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Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of one outperforming urban high school

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Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of one outperforming urban high school

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Content Running head: OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 1
NARROWING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP: A CASE STUDY OF ONE
OUTPERFORMING URBAN HIGH SCHOOL
by
Daniel Ochoa
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2017
Copyright 2017 Daniel Ochoa
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 2
Dedication
I would like the opportunity to thank those individuals in my family who have supported
me throughout this process, and this dissertation is dedicated to them. I would not have accom-
plished this feat without their continuous encouragement and endearing support. Although I
could not name all who have supported me in this pursuit, I would like to offer my gratitude for
helping me achieve this goal—thank you!
I thank my brothers, Alex and Adrian, for being there for me. I am forever grateful to my
loving parents, Alejandro and Edwiges (Vicky). They instilled in me the very values and beliefs
that allowed me to accomplish this goal. Their immigrant experience that came with struggles
and sacrifice has motivated me to realize what they aspired for me and my brothers—si se pudo!
My 6-year-old son Isaiah will always be my champ. I draw motivation from him. He had
to overcome a lot at such an early age, and to see how far he has come is truly inspiring. The way
that he did it shows his strength, because he did it with a smile. The tender love of my 9-year-
old daughter Diana is a gift. Her passion for others will enable her to bring positivity wherever
she goes. I thank her for the motivational notes that she would leave me, telling me “not to give
up” and for reminding me to check my CUPS (Capitalization, Usage, Punctuation, and Spelling)
when she would see me writing. I am proud of both of my children.
Finally, I dedicate this culmination of my studies to my grandmother, Nana Cuca.
Although she is no longer with us, we love her and her love for us is still greatly felt.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 3
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to thank and acknowledge those individuals who guided
me through the dissertation process. The formidable expertise of my doctoral committee
members—Dr. Gothold, Dr. Ott, and Dr. Hocevar—has strengthened my capacity to confidently
move toward my professional aspirations. I could not have chosen a better chairperson to
oversee my dissertation than Dr. Gothold. I am extremely grateful for his leadership and guid-
ance, which pushed me through obstacles that I faced along the way. Dr. Ott’s passion and
dedication to education will serve as a beacon to which to aspire. Dr. Hocevar’s expertise refined
my skill-set as a researcher. I sincerely thank each one of them.
I would like to acknowledge the professors who had a significant impact on my educa-
tional practice. The wisdom of Dr. Rousseau, Dr. Pugach, Dr. Mendoza, Dr. Rueda, and Dr.
Samkian has directed me to employ efforts that are grounded in educational research and theory.
I will continue to use their teachings to strive toward improving educational outcomes for our
youth.
I fully appreciate the genuineness and consistent support of my Pasadena Unified School
District (PUSD) family. I thank my Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) friends for
their support in completing this endeavor. My experienced and trusted advisor and mentor, Dr.
Rodarte Llamas, has always served as a role model for me, and I am especially indebted to her for
her guidance.
Finally, I could not have chosen a better team to complete this dissertation: Angela,
Charel, Dionne, and Vanessa. Their talents were showcased, and I undoubtedly believe that each
one of them will have a positive impact on the students and communities they serve.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
List of Abbreviations 8
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Background, Purpose, and Overview of Study 11
Background of the Problem 11
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose of the Study 16
Importance of the Study 17
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions 17
Limitations 17
Delimitations 18
Assumptions 19
Definitions of Key Terms 19
Academic Performance Index (API) 19
Academic Performance Index (API) 20
Achievement Gap 20
California Standards Tests (CSTs) 20
CCSS 21
English Learners (ELs) 21
Free/Reduced-Price Meals 21
Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP) 22
LCFF 22
NAEP 22
NCLB 23
RTTT 23
School Accountability Report Card (SARC) 23
Similar Schools Ranking 23
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) 24
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged 24
Standardized Testing and Reporting Program (STAR) 24
Urban School 24
Organization of the Dissertation 25
Chapter Two: Literature Review 26
Statement of the Problem 27
Defining the Achievement Gap in an Urban Setting 28
Historical Context of the Achievement Gap 30
Efforts to Address the Achievement Gap 32
Impact of the Achievement Gap 35
African American Students and the Achievement Gap 36
Latino Students and the Achievement Gap 38
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 5
ELLs and the Achievement Gap 39
Promising Practices and the Achievement Gap 41
Critique of the Literature 44
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 46
Research Questions 46
Conceptual Framework 47
Research Design and Methods 48
Sampling 50
Access/Entry 52
Protocols 53
Data Collection Approach 55
Data Analysis 57
Credibility and Trustworthiness 58
Ethics 59
Chapter Summary 60
Chapter Four: Results 62
Urban Community 62
Champion Territory 63
Research Questions 64
Findings 64
Resource Allocation 65
Programs 75
Capacity Building 90
Discussion 104
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Implications 109
Statement of the Problem 109
Purpose of the Study Restated 110
Summary of Methodology 110
Data Collection 111
Data Analysis 111
Summary of Findings 112
Implications 112
Implication of Resource Allocation 113
Implication of Programs 113
Implication of Capacity Building 114
Implication of Organizational Culture 115
Recommendations for Future Research 119
References 121
Appendices
Appendix A: Document Review 133
Appendix B: Survey Protocol 135
Appendix C: Interview Protocol 137
Appendix D: Observation Protocol 140
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Responses to Survey Items Related to Resource Allocation (by Percentages) 67
Table 2: Graduates with A-G Requirements: Champion High School 69
Table 3: English Language Learners: Graduates With A-G Requirements: Champion
High School 70
Table 4: English Language Learners’ Redesignation Rates: Champion High School 70
Table 5: Algebra I Completion Rates: Champion High School 71
Table 6: Responses to Survey Items Related to Resource Allocation (by Percentages) 77
Table 7: Graduation and Dropout Rates for Champion High School (4-Year Cohort
Rates) 78
Table 8: Disciplinary Referral Figures for Champion High School 88
Table 9: Responses to Survey Items Related to Building Capacity (by Percentages) 91
Table 10: Training and Professional Development at Champion High School (CHS)
Over the Past 2 Years 97
Table 11: Preparing for Review by Western Association of Schools and Colleges: CHS
Departments’ Self-Selected Teams by Task 99
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual framework for study 48
Figure 2: Fundamental structures of Champion High School’s Card System 84
Figure 3: Conceptual map of emerging themes 105
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 8
List of Abbreviations
AP advanced placement
API Academic Performance Index
AVID Advancement Via Individual Determination
AYP Adequate Yearly Progress
CAASPP California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress
CAT/6 California Achievement Tests, Sixth Edition Survey
CCSS Common Core State Standards
CDE California Department of Education
CELDT California English Development Test
CHS Champion High School (pseudonym)
CIW Community Intervention Worker
CST California Standard Test
CSU California State University
EL English learner
ELL English language learner
ESL English as a second language
ESEA Elementary and Secondary Education Act
GLAD Guided Language Acquisition Design
ILT Instructional Leadership Team
LCAP Local Control Accountability Plan
LCFF Local Control Funding Formula
LTEL long-term English learner
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 9
LUSD Legacy Unified School District (pseudonym)
MTSS Multi-Tiered System of Supports
NAEP National Assessment of Educational Progress
NCES National Center for Education Statistics
NCLB No Child Left Behind
PBIS Positive Behavior Intervention and Support
PRIDE pride, responsibility, integrity, doing the right thing, and excellence
PSAT Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test
RTTT Race to the Top
SABE/2 Spanish Assessment of Basic Education, Second Edition
SARC School Accountability Report Card
SAT Scholastic Aptitude Test
SPSA School Plan for Student Achievement
SSC School Site Council
SST Student Success Team
STAR Standardized Testing and Reporting
UC University of California
USDOE U.S. Department of Education
WASC Western Association of Schools and Colleges
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 10
Abstract
The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools despite efforts to improve aca-
demic outcomes for underrepresented youth; however, there are some outperforming urban
schools that have made progress in closing the achievement gap. The purpose of this case study
was to examine practices that existed in an outperforming urban school that has been shown to
narrow the achievement gap. This qualitative study used documents, surveys, interviews, and
observations to substantiate case-based themes. The findings illustrate how the sampled high
school allocated resources, instituted programs, and built professional capacity. In addition, the
data analysis characterized the school’s organizational culture. These findings offer practical
implications related to efforts that have been demonstrated to narrow the achievement gap.
Keywords: K–12 education, achievement gap, outperforming urban high school,
resource allocation, programs, capacity building, organizational culture
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 11
CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND, PURPOSE, AND OVERVIEW OF STUDY
Historically, an achievement gap has manifested within the U.S. public educational
system—a gap that has marginalized various demographic subgroups. Nonetheless, there are
outperforming urban schools that have narrowed the achievement gap. Inquiry is necessary to
understand the practices that support such a feat. The purpose of this study was to capture an
outperforming school’s practices of resource allocation, program implementation, and capacity
building. Extrapolating and analyzing such characteristics can help gain an in-depth understand-
ing of the promising practices that support better educational outcomes and, in turn, further
inform the educational community to help alleviate the realities of the achievement gap.
Background of the Problem
The background of the achievement gap is framed within the existing literature. The
literature hones in on several themes that include the historical context of the achievement gap,
legislation and initiatives aimed at alleviating the achievement gap, the impact of the achieve-
ment gap on underrepresented youth, and promising practices that have narrowed the achieve-
ment gap. The research that was used to address these themes incorporated both qualitative and
quantitative studies so as to validate the narrative and to fully depict the current state of this
educational issue. Combing through the literature identified gaps that exist within the topic of
the achievement gap. An explanation is provided in Chapter Two to show how the gaps in the
literature drove the purpose of this case study.
The literature was consulted to develop a relative construct for the term achievement gap.
The literature takes two perspectives to describe the achievement gap. Generally, researchers
have studied the achievement gap between minority and nonminority students (Bainbridge &
Lasley, 2002). However, researchers have also expanded the understanding of achievement gaps
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 12
to include the analysis of achievement disparities within student groups (Carpenter, Ramirez, &
Severn, 2006). Early evidence of the achievement gap in U.S. schools was revealed by the
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which depicted a gap in achievement
scores between Black and White students (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES],
2015). Due to a demographic shift, the U.S. population has experienced a significant increase in
people of Latino descent. Therefore, the inquiry of the achievement gap has shifted from solely
White and Black students to White and minority groups due to the similar measures of achieve-
ment among these subgroups (Olszewski-Kubilius, Lee, Ngoi, & Ngoi, 2004). There is a consen-
sus that the achievement gap pertains to the disparities of academic outcomes among and within
student subgroups.
This case study examined an outperforming school in an urban setting. Therefore,
contextualizing the term urban school helped to frame the intention of the study. The literature
describes urban schools as schools that experience a challenge in the following areas: (a) “the
achievement gap,” (b) “concentrated poverty,” (c) “the teaching challenge (hiring qualified
teachers and filling vacancies),” (d) “school climate,” (e) “access to resources,” and (f) “politics
and governance” (C. C. Lee, 2005, p. 185). The U.S. Census Bureau (2010) classified an urban-
ized area as one that consists of a densely populated territory that contains 50,000 or more
people. These aforementioned attributes of an urban school were used to anchor the school site
selection for this case study.
U.S. public education has experienced the persistence of the achievement gap despite
efforts to expunge these disparities through the judicial and legislative process. More notably,
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), and the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 (Finkelman, 2009) have been efforts to alleviate the injustices that have
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 13
manifested in U.S. public education. Plessy v. Ferguson was a U.S. Supreme Court decision to
uphold the doctrine of “separate but equal” (Ferguson & Mehta, 2004, p. 656). With a purpose of
challenging the moral injustice of forced segregation, Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was
seminal in challenging the separate-but-equal doctrine. This U.S. Supreme Court decision
sought to end separate and unequal education in efforts to close the access and equity gap by leg-
islatively mandating schools to abolish their segregation. The passage of the Civil Rights Act of
1964 established educational rights for all citizens. It required school agencies to adhere to Title
VI of the Act, which protected citizens from exclusion based on their race, color, or national
origin (Kornhaber, Griffith, & Tyler, 2014). These legislative attempts to create equity in the
public educational institutions have been steps to ameliorate the achievement gap, but they have
not fully resolved this educational issue.
Policies and initiatives have been created in efforts to counteract the widening of the
achievement gap by implementing strategies that improve the state of civil rights, school
accountability measures, and the allocation of resources. As a reauthorization of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) of 2002 required
more regulations to receive Title I funds. For instance, it required states to implement standards
and assessment procedures in reading, mathematics, and science along with accountability
systems to improve whole school systems (Ferguson & Mehta, 2004; Superfine, 2011). In addi-
tion, the federal government has created programs aimed at improving the practices of public
educational systems. Race to the Top (RTTT) was a federal grant intended to initiate education
reform in the United States (Nicholson-Crotty & Staley, 2012). The intent of RTTT was to
“support investments in innovative strategies that are most likely to lead to improved results for
students, long-term gains in schools and school system capacity, and increased productivity and
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 14
effectiveness” (U.S. Department of Education [USDOE], 2009, p. 2). The RTTT program
endorsed the development and adoption of a common set of educational standards (USDOE,
2009) in efforts to close the achievement gap; subsequently, the nation has followed suit. This
common set of educational standards has come to be known as the Common Core State Stan-
dards (CCSS). Since 2010, states across the country have adopted and implemented the same
standards for English and math (California Department of Education [CDE], 2015b). Theoreti-
cally, the advent of the CCSS provides states with the opportunity to align their systems of
assessment and accountability in order to equitably prepare students for learning (Kornhaber et
al., 2014). Resource allocation is critical to equitably prepare students for learning. In doing so,
states have revamped their funding practices to be better able to support those students with
greater needs. Under the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF), California has adopted a
funding stream based on the premise that those students in greater need require more resources in
order to have equitable opportunities to learn (Affeldt, 2015: Menefee-Libey & Kerchner, 2013).
Thus far, policies and fiscal measures have, in good faith, focused their efforts on remedying the
harsh reality of the achievement gap.
Studies have revealed the realities of the achievement gap. The achievement gap first
received national notoriety from the report by Coleman et al. (1966). This race-based quantita-
tive study claimed that a family’s socioeconomic status was the most predictive factor of student
academic achievement. Although Coleman et al. found that family background was most influ-
ential in academic achievement, the authors also noted that minority children’s achievement gap
grew further in reading and math at the end of their first-grade year compared to their White
counterparts (Kahlenberg, 2001). More recent research has echoed the consistency of the
achievement gap (Duncan & Murnane, 2011). These differences are continuous as students
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 15
proceed through their academic careers (Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor, 2009; Hanushek & Rivkin,
2006). Due to the longstanding history of the achievement gap, it would be irresponsible to
neglect the educational and social ramifications of such a phenomenon.
By and large, the achievement disparity that exists between minorities and their White
counterparts has resulted in the widening of the gap. Moreover, urban schools face unique chal-
lenges due to the convergence of location and poverty (Lippman, Burns, & McArthur, 1996);
urban commonly denotes a combination of race, class, unskilled and undocumented immigrants,
crime, violence, substance abuse, incarceration, single teenage mothers, and absent parents (Hall,
1996). The literature clearly identifies the student populations that have been most impacted by
such a phenomenon and describes the varying degrees of the implications. Legislature policies
and innovative educational programs have sought to close the achievement gap, but history has
proclaimed these attempts to be faulty or promising. The literature has developed an in-depth
understanding of the achievement gap; however, due to new public educational funding mecha-
nisms, there is limited research regarding how urban schools allocate resources and leverage their
capacity to implement programs and strategies that have been shown to narrow the achievement
gap.
Statement of the Problem
The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools despite efforts to improve
academic outcomes for underrepresented youth. However, there are some outperforming schools
that have made progress in closing the achievement gap. As previously noted, the literature has
expanded the understanding of the achievement gap, but the gap in knowledge stems from the
fact that there is limited research of how urban outperforming schools allocate resources, execute
programs, and build professional capacity, especially with the advent of CCSS and new funding
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 16
parameters such as California’s Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF). For this reason, the
processes and practices of public schools will have to change to meet the demands of such initia-
tives. Therefore, the current transitional period calls for further knowledge about how schools
have met the challenge of narrowing the achievement gap.
Purpose of the Study
Due to the recent educational trends experienced in California and nationwide, research in
how outperforming urban schools allocate resources, implement programs, and build profes-
sional capacity is imperative to further advance the educational research in this realm. Therefore,
the purpose of this study was to examine practices that exist in an outperforming urban school
that has been shown to narrow the achievement gap. More specifically, the intention of this study
was to reveal and interpret the characteristics of resource allocation, programs, and capacity
building that co-exist with the narrowing of the achievement gap. These concepts were chosen
for inquiry due to the conceptual framework that was adapted from Darling-Hammond, Wilhoit
and Pittenger (2014); it involved a comprehensive system that focused on capacity building and
on an accountability structure that promotes an effective school organization.
Accordingly, the research questions that drove the understanding of this topic were the
following:
1. How are resources allocated within the school where academic outcomes have im-
proved for underrepresented youth?
2. What programs exist within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
3. How is capacity built within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 17
These research questions emphasize what and how, thus indicating that the study was seeking to
analyze the concepts of process and meaning, which are strong indicators of qualitative methods.
The qualitative research questions justified the design and methods that substantiated the explicit
understanding of an outperforming urban school’s practices with regard to resource allocation,
programs, and capacity building. Qualitative methods denote surveys, interviews, document
analysis, observations, and the researcher as the primary instrument in efforts to utilize multiple
sources of information to develop case-based themes (Merriam, 2009). Accordingly, this case
study incorporated such investigative instruments to identify the themes that emerged from the
study.
Importance of the Study
The significance of this case study is that it advances the gap in knowledge with respect
to the promising practices that have been shown to narrow the achievement gap. The overall
intention of this case study was to improve the human condition by understanding the educational
practices that enhance the opportunities of all students. Understandably, any endeavor with such
a focus is worth examining. The specific contribution to the body of knowledge resulted in how
an outperforming urban school allocates resources, uses programs, and builds professional
capacity to ameliorate the achievement gap. As a result, this contribution can further inform the
practices of urban educational institutions in their efforts to eliminate the achievement gap.
Limitation, Delimitations, and Assumptions
Limitations
There are two types of limitations that are raised with regard to qualitative research:
researcher bias and reactivity (Maxwell, 2013). Researcher bias refers to the way in which data
collection or analysis is influenced by the researcher’s theoretical viewpoint, values, or
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 18
preconceptions (Maxwell, 2013). As the primary research instrument, it was unreasonable for
this researcher to completely eliminate his own theoretical perspective, preconceptions, or values
from the processes of data collection and analysis. In an attempt to minimize any bias or percep-
tual misinterpretations, attention was given to the integrity of the study by remaining consistent
with the research protocols. Another form of limitation revolved around the researcher’s direct
influence over the participants under study—commonly referred to as reflexivity. Reflexivity
refers to when the researcher is part of the phenomenon under study and how it undoubtedly
influences the responses from the interviewee (Corbin & Strauss, 2006; Maxwell, 2013; Mer-
riam, 2009). In terms of reactivity, the researcher introspectively addressed the issue by under-
standing his influence on the research participants and used it solely to answer the research
questions pertaining to the study. Although it would be impossible to eliminate this effect,
measures were taken to minimize such a limitation, such as avoiding leading questions during
interviews (Maxwell, 2013). These limitations were consciously taken into consideration in
order to productively and ethically use these influences to answer the research questions.
Delimitations
Delimitations refer to the limitations that are deliberately imposed by the researcher. The
predetermined scope of the study, such as the number of participants and the geographical loca-
tion, certainly delimited the range of the study. For instance, the sole inclusion of an outperform-
ing urban school ruled out the possibility of involving other public educational institutions.
Another form of delimitation stemmed from the focus of the research questions, which were
resource allocation, programs and capacity building. The focus of the research questions delim-
ited the researcher’s ability to analyze all aspects of the chosen outperforming urban school.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 19
Assumptions
In this case study, several assumptions came to the forefront. For instance, it was
assumed that the participants interviewed were highly qualified and considered residential
experts with respect to the school’s practices of resource allocation, program implementation,
and capacity building. Moreover, it was assumed that each participant answered candidly and
honestly. A number of strategies were employed to accurately depict participants’ realities, such
as taking the stance of a naïve inquirer seeking clarification and delving deeper into the meanings
of participants.
Definitions of Key Terms
The following terminology was used describe concepts within the study; definitions are
provided for terms that require clarity. The intent of these operational definitions is to reduce
misconceptions of the content under study.
Academic Performance Index (API)
A number, used for school accountability purposes, summarizing the performance of a
group of students, a school, or a district on California’s standardized tests. A school’s
number (or API score) is used to rank it among schools of the same type (elementary,
middle, high) and among the 100 schools of the same type that are most similar in terms
of students served, teacher qualifications, and other factors. Schools and districts also
receive separate API scores for any student group—including ethnic subgroups, socioeco-
nomically disadvantaged students, English learners, and students with disabilities—com-
prised of more than 10 students with valid test scores. They only receive academic
growth targets for “numerically significant” student groups, however. (EdSource, 2016,
Academic Performance Index section, para. 1)
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 20
Achievement Gap
A consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests between certain groups of
children and children in other groups. The data document a strong association between
poverty and students’ lack of academic success as measured by achievement tests. And
while poverty is not unique to any ethnicity, it does exist in disproportionate rates among
African Americans and Hispanics, and among English learners. The reasons behind the
achievement gap are multifaceted. They do to some degree stem from factors that chil-
dren bring with them to school. However, other factors that contribute to the gap stem
from students’ school experiences. (EdSource, 2016), Achievement Gap section, para. 1)
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)
Adequate yearly progress is a set of annual academic performance benchmarks that states,
school districts, schools, and subpopulations of students are supposed to achieve if the
state receives federal funding under Title I, Part A of the federal No Child Left Behind
Act (NCLB). In California, the measures include: (1) specified percentages of students
scoring “proficient” or “advanced” on California Standards Tests in English language arts
and math; (2) participation of at least 95% of students on those tests; (3) specified Aca-
demic Performance Index scores or gains; and (4) for high schools, a specified graduation
rate or improvement in the rate. (EdSource, 2016, Adequate Yearly Progress section,
para. 1)
California Standards Tests (CSTs)
Tests that are part of the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) program and are
based on the state’s academic content standards—what teachers are expected to be teach-
ing and what students are expected to be learning. They are primarily multiple choice and
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 21
cover four subject areas: English language arts (grades 2-11); mathematics (grades 2-11);
history/social science (grades 8, 10, and 11); and science (for grades 5, 8, 10, and high
school students who are taking specific subjects like biology, chemistry, or integrated
science). CSTs are criterion-referenced tests, and students are scored as “far below basic,
below basic, basic, proficient, and advanced.” The state goal is for every student to score
at “proficient” or above. Only California students take these standards-based tests so their
results cannot be compared to test scores of students in other states or nations.
(EdSource, 2016, California Standards Tests section, para. 1)
CCSS
The Common Core State Standards, often referred to as “Common Core,” are a set of
educational standards that describe what students should know and be able to do in
English language arts and math in each grade from kindergarten through 12th grade.
California is among the more than 40 states that have adopted them in an effort to estab-
lish clear, consistent educational standards across state lines. California students will
begin to take standardized tests measuring their knowledge of the Common Core in spring
2015. (EdSource, 2016, Common Core State Standards section, para. 1)
English Learner (EL)
“Students whose home language is not English and who qualify for extra help. EL
students were formerly known as ‘Limited English Proficient’ (LEP)” (EdSource, 2016, English
Learner section, para. 1).
Free/Reduced-Price Meals
A federal program to provide food—typically lunch and/or breakfast—for students from
low-income families. The number of students participating in the National School Lunch
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 22
Program is increasingly being used as a way to measure the poverty level of a school or
district population. The number of children in this program can affect schools’ or dis-
tricts’ eligibility for grants or other funding aimed at helping lower-income families.
(EdSource, 2016, Free/Reduced Price Meals section, para. 1)
Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP)
A key accountability requirement of the state’s Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF),
the LCAP is a three-year plan, which every district must create and update annually with
input from the community. The LCAP is intended to explain how the district will use
state funds to improve educational outcomes for all students based on eight state priori-
ties, with special attention to high-needs student who received additional money. The
State Board of Education approved a template for the LCAP in January 2014. (EdSource,
2016, Local Control and Accountability Plan section, para. 1)
LCFF
Signed into law on July 1, 2013, the Local Control Funding Formula, also known as
LCFF, overhauls California’s school finance system, replacing “revenue limits” and most
“categorical funds” with a per-pupil base grant plus additional money for high-needs (low
income, English learner, and foster youth) students. (EdSource, 2016, Local Control
Funding Formula section, para. 1)
NAEP
A national test that is given to specific grade levels in specific subjects every other year. A
small sample of students representative of the state are tested. NAEP test scores can be
compared to national averages. California participates in NAEP, though not all states do.
(EdSource, 2016, National Assessment of Educational Progress section, para. 1)
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 23
NCLB
The 2002 reauthorizaton of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). Origi-
nally passed in 1965, ESEA programs provide much of the federal funding for K–12
schools. NCLB’s provisions represent a significant change in the federal government’s
influence in public schools and districts throughout the United States, particularly in
terms of assessment, accountability, and teacher quality. It increases the federal focus on
the achievement of disadvantaged pupils, including English learners and students who
live in poverty, provides funding for “innovative programs” such as charter schools, and
supports the right of parents to transfer their children to a different school if their school is
low-performing or unsafe. (EdSource, 2016, No Child Left Behind section, para. 1)
RTTT
An unprecedented federal investment, with four core assurances: “rigorous standards and
internationally benchmarked assessments, data systems tracing individual students and teachers,
great teachers and leaders, and turning around struggling schools” (Hershberg & Robertson-
Kraft, 2010, p. 128).
School Accountability Report Card (SARC)
A system by which each school in California annually provides information about the
school to the general public. The primary purpose is to inform the public of the student achieve-
ment, school environment, resources, staffing information, and demographics of the school site
(EdSource, 2016).
Similar Schools Ranking
A comparison of a school to 100 others of the same type and similar demographic charac-
teristics (EdSource, 2016).
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 24
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC)
A national consortium of 25 states that have been working collaboratively to develop a
student assessment system aligned to a common core of academic content standards (EdSource,
2016).
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged
“Students whose parents do not have a high school diploma or who participate in the
free/reduced price meal program because of low family income” (EdSource, 2016, Socioecono-
mically Disadvantaged section, para. 1).
Standardized Testing and Reporting Program (STAR)
A statewide testing system that contains three elements: (a) CSTs, which are based on the
state’s academic content standards; (b) California Achievement Tests, Sixth Edition Survey
(CAT/6), a nationally normed, standardized, multiple-choice, basic-skills test; and (c) Spanish
Assessment of Basic Education, Second Edition (SABE/2), an additional norm-referenced test
that native Spanish-speaking students take during their 1st year in California public schools.
Student achievement on certain STAR tests largely determines a school’s statewide ranking (see
API; EdSource, 2016).
Urban School
The literature characterizes urban schools as schools that experience a challenge in the
following areas: (a) “the achievement gap,” (b) “concentrated poverty,” (c) “the teaching chal-
lenge (hiring qualified teachers and filling vacancies)” (d) “school climate,” (e) “access to re-
sources,” and (f) “politics and governance” (C. C. Lee, 2005, p. 185).
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 25
Organization of the Study
Thus far, the study has briefly introduced the background of the achievement gap and the
intent of this case study. The current state of the achievement gap and the literature that sur-
rounds this educational issue framed the purpose of the study, which was to extrapolate an
outperforming urban school’s processes of resource allocation, program implementation, and
capacity building. By focusing on such processes, this case study enhances the body of knowl-
edge that aims to ameliorate the achievement gap. The limitations that come with such an
undertaking have been described, and conscious efforts were employed to substantiate the
findings of the case study.
In Chapter Two, the historical and current state of the achievement gap is fully described,
along with the policies and initiatives aimed toward narrowing the achievement gap.
In Chapter Three, a detailed account of the case study’s methodology is presented. It
includes the sampling procedures, data collection approach, and analysis process.
Chapter Four formulates and presents the results. The data analysis produced case-based
themes in relation to the research questions. Finally, Chapter Five discusses the results through
the lens of the literature to gain further insight into their implications.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 26
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this literature review is to describe the state of the research on the
achievement gap in U.S. public educational institutions. The review highlights several themes
found in the literature and includes the definition of urban public educational institutions, the
historical context of the achievement gap, previous efforts to address the achievement gap, the
impact of the achievement gap, and promising practices that have narrowed the achievement gap
so as to fully understand the advances toward the tapering of this problem. Research cited in this
review of the literature encompasses both qualitative and quantitative studies to support the nar-
rative and to fully describe the current state of this educational issue. A description of implica-
tions and gaps in the literature was formulated and presented in Chapter One. In this chapter an
explanation is provided of how these gaps in the literature drove this case study to enrich the
understanding of how an outperforming school has narrowed the achievement gap.
The U.S. public school system has experienced a phenomenon that is frequently referred
to as the achievement gap. Early evidence of the disparities of educational attainment that
existed in American schools was offered by the NAEP, which depicted a gap in achievement
scores between Black and White students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2015). In
1975, the NAEP report revealed a significant statistical disparity in achievement scores related to
reading between the aforementioned groups (NCES, 2015). This phenomenon is so ingrained
and rampant in U.S. public education that it manifests prior to kindergarten (Chapin, 2006) and is
exacerbated due to the disparity persisting throughout a child’s educational career (Jencks &
Phillips, 1998; NCES, 2015). These findings point to the pervasiveness of the achievement gap.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 27
Educators in public educational institutions must act upon the responsibility to provide
youth with every opportunity to access and participate in their education in order to help them
reach their fullest potential. Brown v. Board of Education (1954) read:
In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if
he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has
undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms. (p.
494)
This was written into law over half a century ago, yet society still struggles with its implications
to provide equal access to education. Presently, the policies and practices of U.S. educational
institutions have resulted in the social injustice of the achievement gap.
Statement of the Problem
The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools despite efforts to improve
academic outcomes for underrepresented youth. However, there are some outperforming schools
that have made progress in closing the achievement gap. The literature enhances the understand-
ing of the achievement gap, but the gap in knowledge stems from the fact that there is limited
research of how outperforming urban schools build professional capacity, allocate resources, and
execute programs. The political landscape has introduced fairly new initiatives such as CCSS
and California’s LCFF. As a result, public schools face the challenge to rapidly adapt to the
implementation of such initiatives. Therefore, this tumultuous period in public K–12 education
calls for further inquiry as to how schools have met the challenge of narrowing the achievement
gap.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 28
Defining the Achievement Gap in an Urban Setting
The purpose of the study was to examine the promising practices of an outperforming
urban school that has narrowed the achievement gap. Therefore, it was important to consult the
literature in order to develop a construct for achievement gap that was relative to this study.
Literature has described the achievement gap from two perspectives. Historically, researchers
focused on the realm of K–12 education have studied the achievement gap between minority and
nonminority students (Bainbridge & Lasley, 2002). Rather than limiting the research to achieve-
ment gaps between Black and White groups, researchers have expanded the understanding of
achievement gaps to include the examination of achievement variations within racial groups
(Carpenter et al., 2006).
The literature purports that educators face the daunting challenge of remedying the
achievement gap between White and African American or Latino students. Early studies have
described the extent and causes of the achievement gap. For example, a seminal study involving
600,000 children in 4,000 schools was conducted by Coleman et al. (1966) to determine the
causes of the achievement gap between Black and White students. Throughout history, the U.S.
population has expanded to include other racial groups, and a group that has significantly grown
involves those of Latino descent. Therefore, the inquiry regarding the achievement gap has
shifted from solely White and Black students to White and nonminority groups due to similar
measures of achievement among these subgroups (Olszewski-Kubilius et al., 2004).
Not only have researchers studied the achievement gap among groups, but they have also
examined the degree of the achievement gap within racial groups (Carpenter et al., 2006; C. D.
Lee, 2003). In the study conducted by Carpenter et al. (2006), the researchers looked to identify
the factors that best predicted 12th -grade students’ achievement in math for each student group
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 29
separately and how these models compared across groups. As a result, the study affirmed that
there were multiple achievement gaps both within and between groups. More specifically, the
study revealed that Whites performed higher than Latinos, who achieved greater gains than
African Americans. Latino and White students performed higher if they did not undergo a
program in English as a Second Language (ESL), if they attended private schools, and if they
lived in intact homes (Carpenter et al., 2006). This study revealed that a singular definition of the
achievement gap as the academic performance disparity solely between Whites and minorities
has the potential to neglect and exacerbate the educational issue of the achievement gap as a
whole.
Another purpose of this case study was to examine an outperforming school in an urban
setting; therefore, contextualizing urban schools was of great value to hone in on the intention of
the study. The literature has characterized urban schools as those that experience a challenge in
the following areas: (a) “the achievement gap,” (b) “concentrated poverty,” (c) “the teaching
challenge (hiring qualified teachers and filling vacancies),” (d) “school climate,” (e) “access to
resources,” and (f) “politics and governance” (C. C. Lee, 2005, p. 185). As previously noted, the
achievement gap is one of academic differences between Whites and minorities (Bainbridge &
Lasley, 2002; Coleman et al., 1966; Olszewski-Kubilius et al., 2004) and within racial groups
(Carpenter et al., 2006; C. D. Lee, 2003).
The U.S. Census Bureau (2010) classified an urbanized area as one that consists of a
densely settled territory that contains 50,000 or more people. Another facet of an urban setting is
one that is characterized as having concentrated poverty, which also has a relationship with lower
educational achievement (Roscigno, Tomaskovic, & Crowley, 2006). Finding qualified teachers
has been of particular concern for schools in urbanized areas. Research has shown that students
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 30
in high-poverty urban schools are twice as likely to have inexperienced teachers (Au & Blake,
2003). School climate refers to a student’s sense of safety, school connectedness, opportunities
for meaningful engagement, the relationship quality between students and staff, and how these
factors relate to behaviors and ultimately achievement (Hanson & Voight 2014). In using these
parameters to describe school climate, research has shown that Black and Hispanic students have
a less favorable experience with respect to safety, school connectedness, relationships with staff,
and opportunities for engagement as compared to their White counterparts (Voight, Hanson,
O’Malley, & Adekanye, 2015). Limited resources have been a stark reality in urban schools. In
the 2008–2009 school year, southern Californian schools that had a majority of minorities expe-
rienced a shortage of A-G courses, college preparatory teachers, and college preparatory math
teachers than majority White and/or Asian schools (Kucsera, Siegel-Hawley, & Orfield, 2015).
This lack of resources undoubtedly affects the trajectory of academic success for minority
students. Finally, urban schools exist within large bureaucratic entities that regularly mishandle
and prove inefficient in their educational governance (C. C. Lee, 2005). The aforementioned
attributes that were derived from the literature on urban schools were used to anchor the school
site selection for this case study.
Historical Context of the Achievement Gap
The achievement gap has persisted throughout history despite efforts to promote equity in
U.S. public schools (Ferguson & Mehta, 2004). U.S. citizens have united in their attempts to
expunge these disparities through the judicial process. More notably, cases such as Plessy v.
Ferguson (1896), Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), and the Civil Rights Act of
1964 (Finkelman, 2009) have been efforts to undo the injustices that have been manifest in U.S.
public education. Plessy v. Ferguson was a U.S. Supreme Court decision to uphold the doctrine
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 31
of “separate but equal” (Ferguson & Mehta, 2004, p. 656). History has shown that Plessy v.
Ferguson was a futile attempt to promote equity in education. According to Kucsera et al.
(2015), more than 50% of ninth-grade students in racially segregated schools in southern Califor-
nia failed to graduate on time; in contrast, in schools where the student population was predomi-
nantly of White and Asian descent 4 out of 5 students graduated. These present-day figures
confirm that American educators still do not know how to operate separate but equal schools.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was seminal in challenging the separate but equal
doctrine of the south; the aim was to challenge the moral injustice of forced segregation. The
U.S. Supreme Court decision sought to end separate and unequal education in efforts to close the
access and equity gap by legislatively mandating schools to dismantle their segregation. Clearly,
Brown v Board of Education was a step in the right direction, but it faltered in that the decision
did not establish a deadline for doing away with segregated public schools. This omission
resulted in delayed enforcement that continued to perpetuate the achievement gap (Valencia,
2010). Despite litigation efforts, the remnants of segregated schools from the 1950s still exist
today. Presently segregated schools have manifested as a result of wealth distribution, academic
tracking, and unequal opportunities to learn (Holme, 2002; Valencia, 2010). Since the landmark
decision of Brown v. Board of Education, U.S. society has continued attempts to create an edu-
cational system that can meet the needs of all students.
The 1960s brought a period of history where the role of federal government increased in
public education. It expanded its reach with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which
established educational rights for all citizens. It required school agencies to adhere to Title VI of
the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which read:
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 32
No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be
excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination
under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. (as cited in
Kornhaber et al., 2014, p. 7)
In order to meet the demands of such a notion, Congress enacted the ESEA of 1965 to
authorize compensatory funds to support economically disadvantaged students under programs
such as Title I (Superfine, 2011). The ESEA and later legislation were intended to improve
students’ opportunities to learn so as to improve the trajectory of their academic achievement.
Efforts to Address the Achievement Gap
Nationally, there have been policies and initiatives aimed at closing the achievement gap
by employing strategies that enhance the state of civil rights and the allocation of resources. As a
reauthorization of the ESEA, NCLB of 2002 required more regulations to receive Title I funds; in
addition, it required states to implement standards and assessment procedures in reading, mathe-
matics, and science along with accountability systems in efforts to improve whole school systems
(Ferguson & Mehta, 2004; Superfine, 2011). NCLB was based on four premises aimed at
addressing the persistent problems in U.S. public education: (a) school accountability for student
outcomes, (b) flexibility for state and local school districts, (c) emphasis on evidence-based
education methods, and (d) alternative options for parents of children in failing schools (The
White House, 2002). Although the intent of NCLB was to improve educational outcomes and
close the achievement gap, it faltered due to the complicated implementation of the law that has
led to unintended negative consequences (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Groen, 2012; Jaiani &
Whitford, 2011). As currently practiced, NCLB has the potential to harm the students that it is
intended to support by assuming that all schools operate on equal terms. For instance, NCLB sets
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 33
impractical test score targets that disproportionately penalize schools that predominantly serve
students in need of additional supports, while incentivizing schools to exclude or push out
students who are low performing in order to raise school average test scores (Darling-Hammond,
2007). Such unintended negative consequences of NCLB threaten the very fabric of U.S. public
education by promoting the exclusion of students who are presumably protected by lawful
mandates.
To counter the effect of the current state of academic achievement, the federal govern-
ment has created programs aimed at improving the practices of the public educational system.
RTTP was an unprecedented competitive federal grant intended to initiate education reform in
the United States (Nicholson-Crotty & Staley, 2012). In order to accomplish this feat, the RTTT
program plans to “support investments in innovative strategies that are most likely to lead to
improved results for students, long-term gains in schools and school system capacity, and
increased productivity and effectiveness” (USDOE, 2009, p. 2). The program encompasses six
priorities: (a) a comprehensive approach to education reform; (b) an emphasis on science, tech-
nology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM); (c) innovations for improving early learning
outcomes, (d) expansion and adaptation of statewide longitudinal data systems, (e) P-20 (pre-
school through graduate school) coordination, vertical and horizontal alignment; and (f) school-
level conditions for reform, innovation, and learning (USDOE, 2009). RTTT is predicated on the
notion that teacher quality is a prominent factor in closing the achievement gap by heavily weigh-
ing this component in its selection criteria (USDOE, 2009). RTTT promotes states’ effective use
of data to evaluate teachers to promote their growth or to validate their termination (Hershberg &
Robertson-Kraft, 2010; Nicholson-Crotty & Staley, 2012). Understandably, the first two groups
of grantees were awarded in 2010; therefore, any valid measurements of the program’s
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 34
effectiveness are yet to come (USDOE, 2013). The RTTT program endorsed the development
and adoption of a high-quality common set of educational standards (USDOE, 2009) in efforts to
close the achievement gap; subsequently, the nation has followed suit.
Since 2010, states across the country have adopted and implemented the same standards
for English and math; these standards are referred to as the CCSS (CDE, 2015b). Educational
standards hone in on what students should know and be able to do in each subject by grade level.
Theoretically, the advent of the CCSS will provide states with the opportunity to align their
systems of assessment and accountability. Two consortia have been charged with designing new
assessments for the CCSS: the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers
and the SBAC; these assessments aim at better evaluating students’ higher order thinking skills
(Darling-Hammond et al., 2014). Above all, CCSS seeks to anchor education standards to
equitably prepare students for learning and to compete in a global economy (Kornhaber et al.,
2014). Thus, resource allocation is of upmost importance to support the infusion of CCSS into
U.S. educational agencies.
States have overhauled their funding practices to be better able to serve the students in
higher need. In California, the 2013–2014 school district budgets replaced the previous K–12
finance system with the purpose of accomplishing such a task (CDE, 2015a). Under the LCFF,
California has adopted a funding stream based on the premise that those students in greater need
require more resources in order to have equitable opportunities to learn (Affeldt, 2015; Menefee-
Libey & Kerchner, 2013). More specifically, each school district will receive additional funding
for high-need students, such as those qualifying for free and reduced-price meals, English lan-
guage learners (ELLs), and foster youth (Affeldt, 2015)—thus enhancing the prior system, where
school districts of similar demographics received considerably unequal amounts of funding
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 35
(Kirst, Goertz, & Odden, 2007; Loeb, Bryk, & Hanushek, 2008). This weighted funding system
puts the principle of equity in the forefront of K–12 public education. For accountability pur-
poses, school districts are required to create, adopt, and annually update a 3-year LCAP, which is
required to identify goals and evaluate progress for student subgroups across multiple perfor-
mance indicators (CDE, 2015a). The projection for full implementation of the LCFF was ex-
pected to be established in 8 years from the 2013–2014 fiscal year, thereby putting any measures
of value to determine its effectiveness in closing the achievement gap on hold (CDE, 2015a).
Policies and fiscal measures have, in good faith, focused their efforts on remedying the harsh
reality of the achievement gap.
Impact of the Achievement Gap
In U.S. public education, inequity is a persistent reality as evident from the achievement
gap. The achievement gap first received national notoriety from the report by Coleman et al.
(1966), whose race-based, quantitative study found that family socioeconomic status was the
most predictive factor of student academic achievement. Although Coleman et al. found that
family background was most influential in academic achievement, in the 1966 issue of The
Public Interest, Coleman also noted that minority children’s disparity grew further in reading and
math at the end of their first-grade year as compared to their White counterparts (as cited in
Kahlenberg, 2001).
More recent research has pointed to the consistency of the achievement gap (Duncan &
Murnane, 2011). These differences are continuous as students proceed through their academic
careers (Clotfelter et al. 2009; Hanushek & Rivkin, 2006). Due to the long-standing history of
the achievement gap, it would be remiss to neglect the educational and social ramifications of
such a phenomenon.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 36
African American Students and the Achievement Gap
The gap in academic achievement between minority and nonminority students is arguably
the most crucial of all educational problems in the United States and more so because it has per-
sistently widened for students in need of additional supports. Various educational practices have
produced such an educational outcome for African American students. Suspensions and expul-
sions are used widely and at increasing rates despite the fact that the practice has been denounced
as ineffective and counterproductive. One of the negative consequences of these disciplinary
measures is an adverse impact on suspended students’ achievement. Historically, the dispropor-
tionate disciplinary practices for African American youth have been prevalent in the educational
system and have demonstrated a propensity to promote academic underachievement among this
population (Skiba et al., 2002). When students are not in school, their educational access is
severed and, in turn, their learning is no longer supported. Exclusionary discipline practices have
been found to increase the dropout rate by creating academic gaps and the deterioration of in-
school adult supports (Arcia, 2006; Christle, Nelson, & Jolivette, 2004; Rafaelle Mendez &
Knoff, 2003; Skiba, Nardo, & Peterson, 2002). More specifically, studies have concluded that
there is a negative impact between out-of-school suspensions and overall test performance. A
recent study analyzed the demographic, disciplinary, and academic data of 3,175 African Ameri-
can students to determine the correlation between suspensions of African American students and
their academic achievement as measured by a state mathematical assessment (Matney, 2012).
The study revealed that as the number of suspensions increased, the passing rate consequently
decreased. The negative impact of exclusionary disciplinary practices on academic achievement
has been well documented and supported by research.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 37
Researchers have also investigated the long-term effect of exclusionary discipline prac-
tices on academic achievement. Arcia (2006) presented the results of a longitudinal analysis on
suspensions, achievement, and the long-term enrollment status of students in a large urban school
district. The sample of this student population was comprised of 58% Hispanics, 29% Blacks,
10% Whites, and 3% other races. The study utilized a sample of suspended students and a
matched comparison. This ex post facto study used the district’s student database system for
each of the three academic years under study. The measure of reading achievement utilized was
the students’ developmental scores on the state’s reading competency test; these data were used
to measure academic achievement. All suspension data were recorded by event; one record for
each suspension specified its type and duration. Students were grouped by suspension history
and quantitatively examined to establish relationships between suspensions and academic
achievement. Findings indicated that suspended students had substantially lower presuspension
academic achievement than did students in the nonsuspended comparison group. The study also
showed that suspended students gained considerably less academic achievement throughout 3
years with suspensions and had high dropout rates; all patterns depicted that with more increases
in suspensions, there were decreases in achievement (Arcia, 2006).
Similar studies have echoed the impact of how student disciplinary practices impact the
reading achievement of minority students. Beck and Muschkin (2012) examined the processes
with respect to disciplinary infractions that influence the Black-White gap in students’ academic
achievement. The study included only middle schools that contained sixth, seventh, and eighth
grades with both White and Black students (339 schools; 75,803 students). This ex post facto
study linked test scores and disciplinary information for individual students and divulged their
relationship. Results showed that each disciplinary infraction committed over the course of the
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 38
year considerably decreased student’s reading achievement. Black students in this study showed
more of a propensity to commit disciplinary infractions due to the interrelationship between
academic underachievement and misbehavior. Beck and Muschkin showed that discipline
infractions resulted in poor achievement and vice versa. Thus, current policies and procedures
have failed to create the conditions to alleviate a repetitive cycle of schools failure for minority
students.
Latino Students and the Achievement Gap
According to U.S. Census Bureau (2015b), the United States is projected to become more
racially and ethnically diverse in the coming years—more so due to Latinos being the third fastest
growing population. The U.S. Census Bureau (2015b) postulated that by 2060, more than 25%
of the total population will be Latino. This demographic shift should be of particular interest to
educators and policymakers as this group is also experiencing the effects of the achievement gap.
As the Latino population grows, their underachievement in reading and mathematics will have
significant ramifications for the nation as a whole.
Research has captured the manner in which the achievement gap has materialized for the
Latino population. For example, the NCES (2015) reported that from 1975 to 2012, there was no
significant narrowing of the reading achievement gap between White and Latino 17-year-olds
based on test data generated by the NAEP. The achievement in mathematics has followed a
similar pattern. In 1978, White adolescents earned an average scale score of 306 on NAEP
assessments; on the contrary, Latinos earned an average scale score of 276, thus indicating a gap
of 30 between the two scores (NCES, 2015). In 2012, the gap in mathematical achievement was
not of any statistical significance as there was only a 20-point difference between the two groups
(NCES, 2015).
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 39
The achievement gap between Latino and White students has manifested itself in Califor-
nia just as it has on the national level. To illustrate, the CDE (2017a) reported that in 2013, 36%
of 11th-grade Latino students were within the proficient and advanced scoring range in the
English Language Arts section of the STAR assessment, whereas White 11th-grade students who
were categorized within the proficient and advanced range encompassed 62% (CDE, 2017b). In
addition, 42% of seventh-grade Latino students were found to score within the proficient and
advanced range in the CST section of mathematics; in contrast, 65% of White students scored
within the range of proficiency and advanced (CDE, 2017a, 2017b). These figures demonstrate
the glaring reality of the disparities of achievement levels between the two groups. It should be
noted that the STAR program ended on July 1, 2013, and was replaced by the California Assess-
ment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) system. These two assessments cannot be
reliably compared because CAASPP evaluates new standards that emphasize analytical thinking,
problem solving and communications skills (CDE, 2015b). Due to California’s transition period
of testing and accountability, testing measures to describe the achievement gap in California will
be developed in the near future.
ELLs and the Achievement Gap
The U.S. Census Bureau (2015a) reported that members of millennial generation are far
more likely than past generations to be foreign born and speak a language other than English at
home. This shift in language usage in the home should cause educators concern with regard to
their pedagogical practices due to the ongoing academic underachievement of ELLs (Aud, Fox,
& Kewal-Ramani, 2010; Fry, 2007). NCLB (2002) defines an ELL as a student who faces dif-
ficulties in speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language that may obstruct
the student’s ability to achieve in classrooms where the language of instruction is English
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 40
(Thompson, 2015). The use of this definition illustrates that language proficiency is fundamental
for academic success, yet there have been no significant advances toward English fluency from
these learners (Boyle, Taylor, Hurlburt, & Soga, 2010). In 2007, an estimated 11 million elemen-
tary and secondary students spoke a language other than English at home. According to a survey
of parents, about a quarter of these students had difficulty speaking English—which translates to
approximately 5% of all elementary and secondary students who had difficulty speaking English
(Aud et al., 2010). It is abundantly clear that English language fluency is a precursor to academic
success and the lack thereof will cause achievement gaps between this group and their peers.
The gaps between African American and Latino and White students are well documented
(Jencks & Phillips, 1998), but the advent of NCLB (2002) initiated research of how the achieve-
ment gap directly impacts ELLs. As a result, researchers have identified the stark disparities that
exist between the achievement of ELLs and their native English-speaking counterparts across
multiple indicators, such as achievement test scores and graduation rates (Aud et al., 2010; Fry,
2007).
The issue of reclassification of ELLs has also been of particular interest for researchers, as
it denotes the success or failures of assessment and accountability procedures as well as peda-
gogical practices. A 9-year longitudinal study from the Los Angeles Unified School District
provided empirically based estimates of the time it took ELLs to become reclassified as proficient
in English (Thompson, 2015). Findings suggested that full proficiency in a second language
typically takes 4 to 7 years; however, after 9 years in the district, approximately 25% of students
had not been reclassified (Thompson, 2015). Such educational inequities have detrimentally
impacted the academic outcomes of ELLs (Thompson, 2015; Ochoa & Cadeiro-Kaplan, 2004).
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 41
Although the literature described the achievement gap as unsurmountable, there have been
strategies and programs that have championed the narrowing of the achievement gap.
Promising Practices and the Achievement Gap
Another purpose of this literature review is to describe the state of the research on the
educational efforts that have ameliorated the achievement gap. Thus far, the discourse presented
has described legislative efforts along with the allocation of resources that have aimed at narrow-
ing the gap. Despite these efforts, the achievement gap can be described as unwavering, but there
have been programs and educational entities that have been shown to close the achievement gap.
These effective programs and processes have not been developed at the national level but rather
in local educational agencies (LEAs) that have implemented promising strategies in producing
better educational outcomes for all students. This portion of the review will highlight several
themes found in the literature, including 90-90-90 schools, data-driven strategies, bilingual
education, and multitiered support systems as efforts that have proven promising.
Despite the persistence of the achievement gap, researchers have identified practices that
have resulted in the closing of the achievement gap (Kearney, Herrington, & Aguilar, 2012;
Williams, 2011). Schools known as 90-90-90 schools have demonstrated the capacity to amelio-
rate the achievement gap. The 90-90-90 schools have more than 90% of students eligible for free
or reduced-price lunch, more than 90% of students from an ethnic minority, and more than 90%
of students who have met academic standards as assessed by achievement tests (Reeves, 2003).
According to Reeves (2003), these schools share five common characteristics with respect to high
student achievement: a focus on academic achievement, offering students curriculum choices,
frequent assessment of student progress and multiple opportunities for improvement, an empha-
sis on writing, and collaborative scoring of student work. Studies have shown that the practices
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 42
of the 90-90-90 schools can be generalized to other urban environments with similar results
(Simpson, 2003). The use of data within this organizational framework to drive decisions has
also led to promising practices.
Educational institutions that make effective use of data to comprehensively ascertain
achievement trends have demonstrated their capacity to diminish gaps in student achievement
(Armstrong & Anthes, 2001; Darling-Hammond et al., 2014; Knoeppel & Brewer, 2011).
Studies have revealed how districts have used data to drastically improve student achievement.
More specifically, state assessment scores have improved by 1 to 13 percentage points after
instituting data-driven strategies (Armstrong & Anthes, 2001). Research on formative assess-
ment has suggested that systematic use of timely student performance data to improve instruction
and to monitor student progress is essential features of effective schools (Brookhart, 2007).
Researchers have developed a list of attributes that characterize how districts have made effective
use of data, including (a) the commitment of educational leadership to collect and use data for
decision making; (b) a supportive districtwide culture for using data for continuous improvement;
(c) a strong data service orientation toward principals and teachers; (d) a partnership between
universities and businesses to obtain additional technical support; (e) a mechanism for supporting
and training personnel to use data; (f) close monitoring of every student’s performance on
academic standards; (g) flexibility in how time is used to be conducive for the use of data; and a
well-defined, data-driven school improvement process (Armstrong & Anthes, 2001).
Bilingual programs have also demonstrated the ability to enhance student learning.
Multiple meta-analyses have found positive effects for bilingual education on a variety of second-
language outcomes (August & Shanahan, 2006; Greene, 1997; Slavin & Cheung, 2005; Willig,
1985). In addition, results from a randomized controlled trial suggested that students learn to
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 43
read in English equally well in bilingual programs and in English-only programs (Slavin, Mad-
den, Calderón, Chamberlain, & Hennessy, 2011). The 50-50 Content Model has supported the
academic achievement of first- and second-language learners (Gomez, Freeman, & Freeman,
2005). This model incorporates the following features:
1. It divides languages by subject;
2. It provides instruction in each subject in only one language with the exception of
language arts;
3. It supports the development of content biliteracy;
4. It incorporates the use of Bilingual Learning Centers for project-based learning; and
5. The language usage for morning announcements, morning activities, storytelling,
music, computer lab, physical education, and library time interchange each day (Gomez et al.,
2005). The implementation of this model has resulted in progress in standardized assessments
for third- and fifth-grade students (Gomez et al., 2005). According to Gomez et al. (2005), the
test results from two districts suggest that this model demonstrates the advancement of academic
achievement and biliteracy for all students.
The literature proposed that the Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) has proven
effective in narrowing the achievement gap (Benner, Kutash, Nelson, & Fisher, 2013). The
MTSS is consistent with the components of positive behavior intervention supports (PBISs),
which include a prevention-based continuum of supports, proactive measures to teach, imple-
mentation of evidence-based practices, systems to efficiently provide supports, and data-based
decision making (Sugai et al., 2000). The establishment of such a culture within a school pro-
vides the supports needed to create effective learning environments. For example, a rigorous
study using a randomized, controlled trial design with students who previously exhibited problem
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 44
behaviors showed lower levels of problem behaviors and higher rates of on-task behavior
(Benner et al., 2013). Studies have consistently demonstrated that when MTSS strategies are
employed, students’ on-task behavior increases, hence improving their academic outcomes
(Hunter & Hayden, 2013; Hunter et al., 2015 ). Although the aforementioned practices have been
promising in closing the achievement gap, research should continue to explore the ways in which
the achievement gap can be eliminated from U.S. schools.
Critique of the Literature
Historically, the academic underachievement that has manifested in minorities and par-
ticular subgroups has materialized the widening of the achievement gap. The literature has
identified student populations that have been impacted by this phenomenon. In addition, the
discourse has described the extent and impact of its ramifications. Legislative policies and
innovative educational programs have aimed toward closing the achievement gap, and the liter-
ature has described these efforts as either faulty or promising. There have been vast advances
toward understanding the achievement gap, but there is limited research in the area of how
schools allocate resources and leverage their capacity to implement programs and strategies that
have been shown to narrow the achievement gap, especially with the advent of CCSS and new
funding parameters such as California’s LCFF. It will be difficult for schools to do business as
usual due to this transition period. As a result, formidable changes in processes are now neces-
sary.
Due to the recent educational trends experienced in California and nationwide, research in
how outperforming urban schools allocate resources and implement programs is imperative to
further advance educational research in this realm. Therefore, this case study has extrapolated
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 45
the conditions that exist in an outperforming urban school so as to enhance the understanding of
efforts that are in place when achievement gaps are ameliorated.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 46
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Investigative inquiry is necessary to pave the way toward more equitable educational
outcomes and, more importantly, to improve the human condition. Therefore, the aim of this
case study was to understand the processes of how an outperforming urban school allocated
resources, instituted programs, and built professional capacity. In doing so, the continuum of this
qualitative research included developing research questions, a conceptual framework, and
protocols; formulating a priori codes; data collection; developing coding procedures; identifying
patterns; labeling themes; and proposing assertions substantiated by the data. These qualitative
research methods resulted in credible, dependable, and confirmable results.
Research Questions
The function of a research question is to specifically explain what the study is intending to
understand (Maxwell, 2013). The intention of the present study was to reveal and interpret the
characteristics of resource allocation, programs, and capacity building that co-existed with the
narrowing of the achievement gap. School personnel can construct the systems that influence
how resources are utilized, program implementation, and capacity building. Therefore, to under-
stand the advances of an outperforming urban school, it is only practical to start the inquiry with
the faculty as a whole. In addition, the literature has suggested that there are specific characteris-
tics of resource allocation, programs, and capacity building that exist in schools where the nar-
rowing of the achievement gap has occurred. Therefore, the research questions that drove the
understanding of this topic were the following:
1. How are resources allocated within the school where academic outcomes have
improved for underrepresented youth?
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 47
2. What programs exist within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
3. How is capacity built within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this case study was adapted from one developed by
Darling-Hammond et al. (2014) that encompassed a reciprocal and comprehensive system
focusing on capacity building and on an accountability structure that promotes an effective school
organization and ultimately meaningful learning. The framework also moves beyond the need for
intelligently allocating resources and professional expertise to include strategic planning, evalua-
tion, and quality reviews in order to practice continuous improvement. Figure 1 illustrates how
this framework coincides with the present case study. For instance, this case study also focused
on the reciprocal and comprehensive system of an outperforming school in relation to capacity
building and resource allocation. Additionally, programs were added into the framework to fully
capture the manifestation of professional expertise and how resources come to fruition. This case
study describes the reciprocal relationship among capacity building, resource allocation and
programs at Champion High School (CHS).
1
It also captured their planning and evaluative
methods that illustrated how the school continued to improve. In sum, the conceptual framework
offers a depiction of the triangulation of efforts that exist when achievement gaps are narrowed.
1
For purposes of confidentiality, pseudonyms have been used for the case study high
school and district names.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 48
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for study. Adapted from “Ac-
countability for College and Career Readiness: Developing a New
Paradigm,” by L. Darling-Hammond, G. Wilhoit, and L. Pittenger,
2014, Education Policy Analysis Archives, 22(86), 1–38.
Research Design and Methods
The research questions emphasize what and how, thereby indicating that the study was
seeking to analyze the concepts of process and meaning; these concepts were strong indicators of
qualitative methods that further aligned the purpose of the study with the research approach
(McEwan & McEwan, 2003). The qualitative research questions for this case study justified the
design and methods that could substantiate an explicit understanding of an outperforming urban
school’s resource utilization, programs, and capacity building. Qualitative methods denote
document analysis, surveys, interviews, observations, and the researcher as the primary instru-
ment in efforts to utilize multiple sources of information to comprise case-based themes (Mer-
riam, 2009). This form of qualitative methodology aided in the construction of themes for the
case study.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 49
Interviews and observations were used to explore the “unit of analysis” (Merriam, 2009,
p. 41) of interest within its real-life context. According to Weiss (1994), an interview is charac-
terized as a purposeful conversation. The purposeful nature of an interview is to explore those
factors that cannot be observed and to allow the researcher to investigate the perspectives of the
subjects under study (Patton, 2002). Researchers engage in person-to-person interviews to hone
in on the perspective of interviewees by focusing on questions related to the research study. As a
result, researchers gain a rich account of the topic being studied.
In qualitative research, the use of multiple sources of data is common practice to triangu-
late and enhance the credibility of a study. Observations are another way of collecting qualitative
data that enable the researcher access to a holistic interpretation of the study (Merriam, 2009).
This naturalistic approach speaks to how qualitative researchers seek and collect data in the field
where participants experience the phenomenon under study (Creswell, 2013; McEwan &
McEwan, 2003). Due to the nature of the study being anchored in a real-life setting, it had the
potential of offering a rich account of how resources were utilized and what characteristics of
capacity building and programs existed in an outperforming urban school.
This case study was a team effort with four other thematic dissertation case studies that
were sponsored by the University of Southern California and led by Dr. Stuart E. Gothold. It
should be noted that the research design and instruments were formulated by the thematic disser-
tation team, but each dissertation was written individually. These amalgamated case studies
focused on the description of capacity building and programs along with how resources were
utilized in one outperforming urban school. Each case study was directed by a doctoral student
that examined an outperforming urban school in the greater Los Angeles area in California. The
dissertation team examined five public high schools across four different school districts. By
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 50
examining various outperforming urban schools, the team of researchers attempted to extrapolate
the conditions that existed in these identified schools where achievement gaps were ameliorated,
thereby enhancing the educational research in the realm of capacity building, programs, and
resource allocation for the betterment of educational practice.
The research design and methods were jointly constructed by the research team in efforts
to gather pertinent information related to the schools’ capacity building, allocation of resources,
and programs. The researchers designed a conceptual framework to showcase the interrelated
dynamics between the concepts under study and the narrowing of the achievement gap. The
instrumentation surveys, interview protocols, observation procedures, and document analysis
were direct products of this collaborative effort. The team of five doctoral students met through-
out the span of the study to facilitate such an endeavor.
Sampling
The thematic dissertation group identified the criteria for an outperforming urban school
by using public records and school-specific documents. The school criteria established were the
following: (a) a student population of 500 or more, (b) a minority population of 50% or more, (c)
an ELL population of 10% or more, (d) a socioeconomically disadvantaged student population of
70% or more, (e) A-G completion rates of 50% or more, (f) a Similar Schools Rank of 8 or more,
(g) graduation rates of 85% or more, and (h) an API of 800 or more for the last 3 consecutive
years of when this form of California’s accountability system was in effect.
CHS is one of nine high schools in the Legacy Unified School District (LUSD). CHS is
nestled in a densely populated area in southern California (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). CHS
meets the criteria depicting an outperforming urban school by having a student population of over
2,000 students, a minority population of 50% or more, an ELL population of 15.7%, a
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 51
socioeconomically disadvantaged student population of 95.2%, an A-G completion rate of
63.82%, a Similar Schools Rank of 10, and a graduation rate of 99.37%. From 2011 to 2013, its
API exceeded 800.
Typically, qualitative researchers study a relatively small number of individuals in efforts
to preserve the processes and meanings that develop under the unique context in which they
occur (Weiss, 1994). This study followed suit by incorporating a small number of interviewees
in the sample. This researcher used purposeful sampling, a method of sampling that is best suited
for qualitative research and that promotes access to information-rich participants (Creswell,
2013; Merriam, 2009). Information-rich subjects are those individuals from which a researcher
can obtain in-depth knowledge that is central to the purpose of inquiry (Merriam, 2009). This
sampling method was appropriate because the results from the survey yielded the identification of
the school’s information-rich participants. Purposeful sampling was also achieved by engaging
in an initial on-site observation that included informal discussions with school personnel. As a
result, the researcher identified the personnel who were most closely related to building profes-
sional capacity, allocating resources, and program implementation. This process allowed him to
interview those individuals who had the most potential in possessing the richest information with
regard to this study. Ultimately, the inclusion of the participants in the sample was directly
linked to the research questions. To illustrate, this researcher’s sample was comprised of admin-
istrators, departmental chairs, and informal leaders because the focus of the study was to gain an
understanding of how resources were utilized, what programs existed, and to obtain a detailed
description of how professional capacity was built at CHS.
The researcher conducted a series of observations that involved how CHS allocated
resources, implemented programs, and built professional capacity. For example, the setting for
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 52
an observation occurred in a multipurpose room where administrators, teachers, counselors,
parents, and students met to discuss resource allocation for the upcoming year, especially with
respect to programs. The dialogue that transpired in these planning meetings revolved around the
disbursement of resources to ensure the capacity to implement the school’s programs. As noted,
school administrators facilitated these strategic planning meetings; and because one focus of the
study was to understand how school personnel allocated resources, it was worthwhile to explore
the process that guided their resource allocation.
The documents used for analysis included those related to the school profile, demograph-
ics, achievement data, fiscal information, and school programs. For example, CHS’s School Plan
for Student Achievement (SPSA) was closely examined due to its detailed account of the
school’s processes and practices. The SARC offered data related to demographics and student
achievement. Documents that shed light on fiscal resources included the school’s Title 1 budget-
ary line items. Finally, the school’s website and promotional brochures described its current
programs. These documents enhanced triangulation efforts to substantiate the findings.
Access/Entry
The school site principal was contacted to advise her of the purpose of the study and to
obtain access to proceed with the study. In doing so, the researcher specifically outlined steps
that were needed to complete the study. The researcher also explained the degree of intrusive-
ness, the time commitment of the participants, and the timeline for the completion of the study.
The researcher elaborated as to how he was going to use the findings of the study. He informed
the principal that the findings were strictly going to be used for the purposes of conducting a case
study and by no means would serve as any sort of evaluation. The principal was given reasons as
to why this school was chosen, which were due to criteria set forth by the thematic dissertation
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 53
research team. Finally, it was conveyed how the study might serve to inform the processes of the
school regarding capacity building, resource allocation, and programs. As a result of this conver-
sation, the principal allowed access to the participants for the study.
This researcher then approached the participants who were of interest to the study. The
conversation with these stakeholders resembled much the same that was had with the principal.
All participants were informed of the purpose of the study and the parameters of their participa-
tion. All participants gave verbal consent indicating their willingness to participate in the study.
Protocols
Document review protocol. Documents and artifacts can help the researcher to uncover
meaning, develop understanding, and discover insights relevant to the research in question (Mer-
riam, 2009). After pertinent documents are identified, the researcher must assess the authenticity
and nature of such documents; next, the researcher must adopt a system for coding and cataloging
them (Merriam, 2009). To initiate the cataloging of relevant documents, the thematic dissertation
team categorized accessible documents into the following themes: school profile, demographics,
achievement data, fiscal information, and school programs (see Appendix A).
Survey protocol. The study’s first level of inquiry was in the form of a survey to all
certificated school personnel. The goal of the survey was to obtain a broad understanding of
capacity building, resource allocation, and programs found within the context of the school. In
addition, it facilitated the identification of information rich-participants to be interviewed. This
procedure allowed for a more in-depth understanding of the research questions. Creswell (2013)
supported this method as he denoted that the idea behind qualitative research is to purposefully
select participants that will guide the researcher in understanding the research question(s). The
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 54
survey was designed to gain a general sense of the topics under study and to identify
information-rich participants (see Appendix B).
Interview protocol. A well-drafted interview protocol can promote the emergence of a
purposeful conversation in efforts to capture data that are relevant to one’s research questions
(Merriam, 2009). Patton (2002) suggested six types of questions that can elicit rich information
from an interviewee: experience and behavior questions, opinion and values questions, feeling
questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, and background/demographic questions.
Initially, knowledge questions were used to assess participants’ level of expertise in the areas of
capacity building, resource allocation, and programs; this procedure was necessary to substantiate
their involvement in the study. There was significant use of opinion and value questions embed-
ded in the interview protocol, which were questions that aimed at understanding an individual’s
cognitive and interpretive process with respect to his or her judgments and values (Patton, 2002).
In addition, this researcher utilized feeling questions to obtain participants’ affective state toward
their capacity building, resource allocation, and program implementation; these questions helped
the researcher to obtain degrees of satisfaction from the participants. The inclusion of probes led
to the implementation of a semistructured interview, which enhanced the opportunities to gather
details and clarification. Overall, the construction and format of the questions yielded descriptive
data with respect to the research questions (see Appendix C).
The interview protocol laid the foundation by which to introduce the interview process.
Initially, gratitude was expressed for their participation. Interviewees were then informed of the
length of time for the interview in efforts to remain transparent. In addition, the interviewees
were informed of the purpose of the study, and it was emphasized that this process was not going
to be used as an evaluative tool. Interviewees were informed that their participation was strictly
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 55
voluntary and that identities would remain confidential. After these disclosures were shared,
each interviewee was asked for permission to audio record the interview. The researcher
received verbal consent to proceed with each interview.
Observation protocol. Qualitative research uses observations as a means to incorporate
a holistic interpretation of the subjects under study (Merriam, 2009). More specifically, observa-
tions require the researcher to observe, record, and retain the information being witnessed so as to
acquire a firsthand account of what is being studied (Merriam, 2009). The selection of observa-
tion periods was determined by the research questions. For instance, this researcher observed
strategic planning meetings that were related to capacity building, programs, and resource allo-
cation. The observation of these meetings allowed him to gain a deeper understanding of the
topics of interest. The majority of the observations occurred in the College Center’s multipur-
pose room, where multidisciplinary teams met to discuss data and make decisions relative to
capacity building, resource allocation, and programs. A template was designed to capture
relevant information during observation periods (see Appendix D).
Data Collection Approach
The specific methods of data collection came by way of documents, surveys, interviews,
and observations. The study’s initial level of inquiry was in the form of a survey, which was
considered the first course of action to gain a general sense of the areas understudy and to identify
information-rich participants. Then documents and artifacts were collected to help uncover
meaning and acquire insights relevant to the research questions (Merriam, 2009). This process
was followed by interviews that elicited conversations that elaborated on the research questions.
Finally, observations provided clarification by providing a firsthand account of CHS’s processes
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 56
(Merriam, 2009). Overall, the data collection methods provided rich information for analysis and
ultimately for the development of case-based themes.
The study utilized an online platform to develop and disseminate the survey. The online
program, Qualtrics, had the capacity to provide a link via electronic email to CHS’s faculty. The
survey yielded 39 electronic certificated faculty responses. The faculty participants responded to
17 four-point Likert scale statements and three open ended questions that focused on resource
allocation, programs, and capacity building.
The researcher interviewed the principal, department chairs, counselors, and teachers on
special assignment. The interviews took place in a conference room in the main office. The tools
he used to facilitate the interviews included the interview protocol, an audio recording device, as
well as pen and paper. As previously mentioned, audio recording was used for all of the partici-
pants; therefore, the audio recording device was in place prior to the start of the interview. As the
researcher read through the interview questions, he took notes to closely record the interviewee’s
responses in efforts to capture the information being provided. The practice of audio recording
the interview ensures that the participant’s discourse is preserved for analysis (Merriam, 2009).
Immediately following each interview, the researcher engaged in reflective thought to elaborate
and make meaning of the interview; this practice allowed him to initially analyze the information.
Observations were recorded in much the same way as the interview method of data col-
lection. Pen-and-paper recording were used in capturing the data from the observation periods.
The researcher participated in the observations as an overt observer; all parties were well aware
of his purpose for conducting the observations. Throughout the observation, his positioning was
fixed from a vantage point from which he was able to view each participant. Postobservation
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 57
notes were especially helpful in making the connections to how the school team made decisions
that would influence capacity building, program implementation, and resource allocation.
Data Analysis
Survey analysis. The online survey platform, Qualtrics, yielded 39 electronic certificated
responses. The participants were asked for their years of experience. In addition, they responded
to 17 four-point Likert scale questions and three open-ended questions. The use of a precatego-
rized response survey, with the same limited options for response, facilitated the proportion of
respondents who chose each option. The survey approach identified linkages between the faculty
and the concepts of resource allocation, capacity building, and programs.
Interview and observation analysis. The interview protocol for this study incorporated
questions aimed at extracting descriptive data of how school personnel described capacity
building, programs, and resource allocation. In combination with observations, the researcher
gained more of a holistic interpretation of how school personnel allocated resources as well as
their implementation of programs (Merriam, 2009). The interpretation of the data was derived
from a generic approach whereby the researcher collected data, analyzed and interpreted the data,
and reported on the four major themes that emerged from the study (Lichtman, 2014). More
specifically, the researcher identified initial categories from reviewing the interview transcripts in
which he wrote in the margins with the intention of developing codes (Harding, 2013). Then he
reviewed the list of codes in efforts to revise and restructure the categories to conclusively
identify the major themes in the case study (Harding, 2013). To safeguard the accuracy of the
data, shortly after collection, a first-level analysis immediately followed each of the data points
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). For the observational data, the researcher combed through the notes
from the observation to conduct a first-level analysis; this process allowed him to make notes in
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 58
the margins and to utilize memos for clarification purposes. He used this same process for the
interviews to initially analyze the data. The initial process was conducive to the use of a priori
codes, emergent codes, and axial codes as a means to interpret the data (Miles, Huberman, &
Saldaña, 2014). Axial codes were instrumental in seeking commonalities to group similar
themes found from the data; as a result, meaning was made from the raw data (Harding, 2013;
Miles et al., 2014). This process allowed the researcher to purge insignificant findings from the
data. The groupings and purging of the data were guided by the aims of examining commonali-
ties and assessing the differences and relationships within the parameters of the research question
to make valid assertions (Harding, 2013; Miles et al., 2014).
Document review analysis. The documents that focused on the school profile, demo-
graphic data, achievement data, fiscal information, and program descriptions were thoroughly
reviewed. Throughout the course of document reviews, axial codes were used as a frame of
reference to identify detailed accounts of such themes and to further solidify the findings. Mer-
riam (2009) suggested that in a qualitative study it is common practice to utilize multiple sources
of data to triangulate and substantiate emerging themes from a study. Subsequently, this case
study used documents, surveys, interviews, and observations to ensure valid and credible results.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In qualitative research, the burden of proof lies with the researcher. Therefore, it is of
utmost importance for the researcher to use strategies that result in plausible findings (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985). To counter the potency of threats to validity due to the short time frame of the
study and the small sample size, recommended strategies were used from the practicum of quali-
tative research. For instance, theoretical saturation was reached by triangulating the data from the
interviews, observations, and document analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Maxwell, 2013). By
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 59
doing so, it further substantiated the findings and enhanced the study’s efforts to validate and
confirm the assertions through the use of multiple sources of data (Maxwell, 2013; Miles et al.,
2014). Another effort that was employed to uphold the dependability of the study was to remain
consistent with the research design and process (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). To illustrate, the quali-
tative research design was guided by the research questions that directed the use of the data
gathering protocols and coding procedures to support the assertions of the study. Particular
attention was given to the protocols in efforts to remain consistent with the data gathering proce-
dures. Finally, the confirmability of the study was supported by the audit trail—meaning that the
interviews and observations could be tracked back to their original source (Lincoln & Guba,
1985). As the primary instrument in this study, the researcher introspectively addressed the issue
of reflexivity. Reflexivity refers to when the researcher is part of the phenomenon under study
and how it undoubtedly influences the responses from the interviewee (Corbin & Strauss, 2006;
Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). In efforts to reduce this condition, the researcher frequently
used probing questions seeking clarification in order to gather more detail regarding the topic of
inquiry. Seeking further elaboration promoted the interviewee to report closer to their reality.
Also, by pursuing elaboration, it would more closely honor the interviewee’s perspective rather
than having their meaning influenced by my biases when it was time to code.
Ethics
Despite regulatory policies and guidelines, ethical practice is ultimately governed by the
researcher’s values and ethics (Merriam, 2009). In this study, ethical practice was exercised
throughout the various levels of the study, such as to obtain access, during data collecting meth-
ods, throughout data analysis, and in reporting procedures. In obtaining access, full disclosures
of the parameters were given to the individuals under study with respect to the parameters of their
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 60
participation, the intent of the study, and their confidentiality rights. This practice led to their
informed consent. Ethical procedures were exercised during data collection by incorporating
methods supported by the literature. Accuracy was also ensured by audio recording and tran-
scribing the data. The issue of ethics was upheld during data analysis by being cognizant and
reflective of the researcher’s own biases that could influence the sorting and meaning of the data;
this procedure was consistently practiced throughout the development of the analytic codes.
Merriam (2009) purported that researchers have to come to terms with their biases in order to
enhance their capacity to look beyond the verbal and nonverbal assertions of those particular
beliefs. To provide assurance that this researcher minimized the influence of bias, he actively
explored the data to disprove his own beliefs. Applying ethical standards at the onset of the study
and throughout allowed for ethical reporting to follow suit.
Chapter Summary
Qualitative research involves many intricacies that must be followed to eliminate threats
to validity and to conclude with credible, dependable, and confirmable results. As a result of
undertaking this case study, this researcher firmly acknowledged the importance of well-
constructed research questions and the approach that one should take to ensure that all efforts of
inquiry are aligned to the research questions. The researcher explicitly practiced the continuum
of qualitative research that included (a) developing research questions, (b) having a conceptual
framework, (c) developing protocols, (d) formulating a priori codes, (e) gathering data, (f)
developing coding procedures, (g) identifying patterns in the data, (h) labeling themes from the
data, and (i) proposing assertions substantiated by the data. Ethical practices were exercised
throughout the continuum of this qualitative research to safeguard its validity. This case study
also afforded this researcher the opportunity to engage in the act of making meaning from the
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 61
data gathered from documents, observations and, from the accounts of others. Coding procedures
attempted to honor the perspectives of the participants. As the researcher combed the data,
emergence of themes emerged across the data points and inherently diminished the influence of
his own biases. Ultimately, the triangulation of data was a powerful means to provide proof of
meaning and processes with regard to the capacity building, programs, and resource allocation of
an outperforming urban high school.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 62
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This chapter reveals and discusses the findings of this case study. In addition, it describes
the features and characteristics of the school that was the subject of interest. As a result of data
analysis derived from pertinent documents, surveys, interviews, and observations, several re-
sounding themes emerged. The research questions focused on the school’s processes around
resource allocation, programs, and capacity building. Therefore, the more prevailing themes that
arose were categorized under these areas. Interestingly, an additional theme that was captured
was organizational culture. These themes were identified by the high frequency noted in the
qualitative data gathering methods. The triangulation of the data further validated and solidified
these findings. This chapter concludes with a discussion in efforts to explain the relationships
among the themes.
The study spanned a period of several days at CHS. Once the study was underway, it was
apparent that the school community possessed many strengths. The school’s personnel consis-
tently substantiated that their practices in relation to how they allocated resources, implemented
programs, and built capacity, along with their culture of seeking continuous improvement ,were
what has resulted in their success in narrowing the achievement gap.
Urban Community
CHS is nestled in a densely populated city in southern California. Per the U.S. Census
Bureau (2016), the city has a population of 335,400 residents within an area of approximately 27
square miles. The most prevalent ethnic group is those of Hispanic or Latino descent (78.2%)
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). There are some challenges that this community faces as indicated
by poverty levels and residents’ access to health care. The U.S. Census Bureau (2016) reported
that 32.5% of residents under the age of 65 did not possess health insurance and that 22.1% of
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 63
residents live in poverty. This city’s geographic levels of poverty and health needs estimates are
not comparable to other similar geographic areas because the levels are higher (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2016). Often, challenges that communities face are also felt within school boundaries,
but it was evident that the collective efficacy of CHS’s personnel drove their efforts to meet the
needs of all their students despite the community’s challenges.
Champion Territory
It was at school’s end when I approached CHS for the first time. My first impression was
that of an exuberant after-school life. The football team was engaged in intense conditioning
drills. Groups of students gathered at sitting areas that were pleasantly shaded by trees. Some
students were simply enjoying each other’s company while others seemed to be engaged in
academic tasks, as suggested by open books. I also observed students carrying musical instru-
ments and heading to their next destination. This snapshot of after-school life gave me a positive
impression of student engagement.
The school’s infrastructure and design looked up to date. The landscape enhanced the
physical atmosphere of the school by providing eye-pleasing foliage and functionality. There was
a feeling of campus pride due to the cleanliness of the facility. There were vibrant signs and
posters that expressed encouragement and high expectations. The facility possessed the attributes
to host a positive academic learning environment.
I asked a student where the main office was located, and she amiably pointed me in the
right direction. The interior of the building was equally as inviting as the exterior. I noticed the
school’s seal that depicted symbolism of academics, the arts, and athletics; the sights and sounds
of the students that I noticed as I approached the school represented such a depiction. Cordiality
was extended by the main office when the school secretary politely greeted me and offered her
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 64
assistance. Then I was directed to the principal’s office. Introductions were quickly followed by
an interesting conversation of how and why the school has produced positive learning outcomes
for students.
Research Questions
This case study revealed the efforts that existed in an outperforming urban school in order
to understand the processes that were in effect when achievement gaps were narrowed. Specifi-
cally, the intent of the study was to extrapolate the processes and procedures of how CHS allo-
cated resources, built capacity, and implemented programs. The research questions that guided
the intent of this study were the following:
1. How are resources allocated within the school where academic outcomes have
improved for underrepresented youth?
2. What programs exist within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
3. How is capacity built within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
Findings
In this section, the findings will be reported from the results of the qualitative data gath-
ering tools. Pseudonyms are used throughout this section for anonymity purposes. The themes
were identified by the high frequencies noted in the survey responses, interviews, observations,
and document analysis. The triangulation of findings across the data points identified the more
prevalent themes, which were resource allocation, capacity building, programs, and organiza-
tional culture, along with the school’s tenacity for continuous improvement.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 65
Resource Allocation
The themes that emerged related to Research Question 1 were the following: systems
accountable to California’s LCFF, LCAP action plans, Title 1 funding, and School Site Council
(SSC) procedures. The first research question attempted to identify how resources were allocated
at CHS. During an informal interview, the principal, Mrs. Riley stated, “All right, so how do we
allocate resources? Well it’s all based on needs. We look at the need.” This comment seems
unassuming, but it was backed with intentional action by the school’s collective leadership and
its system for allocating resources in efforts to improve learning outcomes.
LCFF and LCAP. CHS’s resource allocation is accountable to California’s LCFF,
which is a funding stream centered on the principle that students with greater needs require addi-
tional resources (Menefee-Libey & Kerchner, 2013). According to LCFF, students with greater
needs are described as those qualifying for free and reduced-price meals, ELLs, and foster youth
(Affeldt, 2015). The LCFF played a significant role in the resources that were granted to CHS
due to the student demographics. For instance, 96% of its student population was considered
socioeconomically disadvantaged and 12% were identified as ELLs. For accountability purposes,
CHS was required to create, adopt, and annually update a 3-year LCAP, identified goals and
evaluated progress for student subgroups across multiple performance indicators (CDE, 2015a).
Title I funds. CHS had an additional funding stream through federal monies, called Title
I funds. Title I is part of the ESEA, which provides financial assistance to LEAs and schools with
high percentages of children from low-income families to help ensure that all children meet state
academic standards. These federal funds are currently allocated through four statutory formulas
that are based primarily on census poverty estimates and the cost of education in each state
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 66
(USDOE, 2016). These state and federal mandates lay the foundation by which CHS had devel-
oped its system for allocation of resources.
Perception of resource allocation. As mentioned in Chapter Three, CHS’s staff and
faculty were surveyed in the areas of resource allocation, capacity building, and programs. The
section of the survey that focused on resource allocation contained five 4-point Likert scale
questions. It also contained one open-ended question; its intent was to identify information-rich
participants in relation to resource allocation. The advantage of precategorized-response survey
interviews is that by asking uniform questions of every respondent with the same limited options
for response, researchers can then report the proportion of respondents who chose each option
(Weiss, 1994). The survey approach was preferable to identify the linkages between the faculty
and the concept of resource allocation. Table 1 depicts the results from the section of the survey
that concentrated on resource allocation.
The survey items related to resource allocation attempted to measure the respondents’
perception of the degree to which resources supported instructional goals, programs, professional
development, students’ needs, and whether teachers influenced how resources were allocated.
The figures in Table 1 reflect that the overwhelming majority of respondents answered favorably
in relation to each item. In the beginning of this section, I highlighted that Mrs. Riley adamantly
stated that the priority for allocating resources was determined by the needs. Subsequently, her
remark was validated due to approximately 85% of respondents agreeing that resources were
allocated to meet students’ needs. The open-ended question in this section asked respondents,
“At your school, who has the most influence in resource allocation?” Respondents answered by
giving certain positions, names, and committees that had the most influence of how resources are
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 67
Table 1
Responses to Survey Items Related to Resource Allocation (by Percentages)
Strongly Strongly
Question Agree Agree Disagree disagree
My school has sufficient resources to support
instructional goals. 30.77 53.85 12.82 2.56
My school has sufficient resources to support
programs. 25.64 66.67 5.13 2.56
My school has sufficient resources to support
professional development. 20.51 61.54 15.38 2.56
At my school, resources are allocated to meet
students’ needs. 17.95 66.67 10.26 5.13
At my school, teachers have a voice in resource
allocation decisions. 20.51 53.85 23.08 2.56
allocated. This question proved fruitful as it identified information-rich participants for inter-
views and helped to hone in on desired observation opportunities.
The analysis of the interviews enhanced the findings of the survey by providing coher-
ence, depth, and density with respect to how CHS allocated resources. Information-rich partici-
pants were identified via the survey and through informal conversations. Each respondent
underwent a semistructured interview protocol that contained 14 open-ended questions as shown
in Appendix C. As previously mentioned, CHS’s LCAP drove how resources were allocated.
During an interview, Mrs. Riley affirmed the value of LCAP by stating, “LCAP, I think it helps
you be more focused because you can put the money right where you need it.” She went on to
note, “Our LCAP goals are divided into instruction, access to technology, and student and parent
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 68
engagement.” Mrs. Riley’s statement was validated due to approximately 85% of survey
respondents agreeing that CHS had sufficient resources to support instructional goals, and 92%
agreed that the school had sufficient resources to support programs. The alignment between the
interview and the survey respondents indicated that the goals of the LCAP were being met. Ms.
Worthy, a science teacher, specified that “there’s a system in place where the staff gives feedback
to update the goals and needs every year.” Ms. Worthy’s statement was supported by the survey
respondents in that 74% agreed that teachers had a voice in resource allocation decisions. The
collective leadership and efficacy of CHS’s personnel began to take shape by the revelation of the
system that drove their allocation of resources.
Systems of resource allocation. The survey respondents pointed to the SSC as the com-
mittee that influenced the allocation of resources. The SCC was an elected leadership group that
coordinated supplemental funding (Title I) while monitoring students’ academic progress and
achievement, as outlined by the SPSA. The members of the SSC were elected by their peers. For
example, parents elected the parent representative and teachers elected their representative. The
SSC observation proved to be an enlightening experience of the collective leadership and the
efficacy that existed at CHS. The participants of the SSC included administrators, teachers on
special assignment, general education teachers, a technology coach, district-level personnel,
classified staff, parents, and students. The agenda for the SSC meeting included a brief training
of the functions of the SSC, a review of student achievement data, SPSA goals, a review of the
school’s budget, and proposed expenditures. As mentioned, the meeting opened with a brief but
thorough training on the processes of the SSC by district-level personnel. The purpose of the
training was to meet the requirement that all members must be trained on the processes and
responsibilities of the SSC. The training demonstrated transparency to all members by explain-
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 69
ing how schools are funded and how schools must use their fiscal resources. The training
accentuated capacity building and communication among all stakeholders to inform decisions on
resource allocation.
The SSC shifted gears to review student achievement data. The data that were shared
were very telling of why CHS had been deemed as outperforming. The student achievement data
included multiple measures of performance such as across disciplines and between subgroups. It
was also presented from a linear vantage point to show progression, or lack thereof. The next
series of tables showcases CHS’s student achievement as presented in the SSC meeting.
The University of California (UC) and California State University (CSU) require entering
students to complete certain courses in high school. These courses are referred to as “A-G”
courses. The intent of the A-G subject requirements is to ensure that students have attained a
body of general knowledge that prepares them for more advanced study. Table 2 reflects gradu-
ates with yearly A-G completion rates.
Table 2
Graduates with A-G Requirements: Champion High School
School year Completion rate
2012–2013 63.6%
2013–2014 63.8%
2014–2015 65.6%
Table 3 depicts ELL graduates with yearly A-G completion rates. The SSC members
reflected on why there was a decrease from 25% to 12.5% of ELL graduates that met A-G
requirements. Potential causes stemmed from the number of students who were reclassified prior
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 70
to their graduation year along with the fact that some ELL students were also students receiving
special education services and opted to waive their Algebra II course. Mrs. Riley stated that
“[Name of high school’s] redesignation rates among ELLs are the highest in the district and of
the high schools” (see Table 4).
Table 3
English Language Learners: Graduates With A-G Requirements: Champion High
School
Year Number of students Completion rate
2012–2013 49 12.2%
2013–2014 64 25.0%
2014–2015 24 12.5%
Table 4
English Language Learners’ Redesignation Rates: Champion High
School
Year RFEP
2013–2014 23.8%
2014–2015 17.5%
2015–2016 33.0%
Note. RFEP = Reclassified Fluent English Proficient.
Algebra I completion rates were of interest for the SSC members (see Table 5). The SSC
had its own culture within its members—it was one of mutual respect and drive to continuously
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 71
improve student outcomes. Their continuous improvement efforts were captured by the types of
questions that were asked during the observation, such as the following:
Table 5
Algebra I Completion Rates: Champion High School
Number of Percentage of students Percentage of students
Year students with > C with > D
2012–2013 328 68.8% 82.7%
2013–2014 431 68.0% 83.8%
2014–2015 652 76.2% 89.2%
• “What are the goals and priorities of our school?”
• “What data do we have that shows how well we are achieving those goals?”
• “Are we progressing toward our goals?”
• “Are there particular groups of students who are not doing well as others?”
• “What supports could we put in place to help struggling students?”
• “How will we fund those supports?”
• “How will we know if our programs are effective?”
The observation captured how the SSC’s approach attempted to find solutions to improve
student learning outcomes. For example, the SSC wanted to focus on efforts to improve Algebra
I completion rates. Mrs. Riley stated, “Algebra I is a gate keeper.” She referred to Algebra I as a
gatekeeper because it serves as a prerequisite for more advanced math courses. The data in Table
5 shows that there had been improvement in Algebra I completion rates, but the SSC felt that
they should diverge their efforts to improve in this area even further. The support proposed was
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 72
to fund Algebra I tutors to serve as co-teachers in Algebra I sections. The problem-solving
mindset of the SSC was captured during an interview where Ms. Scott, a teacher on special
assignment as a technology coach, noted:
I also sit in on School Site Council. When I look at it, there’s two things that I think
about. One is, I want to make sure that we’re affecting as many students as possible, or as
many teachers as possible. . . . Let’s first get the biggest bang for our buck. Then the
second part that I look at is, where are there gaps. The priority is to affect as many stu-
dents as possible, and then the second priority is trying to target those areas that we might
still be missing.
Ms. Scott’s approach was echoed in the way that the SSC collectively proposed a solution
to improve Algebra I completion rates. The SSC started with a goal, reviewed current achieve-
ment, identified the gaps, identified potential causes, and proposed solutions. This process would
be followed by implementation and evaluation. Through the SSC’s methodical approach, the
committee motioned to approve three math tutors to assist in Algebra I sections. The intent of
this action was to fill a student achievement gap and reach a desired goal.
Utilization of resource allocation. A review of CHS’s budgetary documents further
substantiated the survey respondents’ favorable perception in relation to the allocation of
resources. To illustrate, CHS’s budget line items for Title I funding focused on several goals that
included academic counseling, technology, software licensing, materials and supplies, profes-
sional development, programs, testing and accountability, and intervention personnel. To
recollect, 92% of survey respondents agreed that CHS had sufficient resources to support pro-
grams. An example of how resources were allocated to support programs was demonstrated by
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 73
the budget line item that funded 10th-grade counseling. During an interview, Ms. Johnson, an
academic counselor, described the 10th-grade counseling program as the following:
Through School Site Council, we have a program called 10th-grade counseling. What we
do as [academic] counselors, we meet with all our 10th graders and parents. It’s an indi-
vidual meeting that occurs outside of our work day. For example, Mr. Rambis [academic
counselor], he will do most of them on Saturday. He’ll come in as many Saturdays as he
needs to.
The purpose of the 10th-grade counseling program was to provide prevention and intervention
efforts tailored to all 10th-grade students and their families. The program aimed at providing
students with a review of their current academic standing and any recommendations that seemed
fit for their academic progression toward graduation and postsecondary education options. The
SSC valued their academic counselors’ time and service by approving compensation.
Another significant expenditure in CHS’s budget was used for access and use of technol-
ogy. Throughout a relatively short span, CHS had increased its technological capacity under the
helm of Mrs. Riley. In an interview, Mrs. Riley mentioned, “When I got here 4 years ago, we
didn’t have wireless and not one teacher had a laptop, nothing, so that was one of the things that
WASC [Western Association of School and Colleges] said they needed to have but they just
never had it.”
CHS had enhanced its technological capacity by improving the infrastructure and by
providing teachers and students with one-to-one devices. Students’ access to technology had
been a top priority that had been realized by the notable feat of issuing each student a laptop.
Furthermore, CHS’s Title I budget boosted the school’s technological advances by approving
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 74
software licensing that would allow teachers to use technological applications for their pedagogi-
cal practices.
The school’s budget also allocated fiscal resources to support professional development.
For example, expenditures were used to facilitate teacher trainings, program planning periods,
and travel expenses for professional conferences. For instance, the budget allowed for admin-
istration and select faculty to attend an off-site training to bring college-level courses to the
campus. The curriculum for these courses would be aligned with a neighboring college, thereby
giving CHS graduates college credit. A tutoring program would also be embedded within the
college-level sections to promote student success. A nuance to facilitate this effort was that CHS
had to cover the health fee cost associated with college admission because students would be
considered as dually enrolled in the neighboring college. Under this program, CHS graduates
could obtain 30 college-level credits. These college credits would also be transferable to Califor-
nia’s UC and CSU campuses. This example of CHS’s allocation of resources showcased the out-
of-the-box efforts to continuously improve opportunities for students.
For the 2016–2017 school year, a portion of the budget was used yet again to improve the
outcomes and opportunities for students by enhancing their testing and accountability efforts. To
illustrate, the budget allocated the expansion of the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT)
for ninth graders. Previously, the PSAT was being offered only to 10th- and 11th-grade students;
however, through the school’s reflective practices, it was identified that 11th-grade students’
mean score on the SAT was 438, which meant that 11th graders were scoring at approximately
50%. It should be noted that the SAT is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in
the United States. Offering the PSAT to ninth-grade students will give students more of an
opportunity to prepare for the SAT. Furthermore, the budget also allotted funding for SAT
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 75
preparatory classes and access to Shmoop, a software program that provides students access to
PSAT practice. These efforts demonstrated that CHS’s goal was to prepare students well beyond
their high school years.
The budget reflected alignment to the school’s LCAP goals. As noted previously, Mrs.
Riley stated that a LCAP goal was to increase student and parent engagement. The budget sup-
ported this effort by providing each 10th-grade parent or guardian with the opportunity to accom-
pany his or her son or daughter on a college field trip. During the observation of the SSC, a
district-level individual mentioned that “[name of high school] pays 1% more for parent involve-
ment than the district average.” These findings pointed to the alignment among goals, percep-
tions, and funding that supported programs related to parent engagement.
Finally, CHS’s Title I budget document highlighted funding for intervention personnel.
For example, the SSC approved a Community Intervention Worker (CIW). The purpose of the
CIW was to work with students who had difficulties with their personal-social development. The
CIW was described as a person who works with students who may be involved in gangs and
students who struggle with substance abuse. Another function of the CIW’s duties included
resolution efforts for students’ interpersonal relationships. Per Mrs. Riley, “[The CIW] has
conducted mediations and conflict resolution between students. This type of effort aims at
improving the school’s climate.” Next, the study identifies the programs that have come to
fruition due in part to CHS’s intentional allocation of resources.
Programs
The themes that emerged related to Research Question 2 were the following: systems and
processes related to MTSS, PBIS, academic enrichment, academic support and personal/social
support. The second research question attempted to identify and describe the programs that
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 76
existed to support positive student learning outcomes. The conceptual model for this study added
the concept of programs to specify how students were being served in an urban educational
setting. CHS’s programs can be described as supporting students’ academic, personal-social, and
college and career development. CHS has also instituted programs that aim to improve the
school climate and parental engagement. This section thoroughly depicts CHS’s current pro-
grams.
Perception of programs. The section of the survey that concentrated on programs was
comprised of seven 4-point Likert scale questions. This portion of the survey measured respon-
dents’ perception of the extent to which programs support academics, behaviors, personal-social
needs, and extracurricular activities. In addition, it sought to measure the school’s use of data as
a means for program evaluation. The survey proved fruitful in gauging the faculty members’
perceptions with respect to the programs that existed at CHS. Table 6 summarizes the results
from the section of the survey that focused on programs; the figures indicate that most respon-
dents answered favorably in relation to each item.
Interestingly, the survey indicated that approximately 87% of respondents agreed that
CHS had academic programs that improved outcomes for underrepresented students. This
perception was substantiated by the positive trajectory of outcomes for students, as specifically
demonstrated by their graduation and dropout rates. Table 7 reflects CHS’s graduation and
dropout rates as reported in the SARC document.
Reciprocally, these figures supported why the faculty had a positive perception regarding
the programs that existed at CHS. CHS’s dropout rate sat well below the district and state
average levels. Moreover, CHS’s graduation rate was among the highest in the district and was
almost 20 percentage points higher than the state average. The additional qualitative data
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 77
Table 6
Responses to Survey Items Related to Resource Allocation (by Percentages)
Strongly Strongly
Question Agree Agree Disagree disagree
My school has a professional development plan
that prepares staff to work with students with
diverse needs. 20.51 64.10 12.82 2.56
My school has academic programs that improve
outcomes for underrepresented students. 28.21 58.97 10.26 2.56
My school has intervention programs for stu-
dents who have difficulty in meeting academic
expectations. 28.21 58.97 10.26 2.56
My school has intervention programs for stu-
dents who have difficulty in meeting behav-
ioral expectations. 23.08 51.28 23.08 2.56
My school utilizes data analysis to improve
program implementation and for underrep-
resented students. 27.03 62.16 8.11 2.70
My school has social and emotional support
programs that meet students’ needs. 24.32 64.86 5.41 5.41
My school has extracurricular programs
that meet the needs of underrepresented
students. 36.84 47.37 13.16 2.63
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 78
Table 7
Graduation and Dropout Rates for Champion High School (4-Year Cohort Rates)
2011–2012 2012–2013 2013–2014
Champion High School
Dropout rate 1.11 0.50 0.50
Graduation rate 98.53 98.88 99.37
Legacy Unified School District
Dropout rate 10.40 9.60 8.20
Graduation rate 85.24 85.93 87.37
California
Dropout rate 13.10 11.40 11.50
Graduation rate 78.87 80.44 80.95
Note. Adapted from School Accountability Report Card for Champion High
School. Pseudonyms are used for names of high school and district.
gathering tools expanded upon the programs that co-existed with positive learning outcomes for
students. To do so, the survey contained an open-ended question to identify information-rich
participants’ knowledge of CHS’s programs.
Existing programs. The interviews shed light on the types of programs that existed at
CHS. The interviewees described not only the high quality of such programs but also the effec-
tive capacity of the individuals who facilitated these services for the school community. Also,
there was a consensus that the relationships between students and the adults on campus had to be
consistently nurtured for meaningful learning to occur. The programs that existed provide
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 79
opportunities for relationships to be forged and, in turn, helped create a positive school climate.
Moreover, efforts and systems were in place to engage in all areas of the development of a young
adult. Thus, a broad range of services and support existed to promote the maturation of a well-
rounded student.
The academic programs that were revealed included the Advancement Via Individual
Determination (AVID) program, advanced placement (AP) courses, academic counseling,
academic discipline, academic recognition, and tutoring. The AVID program is a college-
readiness system that targets students who have been traditionally underrepresented in postsec-
ondary education; it provides these students with consistent academic support while they are
enrolled in a rigorous course of study (Bernhardt, 2013). The academic support that students
received at CHS under the AVID program included tutorials and coaching to promote their
organizational and critical thinking skills. Students also engaged in community service and team
building exercises to help them formulate their goals and future aspirations. In addition, they
visited colleges to be introduced to postsecondary education options. The magnitude of the
AVID program was described in Mrs. Riley’s interview when she stated,
We have eight sections of AVID. We’re the biggest AVID program of the high schools in
the district. . . . I have one counselor that sees all the AVID students. She has a caseload
plus she works with all the AVID kids. That’s [Mrs. Johnson] who has [a doctorate in
education].
When speaking with Ms. Cooper, an academic counselor, she proclaimed that the culture
of the AVID program was expected not only from the students in the actual program but also
from the entire student body:
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 80
AVID is a huge one. It’s also the college-going culture of this school that when the
student comes in, they know that’s the expectation. It’s not just a diploma—it’s the
expectation that you’re going to need A through G requirements and be eligible to apply
to a 4-year school. I think it’s just the culture of the school. We make that happen by
making the freshmen retake their D’s. Every time we meet with the kids to register for
the following year, or if we see a student on homework card or we’re talking about
grades, that conversation always comes up. Remember if you have D’s, you will not be
eligible, and then that’s their goal. C’s or better or you’re going to be going to summer
school or night school . . . whatever credit recovery options that we have.
A theme that started to emerge were the high expectations that faculty had for the students they
served. It was evident by the faculty’s consistent statements and actions.
Another program that was noted was CHS’s vast AP program. AP programs offer
rigorous college-level curricula and examinations to high school students. Students who partici-
pate in AP programs become more competitive for college admission and can earn college credit
(College Board, 2016). During an interview, Mr. Rambis, an academic counselor, described the
extent of AP offerings at CHS when he mentioned, “What’s exciting [is that] we’re up to 18 AP
classes.” Ms. Matthews, English Department Chair, corroborated the expansion of CHS’s AP
program: “It’s really interesting . . . we went from five sections of AP to seven sections. We have
students, who maybe in the past wouldn’t have been in an AP class, who have gone into AP.”
When asked how many students were enrolled in AP classes, Ms. Cooper responded, “I would at
least say half.” At every turn, the faculty challenged their students to meet their highest potential.
This sentiment was captured when Mr. Rambis described the academic counseling team’s efforts
to recruit students for rigorous programs such as their AP program:
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 81
The school actually adopts the AVID philosophy . . . we’re striving to have them take at
least one AP class by the time they graduate. We work toward that goal. . . . We kind of
have to take that [AVID philosophy] and say, “What’s the point of high school if you
don’t challenge yourself?” When we see those college prep kids that have never been in
honors getting, A’s and B’s and A’s and B’s, we have those conversations and those
dialogs saying, “Well I think you’re ready.” We won’t let them over do it so they don’t
get overwhelmed, and then that gives them so much confidence. They saw something
that they never saw in themselves because no one really talked about that.
The students’ academic programming was methodically calibrated from their current
standing to determine their next academic challenge. By doing so, this process not only helped
students to reach their academic potential but also enhanced their postsecondary options.
CHS’s academic counseling program proved to be comprehensive in servicing the needs
of both students and families. In addition to facilitating programs such as AVID and AP, the
counseling team disseminated information, provided prevention efforts, and delivered tailored
interventions. For example, the counseling team spearheaded Freshmen 101, which was an
orientation program for incoming freshmen to prepare them for the high school experience. The
Freshmen 101 program occurred on a Saturday when a team of academic counselors and faculty
presented to incoming ninth graders and their families on topics such as “A-G” requirements,
graduation requirements, and systems of higher education. CHS’s reflective practices started to
emerge as they described how they gathered data to evaluate the effectiveness of the Freshmen
101 program. Mr. Rambis described this effort:
Well, let’s start with Freshmen 101. [Ms. Johnson] . . . did a wonderful job of creating a
pre and posttest. We collect our students from about nine, 10, 11 different sources now.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 82
All of the junior highs in the district, top charter schools, top parochial schools, and
everybody comes in with a preconceived notion of what high school is going to be. Before
we even begin our discussions, we give them a pretest on what actually we’re going to
cover. Then on the flip side, we have them fill out the same questionnaire after the
presentation. We use that data to find out what they knew before, versus what they knew
when they left.
Reflective practices such as the one mentioned above were found throughout CHS’s processes
and systems.
An important function of the academic counseling team was the delivery of information
to all stakeholders. When interviewed, the counseling team highlighted Junior and Senior Push
and Late Night Workshops, which were means to prepare students for college admission. Ms.
Cooper elaborated on the purpose of Junior and senior Push:
Junior and Senior Push . . . Senior Push is in the fall and it’s to present the information on
colleges, universities, and get the seniors prepared for the college season. Junior Push is
in the spring, to get those students ready to register for SATs so they can be prepared for
the beginning of senior year.
The Late Night Workshops served as an avenue to help students complete college and financial
aid applications. CHS’s college-going culture was evident in the efforts of the academic counsel-
ing team.
CHS held its students accountable to high expectations. To do so, the counseling team
instituted a multitiered approach to maintain CHS’s mission to provide an environment with
clear, consistent expectations and high academic standards. The counseling team described the
various accountability measures that they practiced to hold students accountable for their
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academic progress. These measures included student contracts and a progressive academic
discipline system, such as CHS’s Card System, the features of which were illustrated by Ms.
Cooper (see Figure 2):
We have a Card System . . . so we have homework cards and tardy cards, so that is a lot of
data that is collected. Counselors see students in the office when they’ve been sent down
for a fourth missed homework card, or a fourth tardy. Then we see them for step four and
five. There’s eight steps on the card. Then there’s an intervention. There’s a phone
call to parents, or a parent conference if we feel that we need to, and the student is
assigned detention, or a Saturday school, as a consequence. There’s also tutoring;
there’s tutors in the library so they can go up there and do homework. We have to
input it onto our system, so then we are keeping track of how many students we see,
and we can see the difference. Apparently, this year we’ve already seen a drop in the
amount of freshmen interventions that we’ve done. We’re hoping that its due to our
ninth-grade orientation, so that’s another source of data we use.
The Card System and its data-tracking system practice signified the accountability measures that
existed to monitor student progress and to provide appropriate interventions to students in need.
CHS’s multitiered approach to promote academic excellence was embedded in its PBIS
efforts. A feature within the PBIS practices included academic recognitions. CHS’s SPSA plan
described the positive recognition practices:
Students are held accountable for maintaining high standards of student conduct, attend-
ance, and achievement to enhance quality instruction as described in the supplementary
handbook and promoted through the PRIDE (pride, responsibility, integrity, doing the
right thing, and excellence) campaign. Clear procedures and intervention steps promote
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Figure 2. Fundamental structures of Champion High School’s Card System. SART
= Student Achievement Review Team; SARB = Student Attendance Review Board.
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accountability. Positive incentives are put into place such as 3.0 and higher GPA assem-
blies, Grizzly Gear Days, field trips, other motivational programs as needed. Students
also receive awards such as the Perfect G award, the Great Grizzly award, Improved GPA
[grade point average] award, athlete of the month, and scholar athlete.
Furthermore, Ms. Worthy described how CHS recognizes its students for their academic
progress:
We do a great job of promoting academic success. We have things like Great Grizzly,
which is an award. It’s not necessarily academically based, but it’s an award for a student
every grading period that just shows exceptional commitment. We also have Grizzly
Pride medals, which is the same thing. It’s not just academics, but character based, and
we give those out twice a year. We have assemblies that are academically based—3.0
assemblies that students get and they go and see a speaker. Or we have a magician, or last
year we had Erin Gruwell, the Freedom Writer Diary person.
CHS’s MTSS not only was aimed at deterring negative behaviors but also promoted prosocial
student behaviors that were conducive to achieving academic success.
CHS’s tutoring program was a cornerstone for the types of support that students received
to promote their academic success. All hands were on deck in terms of facilitating tutoring
services for students. CHS had high expectations of its students and with that came high expecta-
tions among the faculty members. The devotion to the students at CHS could be captured by
teachers’ willingness to donate their time to provide students with tutoring opportunities before
and after school. Ms. O’Neal, a teacher and the Science Department Chair, expressed the
mindset that propelled teachers to give so much of themselves for their students in the form of
tutoring:
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We are going to support each other in this way because we’re going to reap so many
benefits from it in the classroom. It’s going to make your life, your career life, better
because you’re going to have kids that are succeeding. It’s going to change the trajectory
of everything.
There was a sentiment that the reciprocal effect between student success and teacher satisfaction
was what would ultimately drive their efforts in creating an environment where meaningful
learning occurred. Ms. O’Neal went on to describe how the tutoring program was implemented:
My grade book gives me a snapshot of what’s happening . . . based on that, I have a series
of support systems in place. Each weekend on Sunday afternoon or evening, I use one of
the reports that’s built into our [Student Information System] grade book to generate
anybody who’s under 60%. Then, I print out a list of all of the assignments in the class
that we’ve done so far. Then, I attach it onto a letter that goes to the parent, which has the
tutoring schedule for the whole science department on it. Then, I give it to that student on
Monday. . . . I found that to be really, really powerful. It’s a ton of work, but it lets kids
know that they can’t sit there and comfortably fail. I’m going to keep poking at them and
poking at them in a friendly way. I tell them like, “This isn’t meant to punish you at all.
It’s because I want to sit beside you and find out what’s happening.” Then, if I stay really
strong on the first part of the semester, then it just solves so many problems for the rest of
the semester.
The tutoring program served as a systematic approach to tailor academic intervention for
each student. Tutoring was highly supported by administration and support staff. This support
was crucial in holding students accountable for attending tutoring sessions. Ms. O’Neal ex-
plained how administration supported the tutoring program:
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I think another key component of the tutoring program is if they don’t come, the conse-
quence on Friday is that they come up to see an administrator. The success of this
program is totally dependent on that variable. You have to show them like, “No, you
really have to come. You really have to get your grade up.” . . . It’s not just me, but a lot
of other teachers do this same thing. Then, it’s going to clear up and kids are going to
realize, “Oh, I got to get my work done.” The administrative piece is absolutely essential
to make it work.
It was poignant that the tutoring program was an essential piece to support students’ academic
success.
CHS’s MTSS was consistent with the features of PBIS; it supported the students’
personal-social development. CHS’s MTSS included prevention efforts, preemptive measures to
teach, implementation of evidence-based practices, systems to deliver supports, and data-based
decision making. The goal of CHS’s PBIS was outlined in the SPSA, which stated that CHS
expected students to demonstrate respect, responsibility, integrity, servant leadership (an
inclination to serve others first), and sportsmanship. Subsequently, systems existed to promote
such prosocial behaviors. CHS’s SPSA plan denoted processes of their PBIS system:
Students and staff will work in a healthy, safe, and secure environment that supports
learning. A school committee was formed to assist in the Implementation of Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) to improve student academic and behavior
outcomes. It ensures that all students have access to the most effective and accurately
implemented instructional and behavioral practices and interventions possible. PBIS
includes but is not limited to drop-out prevention, mentoring, nursing services, nutritious
food, sports, wellness programs, anti-bullying awareness and safe and sensitive school
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campaigns. These efforts to engage students in school will result in the reduction in the
number of instructional days lost due to suspensions and expulsions.
The perceptions with respect to behavioral supports were captured in the survey. Per
survey responses, 74% agreed that CHS had intervention programs for students who had diffi-
culty in meeting behavioral expectations. The survey respondents’ favorable perception was sup-
ported by the substantial decrease in discipline referrals, as suggested by the approximate figures
shared in a SSC meeting (see Table 8).
Table 8
Disciplinary Referral Figures for Champion High School
Year Number of referrals
2014–2015 500+
2015–2016 336
2016–2017
a
261
a
Current year in progress.
Interviews revealed the procedures related to CHS’s PBIS system. Mrs. Riley described
how facets of CHS’s PBIS efforts were implemented:
Positive Behavior Intervention Support. . . . It’s more about teaching students the right
way of doing things. Our PRIDE tickets are for pride, responsibility, integrity, doing the
right thing, and excellence. Then, we divided [the expectations]. What should it look
like in the classroom, what should it look like when using technology, in the lunch area,
in the halls, and off campus. . . . Once they get a PRIDE ticket, they can put it in for a
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raffle and then they get popsicles on Fridays. I also pull out names for an In-N-Out or
Starbucks card.
Mrs. Riley’s statement exemplified how CHS focused on prevention efforts, enacted proactive
measures to teach, implemented evidence-based practices, and the modes of delivery. CHS’s
PBIS also contained a continuum of supports to address the needs of students who required more
intense supports.
Intensive student support programs were driven by multidisciplinary teams and special-
ized student support personnel. Per survey responses, 89% agreed that CHS had social and
emotional support programs that met students’ needs. The respondents’ approval rating was a
testament to CHS’s delivery of services. Students in need of intensified services were methodi-
cally identified via the referral system. In addition, the relationships between the faculty and
students opened the lines of communication to informally identify students in need. Interviewees
mentioned how multidisciplinary teams serviced student needs in the form of the Coordination of
Services Team (COST) and Student Success Team (SST). COST meetings were interventions
that aimed to identify tailored plans for helping at-risk students to improve academically and/or
emotionally. The COST assessed students’ academic, emotional, and behavioral concerns to
generate more intensive interventions. COST meetings were held biweekly to review cumulative
records of students who exhibited academic and/or behavior concerns. Collectively, the COST
determined how to best serve the student. Ms. Cooper described the functions of the COST:
We all sit down as a team and discuss students that have been referred to the COST team,
by teachers or even by us, or administration. . . . We discuss the student and their needs—
is it emotional? Social? Academic? We all as a team try and figure out what’s best for
them. Are they going to be referred to the therapist? Are they going to be referred to a
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[community agency]? Do we need to schedule a SST? Do we just need to have a parent
conference, or does a counselor just need to have a conversation with the student? That’s
what COST is about.
Another multidisciplinary team included SSTs. Support staff, parents, and teacher(s) met to
explore strategies that would best meet the educational needs of the student. The initial intent of
a SST was to examine the needs of students who were at risk of academic underachievement.
Then the members of the SST applied implementable solutions in the hope of producing positive
learning outcomes. The faculty expressed that to support students with the needed resources, it
was essential that the teams were committed to serving students. CHS did not practice one-size-
fits-all forms of interventions but rather it took a more comprehensive approach that required a
range of expertise to provide tailored supports. In addition, the COST and SST allowed for the
disbursement of responsibilities such as assigning tasks, monitoring, and any follow-up actions.
The consensus was that teams were best suited to handle the diverse needs of students.
Capacity Building
The themes that emerged related to Research Question 3 were the following: reflective
practices, professional development, planning, collaboration and use of technology. The third
research question attempted to pinpoint and describe how CHS built capacity. Thus, the qualita-
tive data gathering tools revealed the inputs, processes, strategic planning, accountability
measures, evaluation, and quality reviews as they related to efforts to build capacity. It was
apparent that these measures were orchestrated by professionally skilled and committed educa-
tors. This section describes CHS’s reflective practices, professional development, planning,
collaboration efforts, and use of technology.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 91
Perception of capacity building. The section of the survey that concentrated on capacity
building was comprised of five 4-point Likert scale questions. This portion of the survey
measured respondents’ perceptions of the extent to which CHS built professional expertise to
meet student needs. The survey proved fruitful in gauging faculty members’ perception with
respect to the effectiveness by which CHS built capacity. Table 9 summarizes the results from
the section of the survey that focused on building capacity; the figures indicate that most respond-
ents answered favorably in relation to each item. Although most responses were favorable, there
was a significant number of respondents who disagreed that the school invested in personnel to
increase capacity. Interviews and observations did not produce indications of dissatisfaction with
respect to this survey item.
Table 9
Responses to Survey Items Related to Building Capacity (by Percentages)
Strongly Strongly
Question Agree Agree Disagree disagree
My school invests in personnel to increase its
capacity to meet students’ needs. 21.05 42.11 31.58 5.26
My school adequately aligns staff expertise to
assigned roles and responsibilities. 28.95 42.11 21.05 7.89
My school adopts programs that can be imple-
mented with fidelity. 16.67 63.89 13.89 5.56
My school has enhanced my competency to
improve students’ academic outcomes. 26.32 55.26 13.16 5.26
My school’s mission and vision meet the
needs of underrepresented students. 39.47 42.11 15.79 2.63
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 92
Reflective practices. CHS showcased problem-solving capacity that guided their con-
tinuous improvement efforts. Administration and faculty were informed by data, evaluation, and
quality reviews that identified students’ needs so as to formulate solutions. Mrs. Riley shared a
practice that occurred at the district level, referred to as the “Principals’ Summit.” The purpose
of the summit was to present the current status of one’s respective school and share the direction
that it would pursue. The presentation was intended for the superintendent and district cabinet
members. Mrs. Riley shared documents related to her presentation indicating that the purpose of
her summit presentation was to “share initiatives undertaken during the 2015–16 school year and
to discuss initiatives and improvement efforts for the 2016–17 school year.” During an inter-
view, Mrs. Riley also shared her testament with regard to her experience at the Principals’
Summit:
I shared with them the purpose [of my presentation. Then,] I shared our initiatives. I
shared what did in 2015–16 and what worked. Then, what we want to do for 2017 and
why we chose to do those things . . . This year it’s accelerated student performance, A-G
completion rates, increased student engagement and ownership, and meaningful integra-
tion of technology. I also explained how those fit into my LCAP goals.
Mrs. Riley further explained how she divulged the school’s performance data. When asked,
“What is your system for collecting and summarizing data?” she responded,
Well, I typically collect it first. I use California Department of Education. I use
DataQuest. I use Illuminate. I use resources that sometimes the district sends us, such as
CELDT [California English Development Test] data. I look at all of that first to figure it
out, and then I’ll share it with the administrative team. Then, we’ll share it with the
school.
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CHS’s leadership was thoroughly engaged in data reviews with the intent to build an educational
system that stimulated and encouraged innovation, evaluation, and adaptation.
Data reviews occurred at all levels in efforts to improve systems, programs, and learning
outcomes. CHS’s SPSA described tools and processes that facilitate data reviews:
[Software Program] is a district-wide data management system which provides teachers
and administrators with tools needed to access the results of state and local assessment
data, teacher-created tests, as well as important student demographic information together
in one location. Administrators and teachers analyze the data accessed through [the soft-
ware program] in regularly scheduled data chats to: identify trends in student grade-level
academic achievement, pinpoint specific areas in need of intervention, target and
prioritize students most in need of academic support, and develop plans for improving
achievement based upon the analysis of these results.
CHS utilized technological platforms to efficiently aggregate data and present them in a
digestible manner to its stakeholders. Moreover, the data collection processes gathered not only
quantitative data but qualitative as well. During an observation, administration and faculty
distributed an online survey to parents who visited classrooms as a result of a “Coffee With the
Principal” activity. The survey had open-ended questions related to their experience of visiting
classrooms. The themes of the questions included their perspectives regarding student engage-
ment, rigor, and teachers’ assessment methods. CHS’s personnel demonstrated a keen and
comprehensive evaluation of accomplishments, needs, and next steps that guided diagnosis and
improvements.
Professional development. CHS ensured that the best available knowledge about cur-
riculum, teaching, assessment, and student support was acquired and used. CHS facilitated
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 94
professional development by utilizing district resources, training opportunities, and planning.
LUSD’s Getting to the Core document illustrated the comprehensive approach in providing
professional development at the school-site level:
Our method of building capacity . . . emphasizes consistent and targeted support through a
gradual release of responsibility. The Certificated Learning and Achievement Specialists
(CLAS teachers), curriculum specialists, and administration will support the implemen-
tation of the units through strategic and continuous bi-weekly professional development.
In 2012–2013, the school year began with every teacher in [LUSD] learning about the
history, foundational tenets and key instructional shifts of the Common Core. The com-
mon experience provided a shared focus among the staff and encouraged the use of
common instructional language. . . . Teachers are learning and applying specific key
instructional strategies found within the units of study to prepare them for the implemen-
tation. . . . Our CLAS teachers, who are teacher strategists, provide job-embedded peer-
to-peer personalized support to each teacher at their site. Our model illustrates a system-
atic, strategic implementation that promotes teacher learning through demonstration
lessons with complex text, side-by-side teaching and modeling with follow-up coaching.
Per feedback from faculty members, the district provided adequate support in the transi-
tion to CCSS. The following statements substantiated the district’s approach to enhance district-
wide capacity. Ms. Thompson shared the following sentiment with respect to district support:
As a district, we are moving towards the Common Core standards. [The district] provides
sample lessons that help teachers put it together. The materials provide us samples about
how to construct lessons—the idea being that you use those models for how you’ll be
teaching. In addition, we’ve even been meeting as a district with AP English teachers to
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 95
see not only our students here, but also compared to other students in the district, where
we have some success. We discuss what we’re working on: “Your kids are doing great
with this. What are you doing?” Trying to share some of those ideas with each other on a
grander scale.
Ms. Worthy echoed a similar perspective with her accounts of district training:
Yes, yes, particularly when we first implemented Common Core, we really got a lot of
support from the district. They gave us time to develop units of study. They offered lots
of articles, lots of debates, lots of hands-on activities. This was in every course subject.
We got to develop a 6-week unit that would just show teachers how you can do this in the
classroom. This can happen, and it is really student-centered learning. I think that helped
us . . . gave us a lot of confidence.
Based on accounts from school personnel, the district was adept at providing CHS with the
proper resources to facilitate its mission.
CHS also engaged in tailored training opportunities that were driven by school-site
endeavors. CHS’s SPSA outlined the training opportunities that faculty underwent:
Teachers will be given 15 or more hours of supplementary, self-selected professional
development that may include but not limited to training in Cornell note taking, project-
based learning, GLAD [Guided Language Acquisition Design] strategies [i.e., visual
supports with multiple opportunities to discuss the topic using academic language in a
collaborative setting through chants, visual depictions with labels, and explanations of
cognitively demanding content], and technology- based programs. This will be provided
for all teachers to promote the successful implementation of the California State Stan-
dards (CCSS) and assessment, effective technology integration, engagement of restorative
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 96
justice strategies and to provide training in working with long-term English Learners
(LTELs). Staff has standardized the use of a posted daily agenda that outlines student
objectives, state standards, and project-based learning and activities. . . . Additional
training in and use of instructional strategies may include, but are not limited to collabo-
rative and academic conversations, scaffolding, thinking maps, vocabulary development,
GLAD strategies, PowerPoints, other technology-based resources, technology-based
instructional methods, literacy strategies within the specific content areas, and the use of
seating charts that teachers code with pertinent data that allows them to focus on students
in need.
These training opportunities were aimed at fulfilling Goal 2 of the SPSA plan that fo-
cused on student engagement: “Students will have equitable access to a high quality curricular
and instructional program that is accessible from school and home.” CHS was deliberate in
enhancing its capacity by developing skills and efficiency. Table 10 displays information from
the SARC document and describes the extent of training that had occurred over the past 2 years.
During an interview, Ms. Thompson validated CHS’s training opportunities:
We do have opportunities for professional development, which can be helpful. Just this
summer, there were a group of nine of us who went to a conference in Denver, which was
the Instructional Technology in Education Conference. I went for English, and we had
someone from math and history. Our principal went. Our assistant principal went. We
had different trainings over a course of 4 or 5 days that we could go to. Then, we brought
them back to our own departments and incorporated them. That was very helpful,
because that was a luxury that I don’t think all schools get. That was helpful. For AP
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Table 10
Training and Professional Development at Champion High School (CHS) Over the Past 2 Years
Type of training Number of faculty
Algebra I and Algebra Readiness 1
AP College Board workshops 6
AP training, all subject areas (College Board) 9
AVID summer institute 1
AVID training (County Department of Education) 4
College Board training and workshop for grading AP exams 1
CHS technology (district) All teachers
Google Docs 37
Master programming 2
Women’s Leadership Program 1
School Site Council Training
a
6 teachers per year
Note. AP = advanced placement; AVID = Advancement Via Individual Determination.
a
Continuous trainings.
conferences that we can go to, and I know that in other departments they are able to do
some things as well.
Evidence indicated that training opportunities were aligned to CHS’s goals and aimed at serving
students’ needs.
Planning. CHS’s administrative team efficiently planned for professional development
opportunities that allowed for flexibility to meet the needs of faculty and ultimately students.
The Student/Teacher Handbook calendared dates that focused on departmental meetings, collab-
oration, Student Free Days, and the Instructional Leadership Team meetings. Ms. Worthy refer-
enced the collaboration meetings:
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 98
It’s actually whatever you want it to be. [Mrs. Riley] developed this flexible schedule,
which is pretty amazing. Instead of all of us having to go to a meeting and listen to
somebody, we can literally decide what we want to do.
Ms. Worthy’s statement reflected her value for the flexibility in professional development by
promoting her interest, importance, and its utility. CHS’s collective effort in planning for pro-
fessional development was also captured during an observation of a departmental meeting, where
faculty were free to offer ideas to the administration with regard to topics of interest for a Student
Free Day. To name a few, the faculty expressed interest in topics such as course planning, review
of assessments, sharing promising practices, technological applications, and grading practices.
This form of collaboration shed light on the culture of CHS, which was one of collective efficacy.
Collaboration. CHS’s collaborative efforts served as a stimulant for the school’s capac-
ity. It was evident that collaboration occurred throughout every aspect of the processes and
procedures. To illustrate, CHS’s SPSA laid out how collaborative efforts were manifested:
All teachers are part of several Professional Learning Communities (PLC) which meet
regularly, during department meetings and modified days that are bundled with staff
meeting time, to improve instructional strategies based on student results on common
assessments and benchmark results. Teachers will meet to develop learning objectives,
Common Core curriculum and strategies promoting the culture and vision of the school.
Departments will review and monitor progress on growth assessment for all academic
programs. Departments will also review grading practices and establish common criteria.
This collaboration time allows for flexible PLC’s and professional learning opportunities
that will be available to promote a growth mindset.
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The fruition of these plans was observed during a departmental meeting. The department
split into teams by self-selecting topics of interest to prepare for a WASC review. Table 11
illustrates how teams were constructed to tackle issues related to this task. The teams were
created to construct plans and responses for topics that involved CHS’s organizational structure,
curriculum use, instructional practices, assessment use, and culture.
Table 11
Preparing for Review by Western Association of Schools and Colleges: CHS Departments’ Self-
Selected Teams by Task
Task Number of faculty
Organization: how the school is organized 3
Curriculum: what is taught 3
Instruction: how it is taught 3
Assessment: how progress is evaluated 3
Culture: how a positive environment is maintained for all students
on campus 4
Note. CHS = Champion High School (pseudonym).
During an interview, Ms. Worthy expressed a firsthand account of CHS’s collaborative
efforts:
I usually collaborate with chemistry teachers because that’s where I need the most input
for my own professional growth. You’re welcome to collaborate. I know people who
collaborate across departments and on different projects. The teachers can work in math
and social science or whichever ones mesh together to develop activities.
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Evidence showed that collaboration was a catalyst to augmenting capacity, which also substanti-
ated CHS’s collective efficacy.
Use of technology. CHS enhanced its capabilities with the use of technology. By pro-
viding technological access and specialized training, CHS enhanced communication efforts,
instructional practices, and assessment methods. Access to technology was a top a priority at
CHS. The SPSA described the extent of technological access that was afforded to students.
To ensure equitable access to technology in classrooms, on campus, and at home, technology-
based resources were made available to all students so that they could have access to high-quality
instruction. Technology was utilized to assess student progress, monitoring (growth) assessments
for all academic programs, and actively engaging students in the learning process. It was planned
that Internet-enabled devices would be purchased and checked out to students who were in the
ninth, 10th, and 11th grades in support of the district’s goal of providing a device for every
student. Seniors would have access to five Chromebook
®
carts and two computer labs. Students
also had access to technology in the classroom through the use of iPad
®
carts and through the use
of computers in the library and the higher education center that were used for a variety of educa-
tional purposes and support programs that enhanced student learning (e.g., online tutorial) before
school, during lunch, and after school.
It should be noted that for the 2016–17 school year, all students, including seniors, were
issued Internet-enabled laptops. As previously noted, under Mrs. Riley’s administrative tenure,
CHS had been equipped with wireless capacity and all teachers were also issued a laptop. The
phasing in of access to all stakeholders had proven fruitful in boosting the school’s educational
reaches.
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The next phase of enhancing their technological capacity came from ongoing specialized
training. Mrs. Riley described the need for providing specialized training to enhance instruc-
tional designs:
The other thing we’re focusing on is what I like to call “designing to the edges,” so
designing lessons to help every single student in your class move forward and then using
instructional technology in the most effective way possible. I tell my teachers, “You can
give a mechanic a $5,000 wrench, but if he doesn’t know how to use a wrench, it won’t
matter.” So even though they have the tools, how are they using all these [laptops] in the
classroom to really be effective? We’re really working on that as well.
To accomplish this initiative, CHS opted to acquire an experienced faculty member to support
school-wide technological applications. Mrs. Riley referenced the service that the instructional
technology coach provided to the faculty:
Well, we have [Ms. Scott], who you should probably talk to, who is our full-time instruc-
tional technology coach. She works with teachers who say, “Hey, I want to help with
Canvas, or I want help with Google Classroom, or I need help just figuring out an app for
this.” She was a math teacher first; she’s an amazing resource. She’s Google certified.
She’s approachable. She’s really supportive. She’s really good about working with
teachers and supporting our staff development. We do a needs assessment first to say,
“What would be most helpful for you?” And then we do a step plan and staff development
around that.
In an interview, Ms. Scott further elaborated on how she provided technological support to
enhance pedagogical content:
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We have several teachers that are excelling with technology, but then we also have a huge
gap where there’s some teachers that have not started at all, so it’s about closing that gap,
bringing those teachers that haven’t started at all and at least getting their feet wet and
exposing students to new tools. Because whenever I talk to teachers about technology,
it’s not about the technology—it’s about the instruction. That instruction might be poster
paper and markers, or it might be something that’s digital. The reason it tends to go more
digital is because we’re preparing our students for their future, and that future is
immersed in technology, so we are trying to move that paradigm shift for our teachers,
especially for our veteran teachers who have been doing it a certain way for so long. . . . I
can’t pigeonhole a teacher into saying like, “Oh, well, you know every other teacher is
using this. Why don’t you?” I look at what the teacher is trying to accomplish and think
of what can work with that teacher. Because if I try and fit a teacher into a certain model,
that teacher is going to give up. It’s like if you had a diet plan and that diet plan worked
for one person. If this other person isn’t going to follow that diet plan, it’s useless, so you
need to make sure that it fits with that person’s needs.
Ms. Scott’s technological coaching immediately freed up the faculty’s efforts to focus on their
pedagogical practices rather than being bogged down by attempts to infuse technology into their
lessons. Ms. Scott continued:
Teachers do so much, especially our teachers here. They’re always available for tutoring.
They make the phone calls home. They will really bend over backwards for their stu-
dents, for any student, not just their own students. They are there for any student that
comes to their door. Our teachers are already doing so much, so I’m thankful that they
have somebody like me in this position who a teacher can come to me and say, “Hey, is
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there a tool out there that does something like this? This is what I’m trying to do.” Then
I’ll go out and do the research, figure out what the pit stops are, and figure out what needs
to be done and then come back to the teacher with all the research already done. Because
teachers don’t have time for that. I was in the classroom for 10 years.
It was apparent that technological support had enhanced the capabilities of teachers to improve
their pedagogical practices.
Another prime example of how technology had improved CHS’s capacity came from the
way that technology had streamlined communications. Ms. Scott described how technology had
increased her reaches in informing the educational community:
I also create screen casts for everything, so a lot of times like with the digital portfolios,
the teachers can also just play the videos for their students and then have the kids do it on
their Chromebooks. That way, I can get around to all of the teachers without having to
actually be there. Then that’s also great for our EL and our special ed students, because
then they can play the videos over and over again.
Ms. Scott’s ability to create visual and audio platforms for training purposes made these re-
sources more readily accessible to students and faculty. CHS’s parents and guardians had also
benefitted from the use of technology to increase their forms of communication. The following
SPSA excerpt outlines how parents and guardians are supported to increase their capacity in
accessing their student’s information:
To support extended learning opportunities for low-income pupils, computer training for
parents will be provided. Parents will be taught to create and use an email account to
communicate with teachers and counselors and how to log into and utilize the [Student
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Information System] parent portal to access attendance, grades, progress reports, and
transcripts. Translation services will be made available to parents.
CHS’s technological comprehensive approach demonstrated the value that it placed on
partnerships with families and all stakeholders in efforts to advance student outcomes. As evi-
denced by the data, CHS’s organizational culture notably built capacity for professional practice
that promoted student progress.
Discussion
The identified themes did not function as discrete entities; rather, they were intertwined
and supportive of one other for the purpose of seeking continuous improvement. In addition,
data analysis produced another emergent theme in that the characteristics of CHS’s organiza-
tional culture began to take shape across the data points. The school’s culture was comprised of
high expectations, accountability, and collective efficacy. Figure 3 depicts a conceptual graphic
describing the themes that were identified. The organizational culture was what drove the
school’s continuous improvement efforts in relation to allocation of resources, capacity building,
and programs.
CHS’s organizational culture was the overarching driving force in the school’s continu-
ous improvement efforts. CHS’s mission and vision set the precedence of high expectations
from all stakeholders. Approximately 82% of survey respondents attested that CHS’s mission
and vision met the needs of underrepresented students. CHS’s mission read, “[CHS] is a com-
munity in which all are engaged in academic achievement and character development.” CHS’s
vision spoke of providing clear, consistent, and high academic expectations. CHS’s faculty
internalized this mission by adhering to the following standards outlined in the Student/Teacher
Handbook:
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Figure 3. Conceptual map of emerging themes. LCFF = Local Control Funding Formula; LCAP
= Local Control and Accountability Plan; MTSS = Multi-Tiered System of Supports; PBIS =
positive behavior intervention support.
As a staff member of [CHS], I will do the following:
1. Explain school expectations, instructional goals, and grading systems to students and
parents.
2. Maintain a classroom environment that provides high-quality curriculum and instruc-
tion and is conducive to outstanding student achievement. Work with department
members to assist with before/after school tutoring.
3. Develop a progressive classroom discipline plan which fosters student responsibility
and adheres to the Code of Student Conduct. Remember, your words matter and how
you communicate adds to student success.
4. Adhere to and support the implementation of school-wide discipline expectations and
consequences and implement the card system with fidelity.
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5. Show respect for all students, parents, staff members, and guests and serve as a
positive role model.
6. Provide a challenging and rigorous academic program with appropriate support
strategies.
7. Communicate with students and parents regarding academic and behavioral progress
in a timely manner.
8. Recognize outstanding student achievement and support students in your class when
they struggle.
9. Participate in meetings that focus on the standards and student improvement issues.
10. Actively participate in staff development opportunities.
11. Attend all staff, department and all modified day meetings and actively participate;
your input is appreciated.
12. Support and promote school programs, co and extra-curricular activities, and clubs on
campus.
The aim of these standards was establish ambitious academic objectives, to invest in student
achievement, to promote determination in meeting high expectations despite any obstacles, and
to fine tune processes for continuous improvement. As previously noted, Ms. O’Neal described
how she reaped the benefits of high expectations by not merely telling her students that she had
high ambitions for them, but rather by following through with her management structures that
were consistent with high standards when she monitored her students’ progress and provided
tailored tutoring support. Ms. O’Neal provided a clear example of how teachers aim for excel-
lence by setting goals and then supporting a daily sense of urgency to meet students’ goals.
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CHS’s high expectations were met by utilizing accountability measures that were aligned
with the organizational goals. For example, CHS’s administration required that department
teams use tools such as “Staff Data Tracker” and “Staff Data Reflection.” Staff Data Trackers
were meant to support systematic, data-driven instruction; analysis of AP scores; and calibration
and monitoring of departmental grades. This tool was used in department meetings to promote
discussion for improvement efforts. The intent of Staff Data Reflections was to capture teachers’
reflections as they related to grade distribution data. Ms. O’Neal described the process of how
such tools were utilized:
We submit a form requesting that we can collaborate and we have to tell [administration]
what we’re going to be working on, where we’re going to be. They often stop in, and we
have to also tie it to an LCAP goal.
This example illustrated that CHS’s accountability measures were aligned to the school’s overall
goals.
CHS’s collective efficacy was showcased across its methods of allocating resources,
building capacity, and program implementation. Collective efficacy focused on “the performance
capability of a social system as a whole” (Bandura, 1997, p. 469). Furthermore, collective effi-
cacy relates to the goals of the group and how well members work in a synergistic effort to
accomplish those goals (Putney & Broughton, 2011). CHS’s administration, faculty, and staff
worked in unison to accomplish the goals that were outlined in their SPSA plan to support
student achievement. More specifically, their collective efficacy was noted in the way that the
SSC methodically allocated resources. Another example of the collective efficacy was captured
in how administration, faculty, and staff worked together to implement academic enrichment and
support programs. CHS’s processes of building capacity also highlighted the school’s efficacy by
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the intentional collaboration to improve pedagogical practices. Overall, each individual contrib-
uted his or her expertise to advance the efforts in improving educational outcomes.
In sum, CHS embodied a public educational institution that intelligibly allocated
resources and astutely built professional capacity to implement programs with fidelity—efforts
that demonstrably narrowed the achievement gap. The next chapter discusses the implications
for the findings and how they relate to the literature in order to enhance the understanding of
CHS’s processes and procedures.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
Historically, a byproduct of the U.S. public educational system has been an enduring
achievement gap between demographic subgroups. This educational inequity is most notable
with respect to Latino and African American students; however, there are outperforming urban
schools that have narrowed the achievement gap between such students and their counterparts.
For that reason, a full examination is essential to understand the processes and practices that
moves the needle toward more equitable educational outcomes. The intent of this study was to
ascertain how an outperforming urban school allocated resources, built capacity, and imple-
mented programs. Accordingly, the data analysis produced outcomes that reflected these proc-
esses and procedures, but it also yielded an understanding of the school’s organizational culture.
In sum, this qualitative study advanced the understanding of the intricacies and nuances of
promising practices that support positive educational outcomes and, in turn, can serve to inform
the educational community of ways to ameliorate the achievement gap.
Statement of the Problem
The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools despite efforts to improve
academic outcomes for underrepresented youth; however, there are some outperforming schools
that have made progress in closing the achievement gap. The literature has broadened the under-
standing of the achievement gap, but a gap in knowledge stems from the scarce research of how
schools allocate resources, build professional capacity, and execute programs to narrow the
achievement gap. This body of knowledge is especially relevant in today’s educational landscape
due to the advent of CCSS and new funding parameters such as California’s LCFF. For this
reason, the function of public schools must change to meet the demands of such initiatives.
Consequently, the present-day transitional period calls for knowledge of how schools have
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 110
narrowed the achievement gap to collectively advance the educational community’s efforts to
produce equitable learning outcomes.
Purpose of the Study Restated
The educational trends experienced in California and nationwide calls for research in how
outperforming urban schools allocate resources, build professional capacity, and implement
programs. Hence, this qualitative case study encapsulated the conditions that existed in an out-
performing urban school to advance the knowledge of processes that were in place when achieve-
ment gaps were ameliorated. The specific intent of the study was to divulge how resources were
allocated, capacity was built, and what programs existed in a school that had narrowed the
achievement gap. Fittingly, the research questions that drove the understanding of these concepts
were the following:
1. How are resources allocated within the school where academic outcomes have
improved for underrepresented youth?
2. What programs exist within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
3. How is capacity built within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
Summary of Methodology
The research questions were formulated to extract process and meaning, which were
directly correlated with qualitative methods. To fully grasp CHS’s processes and procedures,
exploratory inquiry was vital in identifying and defining how CHS allocated resources, imple-
mented programs, and built capacity. The continuum of exploration was initiated by the research
questions and followed by a conceptual framework that was used to hone in on the concepts of
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interest. Then, systematic protocols were instituted at all levels of data gathering methods.
Finally, these efforts resulted in obtaining rich information that was conducive to the identifica-
tion and definition of case-based themes.
Data Collection
Qualitative research denotes the collection of documents, surveys, interviews, and obser-
vations as a means to develop themes and assertions. First, the survey was distributed to obtain a
general sense of respondents’ perspectives and the concepts under study and to identify inter-
viewee candidates. The documents and artifacts collected throughout the study proved fruitful in
acquiring insights that were relative to the study. Interview protocols were constructed from
Patton’s (2002) six types of questions that stimulated rich information from the interviewees.
Observations provided a holistic interpretation by providing a firsthand account of CHS’s
processes. In sum, the data collection methods provided rich information for analysis and led to
the development of case-based themes.
Data Analysis
The literature purported that in a qualitative study, it is common practice to utilize multi-
ple sources of data to triangulate and substantiate findings (Merriam, 2009). Subsequently, this
case study used documents, surveys, interviews, and observations to ensure valid and credible
results. An online software program was also utilized to organize, analyze, and find insights
from the documents, interviews, and observations. Data analysis involved the use of a priori
codes, emergent codes, and axial codes to interpret the data (Miles et al., 2014). Axial codes
were instrumental in seeking commonalities to group similar themes found from the data
(Harding, 2013; Miles et al., 2014). This process also allowed the researcher to eliminate insig-
nificant findings from the data. The groupings and purging of the data were guided by the aims
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to examine commonalities and to assess the differences and relationships within the parameters
of the research questions in order to make valid assertions (Harding, 2013; Miles et al., 2014).
Ultimately, the triangulation of data resulted in a powerful means to provide proof of meaning
with regard to CHS’s resource allocation, capacity building, programs, and organizational
culture.
Summary of Findings
The data analysis executed triangulation between the data points to substantiate the
findings. Thus, subthemes emerged under the umbrella of resource allocation, capacity building,
programs, and organizational culture. These themes were identified by the high frequencies noted
in the data analysis. CHS’s resource allocation was guided by the LCFF and its LCAP. The
allocation of resources was jointly driven by the SSC in efforts to fulfill the SPSA. CHS’s
programs were structured in a MTSS format to enrich and support students’ academic achieve-
ment. The reliance on data-driven reflective practices intelligibly informed the approach to build
capacity. Once informed, capacity was enhanced by way of professional development opportuni-
ties, planning, collaboration, and use of technology. Finally, CHS’s organizational culture
propelled the continuous improvement efforts. The school’s culture was comprised of high
expectations, accountability measures, and collective efficacy. These processes and procedures
led to successes in narrowing the achievement gap.
Implications
The themes that were discovered were undeniably interrelated, but each of the themes
held distinct implications for CHS’s success. To fully understand the effect of these implica-
tions, exploration within each theme was conducted in efforts to understand nuances through the
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 113
lens of the literature. The examination of implications provides educational practitioners with
further insight into the processes of CHS.
Implication of Resource Allocation
CHS engaged in a systematic approach that intelligibly allocated resources to support
student learning. The system engaged all stakeholders to gain a broad and thorough perspective
with respect to the needs of the school. The data captured collaborative efforts regarding the
allocation of resources. For example, the SSC demonstrated a formidable drive to assess the
current state of the school and to fill those needs for continuous improvement. The processes
around the allocation of resources mirrored those of a gap analysis. Gap analysis is a systematic
problem-solving approach to advance performance and to achieve organizational goals (Clark &
Estes, 2002). More specifically, the components of this approach include defining measurable
goals, determining gaps, hypothesizing about possible causes, validating and prioritizing causes,
developing solutions, and evaluating outcomes as they relate to the preestablished goals (Rueda,
2011). CHS’s propensity to seek, aggregate, and utilize comprehensive student performance data
resulted in the identification of gaps, formulation of solutions, and the application of sufficient
resources to institute effective plans of action.
Implication of Programs
CHS implemented programs that provided comprehensive services and support. The
school’s programs produced a positive climate that promoted academic enrichment and the
personal-social development of students. CHS’s programs were embedded throughout the
MTSS. Each program served a role to provide tailored supports to students and their families.
For instance, CHS’s Card System implemented a continuum of supports to promote academic
achievement. The Card System fostered an academic environment with clear, consistent
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expectations and high academic standards (see Figure 3 in Chapter Four). Its implementation
required data tracking that enhanced the capacity to monitor students’ progress and the ability to
provide timely interventions. The literature purported that MTSS have proven effective in
narrowing the achievement gap (Benner et al., 2013). The components of CHS’s MTSS were
consistent with the literature in that the MTSS include a prevention-based continuum of supports,
proactive measures to teach, implementation of evidence-based practices, systems to efficiently
provide supports, and data-based decision making (Sugai et al., 2000). In sum, CHS’s MTSS has
established a culture that provides the supports needed to produce an effective learning environ-
ment.
Implication of Capacity Building
CHS’s faculty and personnel enhanced their pedagogical practices through their cohesive
effort to build capacity. These efforts included reflective practices, professional development
opportunities, planning, collaboration, and use of technology. These activities were fundamental
to their positive learning outcomes. The most prevalent practice throughout the themes was their
reliance on data-driven reflective practices; it thoroughly informed their processes and proce-
dures. The capacity needs were predicated from quantitative and qualitative data reviews. The
literature asserted that effective use of data produces accurate assessment of achievement trends
which, in turn, leads to efforts that narrow the achievement gap (Armstrong & Anthes, 2001;
Darling-Hammond et al., 2014; Knoeppel & Brewer, 2011). CHS’s achievement trends were
derived from formative and summative assessments. A prime example of a formative assessment
was noted during the Coffee With the Principal activity, where parents were surveyed to gain
their perspectives regarding classroom visits and perceptions in relation to student engagement,
rigor, and teachers’ assessment methods. The purpose of this activity was twofold: It provided an
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opportunity for parent engagement, and it also informed the pedagogical practices. An example
of a summative assessment came from the Mrs. Riley’s description of the Principals’ Summit, an
event that required a thorough review of the last school year’s student performance data to inform
future practice. Research confirmed that the systematic use of timely student performance
measures are essential features of effective schools (Brookhart, 2007). CHS’s use of data was
consistent with the literature’s attributes of schools that make effective use of data. These
attributes include the commitment of educational leadership to collect and use data for decision
making; a culture for using data for continuous improvement; a strong data service orientation; a
mechanism for supporting and training personnel to use data; close monitoring of every student’s
performance with respect to academic standards; flexibility in how time is used to be conducive
for the use of data; and a well-defined, data-driven school improvement process (Armstrong &
Anthes, 2001). In sum, CHS’s culture of inquiry better equipped its efforts to build capacity and
to meet the needs of students.
Implication of Organizational Culture
CHS’s organizational culture was the overarching driving force in the school’s continu-
ous improvement efforts. The school’s culture involved high expectations, accountability
measures, and collective efficacy. Administrators, lead teachers, counselors, and teachers on
special assignment worked toward a unifying goal of serving their educational community to the
best of their ability. Their expertise complemented their efforts in implementing action plans to
advance the faculty’s capacity and to improve their students’ educational outcomes. CHS’s
vision spoke of providing clear, consistent, and high academic expectations. CHS expected
students to demonstrate respect, responsibility, integrity, servant leadership, and sportsmanship.
These attributes were nurtured through the MTSS; the continuum of supports provided
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 116
preemptive measures to teach and reward these types of behaviors. CHS’s faculty members
internalized their mission by adhering to standards that aimed to establish ambitious academic
objectives, to invest in student achievement, promote determination in meeting goals despite any
obstacles, and fine-tune their processes for continuous improvement.
CHS’s high expectations were met by utilizing accountability measures that were aligned
to their organizational goals. Evaluation serves as an essential feature in attempting to close
performance gaps; it allows for the appraisal of the proposed solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011). CHS’s accountability measures incorporated evaluative reviews that coincided
with Kirkpatrick’s (2006) model of evaluation. Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation assesses
reaction, learning, behavior, and results. Level 1 checks for the reaction (i.e., enthusiasm and/or
satisfaction) of the participants (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). For example, CHS captured
the reaction of stakeholders with respect to pedagogical practices when parents were surveyed
after classroom visits. Level 2 assesses the impact of the program during the implementation
phase. More specifically, it determines whether progress has been made in knowledge and skill
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). A prime example of this evaluative procedure was captured
when CHS’s academic counselors assessed the learning of the Freshmen 101 program partici-
pants via a pre and posttest. Level 3 focuses on evaluating the transfer of participants’ knowl-
edge after the program has been implemented to support the durability of the program (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). This effort was highlighted in CHS’s SPSA, which noted that “the
principal works closely with the Instructional Leadership Team (ILT) to monitor and support
instruction. Administrators monitor improvement of teaching and learning throughout the school
by providing regular and frequent classroom observations.” The most effective way of assessing
whether learning has taken place is through direct observations as oppose to self-reporting
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assessments (Rueda, 2011). Finally, Level 4 determines whether the transfer knowledge pro-
moted the achievement of the organizational goal. Kirkpatrick (2006) referred to the last as the
“bottom line”—a phase that identifies the degree to which the organizational goal has been
reached. The Principals’ Summit served as a summative assessment to determine the degree to
which CHS reached its goal. In sum, CHS’s culture of inquiry comprehensively evaluated
processes and practices for continuous improvement.
CHS’s collective efficacy was showcased throughout its actions of allocating resources,
building capacity, and implementing programs. CHS’s collective synergistic effort increased its
capacity to reach organizational goals that led to student success. For example, CHS’s SSC
members incorporated their evaluative methods, expertise, and reflections to allocate resources to
reinforce efforts that may have the propensity to improve Algebra 1 completion rates. Adminis-
tration, teachers, and counselors worked collectively to implement their MTSS. For instance,
each faculty member served a specific role to implement the Card System, which served as a
systematic intervention to respond to students who had shown poor work habits or inconsistent
school attendance. CHS’s collective effort was also captured in the way that it built professional
capacity. During an English departmental meeting, teachers self-selected their role to formulate
process and procedures in relation to organizational structures, curriculum, instruction, assess-
ment, and school culture. Overall, CHS’s faculty members all worked in unison to support
organizational goals that promoted student achievement.
The literature purported that culture is an integral factor in organizational improvement.
Organizational culture permeates and affects all efforts to improve performance. Organizational
goals are achieved by the synchronic system of processes among knowledge, skills, and motiva-
tion; these work processes drive how people and resources interact to achieve a desired outcome
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 118
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Schein (2004) described a useful concept of culture as it is applied to
organizational settings as
a pattern of shared basic assumptions that was learned by a group as it solved its problems
of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be consid-
ered valid, and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive,
think and feel in relation to those problems. (p. 17)
The literature further dissects the concept of culture into two branches. Gallimore and
Goldenberg (2001) introduced the notions of cultural settings and cultural models. Cultural
settings are the specific contexts of where the cultural models play out. It is useful to think of
cultural settings in more visible aspects, such as who is present, where it is taking place, and what
tasks are being engaging in (Clark & Estes, 2008). On the other hand, cultural models speak to
the collective mental schema or normative understandings of how organizations work (Gallimore
& Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). In the context of a school, cultural models guide the way
that an organization is structured with respect to its values, practices, and policies (Rueda, 2011).
CHS’s cultural setting had a clear structure to the processes and procedures that were managed by
highly qualified educators. In terms of a cultural model, the high expectations, accountability
measures, and collective efficacy drove the development of a strategic plan to provide quality
education for the students. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) argued that “clearly conceptualizing
settings and cultural models can help focus thinking and acting in ways that can further school
reform efforts” (p. 51). CHS’s reciprocal relationship between their cultural models and settings
has produced effective strategies that have proven favorable to their educational practices.
As noted in Chapter Three, the conceptual framework for this case study was adapted
from the work of Darling-Hammond et al. (2014), which embodied a system that focused on
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 119
capacity building and on an accountability structure that stimulates an effective school organiza-
tion and, ultimately, meaningful learning. The framework also includes the need for astutely
allocating resources and applying professional expertise to include planning, evaluation, and
quality reviews to practice continuous improvement. In sum, CHS developed the conceptual
framework by employing a comprehensive system that effectively allocated resources and built
capacity. It was a system that was fueled by an organizational culture that created an environ-
ment where meaningful learning occurred.
Recommendations for Future Research
The findings suggested that CHS’s organizational culture was central in creating a syn-
chronized system that drove efforts to produce positive educational outcomes. The focus of this
case study was to examine the processes around resource allocation, capacity building, and
programs. Due to this focus, the study did not investigate the nuances of CHS’s organizational
culture. It would be valuable to the educational community to reveal how such a culture is initi-
ated and sustained. More specifically, it would be advantageous to examine an outperforming
urban school’s culture through the lens of motivation. Literature proposes that there are three
components to motivate performance: active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda 2011). To elaborate, active choice refers to the pursuit of a goal signified by
action; persistence speaks to the commitment to engage in an activity over time despite any
obstacles; and mental effort refers to the cognitive work needed to generate new learning and
knowledge (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda 2011). The examination of these motivational indices
would shed light on how an educational institution actively seeks and sustains a culture of
continuous improvement.
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It is important to note that K–12 public education is being challenged by the privatization
of education. Moreover, the present-day political climate has questioned the effectiveness of
public schools. Therefore, it is incumbent upon all public school educators to champion practical
efforts that have been shown to create meaningful learning opportunities for all students.
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 121
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Appendix A
Document Review
RQ 1: How are resources allocated in schools where the academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
RQ 2: What programs exist where the academic outcomes have improved for underrepresented
youth?
RQ 3: How is capacity built within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
Document Questions the document answers
School profile and demographics
California Healthy Kids Survey (CHKS): Student
survey
RQ1
RQ3
School Accountability Report Card (SARC) RQ2
RQ1
RQ3
Data Quest CDE: District’s Title III Accountability Re-
port on AMAOs
RQ2
RQ1
RQ3
List of teachers and support staff RQ2
RQ1
Professional development plan RQ2
RQ3
Course catalog RQ2
RQ3
List of school clubs/programs RQ1
RQ2
Achievement data
CST scores for 3 years Criteria
SARC Criteria
RQ1
RQ3
SBAC baseline data Criteria
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 134
LCAP RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
Vision and Mission Statement RQ3
School site plan RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
Academic 4-year plan RQ2
Fiscal information
Single School Plan Criteria
RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
LCFF Funding Snapshot RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
School program
English Language Learner Master Plan RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
MOUs with community agencies RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 135
Appendix B
Survey Protocol
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 136
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 137
Appendix C
Interview Protocol
I. Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have
set aside to answer some of my questions. The interview should take no more than an
hour—does that work for you?
Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer
any questions you might have about your participation. I am undertaking a case study to identify
the characteristics of capacity building, resource allocation, and program implementation that
exists within the boundaries of the school. The primary purpose of this study is to conduct qual-
itative research via surveys, interviews, observations, and document analysis to fully capture the
narrative surrounding the aforementioned themes. Therefore, my line of inquiry for this inter-
view will focus on capacity building, resource allocation, and the description of existing pro-
grams.
I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What this
means is that the nature of my questions is not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on
how you are performing as an educator. None of the data I collect will be shared with other
school personnel nor the district. It should be noted that your participation in this study is strictly
voluntary.
I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested. Might
you have any questions about the study before we get started? If you don’t have any (more)
questions I would like to have your permission to begin the interview. I have brought a recorder
with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. May I also have your
permission to record our conversation?
II. Setting the Stage
I am hoping we could start with you telling me a little bit about your plans for this
school year.
1. What will be the school’s focus for this school year?
III. Heart of the Interview (Merriam, p. 97)
2. How are resources allocated to align with strategies that improve student outcomes?
3. How has LCAP guided the way you have allocated resources?
4. How do you feel resource allocation has benefitted underrepresented youth?
5. How do you prioritize resource allocation?
6. What programs do you utilize to promote the academic achievement of your students?
Explain components of each program . . .
7. What is your system for collecting and summarizing data that pertains to the programs
at this school?
8. How do you use data to promote the successful implementation of the programs at this
school?
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 138
9. Do you feel these programs have resulted in improved academic outcomes for your
students, and how?
10. How does the school invest in personnel to address student needs?
11. How does the school align staff expertise to assign roles and responsibilities?
12. How does your school use community resources to build capacity?
13. How do you address organizational challenges that may impede capacity?
IV. Closing Question
I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I
might not have covered?
V. Closing
Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate
your time and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my
study. If I find myself with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact
you, and if so, if email is ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study.
VI. Probing
1. That is interesting, could you please tell me a little bit more about . . .
2. I want to make sure I understand, could you please tell me what you mean by . . .
3. I am wondering how you were feeling in that moment?
4. It would be great if you could walk me through . . .
VII. Research and Interview Questions Table
Research Questions Interview Questions
RQ1: How are resources allocated within the
school where academic outcomes have
improved for underrepresented youth?
1. How are resources allocated to align with
strategies that improve student outcomes?
2. How has LCAP guided the way you have
allocated resources?
3. How do you feel resource allocation has
benefitted underrepresented youth?
4. How do you prioritize resource allocation?
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 139
RQ2: What programs exist within the school
where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
1. What programs do you utilize to promote
the academic achievement of your
students? Explain a component of your
program.
2. What is your system for collecting and
summarizing data that pertains to the
programs at this school?
3. How do you use data to promote the suc-
cessful implementation of the programs at
this school?
4. Do you feel these programs have resulted
in improved academic outcomes for your
students and how?
RQ3: How is capacity built within the school
where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
1. How does the school invest in personnel to
address students’ needs?
2. How does the school align staff expertise
to assign roles and responsibilities?
3. How does your school use community re-
sources to build capacity?
4. How do you address organizational chal-
lenges that may impede capacity?
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL 140
Appendix D
Observation Protocol

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools despite efforts to improve academic outcomes for underrepresented youth

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Core Title Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of one outperforming urban high school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/28/2017

Defense Date 02/23/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,capacity building,K–12 education,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational culture,outperforming urban high school,programs,resource allocation

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