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Reflective journeys: African American community college STEM students' perceptions on equity and access

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Reflective journeys: African American community college STEM students' perceptions on equity and access

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African
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REFLECTIVE JOURNEYS: AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY COLLEGE STEM

STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON EQUITY AND ACCESS

by

Deidre Porter

_________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2017

Copyright 2017 Deidre Porter

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Dedication

I dedicate this dissertation to my daughter, Rikki Porter, my gift from God. Your mere
existence inspires me to be a better person each and every day. Thank you for being my source of
strength.
I also dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Joe and Dolores Stripling, who have
consistently showered me with their unconditional love and support. I thank you for bestowing
upon me my three greatest treasures in life: faith in God, love for self, and love for others.
Lastly, I dedicate this dissertation to my family, whose continuous love and
encouragement are simply priceless. You mean the world to me and are truly the rock on which I
stand.

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Acknowledgements

I am extremely grateful for the support and dedication of my outstanding dissertation
committee: Dr. Jenifer Crawford (Chair), Dr. Paula Carbone (Member), and Dr. Cherie Dickey
(Member and Editor). This dissertation experience has been so rewarding and fruitful for me as a
result of your guidance and expertise. I sincerely thank you for all of your tireless work and effort
on my behalf. I am forever appreciative.
This dissertation would not have been possible without the cooperation and support of
special individuals at ABC College. I want to thank the President, the President’s Staff, the Dean
of Science Engineering and Math (SEM), the Dean of Counseling and Student Development, SEM
faculty, other faculty, staff, and students, whose assistance and participation provided the
framework for this dissertation study. I am truly grateful for your willingness to support me in
this endeavor.
I would be remiss if I did not thank all of my exceptional USC professors and classmates,
my supportive Counseling colleagues, and my wonderful friends, especially Dr. Mai and Dr. Paul,
whose constant reassurance, reinforcement, and inspiration made this journey enjoyable.

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Table of Contents

Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Introduction 8
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 18
Research Questions 20
Limitations and Delimitations 21
Definition of Terms 22
Organization of the Study 23
Chapter Two: Literature Review 25
Research Questions 26
Definition of Reflective Practice 26
Brief Overview of Chapter Two 26
History of Reflection in U.S. Public Schools 27
Current State of Reflection in Education Regarding Adult Learners 31
Current State of Critical Reflection towards Equity and Access 33
for African American Students in STEM
Reflective Practice Framework 35
Summary 42
Chapter Three: Research Methods 44
Methods 45
Research Questions 45
Rationale 46
Sample and Site Selection 47
Data Collection and Coding 49
Interviews 51
Focus Group 53
Artifacts 54
Data Analysis 54
Ethics 55
Researcher Positionality 56
Chapter Four: Findings 57
Site and Participants 57
Demographics of Interview Participants 58
Themes and Subthemes of Equity and Access 59
Theme #1: Obstacles 59
Insufficient high school preparation 60
Difficult subject matter/instructor 62
Lack of reflective practice skills 63
Work obligations and sport commitments 65

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Lack of African American peers or faculty role models 67
Theme #2: Support Systems 69
College Professors 70
Peers 71
Parents and family members 72
Role models and mentors 74
Programs 75
Theme #3: Reflective Practices and Strategies 77
Motivation 78
Self-Regulation 79
Attribution 81
Metacognition 82
Self-efficacy 83
Summary 85
Chapter Five: Discussion 86
Discussion of Findings 88
Implication for Practice and Research 89
Implications for Practice 90
Implications for Research 91
Conclusion 93
References 97
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 106
Appendix B: Focus Group Questions 111
Appendix C: Consent Form 114

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List of Tables

Table 1: Demographics of Interview Participants 59
Table 2: Profiles of Incoming African American Community College Freshmen 89
Interested in STEM

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Abstract

The purpose of this qualitative study is to gain an understanding of African American
community college STEM students’ perceptions on equity and access and to identify their use of
reflective practices as they pursue their goals to persist and transfer to a 4-year university to major
in STEM. In this qualitative study, the researcher interviewed thriving African American
community college STEM students in order to uncover their reflective strategies for academic
success and their ability to persist while in pursuit of their goals. To address the
disproportionately low numbers of African American students who declare STEM majors,
educators can benefit from gathering pertinent information from high achieving African American
STEM scholars. By utilizing this anti-deficit/positive deviance approach, this study attempts to
disclose possible action items that other faculty can implement to increase overall student
involvement in STEM. The researcher collected data from individual interviews, a focus group,
and documented evidence/transcripts in order to triangulate the information gathered (Merriam,
2009).

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2010), the percentages of
bachelor’s degrees conferred in STEM fields vary across racial/ethnic groups. These findings
reveal that there is a problem of disproportionately low numbers of African American students
graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in STEM. The percentage of African American
students graduating with STEM degrees is approximately 16% below other populations (i.e.,
White and Asian) receiving the highest number of degrees (NCES, 2010). The exacerbation of the
problem is apparent when reviewing the overall percentages of degrees awarded to African
American students in comparison to other full-time, degree-seeking students completing any other
bachelor degree within six years. From this population, African American students are 30%
below other ethnic/racial groups that have the highest percentages of degree-seeking students
(NCES, 2010). This study captures African American community college STEM students’
perceptions on equity and access and their use of reflective practices as they pursue their goals to
persist and transfer to a 4-year university to major in STEM. Therefore, the results obtained from
this study can directly inform the overarching problem of disproportionately low numbers of
African American students graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in STEM.
This problem is important to address because there is a rising concern about America’s
ability to maintain its competitive position in the global economy; therefore, a renewed interest in
STEM education is critical (NCES, 2010). Recent data show that STEM employee earnings are
significantly higher than non-STEM employee earnings, regardless of race, ethnicity, or nativity
(NCES, 2010). According to John Dewey (1938), educators are responsible for shaping the
experience of others by creating an environment that is conducive for all students to thrive and
grow. As a result, Dewey’s fourth criterion for reflection is that educators value the personal and

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intellectual growth of oneself and others (Dewey, 1938; Farrell, 2012; Rodgers, 2002). In light of
the above statistics regarding African American STEM students and Dewey’s insightfulness, it is
important for educators to acknowledge their responsibility in securing the future success of our
society by assuring that African American students receive the very best education it has to offer
(Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007).
Background of the Problem
A documented “achievement gap” persists between white and African American students
in the United States (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Harper, 2010;
Madyun, 2011). However, in using this term, the obvious insinuation is that African American
students lack the ability to achieve; and it conveniently sidesteps any responsibility of this
problem on the part of educators. Therefore, the term “receivement gap” or “opportunity gap” is
more accurate because it focuses on inputs—what students receive on their educational journey
versus outputs—their performance on standardized tests (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-
Hammond, 2007). This refocusing moves attention away from African American students as the
sole source of these disparities and looks toward the larger structures and forces that play a role in
their education and development (Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-
Hammond, 2007). For this reason, in order to address this “opportunity gap,” educators must first
acknowledge the historical roots of oppression endured by African American students throughout
the country’s educational landscape (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Freire, 1993; Dubois, 1993).
Although the African slavery experience was woven into the fabric of the new American republic
and Africans have evolved from slaves to African American United States citizens, the negative
consequences of slavery, segregation, and discrimination (i.e., white supremacy) have continued to
inflict harsh injustices on African American students in the United States (Carter, 2009;

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Chambers, 2009; Stinson, 2006). During the 19
th
century, white supremacy ideologies helped to
promote the belief that racial minority groups were inherently inferior to whites, which
rationalized the segregation of whites from other “colored races” in schools, housing communities,
and churches (Dubois, 1989; Valencia, Menchaca, & Donato, 2002). After the Brown v. Board of
Education (1954) decision, white hostility to desegregation manifested itself openly in an era of
massive resistance (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Dubois, 1989; Valencia, et al., 2002). Since its
inception, the “desegregated/integrated” United States public school system has deliberately
dismantled its promise to equitably educate African American students (Carter, 2009; Chambers,
2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007). The school system accomplished this successfully because the
system, as a whole, embraced and accepted a deficit ideology and discriminating activities as
status quo when interacting with African American students in the realm of education (Bensimon,
2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Ogbu & Simons, 1998). This
exclusionary treatment of African American students has stymied their ability to effectively
navigate the academic terrain and successfully pursue competitive majors such as STEM (Carter,
2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Ogbu & Simons, 1998; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Throughout their educational experiences, many African American students encounter learning
environments that incorporate institutionalized barriers (i.e. socioeconomic barrier –a financial
barrier that prevents African American students from fully engaging in the school’s resources),
which strategically engineer their failure in school (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-
Hammond, 2007; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). By not providing educational parity for African
American students compared to their white counterparts, society maintains its oppression of
African Americans (Freire, 1993; Dubois, 1996). As a result, according to Dubois (1996), African
Americans develop a double consciousness whereby they perceive themselves as one way and are

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aware of how distinctly different whites perceive them. Dubois (1996) acknowledges how easy it
is for African Americans to allow the disparaging perceptions of whites to damage their self-worth
(Parham & Helms, 1985). This reality forces African Americans into a state of constant
critiquing, which is a critical aspect of reflection and reflective journaling. Critiquing refers to the
systematic examination of one's self and society, paying special attention to issues germane to
inequality, oppression, exploitation, domination, and social injustice of class, gender, race, and
ethnicity (Blankson, Rochester, & Watkins, 2015; Goldberg, 2012; Kim, 2013; Langer, 2009).
According to Kim (2013), colleges are ideal places to prepare students to critique and critically
reflect upon their standpoints and discuss democracy and other diversity-related issues. However,
many times these spaces serve to promote the privileged and advantageous social position of the
majority group rather than benefitting those in the minority.
Institutional barriers that problematize and thwart the access of academic support and
resources for African American students create an environment of institutionalized exclusion
(Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). In order to minimize the disparity in
academic performance between African American and white students, educational researchers
must continuously acknowledge the existence of these institutional barriers that stifle the academic
progress of African American students (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007;
Madyun, 2011; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Institutional barriers that are considered structural barriers
are features in the school environment that prevent, discourage, or impede African American
students from engaging fully in the social and academic learning environment [e.g. insufficient
tutoring, inadequate teaching and counseling, limited library resources] (Carter, 2009; Chambers,
2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Ogbu & Simons, 1998; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). An institution
erects a sociocultural barrier when agents of the educational institution denigrate cultural

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components such as African American students’ homes and community values (Carter, 2009;
Chambers, 2009; Ogbu & Simons, 1998; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). This sociocultural barrier is
based on the cultural deprivation theory, which claims that African American students perform
less well academically than white students because they come to school from homes and
neighborhood environments that do not provide adequate stimulation for normal development
(Bensimon, 2005; Ogbu & Simons, 1998). To navigate around this sociocultural barrier, African
American students would benefit from institutional agents who employ double-loop thinking
versus single-loop thinking (sole belief that students have deficits). Educators who engage in
double-loop thinking demonstrate the willingness to focus on their own attitudes, values, beliefs,
and practices in order to help African American students succeed (Bensimon, 2005, Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). As a reflective practitioner, single-loop learning is defined as planning, teaching,
and testing at the tacit level of learning. In other words, the teacher completes his/her
lesson/instruction as planned without ever questioning what worked and what did not work for the
students. However, in double-loop learning, educators raise thinking (reflection) and practice as
well as problems between the two of them to an explicit level where they can access and act upon
them (Argyris & Schön, 1974; Farrell, 2012).
A cognitive frame is the way in which individuals think and make sense of phenomena.
Therefore, educators who subscribe to a cultural deprivation theory possess a deficit cognitive
frame or a deficit perspective. This is extremely detrimental to African American students
because educators who possess such a perspective are impervious to the fact that they only
attribute the problem of academic failure to the students and do not take into account their own
roles in the creation or solution of unequal outcomes (Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers,
2009; Harper, 2010). According to Bensimon (2005), unequal educational outcomes for racial and

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ethnic groups persist today because of past discrimination in postsecondary education and a
current organizational learning problem within institutions. Individuals whose institutional roles
can influence whether students are successful or not need to learn cognitive processes that enable
them to reflect and think about the situation of underrepresented students and their outcomes
through the lens of equity (Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond,
2007; Harper, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Using a cognitive frame of
equity requires educators to reflect on how they think. Through this equity lens, educators are
more prone to reflect on, notice, and question patterns of educational outcomes, and they are more
likely to view such inequalities in the context of a history of exclusion, discrimination, and
educational apartheid (Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond;
Harper, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Statement of the Problem
Disproportionately low numbers of African American students graduate with a Bachelor of
Science degree in STEM as a result of structural racism, prejudice, discrimination, and basic
cross-racial and cross-cultural intolerance that persist in our society (Carter, 2009; Chambers,
2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The percentages
of bachelor’s degrees conferred in STEM fields vary across racial/ethnic groups (NCES, 2010).
The percentage of African American students graduating with STEM degrees is approximately
16% below the other populations (i.e., White and Asian) receiving the highest number of degrees
(NCES, 2010). The inequities for African American students still exist because government
administration in conjunction with the state and national legislative branches have yet to develop
educational policies that demonstrate a mindfulness of the massive educational debt that people of
color inherited from systems of colonization, genocide, and slavery. This debt compounds over

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the decades as inequality continues to rise, enabling the rich to get richer and the poor to become
poorer, in both relative and absolute terms (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond,
2007; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). In order for African American students to
navigate their way through hostile environments, they will need to develop reflection skills and
strategies (Kim, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Langer, 2009; Milner, 2006). Without such tools,
African American students will not develop a personal narrative, know their worth, and will not be
able to reflect on the value that they bring to the classroom environment. African American
students who have not learned to use reflective practices are unable to critically examine and
experience their differences in reference to others around them. Furthermore, they will not have
the ability to use reflection to speak as subjects with their own voice and represent themselves and
their stories from their own perspective (Kim, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Langer, 2009; Milner,
2006).
Institutional barriers exist in the American school system, which make negotiating the
dominant “culture of power” and decoding the system extremely challenging for African
American students (Delpit, 1988; Parham, et al., 1985; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The “culture of
power” refers to the dominant, white culture’s rules of discourse and requirements needed to
access knowledge and resources from institutional agents or school officials (Delpit, 1988;
Parham, et al., 1985; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). In order to access social capital and institutional
resources, African American students must first be instructed on how to negotiate these
institutionalized barriers successfully (Carter, 2009; Parham, et al., 1985; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Therefore, in order for the American school system to truly integrate African American students
and provide them equitable access and opportunities to STEM related instruction and programs,
educators must first focus on their own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors toward African American

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students (Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). This mindset
requires double-loop thinking, which focuses attention on the root causes of a problem and the
changes that educators must make in their attitudes, values, beliefs, and practices to bring about
enduring results. For reflection practitioners, double-loop learning requires constant thinking
about one’s practice in order to identify problems, rectify them, and make adjustments for future
situations (Bensimon, 2005; Argyris & Schön, 1974; Farrell, 2012).
Since the future success of any society depends on assuring that all of its students receive
the very best education it has to offer, educators must be mindful of their attitudes and behaviors
toward African American students (Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). The disproportionately low number of African American students excelling in K-
12 STEM subjects and pursuing STEM majors in college is in part due to educators, who
disproportionately assign African American students into low-level tracked, non-college prep
courses in the K-12 system (Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Harper, 2010; Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). This reoccurring tracking practice creates an “opportunity gap” for African
American students thus inhibiting their ability to pursue STEM related majors in college (Carter,
2009; Chambers, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). This “opportunity gap” is
a multifaceted dilemma, which both policy makers and educators have no perfect answers to solve.
Without educators making an honest and concerted effort to apply double-loop thinking/learning,
which requires deep reflection on the current plight of African American students in this country,
these circumstances will continue to plague our educational system (Argyris & Schön, 1974;
Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Farrell, 2012).
If difficult conversations among educators, community leaders and policy makers remain
non-existent, critical topics will continue to be overlooked and ignored. More specifically, these

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conversations need to address educators’ self-awareness of their own biases and prejudices; the
lack of financial and pedagogical equity and fairness within the U.S. school system;
discriminatory policies in regards to testing and placement; and the neglect of physical
environments within urban school districts (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond,
2007; Ladson-Billing, 2006; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). These types of crucial conversations require
the deliberative and deep reflection-on-practice in a collaborative way. Furthermore, stakeholders
must thoughtfully and intelligently plan, prepare, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate, as well as ask
fundamental questions about the underpinnings of the practice of education and the current
situation and future academic trajectory for African American students (Carter, 2009; Clarke,
James, & Kelly, 1996; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Dewey, 1938; Ladson-Billing, 2006; Rodgers,
2002; Schön, 1992).
In addressing the disproportionately low numbers of African American students who
declare STEM majors at California Community Colleges and intend to transfer into STEM at a
four-year university, educators can benefit from gathering pertinent information from high
achieving, African American, STEM scholars. This is an anti-deficit or positive deviance
approach, whereby the focus is on achievements and success instead of deficiencies and failure
(Ghaye, 2010; Harper, 2010; Zaidi, Jaffery, & Moin, 2010). An anti-deficit and positive deviance
framework necessitates reflection on the part of faculty and students. Current literature supports
that utilizing a positive deviance (use of uncommon, but favorable behaviors) approach to identify
strategies employed by successful students brings about significant, positive changes in attitude
and ability in other students (Zaidi, et al., 2010). For example, perspective transformation is the
emancipatory and learning process by which adults come to recognize their culturally induced
dependency roles and relationships, the reasons for them, and take action to overcome them

