addressed the linkage between 21st-
century skill development and student participation in the PRONAFECYT. The seven survival
skills necessary for students to be successful in the 21st-century globalized workforce are critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration across networks and leading by influence, agility and
adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurship, effective oral and written communication skills, the
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2010). In
Costa Rica, these skills are most often referred to as soft skills.
Research data collected through surveys and interviews from a broad sampling of stake-
holders demonstrated a high level of familiarity with soft skills as well as an understanding of
how the development of these skills among students was vital for the development of human
capital. Despite this high level of awareness among educators and business and government
partners, observable evidence of these skills being explicitly taught or integrated into instruction
was inconsistent across school sites. To illustrate, although teacher responses drawn from
surveys and interviews indicated universally high levels of awareness, the majority of classrooms
visited in western San José schools featured desks in straight rows, with teachers using lecture as
the primary vehicle for instruction. In addition, schools with a higher self-reported rate of
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 148
student participation in the PRONAFECYT had a generally higher rate of observable student col-
laboration, as evidenced by student interaction in small groups during instruction. In schools
with lower self-reported participation in the PRONAFECYT, collaborative groupings and highly
peer interactive instructional features suggested by Capraro et al. (2013) were not observed. In
Colón school, students were instructed using a traditional direct instruction approach seated in
straight rows and demonstrating limited peer interactions. These results were in direct proportion
to the level of involvement in preparation of school directors for the PRONAFECYT.
Kay and Greenhill (2013) posited that instruction toward the development of 21st-century
skills fall into four broad criteria: communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking.
Despite the high level of awareness and priority placed on the development of soft skills revealed
during interviews, classroom instructional practices in schools with lower rates of
PRONAFECYT participation featured limited observable evidence of these skills being utilized
during instruction Although communication skills in the form of presentations of student-
generated projects to the research team were observed in Central school, interview data responses
from teachers and directors suggested that the bulk of tasks associated with preparation of
PRONAFECYT projects took place away from school as homework projects. This finding was
common across all school sites with the exception of Militaria and Santa Barbara schools, thus
suggesting that school sites that promoted the development of 21st-century skills as part of the
instructional program also benefitted from increased student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Finding 3: Curriculum–Pedagogy Changes Related to PRONAFECYT Inconsistent Across
School Sites
Research Question 4 asked how PRONAFECYT has impacted instructional practices
through changes in pedagogy and instruction. Survey, observation, and interview data suggested
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 149
that schools with higher rates of participation experienced correspondingly greater changes to
instruction and pedagogy. In a similar vein, schools with teachers who reported that the director
communicated a sense of urgency related to the PRONAFECYT demonstrated more agreement
with positive changes associated with the PRONAFECYT. School sites that either implemented
the PRONAFECYT as a homework project or schools with directors who seemingly perceived
the PRONAFECYT as a mandated activity showed scant evidence of changes to curriculum or
pedagogy, as determined through direct observation.
As a STEM–PBL initiative, the research team observed for features such as authentic
student work samples and classroom instruction that promoted a high degree of student interac-
tion and collaborative processes (Capraro et al., 2013). Unsurprisingly, schools where the
PRONAFECYT was integrated into daily instruction, such as Militaria and Santa Barbara,
demonstrated higher degrees of participation and also reported a wider range of benefits to
students than their lower performing counterparts. Schools with a lower self-reported rate of
PRONAFECYT participation demonstrated limited instructional impact and reported fewer
associated benefits for students.
According to interview and survey data, a high correlation existed between schools that
adopted PBL strategies during the instructional day and higher rates of student participation in
the PRONAFECYT. This finding was confirmed through observation of instruction. Interest-
ingly, schools with higher participation reported through surveys that teachers perceived a higher
level of professional collaboration and instructional planning. Although limited evidence of
formal structures for teacher collaboration, such as PLCs (DuFour et al., 2010), were noted
during research observations, schools with higher rates of PRONAFECYT participation also
reported that teachers had higher rates of collaboration, according to survey data. In essence,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 150
schools with higher rates of PRONAFECYT participation experienced greater positive changes
with respect to curriculum and pedagogy than schools such as Colón, which self-reported low
rates of participation.
Implications and Recommendations for Practice
Analysis of findings from this study confirmed the critical role that educational leaders
were playing in the PRONAFECYT implementation. Data collected through interviews, surveys,
and direct observation suggested that leadership from government officials, business partners,
and teachers were second in importance only to the leadership provided by school directors. The
study provided evidence that effective leadership from directors is necessary for students to
benefit from the development of 21st-century learning skills in order to enter the globalized
workforce. In addition, the study demonstrated that the level and quality of director involvement
in PRONAFECYT implementation has had a significant impact on the presence of positive
changes in curriculum and instruction related to the PRONAFECYT.
Implications and Recommendations for Leadership
The most apparent finding of this study was that the leadership provided by school
directors is crucial for PRONAFECYT success. In schools with lower rates of student participa-
tion, such as Colón, directors reported that their involvement in implementation was limited to
the reading of memoranda. They approached the PRONAFECYT as a managerial task and
identified their primary roles as developing schedules and arranging for access to facilities. In
higher performing schools, such as Militaria and Santa Barbara, directors approached the fairs
with a heightened sense of urgency and related the activity to the mission of their schools as well
as to the long-term economic development opportunities for their students and nation.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 151
To generalize the characteristics and actions of directors from higher performing schools,
a system of professional mentoring should be considered. By doing so, lower performing direc-
tors will be enabled to develop a sense of urgency related to the PRONAFECYT while being
exposed to productive leadership strategies from a successful model. In addition, a system of
explicit training in leadership should be considered with special emphasis on leading organiza-
tional change in order to capitalize on the latent potential of Costa Rican primary school direc-
tors.
A more direct role should be assigned to school directors in the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT at their school sites. Under the existing leadership schema, school director roles
are largely managerial in nature, with teachers receiving training in pedagogy and instruction
through outside agencies such as the MEP and the MICITT. If directors lack the requisite skills
to be trainers for their teachers, they should be induced to attend trainings with their teachers to
provide more effective leadership from an increased context drawn from background knowledge.
Implications and Recommendations for 21st-Century Skills
The development of 21st-century skills as an educational goal represents a significant
shift in Costa Rican educational policy. According to Kotter (1996), celebration and acknowl-
edgment of effort to support change is critical to cementing change in the organizational culture.
Despite near universal acknowledgment by primary teachers of an awareness of 21st-century
skills and their associated benefits for students, observable implementation of these skills in
classrooms was limited. In schools where observable evidence was noted, there were also reports
from the director of extrinsic recognition of these efforts. To generalize these practices, the
establishment of a formal recognition program for teachers whose practice exemplifies 21st-
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 152
century skills should be considered by the MEP or the MICITT as well as a directive for school
directors to formally acknowledge the efforts of outstanding teachers at their sites.
Development of a discipline specific continuum of practice with concrete examples of
soft skill development, drawn from the work of Kay and Greenhill (2013), Wagner (2010), or
across disciplines related to the PRONAFECYT should also be considered. Without concrete
examples of how these skills may observably be manifest in classrooms through student-
generated projects, teachers may be viewing communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and
creativity as abstractions and not as the outcome of instructionally based products.
Implications and Recommendations for Pedagogy and Instruction
Instruction that aligned with STEM–PBL practices, as outlined by Capraro et al. (2013),
was a relative area of weakness for all schools visited. This situation may have been due to the
limited window of time in which observations were conducted; however, it also appeared to be
related to the approach to the PRONAFECYT as a homework project versus a school-based
endeavor. As such, training in pedagogy that specifically delineates differences between PBL
and traditional instruction may be instrumental in harnessing the power of PRONAFECYT to
promote the development of human capital and innovation. In addition, training for directors in
how to implement PLC practices (DuFour et al., 2010) may be useful in encouraging teachers to
work collaboratively to implement science projects as part of the instructional day. Introduction
of the four guiding questions and three core concepts of PLCs to Costa Rican primary teachers
may provide a useful framework to promote higher levels of professional collaboration, an
expanded role for director involvement, and an increase in student participation.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 153
Opportunities for Future Research
During the course of this study, 18 researchers conducted interviews, surveys, and
observations to understand the impact of leadership on PRONAFECYT implementation. Peda-
gogy, instruction, and teacher leadership were considered in relation to Costa Rican primary
schools. During the course of this project, several avenues for future research were discussed
among members of the research team. The three most relevant future research projects discussed
in relation to this project were the following: (a) a study of director certification programs to gain
insight into formal means of Costa Rican school leadership development, (b) a study of primary
teacher preparation programs that focus on the development of STEM and PBL methods; and (c)
a longitudinal study of Costa Rican primary school PRONAFECYT winners and their future
career choices.
Formal leadership preparation programs would be instrumental in providing feedback to
the MEP in regard to development of leadership versus managerial skills in association with
primary schools implementing the PRONAFECYT. As discussed in the findings of this study,
directors with strong leadership skills as defined by Bolman and Deal (2008) and Kotter (1996)
demonstrated higher rates of participation in the PRONAFECYT. To generalize these results,
additional research into the efficacy of director preparation programs is suggested.
A study of teacher primary preparation programs in relation to STEM and PBL pedagogy
would be useful in identifying successful programs to use as national models. As STEM–PBL
methods imply a PLC framework to guide the development and implementation of the
PRONAFECYT curricula, this study would be useful in resolving discrepancies between high-
performing and low-performing schools, as measured by their participation rates in the
PRONAFECYT.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 154
Finally, an analysis of the longitudinal career choices of primary school PRONAFECYT
winners may be used to bolster the political rationale for increased funding for resources associ-
ated with the PRONAFECYT, as identified by many government and business partners during
interviews. By linking long-term outcomes of individual students with economic growth, public
policymakers may be provided with useful information to guide the future allocation of Costa
Rican public resources.
Conclusion
The Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative is an ambitious approach to aligning educa-
tional and economic policies. As a coordinated, governmentally directed effort, data drawn from
surveys and interviews with stakeholders ranging from politicians to business leaders and univer-
sity partners confirmed that a clear vision of anticipated outcomes and alignment of collective
purpose exists for a cohesive national policy. Although this policy initiative has been designed to
improve the comprehensive learning outcomes of students from primary school through univer-
sity, there are disparate outcomes in primary schools across Costa Rica.
This study identified site leadership by school directors as a critical factor for the success-
ful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. In schools where data suggested the presence of
effective leadership, this model of nationally aligned priorities to develop human capital through
education yielded positive outcomes for students. In schools with fewer indicators of effective
leadership, evidence of the transformative intentions of the PRONAFECYT were scarce. In sum,
the findings of the current study suggested that school systems in search of innovative responses
to challenges posed by rapid systemic shifts, such as globalization and economic uncertainty,
may be well served by prioritizing the selection of school leaders so as to achieve the full poten-
tial of their policies.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 155
References
Aedo, C., & Walker, I. (2012). Skills for the 21st century in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Americas Society and Council of the Americas. (2011). Exclusive interview: Costa Rican Educa-
tion Minister Leonardo Garnier on innovations in teaching. Retrieved from http://www.as-
coa.org/articles/exclusive-interview-costa-rican-education-minister-leonardo-garnier-innovat
ions-teaching
Armstrong, L. (2007). Competing in the global higher education marketplace: Outsourcing,
twinning, and franchising. New Directions for Higher Education, 140, 131–138. doi:10
.1002/he.287
Ballestero, V., & Wright, S. (2008). Differences and similarities between school principals in
Costa Rica and the United States. Journal for the Liberal Arts and Sciences, 12(2), 12–15.
Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st century: Skills for the future. The Clearing-
house, 83(2), 39-43. doi:10.1080/00098650903505415
Biesanz, M. H., Biesanz, R., & Biesanz, K. Z. (1999). The Ticos: Culture and social change in
Costa Rica. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theories and methods (5th ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership
(4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Booth, J. A. (2008). Democratic development in Costa Rica. Democratization, 15, 714–732.
Borthwick, A., & Lobo, I. (2005). Lessons from Costa Rica. Learning and Leading with Technol-
ogy, 33(2), 18–21.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 156
Breiner, J., Harkness, S., Johnson, C., & Koehler, C. (2012). What is STEM? A discussion about
conceptions of STEM in education and partnerships. School Science and Mathematics,
112(1), 3–11.
Bucheli, M. (2008). Multinational corporations, totalitarian regimes and economic nationalism:
United fruit company in Central America, 1899–1975. Business History, 50, 433–454. doi:
10.1080/00076790802106315
Burity, J. A. (2012). Civil society and the globalisation of locality between Latin America and
Europe: Integration as a case of agonistic cosmopolitics. Review of European Studies, 4(3),
77–88.
Bybee, R. W. (2010). What is STEM education? Science, 329, 996–996.
Capraro, R. M., Capraro, M. M., & Morgan, J. R. (2013). STEM project-based learning: An
integrated science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) approach (2nd ed.).
Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
Central Intelligence Agency. (2014). World factbook: Costa Rica. Available from http://www
.cia.gov
Chanda, N. (2008). Bound together: How traders, preachers, adventurers, and warriors shaped
globalization. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Clifton, J. (2011). The coming jobs war. New York, NY: Gallup Press.
Consejo Nacional de Rectores [CONARE]. (2012). Estadísticas de educacíon superior. Re-
trieved from http://www.conare.ac.cr/servicios/estadistica
Cordero, J., & Paus, E. (2008). Foreign investment and economic development in Costa Rica:
The unrealized potential (Discussion Paper No. 13). Retrieved from http://ase.tufts.edu/
gdae/Pubs/rp/DP13Paus_CorderoApr08.pdf
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 157
Costa Rica, & Organization of American States. (1965). Constitution of the republic of Costa
Rica (as amended). Washington, DC: Organization of American States.
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency [CINDE]. (2012). Costa Rica’s workforce. Available
from http://www.cinde.org
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency [CINDE]. (2013). Costa Rica: Education overview.
Available from http://www.cinde.org
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency [CINDE]. (2014a). Annual report, 2013. Available
from http://www.cinde.org
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency [CINDE]. (2014b). Education overview, 2014. Avail-
able from http://www.cinde.org
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods ap-
proaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to
equity will determine our future. Chicago, IL: Teachers College Press.
DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & Many, T. (2010). Learning by doing: A handbook for
professional learning communities at work (2nd ed.). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
DuFour, R., & Marzano, R. (2011). Leaders of learning: How district, school, and classroom
leaders improve student achievement. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
Elmore, R. F. (2002). Bridging the gap between standards and achievement. Washington, DC:
Albert Shanker Institute.
Fink, A. (2012). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Firestone, M., Miranda, C., & Soriano, C. (2010). Discover Costa Rica. Oakland, CA: Lonely
Planet.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 158
Friedman, T. (2007). The world is flat 3.0: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York,
NY: Picador.
Fullan, M. (2011). The moral imperative realized. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Fullan, M. (2014). The principal: Three keys to maximizing impact. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
Fulton, F., Doerr, H., & Britton, T. (2010). STEM teachers in professional learning communities:
A knowledge synthesis. Washington, DC: National Commission on Teaching and America’s
Future.
Garmston, R. J., & Wellman, B. M. (2009). The adaptive school, a sourcebook for developing
collaborative groups. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.
Gereffi, G., Bamber, P., Frederick, S., & Fernandez-Stark, K. (2013). Costa Rica in global value
chains: An upgrading analysis. Available from http://www.cggc.duke.edu/pdfs/2013_
08_20_Ch1_Project_Introduction.pdf
Hallissy, M., Butler, D., Hurley, J., & Marshall, K. (2013). Redesigning education: Meeting the
challenges of the 21st century. Retrieved from http://www.pil-network.ie/docs/
MSLearningPaperMay13.pdf
Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the knowledge society: Education in the age of insecurity.
New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Hunzicker, J. (2011). Characteristics of effective professional development: A checklist. Profes-
sional Development in Education, 37(2), 167–179.
Kahle-Piasecki, L. (2013). Business in Costa Rica: Trends and issues. Journal of Applied Busi-
ness and Economics, 15(2), 38–44.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 159
Kay, K., & Greenhill, V. (2012). The education leader’s guide: 7 steps toward 21st century
schools and districts. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail. Harvard Business Review,
73(2), 59–67.
Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Los
Angeles, CA: Sage.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología, y
Telecommunicaiones [MICITT]). (n.d.). Programa nacional de ferias ciencia y tecnologia.
Retrieved from http://www.micit.go.cr/indexphp?option= comcontent
&view=article&id=611&Itemid=909
Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educación Pública [MEP]). (2014). Plan nacional
de desarollo 2014–2018. Retrieved from http://www.mep.go.cr/sites/default/files/banner/
pnd_2015_018_alberto_ canas_escalante.pdf
Misra, S. (2012). Implications of globalization on education. Romanian Journal for Multidimen-
sional Education, 4(2), 69–82.
Monge-González, R., Rivera, L., & Rosales, J. (2010). Productive development policies in Costa
Rica: Market failures, government failures and policy outcomes (Working Paper No. IDB-
WP-157). Washington DC: Inter-American Development Bank.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 160
Monge-González, R., & Tacsir, E. (2014). Policy coordination: From FDI to a broader frame-
work to promote innovation-the case of Costa Rica. In G. Crespi (Ed.), Science, technology
and innovation policies for development (pp. 203–224). Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag.
Mundial, B. (2006). The impact of Intel in Costa Rica: Nine years after the decision to invest.
Washington, DC: Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency.
Nelson, R. C. (2008). Meeting the challenge of globalization in Costa Rica. Thunderbird Interna-
tional Business Review, 50(1), 3–6.
Neubauer, D. (2007). Globalization, interdependence and education. Frontiers of Education in
China, 2, 309–324. doi:10.1007/s11516-007-0026-7
New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce. (2007). Tough choices or tough
times: The report of the new commission on the skills of the American workforce. San
Francisco, CA: Wiley.
Northouse, P. (2013). Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Olson, S., & Arrison, T. (2011). Rising above the gathering storm: Developing regional
innovation environments [A workshop summary]. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press.
Olson, S., & Arrison, T. (2011). Rising above the gathering storm: Developing regional innova-
tion environments [A workshop summary]. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2012a). Attracting
knowledge-intensive FDI to Costa Rica: Challenges and policy options. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/dev
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2012b). PISA results in
focus. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 161
Palmer, S., & Molina, I. (Eds.). (2004). The Costa Rica reader: History, culture, politics. Dur-
ham, NC: Duke University Press.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Ravitz, J. (2008, March). Project-based learning as a catalyst in reforming high schools. Paper
presented at American Educational Research Association Conference, New York, NY.
Rodríguez-Clare, A. (2001). Costa Rica’s development strategy based on human capital and
technology: How it got there, the impact of Intel and lessons for other countries. Journal of
Human Development, 2, 311–324.
Roniger, L. (2011). Connected histories, power and meaning: Transnational forces in the con-
struction of collective identities. Journal of Classical Sociology, 11, 251–268.
Rosenfeld, S., & Ben-Hur, Y. (2001). Project-based learning (PBL) in science and technology: A
case study of professional development. In Proceedings of the 1st IOSTE Symposium in
Southern Europe (Vol. 2, pp. 31–37). doi:ttp://dx.doi.org/10.14807/ijmp.v2i1.26
Sadler, P. M., Sonnert, G., Hazari, Z., & Thi, R. (2014). The role of advanced high school
coursework in increasing STEM career interest. Science Educator, 23(1), 1–24.
Sharman, R. L. (2005). Red, white, and black: Communist literature and black migrant labor in
Costa Rica. Afro-Hispanic Review, 24(2), 137-149. Retrieved from https://reserves.usc
.edu/ares/
Sohn, I. (2013). Economic and financial reform in Costa Rica: Challenges and opportunities to
2025. Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 15(1), 77–93.
Soubbotina, T., & Sheram, K. (2000). Beyond economic growth: Meeting the challenges of
global development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 162
Sousa, D. A., & Pilecki, T. (2013). From STEM to STEAM: Using brain-compatible strategies to
integrate the arts. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Spring, J. (2008). Research on globalization and education. Review of Educational Research, 78,
330–363.
Spring, J. (2009). Globalization of education: An introduction. New York, NY: Routledge.
Thomas, J. W. (2000). A review of research on project-based learning. San Rafael, CA: Auto-
desk Foundation.
United Nations. (2014). Human development report 2014. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/
sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf
United Nations, International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF]. (2013). UNICEF annual
report 2013, Costa Rica. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/about/annualreport/files/
Costa_Rica_COAR_2013.pdf
Valencia-Chacón, N. (2011). A successful K-12 national program of science fairs: Integrating
ISEF regulations and meeting local needs-the experience of Costa Rica. Retrieved from
https://engage.intel.com/servlet/JiveServlet/previewBody/7579-102-1-10258/
Valencia%20Chacon%20-%20Successful%20Sci%20Fair%20Program.pdf
Van Der Bly, M. C. (2005). Globalization: A triumph of ambiguity. Current Sociology, 53, 875–
893.
Villalobos, V., & Monge-González, R. (2011). Costa Rica’s efforts toward an innovation-driven
economy: The role of the ICT sector. In World Economic Forum (Ed.), The Global Informa-
tion Technology Report 2010– 2011 (pp. 119–126). Cologny, Geneva, Switzerland: Editor.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 163
Wagner, T. (2010). The global achievement gap: Why even our best schools don’t teach the new
survival skills our children need-and what we can do about it. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Wagner, T. (2012). Creating innovators: The making of young people who will change the
world. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Wilson, S. (2011). Effective STEM teacher preparation, induction, and professional develop-
ment. Retrieved from http://www7.nationalacademies.org/bose/Successful_STEM_
Schools_Homepage.html
World Bank. (2012). World development indicators. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank
.org/en/news/2012/09/27/wb-costa-rica-95000-youngsters-access-innovative-high-quality-un
iversity-education
World Bank. (2014). Costa Rica overview. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/
country/costarica/overview
World Bank Group. (2006). The impact of Intel in Costa Rica: Nine years after the decision to
invest. Washington, DC: World Bank Group/MIGA.
Zakaria, F. (2011). The post-American world: Release 2.0. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 164
Appendix A
Recruitment Letter
DATE
Dear XXX,
On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (NPSTF) in primary
schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school leaders in
preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following questions will be
addressed:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican NPSTF
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
NPSTF?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican NPSTF?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican NPSTF affected instructional practice?
We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to
our study.
Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 and June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you have
any questions.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Students
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 165
Appendix B
List of Research Sites
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 166
Appendix C
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NONMEDICAL RESEARCH
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 167
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu
Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District, pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities, ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social Work,
omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College, rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu;
mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-
0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 168
Appendix D
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 169
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 170
Appendix E
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 171
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 172
Appendix F
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and
Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 173
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 174
Appendix G
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 175
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 176
Appendix H
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 177
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 178
Appendix I
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 179
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 180
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 181
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 182
Appendix J
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 183
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 184
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 185
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 186
Appendix K
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 187
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 188
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 189
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 190
Appendix L
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 191
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 192
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 193
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 194
Appendix M
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 195
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 196
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 197
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 198
Appendix N
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 199
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 200
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 201
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 202
Appendix O
Observation Protocol
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 203
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 204
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 205
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 206
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 207
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 208
Appendix P
Summary of the Research Proposal

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applied the following frameworks: (a) Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal’s 4-frame model

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Abraham Lincoln in the Coastal Region

PDF

The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Universitaria in the Nacional Region of Costa Rica

PDF

The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Highland Primary School in the Valley Region of Costa Rica

PDF

The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in elementary schools in the coastal region of Costa Rica

PDF

The effects of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Militaria in the National Region

PDF

The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Central in the Oeste Region

PDF

The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

PDF

The role of educational leadership on the participation in the National Program of Science and Technolgy Fairs at Escuela A in the Central Region of Costa Rica

PDF

The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Santa Barbara School in the Nacional region of Costa Rica

PDF

A comparative analysis of the role of educational leadership on the participation of two schools in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in Costa Rica

PDF

The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Bayside Elementary School

PDF

The effects of educational leadership at North Shore Elementary in implementing the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

PDF

The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Atlantic Elementary in the Occidente Region

PDF

The impact of science, technology, engineering and math education on the development of a knowledge based economy in Costa Rica

PDF

The influence of globalization on the Irish educational system in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics and development of 21st-century skills in secondary schools

PDF

The impact of globalization, foreign direct investment, and multinational corporations on development of educational policy and 21st-century learning in the Costa Rican educational system

PDF

The influence of globalization and multinational corporations on instructional practices and interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Ireland schools

PDF

The role of globalization, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics project‐based learning, and the national science and technology fair mandate in creating 21st‐century-ready students i...

PDF

The impact of globalization on the development of educational policy, 21st century learning, and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

PDF

The influence of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

Asset Metadata

Creator Kodama, Mathew W. P. (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Colón in San José Oeste

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/08/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st-century skills,Educational Leadership,globalization of education,leading change,OAI-PMH Harvest,PBL,PLC,science fairs,STEM

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Verdugo, David (committee member)

Creator Email mathewwk@usc.edu,mattkodama@prodigy.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-226568

Unique identifier UC11276855

Identifier etd-KodamaMath-4236.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-226568 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-KodamaMath-4236.pdf

Dmrecord 226568

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Kodama, Mathew W. P.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA