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Student engagement in an outperforming urban school as measured through cognitive, behavioral, and emotional indicators

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Student engagement in an outperforming urban school as measured through cognitive, behavioral, and emotional indicators

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Content Running header: STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL AS MEASURED
THROUGH COGNITIVE, BEHAVIORAL, AND EMOTIONAL INDICATORS

by

HEIDI RACHEL LANCE

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2017

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL ii

Table of Contents
Abstract 2
Chapter One: Background, Purpose, and Overview of Study 4
Background of K-12 Educational System 4
Purpose of the Study 7
Problem Statement 7
Research Questions 8
Significance of the Study 8
Methods of the Study 9
Limitations 10
Delimitations 10
Assumptions 11
Definition of Key Terms and Related Concepts 11
Organization of the Study 16
Chapter Two: Literature Review 18
History and Purpose of Public Education 19
Factors that Contributed to the Achievement Gap 21
Home Environment 22
Attendance Versus Non-Attendance of Preschool 22
Teacher Attrition Rates 23
Characteristics of High Performing Schools 24
Qualified Teachers 24
Strong Leadership 25
Curriculum 27
Student Engagement 28
Risk Factors of Engagement 29
Disengagement 30
History of Engagement Research 31
Models of Engagement 31
Theoretical Frameworks 33
Flow Theory 34
Quality of Student-Teacher Relationships 35
Instructional Practices 37
Organizational Features 39
Student Perceptions/Student Identity 40
Theoretical Framework 44
Summary 45
Chapter Three: Methodology 47
Research Design and Methods 47
Why Qualitative Methods 48
Document Review 49
Surveys 49
Interviews 50
Observations 51
School, Site, Participants, and Sampling 52
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL iii

Table 1:Enrollment Trends by Grade Level 54
Table 2: Enrollment by Student Group 55
Table 3: California Test (CST) 55
Table 4: Weighted Three-Year Average API Scores 56
Conceptual Framework 56
Data Collection 58
Document Analysis 59
Surveys 59
Observations 60
Interviews 61
Data Analysis 62
Conclusion 63
Chapter Four: Findings Introduction 64
Criteria 65
Methods 66
Initial Impression of Brandave Elementary School 69
Data for Research Question One 72
Behavioral 73
Table 4.1: Summary of Student Survey-Perceived
Behavioral Expectations 74
Table 4.2: Summary of Teacher Survey-Perceived
Behavioral Expectations 75
Emotional 76
Table 4.3: Summary of Student Survey-Emotional
Indicators 79
Table 4.4: Summary of Teacher Survey-Emotional
Indicators 80
Cognitive 81
Table 4.5: Summary of Student Survey-Cognitive
Indicators 83
Table 4.6: Summary of Teacher Survey-Cognitive
Indicators 84
Reflection for Research Question One 85
Data for Research Question Two 85
School-Wide Programs 85
Practices 86
Table 4.7: Summary of Student Survey-Programs,
Practices, Processes 90
Table 4.8: Summary of Teacher Survey-Programs,
Practices, Processes 91
Reflection for Research Question Two 92
Data for Research Question Three 92
Leadership 93
Summary of Teacher Survey 96
Table 4.9: Summary of Teacher Survey 97
Reflection for Research Question Three 97
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL iv

Data for Research Question Four 98
Study Results 98
Table 5.1: Summary of Student Survey 99
Reflection for Research Question Four 100
Conclusion 101
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations 103
Summary of the Study 103
Discussion of Results 106
Research Question One 106
Research Question Two 107
Research Question Three 107
Research Question Four 108
Summary of Finding 109
Innovative Principalship 109
Student Goal Setting 110
Quality and Willingness of Teachers 110
Relationships 111
School and Community Culture 112
Implications 113
Recommendations for Further Study 113
Conclusions 114
References 116
Appendix 128
Interview Protocol 128
Information/fact sheet for non-medical research 132
Document Review Protocol 134
Teacher Survey 136
Student Survey 142

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 2
ABSTRACT
This study utilized extensive literature review to create a conceptual framework to understand
the impact of student engagement on academic achievement. The purpose of the study was to
determine how perceived student engagement factors contribute to success in a high performing
urban elementary school. This study aimed to answer four explicit research questions: (1) To
what extent are the indicators of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement present in a
high-performing urban school? (2) What school programs, processes and practices are perceived
to contribute to student engagement? (3) What are the unique elements within the school
structure that support student engagement? (4) To what extent do students perceive being in a
state of flow during the school day? The case study focused on a high performing, urban school
in a low socioeconomic school district. Brandave Elementary School was selected for this study
because it met the following criteria, developed by the USC dissertation cohort: (1) had an
Academic Performance Index score average of 820 or higher for the last three years (2) was
ranked one or more points higher on the similar school ranking versus the statewide ranking (3)
had a free and reduced lunch participation of 65% or higher (4) had a percent of English Learner
population at or near the state average of 22.3%. Through the use of a qualitative mixed
methods approach, data from document analysis, teacher and student surveys, classroom
observations, administration, teacher, and student interviews were analyzed and triangulated to
ensure validity and reliability. Findings from this study indicated that perceived engagement
factors do contribute to the success of this institution. The overarching perceived elements that
affected engagement and ultimately the academic achievement of Brandave Elementary are the
following: (1) Innovative Principalship, (2) Student Goal Setting, (3) Quality and Willingness of
Teachers, (4) School and Community Culture, and (5) Relationships. Although this study
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 3

revealed that engagement is an important component to learning and that schools should take
steps to ensure that behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement strategies are being utilized
with students, this case study is not meant to be generalizable. There are limitations to studying
one elementary school. For example, no students were observed or able to describe a time of
being in the state of flow, the optimal level of engagement. Further case studies on multiple
schools or a longitudinal study may or may not find different outcomes.

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 4

CHAPTER ONE:

BACKGROUND, PURPOSE AND OVERVIEW OF STUDY

Introduction

As the United States endures its largest influx of immigrants, along with the increasing
U.S. born ethnic minorities, the nation must prepare to make necessary adjustments to the
educational system (Barton & Coley, 2009). According to the U.S. Department of Commerce
(2000), students of color represent one-third of the school population and is predicting by the
year 2050 African America, Asian American, and Latino students will constitute close to 57% of
all U.S. students (Barton & Coley, 2009). With a system of schooling that has never delivered
high quality education to all students, policy makers and educational leaders are calling for more
rigorous goals to prepare the students for the twenty-first century (Ball & Forzani, 2011).
Visions for better schooling include emphasis in areas such as collaborative work, technology
training, problem-based curricula, critical thinking skills, and higher expectation for all students.
This chapter will give background information on student achievement in the K-12 public
school system and discuss the delicate balance between student achievement and effects on the
US economic and education status. This chapter will provide the purpose of study, isolate a
problem, list research questions, and discuss significance, methodology, limitations, delimitation,
and assumptions. Chapter one will offer an overview of this study and provide a road map to the
other four chapters as well as provide key terms and definition to enhance the reading
experience.
Background of K-12 Educational System
Yazzie-Mintz (2007) described United States high schools as being in a state of crisis.
The U.S. Department of Education reported that the on-time graduation rate, as defined by ninth
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 5

graders who graduated high school in four years, for the class of 2011-2012 was 81%. This 81%
graduation rate is an increase from the 2005-2006 school year; however, the graduation
percentage gaps between ethnic groups still persist and are not closing. Among all public high
school students, Asian/Island Pacific students had the highest graduation rate of 93%, followed
by Whites with an 85%, Hispanics with a 76%, Blacks and Native American graduation rates
were the lowest at 68% each. Even though the overall graduation rate has increased by eight
percent from the 2005-2006 school year to the 2011-2012 school year, the gap still remains
between Black/Hispanic and the White/Asian sub groups. According to the U.S. Department of
Education, results from the 2011-2012 school year show graduation rate gaps from twelve
percent (Hispanic to Asian) to twenty-five percent (Black to Asian).
This nation has struggled with setting and reaching educational goals. For example, in
2002, No Child Left Behind legislation saturated the educational world. The original intent of
the legislation was that all students would be proficient by the 2013-2014 school year (Porter,
McMaken, Hwang, & Yang, 2011). Schools, which were not on track to meet this mandate,
would enter into Program Improvement status and would be targeted for reform (Levy,
Dellinger, Townsend, Linde-Zwirble, Marshall, Bion, & Parker, 2010). This goal of all students
being proficient by 2014 was not met and thus a new educational goal was set. In 2010, the new
Common Core Standards replaced the state standards put in place by No Child Left Behind
legislation. By having a common set of standards, educational experts believed all schools
would benefit from rigorous standards and more students could be college prepared and career
ready (Porter, McMaken, Hwang, & Yang, 2011).
Along with the new standards, came new assessment systems. New computer based
assessments developed by the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 6

(PARCC) and Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) were designed to be an
adaptive test based on the students’ responses to each question and were purported to provide a
more accurate picture of the students’ development in relation to the standards
(http://www.smarterbalanced.org/news/national-evaluations-again-confirm-quality-and-
alignment-of-smarter-balanced-end-of-year-test/; http://www.parcconline.org/about/the-parcc-
tests). More recently, in 2015, the Department of Education set a new educational goal to
accelerate student achievement so that by 2020, America will have the highest proportion of
college graduates in the world (Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act,
2015).
The United States was once the world leader in education; however, many countries have
surpassed the U.S. according to the British Broadcast Company (2015), the United States ranked
twenty-eighth in math and science (http://www.bbc.com/news/business-32608772). In this
competitive market for jobs to support our global economy this ranking does not support U.S.
workers, in fact U.S. work is being outsourced to other countries. Not only are our student
graduates not ready for the work force, our students are ill-prepared for the rigor of college
academia (Porter, McMaken, Hwang, & Yang, 2011). The large amount of dropouts or under
prepared students causes economic hardships. For instance, according to the National Center for
Educational Statistics (2014), a person age 25-34 with less than a high school completion earns
on average $23,000 annually, earning on average $30,000 having completed high school, earning
on average $37,500 with an Associate’s Degree, earning $48,500 with a Bachelor’s Degree, and
earning $59,600 with a Master’s Degree or higher. The pattern of higher earnings associated
with higher education levels held for both male and female and across racial/ethnic groups
(White, Black, Hispanic, Asian). This statistic alone is a call for students to be better prepared
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 7

throughout high school and college or career ready as soon as they graduate after a K-12
education.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of engagement in student
achievement in outperforming urban schools. This qualitative case study aimed to identify
programs, practices, and processes that may contribute to student engagement levels. Using a
Theoretical Framework centered on (a) behavioral, (b) emotional, and (c) cognitive patterns of
action, indicators and student outcomes were measured. The indicators were identified through
the extensive literature review and used to frame the measurement tools. These tools were
strategically used to gather information about student outcomes. Student engagement is a
complex concept that was measured within the context of student’s environment, social capital,
and school culture. This study aimed to identify specific teacher and student perception of
student engagement levels.
Problem Statement
While there have been some overall improvements for students of all races, the
graduation and achievement gap has persisted with a majority of black and Latino students
across the United States still lagging far behind their white counter parts (Torlakson, 2013).
However, there are some urban schools, serving at-risk black and Latino students, which are
defying the national achievement gap by outperforming their counterparts and producing
students who are college and career ready (Bell, 2001). Additionally, research is clear,
engagement is a critical factor in positive student outcomes and that disengagement is a primary
factor in poor performance, dropout rates, and even prison for black and Latino boys (Fenning &
Rose, 2007). Further, there is not a cohesive concept or definition of student engagement,
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 8

theoretical frameworks, or measurement tools among researchers (Fredricks & McColskey,
2012). Due to this lack of cohesion, there is no agreement on which programs, processes, and
practices would be most effective in increasing engagement and closing the achievement gap.
Research questions
1. To what extent are the indicators of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement
present in a high performing urban school?
2. What school programs, processes, and practices are perceived to contribute to student
engagement?
3. What are the unique elements within a distinguished elementary school structure that
support student engagement?
4. To what extent do students perceive being in a state of flow during the school day?
Significance of the Study
A national sense of urgency to develop and implement practices in schools that address the
achievement gap is a major concern for school leaders (Yazzie-Mintz, 2007). Based on the
information in this chapter, there is a need to explore the programs, practices, and processes
implemented that assisted in closing the achievement gap for all students especially minority
students and students of low socioeconomic backgrounds.
The study will also contributed to the current literature by studying programs, practices, and
processes that successful schools have implemented in closing their own achievement gap. What
was learned through the qualitative case study, while it cannot be generalized because it was
limited to one school, can to be replicated and used as a catalyst to assist other “like” schools
(Merriam, 2009). Overall, the case study identified the factors that contributed to the success of
the outperforming school that may help other schools develop a school wide vision with
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 9

program, practices, and processes that lead to closing the achievement gap. This new knowledge
of successful factors can be applied to create school structures that are rigorous and promote
open access for all students.
Methods of the Study
This study utilized a multi-method qualitative research design to understand perceived
factors between student engagement and achievement in an elementary urban school setting. The
school factors that contributed to student engagement and achievement provided a reflection of
the programs, practices, and processes the school site had in place. A variety of data collection
measures such as observations, surveys, interviews, and document analysis were utilized to gain
insight into the different perspectives of those on site and assisted in the triangulation of the data
(Creswell, 2009). The survey tool that was administered to teachers and students was developed
at the Learning Achievement Coalition in Oakland Michigan (2010). Since 2010 the county of
Oakland has consistently administered a survey to teachers and student to measure perception of
student engagement. The Learning Coalition has created surveys and interview questions that
targeted perception and implication of student engagement. The use of a prefabricated
instrument was strategic in using recommendations from literature to be consistent within student
engagement research.
Administration, teachers, and students had a voice in the data collection process. The
analysis of triangulated data, along with hearing different voices, provided for a rich description
of programs, practices, and processes within the school that promotes high performance and high
student engagement (Merriam, 2009). Data were collected over the course of six days. During
this time teachers, students, and administration volunteered to be a part of this study through
interviews, observations, and/or surveys.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 10

This study was one of four case studies that were conducted within a year’s timeframe by
a thematic dissertation team. Each member chose one school with particular criteria that deemed
it outperforming and urban. The team collectively designed the research methodology, research
questions, and research instruments and collaboratively reviewed and reflected on the entire
dissertation study process.
Limitation of the Study
• This study only focused on one school site so the findings could not be generalized.
• This study being inherently qualitative, suggests that the findings of this study may be
subject to interpretations other than the ones presented here.
• The findings are limited to the time of the study; it is a snapshot in time.
• The small number of teachers interviewed may not reflect the viewpoints and
perspectives of the majority.
• Staff members were asked their own perspectives about instructional strategies, practices,
and programs. Their responses may have been limited due to their amount of experience,
knowledge, or even bias.
• Although the survey was offered to every teacher, some teachers chose not to participate.
Delimitations of the Study
• The thematic group set a specific set of criteria that the study school had to adhere to in
order to be considered.
• Geographically, the school is in Southern California and focused on Hispanic, English
Language Learners and Socioeconomic Disadvantaged Students.
• The data gathered is only from the site and school district personnel and not from outside
people.

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 11

Assumptions
In conducting this study, the researcher assumed the following:
• The findings are based on a single school site that was studied during typical
circumstances.
• The few teachers selected to be interviewed and observed are a good sample population
of the entire school.
• The student focus group voice adequately represents the student population.
• The respondents have sufficient knowledge about the activities and programs, practices,
and processes at the school site to provide knowledgeable answers.
Definition of Key Terms and Related Concepts
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are operationally defined:

A through G requirements: California high school requirements students must complete
to be considered for entrance in the University of California system. They consist of 15 yearlong
high school courses and must be completed with a grade of C or better — at least 11 of them
prior to your senior year. A through G courses cover 4 years in English, Algebra 2, 2 years of
science, social studies, and foreign language. 1 year of visual/performing arts, and 1 year of
college preparatory elective (admission.universityofcalifornia.edu, 2016).
Academic Performance Index (API): The Academic Performance Index is the
cornerstone of California's Public Schools Accountability Act of 1999 (PSAA). The purpose of
the API is to measure the academic performance and growth of schools. It is a numeric index (or
scale) that ranges from a low of 200 to a high of 1000. A school's score on the API is an
indicator of a school's performance level. The statewide API performance target for all schools is
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 12

800. A school's growth is measured by how well it is moving toward or past that goal (California
Department of Education, 2016).
Achievement Gap: According to the University of Southern California’s thematic
dissertation group, the achievement gap is the persistent disparity in academic performance
particularly between affluent, White and/or Asian students and minority, low socioeconomic
status, and second language learners. California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE).
Adequate Yearly Performance (AYP): The federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of
2001 requires that California determine whether or not each public school and local educational
agency (LEA) is making Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). An LEA is a school district or
county office of education.) AYP criteria encompass four areas: participation rate, percent
proficient (also referred to as Annual Measurable Objectives or AMOs), API as an additional
indicator for AYP, and graduation rate. Each of these four areas has specific requirements.
Participation rate and percent proficient criteria must be met in both English language arts (ELA)
and in mathematics (California Department of Education, 2016).
California English Language Development Test (CELDT): allows schools to identify
students who need to improve their skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing in English.
Schools also give the test each year to students who are still learning English (California
Department of Education, 2016).
California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE): is a state exam that California public high
school students must pass in order to graduate. The exit exam is not a college entrance or honors
exam. Instead, its purpose is to test whether students have mastered the academic skills necessary
to succeed in the adult world. It is a pass-fail exam divided into two sections: English language
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 13

arts (reading and writing) and mathematics. Sophomores, juniors, and seniors can take the test.
Once students pass a section of the test, they do not take that section again.
California Standards Test (CST): The California Standards Tests in English-Language
Arts, mathematics, science, and history-social science are administered only to students in
California public schools. Except for a writing component that is administered as part of the
grades 4 and 7 English-Language Arts tests, all questions are multiple choice. These tests were
developed specifically to assess students' performances on California's Academic Content
Standards. The State Board of Education adopted these standards that specify what all California
children are expected to know and be able to do in each grade or course (California Department
of Education, 2016).
Common Core State Standards (CCSS): educational standards describe what students
should know and be able to do in each subject in each grade. In California, the State Board of
Education decides on the standards for all students, from kindergarten through high
school. Since 2010, a number of states across the nation have adopted the same standards for
English and math. These standards are called the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). Having
the same standards helps all students get a good education, even if they change schools or move
to a different state. Teachers, parents, and education experts designed the standards to prepare
students for success in college and the workplace (California Department of Education, 2016).
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA): The Elementary and Secondary
Education Act is federal law affecting K-12 education. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is
the most recent reauthorization of the ESEA. Originally enacted in 1965 as part of the War on
Poverty, ESEA was created to support the education of the country's poorest children and that
remains its overarching purpose. Congress must reauthorize it every six years. Each
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 14

reauthorization of ESEA has made some changes, but NCLB was the most dramatic revision of
the act since its creation. Its provisions represent a significant change in the federal government's
influence in public schools and districts throughout the United States, particularly in terms of
assessment and teacher quality.
English Language Learners (ELL): English language learner is defined as an English
learner or as a reclassified-fluent-English-proficient (RFEP) student who has not scored at the
proficient level or above on the CST in ELA for three years after being reclassified (California
Department of Education, 2016).
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA): The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) is a US
law passed in December 2015 that governs the country's K–12 public education policy.

The law
replaced the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), and modified standardized testing
accountability provisions. ESSA is a reauthorization of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary
Education Act, which established the American federal government's influence in funding public
education assessment, accountability, and teacher quality (California Department of Education,
2016).
Institution-controlled Factors: the factors or variables internal to the institution as primary
determinants of retention, including faculty concern for student development and teaching,
academic and intellectual development, and institutional commitment (Tinto, 1975; 1987).
Lexia: Founded more than 30 years ago, Lexia stands as a rigorously researched,
independently evaluated, and respected reading programs for grades preK-12
(http://www.lexialearning.com, 2016).
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 15

Measures of Academic Progress® (MAP®): creates a personalized assessment
experience by adapting to each student's learning level—precisely measuring student progress
and growth for each individual (https://www.nwea.org/assessments/map/, 2016).
National School Lunch Program: The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is a
federally assisted meal program operating in public and nonprofit private schools and residential
child care institutions. It provides nutritionally balanced, low-cost or free lunches to children
each school day. The program was established under the National School Lunch Act, signed by
President Harry Truman in 1946 (United States Department of Agriculture [USDA], 2008).
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB): The 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA). Originally passed in 1965, ESEA programs provide much of
the federal funding for K–12 schools. NCLB’s provisions represent a significant change in the
federal government's influence in public schools and districts throughout the United States,
particularly in terms of assessment, accountability, and teacher quality. It increases the federal
focus on the achievement of disadvantaged pupils, including English language learners and
students who live in poverty, provides funding for “innovative programs” such as charter
schools, and supports the right of parents to transfer their children to a different school if their
school is low-performing or unsafe.
School Accountability Report Card (SARC): In November 1988, California voters passed
Prop.98, also known as The Classroom Instructional Improvement and Accountability Act. This
ballot initiative provides California's public schools with a stable source of funding. In return, all
public schools in California are required annually to prepare SARCs and disseminate them to the
public. SARCs are intended to provide the public with important information about each public
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 16

school and to communicate a school's progress in achieving its goals (California Department of
Education, 2016).
Similar Schools Ranking: The similar schools rank compares a school to 100 other
schools of the same type and similar demographic characteristics (California Department of
Education, 2016).
Smarter Balanced Assessment System (SBAC): The Smarter Balanced Assessment
System utilizes computer-adaptive tests and performance tasks that allow students to show what
they know and are able to do. This system is based on the Common Core State Standards (CCSS)
for English language arts/literacy (ELA) and mathematics (CDE, 2016)
Social Capital: The degree and quality of middle class forms of social support inherent in
a young person's interpersonal network. Social capital is cumulative, possesses the capacity to
produce profits or benefits in the social world, is convertible into tangible resources or other
forms of capital, and possesses the capacity to reproduce itself in identical or expanded form.
Student-controlled factors: behavioral, emotional or affective, and cognitive engagement
factors (Christenson et al., 2008)
Student engagement: is a multidimensional meta-construct made up of distinct but
integrated dimensions: cognitive, behavioral, and emotional (Shernoff, 2013).
Organization of Dissertation

Chapter One presents the purpose of the study, the statement of the problem, the
background of the problem, the research questions, the significance of the study, the
methodology, the assumptions, the limitations and delimitations of the study, and the definition
of key terms.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 17

Chapter Two offers a review of relevant literature to address the history of the
educational system, the accountability movement, school reform, the achievement gap,
organizational structures, leadership practices, school culture, the history of student engagement,
student self-efficacy, and an exploration of different theoretical frameworks.
Chapter Three outlines the methodology used in this study along with an explanation of
the tools used to gather information. The introduction, developed theoretical framework and
explanation of indicators for student engagement provide a clear picture of the methodological
approach taken. This chapter also reviewed the research questions, explained the research design,
population and sample, instrumentation, data collection methods, measures of validity and
reliability of the study, and the strategies used for data analysis and interpretation.
Chapter Four presents the findings of the study interpreted through the triangulation of
data.
Chapter Five presents a discussion of the study findings, implications for practice,
conclusions, and recommendations for future research.

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 18

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Public school education is under attack due to the large amount of students unprepared
for college or the work force after a K-12 public education. More alarming are the high school
dropout rates in which this nation faces every year. The New York Times reported an American
child drops out of school every 26 seconds, totaling over a million dropouts per year (Herbert,
2008). The achievement levels for disadvantaged minority students and English language
learners fall behind the academic performance of their White and affluent classmates (Darling-
Hammond, 2007). A sense of urgency needs to be placed on closing the achievement gap.
Factors such as quality of teachers, rigorous instructional curriculum, strong leadership, and
engaging students need to be considered within schools when addressing the disparities in scores
(Darling-Hammond, 2007; Fullan, 2006).
This literature review discussed the history of public education with emphasis on the
2001 federal law No Child Left Behind Act and the transition to Common Core State Standards.
Having the background knowledge of the public education system, this literature review
discussed the characteristics of high performing schools and how different elements effected
student achievement. Elements such as socioeconomic status, attending preschool, having highly
qualified teachers, and working with engaging curriculum were factors that contribute to student
achievement. Narrowing the focus, this literature review analyzed all elements of student
engagement along with explained different theoretical frameworks and previously conducted
studies. The literature discussed concepts of student engagement and explored the link to
student achievement. Student engagement may be a predictor of student achievement in urban
school. In order to understand factors of student achievement it is important to understand and
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 19

review the history of public education. The history and purpose of education have changed
throughout the last several decades, which have shaped student achievement outcomes.
History and Purpose of Public Education
Americans received a wakeup-call in 1983 from the National Commission on Excellence
in Education’s A Nation at Risk report, which argued American students were undereducated and
unable to compete in the global marketplace (Goldberg & Harvey, 1983). President Ronald
Reagan and The National Commission on Excellence in Education’s A Nation at Risk (1983)
spurred a movement to reform public education (Levine & Lezotte, 1995). Levine and Lezotte’s
(1995) The Effective School Research identified key components of effective schools including
outstanding leadership, effective instructional and organizational practices, monitoring student
progress, and high operational expectations and requirements for all students. Acknowledgment
of the characteristics along with the sense of urgency placed by failing students led to the
implementation of No Child Left Behind Act in 2001 (Coeyman, 2003).
In addition to the emphases placed on the need for school reform, the increasing social
conditions continued to compound the challenges of the public school system. Disparities
between socioeconomic and ethnic subgroups of students as measured by standardized test for
academic achievement were at the foundation for the implementation of NCLB Act (U.S.
Department of Education, 2001). NCLB represented this nation’s collective movement towards
school reform and aimed to increase academic achievement for all students while attempting to
eliminate achievement gaps between subsets of students and hold schools/districts accountable
for student progress (Coeyman, 2003).
Although the NCLB act may have been noble, this federal law, which required all
students to be proficient in reading and math by 2014, was an utter failure (Gutierrez, 2014). As
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 20

this era of NCLB comes to a close, students are still failing at alarming rates. Thus, a new school
reform is immerging and has taken the place of NCLB. Common Core Standards has replaced
California State Standards and has reformed the method of assessing students and has increased
the rigor of students’ critical thinking and problem solving skills (Gutierrez, 2014).
The purpose of implementing Common Core Standards (CCS) was to better prepare
students for successes in college, career, and life. Common Core is a set of academic standards
in mathematics and English spanning from grades K-12 to ensure all students graduate from high
school with skills and knowledge necessary for college, career, and life, regardless of where they
live (Gutierrez, 2014). These standards were meant to be a guide for districts, principals, and
teachers to use in order to raise the achievement among all students.
School Accountability
The No Child Left Behind Act implemented an accountability system based on
quantitative measures and data. This form of standardized testing of low-level thinking skills
had proven to be insufficient in measuring the success of a child (Rothstein, Jacobsen & Wilder,
2009). These standardized tests created a nation focused on reading and math scores and
promoted the abandonment of all other non-assessed subjects such as physical education, music,
arts, and life skills. In addition, the accountability measures set in place under the NCLB Act
gave incentives to schools that ignored students who are either above or far below the passing
point on test results (Rothstien, 2009). By misidentifying failing and successful schools, due to
test unreliability, converted instruction into test preparation that had little to no lasting value or
promotion of life skills (Rothstein, 2009). America has broad goals for the public education
system. Our nation’s leaders from Benjamin Franklin to Horace Mann have supported eight
broad categories for public education, which include: basic academic knowledge and skills,
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 21

critical thinking and problem solving, appreciation of the arts and literature, preparation for
skilled employment, social skills and work ethics, citizenship and community responsibility,
physical health, and emotional health (Rothstein, Jacobsen & Wilder, 2009). A 2005 survey
polled the general population of Americans and asked what outcomes and skills students need to
have after graduation. The previously mentioned, eight characteristic are still what Americans
want from our schools (Rothstein, Jacobsen & Wilder, 2009). However, high emphasis on
reading and math scores, due to new accountability measures, had limited the eight
characteristics previously mentioned.
The implementation of the new Common Core Standards was an attempt to move back
towards the eight characteristics and produce more well-rounded citizens (Gutierrez, 20014).
The accountability measures are still in place but the students are required to use problem
solving and critical thinking skills to demonstrate their knowledge and skills. Common Core
Standards are so new that only time will tell whether the standards will close achievement gaps,
improve student achievement, and foster quality citizens. When using the Common Core
Standards as a guide, factors such as: socioeconomic status, attending pre-school, parental
education levels, organization of school, access to high quality teachers, school leadership, and
student engagement need to be taken into account when looking at the individual student. A
combination of factors plays a critical role in the success of a student and the school as a whole.
The next section of this literature review attempted to explain factors that contribute to or hinder
students’ academic success.
Factors that Contribute to the Achievement Gap
There are many variables that contribute to the achievement gap among students. Some
factors consist of students’ social class, family structure, and socioeconomic status (Ainworth,
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 22

2002; Bankston & Caldas, 2007). Other factors consist of lack of highly qualified teachers,
poorly delivered content, not offering rigorous classes, weak school leadership, and curriculum
choices (Green, Miller, Crowson, Duke & Akey, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Cooper,
Ponder, Merritt & Matthews, 2005). A combination of these factors shapes a students’ perception
of themselves and their school identity. In addition, these factors play a key role in the academic
success of the student.
Home Environment
The home environment in which the student is brought up in greatly impacts the
academic success of the student. Home environmental factors include how often a child is read
to, how closely a child is supervised, and how readily resources such as the Internet and
educational materials are available to the child (Kober, 2001). Neighborhood factors also have
an effect on student achievement. Communities with high minority populations often have
fewer community learning resources such as libraries, museums, and youth organizations
(Kober, 2001). In addition, low-income students tend to have a higher mobility rate among
schools. Students are often made to change schools several times during their educational career
for many reasons with the major one being lack of affordable homes in urban areas (Kober,
2001).
Attendance Versus Non-Attendance of Preschool
Some researchers have paid much attention to what extent, if any, does preschool
attendance prepare children for success in their long-term educational career (Taylor, Gibbs, &
Slate, 2000; Furlong & Quirk, 2011). A constructivist model bases readiness for kindergarten
from children’s interactions with skilled peers and adults and supports efforts to provide high-
quality preschool experiences (Andrews & Slate, 2001; Furlong & Quirk, 2011). Earlier
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research found a correlation with attending preschool to having greater success in elementary
school, higher grades and test scores, being less likely to be retained, and less likely to be placed
in special education than those who did not attend preschool (Sheehan, Cryan, Wiechel, &
Brandy, 1991; Frede & Barnett, 1992). Bhavnagri and Samuels (1996) found making
government-funded preschool programs for low-income, disadvantaged, minority children
available had the best chance of improving children’s early school adjustment. In addition, a
positive impact of preschool on academic and social development is particular needed for
children with limited English language exposure, minority or low-income backgrounds (Connell
& Prinz, 2002; Bhavnagri & Samuels, 1996).
Teacher Attrition Rates
Recent studies have revealed the correlation between student performance and teacher
turnover. Several studies reported teachers in lower achieving school districts tend to leave the
profession at higher rates than those at higher achieving school districts (Hanushek, Kain, &
Rivkin, 2004). Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkins (2004) studied hundreds of thousands of teachers
and more than fifty thousand students in Texas. This study showed lower achieving schools as a
strong factor in teachers leaving the profession within the first five years of teaching. Within the
same study, evidence showed a connection to experienced teachers and gains in student
achievement. The research deduced that experienced teachers are needed to improve student
achievement and provide a positive school culture (Hanushek, Kain, & Rivkin, 2004).
Research has shown the school’s ability to adequately staff classrooms with qualified
teachers is a predictor of school success (Ingersoll, 2003). Teacher attrition is caused by several
factors. Recently, increased teacher retirement and increased student enrollment have
contributed to a lack of highly qualified teachers. Rapid increased student enrollment puts a
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 24

strain on districts to staff classrooms. In order to have an adequate teaching staff for the number
of students, schools are often forced to hire teachers without proper certifications. Another
factor of teacher attrition is newly hired teachers leaving the profession for a number of reasons
(Shernoff, Marinez-Lora, Frazier, Jacobson, Atkins & Bonner, 2011). Research has shown 40-
50% of newly hired teachers leave the teaching profession altogether after five years or less
(Ingersoll, 2003). It is important to note teacher attrition is not necessarily a perpetual loss.
Many researchers refer to teachers leaving the profession and rejoining as the “revolving-door”
(Ingersoll, 2003). More specifically, the revolving-door references teachers joining the teaching
profession, leaving the profession, and then making their way back to the teaching profession.
Research shows teacher attrition rates, whether permanent or not, have negative effects on
student achievement (Shernoff et al., 2011).
Characteristics of High Performing Schools
Schools and districts have the power to change or improve student achievement by hiring
qualified teachers, putting strong leadership in place, allowing access to challenging and rigorous
curriculum, and implementing programs to better equip students who are working below
established proficiency levels (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkin, 2004;
Cooper et al., 2005; Greene et al., 2004; Jarrett, 2010; Mulford, Kendall, Ewington, Edmunds,
Kendall & Silins, 2007; Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009). High performing urban schools
have certain characteristics that contribute to high levels of student achievement. The
characteristics that will be discussed in the following section are: hiring qualified teachers,
putting strong leadership in place, curriculum and instruction, and student engagement.
Qualified Teachers
Darling-Hammond (2007 & 1999) has done much research in the area of the need to hire
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 25

qualified teachers. In fact, she has made a case for the hiring of highly qualified teachers as the
number one precursor of students’ academic success and closing the achievement gap (Darling-
Hammond, 1999). Hiring qualified teachers is difficult in urban schools comprised of high
minority and high poverty student populations. Most qualified teachers are able to be selective
in accepting positions in higher performing school districts; which makes it difficult for urban
schools to hire qualified teacher (Darling-Hammond, 1999).
Strong Leadership
Although hiring qualified teachers is one way of closing the achievement gap, research
points to strong school site leadership as being a key factor in high performing schools (Cooper
et al., 2005; Greene et al., 2004; Jarrett, Wasonga & Murphy, 2010; Mulford, Kendall, Ewington,
Edmunds, Kendall & Silins, 2007; Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009). School leadership is vital
to the achievement of the school in producing academically successful students in urban schools.
Leaders serve many functions and have different leadership styles such as: formal, informal,
assumed, assigned, autocratic, democratic, team, shared, collaborate, servant, and primal to name
a few (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009; Bolman & Deal, 1997). In urban school settings
educational leaders range from superintendents, principals, lead teachers, school board members,
parent leaders, and student leaders (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009). Regardless of the
leadership style or the leader’s title, research identifies certain leadership characteristics needed
to be effective. School leaders need to have a sense of vision, ability to set goals and plan, strong
communication skills, ability to motivate, ability to listen and reflect, have a strong sense of self,
and have a high degree of integrity (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009; Milford, 2007).
A school leader needs to maintain a strong sense of purpose and constantly operate from
a clear set of core personal and organizational values (Patterson, 2001). Leaders are expected to
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 26

display strength, courage, integrity, wisdom, and always have the organization’s best interest in
mind (Julius, Baldridge & Pfeffer, 1999; Murphy, 1988). Leadership demands commitment to
demonstrate ethical practices and in holding one’s self and others to high standards (Black-
Robbins, 1995). A vision cannot be successfully implemented without the leader being viewed
by their constituents as sincere, honest, and fair (Julius, Baldridge & Pfeffer, 1999).
An effective leader must be able to create and sustain change. Nearly half the students in
the public school systems are giving up on school before the acquisition of reading and writing
skills (Hill & Celio, 1997). Student achievement is an academic problem administrators face on
a daily bases. Administrators are called to find solutions for entangled problems, which takes the
ability to implement changes. Before change can be made and accepted, the leader must know
what needs to be changed and have a plan of how it is to be done. First, the leader must know
the culture and history of the school (Ramaley, 2002). Understanding the culture and history of
the school is especially important if the leader is new to the organization and needs to make
changes quickly.
Unlike the research on highly qualified teachers choosing more desirable districts,
research suggests many principals working in urban, high poverty schools choose to lead that
school and are committed to the success of the school (Milford, 2007). Principals with this
strong moral purpose and commitment often spend extra hours at the school site fighting for a
better system and bring positive changes (Milford, 2007). Strong successful school leadership
has been found to reduce some effects of the antecedent conditions of poverty, directly and
indirectly (Leithwood & Steinbach, 2002). Carter (2000) found five characteristic of strong
leaders in high poverty areas, principals need to; (1) be free to act, (2) use measurable goals, (3)
elicit parental support, (4) set in place accountability measures for regular testing, and (5) have
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 27

high self-esteem. Principals with the desire to make changes and who possess certain
characteristics are strongly correlated with improving schools and show academic success
(Carter, 2000).
Curriculum
The Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 2010
implemented by President Obama’s administration was designed to ensure all students left high
school “college and career ready” (Parkay, Anctil, & Hass, 2014). Becoming “college and career
ready” is a very general goal for educators. Thus, many factors including a research-based
curriculum are essential to attain this goal. Curriculum provides general guidelines for educators
to use when creating learning experiences for their students (Parkay, Anctil, & Hass, 2014).
Curriculum objectives need to encompass more than knowledge, skill, and habits; in addition,
objectives need to involve higher level thinking skills, critical interpretation, emotional reaction,
and student interests (Tyler, 1949). Curriculum development needs to start with alignment of
adopted state standards because curriculum ultimately affects the educational outcomes of the
students. Togneri and Anderson (2003) noted in their study that the curriculum adopted by the
district has a direct correlation to the achievement of students. In addition, high performing
schools often have noted a degree of their success to the curriculum used by the teachers
(Togneri & Anderson, 2003).
High performing schools have certain attributes and characteristics that set them apart
from struggling schools. These characteristics such as quality of teachers, strong leadership and
curriculum all play a crucial part in the success of every child. In addition, research has also
pointed to the idea of student engagement being a strong factor of success. The next section
deals with the concept of student engagement in detail. The literature will review the history of
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 28

student engagement, types of student engagement and, most importantly, the effect student
engagement has on student academic success.
Student Engagement
Current research suggests many students in the K-12 educational system are bored and
disengaged (National Research Council, 2004). Even some students in high-performing schools
were found “going through the motions” instead of being fully engaged with academic concepts
and class lessons (Pope, 2001). Several research studies have found high levels of engagement
linked to higher performance on academic tasks and a powerful antecedent of academic success
(Pope, 2001; Lewis et al., 2001, Finn & Zimmer, 2012; Appleton, Christenson & Furlong, 2008).
Newman (1989) defines engagement as the students’ psychological investment in learning,
comprehending, and mastering knowledge or skills. Marks (2000) defines engagement as a
psychological process, specifically, the attention, interest, investment, and effort expanded in the
work of learning. Finn (1993) views student engagement as elements of a cycle, which begin in
primary grades and is defined by behaviors including attendance and levels of responsiveness to
teacher directions. It is important to note the differences in researcher interpretation of student
engagement as the studies reflect the view of the working definition. Lack of consistency in the
definition could impact the findings and interpretations of future studies. The use of The High
School Survey of Student Achievement (HSSSE) instrument has been foundational in gathering
student self-reported information about student engagement and the learning environment. This
survey attempts to capture the range of school-wide student attitudes. The HSSSE survey has
been administered throughout several districts in attempts to understand links between student
engagement and academic achievement (Yazzie-Mintz, 2008). The HSSSE project office at
Indiana University’s Center for Evaluation and Education Policy define student engagement as
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 29

stated below:
Student academic engagement refers to a series of educationally related student behaviors
or activities as academically desirable, and such that members of various student
populations can report on the frequency with which they participate in these activities.
The more frequently an individual participates in an activity, the more he or she is
engaged in it. (p. 7)

Risk Factors of Engagement
Educational research has identified a number of factors associated with failing students
and high dropout rates. External factors such as family socioeconomic status (SES), race,
ethnicity, whether English is the primary language spoken at home, family structure and a
parent’s educational level have all been found to be highly related to a student’s academic
outcomes (Finn & Zimmer, 2012). Educational risk factors need to be addressed early in the
student’s educational journey. Research shows academic problems in one grade make success in
the next grade level more difficult (Alexandar, Entwisle, & Kabbani, 2001). Students are more
at risk with low grades and test performance, after being retained in a grade level, misbehavior in
class, lack of participation in class, and low attendance rates (Appleton et al., 2008). It is
important to understand the direct correlation with risk factors and educational outcomes to aid
in predicting academic success, which leads to educational change (Appleton et al., 2008). In
addition, teachers, principals, and superintendents need to understand the risk factors of their
district in order to put into place interventions and support to negate the factors that put the
students at risk. Taking a close look at risk factors and dropout rates help to create a way to
identify “at risk” students and helps educators target these students who need extra support. In
addition, disengagement behaviors can aid in targeting the students that are on the path of
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 30

dropping out.
Disengagement. Disengaged students do not participate in school or class activities, do
not become cognitively involved in learning, do not exhibit a sense of school belonging, and
participate in counterproductive and/or inappropriate behaviors (Finn & Zimmer, 2012). All of
these behaviors reduce the likelihood of school success and often lead to dropping out of school.
Rumberger (1987) describes the process of dropping out as a gradual process of disengagement
often starting earlier in the student’s educational journey. Many times disengaged students enter
school without the adequate cognitive or social skills. Factors such as not going to preschool or
having a poor quality teacher early in school can be attributed to low cognitive and social levels
(Furlong & Quirk, 2011; Taylor et al., 2000). Disengaged students often have a negative
perception of school or of themselves in the context of school (Appleton et al., 2008). Having a
negative student identity is destructive to the student’s success and causes a multitude of
problems including low attendance rates, dysfunctional interaction with teachers and
administrators, and connecting with other disengaged peers (Finn & Zimmer, 2012). It is vital
for educators to understand the impact of disengagement on student and to utilize strategies that
can encourage engagement within the classroom.
Engagement is an important focal point in current educational research. Finn and
Zimmer (2012) describe many reasons why studying engagement is vital to the success of
school. Patterns of student engagement are strongly correlated to academic achievement.
Engagement can be measured at an early age and thus important for schools to be able to track
student progress and create intervention where needed. Engagement behaviors are a response to
school and teacher practices and, therefore, can be improved to meet the needs of all students
(Finn & Zimmer, 2012). Even behavioral issues within the classroom can be altered to positive
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 31

behaviors through engagement (Taylor et al., 2000).
History of Engagement Research
Engagement research is in its infancy stage compared to other education reform ideas.
Jeremy Finn is the most sited researcher when it comes to student engagement. He wrote
Withdrawing From School (1989) and has continued to produces seminal research articles.
Newmann (1981) marks the birth of student engagement research. From this point, Newmann,
Finn, and many other researchers found great value in studying student engagement as it relates
to academic success. Newmann’s (1992) definition of student engagement is “the student’s
psychological investment in and effort directed towards learning, understanding, or mastering the
knowledge and skills, or craft that academic work is intended to promote” (p. 12). Out of
Newmann’s (1981, 1992) work, several promising guiding principles were identified: encourage
student choice and participation in policy decisions, maintain clear and consistent educational
goals, keep school sizes small, encourage cooperative student-staff relationships, and provide
authentic curriculum. Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez (1989) echoed Newmann’s
research with a call for educational reform after analyzing dropout prevention programs. The
research concluded that developing a strong sense of community that encourages students’
connection is of supreme importance (Wehlage et al., 1989).
Models of engagement. One model that emerged from Wehlage’s et al., (1989) research
was a “theory of dropout prevention.” This model, formed from a social-cultural lens, takes into
account problems in student behavior, educational engagement, and school membership to show
the effects on students’ educational achievements (Wehlage et al., 1989). The “self-system
process model” was propelled based on the assumption that humans have basic needs for
competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Connell, 1990; Connell & Wellborn, 1991). This
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 32

model advocates schools that support competence, autonomy, and relatedness among students
and have higher levels of engagement and academic success. Finn’s (1989) model is still very
relevant and features both contextual and intrapersonal views. The participation-identification
model (Finn, 1989) looks at impact factors such as: learning behaviors (e.g., paying attention to
the teacher, responding to teacher’s questions, and completing assignments), the participation in
extra-curricular activities, attendance, and interacting with teacher and peers to measure the
likelihood of student success. According to the model, behavior in early grades is considered an
important ingredient of school success (Finn, 1989).
Newer models have been identified in recent years with more than two components.
Even though the terminology varies from research to research there are four dimensions that
appear repeatedly: academic engagement, social engagement, cognitive engagement, and
affective engagement (Appleton et al., 2008; Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Schneider, & Shernoff,
2003; Finn & Zimmer, 2012; Furlong, Whipple, Jean, Simental, Soliz, & Punthuna, 2003). In
addition to different dimensions of engagement, various researchers have measured each
dimension differently. This next section will explain each dimension and how each dimension of
engagement has been successfully measured by research from Appleton et al., (2008), Shernoff
et al., (2003), Finn and Zimmer (2012), and Furlong et al., (2003).
Academic engagement refers to behaviors directly related to the learning process, for
example, attentiveness in class, completing assignments, or learning through academic
extracurricular activities (Dotterer & Lowe, 2011). Academic engagement is observable
behavior that students exhibit while participating in class activities. Direct evidence can be seen
through observations or student self-reported surveys. Social engagement refers to the student’s
ability to follow school and classroom rules, for example, coming to school on time, interacting
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 33

appropriately with teacher and peers, not showing anti-social behaviors of being withdrawn and
disturbing others at work (Dotterer & Lowe, 2011). Social engagement can be measured through
observations, self-reported surveys, and gathering data such at attendance records. Cognitive
engagement is the expenditure of thoughtful energy needed to understand complex ideas.
Behaviors that indicate cognitive engagement include: asking questions in class to classify
concepts, persisting on difficult tasks, reading more than assigned materials, studying sources
beyond those required, and using self-regulating techniques (Finn & Zimmer 2012). Cognitive
engagement has been measured through “think-alouds” where the student is verbalizing the
learning process and self-reporting strategies used to solve problems. Affective engagement is a
level of emotion and feelings of involvement in school and activities worth pursuing. For
example, participating behaviorally in school endeavors and taking ownership can lead to a
feeling of significance. Affective engagement can be measured through a self-reported feeling of
acceptance and belonging (Appleton et al., 2008). The first three dimensions deal with the
student’s investment of time and energy, whereas affective engagement provides motivation for
the invested energy (Finn & Zimmer, 2012). Academic and social engagements are measurable
through observation of student behaviors, and, therefore, more research has been done in these
two areas. On the other hand, cognitive and affective engagement requires indirect measures
because of the difficulty of accessing internal energy expended. After examining research
conducted on student engagement and student disengagement certain themes and trends start to
emerge. A theoretical framework is an important component to a literature review and study.
The next section discusses theoretical frameworks from previous research.
Theoretical Frameworks
The theoretical framework constructed for this study encompasses Finn’s (1989)
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 34

Participation-Identification Model and the Self-Process Model adapted from Connell and
Wellborn (1991), Skinner, Wellborn, and Connell (1990); Furrer, Skinner, Machand, and
Kindermann (2006); Appleton, Christenson, Kim, & Reschly (2006). In addition, Furlong et, al.
(2003) have developed a framework that looks at the relationship among school engagement and
the relationship to student outcomes. These models explain the contributing factors of student
engagement and the possible outcomes.
According to the developmental models of Finn (1989) and Connell (1990), many factors
impact school engagement including school context and attitudes and behaviors of peers, parents,
teachers, and other significant adults (Finn & Zimmer, 2012). The social context of home,
community, school, and classroom play key roles in the levels of engagement a student exhibits.
External factors of family and neighborhood can be antecedents of engagement. Measurable
factors of the classroom environment such as quality of student-teacher relationship, instructional
approaches, and school environment have been linked through research to student engagement
(Marks, 2000; Shernoff, 2003; Appleton et al., 2003; Furlong et al., 2003).
Flow Theory
Multiple frameworks for student engagement share many common components
(Appleton et al., 2008; Finn & Zimmer, 2012; Fredricks et al., 2005; Mosher & MacGowan,
1985). However, one theory of student engagement emerged by looking at the emotional state of
the learner when physically engaged in a task. This research is based on Flow Theory and will
be an essential piece of the theoretical framework for this study. Flow Theory was first proposed
by Csikszentmihalyi in Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Being in the state of “flow” can be described as total absorption and immersion into an activity.
A student in flow will exhibit intense concentration, interest, and enjoyment (Parsons & Taylor,
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 35

2011). When a person is in flow, they can stay engaged in the activity and disregard time, food,
and other interests or needs. Being in flow causes a person to not only feel pleasure, but more
importantly for educational implications, successful and competent (Shernoff et al., 2003).
One positive factors of Flow Theory is that students feel a deep sense of success in
working on challenging activity that forces them to stretch themselves just beyond their limit
(Shernoff et al., 2003). This state of optimal engagement can be traced to the work of Lev
Vygotsky, who introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1987).
The Zone of Proximal Development is different for each student and is described as the student
optimal region of student leaning.
Flow Theory is one-way research describes the action a student may take when engaged.
Some research on engagement looks at elements that contribute to increase or decrease
engagement. Factors such as teacher-student relationships, instructional practices, organizational
features, and student identity have been studied to determine relationships to levels of student
engagement (Marks, 2000; Shernoff, 2003; Appleton et al., 2003; Furlong et al., 2003; Battistich,
Solomon, Watson & Schaps, 1997; Scott, Alter, & Hirn, 2001; Bennett, 2001).
Quality of student-teacher relationship. Much research has linked student engagement
to teacher warmth and supportiveness (Marks, 2000; Shernoff, 2003; Appleton et al., 2003;
Furlong et al., 2003). In the research stated above “teacher warmth” is a collection of attributes
of being liked, being interested in the students, believing in students’ capabilities and listening to
students’ points of view. Supportive teachers are characterized by the above researchers as
showing respect for their students, holding clear and consistent expectations for student behavior,
and providing academic assistance for students in need (Marks, 2000; Shernoff, 2003; Appleton
et al., 2003; Furlong et al., 2003). Teacher-student relationships are important factors in student
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 36

engagement. One study shows the classroom dynamics between teacher and student and
attempts to make conclusions about levels of student engagement (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley &
Vincent, 2003).
The purpose of Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, and Vincent (2003) qualitative study was to
determine how elementary teachers motivate students. The researchers used past ethnography,
qualitative interviewing, and similar researcher methods to shed light on the nature of instruction
and the different approach used by teachers. Nine third-grade teachers in eight Catholic
elementary schools in South Bend and Mishawaka, Indiana agreed to participate in this study
during the 2000-2001 school year. The schools encompassed a full range of socioeconomic
ranges from poverty to upper-middle class. All the teachers in this study were women who had
some graduate units beyond the bachelor’s degree. The teachers’ years of experience ranged
from 5-23 years. Class sizes ranged from 10-28 students. This study aimed to develop a
grounded theory about how third grade teachers motivate students’ academic engagement
(Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003).
In this study observations were the main source of data collection. Observations were
conducted in each teacher’s classroom about three times a month for two-three hours each.
Researchers described verbatim what was said and done by teachers and students. In addition,
student work, teacher’s notes to parents, and variety of teaching materials were collected and
used as artifacts in the study. In-depth ethnographic interviews were conducted with each
teacher at the end of the school year to clarify instructional practices and explore teachers’
beliefs about teaching purposes (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003).
Researchers found academic behavior to start with on-task behavior. Students were
noted as being on-task if the student was doing what was asked of them. Four of the nine
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 37

teachers exhibited a high-level of student on-task behavior. Researchers noted two teachers had
low student on-task behavior (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent 2003). From on-task
behaviors, researchers made inferences about cognitive engagement from students’ written work,
questions, and answers. Researchers noted when students tried to think deeply by making
connections to learning and when students carefully considered information the students were
engaging in the classroom activities. Through the observations it was noted that 94 teacher
practices supported student motivation and 41 practices undermined motivation. Connections
were made between teachers who had low engaged students also had problem in lesson planning
and instruction. These teachers gave little praise, no scaffolding, and insufficient feedback.
Lessons in these classrooms did not excite students and many lessons required students to do
textbook exercises. Researchers anticipated the vast differences in engagement among some
classes. The least and most engaging teachers were easily detected. In other classes the research
found it more difficult to measure engagement because the student’s engagement would vary
from activity to activity and day to day. Teachers of the class with low engagement often reacted
to students being off-task in a negative and punitive way. The teaching approaches undermined
motivation and engagement (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003).
Instructional practices. The probability of student academic success is greatly
influenced by teacher instruction (Scott, Alter, & Hirn, 2001; Partin, Robertson, Maggin, Oliver,
& Wehby, 2010). Examples of instructional practices that have been found to foster student
success include: student opportunity to respond during class sessions and provide students with
specific and timely feedback (Scott, Alter, & Hirn, 2001; Partin, Robertson, Maggin, Oliver, &
Wehby, 2010). Opportunities to respond (OTR) provide students with the occasion to engage
with both the teacher and the curriculum (Scott, Alter, & Hirn, 2001). Allowing these
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 38

opportunities to engage has been associated with improved academic performance, increased
time on tasks, and decreased levels of disruptive student behaviors (Scott, Alter, & Hirn, 2001).
Student feedback involves specific responses by the teacher to the student to indicate success or
failure on task (Partin et al., 2010). Both positive and negative feedback can be given in the
form of verbal, written, gestural, and other response type, indicating accuracy, approval,
disapproval, direction, or general information (Partin et al., 2010). Both frequency of feedback
and ratio of positive to negative are important observable measures that can be used to evaluate
instruction (Partin et al., 2010).
With the shift from NCLB to Common Core standards, instructional practices that require
students to use cooperative learning strategies and discussion that supports students’ viewpoints
facilitate student engagement (Wang & Holcombe, 2010). Strategies that promote in-depth
inquiry and metacognition have both been found to increase student engagement (Finn &
Zimmer, 2012). These practices include those in which students make connections to the
learning through the use of inquiry to construct meaning and adding value of instruction to go
beyond the classroom (Newman, 1992; Green & Miller, 1996; Darling Hammond, 2007).
One study conducted by Hirn and Scott (2014) examined teacher and student behaviors in
high school to identify key instructional practices. The study took place in a large public school
district at a school that instructs approximately 1,470 students, grades 9 to 12. Student
engagement was observed through three defined categories: active, passive, and off-task
behavior. OTR was observed every two minutes as a group and every 17 to 20 minutes as an
individual. Within this study observation made a correlation between student engagement and
amount of OTR (Hirn & Scott, 2014). Student behavior was observed to be active 42%, passive
33%, and off task 18% of the observed time. Active behaviors included reading, writing,
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 39

responding to problems, reacting to prompts, and completing tasks. In addition teachers
provided positive feedback at a rate of 0.03 per minute and negative feedback at a rate of 0.05
per minute (Hirn & Scott, 2014). This study showed how different instructional practice can
enhance or break down student engagement and academic achievement.
Organizational features. School size is a recurring factor in many research articles
related to student engagement (Battistich, Solomon, Watson & Schaps, 1997; Bryk & Thum,
1989; Finn & Voelkl, 1993; Lindsay, 1982). However the research found among these
researchers is conflicting. For example, Battisich et al. (1997) argued school size may not have
an effect on student engagement and suggest benefits to large school size with ample educational
course offerings and special education options. Most research on the other hand encourages mid
to small sized schools. Mid to small size schools provide a sense of community as well a higher
rates of student satisfaction when compared to large schools (Bryk & Thum, 1989; Finn &
Voelkl, 1993; Lindsay, 1982). Whether the school size is large, mid, or small the successful
completion of school by the student is maximized by student involvement, which fosters a sense
of community and belonging (Christenson, Sinclair, Lahr & Godber, 2001).
Lee and Burkam (2003) explored how high schools, through structures and organization,
may influence students to stay in school and not drop out. The study used a sample of 3,840
students in 190 urban and suburban high schools (Lee & Burkam, 2003). The study analyzed
organizational structures such as school curriculum, school size, and social relationships and the
correlation between dropout rates (Lee & Burkam, 2003). One area of this study explored the
concept of school size and the impact that size has on student engagement in school and dropout
rates. This study found a clear connection to school size and dropout rates (Lee & Bukam,
2003). Small school size of 600 students or less have the lowest dropout rates of about 5% of
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 40

student population versus large schools with a population between 1,500 and 2,500 student with
a 12% drop out rate. In addition, minority group dropout rates such as Black (4.8%) and
Hispanic (2.3%) were far lower in small school sizes than in large schools (Lee & Burkam,
2003). Smaller schools have been found to provide a better experience for students by fostering
better relationships between students and adults, and the students feel more connected to school.
Lee and Burkam (2003) found class size to be a key factor in students’ drop out rates along with
the unsuspected finding that student perceptions of their school experience greatly effects drop
out rates.
Student perceptions/ student identity. Johnson (2006), Gorshi (2008), and
Kanaiaupuni and Ishibashi (2003) collectively agree the failing educational system is a problem
and demand equitable access for all students. These authors address the issues of
underprivileged students and the disadvantages with inequitable distribution of educational
resources. Many underprivileged students, whether it be a factor of a minority group based on
race or based on economic status, are deprived of a quality education which provides access to
success and lifetime opportunities (Kanaiaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003). Furthermore, the current
educational system is organized around privileged society and is demonstrated in three
characteristics. The system is dominated by privileged groups, identifies with privileged groups,
and centered on privileged groups (Goodman, 2011).
The school and classroom environment provided for the students along with the attitudes
of the administration and teachers is essential to providing equitable access for all students
(Bennett, 2001). Positive environments are needed to build intergroup relationships, facilitate
learning in a caring and respectful way, and set high expectations for every student (Bennett,
2001). Freire (1993) and Bennett (2001) address the curriculum used in the educational system
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 41

as lifeless and in need of a change. The current curriculum is lacking in richness and diversity.
Teachers who enrich lessons with their own experiences contribute to student knowledge, unless
the teacher leaves out other perspectives and experiences. Educators need to encourage student
inquiry about history and current events and about one’s self and personal beliefs (Freire, 1993).
Having a positive student identity is crucial for a child to feel successful and have
confidence (Coombs, 2012; Enquiquez, 2011; Moje & Luke, 2009). Students form a school
identity early in their educational process that is linked to academic success. These identities are
shaped by the student’s own perceived level of literacy. The problem is that students who
experience many failures in school, particularly in reading, often develop a negative self-identity
(Bennett, 2001; Moje & Luke, 2009). Literacy is not only a necessary foundation for academic
success but for a positive student identity as well. Many factors need to be examined to aid in
creating positive student identities such as: classroom environment and curriculum, teacher and
peer perceptions, cultural challenges, and social class conflicts. These factors contribute to each
student’s identity and self-perception (Moje & Luke, 2009; Bennett, 2009; Coombs, 2012;
Corkery, 2005).
There is a strong correlation with the development of early literacy skills in children and
the child’s long-term academic success. Many academic challenges arise for children in pre-
school and kindergarten when there is a lack of essential literacy skills developed early on
(Gettinger & Stoiber, 2012). In fact, children who enter kindergarten without certain literacy and
language skills rarely catch up to their peers with a strong literacy foundation (Gettinger &
Stoiber, 2012; Ehri, Dreyer, Flugman & Gross, 2007). The deficits created in early reading skills
for children tend to remain and even increase through the child’s elementary years. For example,
a child who completes second grade without being able to read fluently has a 25% chance of
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 42

reading at a proficient level by the end of elementary (Gettinger & Stoiber, 2012). In addition,
research shows students who struggle with reading acquisition also perform lower in other
subject, possess lower self- esteem, and present greater discipline problems within the classroom
(Scharlach, 2008). Consequently, high school dropout rates are tied to fourth grade reading
scores. If the child is having reading difficulties in literacy and reading skills by fourth grade, it
is likely the child will continue to struggle with reading throughout high school, which leads to a
high probability of dropping out of school (McCardle, Scarborough & Catts, 2001; Scharlach,
2008).
A good and positive student identity is crucial to the academic success of a child. How
the student perceives him or herself as a student can develop into perseverance and success or
can lead to many failures and eventually a defeated attitude which can led to dropping out of
school (Corkery, 2005). Even though Bennett (2001) did much research on ethnic identities she
makes and excellent point about identities in general. A complex cluster of factors such as: self-
labeling, feelings of belonging, as well as the desire to participate in activities associated with a
group, contribute to an identity (Bennett, 2001). Dotterer and Lowe (2011) refer to a student’s
feelings, behaviors, and thoughts about school and their school experiences as “school
engagement.” There is a growing interest among researchers to study school engagement as a
predictor of academic outcomes. This sense of belonging and being a significant member of the
school community has been seen as a precursor to engagement.
Kanaiaupuni and Ishibashi (2003) have done extensive research on Hawaiian students in
the public education system. The research sheds light on the cultural strain and academic
disadvantages of this ethnic group. Hawaiian students are among the lowest scoring groups with
low graduation rates and a disproportionately higher enrollment into special education classes.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 43

Studies have reported Hawaiians having relatively strong family and community ties, but often
live in impoverished areas where crime and violence is a part of everyday life (Kanaiaupuni &
Ishibashi, 2003). In addition, a high teacher turn-over rate deprives students of intellectual
engagement, social growth, and a quality education. With little positive opportunities, student
often have negative experiences at school and thus create a negative school identity. A negative
school identity leads to classroom misbehaviors, unmotivated students, and eventually, high
dropout rates (Corkery, 2005). Hawaiian student are not the only subgroup that experiences
negative school interactions.
According to research conducted by Monzo and Rueda (2009), Latino immigrant children
struggle with language proficiency and often feel discriminated because of language barriers.
The article examines how students “cope” with stereotypes and stigmas associated with lack of
English proficiency. In addition, this article looks at the idea of “passing” as a strategy for self-
preservation and the development of student identities (Monzo & Rueda, 2009). The students in
this study saw themselves as different because of the lack of English language skills. These
students use a variety of strategies to attempt to be accepted as a full member of society. Some
of these strategies include “flying under the radar” or using limited conversational English to
attempt to blend in (Monzo & Rueda, 2009). Teachers and students native to the English
language often associate non-English proficiency with low intelligence and are aware the power
and status in society the English language holds. As seen in the Hawaiian culture and in non-
proficient English speakers, positional roles exit and race, income levels, and immigration status
impact relative power and status (Kanaiaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003).
One study conducted by Conner and Pope (2013) found lack of student engagement is
associated with more frequent school stress, higher rates of cheating, and greater internalizing,
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 44

externalizing, and physical symptoms of stress. This study suggests students who work hard in
achieving good grades is not enough to thrive (Conner & Pope, 2013). Through this research,
links between high engagement and high academic success were not always interchangeable.
For example, students in high performing school who reported having high grade point averages
and appeared to be academically successful by traditional measures, reported being on the
spectrum of engagement, from very low engagement to fully engaged. This report found
evidence of students with high academic performance with low engagement. In fact, less than
one-third of the student population are regularly fully engaged in their school work, which
consists of regularly working hard, enjoying the work, and finding their efforts valuable (Conner
& Pope, 2013). Pope (2012) suggests this form of academic success comes from having high
levels of behavioral engagement but low affective and cognitive engagement.
Positive outcomes associated with full engagement include healthier and better-adjusted
students. Extensive research has linked students who are healthier to not only getting better
grades but have better abilities to learn, retain information, and use critical thinking skills
(National Research Council, 2004). This research suggests fully engagement play is a critical
role in the learning cycle of each student and the healthy development of children (Conner &
Pope, 2013; National Research Council, 2004).
Theoretical Framework
Social Context
(of the home, community,
school, and classroom)
Patterns of Action
(engagement vs.
disengagement)
Student outcomes
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 45

Home environment
Neighborhood
School leadership/climate
Instructional Practices
Quality of teacher-student
relationship
Organizational Features
Academic
Social
Cognitive
Affective
Student identity
Senses of belonging
Relationship skills with peers
and adults
Grades
Graduation

Summary
America is on the brink of an educational reform with the adoption of the new Common
Core Standards and the new accountability systems in place. Only time will tell if this new
educational system will close the achievement gap among different sub groups, such as African
American and Hispanic and the White and Asian groups. Research is clear about some factors
that contribute to this achievement gap such as lack of qualified teachers, lack of attendance of
preschool programs, weak school leadership, passive home environments, and socioeconomic
status. However, certain schools have been able to close the achievement gap and produces
lower dropout rates and successful students. Some research explains success of certain
outperforming schools through student engagement factors. Research explains the effects of
disengaged students as having low self-worth, lack of connection to school, and ultimately;
disengagement can be a factor of the increased dropout rate.
Measurement of engagement through patterns of action such as affective, cognitive,
academic, and social, can be a way to monitor students on their educational path. The literature
is clear about factors that contribute to levels of engagement. The home environment as well as
the school climate plays key roles in the student’s identity and self-worth. It is important for
policy makers, district personnel, school administration, teachers, and parents to be aware of the
indicators of student engagement.
This study will look at an outperforming elementary school to find factors that contribute
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 46

to the success of the school. It is imperative to find answers about successful schools in order to
identify and possibly duplicate success. America is failing our students by the enormous dropout
rate, the lack of prepare seniors for college, and the lack of career ready students. However,
some elementary schools are better preparing their students for a strong academic future. This
study will explore an outperforming elementary school to find indicators that lead to the success
of the school.

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 47

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Urban schools have historically struggled to close the achievement gaps in comparison to
their suburban counterparts. The literature review noted several factors for persistent gaps in
academics such as high levels of English Learners, high poverty, and high minority population.
However, some urban schools have drawn the attention of researchers by closing the
achievement gap in spite of the odds and earned the name outperforming schools. These schools
are outperforming other schools with the same demographics and disposition as neighboring
schools. Although the factors of the outperforming schools’ success are unknown, several
perceived factors could be noted and examined.
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceived factors of an outperforming
school in student engagement as it relates to student achievement. Some research shows higher
levels of student engagement leads to higher performance in the classroom along with lowers
dropout rates (Newmann, 1992; Finn & Zimmer, 2012). This qualitative case study used specific
criteria to choose an appropriate school to study. Once the school was determined, this study
used interviews, surveys, document analysis, and observations to determine factors, if any, that
linked student engagement and student achievement.
Research Design and Methods
This study used a case study approach to examine the role of different factors in
promoting or hindering student engagement and student achievement. A case study is conducted
to uncover a phenomenon, and is an in-depth description of a system (Merriam, 2009). A case
study approach is deeply aligned with a constructivist view, and, therefore, holds basic
assumptions that people construct meanings as they interact and struggle with the phenomenon
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 48

they are undertaking to interpret. Constructivists believe understanding of the world and
experiences are strongly influenced by both the historical and social lens people have been given
by the culture they are born into. This perspective provides the basis for using first hand
experiences in the settings of the participants (Creswell, 2009). Constructivists believe meaning
making is always social, which also motivates the researcher to look for meaning from data
collected in the field (Creswell, 2009). While there is much more to constructivism, these basic
guiding principles and beliefs give personal meaning and motivation to use a qualitative design.
Based on a constructivist point of view, and using a case study methodology, this study
examined the phenomena of one outperforming urban school. The outperforming urban school
was chosen from a School District in Southern California. There was a set criteria developed by
the four members of the dissertation group in order to correctly identify a qualified school to
analyze. The dissertation group also created measurement tools to use such as interview
questions and protocols, survey questionnaires, and an observation protocol. Two of the
researcher from the dissertation group used an outperforming high school in their study while the
other two researchers used an outperforming elementary school. Due to the difference in
organizations, a few of the interview and survey questions had slight variations in order to be
grade level specific.
Why Qualitative Methods
There are three different ways to conduct a research study. The researcher can use
qualitative, quantitative, or a mixed method approach. This study lends itself to a qualitative
approach because of the nature of the research question. Qualitative research often deals with
everyday concerns with people’s lives and understanding one’s practices (Merriam, 2009).
Engaging in inquiry of one’s practices and improving one’s practices lends more to a qualitative
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 49

approach. According to Merriam (2009), qualitative researchers are interested in understanding
how people interpret and make meaning of their experiences. Understanding other’s
perspectives takes a triangular approach to data collection. Triangulating data utilizes the
various forms of data collection procedures for a qualitative study; document analysis, surveys,
interviews, and observations (Creswell, 2003).
Document Review
Document analysis can play a crucial part in gathering and finding information to
strengthen the study. For example, when studying student engagement many researchers have
used attendance rates, dropout rates, overall grade point averages, and behavioral referrals to
determine patterns and themes. Document reviews are an easy and convenient way to
systematically gain information (Merriam, 2009). Most schools that receive federal funding are
required to keep documentation of how monies are spent, whether to fund programs or
personnel. In addition, many schools also have a school plan for student achievement that
identifies priorities and initiatives set by the school. Reviewing school documentation allows the
researcher to identify how schools strategically plan for academic success and if engagement
either directly or indirectly is a part of the plan. Unlike surveys, interviews, and observations,
the researcher does not alter what is being studied. Document reviews are considered an
unobtrusive and non-reactive measure (Merriam, 2009).
Surveys
When measuring people’s perceptions, surveys, interviews, and observations are a
necessary part of data collection. Surveys can be very useful when gathering data from a large
sample group. Researchers use some open-ended questions; however, many qualitative
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 50

researchers recommend a likert-scale system in order to make the data analysis process
simplified and accurate (Merriam, 2009; Maxwell, 2013).
Interviews
Interviews are also important when using a qualitative approach. A person-to-person
encounter in which one person elicits information from another is the most popular form of
interviews but it can also be in the form of a group interviews (Merriam, 2009). Interviews can
be on a sliding scale of very structure to unstructured. Very structured interviews consist of a
predetermined set of questions to elicited responses. In very structured interviews the researcher
will not deviate from the list of questions and will not ask follow-up questions. In a semi-
structured interview setting the researcher may deviate from the predetermined questions and are
able to ask follow-up question to clarify or have the interviewee elaborate on the topic. In an
unstructured interview, the researcher may or may not have a set of predetermined questions, and
one answer may led to the next question and so on. Interviews can give great insight into a
person’s perceptions and understanding of their experiences.
However, interviews have limitations in that information is gathered and filtered through
the biases and views of the participants. In addition, some interviews are not conducted in the
natural field setting of the researcher’s focus. Conducting interviews in the participant natural
setting is crucial to build confidence and provide comfort for the participant (Maxwell, 2013). It
is important to establish a relationship and help the participant to be relaxed to gain as much real
and true data as possible. The researcher must then deal with the varying abilities of the
participants to articulate their experience, and keep in mind the possibility that participants
answer in a particular way due to the presence and position of the interviewer (Creswell, 2009).

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 51

Observations
Observations are also a great way to understand how a person acts in a particular
environment. Observations can be distinguished from interviews in two ways. First, the
observation must take place in the setting where the phenomenon of interest naturally occurs;
unlike interviews, which can take place almost anywhere; second, observational data is first hand
data where the observer gets a firsthand account of the phenomena (Merriam, 2009). This form
of watching a person in their natural setting is a good way to gather information about
the study’s research questions (Maxwell, 2013).
However, there can be some limitations to observation in gathering information. Merriam
(2009) uses an analogy that can be used to explain the limitations of observations. Consider a
car collision in a busy intersection. For each witness to the coalition there would be a differed
perspective and perception (Merriam, 2009). Human nature is subjected to human perception
and beliefs. However, the witnesses of the car coalition was not prepared or trained for the
observation. It takes much preparation and training in order to observe a situation without
putting the researcher’s own perceptions and belief in the observation (Merriam, 2009). It is
imperative that the researcher is prepared and has the proper technique practiced before the
observation. In this case study, observations and interviews were used to determine teacher’s
perceptions of student engagement. The researcher practiced this method of unbiased
observation in pervious pilot studies during course work at the University of Southern California.
To coordinate the interviewees’ answers and methods the teacher was interviewed first in order
to gain perspective and knowledge of the teachers’ understanding of student engagement. Next,
the teacher was observed in the natural class setting to determine if the interview answers
matched the actions during the observation. This dissertation study used the practiced
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 52

techniques to set and use certain protocols to assure reliable data collection.
This case study is one of eighteen thematic dissertation case studies conducted at the
University of Southern California led by Dr. Stuart E. Gothold and Dr. Maria Ott. Each member
of the large cohort belongs to a smaller dissertation cohort consisting of four to five members,
which are studying the same topic. In this particular cohort, the study focuses on student
engagement in an outperforming urban school. The doctoral students are student investigators in
this case study examining outperforming urban school environments in the Southern California
area. By examining a particular outperforming school, the researchers found patterns in the
schools and utilize these findings to establish how various factors contribute to academic
achievement. Once a better understanding of how these perceived factors contribute to academic
achievement, the researchers provided a framework to increase student engagement and student
achievement levels.
School Site, Participants, and Sampling
Two factors were utilized to determine whether or not a school would qualify for the
study. The following two factors were developed collectively by the student engagement
cohort to qualify a school site.
The qualifying criteria consisted of the following two conditions:

1. The student body and demographics were consistent with characteristics of urban-like
schools as defined by the dissertation group; and
2. The school was exceeding academic expectations compared to other similar
schools.
The dissertation group defined urban or urban-like schools to be characterized by the
following:
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 53

1. Ethnically diverse student population; with at least 51% of the students being minority
status.
2. A minimum of 60% of the students qualified for free and reduced-priced meals.
3. The school’s English Language Learner population was at or near the state average for
California in 2014 (22.3%).
Selection of a high performing school presented a challenge to the USC cohort because of
recent changes to California state testing. The Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium
(SBAC), which replaced the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR), conducted field tests
in the 2013-2014 school year and full implementation took place in the 2014-2015 school year
which only revealed baseline data (http://www.smarterbalanced.org/smarter-balanced-
assessments/). Since there were limited options in terms of data, the USC cohort examined
historical testing data, similar school ranking from the 2013 school year, and testing results for
the last three years of Standardized Test results 2010-2011, 2011-2012, and 2012-2013. The
school was considered outperforming if it met the following criteria:
• The school was ranked one or more points higher on the similar school ranking than the
statewide ranking.
• The school’s API score was 820 or higher
Due to recent changes in the state testing accountability instrument, the thematic
dissertation group was faced with the challenge of defining a method to evaluate the school’s
performance. The Standardized Testing and Reporting assessment (STAR), formerly used by the
state, was replaced with the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC). The SBAC was
administered as a field test in the 2013-2014 school year without student or school results. The
following school year, the exam was formally implemented, producing statewide baseline testing
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 54

data. Given the lack of recent test data, the thematic dissertation group opted to review historical
data such the average API scores for the last three years and use similar school rankings as
measurements of success.
The school selected for this case study was Brandave Elementary School in the Inland Empire
area of Southern California. A pseudonym was chosen for this school site to protect the identity of staff
members, students, and community members (Merriam, 2009). Brandave Elementary School follows a
modified, traditional schedule who serves 703 students in kindergarten through fifth grade with 24
teachers; 23 fully credentialed and one without full credentials. The staff includes one principal and one
half-time assistant principal who shares contract time between two different school sites. The site was
selected because it met the criteria determined by the members of the thematic dissertation group
including a majority of ethnic minority students, has a presence of English Language Learners, and at
least 65% of the student body qualifying for free or reduced price meals. The school is outperforming its
urban counterparts according to the criteria set forth by the group members including past Academic
Performance Indices, and similar school rankings.
Table 1: Enrollment Trends by Grade Level
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
Kindergarten 115 140 138
First Grade 93 114 124
Second Grade 115 81 118
Third Grade 74 114 93
Fourth Grade 131 87 135
Fifth Grade 107 125 95

The school serves a large number of self-identifying minority students, socioeconomically
disadvantaged, and English Language Learners in 2013-2014 as listed in the following categories:
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 55

Table 2: Enrollment by Student Group
African American 11.2%
Asian 3.0%
Filipino 3.4%
Hispanic or Latino 69.4%
Pacific Islander 0.1%
White (non-Hispanic) 9.8%
Multiple Ethnicity 2.8%
No Response 0.1%
English Language Learners 29.4%
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged 74.1%
Students with Disabilities 10.5%

According to Brandave Elementary School’s School Accountability Report Card (SARC), the
vision of the school is that every student will graduate as an effective communicator and a collaborator,
quality producer, self-directed learner, critical and creative thinker, and responsible citizen. The school’s
mission is that through a rigorous and engaging educational program, they will equip students with the
skills, knowledge, and competencies to be prepared for a global society. As a public school, Brandave
Elementary School is regularly ranked against other similar public schools. The site’s similar schools
rank was a ten while the statewide rank was a seven in 2013.
Since new accountability measures are being implemented, a three-year API trend was used as
criterion; results are as follows:
Table 3: California Standards Test (CST)
Subject 2011 2012 2013
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 56

English/Language Arts 59 68 57
Mathematics 67 80 77
Science 68 64 65

The weighted three-year average API scores broken down by sub groups are as follows:
Table 4: Weighted three-year average API scores
Schoolwide 856
African American 829
Asian 889
Filipino 935
Hispanic or Latino 851
White (non-Hispanic) 871
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged 839
English Language Learners 839
Students with Disabilities 774

Conceptual Framework
Through an extensive literature review, no consensus on the definition of engagement
could be found and multiple conceptual frameworks attempting to quantify and measure
engagement, as it relates to student achievement, were identified. In order to have a more
complete understanding of all the factors that interplay with both engagement and achievement,
the USC cohort looked to the work of Urie Bronfenbrenner. Bronfenbrenner identified systems
and showed how those systems interacted with each other. Adapted from Bronfenbrenner
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 57

ecological systems theory (https://www.mentalhelp.net/articles/urie-bronfenbrenner-and-child-
development/) the USC cohort created a conceptual framework (Figure 1) that shows how
different systems: (a) Mesosystem (b) Exosystem (c) Macrosystem interact with engagement
which ultimately impacts student achievement.

The conceptual framework was developed through the USC cohort collaboration and
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 58

focuses on three separate types of student engagement: (a) Behavioral (b) Emotional (c)
Cognitive. The three types of engagement have separate indicators relating to their
corresponding engagement level. The research team theorizes that when Behavioral, Emotional,
and Cognitive engagement is high, students may experience “Flow”. Shernoff (2013) asserts
that “Flow” is when skillful and successful action seems effortless, even when a large amount of
mental or physical energy is being asserted. People in flow also lose track of time because of
hyper engagement in an activity.
A student’s school and home life influences engagement levels within the areas of
behavior, emotion, and cognitive. The literature review shows an oversight in research with
many variable or multiple systems; it is difficult to capture all the elements. For example,
students who have parents who emphasize the importance of schooling and place education as a
priority have more tools to support higher engagement levels. However, those students who lack
social capital and parental support often receive a different meaning for education that conflicts
with the school system’s message and can result in disengagement. Furthermore, the students
who are from low socio-economic levels lack support and resources in other areas. In the
communities who struggle financially there are often minimal community health services along
with increased neighborhood violence, drug use, and lack of supervision. Looking at multiple
systems within engagement is important to understand what increases behavioral, emotional, and
cognitive levels of engagement.
Data Collection
The dissertation cohort decided on interview and survey questions along with
protocols for observations as a means to triangulate findings. The next section explains, in
detail, how the researcher used each instrument for the study.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 59

Document Analysis
For the document analysis, The Single Plan for Student Achievement document, the
California Assessment of Student performance and progress website, the California
Department of Education website, the School Accountability Report Card, the district and
school’s website, the school handbook, and the parent/student handbook were reviewed and
analyzed. The documents reviewed were selected because they provide a narrative about the
school and the participants (Merriam, 2009). For example, one of the documents the cohort
analyzed is the referral, suspension, and expulsion rates of the student body. This shed light
on behavioral aspects of the school as a whole. The school culture was revealed through the
review of these documents along with attendance rates and office referrals. These public
documents also show how the school communicates with it stakeholder groups and provides a
synopsis of how the school functions. Through the document analysis, school priorities,
specifically around engagement, are identified and marked for further study.
Surveys
The current body of literature on student engagement has led to a varying number of
definitions, theoretical frameworks, and measurement tool (Fredricks & McColskey, 2012). In
order to maintain consistency with previous studies on engagement, The USC cohort adopted
a survey about student engagement that was developed at the Learning Achievement Coalition
in Oakland Michigan (2014). This survey, administered to students and teachers, was used to
measure teacher and students’ perception of student engagement. The Oakland County has
consistently administered this tool since 2010 (Learning Achievement Coalition-Oakland
[LACO], 2014). Key stakeholders at Brandave Elementary School, including teachers, and
students, participated in completing the survey. The survey questions revolved around the
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 60

three components of engagement that were identified in the conceptual framework.
Specifically, questions were asked in regards to behavioral, emotional, and cognitive
engagement. For example, included in the student survey were question about the level of
belonging a student felt on campus; along with questions about peer and teacher relationships.
These survey questions allowed the researchers to get a sense of the emotional engagement of
the student population. The survey was designed to show how various stakeholders perceive
student engagement at Brandave Elementary School. The survey was voluntary and the
participants were provided the necessary time to reflect and respond to questions. Survey data
were collected through an online web tool and categorized into three different areas (a)
behavioral, (b) emotional, and (c) cognitive. Each area was examined for patterns and trends
that led to conclusions about the programs, processes, and procedures at the school site.
Observations
The USC research team determined what links exist between behavioral, emotional,
and cognitive engagement and student academic achievement through observations. The
researcher observed in multiple settings at the school site including; professional development
meetings, grade level meetings, parent meetings, classroom time, and during lunch.
Observations were done randomly and prior approval from the principal and teachers was
obtained. Observations included a cross-section of the school, which included differing grade
levels, subject matter, and English Language Development levels. The researcher studied
factors related to ecological systems theory, as well as, behavioral, emotional, and cognitive
engagement in relation to academic achievement. The goal of the observations was two-fold.
First, identify the initiatives set forth from the review of the document analysis and confirm or
disconfirm the data from the survey. Second, establish evidence through a written record of
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 61

the perceived factors that contribute to engagement and ultimately student achievement. For
example, one aspect that was highly observable during classroom observation was behavioral
engagement. Researchers looked at student participation, attention to tasks, and task
completion. Observation notes were examined and compared to surveys and interview
answers.
Interviews
Interviews with various stakeholders such as teachers, administrators, and students
helped to answer questions about engagement that remained after the data collection
procedures were exhausted. The interview questions were also adopted from the Learning
Coalition in Oakland, Michigan (2014). Interviews provided additional information and
specific details to the engagement strategies that lead to academic achievement. Five one-on-
one interviews were conducted with teachers and administration. During the research cycle
individual stakeholders were asked what program, processes, and practices are perceived as
productive engagement strategies that led to student achievement. In addition, two student
focus groups of fourth and fifth graders were conducted as a means to add student voice and
triangulate the data from teacher interviews. All interviews were conducted before the
classroom observations as a way of triangulating findings and identifying trends and patterns.
In addition, the researcher used observations after the interviews as a way of matching
teachers’ perception of student engagement and actions in the classroom.
All interviewees were selected in advance and permission from the various
participants was garnered in writing, via a signed consent form. Participants were selected at
random and the invited participants were given the option to opt out. The USC research team
developed a semi-structured interview protocol that allowed for comparability, but also had
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 62

flexibility to explore other areas the researcher thought were appropriate. The researcher had
standardized questions and probes prepared for additional lines of questioning. The average
interview lasted approximately 40 minutes. Once the interviews and student focus group were
completed, the data was examined and patterns and trends were identified and analyzed by the
researcher. By triangulating the data through the use of multiple methods the researcher can
assume a certain level of reliability and validity (Merriam, 2009).
The researcher wanted to explore the perceived factors that were associated with
student engagement, which ultimately led to student academic achievement. All of the
interviews were recorded and transcribed. In addition all of the participants were kept
anonymous and the data was protected according to Institutional Review Board (IRB)
guidelines. The researcher was cognizant of verbal, as well as, non-verbal cues and
appropriate notes were taken to record both. At the end of the interview all of the participants
were asked if there was additional information that they could provide to help the researcher
understand the success of the school community.
Data Analysis
At the conclusion of the study, the researcher complied and examined all of the
relevant data. Because the researcher was the instrument used in the data collection process,
interviews, and observations are inherently the researcher’s interpretation of reality (Merriam,
2009). With this in mind, the researcher was cognizant about reflexivity. Reflexivity is the
critical self-refection by the researcher in relationship to the study that may affect the
investigation (Merriam, 2009). Strategies such as peer review or examination and member
checks were used to determine the congruency of the emerging findings.

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 63

Conclusion
Through the collection of document reviews, surveys, interviews and observations
the researcher was able to categorize and interpret the data in meaningful ways. Through this
process of data collection the researcher was able to show how behavioral, cognitive, and
emotional engagement coupled with systems theory has a direct effect on student achievement.
Though this chapter focused on methodology, the next chapter, chapter four, seeks to provide
answers to the research questions. Are the indicators of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive
engagement present in a high performing urban school? What school programs, processes, and
practices are perceived to contribute to student engagement? And finally, what are the unique
elements within Brandave Elementary structure that support student engagement?

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 64

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Introduction
A sense of urgency among educational leaders to develop and implement programs,
practices, and procedures in closing the achievement gap is a persistent problem for this nation.
Although the dropout rates are decreasing and schools are progressing all students, there still
remain the academic disparities among Latino and black students versus their White and Asian
counterparts (Torlakson, 2013). In addition, urban, low economic status areas are still struggling
to raise test scores. This trend among urban, low socioeconomic, high English Language
Learner areas where schools are defining the odds and performing well creates a need to explore
the programs and practices that have been implemented in order to shed light on possible
solutions to the grave educational problem of the achievement gap (Bell, 2001).
Although this case study was not meant to be used to generalize solutions to the
achievement gap, this study provided insight to effective programs, practices, and processes to be
used to encourage student engagement and ultimately raise student achievement. The first three
chapters provided background of the problem, a review of the existing literature, and a
comprehensive data analysis plan. The methods section laid out the plan of action for data
collection, which included: classroom and school observations, teacher, administrator, and
student interviews, teacher and student surveys, and document analysis. The plan was executed
as stated in chapter three and thus chapter four will serve as a comprehensive analysis of the
data. This chapter will provide comprehensive data aligned with the purpose of the study, which
was to examine the role of engagement in student achievement in outperforming urban schools.
This qualitative case study aimed to identify programs, practices, and processes that may
contribute to student engagement levels (Creswell, 2009). Using a Theoretical Framework,
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 65

shown in chapter three, centered on (a) behavioral, (b) emotional, and (c) cognitive patterns of
action, indicators and student outcomes were measured. The Theoretical Framework created by
the University of Southern California’s cohort shows a continuum of engagement levels. The
ideal placement on this continuum would be in a state of flow where the learner is completely
immersed in the task and learning. However, in order for this to happen several engagement
criteria need to line up. There are the three patterns of action: behavioral, cognitive, and
emotional, but social capital of the learner also needs to be taken into account. Each learner is
different but in theory the higher the level of engagement in each area, and the higher social
capital one has the closer the learner is to the state of flow.
This robust chapter four will discuss the findings of this study on student engagement in
detail. This chapter will review the criteria for choosing the school site to study, as well as,
review the mythology used in this study. The chapter is organized by researcher question. Each
research question is stated and the data for each question is laid out below the question. A brief
summary of the data is given at the end of each section, as well as, at the end of the chapter.
Brandave Elementary is the pseudonym chosen for the school studied in order to protect
the identity of the students, staff, and community (Creswell, 2009). In addition, all names of
teachers, students, and administration have been removed and a pseudonym has been given for
confidentiality and protection (Creswell, 2009).
Criteria
Brandave Elementary was a perfect match to the criteria chosen previously by the
University of Southern California dissertation cohort. Two categories, Urban and High
Performing, were taken into consideration when choosing the school to study. The cohort
classified urban as having a student population demographic of at least 51%, a minimum of 60%
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 66

of the student body on free and reduced lunch program, and at least the state average of 22.3%
English language learners (Brandave Elementary School Accountability Report, 2016).
Brandave exceeds the minimum in every category with 64.4% Hispanic/Latino population and
11.2% African American, as well as 74.1% of the student body on free and reduces lunch, and
29.4% English language learners. In addition, Brandave exceeds the minimum requirement for a
High Performing school as well. The cohort’s criteria included a school that exceeds the
academic expectations compared to other similar schools, and the last three years of the
California State Testing results needed to exceed 820 school wide. Brandave outranks other
school by two points according to the similar school ranking report and has an overall school
wide weighted-three year average score of 856 on the CST. Brandave Elementary School is a
strong candidate for this case study because it is an urban school that is out-performing other
schools with similar demographics.
Methods
The methods used for this study were consistent with the data collection plan in chapter
three. This qualitative study used a review of the literature to identify themes as a foundation for
data collection (Creswell, 2009). In addition, the researcher identified emerging themes within
the data. Overall the researcher’s main goal was to ascertain data that effectively portrayed the
aspects of the school that contributed to the students’ success. All data collected, coded, and
analyzed followed Creswell’s (2010) steps for data collection and interpretation. The data was
purposefully collected and triangulated in order to strengthen the validity of the findings.
Multiple measures were used in order to gain the most pertinent information on the topic
of student engagement. Documents, interviews, observations, and surveys were used to capture
the essence of the school and the success of the students. Data collected for the document
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 67

analysis included the School Accountability Report Card report, MAPs test results, preliminary
SBAC results, school website, school plan, California Department of Education website, and the
single plan for student achievement.
In addition to the document analysis, five teachers, one administrator, and two student
focus groups, with a total of seven students, were interviewed. All interviewees signed the
affidavit that stated the purpose of the study and volunteer nature of the interview process. Due
to the age of the students, parent consent was given for the seven student participants. The five
teachers interviewed currently taught at the fourth grade and fifth grade level. All teachers were
classified as veteran teachers, which will be discussed later in this chapter, and all teachers had
been at the school site for five years or more. The student focus groups also consisted of fourth
and fifth graders. The entire body of student participant had been at the school site three years or
longer. The administrator that was interviewed was the principal. The principal had been the
principal for three years at this school site and had additional principal experience prior to
entering Brandave Elementary.
Three of the teachers interviewed were also observed in the classroom setting. In
addition three more teachers volunteered to have the researcher observe the classroom
environment. With a total of six observations within the fourth and fifth grade level the
researcher was able to analyze important information observation data about the interaction
between the teacher and students along with peer interaction and student interaction with the
curriculum. All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim to ensure the quality
and validity of the data. The findings and themes will be detailed later in this chapter.
Teachers and students participated in the online survey (Qualtrics.usc.com, May, 2016).
Teachers were sent a link through the district email to take the survey. Twenty-two teachers out
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 68

of twenty-four teachers completed the survey. Fourth and fifth grade students were also given
the opportunity to take the survey through the Qualtrics website during the students’ computer
lab time. Eighty-eight students completed the survey. The survey was designed and used to gain
information from a large amount of teachers and students within a short amount of time.
Teachers and student were willing to help in participating to take the survey. As stated
previously, all participants signed release forms, including parents of minors.
Upon completion of the data collection, the dissertation cohort examined all data
collected by members of the cohort and co-constructed a priori and emerging themes. Having a
thematic group provided an added layer of validity to the study’s findings. Each member did a
case study on a different school but collaborated on identifying relevant and appropriate
literature and examining the findings from each school site. First, themes were pulled out of the
literature review and a comprehensive document was created reflecting the contributions and
agreements of the members of the study cohort. Next, each member analyzed each researcher’s
data, ensuring that the requirements for individual research were met. The members came
together to look through each other’s coded information and collaborated to find emerging
themes in each individual case study and among all the case studies collectively. Most themes
were found in each case study. For example, strong leadership from the administration and
groups of teachers on campus were seen throughout the case studies. Some disparities were seen
between the high schools and the elementary schools. For example, the two researchers who
conducted their studies at the high school level found abundant, rich data for research question
number four, based on Flow Theory (Shernoff, 2013). While the elementary data is lacking in
the area of research question number four. Having the opportunity to look at data from four case
studies and utilizing colleague collaboration adds strength and validity to the findings.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 69

Initial Impression of Brandave Elementary School
The researcher collected data at Brandave Elementary School for six days and was on
campus for an additional day prior to the study to meet the principal and a few of the teachers.
Brandave Elementary School in nestled into a community of single-family homes. While driving
up the main street to campus one views a public park with a spacious soccer field, playground,
and a walking track that perimeters the entire park. In the middle of the day there were many
adults and small children out and about. The school itself had a moon shaped parking lot with
an additional drive through lane clearly labeled for student-drop off and pick up. The school
marque was visible at the front of the school and read “Donuts with Dads Thursday.” Chain link
fence perimeters the entire school with the exception of the front of the school, which had a
large, red, painted, rod iron gate. The gate was open in the middle of the school day and led only
to the front office, which was clearly marked. The campus was secure by another gate that only
allowed people to exit campus but not enter. Upon entering the office, friendly secretaries
smiled and asked how they could be a service. The front office was open with many windows
and colorful bulletin boards. Overall the campus was neat, clean, and well cared for. This initial
impression of the campus showed a warm and inviting space for students to feel cared for. This
welcoming environment allows parents and community member to feel a part of this school site
but also reflected the security of the campus.
The principal’s office was connected to the main office space where the three secretaries
had their desks and connected to a meeting room. The principal and several teachers who were
conducting an Instructional Leadership Team meeting were using the conference room.
Observations were made about the work environment and demeanor of the office staff.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 70

Everyone who entered the office, parent, student, or teachers, was friendly and offered help or
support to others.
The first meeting with the principal, to gain access for the study, went smoothly. The
principal was willing and excited that the school was chosen for the study and seemed more than
willing to aid a fellow educational colleague. The principal’s office was inviting with displays of
student thank you cards, personal photos of family, and certificates of school achievements. The
meeting was briefly interrupted several times with teacher requests or questions. Each time the
principal paused the meeting to meet the needs of the teacher and then apologized for the
interruption. The initial meeting was successful, resulting in permission for the study and
gaining a first glimpse of the school site.
It is important to mention basic routines and layout of the school in order to capture the
overall picture. This school site had an organized daily, weekly, monthly, yearly setup that helps
students, parents, and teachers settle into the routine. The set schedule also allows for teachers
and parent to create extracurricular activities and events for the students. The next section
describes the organized school year.
Brandave Elementary School has self-contained classroom with about thirty students in
each class. Most grade levels have four classes with the occasional exception, which depends on
the enrollment number for a particular year. The school day begins at 7:45 am and end at 2:20
pm. Wednesdays are minimum days where school starts at 7:45 am and ends at 11:50 am.
Teachers were contracted to be on campus from 7:20 am to 2:40 pm every day. On Wednesday
when the students go home early, the teachers had staff meetings, professional learning
community time to work with their team, or preparation time on their own. In this district all
schools had a set schedule. For example, one Wednesday would be administration directed day
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 71

where the principal could hold meetings, require teachers to work with their PLC, have a specific
teacher training, or anything that needed to be done as a staff. The following Wednesday would
be all teacher preparation day. This day would be dedicated to serve the teachers how they see
fit. For example, some teachers might meet with their team and lesson plan, some might attend a
committee meeting for a special event or campus activity, others would do their own lesson
planning. Brandave Elementary School was on a modified traditional yearly schedule. The
modified schedule means school was not in session for a week at thanksgiving, three weeks for a
winter break, one week in March, and eight weeks during the summer. The school year started at
the beginning of August and ended before Memorial Day in May. This research study of student
engagement at Brandave was strategically scheduled for the end of the school year, and took
place in April and May.
The researcher used the research question to drive the data collection on students’
achievement and perceptions; teacher effectiveness and perceptions; administrations involvement
and leadership; and parent involvement. The research questions that guided the study and were
used to gather data follow:
1. To what extent are the indicators of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement
present in a high performing urban school?
2. What school programs, processes, and practices are perceived to contribute to student
engagement?
3. What are the unique elements within a distinguished elementary school structure that
support student engagement?
4. To what extent do students perceive being in a state of flow during the school day?
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 72

The research questions focused on programs, practices, and procedures that contributed
to student engagement at Brandave Elementary School. Each research question was given a set
of assigned criteria to satisfy and answer the question through the study. Interviews, surveys,
observations, and documents were coded according to themes and researcher question criteria.
The next several sections will walk the reader through the data analyses processes, explain the
findings and themes, and provide visuals for the data.
Data for Research Question One
To what extent are the indicators of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement
present in a high performing urban school?
The theoretical framework presented in chapter three provided a visual representation for
the level of engagement students need in order to be successful academically. For example,
those students who enter into affluent schools with high social capital due to advantaged
backgrounds may only need low levels of behavioral, emotional, or cognitive engagement.
However, it became apparent with low social capital, low socioeconomic status, high levels of
English language learners in an urban school setting; the students need high levels of behavioral,
emotional, and cognitive engagement in order to be successful in school (Conner & Pope, 2013).
Gathering information for this study through teacher, administration, and student voice allowed
for a clear picture of how students engaged within the classroom and school. Several students
used the open-ended question on the survey to tell about their teacher encouraging them through
a particular story: “Our teacher would sometimes give us life lessons in class. She taught us
about a hole, a very deep hole that we are in and we have no ropes or ladders. All we have is our
brain, and when we get to the top of the hole there is everything! Cars, money, fancy houses, and
restaurants; but she said the only way to get there is to gain knowledge.” Another student stated,
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 73

“This story of the hole really inspires me, and it teaches me to never give up and reach for what
you want to be in life.” Another student described how this story made her feel “[My Teacher]
says that in order to get out of the hole, you need to try your best in school and work hard for
what you want. After these lessons, I feel very confident about myself.”

Behavioral
Behavioral engagement refers to the student’s ability to follow school and classroom
rules, for example, coming to school on time, interacting appropriately with teacher and peers,
not showing anti-social behavior of being withdrawn and disturbing others at work (Dotterer &
Lowe, 2011). Brandave Elementary works to keep students behaviorally engaged in order to
support all student learning by having certain beliefs in place. A teacher stated “High
expectations, well trained teachers, rigorous curriculum, caring teachers, supportive principal,
and communication among colleagues” on the teacher survey.
Observations of students during class time showed the level of on task behavior as
students worked in collaboration with each other and independently. The classroom structures
were setup to promote independence and self-driven learning among students. The teachers put
structures into place such as a daily schedule, objective for learning, and opportunities for
student collaboration. The students worked within these structures in a responsible manner as
they completed academic tasks. For example, after Mrs. L explained the directions to her 30-4
th

graders, the students grouped up quickly and quietly and began to work on the task. The teacher
walked around for support but did not have to redirect behavior or explain the directions again.
As the researcher walked around, it was noted all students were on task and participating. In the
interview, one teacher stated, “I try to help my students understand that if you work hard and do
your best then it is possible to make great accomplishments. Students interact in groups on
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 74

cooperative activities, which helps them to get a broader view of lessons.” It was apparent some
students took on the leadership role in the group and used peer encouragement to include other
students: “Thank you Jose for fining that information, I think we should add that here under
detail”. In all five-classroom observations it was apparent that students understood what was
expected of them and they came to class prepared and ready to behave properly.
Students reported on the student survey that they understand the school and classroom
expectations and follow the rules. The students responded in agreement of over 90% that they
understand and follow the behavior and expectation of their teachers. In addition, the student
reported being aware of the expectation for classroom participation. Ninety-two percent of the
students agree or strongly agree that they know what the teacher expects for classroom
participation. Table 4.1 shows the student responses of perceived behavior expectations. Table
4.2 shows the responses of the teacher survey in the category of perceived behavioral
expectations. One hundred percent of teacher respondent strongly believe teachers have high
expectations for all students. Teachers believe students understand what is expected of them by
participating in class. Only 24% of teachers believe their students perform below their
expectations. These survey answers shows the level of teacher belief for their students and in
their abilities to rise to high expectation.
Table 4.1
Summary of Student Survey-Perceived Behavioral Expectations
Student Survey Item

Response % of Responses
Teachers expect proper behavior from me Strongly
Agree

Agree
64%

33%

I behave appropriately in my classroom Strongly Agree

56%

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 75

Agree

37%

I come to class with all of my supplies Strongly Agree

Agree

50%

43%
I understand the expectations about class
participation
Strongly Agree

Agree
45%

47%

Table 4.2
Summary of Teacher Survey-Perceived Behavioral Expectations
Teacher Survey Item

Response % of Responses
I expect proper behavior from all my students Strongly
Agree

Agree
82%

14%

My students behave appropriately in my
classroom
Strongly Agree

Agree
45%

55%

My students come to class with all of their
supplies
Strongly Agree

Agree

9%

68%
Students understand expectations about
participation in my class
Strongly Agree

Agree
77%

18%

I have high expectations for all my students Strongly Agree

Agree
100%

0%

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 76

The level of my students is below my expectations Strongly Agree

Agree
10%

14%

These survey results along with responses to interviews and observations provide a clear picture
of the way that students perform with set expectation at Brandave Elementary. There was a high
level of student behavioral engagement observed and identified at Brandave Elementary School.
Students were on task during classroom time, participated in classroom activities, and raised
their efforts to meet teacher’s high expectation.
Emotional
Emotional engagement is a level of feeling and mindsets of involvement in school and
activities worth pursuing (Dotterer and Lowe, 2011). For example, participating behaviorally in
school endeavors and taking ownership can lead to a feeling of significance. This type of
engagement can be measured through a self-reported feeling of acceptance and belonging
(Appleton et al., 2008). Students’ feeling of safety and belonging were measured through self-
reported means. During the open-ended portion of the survey a student reported: “My teacher
has given me an invitation to an award ceremony. The award [ceremony] seems very formal so I
think that I am very lucky to be getting one. This makes me feel special, accepted, gifted, and
talented.” Teachers also expressed ways where students feel a sense of community within the
classroom: “Children get to work in groups and talk about their ideas. Students get to share their
different theories with teachers and other students.” The items on the student and teacher survey
gather self-reported information of feelings of belonging and a sense of community within the
school.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 77

Teacher-student relationships are important factors in student engagement. A collection
of teacher attributes including being interested in the students, believing in students’ capabilities,
and listening to students’ points of view and providing assistance for students in need contribute
to the students’ feeling of acceptance and importance (Marks, 2000; Shernoff, 2003; Appleton et
al., 2003; Furlong et al., 2003). Teachers at Brandave strive to make the students feel welcome
and cared for. Within the classrooms the teachers each created themed classroom from the
‘adventures of Legoland’ to ‘galaxy of champions’, reflecting a welcoming and accepting
environment. “The teachers decorate their classrooms to get you [students] into learning. Our
classroom is all Lego themed and another classroom is Hawaii themed that encourages us to
learn.” In addition to the classroom look, the students are seated in clusters around the class for
easy collaboration time.
During every observation the researcher noted how the teachers utilized the classroom
layout to encourage student collaboration time. Many teachers had a strategic way in the
placement of their students. Most teachers described the placement based on academic levels
and levels of needed support. However, two of the five teachers discussed the importance of
clustering the students to promote a strong sense of community. For example, one teacher
pointed out a table that was a cluster of all girls. The teacher said that two of the girls did not
participate at all in the beginning of the school year but since the placement of the stronger
verbal girl students in the group thy gained confidence. “I think many teachers use the girl-boy-
girl method to encourage less talking. I keep in mind the needs of the students and I am okay
with a little chatter. These two girls [teacher points to a group of four girls] never said a word in
my class when I had different groups. So I consciously placed them next to girls they were
comfortable with. Now, after several months, these two participate in class discussions! It’s all
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 78

about making them comfortable.” This way of thinking about student placement shows the level
of emotional support the students are receiving at Brandave (Darling Hammond, 2007). It was
made apparent during the observations that the teachers care about their students and want them
to succeed. Not only do teachers spend extra time and energy on the culture of their classrooms
but many of them also provide after school opportunities for students as well.
Many teachers at Brandave provide extra support and opportunities for students in their
after/before school clubs. Teachers use their own, unpaid time to provide programs for students
such as Ham Radio club or Book clubs. The extra opportunities on campus provide students
with a way to connect on a deep level with the school, teachers, and peers. These clubs are open
to any student who is willing to show up. However, most clubs are geared towards students third
grade and up. The needs to only allow third, fourth, and fifth graders to participate were
explained to be two fold. One, according to the district policy, students are allowed to walk
home without an adult, and since these club meet after school, it would be a liability issue for the
younger students. Two, most of the clubs require a certain level of reading ability. Although
reading is not required, for example in the Ham radio club, students do a lot of reading about and
writing to the people they are talking to through the radio. For these reasons, Brandave provided
many before school and after school opportunities for the upper grade levels. These extra
opportunities for students to engage in reading outside the classroom can encourage the love of
reading and learning (Conner & Pope, 2013).
The student survey results indicated that students feel welcomed, accepted, and have a
sense of community at Brandave. Ninety-two percent of students strongly agree or agree that
their teachers accept them. Also, 95% of students feel a sense of community or belonging in
their own class. A challenge among many schools today is the issues surrounding bullying.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 79

Bullying affects students kindergarten through high school and no school is exempt from the
concerns of bullying. According to the teachers and students, Brandave Elementary has
effectively created a safe environment where student feel bullying in not tolerated in their school.
One hundred percent of teachers and 88% of students feel bullying is not tolerated at the school
site. In addition 100% of teachers believe it is important for students to feel welcomed and have
a sense of belonging in the class. Tables 4.3 and 4.4 explain the emotional indicators associated
with the school environment from the student and teacher perspective.
Table 4.3
Summary of Student Survey-Emotional Indicators
Student Survey Item

Response % of Responses
I feel accepted by my teachers in my class Strongly
Agree

Agree
54%

38%

I feel a sense of community or belonging in my
class
Strongly Agree

Agree
46%

49%

When I am confused, teachers are willing to help
until I understand
Strongly Agree

Agree

60%

31%
Teachers encourage me to consider different
points of view
Strongly Agree

Agree
44%

45%

Teachers tell me when they are proud of my
performance
Strongly Agree

Agree
56%

31%

Bullying is not tolerated Strongly Agree

72%

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 80

Agree

16%

Table 4.4
Summary of Teacher Survey-Emotional Indicators
Teacher Survey Item

Response % of Responses
All students feel accepted in my classes Strongly
Agree

Agree
68%

27%

I feel it is important for students to feel a sense of
community in my classes
Strongly Agree

Agree
95%

5%

I take time to build community in my class Strongly Agree

Agree

77%

22%
I tell my students when they are showing
improvement
Strongly Agree

Agree
86%

9%

Bullying is not tolerated Strongly Agree

Agree
95%

5%

Brandave Elementary has succeeded in creating a warm and safe environment for the students
and teachers (Marks, 2000; Shernoff, 2003; Appleton et al., 2003; Furlong et al., 2003). The
researcher made several notes through the observation process about how the students just look
happy. It was clear the students and teachers enjoyed being at school and in the classroom. The
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 81

students were emotional engaged with the school, classroom, teachers, and peers. Students took
ownership of their learning and
Cognitive
Cognitive engagement is the expenditure of thoughtful energy needed to understand
complex ideas (Finn & Zimmer 2012). Measuring behavioral and emotional engagement is
relatively easy through self-reported survey answers and classroom observations. Unlike
behavioral and emotional engagement, cognitive engagement is difficult to capture. The
researcher used indicators that were proven by research to show levels of cognitive engagement.
Behaviors that indicate student cognitive engagement include: asking questions in class to
classify concepts, persisting on difficult tasks, reading more than assigned materials, studying
sources beyond those required, and using self-regulating techniques (Finn & Zimmer 2012).
Although cognitive engagement was challenging to measure the researcher was able to
strategically combat these struggles.
The research team set up the data collection process to allow students to be an integral
part of the data collection. Students were interviewed not only in a pullout focus group but as
the researcher was conducting observations. The observations were helpful as a starting point to
gain information on how many students raise their hands to participate and how many students
look engaged in the activity. However, the most meaningful collection of data came from the
one or two question interview that happened during the classroom observation. The researcher
was able to speak with the students during the lessons to see if cognitive engagement was
happening. For example, after the teacher modeled and did a guided practice with the students
the students were often released to work in groups. At the time the researcher walked around
and asked the students what the objective of the lesson was, what were the students supposed to
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 82

do now, and what skills are you working on. There was a very consistent pattern throughout the
classrooms; students knew what they were supposed to be doing and why they were doing it.
One boy even stated that this lesson is something that he did not pass on his MAPs test, and he
was excited to learn about it (student interview, May, 2016). Another girl stated the objective
they were working on and explained how it was going to help her in middle school (student
interview, May, 2016). The students at Brandave are developing skills in complex and critical
thinking.
In addition to the classroom quick questioning, students were asked several questions
during the focus group. It was apparent that students knew the objectives for their daily learning
as well as learning thinking processes. One technique that is clearly being taught to the students
is self-regulation (Finn & Zimmer 2012). For example, students interviewed by the researcher
knew their MAPs test goal for the end of the year exam. Some students showed their score and
goal from a card they carried with them, and some students had the information memorized.
Either way the students at Brandave are aware of and are working towards their academic goals:
“So like on Lexia I am on level 15 and only have 3 more level to go. And we use Moby Max for
our homework, which helps in math and Language Arts. But Reading is the most important. We
have to keep a reading log like for Monday, Tuesday and we turn it in on Friday. My teacher
helps me in math a lot. On my MAPs test I went up 18 points.” Teachers are very conscious of
taking time to discuss goals with each student for their MAPs testing score. Student spoke about
a card they received from their teacher with a score and a bar on it to show if the students’ score
was met or not. Then new goals are generated and given to the students and parents.
Administration demonstrated pride in the efforts of the teachers and students and was
excited to share information about the reclassifying of English Language Learners: “One nice
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 83

thing I’ve seen is that our kids are achieving, our EL students are reclassifying. We continue to
reach the target for reclassifying students. This year, so far, we’ve reclassified 31 and we’re
submitting 4 more. Their MAPs scores are high enough….We are at 31% EL and we’re
reclassifying 14.6%.” Administration, teachers, parents, and students demonstrated focus to
achieve the goal of the school, great academic success and a promising future-against all odds:
“Learning is very important to everyone in my school and I know that other kids don’t get
education. When I grow up [I want to] help other kids that don't get to go to school” (Student
interview, May, 2016)
The student survey of cognitive indicators showed 100% of students have a desire to
learn at school. Students ask for help when they need help and 89% of students take ownership
and feel they earn the grade they receive. Teachers believe at a 96% rate that their students can
explain why they received a specific grade and teachers show they care about their students’
success by discussing personal and lifelong goal with their students. Also, 100% of teachers can
name students who are working below proficient in their class. Tables 4.5 and 4.6 provides
student and teacher perspectives on cognitive indicators at Brandave Elementary.
Table 4.5
Summary of Student Survey-Cognitive Indicators
Student Survey Item

Response % of Responses
I have a desire to learn at school Strongly
Agree

Agree
47%

43%

I earn the grades I receive Strongly Agree

Agree
66%

23%

I ask for help when I need it Strongly Agree 43%
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 84

Agree

47%
I ask questions in class Strongly Agree

Agree
33%

54%

Table 4.6
Summary of Teacher Survey-Cognitive Indicators
Teacher Survey Item

Response % of Responses
My students can explain why they received a
specific grade in my class
Strongly
Agree

Agree
32%

64%

I give student opportunity to retake test or redo
assignments
Strongly Agree

Agree
23%

45%

I discuss with my students their personal goals and
plans for life
Strongly Agree

Agree

55%

41%
I can name the students in my classes who achieve
below proficient
Strongly Agree

Agree
89%

11%

My students put effort in my class Strongly Agree

Agree
62%

38%

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 85

Even though collecting data on cognitive engagement proved to be more challenging then
behavioral and emotional, there was strong evidence that the students at Brandave Elementary
School are cognitively engaged (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent 2003).
Reflection for Research Question One
The students at Brandave Elementary are emotionally, behaviorally, and cognitively
engaged within the classroom. Brandave teachers have created an environment where students
feel safe and encouraged to take academic risks. It is apparent that the teachers genuinely
believe in their students’ ability to reach their high expectations.
Data for Research Question Two
What school programs, processes, and practices are perceived to contribute to student
engagement?
School-Wide Programs
In the world of education and teaching, programs come and go regularly. There has not
been one program that works for all students in every diverse community. Brandave Elementary
School is no exception to this rule. Programs such as accelerated math, star reading, and open
court has come and gone. Programs that are currently in place at Brandave include Lexia, MAPs
testing, and Moby Max; these programs too will come and go. Since there is not a silver bullet
in education, the real genius comes from the teachers who use and implement the programs. For
example, Brandave teachers use MAPs testing as a way to set goals for student progress that is
shared with students and parents. In addition Lexia and Moby Max are used as tools for
homework and to support the curriculum taught during classroom instruction. Lexia and Moby
Max have the ability to be a progress-monitoring component with built in positive recognition.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 86

Brandave takes the goal setting and goal attainment one step further by putting in place a
reward system that follows the achievements through the computer-based programs. School-
wide parties and student names added to cafeteria bulletin boards are given to those students who
successfully pass all levels of Lexia, which can take years. In addition to school-wide rewards,
each teacher has their own reward system for passing individual goals and levels. Along with
the certificate generated through the programs, teacher offer no homework passes, trips to the
classroom treasure box, classroom recognition through the students name added to a bulletin
board. Students often express their excitement for their progress in these programs and knew
exactly where they were and how many more levels they needed to pass. The students also get
extremely excited for one another when a name is added to the bulletin boards. In Mr. O’s class
students were observed doing a cheer for a student who passes a level and was able to move his
name from one section to another on the classroom bulletin board. Overall, teachers use these
computer programs to assess students, assign realistic goals, and monitor student progress (Partin
et al., 2010).
Other programs on campus such as before school tutoring, Ham radio club, book club,
and after school program provided opportunities for students to thrive in non-classroom
environments. The after school program was a city-wide program that was provided to every
elementary school in the district. Non-teachers ran this program as an extension of the school
day with homework help, playtime, actives, and snack time. The teachers ran all other programs
on campus on their non-contracted time. These teachers provided a fun learning environment for
any student interested in the topic. For example, Mrs. H provided a Ham radio club where
students learned to use the Ham radio to contact other students around the world. She taught
them the etiquette and policies that went along with using the Ham radio as well as organizes
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 87

trips for the students and their families to different places that used Ham radio, the space station
for example. These extended opportunities for the students created multiple opportunities for
school-wide student engagement. No matter what programs were available, Brandave
Elementary used all programs to invest in students and provided accepting learning environments
for a diverse student population.
Practices
Effective school-wide practices enhance the students’ ability to learn. School-wide
practices can include English language learner support, attendance recognition, student
interventions, teacher collaboration, and effective teaching practices. Examples of instructional
practices that have been found to foster student success include: student opportunity to respond
during class sessions, provide student with specific and timely feedback (Scott, Alter, & Hirn,
2001; Partin, Robertson, Maggin, Oliver, & Wehby, 2010). Allowing these opportunities to
engage has been associated with improved academic performance, increased time on tasks, and
decreased levels of disruptive student behaviors (Scott, Alter, & Hirn, 2001). All positive
aspects of effective instructional practices were observed at Brandave Elementary. Students
were engaged with their peers and the academic task, as well as using teacher feedback to
enhance quality of student work. Mrs. S’s fifth grade class was revising a writing assignment
that the teacher had provided feedback on during the observation time. The students used past
papers, notes, and a pocket thesaurus as tools to enhance the writing assignment. The teacher
was making herself available for one-on-one assistance and walking around to support students.
All students were engaged with the task and use several resources including he computer to
strengthen their writing.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 88

Attendance is a celebrated competition between classes. Every grade level awards the
classroom with the best weekly attendance with a trophy to display in their classroom.
According to administration, the friendly competition and announcing the weekly winner of the
trophy has increased their overall attendance rate by 3.5% to 98.3%.
Teacher collaboration is an important aspect to the culture at Brandave Elementary.
Teachers have bi-weekly staff meetings and grade level team meeting. Weekly staff meetings
often include student data analysis and teacher reflection opportunities. The principal regularly
provides current student data for grade level teams to discuss. “Teaching is driven by studying
student data”. Many teams use the data to create intervention groups and address needs of all
students. The fourth grade team for example, divides up the students according to leveled needs
and rotates students to different teachers for a short period of intense, structured instruction. The
far below students have the least amount of students in the group and are taught by the teacher
who had the highest number of proficient students in that academic area. To extend the student
learning, students who were proficient in an academic area are grouped together to work on
problem-based projects. In this case all students from far below proficient to proficient receive
targeted instruction.
The fourth grade team successfully rotates students through an academic rotation two
times a month and has a goal of rotations once a week. In addition to looking at data regularly
the staff meetings are used for teacher reflection. The principal strategically chooses a short
article for the staff to read, discuss, and reflect on. The conversations around the article were
rich and extensive. It was apparent to the researcher that this practice was not new to the
teachers and that the teachers were comfortable sharing and discussing with each other. The
teacher-centered structured meeting was refreshing to observe and comfortable for the teachers
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 89

to engage in. A well-known statement, whoever is doing the talking is doing the learning, was at
the forefront of the principal’s mind as she took a backseat to this meeting and let the teachers
engage in conversation to support effective teaching.
From leadership, to classroom culture, to attendance rewards, school practices have been
set in place at Brandave elementary and have created a healthy school site. School-wide
processes are equally important to the function of a healthy school (Masumoto & Brown-Welty,
2009; Bolman & Deal, 1997).
Brandave Elementary had effective processes put in place for student achievement. One
process was how the fourth graders’ transition to fifth grade. During the last week of the school
year the fourth graders got to learn who their fifth grade teacher would be and meet the teacher
during class time. This session gave the teachers a chance to have an initial meeting and get to
know you activity. The teachers stated they use this time in different ways. Some teachers do a
team building activity with the class, other teachers had the students fill out a questionnaire that
teacher reviews over the summer, and others used the time for a question and answer “get to
know you” session. During the student interviews the fourth graders were very excited for this
opportunity and stated that having the opportunity to meet their teacher and knowing other
students in the class would make the first day of fifth grade exciting and not stressful. This
school-wide practice of meeting the teacher before the school year begins is an effective strategy
of starting the process of a creating community of learners and provided a safe, low risk
environment for the student on the first day back to school (Masumoto & Brown-Welty, 2009;
Bolman & Deal, 1997). The principal stated in her interview: “It takes dedicated caring teachers
who are concerned not only with the students but the parents and community at large. We have a
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 90

staff that believes in going over and above in every way. We are driven to improve where we see
problems and continue with best practices where great teaching is happening.”
The student and teacher survey questions about school and classroom programs,
practices, and processes provide another piece of the puzzle to this outperforming school.
Students agree with a 97% rate and teachers agree with a 100% rate that learning is an important
priority at the school. Students also believe their teachers use different ways of teaching in the
classroom. Teachers 100% agree, they use different teaching techniques in their classroom.
Feedback has been a strategy proven to provide a more robust learning environment. Students
agree with a 96% rate that teachers provide students with feedback. 100% of teachers agree they
give feedback to students. Another researched concept is consistency and collaboration among
teachers. The teacher survey revealed 95% of the teachers believe the school has consistent
grading practices among the grade levels and consistent assessment practices. These survey
responses show the implementation of Brandave’s program, practices, and processes.
Table 4.7
Summary of Student Survey-Programs, Practices, Processes
Student Survey Item

Response % of Responses
Teachers use different ways of teaching in my
classes
Strongly
Agree

Agree
56%

30%

Teachers use technology to help me learn Strongly Agree

Agree
30%

39%

Teachers give useful feedback about my work Strongly Agree

Agree
50%

46%
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 91

Student learning is an important priority at my
school
Strongly Agree

Agree
78%

19%

Table 4.8
Summary of Teacher Survey- Program, Practices, Processes
Teacher Survey Item

Response % of Responses
I use a variety of ways of teaching in my class Strongly Agree

Agree
81%

18%

I frequently give useful feedback to students about
their work
Strongly
Agree

Agree
77%

23%

My school has consistent assessment practices
within grade/content levels
Strongly Agree

Agree
68%

27%

My school has consistent grading practices within
grade/content levels
Strongly Agree

Agree

45%

50%
Student learning is an important priority at my
school
Strongly Agree

Agree
91%

9%

We discuss achievement gaps in my school Strongly Agree

Agree
59%

36%

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 92

Reflection for Research Question Two
Every school has programs, practices, and processes in place to aid in student
achievement. Some schools are more successful in how they implement these elements. For
example, Brandave Elementary used researched-based programs and implemented with fidelity
to the program. Although these programs changed throughout the years, the principal stays on
the forefront of technology and chooses effective programs based on the researched out-comes.
In addition to programs, effective school and classroom practices are an important element in
student success. Through the observation of many teachers, it is clear, current, effective
practices were being applied in the delivery of classroom instruction.
Data for Research Question Three
What are the unique elements within a distinguished elementary school structure that
support student engagement?
One element that makes Brandave unique is the newness of the school. The school
opened in 2004 and the handpicked principal was given leeway to handpick the teachers and
staff. It is clear that the principal choose teachers based on their teaching practices. Many of the
teachers were Teachers on Assignment or Literacy Coaches before coming to Brandave.
Teacher on Assignment and Literacy Coaches are teachers who support other teachers in the
district or at a school site with curriculum and effective teaching practices. Most (72%) of the
original teachers and staff are still there. Retirement was the reason for the majority of the
teachers who left. The teachers had and still have a great sense of honor and buy-in because of
the hand choosing. Due to this elitist mentality many teachers were encouraged to do more then
the minimum requirements of the teacher. Still several years later, with very rare teacher
positions openings, the principal has many applications and candidates to choose from. Teachers
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 93

all over the school district are trying to join the team at Brandave Elementary. Having a diverse
pool of teachers for the administrator to choose from provided more opportunity to select a
highly qualified teacher candidate. The principal described what makes Brandave a great school:
“I think one thing here about the staff is that they are willing. We have some innovated teachers
here and about 3 or 4 nationally board certified teachers. And that is a rigorous process you have
to go through to get that. [As a school] we try to stay a step ahead of everybody else. Our
teachers attend many trainings for the programs on campus and for new technology.”
In addition to the teachers having excellent teaching practices based on the district
standards, Brandave has four teachers who became Nationally Board Certified. To become
National Board Certified one has to go through a rigorous yearlong process where the teacher
demonstrates their effective classroom management, teaching practices, and student data analysis
skills. Through videotaping and live observations a board deems if the candidates have met the
requirements to be named National Board Certified. Receiving this certification is a great
professional achievement and seen as a major accomplishment among teachers. Although
Brandave’s District does not, many districts have rewarded those who become National Certified
with a money stipend. Darling-Hammond (2007 & 1999) has done much research in the area of
the need to hire qualified teachers. In fact, she has made a case for the hiring of highly qualified
teachers as the number one precursor of students’ academic success and closing the achievement
gap (Darling-Hammond, 1999). Brandave elementary strives to choose the best teacher
candidates for their school. Administration has a large part in placing the right people in the
right positions.
Leadership
Brandave’s principal often has a team of teacher help in the hiring process for teachers.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 94

This promotes leadership and buy-in among teachers. School leaders need to have a sense of
vision, ability to set goals and plan, strong communication skills, ability to motivate, ability to
listen and reflect, have a strong sense of self, and have a high degree of integrity (Masumoto &
Brown-Welty, 2009; Mulford, 2007). Leadership among a school can be considered the
administration, teachers how are on the leadership team, or grade level team leaders. It is
important for school leaders to have a shared vision for the school and work towards that vision
through every decision made.
The principal is the backbone of the school and needs to maintain a strong sense of
purpose that constantly operates from a clear set of core personal and organizational values
(Patterson, 2001). Leaders are expected to display strength, courage, integrity, wisdom, and
always have the organization’s best interest in mind (Julius, Baldridge & Pfeffer, 1999; Murphy,
1988). Brandave Elementary has a strong leadership team where every grade level is
represented. In addition, every grade level has a teacher leader the assists with scheduling issues,
new curriculum, and lesson planning. The principal gives up one of her hours of administrative
contracted hours in order for grade levels to have planning time. During this planning time the
team follows an agenda made by the grade level leader. The agenda mostly consist of lesson and
unit planning with the occasional event coordinating for school-wide or grade level activities.
The principal treats the teachers as professionals and understands the value of teacher
collaboration. This extra time given to the teachers encourages team building, creative thinking
processes, and problem solving abilities. The principal is a strong believer in doing what is best
for students: “It’s always what’s best for the kids. I’ll always put the child at the forefront.”
With this mindset and the trust she has in her staff is a positive combination for a strong school
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 95

culture. In addition to supporting the teachers, the principal and teachers work well with the
community and parents.
Active student engagement is necessary for student and teacher success. The principal
supports her teachers’ actions: “The teachers are very good about communicating with the
parents and setting expectations in advance. They say, we work as a team and you have to do
your part, so we’re going to hold you accountable too.”
Having an open-door policy for parents was mentioned several times by teachers and
administration throughout the study. Parents are allowed on campus to help in the classrooms
and at the many events at Brandave Elementary. For security reasons parent need to be run
through Megan’s Law and have proof of a negative TB test. After parents and community
members are cleared they are allowed onto campus to assist teachers and students in classroom
or school activities. To encourage parent involvement Brandave puts on events such as Donuts
with Dad and Movie Night with Mom. The researcher was able to be a part of these two events
and witnesses the large turn-out of community members and parent that participated in these
events.
Movie Night with Mom happened at six o’clock one Monday evening where the principal
had rented a big screen projector TV. The families brought picnic baskets full of food, lawn
chairs, and blankets for the event. Many of the teachers were also there with their families as
well. The sense of community and excitement for the event was prevalent and contagious. The
researcher was invited by several of the students and teachers to join their family and share their
food. It was quite an event that was talked about throughout the next school day.
Donuts with Dad was another community event on campus that was filled with excited
students and community members. Police officers, firemen, and other types of law enforcement
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 96

stepped in as a surrogate dad for those students whose dads were not in attendance. The whole
school and community members watched in amazement as not one but two helicopters landed on
the school playground. The students were able to enjoy a donut with their dad or a community
member in the cafeteria as the librarian read stories about friendship, community, and families.
These two events are just a sample of what Brandave does throughout the year to encourage
family nights and community involvement. From Harvest Festivals to awards ceremonies, to
field trip opportunity, Brandave Elementary goes above and beyond to engage parents and
community members with the school.
The principal not only creates and maintains a positive relationship with the parents and
the teachers but the students as well. One way the principal works on the relationship between
herself and the student is to announce the students’ birthday daily over the intercom. Both the
teachers and students mentioned the importance of this small act in making the students feel
special and acknowledged. In addition, the assistant principal is often found outside on the
basketball courts with the students at recess. The importance of the students seeing the school as
a family is of high importance to the administration.
Summary of Teacher Survey
The teacher survey responses showcased Brandave as a school that is not only providing
a quality education to all students but is actively trying to narrow the achievement gap based on
race and socio economic status. For example, 95% of teachers feel empowered to make a
difference in narrowing the achievement gap even when faced with race, economical challenges
and special-education needs. Not only do the teachers believe in themselves but they also
believe in their colleagues’ abilities. One hundred percent of teachers believe their colleagues
have the skill set to positively impact the achievement of students regardless of race, socio-
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 97

economics, or special-education classification. These two survey responses alone are enough to
provide a clear picture of the deep belief system the teachers have about their own abilities, their
colleagues’ abilities, and in Brandave Elementary. However, the survey response that really
shows the teachers’ feelings and beliefs about Brandave is the 100% agreement that the teachers
at Brandave would send their own child to Brandave Elementary School. The table 4.9 below
shows the teacher responses to these survey questions.
Table 4.9
Summary of Teacher Survey
Teacher Survey Item

Response % of Responses
I feel empowered to make a difference in
narrowing achievement gap in my classes (race,
socio-economics, special education)
Strongly
Agree

Agree
45%

50%

My colleagues have the skill set to positively
impact the achievement of students regardless of
race, socio-economics, or special education
certification
Strongly Agree

Agree
73%

27%

I would send my children to this school Strongly Agree

Agree

90%

10%

Reflection for Research Question Three
The newness of the school, having National Board Certified teachers, strong leadership,
and parent/community involvement are just a few elements that set Brandave Elementary apart
from other urban schools. The principal’s leadership and vision drive the school’s success
(Julius, Baldridge & Pfeffer, 1999; Murphy, 1988). She has created a school culture where the
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 98

teachers feel valued, student learning is put first, and the parent and community members are
welcomed. Students feel safe and cared for, teachers feel respected and inspired, and parents feel
acknowledged. All of these unique elements create a school that thrives academically.
Data for Research Question Four
To what extent do students perceive being in a state of flow during the school day?
Flow Theory
Being in the state of “flow” can be described as total absorption and immersion into an
activity. A student in flow will exhibit intense concentration, interest, and enjoyment (Taylor &
Parsons, 2011). When a person is in flow, they can stay engaged in the activity and disregard
time, food, and other interests or needs. Being in flow causes a person to not only feel pleasure,
but more importantly for educational implications, successful and competent (Shernoff et al.,
2003). One positive factors of Flow Theory is that students feel a deep sense of success in
working on challenging activity that forces them to stretch themselves just beyond their limit
(Shernoff et al., 2003).
Study Results
Do to the nature of the public elementary school classroom or the age level of the
students, identifying, measuring, and capturing students in the state of flow was challenging.
Two student survey questions and answers were geared towards students’ perception of their
own engagement levels and the rigorous workload. The survey results of students were 54%
strongly agree and 39% agree to the question: I am actively engaged in learning in class. And to
the question: the work my teachers assign requires me to think, 67% of the students strongly
agree and 29% of the students agree.

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Table 5.1
Summary of Student Survey
Teacher Survey Item

Response % of Responses
I am actively engaged in learning in class Strongly
Agree

Agree
54%

39%

The work my teachers assign requires me to think Strongly Agree

Agree
67%

29%

Beside the two survey questions, the student interviews allowed the students to describe times
where they might have been in the state of flow. Even though the students did not know what
flow was, once it was explained to them they were able to recall times where they experienced
flow. One student stated she is often in the state of flow: “In Language Arts I forget everything
around me and then it turns out that like everyone’s looking at me read my paper.” Another
student referred to a time he was working in him math book: “Once I was doing math in my
math book and then I just looked up at the clock and I was like, oh it’s recess, so I had to stop.”
Five out of the seven students interviewed described a time where they think they were in flow.
The other two students said they had never experienced being in a state of flow.
In the same sense, teachers were able to describe activities were students were engaged
and possibly in the state of flow. For example, one teacher described an activity the students did
where they were learning about currency in different regions. The students were using fake
money to buy, sell, and trade items in the classroom. The teacher set a time limit of 20 minutes
but the students and teacher were so involved in the lesson the lunch bell rang 45 minutes later
and the whole class realized they were still engaged in the activity without realizing the time.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 100

Another teacher described a student in particular. This student is always caught reading her book
during other classroom activities. The teacher says the student cannot put the book down- she
wants to read it all day long (teacher interview, May, 2016).
Even though the students and teachers were able to describe times of being in a state of
flow, the researcher did not observe this behavior. During the classroom observations the
teachers had a balance of direct instruction, guided practice, and small group work time. The
lessons continued in this circular manner throughout the observation. Therefore, there was not
enough time allotted, due to the nature of the elementary classroom structure or the age of the
students, for students to get into the state of Flow during the lesson.
Reflection for Research Question Four
Although being in a state of flow was not directly observed during the study, the
researcher was able to gain information on flow from the student survey and interviews. Being
in a state of flow can indicate full student engagement within a lesson or period of time. Often
times, students describe loosing track of time, even forgetting to eat, while in the state of flow.
Five out of the seven students did describe a time where they believed they were in a state of
flow. Teachers also were aware of individual students actions or class activities that lead to the
students being in a state of flow. Although there was some evidence of students being in the
state of flow, this research question had the least amount of evidence to answer the research
question. If this study took place in a middle school or high school, the evidence may have been
stronger for this research question. Either the young age of the students restricted their abilities
to articulate why and when they were in the state of flow or the constant curriculum transitions
during class time hindered the process of flow for the students.

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 101

Conclusion
Brandave Elementary School met the researcher’s criteria as an outperforming urban
school though test scores, economic status, and demographics or student population. The school
culture shaped by strong leadership and vision, parent involvement, and teachers’ passion created
an engaging environment for the students. Even though there was not enough evidence to
identify students in the state of flow, the teacher and student observations, interviews, and
surveys showed clear signs of student engagement. The researchers identified indicators of
behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement. In terms of behavioral indicators, the data
found Brandave students to be on task and attentive to the learning. The school had low
suspension rates, zero expulsions, and high attendance rates. Teachers reported students to be
engaged in the learning through collaborative projects and after school clubs and activities.
Emotional indicators of students feeling safe and cared for along with students connecting to
peers and adults on campus was reflected in the observations and survey data. Students had a
strong sense of belonging among peers and were able to effectively collaborate within classroom
activities. The data for cognitive engagement were collected mostly through classroom
observation. The researcher used indicators of this type of engagement such as student
participation, asking clarifying questions, and completion of quality work. During the
observations the researcher asked students questions as a measurement of being on task and
engaged in the learning. Students demonstrated cognitive engagement by participating in whole
class and group discussions, as well as, explaining to the researcher what the objective of the
lesson was. Evidence of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive student engagement was prevalent
at Brandave Elementary School.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 102

Many programs, practices, and processes are in place at Brandave to engage students and
raise student achievement. MAPs testing and Lexia are utilized to give student feedback, set
student goals, and demonstrate learning. Instructional practices were also found to provide
students with the best learning environment and opportunities. It is clear that the many
Professional Development trainings had made a positive impact on effective instruction. In
addition to the structure of the school system, the administration has a strong vision for the
directionality of the school. The principal is very aware of the teamwork it takes from the
parents, teachers, and community for the success of all students. Many activities were seen by
the researcher to involve the community and parents in decision-making and special events. It
was clear that Brandave was a school that set high standards and expectations for all students
while encouraging and providing a safe, engaging, learning environment.

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
Chapter five will provide a review of the Brandave Elementary School case study,
including the purpose of the study and the research questions. Emerged from the research
findings described in chapter four will be discussed and conclusions will be presented. Chapter
five will conclude with implications and recommendation for future research on student
engagement and the achievement gap.
Summary of the Study
One of education’s greatest challenges is the persistent achievement gap between the
White, Asian, affluent student groups and the Black, Hispanic, poverty, and English Language
Learners groups. Disaggregating of the data demonstrated that test scores had been improving
over the last ten years; however, the looking at the data by sub groups showed achievement gap
between affluent students and students of color continues to widen. A sense of urgency has risen
concerning achievement and success for student groups that demonstrate continued
underperformance. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of engagement in student
achievement in outperforming urban schools.
Many studies have found high levels of engagement linked to higher performance on
academic tasks and a powerful antecedent of academic success (Pope, 2001; Lewis et al., 2001;
Finn & Zimmer, 2012; Appleton, Christenson & Furlong, 2008). Finn (1993) views student
engagement as elements of a cycle, which begin in primary grades and is defined by behaviors
including attendance and levels of responsiveness to teacher directions. Engagement is an
important focal point in current educational research. Finn and Zimmer (2012) explain many
purposes as to why studying engagement is vital to the success of school. For instance, patterns
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 104

of student engagement are strongly associated to academic achievement. Engagement can be
measured at an early age and thus important for schools to use as a means to track student
progress and create intervention where needed. Engagement behaviors are a response to school
and teacher practices and, therefore, can be improved to meet the needs of all students (Finn &
Zimmer, 2012). Even behavioral issues within the classroom can be altered to positive behaviors
through engagement (Taylor et al., 2000). This study separated student engagement into three
parts: (1) Behavioral (2) Emotional (3) Cognitive. Within each component of this research
study, indicators were determined and used to identify engagement in student learning.
This case study focused on an outperforming, urban, elementary school and aimed to
identify programs, practices, and processes that may contribute to student engagement levels.
Using a Theoretical Framework centered on (a) behavioral, (b) emotional, and (c) cognitive
patterns of action, indicators and student outcomes were measured (Bronfenbrenner, 1994).
Student engagement is a complex concept that was measured within the context of students’
environment, social capital, and school culture.
Brandave Elementary School was selected for this study because it met the previous
determined criteria for outperforming and urban as set by the thematic doctoral dissertation
cohort at University of Southern California. The school’s API data trend and the school’s
ranking among other similar schools determined the school as outperforming. The weighted
three-year average API score was 856, well above the 820 minimal requirements as set by the
USC dissertation cohort. In addition, the school exceeded the minimal requirements of one point
above other schools with the same demographics. The school scored a ten while the statewide
average is a score of seven on the similar school ranking. The school’s demographics, English
Language population, and socioeconomic status determined the school urban. Brandave
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Elementary has a student population of over 90% minority students, 29.4% English Language
Learners, and 74% socioeconomically disadvantaged. The student population along with the test
scores made this school a perfect candidate for this study.
Four research questions were used to guide the collection of data and organize the
findings of the study:
1. To what extent are the indicators of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement
present in a high performing urban school?
2. What school programs, processes, and practices are perceived to contribute to student
engagement?
3. What are the unique elements within a distinguished elementary school structure that
support student engagement?
4. To what extent do students perceive being in a state of flow during the school day?
The results indicated engagement was an active construct at Brandave Elementary.
Students showed several engagement behavioral indicators such as active participation, task
completion, and high quality of work. Teachers invested in building relationships within their
classes, which enhanced the culture of the classroom. The safe classroom environments allowed
for students to take educational risks and extend their learning through cooperative groups. The
genuine peer relationships observed perpetuated a sense of family as the students cheered for
each other to celebrate classroom successes.
In order to answer the research questions, a qualitative case study was conducted at
Brandave Elementary School. The data collection took place over six days where teacher and
student interviews, surveys and classroom observation were used along with a review of selected
school documents (Creswell, 2009). This study allowed for student voice by interviewing fourth
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 106

and fifth graders in a focus group setting as well as gathering broad student data through student
surveys. In addition, the researcher intentionally asked questions to students during the
classroom observations. The addition of the student voice to this study enriched the data and the
findings. Based on an extensive literature review of previous studies a priori themes were noted
and looked for during the study. In addition, the researcher was open to the possibilities of
finding emerging themes.
Discussion of the Results
Research Question One
To what extent are the indicators of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement
present in a high performing urban school?
The data analysis demonstrated that students at Brandave Elementary were behavioral,
emotional, and cognitively engaged. The use of student surveys and student interviews was a
strong factor in identifying engagement. Engagement was not just seen in classroom
observations but also discussed within the student interviews and answered in the student
surveys. Students were able to articulate when they were engaged in the learning and what
factors encourage engagement. For example, students mentioned the décor in the classrooms,
the diverse curriculum, and the opportunities to collaborate in class as strong elements of their
levels of engagement. In addition, classrooms had achievement boards filled with student names
that have met or are close to meeting an academic goal. Throughout the process of the study
students were able to communicate their academic goals and how they planned to reach the goal.
Students were seen giving peer praise and encouragement as well as teachers seen using positive
reinforcement.

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Research Question Two
What school programs, processes, and practices are perceived to contribute to student
engagement?
Brandave strategically put programs, processes, and practices in place to encourage
student engagement and success. The students looked forward to using the computer-based
programs in the computer lab, in their classrooms, and at home. The teachers used these
programs to track and monitor student progress. These programs were also used to celebrate
student success. Several classrooms had a goal board where student names would move along
the board to show growth. Teachers celebrated student success in different ways such as giving
out homework passes, class coupons for special activities, achievement certificates, and class
cheers. Along with celebrating student success, students were comfortable with the routines and
processes of the daily schedule; as evidence by students and teachers flowed flawlessly through
the day between subject areas within the class and recess/lunch breaks. Teachers demonstrated
high levels of set expectations for students. And students were observed striving to reach these
expectations.
Research Question Three
What are the unique elements within a distinguished elementary school structure that
support student engagement?
Brandave Elementary used community resources well. During the study, two major
events were observed on the school campus. Both events took a large number of community
members to support the success of the event. The principal, teachers, and parents worked well
together in communication with the community and gaining help from community members.
The community members and parents perform many daily jobs on or around the campus to help
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 108

with the flow of students during arrival and dismissal. Many of the parents helped direct traffic,
welcomed the students coming off the bus, and monitored students lined up for the cafeteria.
This is one way the principal has used resources instead of using the budget to hire additional
personnel.
In addition to the uses of resources, Brandave has highly qualified teachers. Four of the
teaching staff had been recognized as Nationally Board Certified. This elite status of teaching
quality along with the other highly qualified teachers show that effective teaching practice does
make a difference in the classroom. Teachers used approaches to the curriculum that were
designed to engage students, checked for understanding, and utilized interventions when students
needed extra support. Teachers were seen using their time and skills to engage students in the
learning to promote academic success.
Research Question Four
To what extent do students perceive being in a state of flow during the school day?
Limited data were collected on students being in the state of flow. Being in a state of
flow where the learner is emotional invested in activity and loses track of time while engaging in
a task of interest was difficult to observe. The fourth and fifth grade students also had a difficult
time explaining to the researcher a time where they were in the state of flow. Although the
students were able to identify and describe time where they enjoyed an activity, there was not
enough evidence to deem the situation an example of flow theory. One conclusion is that the
elementary classroom routines and time constraints do not allow enough opportunity for students
to enter into the state of flow. Another possibility is that the age of the student plays a role when
trying to describe flow in learning. Although the research is clear on people in the state of flow
and how learning can be enhance during this time, the researcher, for this study, did not have
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 109

enough evidence to conclude that students were in the state of flow during the school day.
Summary of Findings
Upon completion of the data analysis process, several key findings emerged. Out of
those finding, five themes were formed: (1) Innovative Principalship, (2) Student Goal Setting,
(3) Quality and Willingness of Teachers, (4) School and Community Culture, and (5)
Relationships.
Innovative Principalship
Brandave’s principal is a large part of why the school is so successful. She has a
visionary leadership style and is on the forefront of what is best for the school. For example, she
implemented two computer-based programs: Lexia and MAPs two years before the district
approved and started paying for these programs. The principal used the school’s budget for these
two programs because she determined they would help her school’s test scores. In addition, she
believed these programs would be a great tool for the teachers to use to set learning goals for
each student. Evidence indicates that the principal’s analysis and actions were correct. These
two programs were a positive addition to the curriculum and effective measurement tools for
student progress. Two years after Brandave’s principal put these two programs in place the
district approved and implemented these programs for every school in the district. This kind of
forward thinking from the principal is one of the reasons this school is outperforming other
schools in the same district.
Another reason for the principal’s success is her hiring philosophy. She expressed her
belief in hiring the person who best fits the position not necessarily the most qualified for the
position. She takes into account who the person will be working closely with, their personalities,
and work habits. The principal indicated that she considers the whole picture to see how the new
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 110

hire will interact with the school culture, students, staff, curriculum, and parents. She takes the
hiring of a new staff member or teacher very seriously because she wants to create the most
effective work environment, and that begins with the right people. During the interview the
principal mentioned an analogy of the school as a ship. The principal is the captain of the ship
with the map and the tools to navigate. But it is also the captain’s job to get the right people on
the ship. The ship needs to move in one direction with the help of everyone. The principal said
the ship is like a school. Everyone needs to move in the same direction for the school to be
successful and that starts by hiring the right people to be a part of the school.
Student Goal Setting
While on campus it was very apparent that the entire school was using the two programs
the principal had put in place, Lexia and MAPs, as a way to monitor student progress. Every
student the researcher spoke to knew their goal and what they needed to do to work towards the
goal. All teachers had a way of communicating the academic goal to each student. The upper
grade student had this goal memorized or plastered on the front of their binder as a reminder. In
addition, teachers sent home the goal sheet for each student that requires a parent signature. The
teachers would also send home reminders of when the next test would be and how the parents
can help the student be successful. This team effort of goal setting and working towards the goal
was another factor of this outperforming school.
Quality and Willingness of Teachers
After the interview with the principal and many teachers it was apparent that the teachers
at Brandave go beyond their contracted duties and hours. Many teachers host a before school or
after school club as well as help out with special events such as Fall Festival, Movie Night with
Mom, and Donuts with Dad. In addition, all the teachers’ doors remained open during recess
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 111

time for students to finish a project, get help on an assignment, or go on the computer for
research purposes. The teachers were willing to try new curriculum and lesson ideas as well as
help deliver information during staff meetings.
Collaboration among teacher was a natural routine and was seen not only at designated
meeting times but before school, after school, and during the school day. Teachers enjoyed
helping out their peers, the office staff, and even new people on campus. The teachers with
administration credentials would be seen in the office helping out with an Individual Educational
Plan (IEP) meetings, working with parents on a committee, or working with the office staff on
certain projects. In addition, teachers would come together socially in the teacher lounge for
their lunchtime and discuss personal and profession matters. The teachers seemed to be friends
as well as colleagues and were inviting to substitute teachers and anyone in the lounge. One
piece of information that did not make it into chapter four’s findings was a brief conversation
between a substitute teacher and the researcher. The substitute reflected and expressed the
reasons they enjoying getting jobs at Brandave. He mentions the positive climate, including the
well- behaved children, and how planned the teachers were. He said the lesson plans were
always detailed and the students were very well behaved. It is apparent that outsiders feel
welcomed and appreciated.
Relationships
The student-to-teacher and teacher-to-teacher relationships appeared to stem from the
educational philosophy of the teachers. The commitment of the teachers to student learning is
apparent in every observation and interview. The principal created and displayed a vision that all
the teachers’ buy-in to and carry out. Teachers were observed supporting each other and the
students in many ways. Teacher used differentiated instruction and the use of peer support for
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 112

students who need extra assistance. In addition, teachers supported one another with lesson
design, difficult student behavior, or goal setting ideas.
The principal had an open-door policy where teachers could give ideas or ask for support
with difficult tasks. The principal had a reputation among teachers and students as doing
whatever is needed to aid in student success. The principal encouraged and supported before and
after school clubs, extra-curricular events, and community projects for the students. The
principal also wanted to connect with each student individually. One way of creating and
enhancing relationships was the announcement of all student birthdays daily over the intercom.
It was clear creating a system within the school community that fostered and sustained student
academic progress and engagement was a priority. Relationships are a critical part of the school
culture at Brandave Elementary.
School and Community Culture
The principal, teachers, and staff created a welcoming and safe learning environment.
Each classroom set up was inviting allowing students to interact with each other and the teacher.
The classroom design allowed cooperative grouping and space for students to take learning risks.
The students were well behaved and respectful. The need to redirect misbehavior was rarely
seen, which allowed more time for raising students’ achievement. Teachers and students
appeared happy to be at Brandave Elementary School.
The community was very supportive of Brandave. Many community members rallied
behind the school through fundraising, participating in school event and volunteering for
different roles. Some of these roles included: School Site Council, Harvest Festival, Coffee with
the Principal, helping out in the school’s library, and helping arrival and dismissal time at the
school. The presence of parents and community members on campus showed the relationship
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 113

the community had with the school. The community was in full support of Brandave and the
direction it was going. The old saying “it takes a village to raise child” is a great parallel to the
community around Brandave. At Brandave Elementary, it takes the community to educate a
student.
Implications
Every school district faces its own challenges and every school within each district has its
own unique obstacles. As one has seen with this study, Brandave Elementary, classified as
urban, comes with its own set of barriers to overcome. Although Brandave Elementary has
overcome many challenges and is outperforming schools with similar challenges, the process
may not be transferable to other schools. What is certain is that it takes particular leadership and
the right group of people to cohesively work together towards a common goal. One implecation
learned from this research is investing time and miney into continued professional development
for teachers. Providing collaboration time as well as bringing in current researched practices will
enchane student learning.
The constant effort of a group of educators fighting for equal education for all students is
not a new concept. Much research has been dedicated to gaining insight about groups and
organizations that are breaking down educational barriers for minority students. Brandave
Elementary is one example to look at when finding effective practices. The examination of
Brandave will yield research findings for those already working in the field. Brandave may
apply these findings to better understand their own school.
Recommendations for Further Study
A qualitative study could look at several outperforming elementary schools across
different districts asking the same questions about student engagement. The data could be
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 114

compared across districts to see how the procedures and policies of each district aid or impede
student engagement. Additionally, qualitative studies could be done to focus on the practice of
the teacher within the classroom to promote student engagement. Examining further what
effective teaching strategies lead to heightened student engagement could lead to higher levels of
student achievement.
Although data on students in the state of flow was limited in this study, a longitudinal
study using the same group of students for the duration of a school year could lead to evidence of
flow theory at the elementary school level. However, research at the middle or high school
levels could reveal information about students in the state of flow.
One of the key findings in this study was principal leadership and principal innovation. A
qualitative study could be done in the same district on other principal leadership styles to
compare with this study. Such a study could illuminate additional data related to effective
leadership practices. Further, a study that looks at different principal leadership styles could lead
to finding how the leadership style affects levels of student engagement.
This study could be replicated at the same school site using all grade levels kindergarten
through fifth grade. The study of the entire student and teacher population many uncover
additional themes and findings.
Conclusion
Taking ownership of your own learning starts at a young age and is a skill necessary for
success. Students who are engaged in the learning and strive to know more become lifelong
learners. Becoming a successful citizen is a desire of educators for their students. One way to
accomplish success among students is to provide high levels of education to all students through
engagement. Students who actively participate in learning and schoolwork can break down sub
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 115

group barriers and close the achievement gap among affluent and minority students. Schools
have an obligation to engage students on all levels: behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively.
Engaging all students is not an easy task but a necessary one if educators want to see
achievement gaps close and produce improved outcomes for all students. Previous research and
this case study have shown the possibilities for high performing urban schools. This study aimed
to shed light on student engagement and the effects engagement has on student learning. The
results of this study showed behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement were an integral
part of the student success.

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 116

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Appendix
Interview Protocol
I. Introduction (Appreciation, Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity,
Consent to Participate, Permission to Record):

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study of role of engagement in student
achievement in outperforming urban schools. I appreciate the time that you have set aside to
answer some of my questions…. The interview should talk about an hour, does that work for
you?

Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer
any questions you might have about participating…. I am currently enrolled in a qualitative
research methods course at USC… the primary purpose of this study is to learn how to conduct
qualitative research. We have been asked to conduct both interviews and observations and I
have structured my line of inquiry around how “outperforming schools influence student
engagement and ultimately student academic performance.” “I am particularly interested in
learning how outperforming schools engage students.” In order to gain insight into how an
outperforming school engages students, I will be observing classrooms and staff meetings.

I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What this means is
that the nature of my questions (and observations) are not evaluative. I will not be making any
judgments on how you are performing as a teacher…. None of the data I collect will be shared
with other teachers, the parents, or the district…

I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested. Might you have
any questions about the study before we get started? …. If you don’t have any (more) questions I
would like to have your permission to begin the interview…. I have brought a recorder with me
today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. May I also have your permission
to record our conversation?

II. Setting the Stage (Developing Rapport and Priming the Mind, Demographic items of
interest (e.g. position, role, etc.))

I am hoping we could start with you telling me a little bit about your school…

III. Heart of the Interview (Interview Questions are directly tied to your Research
Questions) (Minimum of 2 questions from Strauss, et. al. typology: Hypothetical, Devil’s
Advocate, Ideal Position, Interpretive (done in the moment)

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 129

Research Questions Teacher Interview Questions
RQ1: To what extent are the
indicators of behavioral,
emotional, and cognitive
engagement present in a high
performing urban school?

1. What does your school do in regards to discipline?
(behavioral)
2. What does your school do to encourage
attendance?(behavioral)
3. How do you know when students are on task?
(behavioral)
4. How do you create a sense of community in your
classroom? (emotional)
5. Do students have an adult on campus that they
comfortable confiding in? (emotional)
6. To what extent do you think students feel safe at school?
(Classroom?) (emotional)
7. To what extent do you feel students are challenged in
your school? (cognitive)
a. What opportunities does the school have for
students Enrichment…. Rigor…. Challenge
8. How do students to persist through difficult tasks?
(cognitive)
9. What does a highly engaging lesson look like?
(cognitive, behavioral, emotional)
10. Is there anything else you would like to share?

RQ2: What school programs,
processes, and practices are
perceived to contribute to
student engagement?

1. What programs do you have at the school that are
culturally inclusive?
2. How would you describe your interactions with faculty,
staff and administrators?
3. How welcome do you believe Second language learners
feel as a student at xxxx school
4. What extra-curricular activities exist at the school?
5. Do all students feel included in the mainstream school
community?
a. How well do you think EL, AA, Latino, SPED,
low SES are integrated into the mainstream
school community?
6. What does the school do to create a sense of student
belonging?
a. For instance…Second step…. Character
Counts….. Assemblies…..Mottos,, morning
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 130

message, attendance rallies, etc
7. Is there anything else you would like to share?

RQ3: What are the unique
elements within an X school
structure that support student
engagement?

1. How does the schedule at your school affect student
engagement?
2. Tell me about the academies at your school.
3. How do you describe students’ experiences in utilizing
campus support services such as tutoring, library,
advising, and counseling?
4. How does mixing affect student engagement?
a. For instance EL mixing, ability level mixing,
subject level mixing.
5. Is there anything else you would like to share?
(Student only)
RQ4: To what extent do
students perceive being in a
state of flow during the school
day?
1. Do you ever find yourself so into something you are
learning that nothing else seems to matter?
a. Can you tell me about a specific time when this
has happened?
b. Did you find the activity or learning experience
challenging?
c. Did you feel that you already had some skills in
that area or was it something you knew?
d. Have you had this happen to you in more than
one class, if so, in which subjects does it happen
more than others?
2. Can you tell me more about what was special or
particular about that experience that made it so
interesting for you?
3. What was the teacher doing while you were deeply
involved in the moment of learning?
4. How much time do you spend in academic discussion?
a. How much time does the teacher spend
lecturing?
5. Is there anything else you would like to share?

Student Interview Protocol

1. How would you describe yourself to others?
2. Why are you here at Brandave Elementary School? What are your educational goals?
3. How would you describe your overall experiences at Brandave Elementary?
4. How would you describe your interactions with other students on campus?
● Within the classroom?
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 131

● Outside of the classroom?

5. How would you describe your interactions with faculty, staff, and administrators?
● Within the classroom?
● Outside of the classroom?
● What do you believe are the reasons for these types and levels of interactions

6. How do you spend your time outside of class when you are on campus?
● Are you involved in any clubs, organizations, leadership programs, and or student
government?
● What do you believe are the reasons for this?
7. How do you describe your experiences with campus support services such as tutoring, library,
advising, and counseling?
8. Do you feel comfortable while on campus? Why, or why not?
● What makes you say this?
9. How welcomed do you feel as a student at Brandave?
● What experiences have you had that make you feel this way?

10. How supported do you feel as a student at Brandave Elementary?
● Within the classroom?
● Outside of the classroom?
● What experiences have you had that make you feel this way?

11. What are some of the challenges if any you have experienced as a Hispanic/African America
student at Brandave?
● Within the classroom?
● Outside of the classroom?

12. Have you had any experiences with discipline issues?

● Within the classroom?
● Outside of the classroom?
● Do you feel the discipline policies support your academic achievement?

13. What experiences have you had that make you feel this way?

14. What is your attendance record here at Brandave?

15. Do you feel the attendance policies support your academic achievement?
● What experiences have you had that make you feel this way?

16. Is there anything else you’d like to add? Is there anything you feel I should have asked you about
your experiences here at Brandave?

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 132

IV. Closing Question (Anything else to add)

I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I might not
have covered?

V. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):

Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time and
willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I find myself with
a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact you, and if so, if email is ok? Again,
thank you for participating in my study. As a thank you, please take this gift card as a token of my
appreciation.

VI. Special Considerations and Probing

i. Transitions (notice the sections in your protocol where you transition from one topic to the
next… pre-manufacture a transitional statement that will help make the switch more natural and
insert where appropriate) (Patton p. 371):

We have been talking about what defines a high performing school, now I would like to ask your opinions
about the schools success…..Before we move to the next questions…..So, we have spent most of our time
talking about …. Now I would like to change gears a little bit and ask about…. Before I ask you about the
next question, is there anything else you would like to add….

ii. Probing Statements/Questions (it is a good idea to pre-manufacture some potentially helpful
probing statements/questions):

That is interesting, could you please tell me a little bit more about…
I want to make sure I understand, could you please tell me what you mean by…
I am wondering how you were feeling in that moment?
It would be great if you could walk me though…

Information/facts sheet for non-medical research
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
THE ROLE OF ENGAGEMENT ON TEACHER AND LEARNING

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who voluntarily
choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about
anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to identify what programs, processes, and practices influence student
engagement in a high performing urban school.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 133

This study will add to the existing literature by specifically examining the programs, processes, and
practices that are perceived to contribute to student engagement in an out-performing urban school. This
study aims to make this information accessible to educators to support them in implementing similar
strategies and practices that can improve pedagogical decisions and interventions within their schools.

Your participation is voluntary. Your relationship with USC and/or your school/district will not be
affected, whether or not you participate in this study.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Researchers will be looking at how programs, processes, and practices influence student engagement in
the school. Researchers will specifically look at how school and classroom structures affect behavioral,
cognitive, and emotional engagement and the impact on teaching and learning which have assisted your
school in flourishing in the area student achievement.

If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a 64-question survey. The survey is anticipated
to take 20 minutes to complete.

You may also be asked to participate in an interview; the interview may be audio-recorded with your
permission and is anticipated to take 30 minutes of your time.

You will be asked to allow researchers to observe the general school environment, classroom instruction,
staff meetings, and leadership meetings.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential and will be
disclosed only with your permission or as required by law. The members of the research team, the
funding agency and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP)
may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of
research subjects.

The data will be coded with a false name or pseudonym ; identifiable information will be kept separately
from your responses.

The data will be stored on password-protected computers and held for three years after the study has been
completed and then destroyed.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information
will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
**Each investigator will complete this section with contact information**

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA
90089-0702 (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Document Review Protocol

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 134

DOCUMENT REVIEW PROTOCOL

Research Question Potential Document Review Sources
RQ1: To what extent are the indicators of
behavioral, emotional, and cognitive
engagement present in a high performing urban
school?
Lesson plans
School plan
Classroom artifacts
Student work samples
Rubrics
Teacher feedback
Master calendar
Daily schedule
Mission statement
School plan
SARC (school accountability report card)
Curriculum guide
Student handbook
Staff handbook
LEA plan (Local education agency plan)
School site council minutes
School website
WASC (Western association of school and
colleges) accreditation
Linked Learning certification review
Departmental meeting notes/agenda
Student work/portfolio
District budget/fiscal year
Grant
Personnel
Leadership team meeting notes
Attendance rates
Dropout rates
Graduation rates
Discipline records
List of clubs/orgs
Faculty meeting notes
CAHSEE (California High School Exit Exam)
SBAC (Smarter Balance Assessment
Consortium)
California Healthy Kids Survey
School Ranking Report (greatschools.com)
A-G completion rates
Free and reduced lunch program
CDE California Department of Education)
Linked Learning Certification Review

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 135

Research Question Potential Document Review Sources
RQ2: What school programs, processes, and
practices are perceived to contribute to student
engagement?
Lesson plans
School plan
Classroom artifacts
Student work samples
Rubrics
Teacher feedback
Master calendar
Daily schedule
Mission statement
School plan
SARC (school accountability report card)
Curriculum guide
Student handbook
Staff handbook
LEA plan (Local education agency plan)
School site council minutes
School website
WASC (Western association of school and
colleges) accreditation
Linked Learning certification review
Departmental meeting notes/agenda
Student work/portfolio
District budget/fiscal year
Grant
Personnel
Leadership team meeting notes
Attendance rates
Dropout rates
Graduation rates
Discipline records
Academy brochure
List of clubs/orgs
Faculty meeting notes
CAHSEE (California High School Exit Exam)
SBAC (Smarter Balance Assessment
Consortium)
California Healthy Kids Survey
A-G completion rates
CDE (California Department of Education)
Linked Learning Certification Review

Research Question Potential Document Review Sources
RQ3: What are the unique elements within the
X school structure that support student
Lesson plans
School plan
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 136

engagement? Classroom artifacts
Student work samples
Rubrics
Teacher feedback
Master calendar
Daily schedule
Mission statement
School plan
Student handbook
Staff handbook
LEA plan (Local education agency plan)
School site council minutes
School website
WASC (Western association of school and
colleges) accreditation
Linked Learning certification review
Departmental meeting notes/agenda
Student work/portfolio
District budget/fiscal year
Grant
Personnel
Leadership team meeting notes
Academy brochure
List of clubs/orgs
Faculty meeting notes
Linked Learning Certification Review

Research Question Potential Document Review Sources
RQ4: To what extent do students perceive being
in a state of flow during the school day?
Not Applicable
Teacher Survey
Group 3 Teacher Survey

SHARE YOUR THOUGHTS! We want you to tell us about your thoughts and experiences as a teacher to help us understand
the educational climate of your school. This is an anonymous survey

DIRECTIONS: For each question, please mark the extent to which you agree or disagree
with the statement by filling in the corresponding bubble. For these questions, think of your collective
experience as a teacher and consider each of your classes as you respond.

Fair & Clear Practices
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 137

1. I listen to my students’ ideas.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. I tell my students when they are showing improvement.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. I frequently give useful feedback to students about their
work.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. I stick to established rules. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. I give students clear expectations for class work.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. My students can explain why they receive a specific grade
in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. I give students the opportunity to retake tests or redo
assignments.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
8. Students understand expectations about participation in my
classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
9. Students who know the material can still fail my classes. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
10. Students who don’t know the material can still pass my
classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
11. My school has consistent assessment practices within
grade/content levels.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
12. My school has consistent grading practices within
grade/content levels.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Caring Environment & Expectations
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. I have high expectations for all my students.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. I make myself available to students outside of class time.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. I care that all my students learn.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. I show personal concern for each of my students as
individuals.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. All students feel accepted in my classes. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. I feel it is important for students to feel a sense of
community in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. I discuss with my students their personal goals and plans
for life.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
8. I help students explore career goals. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 138

Caring Environment & Expectations
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

9. I take time to build community in my class.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
10. I can name the students in my classes who achieve below
proficiency.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
11. The level of my students is below my classroom
expectations.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Cultural Relevance
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. I show respect for different races and ethnicities.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. I represent individuals from various cultural, ethnic, and
racial backgrounds in my classroom displays and materials.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. When I have students work in groups, I ensure there is a
mix of students with different backgrounds.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. I encourage my students to show appreciation for people
from different racial and ethnic backgrounds.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. Students can talk openly about racial issues in my classes. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. I use materials in my class that reflect my students’ cultural
and ethnic identities.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. I consider race as a factor or predictor for student
achievement.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
8. We discuss achievement gaps in my school. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
9. I feel empowered to make a difference in narrowing
achievement gaps in my classes (race, socio-economic,
special education).

¡

¡

¡

¡

¡
10. My colleagues show respect for their peers of different
races and ethnicities.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
11. My colleagues have the skill set to positively impact the
achievement of students regardless of race, socio-
economics, or special education certification.

¡

¡

¡

¡

¡

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 139

What strategies do you use in your practice that promotes learning for all students, including students of color, students from
poverty, and non-traditional learners?
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 140

Respectful Interaction & Pride
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. I treat all of my students with respect. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. I encourage students to consider different points of view.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. My students take pride in their work. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. My students put forth effort in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. My students show me respect.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. I tell my students that I am proud of their performance.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. I would send my children to this school.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Engagement & Encouragement
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. Student learning is an important priority at my school.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. I encourage students to ask questions in class.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. My students complete their assignments on time.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. I use a variety of ways of teaching in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. My students need more help than I can give them.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. I use relevant technology to help my students learn.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. My students have a desire to learn in school.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
8. When students are confused, I am willing to do whatever it
takes to help them understand.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
9. I measure part of my success by student learning. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
10. I measure part of my success by student engagement.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
11. The curriculum I am responsible to teach challenges all of
my students.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
12. I create a classroom atmosphere that supports learning for
all students.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
13. Student thinking is visible on the walls of my classroom
and my school.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 141

Behavior Standards
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. I expect proper behavior from all my students. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. My students behave appropriately in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. I enforce rules and expectations fairly. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. My students come to class with all of their supplies.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. I start classes promptly each session.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. Students help develop classroom rules. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. Bullying is not tolerated. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Demographic Information
1. Gender:
⃝ Male

2. Years of Experience:
⃝ Female

⃝ 0-4 ⃝ 16-20
⃝ 5-10
⃝ 11-15
⃝ 21-25
⃝ 26 or more

3. Content area:
⃝ ELA

⃝ Science

⃝ Counseling
⃝ Electives
⃝ Math
⃝ Social Studies
⃝ Special Education
⃝ Other (please describe):

What makes a HIGH QUALITY SCHOOL that supports student growth and learning?
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 142

Student Survey
Student Survey

SHARE YOUR THOUGHTS! We want you to share your thoughts and experiences as a student to help us understand the
educational climate of your school. This is an anonymous survey - please DO NOT write your name on this survey.

DIRECTIONS: For each question, please mark the extent to which you agree or disagree with
the statement by filling in the corresponding bubble. Think of your collective experience as a student
and consider ALL of your teachers THIS year when answering each question. Please do not focus on
your favorite or least favorite teacher.

Fair & Clear Practices
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. Teachers listen to my ideas.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. Teachers tell me about my improvement.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. Teachers give useful feedback about my work
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. Teachers stick to established rules.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. Teachers give clear expectations for class work.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. I can explain why I receive specific grades in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. Teachers give me the opportunity to retake tests or redo
assignments.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
8. I understand expectations about participation in my classes. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
9. Teachers are clear about what they expect me to know for
classroom tests.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
10. Teachers have removed me from my class for talking too
much.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
11. It is easy for a student to get kicked out of class in this
school.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
12. My grades fairly reflect my achievement. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
13. I earn the grades I receive.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Caring Environment & Expectations
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. Teachers have high expectations for me.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. Teachers make themselves available outside of class time.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. Teachers care that I learn. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. Teachers show a personal concern for me as an individual.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. I feel accepted by my teachers in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. I feel a sense of community or belonging in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 143

7. Teachers ask me about my personal goals and plans for
life.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
8. Teachers help me explore career goals. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 144

Caring Environment & Expectations
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

9. The classroom atmosphere supports my learning. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
10. I ask for help when I need it.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
11. Teachers encourage me to live a healthy lifestyle.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
12. I enjoy my teachers.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
13. Teachers help me learn.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Cultural Relevance
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. Teachers show respect for different races and ethnicities.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. Teachers represent individuals from various cultural,
ethnic, and racial backgrounds in classroom displays and
materials.

¡

¡

¡

¡

¡
3. When teachers assign us to groups, they place us with
students from different backgrounds.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. Teachers encourage students to show appreciation for
people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. We can talk openly about racial issues in my classes. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. Teachers use materials in the classroom that reflect my
cultural or ethnic identity.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. Teachers consider race as a factor or predictor for student
achievement.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Describe something a TEACHER has done recently that really helped you learn something new.
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 145

What makes a HIGH QUALITY SCHOOL that supports student growth and learning?
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN AN OUTPERFORMING SCHOOL 146

Respectful Interaction & Pride
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. Teachers treat me with respect. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. Teachers encourage me to consider different points of
view.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. I have pride in my work. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. I put forth effort in my classes. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. I respect my teachers. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. Teachers tell me when they are proud of my performance. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. I have pride in myself. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
8. I respect myself. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Engagement & Encouragement
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. Student learning is an important priority at my school.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. Teachers encourage me to ask questions in class.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. I complete assigned work on time.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. Teachers use different ways of teaching in my classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. I need more help than I get in classes.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. Teachers use technology to help me learn.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. I have a desire to learn at school.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
8. When I am confused, teachers are willing to help until I
understand.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
9. The work my teachers assign requires me to think. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
10. I ask questions in class.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
11. I am actively engaged in learning in class.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

Behavior Standards
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree
Strongly
Agree

1. Teachers expect proper behavior from me.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
2. I behave appropriately in my classrooms.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
3. Teachers enforce rules and expectations fairly. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
4. I come to class with all of my supplies.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
5. Classes start promptly.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
6. Students help develop classroom rules.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
7. Bullying is not tolerated.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
STUDENT ENGAGMENT IN AN OUT-PERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL

Demographics
1. What is your gender?
⃝ Male
⃝ Female
2. What grades do you usually earn?
⃝ A’s & B’s (4’s & 3’s) ⃝ C’s & D’s (2’s & 1’s)
⃝ B’s & C’s (3’s & 2’s) ⃝ D’s & F’s (1’s)

3. In what grade are you?
⃝ 4
th
⃝ 5
th
⃝ 6
th
⃝ 7
th
⃝ 8
th
⃝ 9
th
⃝ 10
th
⃝ 11
th
⃝ 12
th

4. What is your racial/ethnic background? (Please only choose one):
⃝ African American ⃝ White
⃝ Arabic ⃝ Latino / Hispanic ⃝ Multi-Racial
⃝ Asian / Pacific Islander ⃝ Native American ⃝ Other (please describe):
5. Which extra-curricular activities are you involved in this year?
⃝ None
⃝ Clubs
⃝ Sports
⃝ Both Clubs and Sports
6. Do you receive free or reduced priced lunch?

⃝ Yes
⃝ No
⃝ Don’t Know
7. How many times were you sent to the principal or assistant
principal’s office for discipline this year?

⃝ None
⃝ 1 to 2 times
⃝ 3 or more times
8. How many schools have you attended since kindergarten?

⃝ 1 school (the one you’re in now)
⃝ 2 schools
⃝ 3 schools
⃝ 4 or more schools

9. How many times were you absent from school this year?

⃝ None ⃝ 10 to 15 times
⃝ 1 to 4 times ⃝ 16 to 20 times
⃝ 5 to 9 times ⃝ More than 20 times
10. How many adults in your school do you trust?

⃝ None ⃝ 4 to 5
⃝ 1 ⃝ 6 or more
⃝ 2 to 3
Thank you for participating!

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study utilized extensive literature review to create a conceptual framework to understand the impact of student engagement on academic achievement. The purpose of the study was to determine how perceived student engagement factors contribute to success in a high performing urban elementary school. This study aimed to answer four explicit research questions: (1) To what extent are the indicators of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement present in a high-performing urban school? (2) What school programs, processes and practices are perceived to contribute to student engagement? (3) What are the unique elements within the school structure that support student engagement? (4) To what extent do students perceive being in a state of flow during the school day? The case study focused on a high performing, urban school in a low socioeconomic school district. Brandave Elementary School was selected for this study because it met the following criteria, developed by the USC dissertation cohort: (1) had an Academic Performance Index score average of 820 or higher for the last three years (2) was ranked one or more points higher on the similar school ranking versus the statewide ranking (3) had a free and reduced lunch participation of 65% or higher (4) had a percent of English Learner population at or near the state average of 22.3%. Through the use of a qualitative mixed methods approach, data from document analysis, teacher and student surveys, classroom observations, administration, teacher, and student interviews were analyzed and triangulated to ensure validity and reliability. Findings from this study indicated that perceived engagement factors do contribute to the success of this institution. The overarching perceived elements that affected engagement and ultimately the academic achievement of Brandave Elementary are the following: (1) Innovative Principalship, (2) Student Goal Setting, (3) Quality and Willingness of Teachers, (4) School and Community Culture, and (5) Relationships. Although this study revealed that engagement is an important component to learning and that schools should take steps to ensure that behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement strategies are being utilized with students, this case study is not meant to be generalizable. There are limitations to studying one elementary school. For example, no students were observed or able to describe a time of being in the state of flow, the optimal level of engagement. Further case studies on multiple schools or a longitudinal study may or may not find different outcomes.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lance, Heidi Rachel (author)

Core Title Student engagement in an outperforming urban school as measured through cognitive, behavioral, and emotional indicators

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/19/2017

Defense Date 03/14/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag A through G requirements,Academic Performance Index,achievement gap,Adequate Yearly Progress,API,AYP,CAHSEE,California English Language Development Test,California High School Exit Exam,California Standards Test,CCSS,CELDT,Common Core State Standards,CST,Elementary and Secondary Education Act,ESEA,ESSA,Every Student Succeeds Act,Lexia,MAP®,Measures of Academic Progress®,National School Lunch Program,NCLB,No Child Left Behind Act,OAI-PMH Harvest,SARC,School Accountability Report Card,similar schools ranking,social capital,student engagement,student-controlled factors

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ott, Maria (committee chair), Escalante, Michael (committee member), Gothold, Stuart (committee member), Hocevar, Dennis (committee member)

Creator Email hlance@usc.edu,lanchr@fusd.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-360565

Unique identifier UC11257953

Identifier etd-LanceHeidi-5232.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-360565 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LanceHeidi-5232.pdf

Dmrecord 360565

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lance, Heidi Rachel

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA