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Energy performance and daylighting illumination levels of tensile structures in an extreme climate
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Energy performance and daylighting illumination levels of tensile structures in an extreme climate
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ENERGY PERFORMANCE DAYEIGHTING ILLUMINATION LEVELS of TENSILE STR UCTURES in on EXTREME CLIMATE by Yekaterina Boyajian A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY o f the SCHOOL o f ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY ofSOUTERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE May 1994 Copyright 1994 Yekaterina Boyajian UMI Number: EP41438 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI Dissertation Publishing UMI EP41438 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProOuest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90089-0291 0 ^ - 5 - This thesis, w ritten b y XCKATizl&tJk... &<XATlA/J. under the direction o f h & T . . . . . Thesis Com m ittee, and approved b y all its members, has been pre sented to and accepted b y the Dean of The School o f A rchitecture, in partial fulfillm ent of the require m ents for the degree of D ate . . A r /.i. A - . / < P A r . ii D E D I C A T I O N S I d e d ic a te th is th e s is m th e m e m o r v ol m v la th e r „ IL/ate I'1 'A m a s AJ>oya.jia,n, w h o ta u g h t m e h o w to g ive flig h t to all m y d re a m s, h o w e v e r im p o s s ib le t h e y H i s s tr e n g th ol c h a r a c te r e n a b le d m e to b e lie v e in m y s e l l a n d m y a m b i t io n s. I w ill a lw a y s o w e all m y .a c h ie v e m e n ts to h i m « iii A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S I a m g r a te lu l to m y ithesis c h a ir m a n , P r o f e s s o r F f a r c S c h i l e r , lo r b e in g sin e x t r e m e l y s u p p o r tiv e le a d e r a n d a sh a r in g , w o n d e r lu l ir ie n d . I w o u ld h h e to th a n h P r o f e s s o r G . G o e t z S c h i e r l e , o u r D i r e c t o r , w h o gave m e th e c h a n c e to r e a liz e m y th e sis a n d w as a s o u r c e ol e n c o u r a g e m e n t fo r th e e n tir e d u r a tio n ol th e P r o g r a m „ F f y th a n h s are also d u e to P r o f e s s o r R a l p h L . K n o w l e s lo r h is v a lu a b le a d v ic e „ I w o u l d l i h e to t h a n h to a ll th e IF a c u it y ad S t a l l o l t h e S c h o o l o l ^ A r c h i t e c t u r e lo r t h e i r h e lp . M y th a n h s to all m y I n e n d s h a c k h o m e , m S y r i a , w h o c o n t r i b u t e d to w a rd s th is a c h ie v e m e n t e v e n in t h e ir a b s e n c e„ F l y th a n h s to all m y Irie n d s m F m e r i c a , lor h e lp in g m e s e tt le m an u n h n o w n la n d , a n d cope w i t h th e h a r d s h ip s th a t I h a v e b e e n la cin g fo r th e la st fo u r iv y ears. V e r y s p e c ia l th a n h s to a ll m y fr ie n d s m th e U n i v e r s i ty , w i t h w h o m I e x c h a n g e d a lo t o f e x p e r ie n c e s , b o th a c a d e m ic a n d c u l t u r a l . T h e y m a d e th e v e n t u r e f u l l o f f u n . A b o v e all, I 'd h h e to th a n h m y m o th e r A i r s . V a r v a r a , A r s h a r u n i , fo r b e in g th e r e e v e r y m o m e n t o l m y e n d e a v o r. H e r la ith m m y a b ilitie s s u s ta in e d m e w h e n th e going w as r o u g h . M .y s p e c ia l th a n h s to m y b r o th e r , H a r o u t B o y a j ia n , w h o s e s te r n b u t c o m p a n io n a te r e m a r k s fo rc e d m y surge a h e a d , a n d h is w ile S e t a A l e s r o h ia n , fo r h e r s u p p o r t a n d fr ie n d s h ip , a n d my b e a u tilu l, h r s t n ie c e , B a r b a r a B o y a j i a n , w h o 's th e b r ig h te s t p a r t ol it all. I w o u ld also l ik e to t h a n k m y s is te r A n o u s h B o y a j ia n , a n d r e s t o f th e f a m ily fo r t h e ir c o n s ta n t e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d c o -o p e r a tio n . V ABSTRACT Tensile structures could be an optimal climate - responsive design strategy for certain functions. This thesis will examine the balance of the behavior of the daylight, illumination levels and the thermal performance of the three most common shapes of tensile structures: saddle shape, arch supported and wave shape... The prototypes are developed for an extreme climate such as Syria. The study includes several series of tests using computer program DOE2, and some comparisons, and suggestions are included at the end. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction to the area and climate Chapter I. Republic of Syria 1 1.1- Introduct i on to Syri a 2 1.2- Current Energy Conservation Needs 5 Chapter II. Climatic Analysis 6 2.1- Temperature / Wind Data Manual and Analysis 6 Tensile Structures Chapter III. Existing Tensile Structures 11 3.1- Introduction to Tensile Structures 12 3.2-Hajj Facilities 16 a) King Abdulaziz Airport / Hajj Terminal 16 b) The Tent Cities of Hajj 21 3.3- International Stadium, Riyadh 27 Chapter IV. Energy Studies of Tensile Structures 31 4.1-The Use of DOE -2.1 to Determine the Relative Energy 31 Performance of Day lighted Retail Stores 4.2- The Energy Performance of Fabric Roofs 42 Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. Chapter VIII Chapter IX Chapter X. Chapter XI. Chapter XII. Obstacles to Energy Performance and Daylighting 5.1- Obstacles 5.2- Hypothesis 5.3- Goals Possible Variables and Solutions Methodology Daylighting Illumination Levels 7.1- Saddle Shape Tensile Structures 8.1- Arch Supported Tensile Structures 9.1- Wave Shape Tensile Structures Energy Performances 10.1- Saddle Shape Tensile Structures 10.2- Arch Supported Tensile Structures 10.3- Wave Shape Tensile Structures 10.4- Artificial lighting load in the tensile structures Conclusions, Observations and Comparisons Bibliography viii LIST OF FIGURES 1.1.1 The map of Syrian Republic 3 2.1.1 The yearly average of absolute maximum temperature in Syria 7 2.1.2 The yearly average of absolute minimum temperature in Syria 8 2.1.3 The annual wind velocity and directions in Syria 9 2.1.4 The yearly average relative humidity in Syria 10 3.1.1 Properties of materials 13 3.1.2 Types of strands and wire ropes 13 3.2.1 The pilgrims'movement during Hajj 17 3.2.2 The International King Abdulaziz Airport 18 3.2.3 The Terminal's perspective view 19 3.2.4 A unit of the Terminal 19 3.2.5 A module, 7 x 3 units of the Terminal 20 3.2.6 Camps of different densities, each accommodating 250 pilgrims 21 3.2.7 Schematic arrangements of two large camps, each divided into groups of 250 ps with a density of each camp 2500 ps. 22 3.2.8 Pedestrian path shaded with tensile fabric roof 23 3.2.9 Prayer courtyard in the Mosque covered with fabric roof 23 3.2.10 A solution for terracing of mountain slopes 24 3.2.11 Constructive details of the modern tensile tents 25 3.2.12 The main entrance of the International Stadium, Riyadh 28 3.2.13 A large scale section 29 3.2.14 A large scale facade 30 4.1.1 Cross and longitudinal sections of Bullock's Department Store 32 4.1.2 A simplified model used to represent Bullock's Store 33 4.1.3 The lighting schedule of Bullock's Department Store 33 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1.7a 4.1.7b 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 4.2.7 4.2.8 4.2.9 4.2.10 4.2.11 6 . 1.1 6 . 1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.1.4 Solar - optical and thermal properties used in DOE-2 analyses for Bullock's Store The results of comparative annual energy analyses in different cities Energy comparison of two different constructions in Los Angeles Energy comparison of two di fferent constructions in Atlanta Energy comparison of two different constructions in Chicago Research method diagram Sensors and their locations placed in Bullock's Store Energy distribution during December Energy distribution during May Heat transfer concepts The illumination level in the Dome The stratification in the Dome Temp variations / Dec. 1979: clear day Temp variations I May 1979: clear day Comparison on the electrical consumption Comparison on the annual fan's electrical energy consumption The shapes of the tensile structures used in this research The simplified models used in DOE-2 analyses Summer lighting schedule used for all shapes and cases Winter lighting schedule used for all shapes and cases Solar - optical and thermal properties used for the DOE-2 analyses for all shapes Sketch of the saddle shape / Case # 1 Average hourly year illumination of saddle shape Average hourly summer illumination of saddle shape Average hourly winter illumination of saddle shape 7.1.5 7.1.6 7.1.7 7.1.8 7.1.9 7.1.10 7.1.11 7.1.12 7.1.13 7.1.14 7.1.15 7.1.16 7.1.17 7.1.18 7.1.19 7.1.20 7.1.21 7.1.22 7.1.23 7.1.24 7.1.25 7.1.26 8 . 1.1 8 . 1.2 8.1.3 8.1.4 Sketch of the saddle shape / Case # 2 59 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 2 / East opening 60 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 2 / North opening 61 Saddle shape / Azimuth =180/ Zone = 2 / West opening 61 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 270 / Zone = 2 / South opening 62 Sketch of the saddle shape / Case # 3 64 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 4 / North opening 65 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 4 / East opening 66 Saddle shape / Azimuth =180/ Zone = 4 / South opening 67 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 270 / Zone = 4 / West opening 68 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 0 I Zone = 1 / Open structure 70 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 2 I Open structure 71 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 3 / Open structure 72 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 4/ Open structure 73 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 1 / Open structure 74 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 2 / Open structure 75 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 3 / Open structure 76 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 4 / Open structure 77 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 1 / Open structure 78 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 2 / Open structure 79 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 3 / Open structure 80 Saddle shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 4 / Open structure 81 Zone distribution of the arch supported shape 82 Average hourly year illumination of arch supported shape 83 Average hourly summer illumination of arch supported shape 83 Average hourly winter illumination of arch supported shape 83 8.1.5 Opening's location / Case # 2 84 8.1.6 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 2 / West opening 85 8.1.7 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 2 / South opening 86 8.1.8 Arch supported / Azimuth =1 80 / Zone = 2 / East opening 87 8.1.9 Arch supported / Azimuth =270 / Zone = 2 / North opening 88 8.1.10 Opening's location / Case # 3 89 8.1.11 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 7 / North opening 90 8.1.12 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 7 / West opening 91 8.1.13 Arch supported / Azimuth =180/ Zone = 7 / South opening 92 8.1.14 Arch supported / Azimuth = 270 / Zone = 7 / East opening 93 8.1.15 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 1 / Open structure 96 8.1.16 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 2 / Open structure 97 8.1.17 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 3 / Open structure 98 8.1.18 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 4 / Open structure 99 8.1.19 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 5 / Open structure 100 8.1.20 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 6 / Open structure 101 8.1.21 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 7 / Open structure 102 8.1.22 Arch supported / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 8 / Open structure 103 8.1.23 Arch supported / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 1 / Open structure 104 8.1.24 Arch supported / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 2 / Open structure 105 8.1.25 Arch supported / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 3 / Open structure 106 8.1.26 Arch supported / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 4 / Open structure 107 8.1.27 Arch supported / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 5 / Open structure 108 8.1.28 Arch supported / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 6 / Open structure 109 8.1.29 Arch supported / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 7 / Open structure 110 8.1.30 Arch supported / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 8 / Open structure 111 8.1.31 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 1 / Open structure 112 xii 8.1.32 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 2 / Open structure 113 8.1.33 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 3 / Open structure 114 8.1.34 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 4 / Open structure 115 8.1.35 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 5 1 Open structure 116 8.1.36 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 6 / Open structure 117 8.1.37 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 1 1 Open structure 118 8.1.38 Arch supported / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 8 / Open structure 119 9.1.1 Zone distribution in wave shape structure 120 9.1.2 Average hourly year illumination level of the wave shape 120 9.1.3 Average hourly winter illumination level of the wave shape 121 9.1.4 Average hourly summer illumination level of the wave shape 121 9.1.5 Location of the opening / Case # 2 122 9.1.6 Wave shape / Azimuth = 0 1 Zone = 1 / West opening 123 9.1.7 Wave shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 1 / South opening 124 9.1.8 Wave shape / Azimuth = 180 / Zone = 1 / East opening 125 9.1.9 Wave shape / Azimuth = 270 / Zone = 1 / North opening 126 9.1.10 Opening's location / Case #3 127 9.1.11 Wave shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 4 / With opening on the top of the mast 128 9.1.12 Wave shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 4 / With opening on the top of the mast 129 9.1.13 Wave shape / Azimuth = 180 / Zone = 4 / With opening on the top of the mast 130 9.1.14 Wave shape / Azimuth = 270 / Zone = 4 / With opening on the top of the mast 131 9.1.15 Wave shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 1 / Open structure 134 9.1.16 Wave shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 2 / Open structure 135 9.1.17 Wave shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 3 / Open structure 136 Xlll 9.1.18 Wave shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 4 / Open structure 137 9.1.19 Wave shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 5 / Open structure 138 9.1.20 Wave shape / Azimuth = 0 / Zone = 6 / Open structure 139 9.1.21 Wave shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 1 / Open structure 140 9.1.22 Wave shape / Azimuth — 45 / Zone — 2 1 Open structure 141 9.1.23 Wave shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 3 / Open structure 142 9.1.24 Wave shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 4 / Open structure 143 9.1.25 Wave shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 5 / Open structure 144 9.1.26 Wave shape / Azimuth = 45 / Zone = 6 / Open structure 145 9.1.27 Wave shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 1 / Open structure 146 9.1.28 Wave shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 2 / Open structure 147 9.1.29 Wave shape / Azimuth = 90 Zone = 3 / Open structure 148 9.1.30 Wave shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 4 / Open structure 149 9.1.31 Wave shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 5 / Open structure 150 9.1.32 Wave shape / Azimuth = 90 / Zone = 6 I Open structure 151 10.1.1 Saddle shape tensile structure's total load components 154 10.1.2 Saddle shape tensile structure's peak load components 155 10.2.1 Arch supported tensile structure's total load components 157 10.2.2 Arch supported tensile structure's peak load components 158 10.3.1 Wave shape tensile structure's total load components 160 10.3.2 Wave shape tensile structure's peak load components 161 10.4.1 Saddle shape tensile structure's total load components / D. L. = NO 163 10.4.2 Saddle shape tensile structure's peak load components / D. L. = NO 164 10.4.3 Arch supported tensile structure's total load components / D.L. = NO 165 10.4.4 Arch supported tensile structure's peak load components / D.L. = NO 166 10.4.5 Wave shape tensile structure's total load components / D.L. = NO 167 10.4.6 Wave shape tensile structure's peak load components / D.L. = NO 168 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE AREA AND CLIMATE 2 CHAPTER I Syria, especially the Northern cultivated steppe region (Aleppo) is a representative of an extreme climate, with cold winters and very hot, long summers. Therefore, Aleppo is chosen to be the location of this research. 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SYRIA Location: Syria is a country situated on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea on the southwestern fringe of the Asian continent. It has an area of approximately 71,500 sq miles/ 185,180 sq km. Syria lies between longitudes 35.5° and 42.3° East of the Greenwich Meridian and between latitudes 32.8° and 37.3° North of the Equator. The Capital is Damascus (Dimashq) on the River Barada; the city is situated in an oasis at the foot of Jabal (mount) Qasiyun, 33.3° N-36.18° E. The second city is Aleppo (Halab) located in the Northwesten cultivated steppe region, 36.12° N - 37.10° E, which is the site of this research thesis. Physical Geography: Syria consists of 3 main zones from west to east; the coast, the mountains, the desert. It has a short coastline which stretches 110 miles/180 km along the Mediterranean Sea. The narrow coastal strip is interrupted by spurs of the Jabal an-Nasayriyah (Alauiyin) immediately to the east. The Mountain an-Nasayriyah runs from North to South, their average height declines from 3000 feet/ 900 meters in the North to 2,000 feet in the South.. Directly to the east of the mountains is the Ghab Depression, 940-mile longitudinal trench that contains the valley of the Orontes River. The Anti-Lebanon 3 Fig 1.1.1 The map o f Syrian Republic Mountains or Jabal ash-Sharqi, mark the west border of the valley. The average height ranges from 6,000 to 7,000 feet., the third mountain chain is Jabal Abu Rujmayn (The Palmyra Range) which stretches northeastward across the central part of the country. The undulating plains occupying the rest of the country are known as the Syrian Desert. In general their elevation lies between 980 and 1640 feet, they are seldom less than 820 feet above sea level. The area is not a sand desert but comprises rock and gravel steppe. 4 Surface Water: The Euphrates River is the most important water source and the only navigable river in Syria. It originates in Turkey and flows south eastward across the eastern part of Syria. The construction of a dam on the Euphrates, at Tabaqah, Syria, began in 1968. The reservoir behind the dam, Buhayrat-al-Asad (Lake-Asad), began to fill in 1973. The electrical power energy derived from this reservoir feeds 75% of the energy needs of the country generally and 100% of the Northern Part of the country specially. The Orontes is the principal river of the mountainous region. It rises in Lebanon, flows northward through the mountains and the Ghab Depression, and enters the Mediterranean near Antioch, Turkey. Scattered lakes are found in Syria. The largest is Mamlahat (Sabkhat) al-Jabbul southeast of Aleppo; a seasonal saline lake, it permanently covers a minimum area of about 60 sq miles. 5 1.2 CURRENT ENERGY CONSERVATION NEEDS Syria is a hot, semi-arid region. In order to create a comfortable living environment, excluding the unnecessary heat in the summer, and maintaining comfort temperature in the winter are the main objectives. Owing to its mass-application, electric power consumption has increased largely. The reservoir behind the dam, Buhayrat al-Asad, which was constructed on the Euphrates River in 1973 at Tabakah was absorbing these needs, until in early 1980's. At that time, the Turkish Government constructed series of dams on Euphrates River, before it enters Syria, to fulfill their nation's needs, such as Keban Dam, Ataturk Dam,... In addition, the population increase and several years of dryness created a huge energy crisis. For this reason, the reduction of energy consumption has become critical. 6 CHAPTER II 2.1 CLIMATE ANALYSIS Temperature Data and Analysis: The coast and western mountains have a Mediterranean climate with a long dry season from May to October. In the extreme northwest there is some light summer rain. On the coast, summers are hot, with mean daily maxima of 84° F (29° C), while the mild winters have mean daily minima of 50° F (10° C). Only above 5,000 feet are the summers relatively cool. Inland, the climate, becomes arid, with colder winters and hotter summers. Damascus and Aleppo have average daily maxima of 91° to 99° F (33° - 37° C) in the summer, average daily minima of 34 ° to 40° F (l°-4 ° C) in winter. In the desert, the average daily temperature is 99° to 114° F (37° - 46° C). Precipitation: The coast and western mountains receive 30 to 40" (762 to 1016 mm) of rainfall annually. Rainfall decreases rapidly eastward. Rainfall occurs primarily in the spring and autumn months. Winds: In winter, the prevailing winds blow from the east, the north, and the west. In summer, the prevailing winds are either northerly or westerly. During the summer, the coastal region is subject to westerly humid winds during the day and easterly at night. The inner region such as Aleppo can't enjoy the humid wind because the north-south running mountain chain blocks it. Once or twice a year sand-bearing winds, named Khamsin, raise a wall of dust almost 5,000 feet high, which darkens the sky. 7 C O D L x J / //" tfjS N if Fig 2.1.1 The yearly average o f absolute maximum temperature in Syria 8 > * r p s i Fig 2.1.2 The yearly average o f absolute minimum temperature in Syria 9 Fig 2.1.3 The annual wind velocity and directions in Syria 10 S ' ■ -v N V ? 3 i \ l Vcltl 3 1 I 0 3 i r Fig 2.1.4 The yearly average relative humidity in Syria 11 TENSILE STRUCTURES 12 CHAPTER III 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO TENSILE STRUCTURES Definition: Various structural systems have gaind increasing importance in contemporary architecture due to the rapidly expanding demands of our society for large-scale shelters of all kinds. These structural systems have been developed through theoretical research and refined by experience on executed structures. Tensile structures are unique in their characteristic independence from gravity being stabilized only by the geometric shape, which allows to span rather large areas without intermediate structural elements, and the property to transfer all applied forces throughout the structure in purely tensile forces. The tensile structures consist of 1- COMPRESSION MEMBERS: In the construction of structural elements wich have to function chiefly in compression and flexure in performing their task of providing support for membranes and cable networks are poles, columns, arches, edge members, frames, anchors, and foundations. 2-TENSION MEMBERS: The construction materials particularly suitable for surface structures loaded in tension with the least possible material consumption are those having the highest possible ratio of strength to bulk density (breaking length). Materials of relatively low strength, such as wood or cotton, are also quite suitable because they have a very low bulk density and therefore a very long breaking length. 13 Material cr [kg/ mm3] Y [g/ cm3] R [km] max span [km] Lead 1,7 11 A 0,1 5 0.2 Aluminium Wire 17 2,7 6,5 8,6 Structural Steel St 52 52 7,8 6,7 8,9 Duralumin 50 2,8 18 24 Pine Wood 10 0,5 20 26,5 Steel Wire 220 7,8 28 37 Silk — — 45 — Cotton — — 26-40 — Perlon Wire 57 1,1 4 50 66 Concrete (Com pression) 6,0 2,2 2,7 3,6 Fig 3.1.1 Properties o f materials (a) Steel wires: are used primarily when the stiffness is important and the flexibility is not, the wires are consisted of cold-rolled single wires or strands (b) Parallel- wire bundles: are employed mainly for very long-spanning and heavily loaded tension members if the deformations are required to be very small. (c) Steel cables (wire ropes): are used almost exclusively for primary tension members in surface structures where the flexibility is the more important than the stiffness factor. Fig 3.1.2 Different types o f strands and wire ropes. 14 (d) Round, square and flat-section bars, slender rolled steel sections, steel strips, tubes and chains: are used in special cases and for curved tension members in surface structures ( tensile strength 60 to 90 kg/mm 2 ). (e) Cables of organic and synthetic fibers: such as hemp or perlon ropes used in tent construction undergo substantially larger elastic and permanent strains under load than steel cables. (f) Laminated strips and bar chains of wood: are used for curved tension members and surfaces. 3- MEMBRANES The term "membrane" is used in its original and general meaning of "tautly stretched skin". There are several categories of membranes: (a) Isotropic Membranes: such as plastic sheets (polyester, polyethylene or polyvinyl chloride), lattice sheets, metal membranes (steel of aluminum sheet), which are the strongest among isotropic membranes, rubber membranes (have extremely elastic behavior), resin-bonded fibers ( glass fibers and synthetic fibers bonded with polyester or polyurethane, of wood membranes (consisting of thin plywood panels or boards). (b)Fabric Membranes: such as cotton fabrics ( organic fibers), plastics fabrics (synthetic fibers), and glass silk fabrics (mineral fibers). Finishing and Coating: It is common and necessary to give textile fabrics a finishing treatment. The cotton fabrics are impregnated with acetic acid to make them rotproof and flame-resistant. To make mineral or synthetic fibre fabrics watertight, they have to 15 be coated with plastic compounds. As a protection against ultraviolet rays the coating may, in addition, be given a vapor-deposited coating of aluminum, or be painted with special paints. Thermal insulation: It is possible to produce a heat-insulating roofing material that can withstand winter conditions. The insulating layer can be provided with a protective lining glued to the inside as a form of sandwich construction or the foamed substance can be stitched between two membrane skins. The insulation may be glued on only after erection, or be sprayed on as foam. Useful life of membranes: It should soon be possible, however, by means of extensive research and weathering tests, to improve the durability of synthetic sheets and fibres to such an extent that translucent and even transparent membranes, with at least ten and up to about thirty years' useful life, will become technically and economically practicable. In the case of cable network roofs the problem of ensuring a long service life can now be satisfactorily solved. This research has concentrated mainly on: a) The existing tensile structures in Saudi Arabia, such as Hajj Facilities and the International King Abdulaziz Airport, because of the similarities within Saudi Arabia's climate and the proposed extreme climate of Syria. b) The study of Bullock's Department Store in San Jose, because of the methodological similarities used in studying the illumination behavior and the energy performance of the tensile structures. 16 3.2 HAJJ FACILITIES a) King Abdulaziz Airport / Haii Terminal The annual pilgrimage of 1.5-2 million Moslems to Mecca during the last month of the Islamic lunar calendar, has created a problem in transportation logistics for Saudi Arabia. Because the lunar year is shorter than the solar year, the Hajj-time might occur in winter, autumn, spring or in summer with temperatures of up to 50°C - 130°F in shade. It was important to study the details of pilgrims' needs and their scheduled ceremonies to create modern transportation systems and sheltering facilities to welcome and comfort the Moslems from all over the world. From Jeddah’ s Hajj Terminal pilgrims move to Mecca, (about 45 miles/ 60-65 km), where they stay until the 8th day of the last month of the Arabic calendar, performing certain ceremonies in Kaaba, meeting friends and contacting their pilgrim-leaders. Then they move on to Muzdalifa then to Muna, the next stop is to visit Kaaba. Many of them visit Medina Munauara before they depart from Saudi Arabia (Fig 3.2.1 ). Fig 3.2.1 The pilgrims' movement during Hajj 18 For a Terminal to shelter Moslem pilgrims Skidmore, Owings & Merrill First conceived a series of 1,500 concrete umbrellas 60 feet apart. But that approach produced a good many negative aspects; 1) the umbrellas would take a long time to build; 2) with daytime temperatures ranging from 110 to 130° F the concrete would radiate a heat unbearable to the 30,000 Hajj is who will use the terminal daily; 3) the 60 feet column spacing would appear small; 4) the umbrellas would block off light and air. By substituting fabric tents for concrete umbrellas, the architects not only eliminated these negatives - they evoked the tents that have sheltered Hajj is for centuries and are the symbol of home, protection, rest, unity and security for desert tribes. ROYAL PAVILION W EST RUNWAY HAJ TERMINAL- TERMINAL 2 CONTROL TOWER MAIN TERMINAL AIR CARGO < > ^ EAST RUNWAY L 1011 HANGAR AIR BASE TO BE BUILT ALONGSIDE — FOOD SERVICE Fig 3.2.2 The International King Abdulaziz Airport 19 The Terminal consists of two kinds of spaces; a series of customers, baggage handling, and processing; and much larger waiting or support areas to shelter the pilgrims. To achieve the shaded environment for the vast waiting area, they used Teflon-coated fiberglass for the fabric material, a design was generated that is highly efficient fabric in terms of erection, construction materials, and costs. The Terminal is actually two separate identical fabric structures separated by a landscaped central mall. Each structure consists of five modules A module is seven units long by three wide. Each unit measures 150 x 150 The Terminal's perspective view Fig 3.2.3 feet at the bottom edges and rises conically to a 16 feet 66 feet from the terminal floor with the fabric cone diameter open steel pylons. The bottom of each unit is Tw o*pyton frame fou»-pyW*v fr* " network of 32 radial cables strengthens and shapes the rising to a height of 110 feet at the support ring. A «ib#dn* s \ b w c w i e f ring fabric of each unit. Fig 3.2.4 A unit o f the Terminal 20 The 210 units, composing both structures, cover 105 acres. Concrete aprons running along the outer lengths of each structure provide for airplane docking. Adjacent to the aprons aie the shaded environment created by the fabric roof. The inherent long-span characteristics of the cable-supported roof units allow pylons to be spaced far enough apart to give the large support area a spacious, open feeling and allow maximum flexibility for the various support buildings located beneath the fabric roof. The white fabric of the roof reflects 75 percent of solar radiation from its upper surface and, thus, helps to ensure that temperatures do not reach an uncomfortable level. In fact, the reflective property coupled with the air circulation from the open sides of the structure up through the open support ring at the top of each conical unit, keeps temperatures in the 80° F range, even when outside temperatures reach 130° F. The constant desert wind also gives a natural ventilating effect across the top opening of each ring. Fig 3.2.5 Amodule ,7x3 units o f the Terminal 21 b) The Tent Cities of Hajj The Hajj Terminal's structure in Saudi Arabia, proved that the best structural solution, which will positively respond the local climate and fulfill their needs is the Tensile structure. This fact encouraged them to use the same flexible design strategy to solve their pilgrims' accommodation problems, and that was the beginning of the tent cities of Hajj. There are several tent cities on the center of each stop that pilgrims do during their ceremonies, such as Arafat, Muzdilifat, Muna... One of many problems that Saudi Arabia faces due to Hajj movement is the population densities observed in the tent cities of Arafat and Muna. The thin cloth walls of the tents, the nearly unlimited adaptability to function and topography, the easy, quick and safe way of putting up, taking down, and converting them so that whole groups of tents can be arranged exactly according to need and many other factors altogether make the tent city the most efficient form of one story dwelling. Only with structures greater than eight storeys in height can one achieve equal efficiency, and balance out losses arising from thick wall, rigid confinement, a minimum of circulation and open spaces, and constructional techniques. In spite of this, the tent cities are in danger of being replaced by other types of building which, however, cannot accommodate these high densities and seem therefore to be counte-productive. 22 1 X 1 K 1 M 0 o t>- ionr/Hi □ i g S j H j K-rf m S S I mm\ r a m m a m lOf/W D -40Q 0r/Tio ► .7 7 , n , n : U*» 0 1 « * M \* i« M l* * . C o w p < W A ffarv n i 4mJti«a, •odt e ee w iw w i^W f# 250 p i V• " A * Assembly t«nt (Vflrsommiun^ze^) M * M fta w q f'i t*n t H * N 4 ita*af'i h o r « » m C “ Cooking <T9a (Kochplotr) W - W <rf«r (Waw#f) F /g 3.2. < 5 Camps o f different densities, each accommodating 250 pilgrims XM XKI \ l xlxlxl)<M><1><l^^ ^ - jt- j. ^ , J lk J > E i 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 !(x x X x XX X < T X k / i y i ¥ -IXXX XX X X X >b<MxlXt><b<RIxfo i . ^ixixixwxrXX Fig 3.2.7 Schematic arrangements o f two large camps, each is divided into groups o f 250 ps with a density o f each camp 2500 ps. 23 There were several proposals during The International Architectural Competition in 1974; a competition for accommodating pilgrims. Frei Otto’s contribution: Several ways are suggested which ensure an optimal use of the available area. They ascertain that a purely pedestrian system is the most productive "mass transport means" for relatively short distances, and the traffic problems may solve themselves. The pedestrian paths are shaded and are given rest, market, prayer and washing areas. Fig 3.2.8 Pedestrian path shaded with tensile fabric ro o f. Fig 3.2.9 Prayer Courtyard in the Mosque covered with fabric roof. 24 It is suggested that the density of Muna village be raised, and also density concentrated terraced buildings be constructed on the southern slopes in the vicinity of the Jamarat, to accommodate the remaining two million pilgrims (Fig 3.2.10). Fig 3.2.10 A solution fo r terracing o f mountain slopes. In case of further growth small tents could be replaced by large ones which could be equipped with especially designed multi-storey bunks, thus allowing for almost double the density (over 1 pilgrim/sq.m^ 10000 P/Ha). An attempt to improve the 4 x 4 ml standard tent is noteworthy. A construction is proposed that has no guy ropes and can be joined together to form large roof expanses, which supplied with an additional fly- roof for shading, is suitable for the a hot climate. This tents are small scale tensile structures. This project is the only example of such a small span, but yet economic tensile structures. FRAM E OF THE MODERN TENT SIDE VIEW 1 $ MOOCRN TENT Fig 3.2.11 Constructive details o f the modern tensile tents. 26 Rolf Gutbrod’s contribution: The distinctive features of the scheme are the demand to keep the traditional tents and to minimize the destruction of the mountain landscape. This is achieved by erecting on point foundations a light tubular scaffolding, which only for the duration of the Hajj is equipped with floor panels and fabric shading roofs and all the other necessary conveniences. In the new terraces up to 655,000 pilgrims are accommodated. The majority, however, remain in the traditional camps in the plain of the valley which should suffice for 900,000 pilgrims. The traffic concept is emphasized, as in Frei Otto's contribution. There were other architects' contributions and suggestions which were encouraging modern, standard architecture, such as Kenzo Tange, Vattenbygnadsbyran (VBB),... Robert Matthew, Johnson, Marshall & Partners had already received acceptance for the planning of Muna even before the competition was visualized. Their prediction for the number of pilgrims was much higher ( 3 million), and therefore the accommodation is separated into various types: a) in tents; b) in Hajj buildings; c) in buildings which are to be used during the Hajj and afterwards. The plans are contradictory and yet changeable, but the conclusion seemed to be using tensile structures along with standard architecture. 27 3.3 THE INTERNATIONAL STADIUM RIYADH The seating bowl form derives from a 4-center ellipse and comprises a parabolic curve in section, thus affording every spectator with ideal viewing conditions. A Lower Tier, describing the full ellipse of equal rise all round, provides 57,400 seats, while an Upper Gallery extending for only part of the long side, opposite the Royal Box, accommodates 9,492 seats. Access is planned to allow full segregation of pedestrians from vehicles. Special provision is made for access to the Royal and VIP Pavilion, while eight ramped public entrances lead from the external ticket kiosks and connect to a concourse encircling the Stadium, leading in turn to the spectator seating in the Lower Tier and Gallery. The design provides ancillary accommodation and facilities for the press and media. It also includes all essential support accommodation to cater for a capacity attendance of 67,000 spectators, in terms of ticket purchase and control systems, toilet provision and refreshment kiosks. Two service ramps lead to the arena, while a third ramp for ceremonial purposes is located beneath the Royal Pavilion. The Lower Tier will be constructed on a consolidated berm formed of strata from the arena excavations. Precast concrete sections will be placed in vertical bands on the berm to form the seating terracing. The construction of the Upper Seating Gallery will be a series of Y frames with large cantilevered beams supporting precast terrace units and a mezzanine concourse floor. The elegant, free-flowing roof and its translucent membrane cover will provide 28 maximum weather protection and shade to spectators. The central arena will, however, remain open in compliance with International rulings for certain sports. In plan, the fabric tension roof takes the form of a circular ring with an outer diameter of 288 meters and a center opening of 134 meters. In elevation the 24 peaks of the tent shaped membrane structures resemble a magnificent crown. The peak of each tent is supported by a vertical main mast 60 meters high. The interior edge of the membrane is formed by a huge circular ring cable, while the extremities consist of a series of catenary cables supported by sloping edge masts and anchored at a lower point to the berm structure. Fig 3.2.12 The Main Entrance o f the Stadium. 29 The membrane cover is a durable, non-combustible, Teflon-coated fabric of high strength which is prestressed to keep its shape under all wind and temperature conditions. The geometry of the roof will provide shade and protection with openings and light. "Ian Fraser, John Roberts and Partners, London is the architect. The Final design began in 1981. Wind-tunnel tests were conducted on models at Columbia University and the University of Western Ontario. Winds of up to 95 mph will impose the critical loads on the lightweight but dynamically stable system. Extremes of temperature from near freezing to 130° F are of little structural concern. The stadium roof consists of 4 masts which are connected to the mast tops with help of the suspension cables. The slopping edge masts and their cable stays (tensioned to 20° o of their final 100-kips prestress load) completed the primary system. w--> - Fig 3.2.13 A large scale section 30 ■ Y S S s y Y , ■ W M M w m M ■ , i v ! : • ! Fig 3.2.14 A large scale facade There is a roof-washing system (flexible hoses) designed to keep the fabric clean and white so it transmits 8% of daylight and reflects 75% of the sun's rays to keep the climate pleasant under the roof throughout the year Openings in the roof peaks at the masts creates a natural ventilation system. The rain water gathers to spill into a circumferential drainage basin. A catwalk hung from the roofs tension ring will support a public-address system and lights that will shine on the playing field for night events. Indirect light reflected downward from the fabric will adequately illuminate grandstand areas at night. His Riyadh Stadium roof, says designer Horst Beger, "is totally rational, simple, and logical... in its own gentle way a piece of sculptural art " 1 He sees a substantial growth for fabric tension structures over the next decades... 1- ("Riyadh Stadium roof spans 945 ft. Tension Fabric structure shades 60,000 seats" ENG - July 25, 1985, pp 29 -30). 31 CHAPTER IV With increasing interest amongst the architectural and engineering community in daylighted buildings, there is a need to evaluate the relative energy performance of those buildings. One means of daylighting a building is to use a coated glass fiber fabric roof. With such a roof, it has been found that sufficient daylight is admitted to allow most artificial lighting to be turned off during the daytime hours. However, solar cooling loads and conductive loads may be greater... With the fabric roofed buildings capable of using considerably less energy for artificial lighting, yet possibly requiring greater use of energy for space heating and cooling, the relative energy performance is a matter of trade-offs. There have been scientific experiments to answer "trade-off questions, analyze the results, and improve the effects. 4.1 FABRIC ROOFS VS STANDARD ROOFS: It was decided by Research and Development Division, Owens/Corning Fiberglas Corporation, Granville, Ohio, to use the computer program, DOE-2.1 A, which is designed for energy analyses of buildings, to compare the performance of fabric roofed to conventionally roofed spaces. Technical approach: The technical approach used in this study was to compare the energy use of conventionally roofed ( a conventional roof refers to a flat, horizontal roof with fiberglass insulation and a "built-up ro o f outer membrane consisting of fiberglass matting and asphalt) and fabric roofed retail stores having the identical space 32 layouts, schedules, and occupancy. Annual energy use was determined in 19 cities in U.S.A. by using the appropriate weather data files and monitoring of a fabric covered store, of a similar design in San Jose using DOE-2.1 A. Structural support for the fiberglass fabric membrane is two pairs of crossed, laminated arches that rise 22 ft, span 96 ft, and are 32 ft apart. Hand-operated winches hoisted the single-piece, 18,000 sq ft fabric membrane up over the arch frames. To prevent abrasion of the fabric, a strip of the same material was placed on the top surface of the arches. There are no cables in the fabric except edge catenaries. Most of the roof has two layers of fabric (a somewhat conservative response to thermal, acoustical, and flre- protection concerns) , except for small areas between each pair of intersecting arches. Though this reduces transmission to 7%, as compared with a 16% average for a single layer of fabric, lighting nonetheless averages about 450 to 550 fc, which is considered a high lighting level. i nfjnruntwn sfcnON Fig 4.1.1 Cross & longitudinal sections o f Bullock's department store 33 Since DOE-2.1A doesn't read double curved surfaces, a simplified model was used to represent the fabric roof in the DOE-2.1 A analyses (Fig 4.1.2 ). Fig 4.1.2 A simplified model used fo r Description of the input to the DOE2.1 A. Bullock's store I.- INTERNAL LOADS: A retail store has a variety of factors that lead to internal heat generation. These are artificial electric lighting, people (occupancy) and miscellaneous equipments. 1.-Lighting: The lighting schedules representing only the ambient lights and not the display lighting, used in the computer analyses of the fabric and conventional roofs of Bullock's store are shown in Fig 4.1.3, for weekdays, Saturdays, and Sundays respectively. It was assumed that normal operation requires 100% of the peak ambient lighting with 5% left on at unoccupied periods of the night for safety purposes. Fabric structures Hours o f day Fraction of lighting Conventional structures Hours o f day Fraction o f lighting Weekdays 0 - 17 0.05 0 - 7 0.05 1 8 -2 1 1.00 8 -2 1 1.00 22 - 23 0.05 2 2 -2 3 0.05 Saturdays 0 -1 7 0.05 0 - 7 0.05 1 8 -2 3 1.00 8 - 2 3 1.00 Sundays 0 -2 3 0.05 0 - 8 0.05 9 - 18 1.00 9 - 2 3 0.05 Fig 4.1.2 The lighting schedule o f Bullock's store 34 The peak ambient lighting power use can be set to a variety of levels. For the fabric roofed analyses, it was set at 19.4 W/m2 (1.8 W/ft2 ) . This one value was used for all the fabric structure analyses, because by performing DOE-2.1A analyses, it was found that raising the ambient lighting power from 19.4 to 29.2 W/m2 (1.8 to 2.7 W/ft2 ), would raise the fabric roofed store's total energy use by only 3-3.4%. Ambient lighting power was, therefore, not considered an important variable in the annual energy budget of these daylighted structures. For conventional roofed commercial buildings, it is known that about half of the total energy consumption is due directly to ambient artificial lighting and, therefore, the calculated value of annual energy use is a strong function of the lighting power. Three values of lighting power were used in parametric analyses of the standard roofs: 19.4, 29.2 and 38.9 W/m 2 (1.8, 2.7 and 3.6 W/ft2 ), based on usage in conventionally roofed stores. 2 - Miscellaneous equipment: Miscellaneous equipment uses electrical power and also converts that power, over time, to waste heat in the building. The peak electrical power level chosen for equipment was 54 W/m 2 (.5 W/ft2 ). Schedules for miscellaneous equipment essentially followed the occupancy schedules with 100% use during the occupied hours and 10% use during the unoccupied periods, for both fabric and conventionally roofed stores. 3.- Occupancy: The peak occupancy of 500 people in the 1394 m2 (15,000 ft2 ) space was set. 35 II.-HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR CONDITIONING Constant air volume unitary packaged air conditioners, with electric resistance heaters (roof-top units) were used. HVAC system could have a significant impact on the total energy use in fabric roofed space. 1.-Fan operation: Outside ventilation air was set at 3.3 1/s per person (7cfm per person). The supply air fan selected was assigned a value of 498 Pa ( 2.0 inches of water) static pressure and an efficiency of 66%. The former value was determined to be adequate for the short duct system that would be tied into the roof-top HVAC unit. 2.-Temperature schedules and set points: A "proportional" thermostat type was assigned. For those times when cooling and heating is required *the supply air heating temperature was set at 51.7° C ( 125.0° F) *the supply air cooling temperature was set at 14.1° C (58.0° F) For heating seasons *20.0° C (68.0° F) during occupied periods *12.8 ° C (55.0° F) during unoccupied periods For cooling seasons *25.6 ° C (78.0 ° F) during occupied periods *32.2 ° C (90.0° F) during unoccupied periods. The thermostat sensed only room air temperature and did not sense a mean radiant temperature (MRT). 36 III.-BUILDING ENVELOPE: The fabric roof was assigned thermal properties that were computed by treating the roof as a large translucent window. Heat flow through the roof was calculated in DOE2.1A Q/A = SC (SHGF) + U-value (Ti - To ) where Q/A = the net heat flow per unit area, SC =the shading coefficient of the fabric roof, SHGF = the solar heat gain factor, U-value = the thermal conductance of the fabric roof including the inside air film coefficient, To = outside air temperature, and Ti = indoor air temperature. The Fig 4.1.4 shows the solar-optical properties and thermal properties for both a single- and a double-layer fabric roof. T (%) R (%) Ab (%) U - value Heat Cool SC Heat Cool Single layer 9 73 18 6.82 4.60 0.14 0.15 (1.20) (0.81) Double layer 4 74 22 3.07 2.56 0.07 0.07 (0.54) (0.45) T, R and Ab refer to the optical transmittance, reflectance and absorptance. (U-values are in units o f W/m2 0 C with those in parentheses in units o f Btu/hr ft2 0 F). Fig 4.1.4 Solar-optical and thermal properties used in DOE2 analysis The walls were ignored in the thermal analysis. The reason for doing this was that in the actual retail store and mall application, the fabric covered areas are adjoined by areas covered with conventional roofs. This is actually the case in the fabric covered stores that have been built. Therefore, as there are no thermal gradients between these zones, there are no net thermal loads across the sidewalls. 37 Since the floor in the fabric covered portion of the store is on upper floor, it was considered accurate to model the floor as one with a low thermal conductance. For natural infiltration, 0.04 air changes per hour was used as an input. The following table (Fig 4.1.5) presents the results of comparative annual energy analyses for retail stores in nineteen different cities expressed as energy budgets in (MJ/m2 yr.)-(kBTU/ft2 yr.) City HDDs 18.3° C 65° F Single-layer fabric roof Double-layer fabric roof Conventional roof with a l.p. use f electric), W/m2 fW.ft2 ) 19.4-1.8 29.1-2.7 38.6-3.6 Albuquerque 2416 4348 1117 98 764 67 661-58 866-76 1083-95 Atlanta 1645 2961 958 84 685 61 730-64 958-84 1147-103 Boston 3130 5634 1391 122 935 82 650-57 821-72 1020-90 Chicago 3688 6639 1448 127 980 86 661-58 844-74 1049-92 Cincinnati 2450 4410 1311 115 901 79 695-61 889-78 1106-97 Fort Worth 1336 2405 1060 93 775 68 787-69 1015-89 1243-109 Houston 776 1396 935 82 718 63 832-73 1072-94 1311-115 Kansas City 2617 4711 1391 122 969 85 741-65 9 3 5 -8 2 1140-100 Los Angeles 1120 2061 490 43 399 35 604-53 821-72 1037-91 Memphis 1796 3232 1117 98 809 71 775-68 992-87 1220-107 New Orleans 769 1385 923 81 718 63 809-71 1037-91 1265-111 New York 2899 5219 1220 107 821 72 661-58 855-75 1060-93 Phoenix. 981 1765 1129 99 832 73 855-75 1083-95 1322-116 Portland, OR 2575 4635 1163 102 764 67 581-51 775-68 980-86 Salt Lake City 3362 6052 1516 133 1015 89 673-59 855-75 1060-93 San Jose 1667 3000 684 60 513 45 627-55 844-74 1049-92 Seattle 2458 4424 1197 105 764 67 559-49 752-66 940-83 Tampa 379 683 889 78 730 64 889-78 1140-100 1379-121 Washington, DC 2347 4224 1208 106 844 74 718-63 923-81 1140-100 Fig 4.1.5 The result o f comparative annual energy analysis in different cities For a more in-depth understanding of this research, which has a very similar technical approach as this thesis, can be obrained by studying Figs.4.16 -4.1.7. In these bar charts, double-layer fabric roofed stores are compared to conventionally roofed stores for (a) Los Angeles, (b) Atlanta, and (c) Chicago. On these bar charts, which break 38 down annual electrical energy use, "HEAT" refers to heating energy from electric resistance, "COOL" refers to the electrical energy use for cooling, "FANS" refers to an electrical energy for fans, and "LIGHTS" to energy used for artificial illumination, and "MISC.", "EQUIP." to energy used for operating miscellaneous equipment. The number at the top of each bar graph refers to the total computed energy use. All values of energy are in units of gigajoules, GJ. In climatic areas where the total energy requirements for space heating are not high ( generally, where there are less than about 1667 HDDs), the fabric structures appear to be at least as energy efficient as the conventionally roofed stores. I B S * ^ » » • * O V 1 5 * 0 3 l4 ,° l » * ° lK * •OS' b o o joe i o » » » » 409 f* 0 IS O T o ta l: 577 •leat: 73 F-~~ Cool: n Fans: 165 lig h t s : 165 Misc. Equip. 151 19.4 H/Sfl.M TolTlTsH T Cool: 114 L ig h ts: 490 M l ic . lo«1p. 151 l ig h t s : 734 M ist. Equip. 151 38.8 V/Sq.M T oU T: ItHE T otaT 1178 Cool: 147 Fans: 97 Cool: 178 Fans: 113 L ig h ts: 979 M isc. Equip. 151 Oouble-Layer F abric Hoof Fig. f L o t Angelo*: Energy comparison conventional structure. Conventional F la t In su la te d Roof of tw o different constructions with different limiting power uses on the Fig 4.1.6 Energy comparison o f two different constructions in Los Angeles 39 K (» »7»a- ■ i« 8 0 - 1 M « 1400 1300- _ 13*0 3 1300 - | iooo- - >. *oo £ 3 0 0 “ 700- •oo- 500" •00- 300- 700 l o o - 38.8 W/Sq.H To t t l : K l l 39.1 H/Sa.H Total7 1318 j Heat: 31S Cool: 276 Fans: 84 Cool: 237 Fans: 108 Lights: 490 Lights: 165 Hlsc. Equip. . H1sc. Equip. 151 Cool: 325 Fans: 100 lig h ts: 734 Hi sc. Equip. 151 Foils: 115 Lights: 979 HI sc. Equip. 1S1 Double-Layer Fabric Roof A tla n ta : E n ergy c o m p a n io n c o n v en tio n a l stru c tu re . 1000- 1700- - l O O O - ■ T otal: 1460 { Heat: 893 1400 1300 _ 120* 2 llOO" ^ iooo- >. 900- I uo *** 784 • 00- 500- 400- Conventlonal F lat Insulated Roof o f tw o d iffe re n t co n stru c tio n s w ith d iffe re n t lig h tin g p o w e r 38.8 M/So.H T o T a ls T /3 1 Neat: 19 H 19.4 W/So.l T o tal" 7 H j--Krat: 5517 Cool: 135 F arts: 83 Cool.- 134 Fans: 118 Lights: 165 Hlsc. Equip. 1S1 Lights: 490 Mfsc. Equip. 151 29.1 W/Sq.M Total:TTfe4 Cool: 161 Fan*:- 98 11ghlST 734 Hlsc. Equip. 151 Cool: 189 Fans: 114 Lights: 979 HI sc . Equip. 151 Doub1e-L tyer Fabric Roof C h ic a g o : E n ergy c o m p a riso n co n v e n tio n a l s tru c tu re . Conventional Flat Insulated Roof o f tw o d iffe re n t c o n stru c tio n s w ith d iffe re n t lighting p o w e r use: on the. on the Fig 4.1.7 Energy comparison o f two different constructions in (a) Atlanta (b) Chicago 40 IV.- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Overall, the following conclusions can be made for retail stores in comparing a fabric roof to a conventional roof: (1) In warm climate areas such as Los Angeles and Tampa, single-layer fabric roofed stores appear to be more energy efficient than conventional roofed stores. (2) In cold climate cities such as Kansas of Chicago, double-layer fabric roofed stores are projected to consume about the same amount of energy as the conventional roofed stores with 29.2-38.9 W/m2 of lighting power. (3) In other relatively warm cities, such as Atlanta, Fort worth, and San Jose, double layer fabric structures and conventional structures, with 19.4 W/m2 of lighting power, user approximately the same amount of electrical energy. The DOE2.1A results suggest that fabric structures will consume less energy than conventional structures with 29.2 and 38.9 W/m2 respectively of electric power for lighting. It is expected that this is generally the case in locations characterized by fewer than about 1667 HDDs (base 18°C). (4) In the annual energy analysis of a conventional structure, the unput value of lighting power has a strong effect on the calculated energy use for the building. (5) In all climatic areas analyzed, the use of a double-layer fabric, as opposed to a single-layer fabric, results in lower energy use. It is recommended that energy analyses such as these be performed on fabric roofed stores with translucent insulation attched to the underside of the fabric. It would 41 indicate that fabric structures can be even more energy efficient, particularly in cold climate areas. The fabric roof, in combination with translucent insulation, could provide good thermal performance while simultaneously allowing for daylighting of the covered space.2 2 - ("The Use of DOE-2.1A to Determine the Relative Energy Performance of Davlighted Retail Stores Covered with Tension Supported Fabric Roofs1 1 Energy and Buildings, Vol # 6 (1984), Pp 343 - 352, Elsivier Sequoia a Lausanne, Switzerland by G. Hart, R. Blancett and K. Charter). 42 4 2 ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF FABRIC ROOF STRUCTURES This research is very useful and interesting since it tests the same building as in the prior example, Bullock's Department store with the same structural input, the same mechanical, electrical and other building components, but uses different scientific approach. The research is done in the University of Michigan, March 1981, sponsored by Owens / Corning Fiberglas Corporation, Ohio. Research Methods and Data: The key to the approach was one of iterative development of computer models, working between two climates ( the tension structure of Bullock's , San Jose, CA [ which alone is studied in this research ] , and the inflated fabric roof structure of the Unidome, Cedar Falls, Waterloo, IA), two building roof situations and two operating sets of idiosyncrasies. First checks were obtained with one-on-one comparisons with the results from field monitoring. The second was obtained by comparing simulation data and daily energy usages along with annual consumption. The computer program was identified as the 1980 BCSI Series. mini a u d it + 7 MONTH UTILITY/ USER DATA SITE DATA RECORO 22 DAY SITE BATA RECORD • DAY UNIDOME- MONITORING DATA CHECK HM minM nmnimnmii MINI AUDIT + SITE O A T H SITE DAD 7 MONTH UTILITY RECORO RECORD D USER DATA IB DAY 4 DAY BULLOCKS - MORNITORING DATA CHECK " GUARDED" EQUATORIAL- HOT BOX TESTS MOUNT ROOF TEST BTL LABORATORY T E ST S MECH. SYSTEM OPERATION PRESSURIZED M.M- STRATIFICATION NATURAL LIQHT TP AN3 +• OPAQUE HEAT TRANSFER (SPECIAL MOOED 1 9 0 0 B S C I COMPUTER MODEL ENERGY PERFORMANCE ♦ BLDO- DATA SYSTEM DATA OPERATION DATA USER DATA CLIMATE DATA (12-4 DAY GROUPS) SIMULATION Fig 4.2.1 Research method diagram. The Monitoring Equipment: The data acquisition system that was used consisted of a Micromux (Burr Brown Research Corporation) Receiver and transmitters interfaced with a mini-computer. Signals are transmitted from the 16 channel transmitter via a pair of twisted wive. The mini-computer provides a clock, disk storage and the capability of programming, including the interpretation of digital values into engineering units. The 60 point Doric (Doric Scientific, Division of Emerson Electric) data logger and Kennedy magnetic tape deck were used in all of the field monitoring. A concept of moveable sensors was used in the last cycle to probe the surface temperatures and heat transfer characteristics of the fabric skin. The "MOE" consisted of a total solar pyrometer, a light meter, hot wire anemometer for surface wind velocity, a iron-constanntan thermocouple and is some cases a heat flow meter. SENSOR NUMBER LOCATION TYPE ENG. UNIT SENSOR NUMBER LOCATION TYPE ENG.UNIT 28 Unit #7 return air Temp. Deg. F. 1 Total radiation, roof deck Rad. BTU/Sq.Ft. 29 Unit #7 mixing air Temp. Deg. F, 2 Wind speed, roof deck Wind MPH 30 Unit #7 supply air Temp. Deg. F. 3 Wind direction, roof deck Wind Deg. Bearing 31 S. Supply entering dome Temp. Deg. F. 4 Outside air, roof deck Temp. Deg. F. 32 S return from dome Temp. Deg. F. 5 Stratification, Top at dome Temp. Deg. F. 33 Unit # 11 return air Temp. Deg. F. 6 Stratific. 7' down at dome Temp. Deg. F. 34 Unit # 11 mixing air Temp. Deg. F. 7 Stratific. 14' down at dome Temp. Deg. F. 35 Unit #5 return air Temp. Deg. F 8 Stratific. unistrat H at dome Temp. Deg. F. 36 Unit #5 mixing air Temp. Deg. F. 9 Stratific. top of escalator Temp. Deg. F. 37 Unit #5 supply air Temp. Deg. F. 10 Stratific. mid. o f escalator Temp. Deg. F. 38 S. double skin, Unistrut Light Ft. Cand. 11 N. smgle skin surface Temp. Deg. F. 39 N. double skin, Unistrut Light Ft. Cand. 12 N. single skin air film Temp. Deg. F. 40 S. double skin, Unistrut Light Ft Cand. 13 N. inside upper skin Temp. Deg. F. 41 Out light meter, roof deck Light Ft, Cand. 14 N. inside between skin Temp. Deg. F. 101 N. outside double skin Temp. Deg. F. 15 N. inside lower skin Temp. Deg. F. 102 N. outside double, skin Temp. Deg. F. 16 S. smgle skin surface Temp. Deg. F 103 Wind speed at air film Wind F.P.M. 17 S. single skin airfihn Temp. Deg. F. 104 E. outside double skin Temp. Deg. F. 18 S. inside upper skin Temp. Deg. F. 105 S. outside double skin Temp. Deg. F. 19 S. inside between skin Temp. Deg. F. 106 S. outside single skin Temp. Deg. F. 20 S. inside lower skin Temp. Deg. F. 107 Top outside double skin Temp. Deg. F. 21 E. inside lower skin Temp. Deg. F. 108 O.A. temperature Temp. Deg. F. 22 W. inside lower skin Temp. Deg. F. 109 Outside skin temp./mov unit Temp. Deg. F. 23 N. supply entering dome Temp. Deg. F. 110 Radiation/mov unit Rad. Deg. F. 24 N. return from deme Temp. Deg. F. 111 Heat flow/mov unit Energy Btu/Sq.Ft. 25 Unit ft 10 return air Temp Deg. F. 26 Unit #10 mixing air Temp. Deg. F Fig 4.2.2 Sensors & their locations placed in Bullock's store. 44 The Output: 1 - The Energy Distribution: in both total building and fabric roofed area ( dome area) during December and May are shown in Figs 4.2.3 - 4.2.4. DECEMBER PERIOD OUTD O O R TCMP. 9 M *F in terio r temr M O R . R AOW nOW 6»7 •TU/^T/OAT AWH/i.OOO SR'OAY TOT. a io o . ; 2 3 . 4 32) OCCUPIEO PERIO D TOT. BLOO. ; 2 .8 UNOCCUPIED PERO O £S% EMERGENCY USHTINO KWH/I.OOOSE/DAY KWH/|,OOOSF/t)AY OOMC AREA : 3 2 4 O- KW H/I.ooosr/DA OCCUPIED PERIOO D O M E ME* r 1 .0 4 UNOCCUPIED PERIOD Fig 4.2.3 Energy distribution during December. MAY P E R IO O i OUTDOOR T EM R . INOOOR TCM P. G I .5 T 7 4 . y r HOR RADIATION. 2 3 0 4 ®TU/dF/DAY f 37 0 V . | FAN/COOLING f 55.8 % LIGH TIN G I cleaning 372 \ J J 5 4 2 ' X f y E M E R G EN C Y 7.8% LIGHTING OTHERS \ T \oTMElwr T01. BUJG ‘ 2 7 .3 *WH/<jOO0SA/0Ay OCCUPIED PERIOD TOT BLOO. : 2 .9 KWH/^OOOSf/OAl U NO CCUPCD PERIOD / task X LKJHT'8 / 11.7% / S.S Vs. A 5 C N . L*C W TTk 78.8 * % j too v» \ 2 J C LEA N IN G O N L Y \ FAN/COOLING j D OM E AREA : 3 0 4 D O M E A R E A * 1 .0 7 MtW&CO&StWf OCCUPIED PERIO D U N O CC U PltD PERIOD Fig 4.2.4 Energy distribution during May. 45 2 -Natural Lighting Performance: The computer model projections indicate that natural light provided 54% of general illumination in December and 90% in June. The high reflectivity of white Teflon coated fiberglass results in a coefficient utilization of 0.71% for the dome area. Fig 4.2.5 Heat transfer concepts. Fig 4.2.6 The illumination level in the Dome. • BY. 1 0 0 % U P PE R SKIN I O W C R S K IM UGHT LOW N M M AM Fig 4.2.7 The stratification in the Dome. 3.- Stratification: This issue is not only related to the heat transfer of the fabric but to the building and mechanical system design as well as the latter's operation. The concepts are depicted in Fig (4.2.7). Recorded temperature variations are noted in Figs (4.2.8-4.2.9). Very little stratification occurs in December while significant differences were noted in May. The difference might be due in part to the solar-climatic conditions as well as to possible differences in fan operation. 46 Fig 4.2.8 Temp variation on Dec 1979; clear day Fig 4.2.9 Temp variation on M ay 1979; clear day Results: A comparison on the monthly electrical consumption for the current year 1979-80 and the previous year are graphed in Fig 4.2.10. H r Is JMi. A rt ic * O f * N O V 0T0 JAN M l M AR APR M A Y W Fig 4.2.10 Comparison o f electrical consumption. ^ 47 The equivalent weighted values were obtained by applying a factor of 3.08 to the electrical consumption. The monthly values are compared in Fig (4.2.11) with the model prediction. A comparison of the temperatures and energy usage indicates a logical relationship, in September, 1980 energy usage in higher whereas in the heating months where 1980 temperatures are higher the energy usage is lower. A comparison of the fan KWH/day for the Nov-Feb period, indicates a range of accumulated fan electrical energy of 348 KWH/day to 1683 with average of 1048. The reduction from 12.1 to 10.6 KWH/sq ft from 78-79 to 79-80 is a significant factor. MONTH 1978-79 AVE.DEG.F. KWH/DAY 1979-80 AVE. DEG.F. KWH/DAY ALTERNATE MODEL KWH/DAY DOME% JULY - 69.9 5150 (4142) (10) AUGUST - 68.1 4940 4606 (10) SEPT. 69.5 4890 73.7 5170 4606 10.8 OCT. 5.2 6940 67.5 (5550) 4048 11.8 NOV. 53.2 6820 58.6 4120 3799 15.2 DEC. 45.8 5700 54.6 3950 3932 17.4 JAN 48.8 4870 55.2 3440 3666 13.9 FEB 56.2 4610 58.7 3480 4262 13.9 MAR 55 3980 57.4 3540 4265 14.0 APR. - 4160 61 1 4237 4237 13.4 MAY - 4420 62.7 3962 3962 10.2 JUNE 67.3 4870 67.1 (4870) 4142 10.7 Fig 4.2.11 Comparison on the annual fa n ’ s electrical energy consumption. Conclusion: 1.- Fabric roofs are dynamic thermal luminous components: a) as in case of any translucent skylight "U" value comparison is meaningless, the emphasis should be placed on the annual energy performance. b) the fabric roof may be quite responsive to changes in solar-climatic conditions, the design data must be micro-oriented, reflect actual conditions at the site or immediate region. 48 c) the fabric roof has assets and liabilities which if ignored can be an energy liability, but if managed properly can be an energy benefit. 2.- Natural lighting: Daylighting performance of fabric roof is clearly an energy asset. 3.- Single vs double skin: Observations on this issue are related to be specific properties of each of the skins and their configurations. There is no doubt the light transmission must be controlled. From a thermal heat loss standpoint the double skin is clearly an advantage.3 The results obtained from the computer program 1 9 8 0 B C S I series and the f i e l d m o n i t o r i n g , regarding the Bullock's Department store in San Jose, showed a 4.95% difference in total average annual energy consumption. The insignificance of this figure (4.95%) proves a high accuracy level of the computer program B C S I series. While simulating the same building using the D O E - 2 . l . A computer program the outputs registered an average of 7.76% decrease comparing with the results obtained from field monitoring . .Driven from these observations we can conclude that the D O E - 2 . 1 . A has sufficient a c c u r a c y f a c t o r too. 3.- ("Energy Performance of Fabric Roof Structures". Architectural Research Laboratory College of Architecture and Urban Planning, March 1981, Michigan). 49 CHAPTER V 5.1 OBSTACLES From my research experience I have noted that there aren't significant numbers of experiments or analysis made on fabric roofs to answer a]] the questions regarding fabric's behavior in energy related issues and daylighting control systems. Even the performed experiments are done on an already designed and built examples which does not have design flexibilities of replacing chances. 5.2 HYPOTHESIS A fabric structure's energy and daylighting behavior is strongly related to the site's weather data, the shape, the shape of the structure, its skin design, the orientation of its surfaces, the openings' design, and their azimuths, to the building's different schedules. The control of fabric's performance can best be assured by exploring the knowledge of the best suitable choices and their relationships. 5.3 GOALS Present criteria for architects' and engineers' use, as design guideline tips. 50 POSSIBLE VARIABLES AND SOLUTIONS 51 CHAPTER VI 6.1 METHODOLOGY The approach of this study is to use computer program DOE2 to compute and compare the annual building energy consumption, perfomance of the daylight and illumination levels in the space. All three chosen shapes (saddle shape, arch supported, wave shape) have identical space layouts, schedules, and occupancy. t I F i g 6 . 1 . 1 T h e s h a p e s o f t e n s i l e s t r u c t u r e s u s e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h . Description of the input information to DOE2 is the following. 1.- Location and Weather Data: The site is Aleppo, Syria. Aleppo's latitude is 37.1° North of the Equator, the longitude is 36 .12° East of the Greenwich Meridian, and the altitude of the city is 3482 feet. The weather data used is obtained from the National Public Library in Aleppo, such as the atmospheric moisture, atmospheric turbidity, clearness, cloud amount and type, wind 52 speed and direction throughout the year... There isn't a weather file written specifically for Aleppo, therefore the weather data used in analysis was Phoenix's weather file (the closest to the actual site's data). Since DOE2 doesn't read double curved surfaces, so for each shape a simplified model with flat surfaces is used to represent the fabric roof, carefully maintaining the total area of the original roof. 0 N F i g 6 . 1 . 2 S i m p l i f i e d m o d e l s u s e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h . 2.- Internal Loads: The internal heat is mainly generated by artificial lighting, people (occupancy) and equipment. a) Lighting: There are two different schedules (summer and winter schedules) representing the ambient lights in the computer analyses of the fabric tensile roof for weekdays, Fridays, Saturdays, Sundays, and Holidays respectively. It is set so that the summer schedule will be in process from March 21 through October 21, and the winter schedule will be in process from October 22 through March 22 of the year. It is also 53 assumed that normal operation requires 100% of the peak ambient lighting with 10-20% left on at unoccupied periods of the night for safety and cleaning purposes. H ours o f day Fraction o f lij W eekdays 1 - 5 0.1 6 - 19 1.0 2 0 - 2 4 0.1 Fridays 1 - 6 0.1 7 - 15 1.0 16 - 24 0.1 Saturdays 1 - 6 0.1 7 - 17 1.0 1 8 -2 4 0.1 Sundays 1 - 10 0.1 11 - 15 1.0 16 - 24 0.1 F i g 6 . 1 . 3 S u m m e r l i g h t i n g s c h e d u l e u s e d f o r a l l c a s e s a n d s h a p e s H ours o f day Fraction o f lig W eekdays 1 - 7 0.2 8 - 19 1.0 2 0 - 2 4 0.2 Fridays 1 - 9 0.2 1 0 - 14 1.0 15 - 24 0.2 Saturdays 1 - 9 0.2 10 - 19 1.0 2 0 - 2 4 0.2 Sundays 1 - 10 0.2 11 - 15 1.0 16-24 0.2 Fig 6.1.4 Winter lighting schedule used fo r all cases and shapes. 54 The peak ambient lighting power is set at 1.5 W/ft2. The lighting type used was suspended-fluorescent type. b) Equipment: To avoid the unnecessary heat in the building from the electrical power used by the equipment, the equipment schedule follows the occupancy and lighting schedules with 100% use during the occupied and 10-20% during unoccupied periods respectively. c) Occupancy: The peak occupancy is 600 people in 10,000 ft2 space and 404,000 - 413,000 ft3 volume is set for all cases. The occupancy schedule is similar to the lighting schedule. People heating latent value is set at 270 BTU/hr/person and people heating sensible load is set at 180 BTU/hr/person. 3.- Building Envelope: The fabric roof is represented by a large translucent window to be computed in DOE2. The cases have single layer, double layer, double layer with 7 inch thick insulation material stapled to the fabric's top layer. The cases cover open and closed structures, and some of them have openings on the roof of different zones, but all these cases are studied at different azimuth angles such as 0°, 45°, 90°, 180°, 270°. Heat flow through the roof is calculated in the program as Q/A = SC(SHGF) + U-Value (Ti-To) Where : Q/A = net heat flow per unit area, SC = the shading coefficient of the fabric roof, SHGF = the solar heat gain factor, U-Value- thermal conductance for he fabric roof including the inside air film coefficient, To= outside air temperature, Ti = indoor air temperature. The following table lists the different solar optical properties and 55 thermal properties used in different cases and all three shapes. Glass Type T R Conductance U-value Vis-Trans Code % % BTU/hr/ft2 -F° % Single Layer 11 10 50 1.47 1.02 1.14 30 Double Layer 11 9 51 0.311 .285 .293 30 Opening 1 88 7 1.47 1.02 1.14 99 Double with Insulation 11 9 50 0.1428 .285 .293 0.07 F i g 6 . 1 . 5 S o l a r - o p t i c a l a n d t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s u s e d f o r a l l s h a p e s a n d c a s e s . The exterior walls are included in thermal analysis (except in open structure cases), but the interior walls are ignored (U-Value = 1.0 ). The actual building is a public market place, it is one open place, and one zone. The interior walls are created defining the zone division lines, which helps to input the simplified model to be read by the computer program. Therefore, there are no thermal gradients or thermal loads between these zones. The floor is modeled as a low thermal conductance U = 0.05. For natural infiltration "crack-method" is used, with a value of 5 air changes per hour. 56 DAYLIGHTING ILLUM INATION LEVELS CHAPTER VII 7.1 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE The saddle shape is composed of 5 zones. The study of daylighting illumination behavior is divided into 4 cases. a) Case # 1: represents the study of hourly daylighting / illumination levels in the zones separately and in the building as a whole using azimuth angels 0°, 45°, 90° respectively as the structure's orientations. F i g 7 . 1 . 1 S k e t c h o f t h e s a d d l e s h a p e / C a s e # 1 . ZONE V 4 ZONE V 7 ZONE ff 5 ZONE ff 3 1 ZONEffl N © The curve of the average hourly year illumination levels' of each orientation shows that the structure is exposed to more daylight when the azimuth angle is 0° and reaches the peak value (1288.11 fc) at 14 o'clock. Whereas the azimuth 45°'s test records a peak illumination of (1156.32 fc) at the same time. The 90° azimuth records a more smooth curve through the hours of the day, registering a peak point (841.01 fc) at 13 o'clock. 57 AVERAGE HOURLY YEAR ILLUMINATION O F S A D D L E S H A P E T E N S IL E S T R U C T U R E 3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 F i g 7 . 1 . 2 A v e r a g e h o u r l y y e a r i l l u m i n a t i o n o f s a d d l e s h a p e . The average hourly winter and summer illumination charts determine the most critical seasonal distribution of the light. The summer values for all the azimuths have a parallel curve decreasing from 2 to 5% (1928.53, 1883.91, 1776.49 fc ) for Az = 0° , Az= 45° , Az = 90° respectively (Fig 7.1.3). The average hourly winter graph shows a swing in the peak value and time. Azimuth 0° records a peak of (368.33 fc) at 13 o'clock, while azimuth 45° 's peak point is represented by 15 o'clock's (301.48 fc) value. 90° azimuth's test shows 2 peak points, the first is at 12 p.m. (246.4 fc), and the second records a value of 299.62 fc at 15 p.m. (Fig 7.1.4). The latest position allows the largest entry of daylight through the winter season when it is needed most, and less daylight during the summer's hot season, as it mirrors in the F i g . 7 . 4 A v e r a g e 1(T ^ Hourly ^ ter(DeC" • Jan- Feb.) 59 b) Case # 2 studies represent the daylighting illumination levels, when an opening , which has an area of 256 ft2 , is placed on zone # 2's roof, that occur on azimuth 0°, 90°, 180° , 270° respectively. F i g 7 . 1 .5 S k e t c h o f s a d d l e s h a p e / C a s e # 2 . / / / \ z o n e A / A A L zone # 5 zone tf 3 / / / / zone It 1 \ / N e The results from DOE2 analyses show that when azimuth of the building is 0°, the opening faces east, there is a small increase of 3-27% in illumination level in zone # 2 throughout the year, except in summer there is a huge increase at 11-13 o'clock that ranges between 135-285 % more daylight, which will make zone # 2 a very uncomfortable space (Fig 7.1.6 ). When the azimuth shifts to 90^ the opening faces north. This change allows an average of 25 % increase of daylight in the area, except again in the summer where it records a 200% increase at noon (Fig 7.1.7) . The 180° azimuth projects the opening to the west, which doesn't make much of a difference in the zone except in the summer, where it registers a 100 - 175 % higher illumination level at 14 - 15 o'clock than in the base case (Fig 7.1.8) . The south oriented opening accompanies the azimuth of 270°. All illumination level's difference is so small that they could be ignored (Fig 7.1.9). SADDLE SHA PE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONES2 I EAST WINDOW O 2000 1750 1250 1 000 750 500 250 0 HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE-2 / EAST W INDOW 2500 - - 2250 - - O 2000 - - P 3 1750 — e --- p 1000 ------ | 750 - 1 - < 500 - - 250 ------- HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE 2 7 5 0 — 2500 - - 2 250 - - 1750 - - E W I N 1250 - - 500 - - 250 - - F ig 7.1.6 SADDLE SH A PE /A ZIM U TH = 0 /Z O N E = 2 /E A S T OPENING SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=2 / NORTH WINDOW 2750 -- qJ 2500 -- ^ 2250 O 2000 -- I- < z 1750 -- 1500 -- -I O z P O 5 a 1000 - - 750 -- 500 — 250 — HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER /ZONE=2 I NORTH WINDOW 3000 2750 -- 2500 -- 2250 -- 2000 1750 - - 1500 - - 1250 - - 1000 - - 750 500 250 11 1^ 13 14 15 16 17 1 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=2 / NORTH WINDOW 3000 2250 -- 2000 — 1750 -- 1000 - - 750 -- 250 -- Fig 7.1.7 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIMUTH = 9 0 /Z O N E =2 / NORTH OPENING SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE/ ZONE=2 / WEST WINDOW 2500 5 2250 z O 2000 < z 1250 O z P 1000 X 2 750 HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER/ ZONE*2 / WEST WINDOW 3000 2750 -- 2500 -- 2000 — 500 — SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER/ ZONE=2 / WEST WINDOW 2750 2500 2250 1750 500 250 Fig 7.1.8 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIMUTH - 180 /Z O N E = 2 / WEST OPENING SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / Z0NE=2 / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 2750 2500 i 2250 § 2000 P g 1750 -J 0 1 zou 2 P 1000 s 3 750 P 2 500 HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE»2 / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 t 2250 - - 0 2 0 0 0 - - P 2 1750 - - 1 1500 - - w izou - - P 1000 - - X 0 £j 750 -- < Q HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER /ZON E=2/ SOUTH WINDOW 3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 - - 1750 - - 1500 - - 1250 1000 - - 750 500 250 -- 1 > ^ t il ill ll lH 1 * 5 1^ l i ife 1^ A 1^ Fig 7.1.9 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIMUTH = 2 7 0 /Z O N E = 2 / SOUTH OPENING 64 c) Case # 3 tests a very similar situation to case # 2, except the opening is placed on zone # 4's roof. F i g 7 . 1 . 1 0 S k e t c h o f s a d d l e s h a p e / C a s e # 3 . zone # 4 zone # 2 zone V 5 zone t 3 zone ft 1 © Azimuth 0° of the building gives the opening north orientation. Worth mentioning is that the daylight increase (75 - 150 %) is in the summer at 13 - 14 o'clock (Fig 7.1.10) The east opening ( azimuth - 90° ) increases the peak value up to 162 % of the already very high illumination level creating a very glary spot at noon (Fig 7.1.11). A south opening (azimuth =180° ) increases the day lighting level in the zone up to 20 to 35 % uniformly throughout the year (Fig 7.1.12). In the last test the input was 270° for the azimuth, and a west facing opening recording pretty uniform 20 % increase, except in summer at 14 - 15 o'clock, when the daylight level increases up to 70 - 110 % of the original "no window" or "no opening" case ( Fig 7.1.13). SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE I ZONE*4 / NORTH WINDOW 3000 2750 2500 2250 1750 1500 1250 750 500 250 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=4 I NORTH WINDOW 3000 2750 -- 2500 - - 2250 - - 1750 — 1500 — 1250 - - 750 - - 500 ------ 250 - - SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE =4 / NORTH WINDOW 2500 1750 1500 1250 750 500 i k it i * Fig 7.1.11 SADDLE SHAPE /AZIM U TH = 0 / ZONE = 4 / NORTH OPENING SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE*4 / EAST WINDOW 2750 2500 2250 NO WIN 1750 E W IN 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONEM I EAST WINDOW O 2000 3 1750 -- 1000 - - 500 - - 6 i t 12 13 14 ife 16 17 18 1 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=4 i EAST WINDOW 3000 2750 - - d 2500 - 5 2250 - - 0 2000 - - P | 1750 -- 1 1500 - 0 z p 1 < 1000 -- 750 — 3 500 - - HOURS Fig 7.1.12 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIMUTH = 90 / ZONE = 4 / EAST OPENING SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE/ZONE=4 / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 ui a _i 2 2 5 0 0 2000 t — 5 1 7 5 0 1 1 5 0 0 3 - * 1000 I 7 5 0 g 5 0 0 2 5 0 HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=J / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 2750 - - i _j 2250 - - O 2 0 0 0 - - « = T 2 1750 - - 1250 O z F 1000 - - 5 p 750 g 500 - - 250 - - HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=4 / SOUTH WINDOW O 2000 5 1500 F 1000 2 500 ib il it it 1V it it it it it Fig 7.1.13 SADDLE S H A P E /A Z IM U T H = 1 8 0 /Z O N E = 4 /S O U T H OPENING SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=4/ WEST WINDOW 6 0 0 0 5500 4500 4000 3500 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONEM/ WEST WINDOW 3000 2750 2500 - - t _i O 2000 - - P 5 1750 - - § 1500 - - (5 z £ o < 1000 — 750 - - 3 500 - - HOURS 4 8 t w w in SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONEM/ WEST WINDOW 3000 2750 - - J 2500 - - O 2000 - - 3 1750 3 1500 - - » 1250 — P 1000 - - 750 - - 500 - - HOURS Fig 7.1.14 SADDLE SH APE / AZIM UTH = 2 7 0 / ZONE = 4 / WEST OPENING 69 d) Case # 4 assumes that the structure is an open building. By terminating the exterior walls (Area = 2600 ft2 ) and comparing the output with the enclosed case, we clearly can see the impact of each exterior wall and find the best location of a window. When the azimuth of the structure is Cf, the best way to increase the daylight in the building during the winter, which will reduce the heating and artificial lighting loads, is to open window on the south-eastern wall of zones #3,1, and so on the south-western wall of zone # 1 . The zones # 2, 4 are protecting the interior from very high and direct sunshine during the summer season. The zone # 5 is not effected because it's a completely internal zone (Figs 7.1.15 - 7.1.18). The azimuth 45°'s test records that the most appropriate walls to have openings, and to improve the winter's conditions, are the north facing wall of zone # 4 and # 3. These should be designed with horizontal overhangs to protect the building from high summer direct solar beams. Another good window location would be the southern facade of the zone # 1. The remaining exterior walls such as the south wall of zone # 4, and the west wall of zones # 2, and # 4, help to create a comfortable, shady space by preventing the direct sun entry to the interior, especially during hot summer months (Figs 7.1.19 -7.1.22). An azimuth of 9Cf for the building makes the north-eastern, south-eastern walls of zone # 1, and the south-eastern, south-western walls of zone # 2 very important for protecting the high and unbearable illumination values in the space. The openings in this case could be placed on the north-eastern, and north-western exterior walls of the zone # 3. An overhang will be helpful to prevent the summer's high sun angles. This info is illustrated on graphs (Figs 7.1.23 -7.1.26). SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=1 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 500 0 HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 — i O 4000 — P 5 3500 -- § 3000 -- _ i _J O z P 2000 -- x o ^ 1500 — g 1 0 0 0 — HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE 5500 -- 5000 - - 4500 - - 4000 -- 3000 -- 2500 ------ 500 — Fig 7.1.15 SADDLE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H - 0 / ZONE = 1 / O PE N STRUCTURE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE I ZONE=2 I CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 4500 3000 2500 1000 500 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 4500 -- 4000 -- 2500 2000 — 500 -- SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 — d 5 0 0 0 - - uj 4500 ------ O 4000 ------ F g 3500 ------ § 3000 ------ 2500 - - o z P 2000 X 0 5! < o 500 - - HOURS Fig 7.1.16 SADDLE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 0 / ZONE = 2 / O PEN STRUCTURE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JU N E / ZONE=3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5000 - - 4500 - - 4000 - - 3500 — 2500 500 - - SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER I ZONE=3 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 — 4500 — 0 4000 — F | 3500 — 1 3000 — O z F 2000 — X o £3 1500 - g 1 0 0 0 — HOURS SADDLE SH A PE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 jjj 5000 § 4500 O 4000 F g 3500 - - O 3000 % 2500 z F 2000 +- X o 1500 g 1 0 0 0 500 ------------------ 1 > - f t < j 5 f S i? il il il i t it it it it" Fig 1.1.17 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 3 / O PE N STRUCTURE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE /ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 3500 — 2500 - - 2000 - - SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 4 I CLOSED VS OPEN 000 500 0 HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEM BER/ ZONE9 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 4500 - 4000 - - 3500 - - OPEN 3000 - - 2500 - - 2000 - - 1500 — Fig 7.1.18 SAD D LE SH APE / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 4 / O PE N STR UCTURE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE I ZONE= 1 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6 0 0 0 5500 5000 O * 0 0 0 - - P § 3500 - - 5 2500 -- P 2000 -- X o g 1500 - - 2 1000 - - 500 - - HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER I ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 4500 3500 -- OPEN 3000 - - 2500 2 000 - - 500 -- SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 -- _j 5000 - 2 4500 - - O 4000 P f 3500 - - = 3000 - - -I ~ 2500 P 2000 5 1500 2 1000 HOURS Fig 1.1.19 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 45 / ZONE = 1 / O PEN STRU CTU RE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 4500 4000 2000 1500 500 0 HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN O 4000 3 3000 -- n 2500 1 = 2000 ^ 1500 g 1000 - - o ii it it it~~it is it SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER I ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 4500 - - 4000 -- 3500 - - 2500 -- 2 0 0 0 — 500 -- Fig 7.1.20 SADDLE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 45 /Z O N E = 2 / O P E N STRUCTURE C o b b b b b b b i i 0 q ' > 4 \ k > N • s - . o b b i i u > \ O b b b b b b n b S b b DAYLIGHT1NG ILLUMINATION LEVEL o “f c «nw3 3 I ' I ' 1 ' i w > o S D m i— o J Z m m p (fl 5 2 ? > N Tl o m m — | " m " z O W § m o ( / ) < H w 7J O C m O z H C * m DAYLIGHTING ILLUMINATION LEVEL ■ f t . jv 0 1 0 1 O ) I , o c 7 3 (/> > i/i O m o m m m 0 0 5 2 5 > N T) o m m H " m M 2 pP g m m W ) ° H SC So m DAYUGHT1NS ILLUMINATION LEVEL T - '« L c m m V ) P 2 o w o m -s i o > SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 4500 4000 3500 2000 1500 1000 500 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 - - t z o p 4500 - - 4000 § 3000 - - — l 2500 - - O z F 2000 $ s i 4 o 1 0 0 0 - - 500 - - HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER I ZONEs 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 O 4000 - - F g 3500 - - 1 3000 - - 5 2500 ------ z ~ 20 0 0 -------- ^ 1500 - - - g 1 0 0 0 ---- F I 500 - - HOURS Fig 7.1.22 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 45 / ZONE = 4 / O PE N STRUCTURE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE& 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 -- -j in 2 o 4 0 0 0 - - 3500 - - 3000 - - o z p 2 0 0 0 - - X 2 1500 -- 1000 __ o 500 - - HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 ------ 4500 -- 0 4000 -- P J 3500 -- 1 3000 -- _l “ 2500 - P 2000 -- x (5 ^ 1500 -- g 1 0 0 0 - 500 -- HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 t O 4000 P 5 3500 3 3000 2500 O z P 2000 z (9 ^ 1500 g 1000 500 HOURS Fig 7.1.23 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 90 /Z O N E =7 / O PE N STRUCTURE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 -I J 2500 - Z F 2000 — 5 £3 1500 - - g 1 0 0 0 500 — HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPEM BER / ZO N Es 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 -- 4500 -- z o < Z z -J -I 0 - - F 2 0 0 0 — z 2 1500 -- > < 1 0 0 0 - - HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN O 4000 F g 3500 - - -J -J 0 ^ 3 U U P 2000 — 5 £ 1500 - - g 1 0 0 0 ■ - HOURS Fig 7.1.24 SADDLE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H - 90 / ZONE = 2 / O PE N STRUCTURE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs 3 I CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 4500 3500 2500 2000 1500 500 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONEs 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 -] 5000 - 3 4500 - - 0 4000 - - P 5 3500 - - 1 3000 - - -J o z p I o s i < Q HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER I ZONEs 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 g 5°°° “ 4500 § 4000 P g 3500 - - 5 3000 - - _J ^ 2500 Z P 2000 2 1500 g 1000 500 0 F z g 7 . 7 . 2 5 SADDLE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 9 0 / ZONE = 3 / O PEN STRUCTURE SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE* 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 t z o p 2500 O z P 2000 ^ 1500 g 1 0 0 0 - -<4----- HOURS SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER I ZONE* 4 I CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 -- 5000 3000 2500 1500 ------ 1000 — SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE 6000 5500 5000 -- 4000 -- 3500 3000 — 2000 1500 — 500 ____ Fig 7.1.26 SADDLE SH APE / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 4 / O PE N STRUCTURE 82 CHAPTER VIII 8.1 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE This shape is divided into 8 zones. The performed tests are grouped under 4 cases. F i g 8 . 1.1 Z o n e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a r c h s u p p o r t e d s h a p e . a) Case # 1 studies the sensitivity of the arch supported shape towards the changes of azimuth angles. The angles used are 0° , 45° , 90°. The azimuth angle 0°, posts a smooth average hourly year illumination curve , with one peak point of (754.79 fc) at 14 o'clock. Whereas the 45° angle's output shows 2 peak values (640.18, 732.12 fc) at noon and 3 p. m. respectively. The total average daylight is the least in this case. The azimuth 90° case for the structure has one peak value at noon (873.24 fc). This position allows the most entry of daylight into the building (Fig 8.1.2). The summer average hourly illumination values show that the same previously mentioned pattern with higher footcandle levels continues (Fig 8.1.3). The average winter hourly illumination level graphs show that almost the same amount of daylighting enters the space through the season, except that azimuths 0°, 45°, post a peak point at 3 pm, whereas the azimuth 90°'s peak values are at noon, 3 pm. (392.1, 325.41 fc). (Fig 8.1.4). zo n e 8 7 zo n e 8 2 ine 8 6 © AVERAGE HOURLY YEAR ILLUMINATION 2750 1750 1000 750 250 Fig 8.1.2 Average hourly year illumination o f arch supp. shape Fig 8.1.3 AVERAGE SUMMER HOURLY ILLUMINATION OF ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE 3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 0 o AZ = 0 AZ =45 AZ = 90 Average summer hourly illumination o f arch supp. shape AVERAGE WINTER HOURLY ILLUMINATION OF ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE £ 1250 o 1000 HOURS Average winter hourly illumination o f arch supp. shape 84 b) Case # 2 illustrates the performance of the daylight when there is an opening (Area=256 ft2 ) placed on zone # 2's roof The azimuths set for this series are 0°. 90°. 180° .270° , which gives the openings west, south, east, and north orientations respectively. z o n e # zo n e # 7 zo n e 8 5 92 zon e me # 6 zom zone 8 8 F i g 8 . 1 . 5 O p e n i n g ' s l o c a t i o n / C a s e # 2 . The west opening posts a 5 - 10% uniform increase throughout all seasons, except in summer, the increase reaches up to 120 -180 %, in other words this opening allows direct solar radiation into the space for 3 hours (11-14). The south opening doesn't list any significant difference except in the summer at 11 -14 o'clock. East orientation of the opening lists the same consequences as the west opening. And the north opening doesn't make any difference worth mentioning in illumination levels. The following graphs illustrate the values of daylighting illumination level and compare them with the base case called "no window" (Figs 8.1.6 - 8.1.9). ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE-2 / WEST WINDOW 3000 2750 — 2500 ----- i _j 2250 -- o 2000 - - F 3 1750 — § 1500 | 1250 -- P 1000 J_ 3 ^ / D U — g 500 -- 250 -- HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=2 / WEST WINDOW 3000 2750 — i 2250 — O 2000 -L P T 3 1750 -- 1500 —l a z p X 750 -- £ « 3 500 - - HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE-2 I WEST WINDOW 3000 2500 i _j 2250 -- O 2 0 0 0 - - F 3 1750 -- 1500 -- IxO U — F 1 0 0 0 - - X o q 500 -- 750 — - HOURS Fig 8.1.6 A R C H S U P P O R T E D / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 2 / WEST OPENING ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE/ ZONE=2 / SOUTH WINDOW 2500 2250 2000 1500 1250 1000 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER /ZONE=2 / SOUTH WINDOW 2750 uJ 2500 j 2250 O 2000 5 1750 H 1500 1250 O p 1 0 0 0 2 750 I 500 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=2 / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 2250 - - O 2000 - P 3 1750 - - -I - J y 1ZDU - - Z P 1 0 0 0 - - § * 3 750 — Fig 8.1.7 A R C H S U P P O R T E D / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 2 /S O U T H OPENING A R C H SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=2 / EAST WINDOW 3000 2750 2250 1500 250 0 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER I ZONE=2 / EAST WINDOW 2750 - - 2250 - - 0 2000 — P 2 1750 - - 1 1500 - - _l 5 1250 - Z P 1000 - - ^ 750 - - g 500 - - 250 — HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER /Z O N E = 2 / EAST WINDOW 3000 2750 2250 - - 2000 - - 1250 - - 1000 750 — Fig S.J.S A R C H S U P P O R T E D /A Z IM U T H = 1 8 0 /Z O N E = 2 /E A S T OPENING ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=2 / NORTH WINDOW 3000 2750 t _i O 2000 P 5 1750 f 1500 -I 0 z P 1000 z 0 £ 750 g 500 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=2 / NORTH WINDOW 2750 - - 2500 — 2250 - - g 1750 — I 1500 — _1 1250 - - 0 Z P 1000 - - z j j 750 - - g 500 250 — HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=2 / NORTH WINDOW 3000 2750 - - 2500 - - 2000 - - 1750 - - 1250 — 1000 - - 750 - - Fig 8.1.9 A R C H S U P P O R T E D / AZIM UTH = 270 / ZONE = 2 /N O R T H OPENING 89 c) Case # 3 is the same case # 2 opening on the zone # 7's roof and examines the difference in illumination levels in that zone. The azimuths set for this series are 0°. 90°. 180°. 270°. which gives the opening the following orientations respectively north, west, south, east. Fig 8.1.10 Opening's location / Case # 3 The north opening's contribution can be ignored. The east, west and south oriented openings allow 5 - 15 % uniform daylight increase through all the seasons, except the summer , where a direct solar beam increases the illumination levels tremendously up to 150 - 180 % between 11-13 o'clock for the west and south openings and between 13 - 15 o'clock for the east opening. Figures 8.1.11 through 8.1.14 illustrates the output of the simulations.. Generally, in all cases it seems that an opening, wherever it is located or oriented allows a huge amount of direct solar radiation into the space during hot summer season, without making any positive contribution during winter. It is recommended to avoid roof openings unless it is desired for a particular reason. ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=7 / NORTH WINDOW 2750 - - 2500 - - 2250 - - O 2000 -- P g 1750 -- § 1500 - - O z p X o < 750 -- 5 500 -- 250 -- HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=7 / NORTH WINDOW 2250 -- O 2000 -- P 1750 -- 3 i — i - 1250 - P 1000 g 750 -- g 500 — HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=7 / NORTH WINDOW 3000 2750 2500 1750 1500 - - 1250 — 750 — Fig 8.1.11 A R C H SU PPO R TE D / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 7 / N O R TH OPENING ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=7 / WEST WINDOW 3000 2750 2500 t _i 2250 O 2000 F 3 1750 3 1500 1250 0 z P 5 s ! « 750 S 500 -- 250 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=7 / WEST WINDOW 3000 z -I 1500 3 1250 Z F 1000 S 500 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=7 / WEST WINDOW 3000 2750 -- 2500 -- 2250 — 1750 -j- 1500 -- 1250 -- 750 500 — 250 Fig 8.1.12 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 7 / WEST OPENING ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=7 / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 2750 2500 O 2000 P 3 1750 1250 O z p X 1000 o 5 7 5 0 g 500 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=7 / SOUTH WINDOW 2750 - - 2500 - - 2250 - - z o p i § 1750 - - 1500 - - O z P 1000 - - x o £ 750 - - g 500 - - HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=7 / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 2250 - - 2000 1750 - - 1500 - - 1250 1000 - - 500 250 Fig 8.1.13 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 180 / ZONE = 7 / SO U TH OPENING ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=7 / EAST WINDOW I z 0 F 1 I 3 _1 tj F 1000 750 < Q 250 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER /ZON E=7/ EAST WINDOW 3000 2250 -- 2000 - - ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=7 / EAST WINDOW 3000 2750 — 2500 - - 2000 — 1750 - - 1500 - - 1250 - - 750 - - 500 Fig S. 1.14 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 270 / ZONE = 7 / EAST OPENING 94 d) Case # 4 this series study and compare the open versus the enclosed structure at 0°, 45°, 90° of azimuth angles. The total area of the exterior walls is 5200 ft2. The tests' results do not list sharp differences in illumination levels, because overall exterior wall area is not large, but still there are very remarkable conclusions. The 0° azimuth posts that the south wall of the zones # 3 and # 5 are good surfaces for an opening or a window, an overhang will help to avoid a small increase of 15 - 25 % of daylight during summer months A window on the east wall of the zones #5 and # 6 will provide the interior with 200 - 300 % of more daylight in the winter Zone # 5's increase will be in the morning hours till noon, whereas zone # 6's window will allow a uniform increase, throughout a winter day. This property makes any opening on this surface very meaningful and valuable. An overhang will be helpful for both of the latter situations. The rest of the exterior walls' contribution is not worth mentioning, again because of their small areas (Figs 8 1.15 - 8 1.22) Azimuth of 45° of the building registers the following information. Zone # 4's north eastern wall is a very good choice for placing a window. It will allow a high illumination level in the space during the morning hours in the winter, design of a protective overhang is optional, because of the small increase of daylight during the summer season. The north - eastern and south - eastern exterior wall openings of zone # 6 provide a uniform and very comfortable illumination increase ( 120 % ) during all hours of an 95 occupied winter day, an overhang protection will prevent an average of 43 % of higher illumination level in the space (Figs 8.1.22 - 8.1.30). The rest of the walls are not making any positive change of difference to be mentioned. The last of the series is azimuth of 90° for the building. The DOE2 analyses the situation in the following way. The best window or opening location could be the southern wall of zone # 1, providing a 50 % daylight increase in the zone during the winter. An overhang protection is needed. Another excellent choice would be the north and west walls of zone # 4, which will contribute with an increase of 250 % (in the morning hours), and 180 % (in the early afternoon) respectively, summer high angles' protection is required. The north wall of zone # 5 is another option of having a window, for it will provide the space with 150-180 % more daylight during winter, there is no need of any king of blinds or canopies. A uniform contribution to comfort the interior will be by openings on the north and east walls of zone # 6, an increase of 50 -70 % of illumination is posted during cold months. Horizontal protection will prevent an average of 50 % increase of daylight through the summer (Figs 8.1.31 -8.1.38). The following graphs are illustrating the details and comparisons of above mentioned cases. The graphs are listed in azimuth (0°,45°,90°) and zone number (1 through 8) order. ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZON E- 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 - - 4500 3500 - - 3000 - - 500 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 - - 0 4000 P 3 3500 - - 1 3000 - - (5 Z F 2000 jjj 1500 - - g 1 0 0 0 -- 500 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 Sj 5000 S 4500 — O 4000 P 3 3500 — § 3000 2500 — P 2000 1500 g 1 0 0 0 500 Fig 8.1.15 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = / / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE— 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 t z o p 3000 - - -I < a HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZON E- 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 - - 5000 - - 4500 — 0 4000 - - P g 3500 — 1 a 3000 ____ —t o z P 2000 - - I “ o ^ 1500 - - g 1 0 0 0 -- 500 — HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEM BER/ZO N Es 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 - - 5000 4500 - - 3500 3000 - - 1500 Fig 8.1.16 A R C H SU PPO RTED /A Z IM U T H = 0 / ZONE = 2 / O PE N STRUCTURE A R C H SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE ! ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 - - 0 4000 - - f= g 3500 - - 1 3000 - - — 1 2500 - - 0 2 P 2000 - - i r g 1 0 0 0 -- 1500 ------- HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN i 2 0 F 1 i 0 ZD UU — F 2000 3 ^ 1500 g 1 0 0 0 -- HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 3500 3000 - - 2500 — 2000 1500 - - 500 - - Fig 8.1.17 A R C H SU P P O R T E D / AZIM UTH = 0 /ZONE = 3 / O PEN STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 8000 5500 5000 3500 3000 2500 1000 500 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 8000 5500 4500 O 4000 F 3 3500 ? 3000 -I 2500 — ta z F 2000 x (9 ^ 1500 g 1 0 0 0 500 ------- HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEM BER/ZO NEs 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - g 5000 - - 5 4500 O 4000 F 3 3500 3 3000 — i 5 2500 F 2000 p 1500 g 1 0 0 0 -- 500 - -I i l s ! 1 I 1 i T i ' 5 ^ * rf § = it it itr Fig 8.1. IS A R C H S U P P O R T E D /A Z IM U T H = 0 / ZONE = 4 / O PEN STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 t _j z o p s s 3 -I 4500 3500 3000 ^ 2500 p 2000 2 1500 g 1000 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SE PT E M B E R / ZO N E= 5 / C L O SE D V S O PE N 6000 -|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5500 -------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ uJ 5000 ------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------- jv 4500 -------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- OPEN HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 _i 5000 ^ 4500 O 4000 - - P § 3500 § 3000 — -J „ 2500 Z P 2000 ■ = : 1500 1000 - 500 J - Fig 8.1.19 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 5 / O PE N STRUCTURE 1 0 0 > 3 b S § b 3 ii I b O v 1 b 3 S s b b <*}' O c t \ j C3> DAYLIGHTING (LLUMINATION LEVEL S C 5 T J ro U ss « n m D DAYLIGHTING ILLUMINATION LEVEL DAYLIGHTING ILLUMINATION LEVEL o ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 jjj 5000 5 4500 O 4000 F § 3500 3 3000 „ 2500 z F 2000 X 2 1500 g 1000 500 0 f 7 1 d d iti i l i i i i U 15 16 1? 16 1! HOURS OPEN 1 0 2 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5000 & J Z 0 p 3 1 3 _J 4500 3500 - - 3000 - - 2500 - - O z P 2000 - - ^ 1500 g 1000 — 500 - - HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE D ECEM B ER / ZONE= 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 uj 5000 - - ^ 4500 O 4000 - - 5 3 500 — § 3000 - - _J ^ 2 5 0 0 - - 0 p 2 0 0 0 - - 2 1500 5 1000 - - o 5 00 - - 0 A il i 10 v i i l i l i t 1 1 1 k A 1 1 A R C H S U P P O R T E D / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 7 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 8 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 t _ j 0 4000 - - P 5 3500 — 1 3000 - - o 2 P X C 5 Si < a HOURS 103 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER f ZONE= 8 I CLOSED VS OPEN Ui S Z 0 < z 1 — I 2500 - - O z i- X 2000 - - 2 1500 - - > < 1000 - - Q HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE D EC EM B ER/ZO N E= 8 / CLOSED VS OPEN uJ 5000 ^ 4500 z O < z Z 2500 - - © p 2 0 0 0 - - 2 1500 - - 5 a HOURS Fig 8.1.22 A R C H S U P P O R T E D /A Z IM U T H = 0 / ZONE = 8 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 _J 5000 0 4000 P g 3500 1 3000 2500 P 2000 Os- 104 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - j 5000 - U J § 4500 - O 4000 - P 5 3500 - 5 3000 - -J 5 2500 - z P 2000 H < 5 g 1500 g 1000 - 500 - t - r ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 d 5000 " 4500 O 4000 P 3 3500 § 3000 “ 2500 Z P 2000 - I g 1500 - g 1000 - 500 - ~i t l s i io i t i f e Fig 8.1.23 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 45 / ZONE = 1 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 — 1 _i z o p 2 £ D _j -J 3500 3000 2500 — O z p X ^ 1500 - - g 1000 - - 500 - - HOURS 105 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER I ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 - - 3500 - - 3000 2000 - - 1500 - - 1 0 0 0 - - ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZO N E- 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 i O 4000 - - P 3 3500 — _i “ 2500 - - z P 2000 - - X (3 ^ 1500 — g 1000 - - 500 - - HOURS F ig 8.1.24 A R C H SU P P O R T E D / AZIM UTH = 45 / ZONE = 2 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 - - 5000 - - 4500 - - O 4000 - - F g 3500 - - „ 2500 ------- z F 2000 ------- ^ 1500 ------ g 1000 ------ 500 HOURS 1 0 6 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE S E P T E M B E R /Z O N E = 3 / C L O SE D V S O PE N 6 000 5 500 - O 4 000 - - F | 3500 - - E 3000 - - J 2 500 - - O F 2 0 0 0 - - X ° 1500 ------- >- < 1000 ----- 500 ------- HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER /Z O N E = 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 — 4 500 - - 4000 - - 3500 2000 - - 1500 - - 1000 - - 500 - - Fig S. 1.2 5 A R C H SU PPO RTED /A Z IM U T H = 45 /Z O N E = 3 / O PEN STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 _i 5000 ju 4500 O 4000 P g 3500 3 3000 _J “ 2500 P 2000 X O ^ 1500 g 1000 500 HOURS 107 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 3000 — 2500 - - 2000 - - 1 0 0 0 -- ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 4500 4000 3000 500 Fig 8.1.26 A R C H S U P P O R T E D / AZIM UTH = 4 5 / ZONE = 4 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARC H SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 O 4000 P 5 3500 § 3000 .J 2500 (5 z P 2000 2 1500 g 1 0 0 0 500 HOURS 1 0 8 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 4000 - - 3500 — 3000 - - 20 0 0 - - 1500 - - ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / Z ONE= S / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 3500 3000 2500 1500 500 f/g S. 1.27 A R C H SUPPORTED /A Z IM U T H = 45 / ZONE = 5 / O PEN STRUCTURE ARC H SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - OPEN HOURS 109 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER /Z O N E * 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 u i & 4500 — 0 4000 h 2 3 500 - - 1 ___ 2500 - - O p 2 0 0 0 - - X 2 1500 — 50 0 — HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 . 5500 £ 5000 5 4500 O 4000 - - P 2 3500 . 3 3000 - - „ 2500 P 2000 - - ^ 1500 - - g 1000 500 0 i j j irTTTiV i k i k i V Fig 8.1.28 A R C H SU PPO RTED /A Z IM U T H = 4 5 / ZONE = 6 / O PE N STR UCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 3500 3000 0 HOURS 110 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - i _i 4500 - - 0 4000 - - F 2 3500 - - 1 3000 _J 2500 - - O z F 2 0 0 0 - - X ^ 1500 - - g 1000 - - 500 - - HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - d 5000 5 4500 - - O 4000 - - F 5 3500 - - § 3000 — a 2500 F 2000 ^ 1500 - - g 1000 - - 500 - - f j s i iT il iH iH il it it it it it Fig 8.1.29 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 4 5 / ZONE = 7 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SU PP O R T E D TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 8 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 4500 - - 4000 - - 3000 - - 2500 2000 -- 1000 - - A R C H S U P P O R T E D TE N SIL E ST R U C T U R E SEPTEMBER I ZONE= S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - O 4000 - - F g 3500 - - 3 _1 2500 O z F 2000 - - O ?! < a 1500 - - 500 - - HOURS ARCH SU PP O R T E D TEN SILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / 2QNE= t / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 O 4000 - - F 5 3500 — 3 3000 — .J .J (5 z P 2 0 0 0 - - 2 1500 — g 1000 — HOURS Fig 8.1.30 A R C H S U P P O R T E D / AZIM UTH = 45 / ZONE = 8 / O PE N STRUCTURE A R C H SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE /ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 irf 5000 4500 O 4000 P | 3500 § 3000 2500 g 2000 (5 ■3 1500 § 1000 500 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 4500 O 4000 P 5 3500 3 3000 2500 P 2000 1500 3 1000 500 CLOSED OPEN A R C H S U P P O R T E D T i N ^ D EC EM B ER/ZO N E= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5 500 uj 5000 j 4500 z O 4000 I- 5 3500 = 3000 5 2500 P 2000 § 1500 ^ 1000 50 0 CLOSED OPEN Fig 8.1.31 ARCH SUPPORTED / AZIMUTH = 90 / ZONE = y / OPEN STRUCTURE 1 1 2 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 i 4500 z 0 F 1 £ 3 -I y 2500 F 2000 | 1500 2 1000 500 HOURS 113 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 - - 4500 - - z 0 F 1 £ = > -I _j 3 2500 - - z P 2000 — i ?! < o 500 — HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 _! 5000 [2 4500 O 4000 P 2 3500 § 3000 .J a 2500 z P 2000 X n £3 1500 g 1000 500 — A < j ib " "iT "iT " 7 5 il it it it it Fig 8.1.32 A R C H SU PPO R TE D / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 2 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 -- 3500 — 3000 2500 -- 1500 114 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER I ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 -J- _i 5000 " 4500 0 4000 P § 3500 1 3000 „ 2500 P 2000 - X o ^ 1500 ■ g 1000 -I- 500 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER/ZONEz 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 - - U J S □ 4500 - - O 4000 - - »- < z S 3 _l 3500 - - 2500 - - O z »- X O j g 1 0 0 0 -- HOURS Fig S. 1.33 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 3 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 t 4500 O 4000 F | 3500 3 3000 2500 <3 z F 2000 X < 3 £3 1500 g 1 0 0 0 500 HOURS 115 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5500 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- uJ 5000 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- § 4500 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- OPEN < 1000 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN -I 5000 - - 4000 - - D 3000 - - 2500 - - F 2000 - - -! 1500 - - S 1000 - - 500 - - li> 11 ! 1^ ll> 14 l i 1^ l l ife 1 Fig 8.1.34 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 4 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 -j— 5500 - - HOURS 116 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER / ZO N Es S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - uJ 5000 - - [ j 4500 - - O 4000 — »- < Z 3600 Z 3 _l 3000 — 2600 — O p 2 0 0 0 - - z 2 is n n __ _i < 1000 - - Q 60 0 - - HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 - - 4500 - - 3500 - - 3000 - - 2500 - - 1500 1000 - - 500 - - Fig 8.1.35 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 5 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 6 / C L O S E D V S OPEN 6000 5500 - J 5000 _ i z 0 1= 1 i 3000 2500 0 z 500 HOURS 117 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 gS O O O 2 4500 0 4000 F g 3500 1 3000 ^ 2500 - - Z F 2000 - - X (9 g 1500 — g 1000 — 500 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 _i 5000 j*j 4500 O 4000 F 2 3500 - - § 3000 _J 3 2500 z F 2000 X (3 *3 1500 g 1000 - - 500 7 i t 1 ^ i T il il il it it it it ilr Fig 8.1.36 A R C H SU PPO RTED /A Z IM U T H = 9 0 / ZONE = 6 / O PEN STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE* 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 z O 4000 F g 3500 § 3000 2500 C J z F 2000 z (9 ^ 1500 g 1 0 0 0 HOURS 118 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE* 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 - - O 4000 - - F g 3500 - - § 3000 — -J _l 2500 - - O z p z *3 1500 g 1 0 0 0 - - 500 HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE* 7 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 J 5000 — O 4000 - - F g 3500 - - 3 3000 - - F 2000 - - □ 1500 - - 1000 - - 500 HOURS Fig 8.1.37 A R C H SU PPO RTED / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 7 / O PE N STRUCTURE ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 8 f CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 4- uj 5000 ^ 4500 O 4000 | 3500 = 3000 ^ 2500 4- F 2000 2 1500 4- 5 1000 4- 500 I 8 10 iT 1^ 1 * 3 A 1^ 1^ A 1^ lb 119 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE° 8 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 j 5000 4- 4500 4- O 4000 F 3 3500 3 3000 4- F 2000 4- 1000 4- 500 4- HOURS ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 8 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 - 5500 - - j 5000 - 4500 - O 4000 - F 3 3500 - 3 3000 - _J „ 2500 - F 2000 - x ts ^ 1500 . 2 1000 - 500 - 0 - i tj sj ll) f t i T X H Fig 8.1.38 A R C H SU PPO RTED /A Z IM U T H = 9 0 / ZONE = 8 / O PE N STR UCTURE 120 CHAPTER IX 9.1 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE The wave shape in these tests consists of 6 zones. Fig 9.1.1 Zone distribution in the wave shape structure. N a) Case # 1 has studied the respond of this shape to the azimuth angles of 0°, 45°, 90°. Overall, this shape is the second sensitive (after the saddle shape) towards different azimuths. When the azimuth AVERAGE HOURLY YEAR ILLUMINATIONS OF WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRU CTU RE 500 Fig 9.1.2 Average hourly year illumination level o f wave shape angles are 45°, 90°, the total amount of average year hourly illumination registers a peak value ^ « -• of 1458.14 fc., 1550.38 fc., □ «-» respectively at 1 p.m. The 0° angle for building azimuth lists parallel, 10-15% less illumination curve from the previous situations, posting a peak point of 1297 fc. at 3 pm. 121 AVERAGE HOURLY WINTER ILLUMINATIONS OF WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE m HOURS F i g 9 . 1 . 3 A v e r a g e w i n t e r h o u r l y i l l u m i n a t i o n o f w a v e s h a p e . The summer average charts point a rem arkable increase of the daylight amount from 0° to 45° azimuth angles, registering a m axim um value of 1991.3 fc., respectively at 1 pm. and a 30 -38 % o f daylight g 2500 and a 30 -38 % o f daylight increase in the space. The angle 90° posts a peak point o i 2 1 % \ .9 9 i c . at 1 pm allowing the largest entry o f daylight though the summer season (Fig9.1.4). hourly summer ,Hmmnauon F i g 9 .1 .4 A v e r a g e v a lu e s o f w a v e s h a p e 122 b) Case # 2 assumes the is an opening of 256 ft2 on the roof of zone # 1. The azimuth 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° angles give the opening a west, south, east and north orientation respectively. F i g 9 . 1 . 5 L o c a t i o n o f t h e o p e n i n g / C a s e # 2 . y x N The west window's performance in making a difference in illumination level of the space is clearly undesirable. It posts a uniform 2 - 7 % of an increase during the year, and a special 130 - 150 % increase at noon during the summer (Fig 9.1.6 - 9.1.9). The south orientation of the widow makes its contribution exactly the same as in the previous situation, the summer's peak daylight increase is 120 % at 14 o'clock. North and east windows presents "no contribution" to improve the daylighting levels in the space during all the seasons. The uniform, parallel increase through the year ranges form 2 - 8 % only. As a conclusion, a window placed on the zone # l's roof or any other parallel surface to it, does not make any positive influence on the daylighting values. The following graphs spreads all the detail information derived from this case's tests. WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE JU N E / ZONE=1 / W EST WINDOW 2750 Ul S i _l 2500 2250 O 2000 » — < z 3 1500 _j 1250 O z P X 2 _i 5 o HOURS 123 WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=1 / WEST WINDOW O 2000 ---------- 3000 2750 2500 2250 ■ 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 ? ~ 7 t s ! it it it it it it it it it i WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=1 I WEST WINDOW 2750 2500 — 2250 — 1750 -- 1500 -- 1250 — 250 -- Fig 9 . 1 . 6 WA VE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 1 / WEST OPENING WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=1 / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 2750 - - 2500 - - 2250 - - 1750 - - 1500 - - 1250 - - 750 - - 500 - - 250 - - 124 WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER / ZONE=1 / SOUTH WINDOW 3000 2750 - - i u 2500 - - ^ 2250 - - O 2000 —. < Z _ 1750 3 1500 - - - 1250 - - O z H X 2 750 | 500 - - HOURS 3000 2750 m 2500 5 2250 O 2000 P § 1750 § 1500 U 1250 P 1000 *3 750 g 500 250 0 WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=1 / SOUTH WINDOW " < ! t t s i it it it it it it it it it it- Fig 9.1.7 WAVE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 1 / SO U TH OPENING W AVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE I ZONE=1 / EAST WINDOW 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 1500 1250 750 500 250 0 HOURS 125 WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=1 / EAST WINDOW 3000 2750 — 20 0 0 -- 1750 — 1500 — 1000 -- 750 WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE=1 / EAST WINDOW 2500 2250 1500 1250 1000 750 250 0 HOURS Fig 9.1.8 WA VE SH A PE /A ZIM U TH = 1 8 0 /Z O N E = 1 /E A S T OPENING W AVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=1 / NORTH WINDOW 3000 2750 _i 2500 < 2 2250 O 2000 P 5 1750 1500 -I 1250 0 z P 1 0 0 0 z 0 g 750 g 500 250 HOURS 126 WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZO N E=11 NORTH WINDOW 3000 -j— 2750 -1 N W IN P 1000 HOURS WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZO N E=11 NORTH WINDOW 3000 2750 -- 2 0 0 0 - - 1750 1500 1 0 0 0 - - 750 500 -- Fig 9.1.9 WA VE S H A P E /A Z IM U T H = 270 / ZONE = I/N O R TH OPENING 127 c) Case # 3 repeats the case # 2's test series after replacing the window on the peak of the lower mast of zone # 4. zon : * 1 e «4 N ipA F i g 9 . 1 . 1 0 O p e n i n g ' s l o c a t i o n / C a s e # 3 . Angels 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° for this case are set as building's azimuths. All four situations don't make a difference or an improvement in the natural light levels of the space. Such an opening could be used only for ventilation purposes. The graph series (Fig 9.1.11 through 9.1.14) illustrate the Doe2's simulation output values of these tests. WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE*4 / WITH WINDOW/AZ=0 128 3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 1500 1250 750 500 250 0 HOURS WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE=4 /WITH WINDOW/AZ=90 3000 2500 t _ j 2250 - - 0 2000 - - F 5 1750 — 1 1500 - - < 5 z F 1000 - - x (J £ 750 - - g 500 - - HOURS WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE =4 /WITH WINDOW/AZ=180 3000 2750 - - 2500 - - 2250 - - 2000 -- 1750 1500 1250 — 1000 750 - - 500 Fig 9.1.11 WA VE SH A P E / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 4 / WITH OPENING ON THE TOP OF THE M AST WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE=4 / WITH WINDOW/ AZ=90 3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 1000 750 500 129 WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER / ZON E=4 /WITH WINDOW/ A Z -90 2750 2500 — 2250 - - 2000 — 1250 — 1000 — 750 — 250 - - WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONEM /WITH WINDOW/ AZ=90 2750 — J 2500 - - 2250 — O 2000 — 5 1750 — 3 1500 - - 750 — HOURS Fig 9.1.12 WA VE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 9 0 / ZONE = 4 / WITH OPENING O N THE TOP OF THE M AST WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEM /WITH WINDOW /AZ=270 2750 2500 2250 0 2000 F 1 1750 1 1500 1250 O z F 1000 | 750 < 500 250 HOURS 130 WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER/ZONE=4/W ITH WINDOW/ AZ=270 ^nnn U J 5 2250 0 2 0 0 0 - - t - 1 1750 - - O z »- x O 750 -- D 500 -- HOURS WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONEM /WITH WINDOW/ AZ=270 3000 2750 N O W IN g 500 - - 250 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ° "e ^ f j s i it 1 * 1 it A it it 1 ^ i f e it HOURS F ig P . 7 .7 5 ^ VE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 1 8 0 / ZONE = 4 / WITH OPENING O N THE TOP OF THE M AST W A V E SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE>4 /WITH WINDOW /AZ-270 3000 2750 2250 2000 1750 1250 1 0 0 0 750 250 0 HOURS WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER/ZONE=4/W ITH WINDOW/ AZ=270 2750 - - _ i ui S i _l 2250 - - O 2000 — 1500 - - 1250 - - O j= 1000 - - | 7 5 0 5 500 1 HOURS WAVE SHAPED TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE =4 /WITH WINDOW/ AZ=270 2750 - - 2500 - - 2250 1500 - - 1250 - - 1000 - - 250 - - Fig 9.1.14 WA VE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 27 0 / ZONE = 4 / WITH OPENING O N THE TOP OF THE M AST 132 d) Case # 4 examines the influence of the exterior walls on the space's illumination levels. Therefor this case compares the open structure with an enclosed one to evaluate the impact of the exterior walls and any window placed on their surfaces. The exterior walls' total area of the wave shape structure equals to 21850 ft2. The following results obtained from the building , when the azimuth is 0° . Zone # 4 and # l's west wall is a good choice to have a window or an opening on it, which will allow a 250 - 320 % of more daylight to the inside during the winter at early afternoon hours, but this window should be designed with an overhang to protect the inside from summer's direct solar radiation. Zone # 2's exterior walls does register no difference. An opening on east wall of the zone # 3, and # 6 will provide a tremendous increase (200 - 300%) of higher illumination level in the space through the winter's morning and early afternoon hours, a horizontal shading will prevent a 50 - 90% of daylight entry to the building during hot summer season. A window placed on zone # 5's south eastern and south western walls will make a uniform, positive contribution into the space. The increase will be an average of 85 % of more daylight during the winter. No protection required for this opening ( Fig 9.1.15 through 9.1.20). When azimuth of the building shifts to 45°, then zones # 1 and # 4 post, that the south western wall protects the interior from an average of 100 - 125 % more daylight entering the space during the summer season between 15-18 o'clock, with no positive contribution in the summer. In another words, an opening or a window placed on these surfaces would present poor design points. Zone # 2's exterior surfaces's existence do 133 not influence daylighting levels of the interior. Zone # 3 and # 6 post a very desirable increase of illumination into the zone spaces in the winter, which ranges between 200 - 350%, if a window will be placed on north eastern walls of the above mentioned zones. To avoid a huge increase of heat load in the summer the openings should be designed with a horizontal protection. Zone # 5's exterior south wall will allow a slight ( average of 26%) increase of daylight into the space in the winter at early afternoon. The last angle used as building's azimuth in these series is 90°. Zones # 1, 2, 4, 5, do not reflect any major difference in their illumination behavior. But zones # 3 and # 6 seem to be very active. Since they register a huge increase of daylight in the zones during the winter. Zone # 3 allows an increase of an average 170% light during the day through the winter, if openings will be placed on north, south-west, north-west walls of the zone. Zone # 6 will make an average of 40% improved daylight increase in the morning and 120 - 200% in the afternoon. Both latest cases, need overhangs to protect the interior from summer's high sun angles. The graphs ( Fig 9.1.15 through 9.1.32) list the amounts and detail output of this study. W AVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE: 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 3500 2500 1500 500 0 HOURS 134 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5 4500 — O 4000 - - F g 3500 F 2000 - - g 1 0 0 0 -- 500 — HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE D ECEM BER/ Z O N E s 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 3 500 - - 2 500 - - 2000 - - 500 - - Fig 9.1.15 WA VE SH APE / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 1 / O PEN STR UCTURE W A V E SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= Z / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 4500 4000 2500 2000 1500 0 0 0 500 0 HOURS 135 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= Z / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 -- O 4000 - - f = 5 3500 - - 3 3000 - - ^ 2500 - - F 2000 □ 1500 - - WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - ^ 5000 § 4500 - - O 4000 F 3 3500 - - F 2000 ------ ^ 1500 - - g 1 0 0 0 500 - - ~ 6 i f j < j I i T il il il it it 1 V it it Fig 9.1.16 WA VE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 2 / O PEN STR UCTURE W AVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 i 4500 O 4000 F f 3500 2500 O z F 2000 g 1 0 0 0 500 HOURS 136 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 3 I CLOSED VS OPEN 17 18 1 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 - - 4000 — 3000 - - 2500 - - 1500 - - 1 0 0 0 - - F ig 9.1.17 WA VE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 0 / ZONE = 3 / O PEN STR UCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 _l 5000 jjj 4500 O 4000 P § 3500 3 3000 _J 3 2500 P 2000 X g 1500 g 1 0 0 0 HOURS 137 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 - - O 4000 - - P | 3500 - - 3 3000 - - _ l _ l 2500 - - O z P 2000 - - 5 < a 1500 - - 1000 - - 500 - - HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 4 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 4500 4000 3500 3000 2000 1500 1000 500 F ig 9 ./.7 < 5 WA VE SHAPE/ AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 4 / O PEN STRU CTU RE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5000 i _ j 4500 O 4000 P § 3500 § 3000 _J ^ 2500 F 2000 z < 5 ^ 1500 2 1000 HOURS 138 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 5 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 - - 3000 ____ 2500 - - 1500 1000 500 - - WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE D E C E M B E R /Z O N E = 5 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 - 5500 - uJ 5000 • § 4500 - Z o 4000 - h % 3500 ■ = 3000 - _l 5 2500 - P 2 0 0 0 ■ 2 1500 - > < 1000 - 500 - Fig 9.1.19 WAVE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 0 / ZONE = 5 / O PE N STRUCTURE W AVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= « / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 4500 O 4000 P g 3500 § 3000 _ f 5 2500 z P 2000 X 1500 0 1 500 HOURS 139 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 6 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 _i 5000 - - ^ 4500 - - O 4000 - - P g 3500 - - § 3000 _ l -i 2500 - - (9 z P 2000 - - x o ^ 1500 - - g 1000 - - 500 — HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER I ZONE= 6 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - J 5000 - - 4500 - - O 4000 g 3500 = > 3000 - - P 2000 1000 - - 500 - - Fig 9.1.20 WA VE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 0 / ZONE = 6 / O PEN STR UCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 i _ i 4500 0 4000 f = 3 3500 1 3000 (9 P 2000 X 2 1500 g 1 0 0 0 HOURS 140 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 - - UJ s 4500 - - z O 4 000 - - 2 3500 - - S 3 000 - - ^SULI O P 2 0 0 0 - - z 2 1500 - - 5 1000 - - 500 - - HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 - - O 4000 - - F 3 3500 - - 2 3 3000 - - 2500 - - O z F 2000 X ^ 1500 - - g 1000 - - 500 i H i n t 1 5 i t , iv HOURS Fig 9.1.21 WA VE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 4 5 / ZONE = 1 / O PEN STR UCTURE W A V E SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE 120NE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 S 4500 O 4000 F 5 3500 3000 2500 O z F X o < 2000 1500 HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER I ZONE= 2 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 _i 5000 - - 4500 - - O 4000 - - F g 3500 — 3 3000 - - “ 2500 — F 2000 - - 3 1500 - - o 1 0 0 0 - - 500 — HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 — 3500 - - 2500 - - O z F 2000 - - *3 1500 g 1000 - - Fig 9.1.22 WAVE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 45 / ZONE = 2 / O PEN STRUCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE= 3 i CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 5000 4000 3000 2500 2000 1000 500 0 HOURS 142 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEM BER /Z O N E * 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 - - 4 0 0 0 - - 3500 - - 3000 - - 1500 - - 1000 ------- 500 - - WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 3 I CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 - - 5000 - - 4500 - - 4000 - - 3500 — 3000 2500 - - 2000 — 1500 - - 500 - - Fig 9.1.23 WA VE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 4 5 / ZONE = 3 / O PEN STR UCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN t o 4000 f = 2 3500 f= 2000 X | 1500 g 1 0 0 0 HOURS 143 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 - - 5000 t O 4000 F § 3500 — § 3000 2500 - - z J = X 1500 g 1 0 0 0 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 — O 4000 - - 5 3500 Fig 9.1.24 WA VE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 4 5 / ZONE = 4 / OPE N STR UCTURE W A V E SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE* S / CLOSED VS OPEN -J 5000 O 4000 F § 3500 F 2000 3 1500 500 HOURS 144 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 O 4000 — F § 3500 - - O z F 2000 - - 5 ^ 1500 - - g 1000 HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE* S / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 — -I 5000 - - 0 4000 - - F § 3500 - - 1 3000 - - F 2000 — 500 - - Fig 9.1.25 WA VE S H A P E / AZIM UTH = 4 5 /ZONE =5 / O PE N STRUCTURE W AVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEz 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 O 4000 P 2 3500 § 3000 — I 0 Z 1 = X 0 1500 HOURS 145 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 8 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 - - t 4500 - - O 4000 - - P 2 3500 - - 3000 - - I =J -I — I 2500 - - O z P 2000 i si < < 3 500 - - HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE D E C E M B E R /Z O N E s 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5500 - - 5000 - - 3500 - - 3 000 — 2 500 - - 2000 - - 1500 - - 1000 - - 500 - - Fig 9.1.26 WAVE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 45 / ZONE = 6 / O PE N STRUCTURE W AVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 4500 4000 3500 2500 2000 500 1000 500 0 HOURS 146 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER I ZONE* 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5000 - - 3500 - - 3000 - - 2500 - - 2000 - - 1500 - - WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 1 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 4500 - - 4000 - - 3500 - - 3000 - - 2500 2000 — Fig 9.1.27 WA VE SH A P E / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 1 / O PEN STRUCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE I ZONE= 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6 5 0 0 - - 4500 - - O 4000 P 2 3500 D 3000 P 2000 - - 2 1 5 0 0--- g 1 0 0 0 HOURS 147 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE S E PT E M B E R /Z O N E s 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN ui a z o 5 z 2 500 - - o z 2000 - - l — x O □ o HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEM BER/ZO NEs 2 / CLOSED VS OPEN t 0 4000 - - P 2 3500 - - 1 3000 - - _l 2500 - - 0 z F X 0 ^ 1500 g 1 0 0 0 HOURS Fig 9.1.28 WA VE S H A P E / AZIM UTH = 9 0 /ZONE = 2 / O PE N STRUCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE I ZONES 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 4500 4000 3000 2500 1500 1000 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 t _J z 0 F 2 1 3 _l < 5 z F z o 1500 g 1000 - - HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER / ZONE= 3 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 3500 ------ 2500 . _ 2000 - - Fig 9.1.29 WA VE SHAPE /A Z IM U T H = 90 / ZONE = 3 / O PE N STR UCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE I ZONE* 4 / CLOSED VS OPEN 5000 4500 4000 2500 2000 1500 0 149 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE S E PT E M B E R / ZO N E= 4 / C L O SE D V S O PEN 6000 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5500 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5 000 — § 4 500 — OPEN HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE D EC EM BER /ZO N Es 4 / CLOSED V S OPEN 1 000 500 0 Fig 9.1.30 WA VE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 9 0 /Z O N E = 4 / O PE N STRUCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONE* S / CLOSED VS OPEN 5000 4500 3000 2500 1500 0 HOURS 150 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE* 6 I CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 — 4500 — O 4000 — P 3 3500 — 5 3000 — 500 - - HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEM BER/ZONE* 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 2 6000 5500 j O O O 4500 O 4000 P 3 3500 - - 3 3000 3 2500 P 2000 *3 1500 g 1000 500 Fig 9.1.31 WAVE SHAPE / AZIM UTH = 90 / ZONE = 5 / O PE N STRUCTURE WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE JUNE / ZONEs « / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 5000 1 z o p 2 *500 *000 3500 3000 5 2500 z P 2000 ^ 1500 g 1000 HOURS WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE SEPTEMBER / ZONE= 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - _i 5000 - - *500 - - 0 *000 P g 3500 - - 1 3000 - - " 2500 P 2000 - - □ 1500 1000 - - 500 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE DECEMBER I ZONE= 6 / CLOSED VS OPEN 6000 5500 - - 5000 — 1 z 0 p 2 1 3 3500 3000 __ S 2500 - z P 2000 - - x <5 1500 - - g 1000 — 500 HOURS Fig 9.1.32 WA VE SH A P E /A Z IM U T H = 90 / ZONE = 6 / O PE N STRUCTURE 152 CHAPTER X ENERGY PERFORMANCES The energy tests are comparing the building's total yearly cooling and heating loads, and their peak load components. In another word displaying building's overall energy consumption. The variables can be divided into 1.- Single layer tensile fabric roof 2- Single layer tensile fabric roof with an opening, the area of which is 256 ft2. 3.- Double layer tensile fabric roof 4- Double layer tensile fabric roof with an opening, A= 256 ft2 5.- Double layer skin with 7 inches thick insulation layer stapled on the top layer of the tensile fabric roof. 6.- Double layer skin with 7" thick insulation layer with an opening of 256 ft2 on it's roof surface. 7.- The "NO DAYLIGHTING" case. All these tests are taken when the building has 0°, 45°, and 90° of azimuth respectively. 10.1 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE All tests illustrate a joint problem, that the cooling load in the building is the dominant load. The single layer saddle structure demonstrates an increasing pattern, as the 153 azimuth angles shift from 90°, to 0° and to 45°, an annual cooling load of 3999.1, 3968.9, 3884.7 MBU, and peak cooling values of 140.96, 138.1, 135.2 BTU/sq ft respectively. The heating load is considerably steady, through azimuth angle changes. The differences are ranged between 0.2 - 0.7% during a year period, but they present a pretty high load value of about 1 625 MBTU per year, posting an average peak point of 71 BTU/sq ft. An opening of 256 ft2 on the roof of single layer tensile structure decreases overall annual heating loads by 0.24 - 0.27% and increases the total cooling load ( the dominant load) by 1.7 -2.5 % . The double layer's energy performance contribution is fairly remarkable. The test results register a big drop (37.4, 38.3, 37.2 % ) in the total yearly cooling load in the building and (75.89, 76.61, 75.34 %) in the total heating load for the azimuth angles 0°, 45°, 90° respectively. Existence of an opening in this case doesn't effect the both total cooling and heating loads, even through azimuth angle changes. This change can be defined by an increase ( 8 - 9%) of the annual heating load and 4.1 % of the total cooling load. The insulated double layer roof does cause a slight decrease of load components, comparing with the double layer case values. The registered decrease percentage is 47.96, 80.95, and 73 .33 % of the heating loads, and 6.85, 2.09, 2.1 % of the cooling loads, for azimuth 0, 45, 90 angles respectively. The influence of an opening in this case also can be neglected. The detail values and comparisons of the total and peak components of all cases of the saddle shape tensile structure are illustrated on (Fig 10.1.1 - 10.1.2) NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 154 SINGLE LAVER, SADDLE SHAPE’S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 P 9000 (fi 0500 z eooo Z 7500 S ” 7000 6500 O 6000 T T 5500 9 5000 □ 4500 o 4000 O 3500 9 3000 o 2500 £ 2000 5 1500 UJ 1000 x 500 CXtINO HEA TIN G LOA D SINGLE LAYER/W WINDOW, SADDLE SHARE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 COXING H EA TING DOUBLE LAYER. SADDLE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 9500 9000 9500 0000 7500 7000 6500 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 1500 1000 500 0 DOUBLE LAYER/ W WINDOW, SADDLE SHAPE'S AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 INSULATED LAYERS, SADDLE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 9500 9000 8500 8000 7500 7000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 1500 1000 500 0 A2=0 A2=45 AZ=90 INSULATED LAYERS/W WIN, SADDLE SHAPE'S Z 8000 - - O 6000 - - o 4000 - - O 3500 - - 9 3000 - - O 2500 - - AZ=45 AZ=90 AZ=0 Fig 10.1.1 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE'S TOTAL LO AD COM PONENTS NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 155 SL SINGLE LAYER, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS j 250 - - g 100 A2=45 A2=90 AZ=0 SINGLE LAYER/W WINDOW, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Hi AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 DL DOUBLE LAYER, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS AZ=0 AZ=90 DOUBLE LAYER/W WINDOW, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS 500 450 400 350 300 200 150 100 50 0 H i INSULATED LAYERS, SADDLE SHAPE’ DLI AZ=90 AZ=0 AZ=45 INSULATED LAYERS/W WIN, SADDLE SHAPE’S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS S 100 z P 50 AZ=0 A Z=45 AZ=90 . —- ^ HEMIMj F i g - 1 0 . 1 . 2 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STR U C TU R E S P E A K COM PONENTS 156 10.2 ARCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE The energy usage of this shape with single layer roof consists of 4205.8, 3978.74, 3973.11 MBTU as cooling and 1474.33, 1422.42, 1418.46 MBTU as heating annual loads, with 0°, 45°, 90° azimuth angles. The placement of an opening or a window on the roof surface increases the annual cooling components by 44.33, 37.56, 1.9 % and heating loads by 27.75, 22.64, 1.6 % using the previously mentioned azimuth angles order. It is obvious that the best and the most distinguished performance listed by 90°, follows that 45°, and so on. The peak load values do pursue a similar path as the total load values. The double layer skin of the roof decreases both annual heating and cooling loads, compared with the single layer case. The registered decrease percentage of the cooling loads is 32.32, 33.91, 34.28 % , and of the heating loads is 77, 79.54, 79.48 % for 0, 45, 90 building azimuth angles. An opening on the structure's roof lists a significant change in building's energy behavior. The increase of the total cooling loads is 66.23, 57.74, 3.83 % , and of the heating loads is 126.25, 117.53, 15.38 % , compared to the double skin, no opening case. When comparing this case to the single layer, with an opening situation, the total and peak load components are more reasonable. The insulated skin's contribution improves the energy behavior of arch supported tensile structure is very small in both " no opening" and "with opening" cases. The results show that all values repeat the double skin's pattern with a 5 - 9% decrease in the total cooling and a 40 % decrease in the total heating loads ( Fig 10.2.1 - 10.2.2). NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 157 SL SINGLE LAYER, ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 ■ _ O 6000 5500 S 5000 □ 4500 O 4000 O 3500 9 3000 0 2500 S 2000 5 1500 Ul 1000 1 500 AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 SINGLE LAYER/W WINDOW, ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD CO M PO N EN TS 10000 9500 P 9000 £ n*,nn CCCLMO LOA D HEA TJN O LOA D DL DOUBLE LAYER, ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 9000 0500 0000 7500 7000 6500 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 □ - AZ=45 DOUBLE LAYER/W WINDOW, ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 2 9000 m 0500 C O O LIN O L O A D HEAIIW D U INSULATEO LAYERS, ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS P 9000 . - £ a^nn < 6500 - - 2 2500 . - AZ=0 AZ=45 INSULATED LA YER8W WINDOW, ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 9000 - - m 8500 - - * 8000 - - o 6000 . - o 4000 . - O 3500 - - y 3000 - - AZ=45 AZ=90 AZ=0 Fig 10.2.1 A R C H SUPPORTED TENSILE STRU CTU RES TOTAL LO AD COM PONENTS NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 158 SL SINGLE LAYER, ARCH SUPP'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS j 250 AZ=45 AZ=90 AZ=0 □ ! S m <50 ^ 400 SINGLE LAYER/W WINDOW, ARCH SUPP'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS O 150 AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 O 150 AZ=45 AZ=90 AZ=0 DOUBLE LAYER/W WINDOW, ARCH SUPP'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS 500 450 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 DZ,/ INSULATED LAYERS, ARCH SUPP'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS “ 350 - - g l 5 0 - u F 5 0 -- AZ=45 AZ=90 AZ=0 □ ! INSULATED LAYERS/W WINDOW ARCH SUPP'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS H 500 AZ=45 A2=90 A2=0 m i Fig 70.2.2 A R C / / SUPPORTED TENSILE STRU CTU RES P E A K COM PONENTS 159 10.3 WAVE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE The wave shape posts remarkably high values of energy loads. The loads are 52-68 % more comparing to the arch supported and saddle shape tensile structures. The first case, single layer tensile roof records 10657.61, 8747.73, 7950.09 MBTU as total cooling, and 4894.21, 4459.36, 4325.26 MBTU as total heating loads, for 90°, 0°, 45° azimuth angles respectively It is worth mentioning that the contribution ( ranges up to 50 %), of azimuth angle of this shape is considerably very high. An opening placed on the roof surface of this case, registera a relatively small increase of loads, comparing to the previous shapes, which ranges between 1.5 to 14.75 % more than in the wave shape's with no window case. Double layer roof posts a decrease ranges between 40 - 49 % of the total and peak loads, which derives it's importance from the fact that the base load components are very high. Placing an opening on the double layer roof leads to an increase (25 -29 %) of the base total loads, ruining the double layer's saving contributions. The insulated double skin of the roof posts a 12 - 18 % of cooling load decrease, than the double layer, and heating load's disappearance. Replacement of a window does only, increase, already uncontrollable loads about 5 - 7 % comparing with window, but insulated roof case ( Fig 10.3.1. - 10.3.2). NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 1 6 0 SL SINGLE LAYER, WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS SINGLE LAYER/W WINDOW, WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=9D DL DOUBLE LAYER, WAVE SHAPE S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 - - 9000 - - 8500 - - 7500 - - 5000 . _ 5500 - - 2 5000 - - 5 5 2500 2000 DOUBLE LAYER/W WINDOW, WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=50 A2=45 AZ=90 INSULATED LAYERS, WAVE SHAPE'S INSULATED LAYERS/W WIN, WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 1 TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 ? 9000 m 8500 £ 8000 Z 7500 " 7000 < 6500 O 6000 ri 5500 2 5000 □ 4500 O 4000 O 3500 9 3000 § 2500 c 2000 r f 1500 W 1000 X 500 HEA TIN3 H E A IfN : Fig 10.3.1 W AVESHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE'S TOTAL LOAD COM PONENTS NO WINDOW WITH W INDOW 161 SINGLE LAYER7W WINDOW, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS SINGLE LAYER, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS HE AIQW DL DOUBLE LAYER, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS 500 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 J L § 1- DOUBLE LAYER/W WINDOW, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS AZ=45 AZ=90 DLI INSULATED LAYERS, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENT o ,50 AZ=45 AZ=0 □ INSULATED LAYERSA/V WIN, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS I AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 Fig JO. 3.1 WA VE SHAPE TENSILE STRIP 7 '[/HE'S PEAK ( ’ OM PONENTS 10.4 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING LOAD IN THE TENSILE STRUCTURES The last series of the energy tests are M NO DAYLIGHTING" case. "NO DAYLIGHTING" keyword does turn off the natural lighting's contribution, by turning off the light sensors in the zones, and turning on the artificial lighting throughout the day according to the lighting schedule. This assumption is set for all the shapes, in all different azimuth angels, with all different roof skin layers, with and without openings... The energy differences, compared each case with its own base case, through a year represents the extra load that is generated by the full usage of artificial lighting during the lighting schedule hours. The results are graphed on ( Figs 10.4.1. - 10.4.6 ). It simply and clearly can be concluded from these charts, that the "NO DAYLIGHTING" assumption increases the cooling loads by 0.5 -6 % and decreases the heating loads by 1.2- 2.4 % of the annual consumption value. In other words the lighting loads represent a very small and negligible percentage of the building's annual energy consumption value. to o q ' HEAT1NG\C00LING LOAD IN MBTU □ s g s i ; HEATING\COOLING LOAD IN MBTU S a a ;g S g HEAT1NGVCOOLING LOAD IN MBTU HEAT1NG\COOLING LOAD IN MBTU rtT tti i -fi-i-i -1 i i rr- n m HEATING\COOLING LOAD IN MBTU .g|||ll|@ ||||||g||H I I - - 1 i i - i i i r; i i i i -t - i a ■ g g P u HEATING\COOLING LOAD IN MBTU .gggggiliiiiiiiiiml I I I I l"'"l I l-'l ! I I I | * * li O ) O J N O WINDOW NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 164 SINGLE LYR/W WIN/NO DL, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEA K LOAD C O M P O N E N T S SINGLE LAYER/NO DL, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS H E A TIN G DOUBLE LYR/NO DL, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEA K LOAD CO M PO N E N T S DOUBLE LYR/W WIN/NO DL, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEA K LOAD CO M P O N E N T S H EA TIN G LOAD INSULATED/NO DL, SADDLE SHAPE'! PEA K LOAD C O M PO N E N T S DLI I - 500 10 350 8 S «» AZ=45 AZ=0 MSULATEDAN WIN/NO DL, SADDLE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD CO M P O N E N T S ► - u. O < o X D m z Q * = C O o z o o o 6 z AZ=45 AZ=90 M g 1 0 . 4 . 2 SADDLE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE'S PEAK LOAD COM PONENTS DAYLIGHTING - NO NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 165 SINGLE LYR/NO DL, ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD CO M PO N E N T S SINGLE LYR7W WIN/NO DL/ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD C O M P O N E N T S 10000 9500 2 9000 10 8500 c c c u m H B A T i m DOUBLE LYR/NO DUARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD C O M PO N E N T S DOUBLE LYR/W WIN/NO DL/ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD C O M P O N E N T S DL 9500 3500 1500 1000 500 0 AZ=90 10000 9500 9000 6500 DL1 Z 7500 Q 7000 < 6500 O 6000 « 6500 2 5000 3 4500 o 4000 O 3500 3000 O 2500 ^ 2000 § 1500 3 1000 INSULATED/NO DL/ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD C O M PO N E N T S □ AZ=0 INSULATED/W WIN/NO DL/ARCH SUPP'S TOTAL LOAD C O M P O N E N T S |ry r 7 7 ~ j H EA ' A2=45 F i g 1 0 . 4 . 3 A R C H SUPPORTED TENSILE STKUC PURE'S TOTAT LOAD COM PONENTS DAYLIGHTING NO 1 6 6 N O W INDO W W ITH W INDOW SL SINGLE LYR/NO DL, ARCH SUPP'S PEA K LOAD C O M PO N E N T S 500 400 350 300 250 200 1 50 100 50 0 AZ=0 A2=45 AZ=90 SINGLE LYR/W WIN/NO DL, ARCH SUPP'S PEA K LOAD C O M P O N E N T S Hi I f l i P AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 DL DOUBLE LYR/NO DL, ARCH SUPP'S PEA K LOAD C O M PO N E N T S 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 1 50 100 50 0 DOUBLE LYR/W WIN/NO DL, ARCH SUPP'S PEA K LOAD C O M P O N E N T S H i AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 INSULATED/NO DL, ARCH SUPP'S DLJ P 5 0 :- AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 INSULATED/W WIN/NO DL, ARCH SUPP'S PEA K LOAD C O M P O N E N T S AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 F/g / a-/.-/ A RCH SUPPORTED TENSILE STRUCTURE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS DA YLIGHTING = NO NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 167 SL SINGLE LYR/NO DL/WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 H EA TIN G LOAD S1NOLE LAYER/W WINDOW, WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 H EA TJN O DL DOUBLE LAYER, WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS H EA TIN G LOA D DOUBLE LAYER/W WINDOW, WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 9500 P 9000 £ 0500 S 0000 Z 7500 q 7000 < 6500 O 6000 “ 5500 2 5 0 0 0 5 4500 O 4000 O 3500 52 3000 2 2500 E 2000 1500 K 1000 500 H EA TIN G DLI INSULATED/NO DL/WAVE SHAPE'S TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS 10000 _ 9500 g 9000 g 6500 S 0000 Z 7500 Q 7000 < 6500 g 6ooo 5500 2 5000 3 4500 o 4000 O 3500 9 3000 O 2500 S 2000 5 1500 m 1000 2 500 INSULATED/W WIN/NO DL/WAVE SH A P E 'S TOTAL LOAD COM PONENTS 10000 9500 P 9000 £ 0500 5 0000 Z 7509 r 7ooo < 6500 O 6000 5500 2 5000 3 4500 O 4000 0 3500 52 3000 2 2500 c 2000 1500 W 1000 1 500 COCUNG H EA TIN G Fig 10.4.5 WA VE SHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURES TOTAL LOAD COMPONENTS DAYLIGHTING = NO NO WINDOW WITH WINDOW 168 SL SINGLE LYR/NO DL, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS H EA TIN O SINGLE LYR/W WIN/NO DL, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS a: AZ=0 DL & CO 450 400 - - DOUBLE LYR/NO DL, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 DOUBLE LYR/W WIN/NO DL, WAVE SHAPE*8 PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS Q 300 _ | 250 AZ=45 AZ=90 D l l INSULATED/NO DL, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS H EA TIN O INSULATED/W WIN/NO DL, WAVE SHAPE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS & 50° f «9 450 . - AZ=0 AZ=45 AZ=90 Fig 10.4.5 WAVESHAPE TENSILE STRUCTURE'S PEAK LOAD COMPONENTS DAYLIGHTING = NO 169 CHAPTER XI 10.1 CONCLUSIONS, OBSERVATIONS AND COMPARISONS It was useful to consider the question of the trade off between the daylighting illumination values and the energy performance of tensile structures in an extreme climate, because the answers will guide to an improved usage of these structures providing helpful and practical solutions to include the advantages, and exclude the disadvantages of the climate during the design process. This research highlights the sufficiency of the tensile structures in extreme climates for all public and residential facilities. Overall, the following conclusions can be made as an abbreviation of this research's output. (1) Shape: The key factor resulting from the variation in shape (when the volume is fixed) is the exterior surface area of the fabric roof. It is very important to balance the trade off between the daylight illumination levels, which improve with large exterior surface areas of fabric, and the energy consumption of the building, which relates negatively to the large surface areas. Because of the double curved geometry and translucent characteristics, the tensile structures have larger outdoor exposed roof area, making the achievement of sufficient, illumination level in the space easy. Since the conduction and the solar gain of the fabric roof represent about 75% of the annual total cooling load, the control of the fabric roof surface becomes an important 170 issue. From this point of view the most satisfactory results can be obtained from the saddle shape. Arch supported shapes are in the middle and the worst results come from wave shapes. (2) Azimuth angles: The results can be improved, in different percentages, by orienting the slopes which have larger fabric roof areas to the East and West. For example in the saddle shape case, the axis through the high points should be oriented North - South.. The arch supported shape's best situation will be to run the arches parallel to North - South axis. The wave shape registers the highest (55 - 65 %) improvement, when the ridges of the structure run from North - South resulting in slopes facing East - West. (3) Skin Layers: In extreme climatic areas the double layer fabric skin's energy performance is much preferable to a single - layer fabric. The outputs recorded from the insulated double skin fabric roof show the high effect of the insulation material on the annual total loads, especially the heating loads. So in a cold climate, the fabric roof, in combination with translucent insulation, will provide efficient thermal performance (because the insulation layer decreases the heating loads tremendeously), ,while simultaneously allowing for daylighting the enclosed space. (4) Windows and openings: This research examines the windows or openings placed both on the roof surface and on the exterior, perimeter walls. 171 The openings on the roof, do not register, uniform positive values. A change occurs in the particular area, increasing the illumination level, causing glaring spots and allowing the entry of the direct solar radiation into the space. This causes localized overheating without general illumination benefits. When the openings are on the correct oriented vertical surfaces (as is discussed in detail in daylighting section), there will be a uniform and comfortable level of daylighting. It is easy to protect the interior from direct solar radiation and control the illumination levels in the space using different design strategies. If there is a design application to be met, and an opening is desirable the best situation would be an opening placed around a peak point of a mast. Some of the obstacles that I faced while conducting my research was resulted either from the unlimited possible shapes and sizes or from the exceeding limits of the computer memory while simulating complex shapes, such as point supported shape. In time these methods and obstacles can be used for future references as a starting point for research materials. The development of the translucent insulation will have a tremendous effect on the growth of the tensile structures in the future. 172 CHAPTER XII 12 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.- Amin, Said Yousef, "Gateway to Mecca1 1 , Lighting Design and Application, March 1985, pp. 15 - 21. 2 - Architectural Research Laboratory College of Architecture and Urban Planning, "Energy Performance of Fabric roof Structures. March 1981, Michigan. 3.- Civil Engineering, "Passive Solar and Daylighting Cut Building's Energy Use", vol 53, pp. 58 - 60. 4- Climatic Data of Syria. National Public Library, 1987. 5.- Cron, D. "Tent Structure Designed to Endure, Architectural Record, Mid August, 1979, pp. 86 - 90. 6.- Drew, P. Tensile Architecture", Westview Press Inc., 1979. 7.- Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol=28, Knowledge in Depth, 15th edition 1990 pp. 374 - 387. 8 - ENG, "Jeddah's Haii Terminal - 105 acres covered fabric roof1 , January 18, 1979, pp. 60 - 62. 9- ENG, "Riyadh Stadium roof spans 945 ft.,Tension Fabric Structure shades 60000 seats". July 25, 1985, pp. 29 - 31. 173 10.- The First International Conference on Lightweight Structures in Architecture, " Lightweight Structures in Architecture LSA 86" . vol I and II, Sydney. 11.- The First Saudi Engineering Conference ."The International Stadium. Riyadh". 1983, General Presidency of Youth Welfare, pp. 57 - 65. 12.- Grasso M. Ph.D., and Hunn, B. D. Ph.D., "Measuring Solar Heat Reduction for Draperies and Fabric Shades". ASHRAE Journal, August 1991, pp. 26 - 30. 13.- Hart, G., Blancent, R., "The use of DOE-2.1 A Energy Performance of davlighted retail stores covered with tension supported fabric roofs", Elsivier Sequioa a Lausand, Energy and Buildings, vol 6, 1984, pp. 343 - 352. 14.- IL - Institute of Lightweight Structures"Nets in Nature and Technics", vol 8, Germany, Stutgart, 1975 15.- IL - Institute of Lightweight Structures"Grid Shells", vol 10, Germany, Stutgart, 1974. 16.- IL - Institute of Lightweight Structures, "Adaptable Architecture", vol 14, Germany, Strutgart, 1975, pp. 84-89. 17.- IL - Institute of Lightweight Structures"Convertible Roofs", vol 15, Germany, Stutgart, 1972. 18.- IL - Institute of Lightweight Structures. "The Tent Cities of Haii". , vol 29, Germany, Stutgart, 1980. 175 29.- Roland, Conrad, Frie Otto: Tension Structures, Praeger Publishers, New York. 30.- 31.- 32.- 33.- Schierle, Gotthilf Goetz, Lightweight Tension Structures, University of California, Berkeley, October 1967 - 68. Schwartz, P. and Shahpurwala, A.A., "Modeling Woven Fabric Tensile Strength Using Statistical Bundle Theory". Textile Research Journal, pp. 26 -32. Subramaniam V., Sivakumar M., Srinivasan, V., & Sasikala M., " Determining Factors that Affect Fabric Shear Behavior with the Twist Method", Textile Research Institute, pp. 368 - 370. Sveda, T., Miller, B., and Rebenfeld L., "Foam / Fabric Interaction Under Shear", Textile Research Institute, pp. 674 - 678. 34 - Tsubouch K. "Thickness of the still air layer adhering to perforated plastic plates and fabric". Textile Research Institute, pp. 86 -90.
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Boyajian, Yekaterina
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Energy performance and daylighting illumination levels of tensile structures in an extreme climate
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Master of Building Science
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Building Science
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University of Southern California
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Schiler, Marc (
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), Knowles, Ralph Lewis (
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