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(Mezirow, 1981). Additionally, when involved in reflection and collaborative learning, students
benefit from the peer interactions in a variety of contexts. A requirement for students to mentally
process, reflect, and explain problems to one another seems to enhance their own understanding
(Taylor, McGowan, & Alston, 2008; Valli, 1997). Current research shows that community
colleges are more effective at fostering success among minorities in STEM because of their
emphasis on teaching, smaller student-to-teacher ratios, active learning in classrooms, lab
experiences, and positive learning environments (Goldrick-Rab, 2010; Jackson, 2013).
One major roadblock that affects the success of African American students in STEM is
their lack of preparedness in math and science, which several factors attribute to, including K-12
preparation (Chambers, 2009; Cole & Espinoza, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Goldrick-Rab,
2010; Harper, 2010; Jackson, 2013). This situation poses a challenge for students even before
they enter post-secondary institutions (Chambers, 2009; Cole, et al., 2009; Harper, 2010; Jackson,
2013). According to the University of Maryland Baltimore County’s (UMBC) President, Freeman
Hrabowski, most programs targeted for minority students focus primarily on academic deficits
rather than inspiring talented African American students to become leading research scientists and
engineers (Finney, 2009; Harper, 2010). Under President Hrabowski’s leadership, the Meyerhoff
Program at UMBC (which serves as a national model for educational innovation) has successfully
educated hundreds of minority scholars in mathematics, science, and engineering (Finney, 2009).
The Meyerhoff Program’s success builds upon the premise that among like-minded, talented
students working closely together, positive energy is contagious (Finney, 2009; Jackson, 2013;
Jett, 2011). Classroom activities such as small group discussions, group problem solving,
critiquing one another’s ideas, and reflection upon the task at hand leads to deeper processing of
the information and richer and more meaningful learning (Kirschner, Paas, & Kirschner, 2009;

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Taylor, et al., 2008; Valli, 1997). Similarly, many Historically Black Colleges and Universities
(HBCUs) have been instrumental in producing STEM graduates, science role models, and teachers
of color in growing numbers throughout the years (Jackson, 2013; Jett, 2011; Taylor, et al., 2008).
Research has found that assigning high complexity tasks to groups of learners allows information
to be divided across a larger reservoir of cognitive capacity, which results in more effective and
efficient learning in comparison to assigning tasks individually (Kirschner, et al., 2009).
Historically, HBCUs have attributed their success to their ability to cultivate environments where
African American students have the opportunity to work in supportive, small groups (Jackson,
2013; Jett, 2011; Taylor, et al., 2008). Furthermore, it is important that colleges and universities
understand the importance of providing support for African American students’ research and
educational costs because it is very difficult for these students to pursue math and science degrees
if they are required to work 20 hours or more outside of school (Cole & Espinoza, 2009; Finney,
2009).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain an understanding of African American
community college STEM students’ perceptions on equity and access as it pertained to their
involvement in STEM. The researcher asked the participants pointed questions regarding their
comfort level at ABC College (pseudonym) as well as their perspective regarding institutional
obstacles and/or unfavorable treatment. In addition, this study explored African American STEM
students’ use of reflective practices as they pursued their goals to persist and transfer to a four-year
university. For this study, the researcher used the perspectives of African American STEM
students who attended ABC College this past spring 2016 semester and intend to transfer to a
four-year university to major in STEM. The researcher selected this type of setting because most

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African American and other disadvantaged or low-income students, who attend college, will enroll
in a community college, the most affordable and accessible entryway to higher education
(Goldrick-Rab, 2010; Jackson, 2013). This qualitative study sought to uncover the reflective
practice methods that these African American student participants used to persist and maintain
academic progress. By interviewing thriving African American STEM scholars, the researcher
identified their strategies and reflective practices with the intention of sharing them with other
students potentially interested in STEM.
Since the essence of this study encompassed the perceptions of African American STEM
students, using a qualitative research approach was the most effective way to answer the research
questions thoroughly, genuinely, and efficiently. Qualitative interview studies provide rich, thick
descriptions of phenomena that are difficult to learn about in any other way (Weiss, 1994).
Therefore, by engaging in qualitative research for this study, the researcher hoped to understand
from an African American STEM student’s perspective, what his/her experience was like as a
community college student with aspirations to transfer to a four-year university to major in STEM.
Interviews, a focus group, and artifacts provided interpretive data for this study, which the
researcher used to build concepts, hypotheses, and theories (Merriam, 2009). This study
benefitted from the rich descriptions provided from individual experiences, which the researcher
captured using a qualitative research method.
The typical way for selecting participants in a qualitative research study is purposeful
selection (Maxwell, 2013). Purposive sampling is a strategy where the researcher deliberately
selects particular settings, persons, or activities to provide information that is particularly relevant
to one’s questions and goals, and that one cannot retrieve as well from other choices (Maxwell,
2013). With the assistance of the ABC College Science, Engineering, and Mathematics (SEM)

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faculty and other counseling faculty, the researcher identified twelve students to contact for
interest. From the twelve students initially identified nine students agreed to participate. The
researcher used the following criteria: self-identified African American students, attended ABC
College in the spring 2016 semester, declared a STEM major/course of study, successfully
completed STEM courses, and intend to transfer to a four-year university to major in STEM.
Research Questions
1. How do African American community college STEM students describe their
experiences regarding equity and access as they pursue their goal to transfer to a
four-year university to major in STEM?
2. How do African American community college STEM students use reflective
practices (i.e., metacognition, motivation, self-regulation, attribution, self-efficacy)
to persist and navigate their journeys to transfer to a four-year university to major
in STEM?
The purpose of these research questions was to ascertain what African American STEM
students perceive as advantages or disadvantages as they pursue their STEM majors and
simultaneously engage in the transfer process. Additionally, discovering the reflective strategies
African American students implemented in order to persist and transfer was of critical importance
to the study. “How we understand the self, shapes how we conceptualize learning, and that, of
course, sets the parameters that define adult education as a field” (Clark & Dirkx, 2000, p. 103).
A number of factors shape and inform learning. The most important factor is self-reflection
because it is “the conceptual glue that holds our perspectives, meaning schemes and habits of
mind in place” (Brookfield, 2009, p. 294). By engaging in the practice of reflection, educators are
then able to explore how their perspectives shape their actions in the various contexts that intersect

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their lives (Plakhotnik, Delgado, & Seepersad, 2015).
Limitations and Delimitations
One of the limitations of this study was time. The researcher was not able to do a
longitudinal study on her participants. Additionally, the researcher had an opportunity to
interview each participant once, maybe twice when necessary. The sample size was nine students.
At the community college that the researcher selected, the population of African American STEM
students was a modest size. Therefore, the small sample size was a limitation to the study. The
researcher conducted the study at one community college and not at multiple sites, which confined
the study as well. Although qualitative researchers can never capture an objective “truth” or
“reality” there are a number of strategies a qualitative researcher can use to increase the
“credibility” of one’s findings (Merriam, 2009). The first strategy the researcher used to secure
internal validity in this study was triangulation (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). Information that
the researcher gathered from her interviewees corroborated information she gathered during her
focus group. In addition, the literature the researcher cited also supported interviewees’
comments, focus group themes, and data she collected through artifacts.
To further ensure credibility and trustworthiness, the researcher employed three additional
strategies, which were reflexivity, collecting rich data, and searching for discrepant data.
Reflexivity is reflecting critically on one’s role and influence as a researcher. Additionally, the
researcher collected rich data that provided a full, revealing picture of what was actually taking
place. Furthermore, the researcher searched for discrepant data to make sure that she did not
ignore critical findings just to satisfy her own biases (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). The
researcher also used triangulation to establish consistency and dependability as well as reliability
(Merriam, 2009).

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One of the main strengths of qualitative research is to elucidate local processes, meanings,
and contextual influences in particular settings or cases (Maxwell, 2013). For this reason, the
researcher chose her local school site and place of employment to complete this study. This was a
benefit for the researcher’s institution as well as a convenience for her.
Definition of Terms
Achievement Gap is the disparity in academic performance between African American and white
students (Madyun, 2011).
Anti-deficit framework is the focus on academic achievements and not failures of African
American students (Ghaye, 2010; Harper, 2010).
Cultural Deprivation Theory claims that African American students perform less well
academically than whites because they come to school from homes and neighborhood
environments that do not provide adequate stimulation for normal development (Bensimon, 2005).
Culture of power refers to the dominant, white culture’s rules of discourse and requirements
needed to access knowledge and resources from institutional agents or school officials (Delpit,
1988; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Decoding
skills
refers
to
the
abilities
African
American
students
need
to
learn
to
effectively

participate
in
a
white
society
(Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Double consciousness is the idea that African Americans view themselves in one way, and have
an awareness of how whites view them (Dubois, 1996).
Double-loop thinking/learning focuses attention on the root causes of a problem and the changes
that educators need to make in their attitudes, values, beliefs, and practices to bring about enduring
results (Argyris & Schön, 1974; Bensimon, 2005; Farrell, 2012).

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Institutionalized exclusion is an institutional barrier that creates an environment, which
problematizes and thwarts the access of academic support and resources for African American
students (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Positive Deviance is an observation made in any community that identifies individuals whose
uncommon, but successful behaviors and strategies enable them to find better solutions than their
peers (Zaidi, Jaffery & Moin, 2010).
“Receivement Gap” or “Opportunity Gap” is the focus on inputs—what students receive on
their educational journey versus outputs—their performance on standardized tests (Carter, 2009;
Chambers, 2009).
Reflective Practice is reflective thought as active, persistent, and careful consideration of any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further
conclusions to which it tends (Dewey, 1938).
Sociocultural barrier is erected when cultural components, such as, African American students’
home and community values are denigrated by the educational institution (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).

Structural barriers are features in the school environment that prevent, discourage or impede
African American students from engaging fully in the social and academic learning environment
[e.g., insufficient tutoring, inadequate teaching and counseling, limited library resources] (Stanton-
Salazar, 1997).

Organization of the Study

The literature review will provide a working definition for reflective practice. Dewey
(1938) defines reflective thought as active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or
supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions
to which it tends. Much of the history of reflection in the United States’ public school system is a

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American
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24

result of Dewey’s influence. In this chapter, the researcher will compare and contrast the various
types of reflection. She will also examine the difference between novice and experienced
reflective practices. Furthermore, distinguishing these differences is critical to understanding the
importance of reflection for practitioners.
The next two sections of the literature review will focus on the reflective practices of adult
learners and the state of critical reflection towards equity and access for African American adult
students in particular. When discussing the topics of adult learners and reflection, particular
researchers use several other terms interchangeably with reflection such as self-authorship and
experiential learning. The researcher will explore these definitions further. In the context of
equity and access, this chapter will also focus on autobiographical techniques that allow for a
critical examination and experience of cultural differences for teachers and students.
The final sections for Chapter 2 will encompass the reflective practice framework and its
importance to pedagogues. The researcher will further investigate and determine current uses of
reflection in the realm of education. Chapter 2 will conclude with a summary of the key points of
reflective practice and how engaging in and utilizing these techniques can benefit African
American students majoring in STEM.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2010), the percentages of
bachelor’s degrees conferred in STEM fields vary across racial/ethnic groups. The percentage of
African American students graduating with STEM degrees is approximately 16% below other
populations (i.e., White and Asian) receiving the highest number of degrees (NCES, 2010). The
problem is confounded when taking into consideration the overall percentages of degrees awarded
to African American students in comparison to all other, full-time, degree-seeking students
completing any other bachelor degree within six years. From this population, African American
students are 30% below other ethnic/racial groups that have the highest percentages of degree-
seeking students (NCES, 2010).
If the United States wants to maintain its competitive position in the global economy, a
renewed interest in STEM education is critical (NCES, 2010). This fact alone puts the problem of
African American students’ academic deficiencies in a category of high prioritization. In order to
compete efficiently and effectively, America must address this problem. Recent data show that
STEM employee earnings are significantly higher than non-STEM employee earnings, regardless
of race, ethnicity, or nativity (NCES, 2010). John Dewey (1938) implored educators to embrace
their responsibility for shaping the experience of students by creating an environment that is
conducive for their experiences to thrive and grow. Dewey recognized the importance of this
influence. As a result, his fourth criterion for reflection is that educators value the personal and
intellectual growth of oneself and others (Dewey, 1938; Farrell, 2012; Rodgers, 2002). In
reflecting on the disparity in academic achievement between African American students and other
groups, Dewey’s insightfulness can propel educators to acknowledge their responsibility to secure

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the future success of our society by assuring that African American students receive the very best
education it has to offer (Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007).
Research Questions
1. How do African American community college STEM students describe their experiences
regarding equity and access as they pursue their goal to transfer to a four-year university to
major in STEM?
2. How do African American community college STEM students use reflective practices (i.e.,
metacognition, motivation, self-regulation, attribution, self-efficacy) to persist and
navigate their journeys to transfer to a four-year university to major in STEM?
The purpose of these research questions was to ascertain what African American STEM
students perceive as advantages or disadvantages while pursuing their STEM majors and
simultaneously engaging in the transfer process. Additionally, discovering the reflective strategies
African American students implement in order to persist and transfer was of critical importance to
the study.
Definition of Reflective Practice
Dewey defined reflective thought as active, persistent, and careful consideration of any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further
conclusions to which it tends (Dewey, 1938). In other words, reflective practice consists of
turning one’s experience into learning.
Brief Overview of Chapter Two
Much of the history of reflection in the United States’ public school system is a result of
Dewey’s influence. In this chapter, the researcher compared and contrasted the various types of
reflection. She also examined the distinctions between novice and experienced reflective

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27

practices. Additionally, the ability to distinguish between these two dimensions was critical to
understanding the importance of reflection for practitioners.
The next two sections of the literature review focused on the reflective practices of adult
learners and the state of critical reflection towards equity and access for African American adult
students in particular. When discussing the topics of adult learners and reflection, several other
terms emerged in reference to reflection. Self-authorship and experiential learning were two terms
that appeared interchangeable when referenced in certain literature on adult learners and
reflection. The researcher explored these definitions further in this chapter. In the context of
equity and access, this chapter focused on autobiographical techniques that allowed for a critical
examination and expression of the different experiences shared by both teachers and students.
The final sections of chapter 2 encompassed the reflective practice framework and its
importance to practitioners. The researcher determined and further investigated current uses of
reflection in the realm of education. Chapter 2 concluded with a summary and review of the key
points of reflective practice and a description of how the literature encourages educators to engage
in and utilize these techniques to benefit African American students majoring in STEM.
History of Reflection in U.S. Public Schools
During the 19
th
century, a belief emerged from the field of education that when based on
the results of scientific research, practical knowledge became professional. However, some
educators, who embraced the idea that knowledge became practical when applied to the problems
of everyday practice, challenged this belief (Clarke, James, & Kelly, 1996; Schön, 1992;
Tannenbaum, Hall, & Deaton, 2013). This philosophical disagreement created a dilemma in
education, a dualism of thought versus action, research versus practice, science versus common
sense, and the academy versus everyday life (Clarke, et al., 1996; Farrell, 2012; Rodgers, 2002;

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Schön, 1992; Tannenbaum, et al., 2013). John Dewey, an American philosopher of education,
devoted his life to overcoming this faction and obvious divide in the field of education and the rest
of the modern world (Farrell, 2012; Rodgers, 2002; Schön, 1992). In his quest for certainty,
Dewey derived his theory of inquiry. Inquiry, for Dewey, combined mental reasoning and action
in the world (Dewey, 1938; Schön, 1992). According to Schön (1992), there are three
components of reflective practice: knowing-in-action, reflection-in-action, and conversation with
the situation. Knowing-in-action is the knowing built into and revealed by our performance of
everyday routines of action. Reflection-in-action is the ability to take note of surprise and respond
to it—to be puzzled or uncertain just shortly and respond smoothly on the spot. Conversation with
the situation is when an inquirer encounters a surprise situation in the form of “back-talk” that
shortly interrupts action, evoking uncertainty, then is transformed and resolved by the inquirer
(Dewey, 1938; Schön, 1992). These three components of reflective practice are key to the
success that individuals experience in coaching, teaching, and learning because they provide a
process for getting in touch with the spontaneous understandings formed in the midst of their
action (Rodgers, 2002; Schön, 1992; Tannenbaum, et al., 2013).
According to Valli (1997), Zeichner (1994), and Zuckerman (2003), reflective teaching
emphasizes the importance of teacher inquiry, which counteracts solely focusing on teachers’
behaviors without considering what is going on in their minds and hearts. There are five types of
reflection, which educators engage: technical reflection, reflection in and on-action, deliberative
reflection, personalistic reflection, and critical reflection. Research governs technical reflection.
Reflection in and on-action values an educator’s practical craft knowledge. Deliberative reflection
emphasizes decisions that highlight a variety of sources. Personalistic reflection relies on one’s
inner voice and the voices of one’s students. Lastly, critical reflection aims to understand and

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improve the quality of life of disadvantaged groups (Jaeger, 2013; Valli, 1997; Zeichner, 1994).
Since each of the five reflection types have strengths and weaknesses, ideally, educators should
use them in combination with one another. In addition, in order for reflective practices to be
effective at any school site, the environment must foster and support openness, change, and a
reflective culture (Jaeger, 2013; Larrivee, 2008; Valli, 1997; Zeichner, 1994).
Dewey (1938), Ferry & Ross-Gordon (1998), and Zuckerman (2003), would argue that a
novice educator’s use of reflection-in-action would tend to be more rule-driven, slow-paced, non-
contextual, and highly influenced by observable facts. On the contrary, experienced educators
would use a more intuitive thought process, which would transcend analytical thought and their
actions would flow logically according to the needs of each situation (Dewey, 1938; Ferry, et al.,
1998; Valli, 1997; Zuckerman, 2003). However, experience alone does not lead to reflection-in-
action. Instead, how a person uses his/her experience is more crucial to understanding why some
individuals use reflection to grow in their professional learning and others do not (Dewey, 1938;
Ferry, et al., 1998; Valli, 1997; Zuckerman, 2003). For this reason, those who criticize Schön’s
use of ‘reflection’ tend to point to difficulties in its general application, and not to problems with
its meaning (Gilroy, 1993). One method to effectively apply Schön’s idea of ‘reflection’ to the
teaching profession requires the development of a common language and meaning, as well as,
understanding the language-game rules that are applicable to both students and teachers (Farrell,
2012; Ferry, et al., 1998; Gilroy, 1993; Grimmett, 1989). The awareness of “why” we attach the
meanings we do to reality may be the most significant distinguishing characteristic in teaching
adult learners (Ferry, et al., 1998; Ghaye, 2010; Mezirow, 1981; Plakhotnik, Delgado, &
Seepersad, 2015). Experienced teachers can be as ineffective as they were when they started their
career if they are not reflective in how they think or what they do. Reflection can be a vehicle for

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turning experience into learning, though experience alone may not be sufficient to become skillful.
Turning experience into knowledge may depend on the ability to use reflection to recognize
patterns in one’s experience (Plakhotnik, et al., 2015; Shalom & Schechet, 2008; Wang, 2012).
Practitioners are not always consciously aware of the social context of their work. For this
reason, collaboration with peers in professional, constructive, safe environments is sometimes
necessary to articulate differing viewpoints and opinions. These are opportunities to make the
social context visible and allow practitioners to “hear themselves think” (Dowd, Bishop,
Bensimon, & Whitham, 2011).
During the 19
th
century, white supremacy ideologies helped to promote the belief that
racial minority groups were inherently inferior to whites, which rationalized the segregation of
whites from other “colored races” in schools, housing communities, and churches (Valencia, et al.,
2002; Dubois, 1989). During this same period, the history of reflection emerged and formed
opportunities for educators to cultivate their students into self-directed learners. The hope was to
create reflective, self-directed individuals, who were aware of the constraints on their efforts to
learn, including the psycho-cultural assumptions involving reified power relationships embedded
in institutionalized ideologies. In turn, their awareness would influence their habits of perception,
thought, and behavior as they attempt to learn (Freire, 1970; Mezirow, 1981). It is extremely
important that accountability incentives attempt to engage educators in meaningful activities that
will improve their professional setting and increase their learning about social justice issues so that
students benefit from faculty members who are consistently striving to improve themselves and
their practice (Bensimon, 2005; Dowd, et al., 2011; Madyun, Williams, McGee, & Milner, 2013).

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Current State of Reflection in Education Regarding Adult Learners
Another important aspect of cultivating relationships in an educational environment is the
conscious or purposive use of self. Being aware of one’s own biases, prejudices, and limitations is
of critical importance in social work as well as in education. Practitioners in both settings are
encouraged to constantly reflect on themselves and the work that they do (Dowd, et al., 2011;
Madyun, et al., 2013; Milner, 2006; Wang, 2012). For example, two concepts that are important
to discuss, especially in relationship to teaching adult learners, are countertransference and
authenticity. Countertransference occurs when a practitioner inflicts his or her unresolved issues
or emotions on a student or when a practitioner projects his or her feelings onto a student based on
an experience (Milner, 2006; Plakhotnik, et al., 2015; Wang, 2012). Authenticity is being
genuine, showing consistency between values and action, relating to others in a way that
encourages their authenticity, and living a critical life. In addition, authenticity is displaying
transparency in one’s relationship with students. For instance, teachers should allow students to
see the real self inside of their thoughts (reflection), and their feelings and reasoning processes
(reflection-in- and on-action). In doing so, the hope is that adult learners will feel comfortable to
mirror the teacher’s behaviors of reflection and do the same (Ghaye, 2010; Milner, 2006;
Plakhotnik, et al., 2015; Wang, 2012).
Experiential learning, self-authorship, and reflective journaling are three distinct activities
that provide educators and adult learners with the opportunity to engage in reflective practice. In
experiential learning, the processing of experiences leads to reflection and the integration of new
concepts into existing knowledge. Experiential learning is a four-stage learning model that is
reflection based. First, an individual experiences an event, then reflects on the experience and
next draws conclusions from it. Finally, based on the conclusions, the individual develops new

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outcomes that are applicable to new experiences (Kim, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Goldberg,
2012; Strayhorn, 2014). As a constructive developmental theory, self-authorship refers to the
ability to collect, interpret, and analyze information and reflect on one’s own beliefs to form
judgments. Self-authorship consists of three dimensions: cognitive, intrapersonal, and
interpersonal. Self-authored people employ complex cognitive processes of meaning making in
ways that recognize the socially constructed nature of knowledge (cognitive) while also keeping in
mind their own beliefs, values, and goals (intrapersonal) as well as those of others (interpersonal)
(Goldberg, 2012; Milner, 2006; Strayhorn, 2014). Lastly, reflective journaling is a form of
reflection that documents one’s evolving thought process and an effective method that helps one
to make sense of one’s experience. Areas such as social work, nursing, and both pre-service and
in-service teacher education programs use reflective journaling. Reflective journaling is a
powerful tool, allowing students and teachers to reflect on their learning processes and teaching
practices, examine their experiences, reconstruct the meaning of the past and present, gain new
perspectives, and thereby begin the process of transforming the self (Goldberg, 2012; Kim, 2013;
Langer, 2009; Lupinski, Jenkins, Beard, & Jones, 2012; Risquez, Moore, & Morley, 2007). A
significant aspect of reflective journaling is critiquing, which refers to the systematic examination
of one's self and society, paying special attention to issues germane to inequality, oppression,
exploitation, domination, and social injustice of class, gender, race, and ethnicity (Blankson, et al.,
2015; Goldberg, 2012; Kim, 2013; Langer, 2009). According to Kim (2013), critiquing is most
effective when students are able to apply the knowledge they learn about their lives beyond the
classroom. Educators can assist African American students with this process by incorporating
concepts such as oppression, inequality, and social justice into lessons involving experiential
learning, reflective journaling, and self-authorship. During these activities, African American

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students would in turn be able to connect their critical reflections to action to promote social
transformation (Blankson, et al., 2015; Goldberg, 2012; Kim, 2013; Langer, 2009).
Current State of Critical Reflection towards Equity and Access for
African American Students in STEM
Critical reflection is different from general reflection in that it involves analyzing the
assumptions on which educators’ moral and ethical beliefs and values are situated. In essence,
critical reflection means examining the ethical, social, and political consequences of one’s practice
(Dewey, 1938; Larrivee, 2008; Mezirow, 1981). According to Dewey (1938), critical reflection
can emancipate educators from being slaves to their routines and can potentially decrease the
burgeoning opportunity gap for African American students pursuing higher education in general
and STEM majors in particular. Dubois (1993) concurs that if educators do not use critical
reflection, they will be blind to the injustices surrounding African American students; and
educational parity for them compared to their white counterparts will be non-existent. By not
providing such equity, society maintains its oppression of African American students (Bensimon,
2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Dubois, 1993; Freire, 1993). Therefore, critical reflection
towards equity and access for African American students pursuing STEM begins with educators,
whose institutional roles can influence whether these students are successful or not. Educators
such as this need to learn cognitive processes that will enable them to think about the situation of
underrepresented students and their outcomes through the lens of equity (Bensimon, 2005;
Darling-Hammond, 2007; Freire, 1993; Ladson-Billings, 2000). Using a cognitive frame of equity
requires educators to reflect on how they think. Through this equity lens, educators are more
prone to notice and question patterns of educational outcomes, and they are more likely to view
such inequalities in the context of a history of exclusion, discrimination, and educational apartheid

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(Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Freire, 1993; Ladson-
Billings, 2000). In one particular study, inner city adults who cultivated self-esteem through self-
reflection and reliance on mentors had high levels of workforce success, regardless of academic
scores. The results of this study suggest that monitoring and fostering the self-esteem of inner-city
young adults through close mentoring relationships improve their chances of professional success
(Langer, 2009; Harper, 2010). In equity focused reflective practice, another tool that has helped
both teachers and students engage with one another is the use of autobiographical exercises. The
use of an autobiography technique provides an opportunity for the “critical examination and
experience of difference” for both teachers and students to occur. An autobiography exercise
allows individuals to speak as subjects with their own voice and represent themselves and their
stories from their own perspective. The use of one's own story is also a way to get pre-service
teachers to reflect on their practicum experiences in diverse classrooms (Kim, 2013; Ladson-
Billings, 2000; Langer, 2009; Milner, 2006).
Investigating the disproportionately low numbers of African American students in STEM
using an anti-deficit or positive deviance model is a novel, yet necessary approach in current
research (Ghaye, 2010; Harper, 2010; Hurtado, Cabrera, Lin, Arellano, & Espinosa, 2009;
Solorozano & Yosso, 2002; Zaidi, Jaffery, & Moin, 2010). Research on successful African
American STEM students magnifies the lessons learned by educators and policy makers regarding
how these students maximize their college experiences and move beyond the typical deficit
perspectives seen in educational literature. In other words, researchers using an anti-deficit/asset
framework could explore and better understand how African American students persist and
successfully navigate their way beyond obstacles and through various junctures of the STEM

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pipeline (Cole & Espinoza, 2009; Ghaye, 2010; Harper, 2010; Hurtado, et al., 2009; Solorozano,
& Yosso, 2002).
Theories proposed by Dewey (1938), Freire (1993), and proponents of critical education
theory (CET) created a hypothesis that states when educational curricula provide intentional
experiences students become active, critical, and engaged learners. For example, activities, such
as service learning, enhance learning and bridge the gap between education and society (Blankson,
et al., 2015; Curtin, Martins, Schwartz-Barcott, DiMaria, & Ogando,
2015; Hayward & Charrette,
2012). There are three different types of service learning pedagogy: skill-set practice and
reflectivity; civic values and critical citizenship; and social justice activism. In skill-set practice
and reflectivity service learning, students develop competence in their field and practice them in
the environment. In civic values and critical citizenship, students investigate their own civic
attitudes. Lastly, in social justice activism, students see themselves as active social change agents
(Blankson, et al., 2015; Curtin, et al.,
2015; Hayward, et al., 2012). Often, the combination of the
real world and the academic environment through reflective exercises enhances students’ critical
thinking skills by allowing them to reflect on their past events in a scholarly way. In support of
these ideas, service learning can have a tremendous, positive effect on African American students’
academic development, including enhancing their civic attitudes (Blankson, et al., 2015; Curtin, et
al.,
2015; Hayward, et al., 2012).
Reflective Practice Framework
Since many educators view reflection as an individual process as well as a collective
process, reflection requires a trusting environment. Reflective practitioners typically involve other
individuals in problem-solving situations. They do not try to resolve problems in isolation
because they realize that others are usually affected by any given decision. For this reason,

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practitioners should trust that their administrators will support them in their roles as educators; and
administrators should trust that their reflective practitioners are doing what is best for all of their
students, especially those who are in disadvantaged situations (Beauchamp, 2015; Farrell, 2012;
Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998). If this is the case, the application of agency on the part of the
reflective practitioner will most likely result in effective reflection and subsequent learning
(Beauchamp, 2015; Farrell, 2012; Jaeger, 2013; Larrivee, 2008; Zuckerman, 2003).
From Dewey’s initial work, five traditions of reflective practice (historical consciousness)
emerged: academic, self-efficacy, developmental, Social Reconstructionist, and generic.
Academic reflection depicts a situation where student learning is the result of creating a student-
focused subject matter. Self-Efficacy reflection uses research-based strategies in the classroom.
Developmental reflection embodies understanding one’s students and basing teaching on student
knowledge and dispositions. Social Reconstructionist reflection is similar to critical reflection,
antiracist agenda, or feminist agenda. Finally, generic reflection demonstrates that better
instruction happens when actions are deliberate (Jaeger, 2013; Valli, 1997; Zeichner, 1994). Each
of these five traditions is especially important when analyzing school level processes that address
the needs of African American students. Educators can use student-based inquiry research
(qualitative studies) to explore African American students’ perspectives on schools and
achievement, while addressing the meanings they attach to life, given their position in the social
system. In such studies, African American student involvement is central because allowing them
to identify problematic situations is critical for educators to know and understand (Dewey, 1938;
Rogers, 2002; Wiggan, 2007).
Rodgers (2002) describes a four-phase reflective cycle: presence, description, analysis and
experimentation. In the presence phase, teachers are learning to see with reflective lenses. In the

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description phase, teachers learn to describe and differentiate. In the analysis phase, teachers learn
to take intelligent action. Finally, in the experimentation phase, teachers learn to think from
multiple perspectives and form multiple explanations. To assist in developing effective teaching,
this four-phase reflective cycle encourages student feedback to assist with determining what
teachers think they are teaching in comparison to what students are learning. In many cases, the
students’ viewpoint is what is missing when trying to understand student achievement and
learning (Danielson, 2009; Jaeger, 2013; Rodgers, 2002; Zeichner, 1994; Zuckerman, 2003). In
order to plug the gaps in understanding and provide a comprehensive picture within achievement
literature, African American students’ voices are necessary and must be heard and incorporated
(Mezirow, 1981; Rogers, 2002; Wiggan, 2007).
In Milner’s (2006) study, as an attempt to guide themselves through the development of
more empowering research about African Americans, researchers developed a reflective model of
racial, cultural and spiritual engagement for both researchers and research participants. The
interrelated phases of reflection in the model were (a) researcher/participant racial and cultural
identity reflection; (b) spiritual reflection; (c) history/literature on race, culture and spirit; and (d)
situational context (Milner, 2006). The results and lessons learned from this study were that
through the reflective process researchers and research participants felt empowered to work to
change negative situations in which they were observers, witnesses, or victims. In other words,
once they engaged in deep introspection on their own racial, cultural, and spiritual selves, they
were able to understand: the roles and influences of these areas in their lives; roles and influences
that affect their belief systems; how they experience, understand and negotiate the world; and how
they perceive others (Milner, 2006).

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In order for reflective practices to be effective, reflection must be an institutionalized
process. A process is a group of activities that together create a desired result. When an
organization recognizes its work as a process and manages it as such, achieving its goals becomes
deliberate, rather than the accidental by-product of performing various constituent tasks (Hammer
& Stanton, 1997; Russ, 2002; Short & Rinehart, 1993). There are six tasks involved in the
reflection process for any organization/institution: developing deep customer/student insight;
conducting broad environmental monitoring; developing competitor intelligence; performing
honest self-assessment; engaging in ongoing mind expansion; and questioning fundamental
assumptions (Hammer & Stanton, 1997). Customer/student insight refers to knowing your
students behaviors and understanding them better than they understand themselves. Educators can
benefit from getting to know African American students in a personal way and incorporate their
interests and experiences into the classroom (Hammer & Stanton, 1997; Wiggan, 2007; Wright,
2011). Broad environmental monitoring means to be aware of subtle changes in your environment
that could indicate a new phenomenon is emerging. Educators should be aware of African
American students’ sentiments regarding the campus environment and climate (Hammer &
Stanton, 1997; Wiggan, 2007; Wright, 2011). Do African American students believe the campus
is a conducive and safe place to learn? Or does the campus climate create obstacles to learn for
them? Developing competitor intelligence from an educational perspective refers to
administrators and faculty asking the question: “Are we providing our African American students
with the most up-to-date and beneficial programs and services?” As an institution, it is important
to investigate the educational progress of African American students and whether or not their
academic, financial, and emotional needs are being met (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Hammer &
Stanton, 1997; Wiggan, 2007). Performing honest self-assessments cannot occur if an

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organization is operating on autopilot. Organizations must constantly look at the health and
viability of the culture that exist and make changes when necessary. Engaging in ongoing mind
expansion refers to the avoidance of looking at things through traditional lenses. In other words,
allow diverse perspectives such as those from African American students to filter upward.
Provide opportunities for equity and growth (Bensimon, 2005; Hammer & Stanton, 1997; Harper,
2010; Wiggan, 2007). Lastly, questioning fundamental assumptions is critical because if an
organization persists in its old ways of doing business while change has caused its assumptions to
lose their validity, disaster is inevitable. To avoid this misstep, administrators should always
include the voices of those affected like African American students. Assumption breaking is the
most difficult step because it goes against the organizational grain and many people have strong
ties to the status quo and asking unsettling questions causes them anxiety. Yet, without this step
the others are purposeless (Bensimon, 2005; Hammer & Stanton, 1997; Russ, 2002; Short &
Rinehart, 1993).
Once organizations are open to investigation and innovation, reflective practice can
facilitate deeper levels of organizational improvement by bringing about positive changes in the
behaviors of individuals in those organizations (Hammer & Stanton, 1997; Russ, 2002; Short &
Rinehart, 1993). For example, in one study, researchers found that a 1-hour session (designed to
communicate to African American college students that all new students experience challenges
with belonging and adjusting to college life not just them) was highly effective in maintaining
African American students’ retention, building their self-efficacy, increasing their GPAs, and
reducing the racial “achievement gap” (Yeager & Walton, 2011). In this circumstance, reflection
was the mechanism by which current knowledge interconnected and integrated with experiences to
modify an individual’s existing knowledge and facilitate thinking that is more advanced. Once

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students are involved in this problem-solving process, they will consider the principle or principles
that they applied appropriately to the situation, and then decide on a strategy or procedure that will
instantiate that principle for future situations (Danielson, 2009; Short & Rinehart, 1993; Zeichner,
1994; Zuckerman, 2003). In general, reflection uses the past to inform one’s judgment, reflect on
one’s experiences, and face new encounters with a broader repertoire of information, skills, and
techniques. When one reflects on what has occurred and consequently changes one’s actions one
will experience a different outcome (Lupinski, 2012; Danielson, 2009; Short & Rinehart, 1993;
Zeichner, 1994; Zuckerman, 2003).
Productive reflection is likely to promote effective learning and involves questioning
assumptions and seeing things in a variety of different ways. Keeping a reflective journal for
students and educators is one way to address the daily lesson and activities: what happened; what
changes one should make; how one could improve the lesson; any questions or issues that
occurred in the classroom; and how one addressed these issues or could have addressed them. A
number of educational theorists discuss the benefits of using this form of reflection in the
classroom (Goldberg, 2012; Kim, 2013; Langer, 2009; Lupinski, 2012; Risquez, Moore, &
Morley, 2007). For example, in one study, researchers conducted a 10-session workshop series
that consisted of African American students writing about their future selves and participating in
exercises to make their future selves seem more attainable. The project resulted in students’
attainment of higher GPAs, less absenteeism, and an overall display of healthier behaviors
(Oyserman, Bybee, & Terry, 2006; Yeager & Walton, 2011).
A goal for educators who teach adult learners is to become a role model for reflective
practice. Adult students, especially African Americans, can navigate higher education as well as
life more successfully if they engage in reflection (Wiggan, 2007; Yeager & Walton, 2011). Once

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African American adult learners realize that intelligence can be taught and the brain is like a
muscle and grows with effort, the risk of experiencing stereotype threat (fear of proving a
stereotype to be true) or defeating self-talk is mitigated (Walton & Dweck, 2009; Yeager &
Walton, 2011). Hence, the essence of reflection in practice for educators entails being fully
engaged and interacting in the present in a professional role, while at the same time maintaining a
level of awareness that serves to provide information to guide further actions of others (Jaeger,
2013; Mishna & Bogo, 2007; Rodgers, 2002; Zeichner, 1994; Zuckerman, 2003).
Prior research supports the notion that in addition to classroom experiences, students’
experiences outside of class, termed as co-curricular, shape their cognitive, social, and
occupational learning outcomes. In these various settings, students interact and collaborate with
peers, faculty, and members of industry through clubs, teams, undergraduate research, and
internships. According to other educational studies, peer groups are the most important influences
on growth and development during college (Blankson, et al., 2015; Curtin, et al., 2015; Harper,
2010; Hayward, et al., 2012; Langer, 2009; Milner, 2006; Young, Knight, & Simmons, 2014). In
a study completed by Young, et al. (2014), researchers discovered that collaborative learning
environments, developed through these co-curricular activities, definitely supported African-
American engineering students’ teamwork skills and reflective behavior. Additionally, the results
from this study extended the development of communication, professionalism, lifelong learning,
teamwork, and reflective behavior skills for African-American engineering students, who engaged
in one or more co-curricular activities (Young, et al., 2014). Co-curricular experiences are
especially important for underrepresented minorities in engineering and other STEM majors
because they help the students feel a sense of belonging and form a supportive peer network in a
difficult field (Finney, 2009; Harper, 2010; Young, et al., 2014).

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Ultimately, reflective practices can address the problem of low numbers of African
American students pursuing and graduating with a bachelor’s degree in STEM by allowing
educators at all levels to participate in constructive dialogue, engage in positive actions, and make
commitments to implement viable solutions (Argyris & Schön, 1974; Bensimon, 2005; Carter,
2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Farrell, 2012; Ghaye, 2010).
Summary
Historically, John Dewey, an American philosopher of education, realized a faction existed
between educators who embraced thought versus those who embraced action. Although this
philosophical disagreement created a dilemma in education, a dualism of thought versus action,
research versus practice, science versus common sense, and the academy versus everyday life,
Dewey was determined to esteem and illuminate the importance of both schools of thought. In his
quest for certainty, Dewey derived his theory of inquiry, which combined mental reasoning and
action in the world (Farrell, 2012; Rodgers, 2002; Schön, 1992).
Since this study captured African American community college STEM students’
perceptions on equity and access as they pursue their goals to transfer to a 4-year university to
major in STEM, the results obtained from this study can directly inform the overarching problem
of disproportionately low numbers of African American students graduating with a Bachelor of
Science degree in STEM. Additionally, this study’s unique, anti-deficit approach allowed the
researcher to look at the problem from an academic achievement perspective rather than a failure
point of view (Ghaye, 2010; Harper, 2010; Zaidi, et al., 2010). There was not much literature on
African American community college STEM students and their use of reflective practices.
However, there was ample literature on African American students and their use of reflective
practices and other literature on their pursuit of STEM majors in higher education. In this study,

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the researcher sought to glean and combine the highlights and best practices from both areas of
literature. For instance, experiential learning, self-authorship, and reflective journaling are three
distinct activities that provide educators and adult learners with the opportunity to engage in
reflective practices. Reflective journaling in particular is a powerful tool, which allows teachers
and students to examine their experiences and reconstruct their beliefs about academic success and
life beyond the classroom (Kim, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Langer, 2009; Milner, 2006).
Individuals, whose institutional roles can influence whether students are successful or not,
should learn cognitive processes that enable them to think about the situation of underrepresented
students and their outcomes through the lens of equity. By using a cognitive frame of equity,
educators are more prone to notice and question patterns of educational outcomes, and they are
more likely to view such inequalities in the context of a history of exclusion, discrimination, and
educational apartheid (Bensimon, 2005; Freire, 1993; Harper, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2000;
Langer, 2009).
To act in deliberate and intentional fashion, and to know what they are about when they
act, infuses educators with confidence and great determination. However, if educators remain
slaves to their routines, a burgeoning opportunity gap for African American students pursuing
STEM majors in higher education will continue to exist. By not providing educational parity for
African American students compared to their white counterparts, society maintains its oppression
of African American students (Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Dubois, 1993;
Freire, 1993). The rising concern regarding our country’s ability to maintain its competitive
position in the global economy has created a renewed interest in STEM education (NCES, 2010).
Therefore, providing all students with the very best education our country has to offer is critical
(Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007).

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS

African American students are graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in STEM at a
disproportionately lower percentage than their White and Asian counterparts. The percentage of
African American students graduating with STEM degrees is approximately 16% below White
and Asians students, who receive the highest number of degrees (NCES, 2010). According to the
National Center for Educational Statistics (2010), the percentages of bachelor’s degrees conferred
in STEM fields vary across racial/ethnic groups, whereby African American students lag behind.
However, the problem appears worse by the fact that the overall percentage of degrees awarded to
African American students is 30% below the highest groups. This is in comparison to other full-
time, degree-seeking students completing any other bachelor degree within six years (NCES,
2010).
In order for America to maintain its edge in a competitive global economy, a renewed
interest in STEM education is necessary (NCES, 2010). It is important to address the problem of
racial disparity in STEM education because in order to remain relevant, the United States must
ensure that African Americans as well as all others have the opportunity to become productive
citizens. Recent data show that STEM employee earnings are significantly higher than non-STEM
employee earnings, regardless of race, ethnicity, or nativity (NCES, 2010). John Dewey (1938)
emphasized that educators should be aware of and understand their responsibility for shaping the
experience of others. He mentions that one of the primary responsibilities educators have is to
create an environment that is conducive for students to aspire, thrive, and grow. For this reason,
Dewey designated the fourth criterion for reflection as: educators will value the personal and
intellectual growth of oneself and others (Dewey, 1938; Farrell, 2012; Rodgers, 2002). In light of
the dismal statistics regarding African American students’ graduation rates in STEM and overall,

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it is important for educators to reaffirm their commitment to securing the future success of our
society by assuring that African American students in particular will receive the very best
education the country has to offer (Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Dewey, 1938).
Methods

The purpose of this chapter is to present the research design and methods, site selection,
data collection, and data analysis for this study. Unlike most quantitative research that seeks to
establish differences and to distinguish the variables responsible for these differences, a qualitative
approach to research emphasizes the importance of understanding the processes by which things
take place (Maxwell, 2013). For this reason, qualitative researchers focus on three types of
questions: questions about the meaning of events and activities to the people involved in these;
questions about the influence of the physical and social context on these events and activities; and
questions about the processes by which these events and activities and their outcomes occurred
(Maxwell, 2013). The overall purposes of qualitative research are to achieve understanding of
how people make sense out of their lives, to delineate the process (rather than the outcome or
product) of meaning making, and to describe how people interpret what they experience (Merriam,
2009).
Research Questions
1. How do African American community college STEM students describe their
experiences regarding equity and access as they pursue their goal to transfer to a four-year
university to major in STEM?
2. How do African American community college STEM students use reflective
practices (i.e., metacognition, motivation, self-regulation, attribution, self-efficacy) to
persist and navigate their journeys to transfer to a four-year university to major in STEM?

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The purpose of these research questions was to ascertain what African American STEM
students perceive as advantages or disadvantages while pursuing their STEM majors and
simultaneously engaging in the transfer process. Additionally, discovering the reflective strategies
African American students implement in order to persist and transfer was of critical importance to
the study.
Rationale
Since the essence of this study encompassed the perceptions of African American STEM
students, using a qualitative methods approach was the most effective way to answer the research
questions thoroughly, genuinely, and efficiently. Qualitative interview studies provide rich, thick
descriptions of phenomena that are difficult to learn about in any other way (Weiss, 1994).
Therefore, by engaging in qualitative research for this study, the researcher hoped to understand
from an African American STEM students’ perspective, what their experiences were like as
community college students aspiring to transfer to a four-year university to major in STEM. More
specifically, this qualitative study allowed the researcher to ascertain what African American
STEM students’ perceptions were of equity and access while in pursuit of their STEM goals and
simultaneously engaging in the transfer process. Furthermore, discovering the reflective strategies
African American students implemented in order to persist and transfer was also of critical
importance to this study. Methods that the researcher discovers during this study, she will share
with other college students, especially other African American students, who can adopt these same
approaches to increase their interest and success in STEM.
In addressing the disproportionately low numbers of African American students who
declare STEM majors, educators can benefit from gathering pertinent information from high
achieving African American STEM scholars. One objective of this study was to accomplish such

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a task. By interviewing thriving African American STEM students, this study sought to uncover
their reflective strategies for academic success and their ability to persist and transfer while in
pursuit of their goals. In utilizing this anti-deficit/positive deviance approach, this study attempted
to disclose possible action plans that other college faculty and administrators can implement to
increase overall student involvement and favorable outcomes in STEM. Current literature
supports that utilizing an anti-deficit/positive deviance approach to identify reflective strategies
employed by successful students brings about significant, positive changes in attitude and ability
in other students (Harper, 2010; Zaidi, et al., 2010).
Sample and Site Selection
One of the main strengths of qualitative research is to elucidate local processes, meanings,
and contextual influences in particular settings or cases (Maxwell, 2013). For this reason, the
researcher chose her local school site, which is her current place of employment. In selecting this
location to complete this study, the researcher benefitted from the convenience of accessibility and
the institution benefitted from the results provided by the researcher. The researcher received
permission to conduct this study at ABC College from the Dean of Science, Engineering, and
Mathematics (SEM) as well as from the President, Executive Vice President, and the director of
Institutional Research. On a broader scale, the researcher selected this setting because most
African American and low-income students of color, who attend college, enroll in a community
college, the most affordable and accessible entryway to higher education (Goldrick-Rab, 2010;
Jackson, 2013). As a tenured counseling faculty member at ABC College, the researcher has
cultivated many positive relationships with faculty, administrators, and students over the years.
The researcher’s insight to the normative practices and culture of the institution facilitated and
streamlined the process for accessing and obtaining information.

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The typical way for selecting participants in a qualitative research study is purposeful
selection (Maxwell, 2013). Purposive sampling is a strategy where the researcher deliberately
selects particular settings, persons, or activities to provide information that is particularly relevant
to one’s questions and goals, and that one cannot obtain as well from other choices (Maxwell,
2013). For the purpose of this study, SEM faculty and other counseling faculty agreed to refer a
total of twelve students to the researcher for the interest of this study. The researcher contacted
each referral by email and stated which faculty referred him/her. Out of the twelve students
emailed, nine students agreed to participate in the study. From the nine students who agreed to
participate, the researcher knew three of them from previous semesters. Another two of the nine
students, met with the researcher only once in the spring 2016 semester, when the researcher
mentioned the study to them during that initial meeting. The researcher did not know nor had ever
met with the last four students. SEM faculty or other counseling faculty forwarded these students’
names and emails to the researcher. The criteria used for student solicitation and selection was:
self-identified as African American, attended ABC College in spring 2016, declared a STEM
major/course of study, successfully completed STEM coursework, and intend to transfer to a four-
year university to major in STEM.
Once the nine students agreed to participate in the study via email, the researcher asked
for each to provide her with a phone number to contact them to schedule the interviews. The
researcher arranged all meetings with the students by phone. The researcher provided participants
with an explanation of the study and shared the research questions with them. This afforded the
researcher the opportunity to elaborate on the meaning of reflective practice for each student and
answer any follow-up questions or concerns he/she had. Additionally, the researcher reassured
each student that although she was an employee at ABC College, all information that each shared

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with her would be kept confidential. She explained to each student that adhering to strict
confidentiality practices meant that their identity and what they divulged would not be shared with
any other employee or student at the college or district. Furthermore, the researcher followed all
consent protocols from the initial phone contact throughout the entire interviewing process. The
researcher conducted one focus group with four participants in the group. She also interviewed
nine participants individually (including the four in the focus group). The researcher conducted
the focus group in the STEM Lounge on the ABC College campus. She conducted the interviews
in quiet meeting areas or private classrooms on the ABC College campus.
Data Collection and Coding

This study utilized information from interviews, a focus group, and artifacts such as
college transcripts and STEM
2
program data. The researcher took field notes during all interviews
and during the focus group. In addition, the researcher audio recorded all interviews and the focus
group with participants’ permission. Researchers usually prepare an interview guide to ensure that
they pursue the same basic lines of inquiry with each person interviewed. Therefore, the interview
guide provides topics or subject areas within which the interviewer is free to explore, probe, and
ask questions that will illuminate that particular subject (Patton, 2002). The researcher designed
her interview protocol for a standardized open-ended, semi-structured interview. She made certain
that all her interview questions were clear, singular, open-ended, and consisted of a sufficient
number of probes. In addition, her interview protocol included an adequate number of different
types of questions: behaviors/experiences, opinions, feelings, knowledge, and demographics. The
researcher made sure that all questions led directly to answering the two research questions.
The preferred way to analyze data in a qualitative study is to do it simultaneously with data
collection (Merriam, 2009). For this reason, the researcher was conscientious about listening to

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her audio recordings within 24 hours after her interviews and focus group and wrote down
similarities, differences, and themes. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) also gave very practical
suggestions for analyzing data while one is collecting it. The following suggestions are those that
the researcher incorporated in her process: a. The researcher reworded certain questions according
to what she found out in her previous interviews, b. The researcher wrote down notes regarding
themes as she went along and revisited them during her analysis, c. The researcher experimented
with ideas and themes on a couple of participants/interviewees, when asking their opinion about a
concept that she formulated during the interview process, and d. The researcher used visual
devices, for instance, diagrams, flow charts, and concept maps to make connections and sense of
her data.
According to Harding (2013), the reason for using codes is to draw attention to
commonalities, differences, and relationships within a dataset. The researcher used structural
coding (coding according to her research questions), which helped frame her interviews and focus
group. In the coding process (from open coding to axial and analytic coding) with her interviews
and focus group, the researcher was very detailed initially capturing and including as much
information as possible. In doing so, her mindset was to avoid losing any pieces of evidence/data,
by using broad categorizations or overgeneralizations. After going through the entire coding
process, the researcher was able to narrow down the data to identify at least three overarching
themes and multiple sub-themes that specifically informed her research questions and assisted her
in writing the findings section of this study.
Getting permission to conduct a study involves more than getting an official blessing
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). It involves laying the groundwork for good rapport with those with
whom the researcher will be spending time, so that they will accept her, and what she is doing.

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Therefore, the researcher made the students feel that they had a significant hand in helping the
research by treating them with respect, respecting their time and their input, providing them with a
gift card, and by thanking them often and on several occasions (Bogdan et al., 2007). In addition,
when trying to gain access, it is a good idea to play down one’s status rather than flaunt it, since
high-status individuals make most people feel guarded around them (Bogdan et al., 2007). The
researcher received consent and gained access from the Dean of Science, Engineering, and
Mathematics (SEM), the President of the college, the Executive Vice President, who oversees the
Institutional Research component on the ABC College campus, and the Institutional Research
Director, who is the IRB approval contact person and the individual, who provided the researcher
with data and support.
Interviews

Interviewing is important because it gives researchers access to the observations of others.
Through interviewing, one can learn about places one has not gone or cannot go and about settings
in which one has not lived (Weiss, 1994). In fact, one cannot observe everything, such as feelings,
thoughts, intentions, and how people have organized the world and the meanings they attach to
what goes on in the world (Patton, 2002). The purpose and importance of interviewing, then, is to
allow the researcher to enter into the other person’s perspective and become privy to the most
significant events of his/her life (Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). Therefore, being respectful,
nonjudgmental, and non-threatening to participants is a positive and productive way for
interviewers to establish a good rapport with their participants (Merriman, 2009). One-on-one
interviews helped the researcher obtain the most accurate information regarding African American
STEM students’ individual thoughts, feelings, and perspectives of foreseen and unforeseen
obstacles as well as their reflective practice strategies implemented to overcome them. Their

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responses directly informed the research questions. The researcher conducted the interview
sessions and focus group with the utmost professionalism, respect, and courtesy for her
participants.
From the nine participants selected, the researcher interviewed all nine participants
individually (including the focus group participants). The researcher conducted the interviews and
focus group within a three-week period on weekday afternoons and evenings, when the campus
was less busy. The researcher selected times based on the interviewees’ availability and when she
was not working. These selected times afforded the researcher the opportunity to dress casually,
which created a more relaxed atmosphere. In addition, the researcher met with the students in
either a lounge area or a private classroom on the ABC College campus, which provided quiet
spaces without interruptions. As an interviewer, one must maintain awareness of how the
interview is flowing, how the interviewee is reacting to the questions, and what feedback is
appropriate to maintain the flow of communication (Patton, 2002). During the interview, the
researcher’s primary focus was to listen attentively (while jotting down notes), and provide
appropriate verbal and nonverbal feedback to her interviewee(s). The length of each interview and
the focus group was approximately 40 minutes to one hour, respectively. Within twenty-four
hours, the researcher listened to the recordings and perused her transcripts.
In order to transcribe the interviews and focus group, the researcher used an external
source, Rev.com. However, prior to receiving the external transcripts, the researcher replayed her
recordings first and then reviewed all transcripts for accuracy as soon as she received them. The
researcher benefitted from using transcripts when using them in conjunction with interviewing
because the document analysis and interviews substantiated the findings (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam, 2009).

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Focus Group
As a method of qualitative research data collection, a focus group is an interview on a topic
with a group of people who have knowledge of the topic. As with individual interviewing, the
researcher should use purposeful sampling in order to include people who know the most about
the topic. The object of a focus group is to get high-quality data in a social context where people
can consider their own views in the context of the views of others (Merriman, 2009; Patton, 2002).
The focus group assisted the researcher in obtaining accurate information regarding African
American STEM students’ thoughts, feelings, and perspectives as a collective group. The group
dynamics empowered them to speak up about their experiences. Because of their small number,
these students found consolation, support, and closeness within the group. The group provided a
sense of companionship on their educational journey and created an atmosphere for forging new
friendships. Their responses during this focus group directly informed the research questions
concerning their ability to identify obstacles they have encountered and the reflective practices
they have employed to address and overcome them. The researcher conducted one focus group
with four participants in the group. From the focus group, the researcher also interviewed all four
participants on a one-on-one basis. The researcher selected all four participants in the focus group
to interview individually because each of them provided such intriguing responses during the
group session that the researcher genuinely wanted to ask follow-up questions to all of them. As
the interviewer, before meeting with the focus group, the researcher made certain that she re-
familiarized herself with group processes/dynamics as well as with the range of possible roles she
may play as a moderator (Merriman, 2009; Patton, 2002). Using a focus group for this study
yielded critical, informative data that assisted the researcher in answering the research questions
effectively.

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Artifacts

The researcher viewed participants’ transcripts in order to evaluate their progress and
academic status as well as to confirm their birthdate, years in college, and level of coursework
each started once their tenure began at ABC College. The researcher received each student’s
permission and signature to view his/her transcripts for the use of this study. The researcher used
the students’ transcripts effectively when the information helped to support other findings she
obtained from the focus group or individual interviews. In addition, the researcher utilized
STEM
2
program data that complemented the information she already received from interviews and
the focus group when it helped to answer the research questions.
Data Analysis

Although qualitative researchers can never capture an objective “truth” or “reality,” there
are a number of strategies a qualitative researcher can use to increase the “credibility” of one’s
findings (Merriam, 2009). The first strategy the researcher used to secure internal validity in her
study was triangulation (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). Information that the researcher
gathered from the interviewees corroborated with information she gathered during the focus
group. In addition, the literature that the researcher discovered through the literature review also
supported both interviewees’ comments and data she obtained through the focus group. From
these discoveries, the researcher sorted out the data via emergent themes that she derived using
open and analytic coding. These emergent themes/categories were the basis for the findings
section in Chapter 4 of this study. To further ensure credibility and trustworthiness, the researcher
employed three other strategies: reflexivity, collecting rich data, and searching for discrepant data.
The researcher employed reflexivity as she reflected critically on her role and influence as a
researcher. Collecting rich data that provided a full revealing picture of what was actually taking

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place was critical. Lastly, the researcher searched for discrepant data, to make sure that she was
not ignoring critical findings just to satisfy her own biases (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). The
researcher also used triangulation to establish consistency and dependability as well as reliability
(Merriam, 2009).
Ethics
By in large, the validity and reliability of a study rely and depend on the ethics of the
investigator (Merriam, 2009). According to Patton (2002), the credibility of the researcher is
dependent upon training, experience, record of accomplishment, status, and presentation of self.
In addition, credibility involves “intellectual rigor, professional integrity, and methodological
competence because as in all research, one has to trust that the study was carried out with the
utmost integrity and supports the ethical stance of the researcher” (Patton, 2002). With this in
mind, the researcher made certain to strictly follow the process for explaining the rationale and
methods of the study to each participant as well as obtained consent from all the participants. In
addition, she adhered to whatever standards she promised to uphold. For example, the researcher
promised the students that she would maintain confidentiality with what they shared with her in
the interviews and the focus group. She also responded in a non-judgmental manner to whatever
information they provided to her in either setting. According to Glesne (2011), one’s first
responsibility as a researcher is to one’s research respondents, those persons whose cooperation is
the basis of one’s research. Furthermore, Merriam (2009) purports that part of ensuring for the
trustworthiness of a study, otherwise known as its credibility, is that the researcher himself/herself
is trustworthy in carrying out the study in an ethical manner.

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Researcher Positionality
As an African American educator/counselor, it was extremely easy and natural for the
researcher to immediately empathize and build a positive rapport with her participants. She had a
sincere sense of gratitude towards them for allowing her to enter their personal lives and for
sharing their individual experiences with her. As a result, the researcher was reassured that she
chose the correct method of analysis in qualitative research. The rich variation in human
experiences truly fascinated the researcher and her deep and genuine interest in learning about
people was very important to the success of this study (Patton, 2002). However, the researcher
was also reminded of how important her role was as a researcher to this study: one responsible for
crafting thought-provoking, relevant interview questions, and maintaining enough distance that
enabled her to explore, but not share, assumptions (Merriam, 2009).

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
In this chapter, the researcher provides the analyzed data, which was a result of conducting
this study. The primary goal of this study was to answer the following research questions:
1. How do African American community college STEM students describe their
experiences regarding equity and access as they pursue their goal to transfer to a
four-year university to major in STEM?
2. How do African American community college STEM students use reflective
practices (i.e., metacognition, motivation, self-regulation, attribution, self-efficacy)
to persist and navigate their journeys to transfer to a four-year university to major
in STEM?
Site and Participants
The researcher purposefully selected all participants for this study. The criteria for
participation was that all students must: self-identify as African American; have attended ABC
College in the past spring 2016 semester; declared STEM as a major/course of study; have
successfully completed STEM coursework; and intend to transfer to a 4-year university to major
in STEM.
With the assistance of the ABC College Science, Engineering, and Math (SEM) faculty
and other counseling faculty, the researcher identified twelve potential African American STEM
students to contact for participation in the study. Out of the twelve potential candidates, nine
students were interested and agreed to participate. The group of nine students consisted of three
individuals whom the researcher knew from previous semesters, two individuals whom the
researcher met once and asked if they would be interested in participating in the study, and four
individuals who were unknown to the researcher. For this qualitative study the researcher

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conducted one focus group (with four participants); conducted nine individual, semi-structured
interviews (including the four participants from the focus group); and collected and analyzed
artifacts (transcripts) as necessary. The focus group and nine individual interviews all took place
in either a lounge area or a private classroom on ABC College’s campus.
The researcher selected the site for the data collection based on convenience. This ABC
College site is the current place of employment for the researcher. Established in 1966, ABC
College is the smaller of two colleges within a two-college district located in a county in Southern
California. The student population is approximately 16,600. The demographics are: Hispanic –
47.8%, White – 21%, Asian/Pacific Islander – 20%, Filipino – 5%, African American/Black – 4%,
and Other – .2%. Due to its large percentage of Latino students, ABC College has the designation
of a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI). The overall percentage of male students attending ABC
College is 46% and the overall percentage of female students is 54%.
Demographics of Interview Participants
In this study, in order to maintain confidentiality, the participants are identified as Student
#1 through #9. In Table 1, the researcher identified the participants’ relevant characteristics (i.e.
age, gender, years in college, first-generation status). The researcher will highlight, elaborate, and
discuss the relevancy of these characteristics further in the upcoming paragraphs of this section.
In addition, the researcher obtained permission from each participant to utilize his/her transcripts
for this study. The researcher compiled the data in Table 1 from the information obtained from
the students’ transcripts, which also served as validation for student testimonials and self-reported
data regarding their progress.

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Table 1:
Demographics of Interview Participants
Participants Relevant
Characteristic
1: Gender,
Age, & Years
Completed in
College
Relevant
Characteristic
2: First
Generation
College
Student Status
Relevant
Characteristic
3: Generation
in the U.S.A.
Other Relevant
Characteristics:
Major
Student #1 *
Female, 19, 1
yr.

Yes
3
rd
or more Computer Game
Science
Student #2 Male, 20, 2 yrs.

No
2
nd
Nursing (BSN)
Student #3 Male, 20, 2 yrs.

No
2
nd

Architectural
Engineering
Student #4 Male, 24, 5 yrs. No 2
nd

Mechanical
Engineering
Student #5 Female, 20, 2.5
yrs.
No 1
st

Computer
Science
Student #6 * Male, 30, 3 yrs. Yes 3
rd
or more Computer
Science
Student #7 Male, 21, 3 yrs. Yes 1
st

Computer
Science
Student #8 * Female, 19, 2
yrs.
No 3
rd
or more Nursing (BSN)
Student #9 * Male, 18, 1 yr. No 1
st

Chemical
Engineering
Note. Students #1, #6, #8, & #9 participated in the focus group.
Themes and Subthemes of Equity and Access
To elaborate on how African American community college STEM students describe their
experiences regarding equity and access as they pursue their goal to transfer to a four-year
university to major in STEM, the researcher discovered and highlighted the following themes and
subthemes: Obstacles, Support Systems, and Reflective Practices and Strategies.
Theme #1 Obstacles
Students identified roadblocks to accomplishing their goals and achieving success.
Subtheme #1: Insufficient high school preparation – More than half of the participants were

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ineligible to begin with college level math upon entrance to ABC College. Subtheme #2:
Difficult subject matter/instructor – Students’ lack of study skills and limited math skills made
STEM courses extremely challenging. Subtheme #3: Lack of reflective practice skills – Students’
inability to use proper time management skills and other mental and physical organizational skills
created barriers to their initial success. Subtheme #4: Work obligations and sport commitments –
Students who must work in order to survive or who have committed to participating in
intercollegiate athletics discussed the challenges of maintaining a healthy balance between work
and school or sports and school. Subtheme #5: Lack of African American peers and faculty role
models – Students discussed the discomfort they felt being the only African American person (no
other peer or faculty member) in most of their STEM courses.
Insufficient high school preparation
One major roadblock that impedes the success of African American community college
STEM students is the lack of preparedness for college level work, especially in math and science
courses. This situation has several contributing factors including K-12 preparation. This lack of
preparation poses a challenge for students even before they enter the community college
environment. When asking participants during the focus group about their preparation and
exposure to science throughout K-12, Student #6 shared:
No, none whatsoever. In the second, third grade I say that was when I was mostly exposed
to science and stuff like that. I went to a few things and surprisingly I did more
complicated things in second and third grade as far as electronics. I took an Electronics
class in high school. But, [just as] she was saying (pointing to Student #8 across the table)
it's just like, [all the teacher would say is] “Get out your notes.” I did nothing whatsoever,
the teacher mostly talked about all his fantasies or something or another. I did more hands

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on, more complicated things in elementary school as an after school project opposed to the
whole time I've been in [high] school. The things that I was into as far as K-12 is
[concerned] and the things that would spark my interest were never sparked whatsoever
which is probably why I've always, up until I got to ABC College, I never did good in
school to be honest.
During her individual interview, Student #8 discussed her experiences regarding her high school
science, learning environment:
[My high school science class], it wasn't exciting classes to go to. I would think that would
have turned down my interest in it, but it didn't. [The teachers were] good people, but I
wasn't too fond of their teaching at all. They were just the type of teachers to find
something ... I wasn't a bad student, never suspended or anything like that…to kick you out
of the class for no reason. It wasn't fun to go to class. It was just like, let me just go in
class, maybe go on my phone for a moment. It was one of those classes.
Student #2 expressed a similar sentiment regarding his high school learning environment in
general:
It's just, [that] in high school, I feel like there's not ... they don't really cater to the students.
They kind of just say, “This is what you need to do,” and they'll just send you off to the
next grade, send you out to the next grade. They don't really try to...they don't really let
you find your passion. That's why some people out of high school are just like, “I'm not
going to college,” because they feel like it's going to be exactly the same thing as high
school.

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Whether students experienced disinterest, boredom, or felt unchallenged in high school, their lack
of preparation manifested itself the same when they attempted to complete college level work. In
other words, they encountered significant challenges when enrolled in STEM courses.
Difficult subject matter/instructor
As a consequence of being underprepared and ineligible to enroll in college level
coursework, African American STEM students were sometimes forced to begin with remedial
math classes, which delayed their entry into science courses. Or they withdrew from a difficult
course or received a sub-standard grade with the plan to retake the course the following semester.
Any of these scenarios can be a discouraging setback, which requires additional time, money, and
effort in order to stay on track to meet one’s goal to transfer to a four-year university to major in
STEM. An example of this was captured in Student #4’s response:
I was very negligent in high school, regrettably. I had pretty much skated through. I
would have to say that I was probably not [prepared]. Yeah, I wasn't too prepared. I pretty
much had to start from scratch. A lot of the concepts are very abstract. I would come
across a lot of difficult problems and questions. I think it's just natural. That's what makes
the STEM courses so difficult. It is that they're going to be challenging because they want
to invoke a greater thought process. That's just kind of how it happens.
Similarly, Student #8 shared how she struggled with difficult concepts in her chemistry course and
with her instructor’s teaching style:
I think Chemistry 107 [was my most difficult STEM class]. I ended up dropping it. This
time I was really putting effort in it, but it was kind of hard. My mom always told me to
only speak for myself, but a lot of students dropped out of this one professor's class. To the
point it was not even a lot of students in there. I couldn't really understand her way of

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teaching. I'm more of a visual learner and I like when teachers help me hands-on. I know
they're busy and stuff, but she just expected me to know it versus, [saying] “Maybe you
can do it this way.” I met with her once. She was still the same and I was like, “I'm not
meeting with her no more.” I just didn't like her teaching style. I tried to do extra reading,
but I still wasn't getting it. Overall, her lectures and her quizzes, they were a bit hard.
Those are kind of difficult. When you think you studied really hard and you can still end
up getting a D or a C on the quiz, you're like, “Something's not working.” Some of my
teammates are really smart and they already passed the class and I showed them the way
that she's teaching me and they're like, “That's super hard. Let me show you this way.” It
was kind of too late to try to get my grade back up so I ended up dropping the class.
These types of reoccurring setbacks can be devastating for African American STEM students, who
may have limited self-efficacy from high school. Without intervention, many of these students do
not persist in STEM.
Lack of reflective practice skills
Moreover, many participants admitted that as a result of their lack of preparation from K-
12 and their ill preparedness to complete college-level work initially, their confidence and self-
efficacy waned. They realized that sometimes they were unmotivated and the ability to manage
their time and avoid procrastination was non-existent. Entering college, they lacked self-reflection
skills, which made adjusting to the rigors of STEM coursework more challenging. Several
participants expressed instances of this dilemma. Student #7 said,
No, I did not. I actually did not have really good time management skills. During ninth
and tenth grade, when I was in Ethiopia, I had a lot of friends. It was kind of hard to focus.

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I get distracted very easily. Here too [at ABC College], I was kind of getting distracted,
but I was like, “whoa, that's not what I'm here for!”
In the same way, Student #6 commented:
Before even coming here, things were a little shaky because of work. It was not too hard
or anything like that. [However], it was that I didn't understand time management. I
understood the word from what the definition was but I didn't understand how to apply it in
developing my own course of action or routine sort to say.
Likewise, Student #9 mentioned his difficulties with procrastination in both the focus group and in
his personal interview:
It wasn't the math course that challenged me. It was the amount of homework and work. I
normally procrastinate so [the instructor] used a bunch of work [toward my grade] so I had
an F with my homework. The class was okay, but I wasn't too dedicated. I procrastinate
too much, especially in chemistry class and math because [both instructors] give me a
bunch of work to do and I always push it to the last day. It hurt my grades so I'm working
on that right now.
Student #1 admitted to her lack of time management skills while Student #8 acknowledged her
procrastination tendencies:
I’ve always had poor time management skills. My first semester at ABC College I took
the suggested counseling class. [The instructor] was trying to help us with time
management skills and I heard him and I was organizing it. I'm a really organized person.
[However], it lasted like a month. You just have to stay consistent with it but it's really
hard to stay consistent.

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My procrastinating is definitely [an obstacle]. I've been having it since middle school.
Procrastination goes in with [allowing more] studying time. Beside that, that's the only
thing I would say that's an obstacle so far.
Student #5 also shared:
Towards the end of the material, the material was hard. Well, it was new. It was hard for
me to understand some of it. Again, I feel like even if the material is hard, you still have to
spend more time and that's what I failed to do, spend more time on studying.
The students realized that it was up to them to learn how to manage their time more effectively. In
the later sections of this study, the researcher will discuss how each student developed strategies
and utilized reflective practices to regulate their time better.
Work obligations and sport commitments
In contrast to the first three obstacles listed above, the next two barriers represent factors
that are external to the African American community college STEM student. For example,
previously mentioned impediments were lack of college-level preparation and lack of time
management skills, which are elements that students must find a way to rectify internally.
However, the necessity to work and the commitment to participate in intercollegiate athletics are
external factors that can surface as obstacles and distractions for African American students
pursuing STEM majors. These time-consuming activities can detract from the valuable time
necessary to do well in the rigorous coursework required in STEM. Student #6 shared his
testimony:
I would say that in a perfect world I would like to just work like say Monday through like
Sunday. I mean I want to do something like Friday through Sunday or Friday through
Monday and focus [all the rest of] my time on school. I would say if anybody has an

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option, don't overwhelm yourself with like anything. Get a part-time job or no job if
possible and focus on school. I would say that's the biggest blockage [for me]. I think that
if I can just figure out how to get some of my costs down I won’t have to work [so much]
and I can focus on going to school.
Additionally, Student #4 expressed the hardships that work created for him and how quitting his
jobs made a drastic difference:
In that spring where I was taking College Algebra, I was also working 40 plus hours a
week with two jobs and taking 14 units in four courses. I took the online math class
[during that time] and I didn’t put too much effort into it and I ended up having to take it
again in the summer. Then, after the summer, having taken both Trig and College
Algebra, I saw how much studying I needed to do [and I couldn’t]. A huge reason for that
is because I was working a lot. So, I didn't work these past two semesters. I just literally
studied 50 plus hours a week and went to all of the SI [Supplemental Instruction] sessions,
and I've gotten 4.0s in my last two semesters.
Just as work occupies valuable study time, participating in intercollegiate athletics can as well.
Student #3 related his experiences when he was a student athlete:
I played basketball early on at ABC College. That's why I originally came here. I played
basketball for my first year here. I didn't know how rigorous the courses for math were
that I was going to have to take to be an Architectural Engineer. So, for one entire year
here I didn't take any math. I thought I was going to have enough time. So, that's going to
keep me here longer now, because I'm going to have to take all those math classes, and you
have to take one then the next one, you can't take two in one semester. It was extremely
difficult [to balance basketball and school]. We'd have to get our classes done by, I think it

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was 3:00 PM, and then, right after class was done, we'd watch film, then we'd go to the
weight room, then we'd go to practice, and by the time it was done, it was 8:00 PM,
sometimes 9:00 PM [then] I'd go home. If I was in these math [and sciences] classes that
I'm in now, like physics and chemistry, it would be almost, I don't want to say impossible,
but it would be really, really difficult.
On the other hand, Student #8, a female student athlete, believed that her involvement in school
athletics provided structure for studying and kept her accountable for getting her work done. She
shared:
We have study hall hours that we're required to do. We have to get the paper and turn it in.
When you're in study hall we have to write down like, "Studying math," we have to say
exactly what we're studying for. Studying chapter two on equations, blah, blah, blah. That
really helped [me] out a lot. Usually on a typical day, I'll go to class and I'll go to study hall
and I'll study in study hall and get homework done.
Since STEM coursework requires a significant amount of time and dedication, work and sports
can be unwanted distractions for the African American STEM student.
Lack of African American peers or faculty role models
During the focus group, an obstacle that all of the students agreed existed was the shortage
of African American STEM peers and faculty role models at ABC College. Student # 9
articulated:
The one thing I don't like about [this] school is for most of my classes in the STEM I rarely
see black people. I rarely see black people in class and I don't feel comfortable if I'm the
only black person or just one or two. We should be more, that's what I'm thinking. I don't
like that.

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Student #6 chimed in:
Yes, that’s true…the higher up I go in these technical classes, I am the only one [African
American student] out of forty!”
While agreeing with the others, Student #1 added a different perspective:
It bothers me [too], but it also motivates me at the same time hoping I could inspire
someone else, another African American student to become interested [in STEM].
Student #8 added:
I’m not uncomfortable, but I would like to see more African Americans in more of my
classes because most of the time I'm the only one or two in there.
Not seeing others that resemble them can create discomfort and can cause self-doubt. One may
begin to question, “Do I belong here? Am I in over my head? Maybe this isn’t the place for me!”
The following account shared by Student #2 during his individual interview accurately
summarized the sentiments articulated by most of the participants in the focus group:
When I went to a CNA [Certified Nursing Assistance] program, me and my sister were the
only black people there. Everybody else was white. Everybody was [either] white or
Asian. I was just like [saying to myself], “Man, do you....” We were just sitting in the
classroom, waiting for our instructor. I was just like, “I don't know if this is for me.” Then
our instructor comes in, and she's black! She has a BSN and everything! She's getting her
Master's at USC [too]! She's all laughing, she's like, “Oh, what's up, y'all?” I'm just like,
“Thank you God!”
The reality for most African American community college STEM students is that while attending
college in Orange County they will encounter very few African American STEM peers and faculty
role models throughout their educational journey. Therefore, any opportunities to interact with

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like peers and faculty serve as reassurance and confirmation to African American STEM students
that they too belong in higher education, especially in the STEM majors. In addition, the presence
of these individuals can instill confidence and provide extrinsic motivation for African American
STEM students to succeed.
In answering Research Question #1, obstacles are common to all students pursuing degrees
in higher education. However, for African American community college STEM students, the
pursuit of a STEM degree presents unique challenges. These challenges have implications
regarding their perceptions on equity and access. For example, their lack of high school
preparation, their need to remediate math classes once enrolled in college, the absence of positive
African American peers and faculty role models, and the requirement to work outside of school,
all put undue pressure and daunting roadblocks in front of them. If institutions are unaware or
unconcerned about these challenges, the barriers will continue to exist and the number of African
American students pursuing STEM will remain drastically low. As a result, African American
STEM students will perceive their experiences regarding equity and access unfavorably.
In the next section the researcher will discuss the various support systems that African
American STEM students depend on to offset these obstacles they encounter while pursuing a
major in STEM.
Theme #2 Support Systems
Each participant relied on supportive people and/or programs to offset and overcompensate
for the obstacles they encountered throughout their academic journey. Subtheme #1: College
professors – Students admitted to the enormous influence and effect that their college instructors
had on their interest and success. Subtheme #2: Peers – Students acknowledged the importance
of having a supportive cohort of like-minded peers surrounding them. Subtheme #3: Parents and

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Family members – Students were forthright about how their parents or someone in their family
had continuously motivated them to pursue and persist in STEM. Subtheme #4: Role models and
Mentors – Students gained so much confidence and reassurance from meeting and engaging with
faculty, more experienced peers, and/or other professionals that looked like them. Subtheme #5:
Programs – Every student participant recalled a supportive program or organization to which they
belonged that added to their positive experience at ABC College.
College professors
In higher education, college professors play a significant role in students’ academic
achievement. Therefore, students readily bestow accolades on those instructors who are genuinely
enthusiastic about their subject matter and who take a personal interest in their learning and
success. It is no secret that students typically reward their college professors, who expect the most
from them, with exceptional effort. During the focus group and in individual interviews, when the
researcher asked the student(s) what was it about ABC College that made them feel comfortable
(feel like they belonged), most students mentioned their professors. For example, Student #1
voiced:
The professors are really helpful, responsive to emails, and they're really into what they're
teaching so that helps too. Are there when you need them, and if you [need] clarification
on stuff, they are willing to take that extra [step to] help you understand. [For example],
calculus isn't familiar at all. [I’m doing well]…it is just the professor. He does really good
lecture notes, and if I don't understand it, I ask him.
Student #6 also commented:
Probably the groups and the people, even the professors…I haven't met anyone that I could
say I don't like. It's very open and friendly [here].

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Student #2 mentioned:
Yeah. I was very fortunate to have really good professors, and they're very understanding
of my situations. They've helped me a lot. I think my statistics professor and my anatomy
professor, they were always, they answered all my emails. I had sent out so many emails, I
really don't even know how many. They answered all my emails. They were very patient
with me. I was always asking them questions, and ... just having professors. All the
professors at this school have been very good to me.
Sharing similar beliefs, Student #7 emphasized:
Well, I'd say, like the teachers, they played a big role, honestly, for me. Teachers are really
important. Teachers are very helpful. I had a very difficult time learning from [certain]
classes. So, I had a lot of great teachers, honestly, and I'd invite real difficult teachers too.
That was kind of it.
Professors have the ability to cultivate confidence and self-efficacy in African American STEM
students. First, the excitement they display for their subject matter can be contagious for these
students. Second, college students are motivated to learn and they are merely seeking reassurance.
Especially in unfamiliar territory, African American STEM students want to make sure that they
are on the right track.
Peers
Just as professors motivate African American STEM students to persist, like-minded peers
can provide similar encouragement and support that most African American students desire on
their journey through STEM. For instance, Student #5 declared:

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Exactly. I just study more, and spend more time with STEM students because then I have
this motivation. We're all in the same field and it's so encouraging. The friends that I have
are also my mentors and they motivate me. I would like to be like that, too.
Likewise, Student #4 disclosed:
I think being in the STEM
2
program is a huge thing. Having my closest friends here ...
Like, when I started here, before I joined the STEM
2
program, I didn't really talk to
anyone. I was very reserved. I wouldn't say I was as motivated [either], but having friends
who are taking the same classes I am and the same major certainly helps. Because times
will get difficult, we'll come across problems, and tests come or finals come and we get
nervous, and just having a strong contingent of friends in the same field certainly helps.
The camaraderie shared with peers provides a sense of belonging and comfort to African
American STEM students. Many times they perceive these individuals as extended family or their
adopted family away from home. In particular, for those who are first-generation college students,
peers or mentors can serve as a primary sounding board for all concerns regarding school.
Parents and family members
Whether or not African American STEM students’ parents ever attended college, their
involvement remains high and is vitally important and an essential source of motivation and
support. Student #2 conveyed his feelings:
Well, first of all, my parents, they've always been one of my main driving forces. Because
my parents are foreign, I feel like I owe it to them, because they came all this way. So, I
feel like I owe it to them [to do well in school].

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Similarly, Student #3 contended that his parents were his primary academic support:
The most clear would probably be my mother and father, but specifically my mother. Ever
since I was little, she's always pushed us to ... Because she knows we love to play
basketball, but ... I have two brothers, that's why I say “us,” but she's always wanted us to
really focus on school, because she's always said, “[when playing] basketball you can get
injured, and then you can't play anymore. Then what are you going to do? School is
something that no one can take away from you.” She's always really pushed us to succeed
since elementary school. [Before returning to school to get her B.A. degree], my mom
worked a graveyard shift for twenty-one years at Von’s. She'd always be real tired, and
she'd always sleep during the day. So, she missed a lot of things. She always just told me,
my brothers and I, that this isn't something you want to do.
Several students who identified as first- or second-generation citizens in the United States alluded
to the support and responsibility they accepted from extended family both inside and outside of the
country. Each of them spoke with pride and self-assuredness regarding their expanded support
system. However, they also expressed a sense of obligation to those who were not able to
capitalize on some of the same opportunities that they had. Student #9 divulged:
A lot of people depend on me, family members back in Nigeria, so a group, and I don't
want to let anyone down. I'm pretty confident because I have people backing me up right
now. So, the chances of me falling right now is less because even though I do fall I know
that [I have] people who can pick me up and also help me keep on going.
In addition, Student #9, Student #4, and Student #5 each had a father that was currently employed
as an engineer. Therefore, they each had a family member that could serve as both a support
system and a positive role model. However, those African American STEM students who are

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first-generation college students or whose parents are not employed in a STEM field can truly
benefit from connecting with a STEM mentor or role model.
Role models and mentors
African American STEM students benefit greatly when they are able to make connections
with positive role models/mentors that resemble them. For instance, these individuals can be a
source of knowledge, support, confidence, networking, and friendship to African American STEM
students. As an example, Student #2 recalled:
When I went to [a student conference in] Atlanta, I met this guy, who was another black
student. He was an engineering major, and I think he got accepted to the University of
Florida or something.
I was just impressed, because usually a lot of people in the South,
especially people of color would rather go to like an HBCU. Then, he chose to go, he
chose to be an engineering major, first of all, and [then] he went to the University of
Florida. I'm just like, “Man, this is ...[great].” “Yeah, but I can do this [too], man.”
Even though Student #4’s father is an engineer, he believed that forging relationships with other
professionals in the field was still important and quite beneficial as well. He reflected on his
encounter with an extremely supportive mentor:
There's a gentleman I met [when I was] taking my intern engineering course. He came and
spoke to our class. He was a Mechanical Engineer as well. He went to UCI. He works for
an oil company in Long Beach, and he's African-American as well. So, the day he came in
he's like, “I have no problems answering questions for people.” So, he gave us his email
and I've been keeping in touch with him for the past year. I mean I had a lot of questions.
Like, “what difficulties had you come across? Were there times where you were thinking
about why you chose….” Because he told me he started as biomedical and then [switched]

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to mechanical. So, I was asking him his thought process through that and what he thought
about research. [I asked him] just a bunch of different questions. He's very
accommodating.
For African American STEM students, finding a mentor or role model who is African
American can be extremely rewarding. However, in Orange County, there may not be many
available. For this reason, African American STEM students can benefit from various student
services on campus whose program’s mission is to serve students in need.
Programs
Institutions that design programs to specifically serve underrepresented students provide
viable opportunities for African American STEM students. These programs house individuals
such as counselors, tutors, peer and faculty mentors as well as additional staff, who are eager to
support African American STEM students on their journey. Several African American STEM
participants mentioned how grateful they were to belong to certain programs/organizations.
Student #8, a female student athlete, admitted:
[My support system is] my coach and teammates. That's a given. I'm also part of EOPS
[Extended Opportunity Program & Services] and that's another thing that makes me feel
really comfortable, my counselor [there]. He makes me feel really comfortable and wants
me to strive to get out of here.
Student #5 spoke about a specific benefit offered by the STEM
2
program that she believed was
truly worthwhile:
The STEM
2
program provides the STEM study lounge, where sometimes you meet people
who are in the higher level class [es], and they can help you. You can also help other
students, too.

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Aside from the STEM study lounge, Student #3, Student #4, and Student #6 all concurred that the
STEM
2
program offered a variety of FREE services that were especially beneficial to students
such as: STEM counseling, summer research opportunities, workshops featuring professional
STEM guest speakers, Northern California university bus tours, field trips to STEM labs, local
university campus visits, and book service. Research suggests that African American students in
STEM have greater retention and success rates if they are part of a smaller community within the
college setting. Some additional programs mentioned by participants were Supplemental
Instruction (SI) and Legacy, a transfer preparation program for African American students.
In response to Research Question #1, even though obstacles for African American STEM
students remain prevalent, once they took into account the support systems that the institution
established to offset these barriers, they were able to assume a more global perspective about their
journey and a more favorable perception regarding equity and access. In other words, if African
American STEM students only contemplated the hurdles and impediments they faced without
taking into consideration all of their other support systems (professors, peers, parents, role
models/mentors, and the programs designed to overcompensate for these obstructions), their
perceptions on equity and access would be negatively skewed. However, when factoring in all of
the support systems that they utilized, they realized that a more equitable and accessible
educational landscape appeared before them. According to Ghaye (2010), this type of reflection
is called appreciative reflection. Individuals who engage in participatory and appreciative action
and reflection (PAAR) focus on the best of what is currently experienced seek out the root causes
of this, then design and implement actions that amplify and sustain this success.

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In addition to these support systems, the following section will describe how African
American STEM students used reflective practices to benefit and progress academically in pursuit
of their STEM goals.
Theme #3 Reflective Practices and Strategies
In order to describe how African American community college STEM students used
reflective practices (i.e., metacognition, motivation, self-regulation, attribution, self-efficacy) to
persist and navigate their journeys to transfer to a four-year university to major in STEM, the
researcher exposed and categorized the following theme of reflective strategies that students
implemented. Strategy #1: Motivation – Because of its challenging nature, each student
participant realized that they had to embody an intrinsic desire to pursue STEM. Strategy #2:
Self-regulation – The ability to say “No” to common distractions and temptations was a
prerequisite for every participant to be successful in STEM. Strategy #3: Attribution – Students
believed that the amount of effort and time that they dedicated to their studies directly correlated
to their success in STEM coursework. Strategy #4: Metacognition – Students’ realization about
how they learn best and what study strategies worked ideally for them benefitted their successful
progress in STEM. Strategy #5: Self-efficacy – Students confessed that all of their little successes
that they had experienced along the way throughout their journey convinced them that they
belonged in STEM.
Since higher education is not compulsory, most college students attend because they want
to be there. However, what some college students fail to realize is that being an independent
learner requires individual skills such as reflective practices in order to maintain satisfactory
progress. If students enter the college environment without possessing these skills, their learning
will be challenged. The majority of students enrolling in college are motivated individuals;

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however, sustaining their motivation is where many students falter. Both intrinsic (within one’s
self i.e., desire) and extrinsic (outside of one’s self i.e., money) motivating factors can encourage
student learning. However, research has shown that intrinsic motivation correlates more
effectively to learning, achievement, and self-efficacy.
Motivation
Although the participants in this study provided several intrinsic (i.e., love for sciences) as
well as extrinsic (i.e., good paying job) reasons for pursuing STEM, there was a common
theme/thread that motivated everyone: making a positive difference in society. For example,
Student #5 explained:
Just knowing that you can do something, creating something that is going to help people.
The process of creating it involves science and it's just awesome. There's so many
stereotypes, too. You don't expect a lot of African Americans in the STEM field but it's
like, “Oh, well. You got to do it.” You also got to motivate people, I think, maybe friends,
or my siblings, for example. I know my brother also wants to go into computer science or
an engineering thing, so there's an influence that you play. I think it's good and it's a
motivation to me.
Student #1 also shared her particular perspective:
I play a lot of video games, and I’ve experienced things first hand of being a minority in
video games. Not just with [what] the game is portraying but being the actual player [too].
There are a lot less girls. I would like to see more girls playing video games. I think the
reason [they are not] is because girls are so sexualized in video games and girls don't
appeal to that, obviously. The numbers are changing. More girls are playing it, slowly but
surely. I think we need to shift the focus to include them on [designing] these hardcore

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games that a lot of guys play so it will be a little bit more balanced and people won't be so
hostile. [Also], people [will] have a correct representation of women.
Realizing that African American STEM students are in the minority, Student #2 would also like to
see that changed:
My motivation, well, one thing I noticed is that there's not a lot of African Americans in
STEM. That's one huge thing, and in my [anatomy] class, there's only me and another
black girl and that's it, and that was the same thing in my statistic... I don't know…I [think
I] was the only black person in my statistics class. So yeah, that was one big motivation,
just to see if I could do this, [to] represent. Yeah. [I think it’s] because there's always that
stigma of black people, they're not really into sciences, and ... I've always wanted to ... I'm
kind of like, I'm very competitive, and if something is like, if I wanted to get something,
I'm always game to get it if it was like a challenge.
The African American STEM participants learned quickly that in order to succeed academically in
science and math classes, they had to become self-starters and highly motivated to complete the
work because the concepts were quite difficult. Many shared how their motivation led them to
change their study habits, avoid distractions, and embrace the idea of delayed gratification.
Self-Regulation
Self-regulation, or the activation of sustaining behaviors that will systematically reach
one’s goal, became the cornerstone to each STEM student’s success. They acknowledged that
adopting a regimented study schedule and saying ‘No’ to many familiar comforts became status
quo. Student #6 related that since he had to work full-time, his preparation time was extremely
important to him:

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The next [class] up is Trig and all of that. I'm [already] memorizing the unit circle. I
actually have my index cards to thoroughly memorize it so that when I'm asked the
question when I'm there [in class], I can just know [it] like, “Oh this is the one…Oh this is
whatever….” I study in advance, but then I still have to pay attention to the professor. I
have to understand what he's saying. I could go online and look at a thousand different
ways to do it wrong. You know what I mean? I have to pay attention. Especially in the
last math class I went to. It was extremely challenging. It was so much.
Student #8, a female student athlete, described her routine as prescribed to her by her coaches:
Our coaches put us on study hall hours and calendars [that] we have to turn in every week
to show what time we're studying and what specifically we're studying. [We have] to show
them proof that we're doing it. We [have] a really successful basketball program. We've
won the league this past [season], but they're really serious about our education [too].
They want us to get out of here and do something with ourselves. That's one thing that I've
learned with them, time management with calendars and figure out study sessions instead
of procrastinating like, “Oh, I can do it later.” “No, you need to do it now.”
The acceptance of what he had to sacrifice in order to be successful was clear in Student #4’s
declaration:
I just [have] to keep working hard. It's not going to happen any other way. I have to take a
huge hit. I can't go out and have fun over the weekend. I can't go and buy a bunch of
clothes. I might have to take a hit financially, but I think in the long run it's going to be
more beneficial. I was getting financial aid, so I was able to get the necessities taken care,
[for example], get my car insurance, phone, and gas, everything, all of that taken care of.
If I can show a little futility… [I’ll be okay].

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Students closely align their attributions or perceived causes of outcomes with their motivation and
self-regulation. Once a student acknowledges control over his/her own destiny, many times
his/her motivation and self-regulatory behaviors increase in order to meet one’s goals.
Attribution
It was apparent from their responses that the African American STEM participants were
fully aware that the success they achieved was a result of their hard work and tireless effort.
However, most of them acknowledged that their success was also a by-product of the support
provided from other important people in their lives. Therefore, aside from attributing their
successes and motivation inwardly, they recognized the importance of the support systems around
them. For instance, Student #3 attested to his familial support:
My confidence… I think my parents have always been real supportive of me in everything
I've done. I think that has always given me confidence, knowing that, even if I don't do as
well as perhaps maybe I wanted to or they would have liked me to, that they'll still love me
the same. That's always given me confidence to do my best and try as hard as I can.
Similarly, Student #4 acknowledged his external support system:
I'd have to say [I attribute my confidence] largely to my mom, my sister, and my friends.
They give me a lot of motivation. It certainly builds my self-esteem and self-confidence.
So, I think that's largely where it comes from. With that, I'm able to constantly remind
myself that I can do it, and to continue to put the work in and not get de-motivated for
anything.
Since metacognition is the actual awareness of how one thinks and processes information, it can
be the catalyst for the other reflective practices: motivation, self-regulation, and attribution.

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Metacognition
If metacognition is the key that unlocks a student’s understanding of how he/she learns
best, then reflection is the vehicle students use to monitor their metacognition, self-regulation, and
all other reflective practices. The moment a student discovers this phenomenon, his/her potential
for success abounds. For this reason, although many of the African American STEM students
were unaware of their metacognition upon entering ABC College, they were pushed to figure it
out in a hurry. Student #2 admitted:
I came into my anatomy class thinking, I'm like, “I don't know if I can do this. I don't
know if I'm going to pass. This is such a new world to me.” I felt like that for the first
couple of weeks. But, after I started to progress through, and I started to study really hard,
I figured that, “Maybe if I could study hard and just keep doing this, maybe I could get
some good grades,” and I eventually did, and.... Yeah, so, I mean, so it wasn't really what I
was being taught, but just the way I was viewing it, coming in.
Student #9 discovered what worked and did not work for him. He shared:
I [know I] don't want to take any online classes for my STEM. [However], anytime I
missed a class, or a SI session, I mostly watched YouTube if I don't get what the instructor
was teaching. I’m mostly watching videos of people completing problems on YouTube or
the like and basically the Internet to just help me. Before the test, I go to my instructor’s
office hours. He normally gave us a pre-test handout, so during SI we solved it. But any
one I can't solve, I go [back] to him. [To stop procrastinating], I started using my phone
more this last spring. [When] I discovered my grades weren’t where I wanted them to be
to transfer to UC Berkeley, I knew I had to change.

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Likewise, Student # 1 became fully aware of strategies that she needed to follow in order to be
successful in math:
Because with math, I have to know every step-by-step…. Why did this go here, and why
did this go here? I'm really bad with shortcuts. If you do the whole step, and then the next
problem you do shortcuts, I have to keep doing that whole step until it clicks with the
shortcut. I'm slower at math compared to other subjects like English.
For a college student, the result of understanding one’s metacognition and ascribing to the use of
the above self-reflective practices of motivation, self-regulation, and attribution is a heightened
self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is the perception of one’s capabilities of learning or performing tasks at a
designated level. The absence of self-efficacy is the root cause for lack of retention in college. In
this study, African American STEM students recognized early on that their confidence was vital to
their success in STEM. Student #7 admitted to having a high level of confidence; however, he
attributed it to his upbringing. He stated:
I do kind of feel like I'm just confident for no reason. You know? I don't care. I'm just
really confident. Where does that come from? Maybe family. Yes, I can do anything that I
want to, and they really ... I kind of grew up where [I was] being told that I'm really no
better than other people, or no less than other people. So, I don't really believe that stuff. I
can do what [ever] someone else can do. I just find it very difficult if someone tells me
“You can't do that.” “Yes I can.” I don't really understand it.

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Student #2 also expressed how confident he was at this stage of his educational journey:
I'm pretty sure I could do very well. I was like, “I've proven that I can do all these science
classes. I've finished all my math classes. I'm not too worried about the humanities or
anything like that, and so let's go!” Yeah, I feel like that's what gets the… keeps it going.
Just all the little wins, and like, “Oh, man, I can do this. I've done that. I've done this.” I
was like, “You've just....” All the little wins count.
In answering Research Question #2, students admitted that changing their behavior and
thought process towards studying and time management were both mandatory and critical
components to their success in STEM. All of the African American STEM students in this study
acknowledged that their motivation was the driving force behind their self-regulation (avoiding
distractions), attribution (effort), metacognition (focus on their thinking and learning), and self-
efficacy (confidence in their abilities). In essence, each found the intrinsic value to pursue and
persist in achieving a lofty goal: transferring to a four-year university to major in STEM. For
instance, all students in the study mentioned that making a difference in society motivated them.
The obstacles they experienced became catalysts for creating change for those students, who
would follow in their footsteps. Students who engage in experiential learning, first, experience an
event, then reflect on the experience and next draw conclusions from it. Finally, based on the
conclusions, the individuals develop new outcomes that are applicable to new experiences (Kim,
2013; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Goldberg, 2012; Strayhorn, 2014).
When the researcher asked how confident each one was that he/she would transfer
successfully, all participants were extremely confident that he/she would definitely transfer into a
STEM major. Initially, upon entering ABC College, most of these students were doubtful that
they would complete STEM coursework or transfer to a four-year university successfully. They

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expressed that their disbelief lessened and their confidence flourished when they were able to
complete college level work adeptly at ABC College. The positive reinforcement they
experienced at the community college validated their ability and belief that they could experience
the same success at the university level. As a result, they developed self-efficacy from the
successes they achieved along the way. Therefore, at this point, they were certain that their
preparation was sufficient to succeed at the university of their choice.
Summary
In every African American STEM participants’ journey, there were crossroads where each
had to make important decisions. They acknowledged their obstacles (i.e., under preparedness),
doubts, and fears and found the courage internally to keep moving in a positive direction. Wiggan
(2007) posits that some African American students are able to respond to social inequality by
seeking agency in school and being optimistic about the future. By recognizing their
shortcomings, African American STEM students sought assistance from professors, peers, family,
role models/mentors, and/or programs. According to Freeman Hrabowski, president of University
of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC), students who are connected to faculty mentors and
research—and each other—through their academic work, have a greater probability of excelling,
regardless of the field (Finney, 2009). Most importantly, African American STEM students
learned reflective practice skills. Without employing these strategies, they realized that they
would be unable to succeed in STEM. Students, who engage in small group discussions, group
problem solving, critiquing one another’s ideas, and reflection upon the task at hand, acquire a
deeper processing of the information and richer, more meaningful learning (Kirschner, Paas, &
Kirschner, 2009; Taylor, et al., 2008; Valli, 1997).

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2010), the percentages of
bachelor’s degrees conferred in STEM fields vary across racial/ethnic groups. These findings
reveal that there is a problem of disproportionately low numbers of African American students
graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in STEM. The percentage of African American
students graduating with STEM degrees is approximately 16% below other populations (i.e.,
White and Asian) receiving the highest number of degrees (NCES, 2010). This study illuminates
African American community college STEM students’ perceptions on equity and access and their
use of reflective practices as they pursue their goals to persist and transfer to a 4-year university to
major in STEM. As a result, the data obtained from this study can help inform the overarching
problem of disproportionately low numbers of African American students graduating with a
Bachelor of Science degree in STEM
This problem is important to address because there is a rising concern about America’s
ability to maintain its competitive position in the global economy; therefore, a renewed interest in
STEM education is critical (NCES, 2010). According to John Dewey (1938), educators are
responsible for shaping the experience of all of their students by cultivating an environment for
them to thrive and grow. In support of this idea, Dewey’s fourth criterion for reflection states that
educators should value the personal and intellectual growth of oneself and others (Dewey, 1938;
Farrell, 2012; Rodgers, 2002). The statistics regarding the low numbers of African Americans in
STEM and Dewey’s findings indicate that educators should acknowledge that one of their
responsibilities is assuring that African American students receive the very best education that this
country has to offer (Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007).

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A documented “achievement gap” exists between white and African American students in
the United States (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Harper, 2010;
Madyun, 2011). However, in using this term, the obvious insinuation is that African American
students lack the ability to achieve, and it conveniently sidesteps any responsibility of this problem
on the part of educators. Therefore, the term “opportunity gap” is more accurate because it
focuses on what students receive on their educational journey rather than their performance on
standardized tests (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007). This refocusing
moves attention away from African American students as the sole source of these disparities and
looks toward the larger structures and forces that play a role in their education and development
(Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007).
To address the disproportionately low numbers of African American students who declare
STEM majors, educators can benefit from gathering pertinent information from high achieving
African American STEM scholars. By utilizing this anti-deficit/positive deviance approach, this
study attempts to disclose possible action items that other faculty can implement to increase
African American student involvement as well as other student interest in STEM. Identifying
reflective strategies employed by successful students can bring about significant, positive changes
in attitude and ability in other students (Harper, 2010; Jackson, 2013; Zaidi, Jaffery & Moin,
2010).
In this qualitative study, the researcher interviewed thriving African American STEM
students in order to uncover their reflective strategies for academic success and their ability to
persist and transfer while in pursuit of their goals. The researcher collected data from individual
interviews, a focus group, and documented evidence/transcripts in order to triangulate the
information gathered (Merriam, 2009). The researcher used these methods to ascertain answers to

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the following research questions:
1. How do African American community college STEM students describe their experiences
regarding equity and access as they pursue their goal to transfer to a four-year university to
major in STEM?
2. How do African American community college STEM students use reflective practices (i.e.,
metacognition, motivation, self-regulation, attribution, self-efficacy) to persist and
navigate their journeys to transfer to a four-year university to major in STEM?
In the following sections, the researcher provides a discussion of her findings, implications for
practice and future research as well as her final thoughts in her conclusion.
Discussion of Findings
While illuminating African American community college STEM students’ journeys, three
distinct themes emerged from the results of this study: Obstacles, Support Systems, and the use of
Reflective Practices. To describe and discuss the importance of these findings, see Table 2.
Positive (+) parental influence refers to African American students whose parents met the
following criteria: attended college, were professional role models, provided financial support,
provided emotional support, and expected their student to succeed in college. Similarly, positive
(+) high school influence refers to African American students whose high school teachers met the
following criteria: provided students access to AP and college prep courses, exposed students to
STEM courses, were engaging and interesting, expected students to succeed, and took a personal
interest in students’ learning.
According to the data gathered in this study, Quadrant I students typically enter
community college prepared and have a high level of self-efficacy. The likelihood is that these
students will do well in STEM coursework with minimal external support from the college (Ogbu

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Table 2:
Profiles of Incoming African American Community College Freshmen Interested in STEM

& Simons, 1998). Similar to Quadrant I students, Quadrant II students have also had a strong
academic foundation from high school. Therefore, they usually enter college ready to complete
college level coursework, which is critical for STEM students because of the number of math and
science courses required before transfer. In contrast, Quadrant III students may have a very
supportive family unit; however, their preparation from high school is lacking. As a result, these
students enter college needing to remediate math and other subjects before proceeding with
college level coursework. Finally, Quadrant IV students are lacking both college-level academic
skills and positive parental influence, which can create unique challenges for these students.
Implications for Practice and Research
Since African American students enter college at varying levels of academic ability,
preparedness, and preparation, the resources they will require to be successful will also differ. The
• Low
level
of

(+)

Parental
InQluence

• Low
level
of
(+)
High

School
InQluence

• High
level
of

(+)

Parental
InQluence

• Low
level
of
(+)
High

School
InQluence

• Low
level
of
(+)

Parental
InQluence

• High
level
of
(+)
High

School
InQluence

• High
level
of

(+)Parental
InQluence

•
High
level
of
(+)

High
School

InQluence

Quadrant

I

Quadrant

II

Quadrant

IV

Quadrant

III

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quadrant profiles identified in Table 2 indicate what level of preparedness and proficiency a
student possesses upon college entrance based on the intersection of two variables: positive
parental influence and positive high school influence. In the following paragraphs, the researcher
describes the resources each quadrant profile would benefit from as each student navigates his/her
journey through STEM.
Implications for Practice
Because every participant in the study shared that he/she would like to interact with more
African American peers, faculty, and mentors, Quadrant I students would benefit from a STEM
program that connects African American, like-minded peers, faculty, and mentors (Finney, 2009;
Harper, 2010; Jackson, 2013; Oyserman, et al., 2006; Madyun, et al., 2013; Wiggan, 2007; Young,
et al., 2014). Furthermore, this STEM program should allow Quadrant I students to utilize their
existing knowledge and skills to assist other African American STEM students needing
remediation (Quadrant III and IV students) (Finney, 2009; Jackson, 2013; Jett, 2011; Kirschner, et
al., 2009).
Aside from profiting from the same resources provided for Quadrant I students, Quadrant
II students would greatly benefit from being assigned an adult mentor and/or school agent to show
them how to navigate the college system (Delpit, 1988; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Since these
students may be first-generation college students, establishing a close relationship with an
interested faculty mentor would be a tremendous asset for Quadrant II students (Delpit, 1988;
Finney, 2009; Langer, 2009; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Furthermore, if their parents are unable to
assist them financially with school, financial aid should be available for these students so that
work does not become a distraction for them (Cole, et al., 2009; Finney, 2009; Wiggan, 2007).

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Although Quadrant III students may have a very supportive family unit, their preparation
from high school is lacking. As a result, these students will require remedial courses in math and
other subjects, which will delay their ability to proceed with STEM coursework. For this reason,
designating the following resources for these students will ensure that they progress successfully:
STEM peer tutors (Quadrant I students), math and science courses with SI sessions attached, and
instructors who are double-loop thinkers (Argyris & Schön, 1974; Bensimon, 2005; Harper, 2010;
Yeager, et al., 2011). In addition, these students would benefit from courses that teach reflective
practice skills such as time management techniques, study methods, and test taking strategies.
Accordingly, for Quadrant IV students, all of the aforementioned resources provided for
both Quadrant II and Quadrant III students will be vital and extremely necessary for these students
to succeed in college. Additionally, developing small STEM cohorts, which provide a supportive,
non-intimidating environment for Quadrant IV students to ask questions and build their self-
efficacy, will be a huge asset for them (Argyris & Schön, 1974; Bensimon, 2005; Carter, 2009;
Chambers, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Parham, et al., 1985).
Implications for Future Research
Most of the current literature regarding the progress of African American students in
STEM is presented from a university perspective and not from a community college vantage point.
Therefore, future research that focuses on African American STEM students’ issues from a
community college frame of reference is necessary to address this gap in the literature.
Furthermore, there was an opposing viewpoint by two students in the study that caused the
researcher to ask additional questions and make further inferences. Student #3 (former male
student athlete) and Student # 8 (current female student athlete) gave differing testimonies
regarding their experiences in their respective athletic programs. Whereas Student #3 believed

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that his participation in the men’s basketball program at ABC College was a deterrent to achieving
his goals to become an engineer, Student #8 perceived her involvement in the women’s basketball
program at ABC College as an asset both emotionally and academically. There was mention by
Student #8 that a mandatory study hall was in place for her and her entire team. On the other
hand, Student #3 did not allude to having any mandatory study sessions. Additionally, he stated
that even though he self-identified as an Architectural Engineering major, the course plan he
received from his athletics counselor focused more on completing general education and having
enough units to be eligible to play basketball. Furthermore, he mentioned that, in retrospect, he
did not think he would be able to successfully complete his current STEM coursework if he were
still participating in the rigors of collegiate athletics.
According to Harper (2009), a disproportionate number of African American males who
enroll in community colleges participate in college athletics. This reality warrants the following
question: Is one of the factors for the low number of African American community college STEM
students attributed to the competing demands of college athletics? If community college athletic
program personnel and African American male student athletes perceive that majoring in STEM
and participating in college athletics are conflicting goals, the rising number of African American
community college male students engaging in college athletics could negatively impact the
number of African American community college students interested in and transferring into
STEM. This is an important question for future research. Moreover, another future research
question to ask is: Do African American community college students, in general, tend to select
majors where they believe they will encounter more peers and faculty who look like them? The
answers to these future research questions will directly provide insight to the overall problem of
low numbers of African American students graduating with a bachelor’s degree in STEM.

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If a top priority for ABC College were to increase the number of African American
students pursuing STEM, it would behoove the administration to establish partnerships with
neighboring high school and middle school districts, which serve a large population of African
American students. These partnerships will create a pipeline to ensure a steady stream of African
American students entering the community college system and then transferring to the four-year
university to major in STEM.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to elucidate the journeys of African American community
college STEM students as they utilize reflective practices to complete coursework to persist and
eventually transfer to a four-year university to major in STEM. This qualitative study captured the
true emotions and thoughts of individual students as well as a group of students, which provided
rich, thick, and descriptive data for the researcher to analyze. The first research question was:
How do African American community college STEM students describe their experiences
regarding equity and access as they pursue their goal to transfer to a four-year university to major
in STEM? The findings were in alignment with the literature. African American STEM students
acknowledged that they have encountered obstacles while pursuing higher education due to
structural inequalities such as lack of high school preparation, need for college remediation, work
commitments outside of school, first-generation college student status, and insufficient role
models (Carter, 2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007). However, double-loop
thinking instructors and nurturing college programs mitigated these challenges for them (Argyris
& Schön, 1974; Bensimon, 2005; Harper, 2010). Instructors’ influence, perceptions, and
expectations of these students had much to do with their success. For African American students
who were embarking on uncharted territory, professors served as beacons of hope and reassurance.

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STEM programs and other specialized college programs, geared to providing services for African
American STEM students in particular, also assisted them in overcoming obstacles during their
academic journeys. In addition, these programs provided confirmation that they, too, belong in
STEM.
The second research question was: How do African American community college STEM
students use reflective practices (i.e., metacognition, motivation, self-regulation, attribution, self-
efficacy) to persist and navigate their journeys to transfer to a four-year university to major in
STEM? The findings showed that initially most African American STEM students did not possess
these reflective practice skills upon entering ABC College. However, they quickly comprehended
that learning and adopting these strategies were critical components to their success in STEM
(Ghaye, 2010; Harper, 2010; Jackson, 2013). They acknowledged that their intrinsic motivation to
do well allowed them to avoid distractions and to stay focused within their efforts. Without
implementing these reflective practices, they realized that they were unable to navigate the STEM
coursework, which would directly affect their ability to transfer to a four-year university to major
in STEM. African American STEM students consciously chose (reflection) this challenging
pathway because they genuinely wanted to make a difference in society (Kim, 2013; Ladson-
Billings, 2000; Langer, 2009; Milner, 2006).
Further research in areas such as college athletics participation versus STEM major
selection for African American students is worth pursuing. Additionally, exploring whether or not
African American students select majors based on their desire to interact and connect with peers
and faculty that resemble them is noteworthy. Both of these inquiries would provide valuable
information regarding the existing problem of low numbers of African American students
completing bachelor’s degrees in STEM.

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If a researcher replicated this study at another community college in Orange County, would
the findings be similar? Would the findings be very different if a researcher performed this same
study in a community college with a larger population of African American STEM students? The
answers to these questions would depend on the African American STEM students’ perceptions of
the campus climate at these respective institutions. Structural inequalities exist between African
American and white students within academic institutions throughout the United States (Carter,
2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2007). Therefore, the success that African American
STEM students experience while navigating through an inequitable system depends on the
cognitive frame adopted by the institution’s administration and faculty (Bensimon, 2005). Is it a
cognitive frame of equity or one of deficit? The findings in this study indicate that the African
American STEM students perceive that ABC College’s campus leaders, faculty, and staff operate
from a cognitive frame of equity. When using a cognitive frame of equity, educators reflect on
how they think. Through this equity lens, they are more prone to reflect on, notice, and question
patterns of educational outcomes, and they are more likely to view such inequalities in the context
of a history of exclusion, discrimination, and educational apartheid (Bensimon, 2005; Carter,
2009; Chambers, 2009; Darling-Hammond; Harper, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). From the African American STEM students’ perspective, it appears that ABC
College’s administrators and faculty embrace this cognitive frame of equity and consistently make
institutional decisions that consider the needs of students in disadvantaged circumstances.
Developing a STEM identity is an essential part of the overall development for African
American students aspiring to work in STEM areas (Jackson, 2013). For some participants
developing a STEM identity meant quitting their job, saying ‘No’ to socializing with friends,
ending commitments to playing a sport, and/or figuring out a study and anti-procrastination plan.

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Whatever it was, it was a conscious choice. In other words, each had to spend time reflecting on
their life goals and decide if what they were giving up was worth their sacrifice and delayed
gratification. It was not by circumstance or luck that these students pressed forward. Their
commitment, determination, and drive came from a place deep from within their hearts and minds,
where they have dedicated many hours to reflection. As a result, their decision and motivation to
succeed would be extremely difficult to extinguish at this point in their journey.

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Appendix A
Interview Protocol
Introduction

• Thank you so much for agreeing to take part in my study. I am truly appreciative of you
taking the time out of your busy schedule to meet with me. In addition, I thank you for
your consent, which allows me to interview you. As previously indicated over the phone,
this interview should take approximately 45 minutes to one hour. Are you still
comfortable with that time frame?
• Before getting started with our interview, I would like to tell you a little bit more about my
study and answer any questions you may have about participating. I am currently a
graduate student at USC pursuing my Ed.D. in Educational Psychology. The primary
purpose of this study is to gather information to write my dissertation. In general, the
purpose of my dissertation is to ask African American STEM students’, like yourself, how
you feel about equity and access in general in your schooling here. I also want to discuss
any reflective strategies (i.e., motivation, self-regulation, attribution, metacognition, self-
efficacy) you may use – by that I mean things like thinking about what you’re learning,
what you do to motivate yourself, how you feel about your work here in STEM – anything
you do to think about and purposefully work to succeed academically. My goal is to try to
understand how you pursue your goal to persist and transfer to a four-year university to
major in STEM, in order to help other African American students think about a STEM
major.
• I have selected to interview you and other African American students, who I believe will
share their insights, pertinent information, and contribute significantly to my research.

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• I want to reassure you that I am conducting this interview as a researcher only. In other
words, the nature of my questions (and observations) is not evaluative. I will not be
making judgments about you as a student or a person. Furthermore, I will not share any
personalized data I collect with other ABC College students, your teachers, or any other
personnel employed in the district. Your name will remain anonymous and the
information you share with me will remain strictly confidential. If at any point you would
like to stop the interview for any reason, please let me know.
• Do you have any additional questions about the study before we get started? If not, I
would like to have your permission to begin the interview now. I have brought a voice
recorder with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. May I
also have your permission to record our conversation?
Setting the Stage
• I just have a few background questions to ask you first:
How many years of college have you completed?
Have you attended any other college aside from this one?
Are you a first-generation college student?
• I am hoping we could begin with you telling me a little bit more about your STEM classes
this semester.
o What STEM courses have you taken?
o How many units have you completed at ABC College overall?
o On a scale from 1 to 10, 10 being the most difficult, how would you rate the STEM
courses you completed thus far?

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o On a scale from 1 to 10, 10 being best, how would you rate your academic
achievement at ABC College thus far?
o Which, if any, of the STEM
2
Program resources have you utilized this semester?
o How have these resources assisted you with your current coursework?
Interview Questions
1) What has been your most challenging STEM course in which you have enrolled?
a. What aspects, in detail, of the course were challenging for you?
b. What resources did you use to assist you with this course?
c. What study strategies did you implement to help you in this course?

2) In a typical day, how do you prioritize your study time with your other responsibilities?
3) What plans have you made to transfer?
a. What questions or concerns do you have regarding transfer?
b. How could these questions/concerns be answered,
addressed/resolved for you?
4) Have you encountered any obstacles or barriers while completing the required coursework
to transfer in STEM?
a. If yes, what approach, method, or strategies did you use to overcome
these obstacles/barriers?
b. If yes, what were the outcomes from your course of action?
5) Think about individuals who have supported you in your academic endeavors. What roles
have they played (specifically) in your academic achievement?
a. What influence(s) have they had on your future aspirations?

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6) On a scale of 1 to 10, 10 being highest, how would you rate your motivation towards your
academic pursuits in STEM?
a. What is the main source of your motivation?
b. How are you able to persist in your motivation?
7) Are there people who have helped you to succeed in STEM?

8) Along with any people who may have helped you commit to and succeed in this field, are
there any other reasons that have influenced your motivation to pursue STEM?
a. Follow up: When did you discover your initial interest in STEM?
b. Follow up: What was your motivation to pursue STEM?
9) How confident are you that you will continue to succeed academically in your STEM
coursework at ABC College? How confident are you regarding your transfer to a four-year
university?
a. To what do you attribute your confidence?
b. How will you ensure your success in STEM?
Closing
• This concludes my questions for you. Is there anything else that you would like to add to
our interview/conversation that you have not had the opportunity to express, yet?
• Thank you so much for your openness and willingness to share your thoughts with me
today. I am truly grateful for the opportunity to speak with you and appreciate you taking
the time out of your busy day to meet with me. Please know that all of your insights will
be extremely valuable to my study. If I think of additional questions that I want to ask
you, will you be agreeable for me to contact you again? How should I contact you for
future communication? Okay, great! Thank you!

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Research and Interview Questions Table
Research Question Interview Question
How do African American community
college STEM students describe their
experiences regarding equity and access as
they pursue their goal to transfer to a four-
year university to major in STEM?
1, 2, 3a, 3b, 4, 5, 7, 8
How do African American community
college STEM students use reflective
practices (i.e., metacognition, motivation,
self-regulation, attribution, self-efficacy) to
persist and navigate their journeys to
transfer to a four-year university to major
in STEM?
1b, 1c, 2, 3, 4a, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

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Appendix B
Focus Group Questions
Hello, my name is Ms. Deidre Porter. I am the Science, Engineering, and Mathematics
(SEM) Counselor at ABC College. Thank you for taking the time to participate in a focus group
for African American students in STEM. The information I obtain from this focus group will
serve as important data for my dissertation. I am currently a graduate student in the Ed.D.,
Educational Psychology program at USC.
I selected each of you to participate in this focus group because you are African American
STEM students at ABC College who intend to transfer to a four-year university to major in
STEM. The purpose of my study is to gain an understanding of your perceptions of equity and
access and identify your use of reflective practices as you persist and pursue your goal to transfer
to a four-year university to major in STEM. Therefore, I am eager to hear about your experiences
at ABC College and how you have been able to navigate your journey to this point.
During this focus group, I will ask questions and facilitate a conversation regarding your
experiences at ABC College and the decisions you have made or strategies you have used to reach
certain outcomes. Please keep in mind that the questions that I ask do not have any “right” or
“wrong” answers. The purpose is to stimulate conversation and hear the opinions of everyone in
the room. I hope you will be comfortable speaking honestly and sharing your ideas with me.
Please note that I will record this session to ensure that I adequately capture your ideas
during our conversation. However, the comments from the focus group will remain confidential

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and I will not attach your name to any comments you make. Do you have any questions or
concerns before we begin?
1. Let’s do a quick round of introductions. Will each of you please tell the group your
name, your major, when you anticipate transferring, and the university that you would like
to attend?
2. When did you become interested in the STEM fields?
a. What particular event or individual do you attribute your interest in STEM?
b. To what do you attribute your success in STEM?
3. Describe the preparation you received in K-12 grades for STEM.
a. How adequately do you believe you were prepared to begin your STEM studies
at ABC College?
4. Have you had to overcome any obstacles since your tenure began at ABC College?
a. If yes, how did you manage to stay motivated during this difficult time?
5. What strategies do you use for planning, studying, and time management?
6. Now, imagine that you are on a committee with administrators at ABC College and
your job is to design/develop a program that will increase the number of African American
students in STEM. What components must this program include in order to be a success?
7. How has the campus climate added to or subtracted from your educational and extra-
curricular experiences at ABC College?
8. When you graduate/transfer from ABC College, what will be your biggest “takeaway”
from the college?

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9. This concludes my questions. Is there anything else that you would like to discuss?
10. Are there any other questions or concerns that you would like to address?
Thank you so much for your time and willingness to participate!

Research Question Focus Group Questions
How do African American community
college STEM students describe their
experiences regarding equity and access as
they pursue their goal to transfer to a four-
year university to major in STEM?
2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8
How do African American community
college STEM students use reflective
practices (i.e., metacognition, motivation,
self-regulation, attribution, self-efficacy) to
persist and navigate their journeys to
transfer to a four-year university to major
in STEM?
2, 3, 4a, 5, 6, 8

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Appendix C
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
1150 S. Olive Street, Los Angeles, CA 90015

INFORMATION
SHEET
FOR
RESEARCH

Reflective Journeys: African American Community College STEM Students’ Perceptions
on Equity and Access

This is an invitation to participate in a research study conducted by Deidre Porter, a graduate
student at the University of Southern California. Since you are an African American STEM
student attending ABC College, are aged 18 and up, and intend to transfer to a four-year university
to major in STEM, you meet the criteria to participate. Your participation is voluntary. You should
read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand, before
deciding whether or not to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent
form. You may also decide to discuss participation with your family or friends. I will also provide
a copy of this form for you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this qualitative study is to gain an understanding of African American community
college STEM students’ perceptions of equity and access and to identify their use of reflective
practices as they pursue their goals to persist and transfer to a 4-year university to major in STEM.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in an audio recorded
focus group that is expected to take up to one hour. The focus group will be held in a ABC
College conference room and will be scheduled between July 11 and September 30, 2016. If you
do not want to be audio recorded, you cannot participate in the focus group.

Focus group participants will also have the opportunity to complete a 45 minute interview at a
location, date and time of your convenience. The interview will be audio recorded with your
permission. If you do not want to be audio recorded, handwritten notes will be taken.

The researcher may want to access your transcripts to see how you have progressed in your STEM
major. If you don’t want the researcher to access your transcripts, you can still participate in the
study. If you are OK with giving the researcher permission to access your transcripts for research
purposes, you will be asked to sign this form below.

The researcher may also conduct observations of STEM workshops and programming;
handwritten notes will be taken.

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ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with ABC College or your STEM program
will not be affected whether you participate or not in this study.

Please note: the researcher is the Science, Engineering, and Mathematics (SEM) Counselor at
ABC College, but is conducting this study in her role as a USC student and researcher. If you are
uncomfortable participating in this study due to your relationship with the researcher, or her
position at ABC College, you should not participate in this study.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
This study will involve minimal risks and discomfort. The probability of harm and discomfort
will not be any greater than your daily life encounters. Risks may include emotional discomfort
from answering interview questions.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There is no guaranteed direct benefit for your participation in this study. However, you may
benefit from sharing your thoughts and opinions with others and others sharing theirs with you.
The researcher hopes that the findings from this study may improve her understanding of
reflection strategies.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive a $5 Starbucks gift card for participating in the focus group procedures. If you
complete a follow-up interview, you will receive an additional $5 Starbucks gift card.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any
identifiable
information
obtained
in
connection
with
this
study
will
remain
confidential.

Your
responses
will
be
coded
with
a
false
name
(pseudonym)
and
maintained
separately.

The
audio-‐tapes
will
be
modified
once
they
have
been
transcribed
to
eliminate
the

possibility
that
study
participants
could
be
identified.

Due
to
the
nature
of
the
focus
group,
the
confidentiality
of
the
group
cannot
be
guaranteed.

In
order
to
maintain
confidentiality
as
much
as
possible,
you
are
asked
not
to
discuss
the

content
of
the
focus
group
with
anyone.

The
data
will
be
stored
on
a
secure
computer.
At
the
completion
of
the
study,
direct

identifiers
will
be
destroyed.
The
de-‐identified
data
will
be
stored
on
a
password
protected

computer
and/or
in
a
locked
file
cabinet
in
the
researchers
office
for
three
years
after
the

study
has
been
completed
and
then
destroyed.

The
results
of
this
research
may
be
made
public,
shared
with
participating
sites
and
quoted

in
professional
journals
and
meetings,
but
results
from
this
study
will
only
be
reported
as
a

group
such
that
no
individual
respondents
can
be
identified.
No
identifiable
information
will

be
included.

African
American
STEM
Students

116

The
members
of
the
research
team
and
the
University
of
Southern
California’s
Human

Subjects
Protection
Program
(HSPP)
may
access
the
data.
The
HSPP
reviews
and
monitors

research
studies
to
protect
the
rights
and
welfare
of
research
subjects.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to participate will involve no penalty
or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any
time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the Principal
Investigator Deidre Porter at dmporter@usc.edu.

IRB
CONTACT
INFORMATION

If
you
have
questions,
concerns,
or
complaints
about
your
rights
as
a
research
participant
or

the
research
in
general
and
are
unable
to
contact
the
research
team,
or
if
you
want
to
talk
to

someone
independent
of
the
research
team,
please
contact
the
University
Park
Institutional

Review
Board
(UPIRB),
3720
South
Flower
Street
#301,
Los
Angeles,
CA

90089-‐0702,
(213)

821-‐5272
or
upirb@usc.edu.

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – FOR TRANSCRIPT ACCESS
ONLY

I have read the information provided above. The researcher provided me an opportunity to ask
questions. I am satisfied with the answers I obtained from my questions. I agree to allow the
researcher to access my transcripts for research purposes.

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this qualitative study is to gain an understanding of African American community college STEM students’ perceptions on equity and access and to identify their use of reflective practices as they pursue their goals to persist and transfer to a 4-year university to major in STEM. In this qualitative study, the researcher interviewed thriving African American community college STEM students in order to uncover their reflective strategies for academic success and their ability to persist while in pursuit of their goals. To address the disproportionately low numbers of African American students who declare STEM majors, educators can benefit from gathering pertinent information from high achieving African American STEM scholars. By utilizing this anti-deficit/positive deviance approach, this study attempts to disclose possible action items that other faculty can implement to increase overall student involvement in STEM. The researcher collected data from individual interviews, a focus group, and documented evidence/transcripts in order to triangulate the information gathered (Merriam, 2009).

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Asset Metadata

Creator Porter, Deidre M. (author)

Core Title Reflective journeys: African American community college STEM students' perceptions on equity and access

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/08/2017

Defense Date 10/21/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American,community college,equity and access perceptions,OAI-PMH Harvest,reflective practices,STEM students

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crawford, Jenifer (committee chair), Carbone, Paula (committee member), Dickey, Cherie (committee member)

Creator Email dmporter@usc.edu,porterdeidre@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-329567

Unique identifier UC11258198

Identifier etd-PorterDeid-5002.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-329567 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PorterDeid-5002.pdf

Dmrecord 329567

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Porter, Deidre M.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA