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Content SHAKESPEARE'S USE OF NEW COMEDY
IN THREE LOVE TRAGEDIES: ROMEO
AND JULIET, OTHELLO, AND HAMLET
by
W illiam J o e l H art
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In 'P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t of th e
R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
( E n g lis h )
May 1985
UM I Number: DP23104
All rights reserved
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under the direction of h.is. Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of re
quirements for the degree of
P h .D.
&
This dissertation, written by
William Joel Hart
D O C TO R OF PHILOSOPH Y
D e/tyo f Graduate Studies
D a te ......
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairperson
C o n t e n t s :
I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................... 1
1. The L i t e r a r y E x p r e s s i o n o f Changing A t t i t u d e s
to w a rd Women, C o u r t s h i p , and M a rria g e from
C l a s s i c a l Times t o t h e R e n a i s s a n c e .................................................11
2. N o r th r o p F r y e ’ s T h e o r i e s o f Comedy..................................................35
3. Romeo and J u l i e t .................................. 69
4. Q t h e l l P ...................................... • . . 1 0 7
5. H a m le t .................................................................................................................... 150
B i b l i o g r a p h y ..........................................................................................................201
i i
Introduction
T his study was i n s p i r e d in a fundam ental way by
N o rth ro p F r y e 's t h e o r i e s on th e s t r u c t u r e of S h a k e s p e a r e 's
c o m e d ie s .1 E s s e n t i a l l y * I am a t t e m p t i n g to ex ten d F r y e 's
i d e a s to t h r e e o f th e d r a m a t i s t ' s t r a g e d i e s — Romeo and
J u l i e t , O t h e l l o , and H am let.
S h ak esp eare was one of th e few E l i z a b e th a n s to w r i t e
both ro m a n tic comedies and lo v e t r a g e d i e s . Of th e form er
t h e r e a re n in e : The Comedy of E r r o r s , L o v e 's Labors L o s t .
The Taming of th e Shrew, The Two Gentlemen of V erona. A
Midsummer N i g h t 's Dream, Much Ado About N o th in g , As You
Like I t , T w e lfth N ig h t, and The Merrv Wives of W indsor.
Of th e l a t t e r , f o u r : Romeo and J u l . i e t , O t h e l l o , H am let,
and Antony and C l e o p a t r a . I f we compare th e s e two groups
a b s t r a c t l y , in terras of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s , p l o t s , and
themes, we soon n o t i c e s i m i l a r i t i e s and p a r a l l e l s . Three
of th e s e fo u r Shakespearean lo v e t r a g e d i e s i n c o r p o r a t e
m a t e r i a l s found in many or a l l of th e d r a m a t i s t ' s
com edies— m a t e r i a l s S h ak esp eare i n h e r i t e d in l a r g e p a r t
from th e s t r u c t u r e of Greek and Roman New Comedy. Antony
and C l e o p a t r a , a lo n e , i s r e l a t i v e l y f r e e of th e comedic
ele m e n ts. That i s because i t l a c k s th e most e s s e n t i a l
f e a t u r e of New Comedy: a t l e a s t one p a i r of in n o c e n t young
1
l o v e r s who want t o m arry. The Roman g e n e r a l and th e
E gyptian Queen a r e h a rd ly such a p a i r . They a r e m ature
f i g u r e s , e x p e r ie n c e d in lo v e and c y n i c a l about m a rria g e ,
as Antony d e m o n stra te s so c l e a r l y in h i s p o l i t i c union
w ith O c ta v ia . S h ak esp eare took t h e i r s to r y from P l u t a r c h ,
a c l a s s i c a l a u th o r , w ith o u t g r e a t l y a l t e r i n g th e p a ssio n
t h a t u n i t e s th e tw o --a p a s sio n of t h e co m p ellin g ,
d e s t r u c t i v e v a r i e t y t y p i c a l of c l a s s i c a l lo v e s t o r i e s .
In w r i t i n g Romeo and J u l i e t , O t h e l l o , and H am let,
however, S h ak esp eare used R enaissance s o u rc e s f o r h i s
p l o t s , and t h e s e came to him w ith th e p r i n c i p a l comedic
m a t e r i a l s a lre a d y i n t a c t — t h a t i s , w ith a m a r r i a g e a b l e
p a i r of l o v e r s and a condensed or a c c e l e r a t e d New Comic
p l o t . 2 As S h ak esp eare .transform ed t h e s e s o u rc e s i n t o h i s
t r a g e d i e s , I s h a l l arg u e , he e l a b o r a t e d and s y s te m a tiz e d
t h e i r comic c o n te n t, r e o r g a n i z i n g i t i n t o p a t t e r n s c lo s e ly
re se m b lin g th o s e found in h i s New Comedies. In a d d i t i o n
he c l a r i f i e d and r e f i n e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between th e
comic m a t e r i a l s and t h e i r l a r g e r t r a g i c en v iro n m e n ts,
c h i e f l y by d e v e lo p in g a h o s t of deep i r o n i e s i m p l i c i t in
th e f u s io n of two such c o n t r a s t i v e g e n re s ( l i n k e d by t h e i r
d i f f e r e n t i a l t h e m a tic embodiment of e ro s and t h a n a t o s ) .
M arriage i s th e key. To u n d e rs ta n d th e f u n c t i o n of th e
New Comic m a t e r i a l s w i t h i n th e t h r e e lo v e t r a g e d i e s , we
need to c o n s id e r S h a k e s p e a r e 's p r e s e n t a t i o n of m a rria g e ,
2
and of lo v e l e a d i n g to m a r ria g e , in th e two s o r t s of
drama, comic and t r a g i c .
The m a r r ia g e s t h a t conclude S h a k e s p e a r e 's New
Comedies a r e th e obvious g o a ls of t h e s e p la y s. In them
th e c o n f l i c t s t h a t have s u s t a i n e d th e d ra m a tic a c t i o n a r e
put s a f e l y to r e s t a s th e l o v e r s a r e r e u n i t e d w ith one
a n o th e r and r e c o n c i l e d w ith t h e i r community in what we
presume w i l l be an e n d u rin g and p r o d u c tiv e union. Since
these, m a r r i a g e s promise c h i l d r e n , they r e p r e s e n t th e
f u t u r e of t h e i r s o c i e t i e s i n embryonic form. They sta n d
f o r maximum f u l f i l l m e n t on th e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , f e c u n d i t y
on th e b i o l o g i c a l l e v e l , harmony and c o n t i n u i t y on th e
s o c i a l l e v e l .
As Frye has shown us, an im p o rta n t p r o c e s s in
S h a k e s p e a r e 's comedies i s th e e d u c a tio n of i n d i v i d u a l
l o v e r s ( e s p e c i a l l y th e m ales) fo r th e m a r ria g e s they w i l l
e n t e r a t th e p l a y ’ s e n d . 3 T y p i c a l l y , in th e e a r l y a c t s ,
t h e s e l o v e r s a r e bound by immature, s e l f - r e f l e x i v e forms
of p a s s io n . P r o te u s l u s t s ; O rsino i n d u l g e s
n a r c i s s i s t i c a l l y in u n r e q u ite d l o v e ; B e a t r i c e and Benedick
sp a r s a r d o n i c a l l y , denying t h e i r r e a l f e e l i n g s . In th e
p r o c e s s of t h e i r p la y s, however, th e s e l o v e r s a r e t r i c k e d
or h u m i l i a t e d i n t o g r e a t e r s e l f - a w a r e n e s s , so t h a t each
can overcome s o l i p s i s t i c lo v e t o e n t e r t r u e communion w ith
th e o t h e r . Sometimes a fem ale t u t o r such as R o sa lin d in
3
As You Like I t or th e P r in c e s s in L o v e’ s L a b o r s Lost
o v e r s e e s th e i n s t r u c t i o n . Sometimes, as in Midsummer
N i g h t ’ s Dream, th e t e a c h e r s a r e more o b v io u sly a s s o c i a t e d
w ith th e n a t u r a l w orld, so t h a t in a sense we see
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of th e p r i m i t i v e l i f e f o r c e " c l e a n s in g "
th e l o v e r s b e f o re they mate in s e r v i c e of t h a t f o r c e .
Since Menander, i t has been t y p i c a l of New Comedy to
show o ld e r g e n e r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r s u n d erg o in g e d u c a tio n , i f
not punishm ent, t o i n s u r e t h e i r com pliance w ith th e
co n c lu d in g m a r r ia g e s . S hakespeare was th e f i r s t comic
d r a m a t i s t who c o n s i s t e n t l y in c lu d e d p a r a l l e l e d u c a t i o n a l
p r o c e s s e s f o r th e young l o v e r s of h i s p la y s. In f a c t , in
a l l h i s comic dramas ex cep t The Comedy of E r r o r s and The
Merrv W ives, th e p r i n c i p a l d ra m a tic f o c u s f a l l s on th e
young and t h e i r problems w ith lo v e . One re a so n th e s e
comedies a r e profound i s t h a t ro m a n tic p a s s io n i s not
assumed v i r t u o u s prima f a c i e , but r a t h e r i s t e s t e d ,
n u r tu r e d , and improved, becoming v i r t u o u s th ro u g h t r i a l
and a d ju s tm e n t. The m a r ria g e s , when they a r r i v e , s e a l and
c o n s e c r a t e ro m a n tic bonds t h a t have been seasoned and made
d u r a b le . The l e s s o n s t h a t S h a k e s p e a re ’ s l o v e r s
i n t e r n a l i z e in t h e i r movement from i n t e n s e , d e l u s i v e s e l f
involvem ent to f u l l e r com panionship w ith t h e i r p a r t n e r s
would appear aimed a t shaping un io n s of i n t e l l e c t u a l and
s p i r i t u a l harmony. The "m arriag e of t r u e m in d s," in
4
S h a k e s p e a r e 's ro m a n tic comedies* becomes th e s o c i a l
i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t l e g i t i m i z e s and l i b e r a t e s th e b a s i c human
need to p ro c re a te * tem p e rin g i t w ith c l e a r - s i g h t e d , mutual
lo v e between man and woman.
We s h a l l see how m a rria g e in S hak esp earea n lo v e
tra g e d y i s in some r e s p e c t s th e i n v e r s e or th e p o la r
o p p o s it e of i t s c o u n t e r p a r t in comedy. In th e t r a g e d i e s ,
th e weddings ta k e p la c e a t or near th e b e g in n in g of th e
play, r a t h e r th a n a t th e end* and th e t r a g i c p l o t s p o r tr a y
t h e demise of t h e s e m a r r ia g e s , as lo v e f a i l s and th e
m a trim o n ia l bonds to o h a s t i l y confirm ed prove v u l n e r a b l e
to e x t e r n a l a t t a c k . In both Romeo and J u l i e t and O th e llo
t h e l o v e r s ru s h i n t o m a rria g e p re m a tu re ly , w h ile s t i l l
c au g h t up in s e l f - r e f l e x i v e forms of p a s s io n . The
r e s u l t i n g unio n s a r e t h e r e f o r e u n s t a b l e compounds*
d angerous, e v e n t u a l l y f a t a l to th e l o v e r s and to o t h e r s as
w e ll. In th e absence of m ature s e lf-k n o w le d g e and m utual
u n d e r s ta n d in g between th e p airs* th e s tr o n g p a s s i o n s of
lo v e slow ly c o n v e rt under e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e to s u i c i d a l
d e s p a i r , in th e e a r l i e r p la y , and to h o m icid al je a l o u s y in
th e l a t e r one. H a m le t, somewhat more complex, c o n t a i n s
both a m a rria g e t h a t should have been, but w a s n 't (Hamlet
and O p h e lia ), and a m a rria g e t h a t should never have ta k e n
p la c e . In a r e a l sense th e bad m a rria g e d e s t r o y s th e
good, a s th e im p ro p r ie ty o f G e r t r u d e 's union w ith C lau d iu s
5
w arps H a m le t’ s view of womankind, d r i v i n g him from
O p h e lia . As in th e o t h e r p la y s, th e f a i l u r e s of lo v e
e v e n t u a l l y b rin g about th e d e a th s of th e l o v e r s .
T his study w i l l show t h a t th e t h r e e t r a g e d i e s can
p r o f i t a b l y be viewed a s S hak esp earea n New Comedy "p la y e d
b a c k w a rd ." In th e comedies, where com panionable m a r r ia g e s
a re s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n s o l i d a t e d , and where th e f o r c e s of
s t e r i l i t y in th e human w orld a r e p r o p i t i a t e d , i n d i v i d u a l
h a p p in e s s and s o c i a l r e g e n e r a t i o n a re a s s u r e d , im plying
t h a t lo v e — i f i t be t r u e — can conquer a l l . In th e
t r a g e d i e s , c o n v e r s e ly , th e lo v e t i e s a r e p r o b le m a tic and
th e m a r r ia g e s im proper or weak, so t h a t th e f o r c e s of
s t e r i l i t y a r e a b le t o u su rp comic f u n c t i o n s in o r d e r to
a s s a u l t and c o r r u p t lo v e along i t s fla w s. The l o v e r s move
from e a r l y m a r ria g e t o f i f t h - a c t f u n e r a l , as s o c i e t y
f o r f e i t s th e c h i l d r e n t h e i r u n io n s-m ig h t have produced.
The d e m o n s tra tio n of t h e s e more p e s s i m i s t i c p la y s i s t h a t
in a d e q u a te , s e l f - s e r v i n g lo v e can b rin g about th e
e x t i n c t i o n of f a m i l i e s and th e d e p l e t i o n of p o s t e r i t y .
Romeo and J u l i e t , O t h e l l o , and Hamlet a r e th u s t h r e e
of th e most complex and i n t e r e s t i n g g en re-m ix in g
e x p e rim e n ts in R en a issa n ce drama— n o t tr a g ic o m e d ie s , but
f u l l t r a g e d i e s evolved from th e b a s ic s t u f f of comedy.
S h ak esp eare adds some of th e b e s t p la y s ever w r i t t e n to a
t r a d i t i o n of lo v e tra g e d y s t r e t c h i n g back t o E u r i p i d e s ,
6
but he grounds t h e s e p la y s f ir m l y in th e c o n cern s of h i s
contem porary w o rld , th ro u g h th e m a r r i a g e s they c o n ta in .
By examining t h e s e t r a g e d i e s c a r e f u l l y , and by t r a c i n g
t h e i r many c o n n e c tio n s to th e a u t h o r ' s New Comedies, I
b e l i e v e we g a in i n s i g h t i n t o S h a k e s p e a r e 's methods of
r e p r e s e n t i n g d r a m a t i c a l l y th e d e e p e s t of human bonds.
Taken t o g e t h e r , th e comedies and t r a g e d i e s d is c u s s e d h ere
can h e lp c l a r i f y S h a k e s p e a r e 's i d e a s c o n c e rn in g ro m a n tic
lo v e l e a d i n g to m a r r ia g e — both i t s i d e a l c o n s t i t u t i o n and
th e human w eaknesses t h a t o b s t r u c t and endanger i t .
Susan Snyder, in The Comic M atrix of S h a k e s p e a r e 's
T r a g e d i e s , has examined th e f u n c t i o n of comic m a t e r i a l s in
th e p la y s I d i s c u s s , and i n King Lear a s w e l l . Although
h er i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of O t h e l l o , in p a r t i c u l a r , i s h e l p f u l ,
one m ajor d i f f e r e n c e in p ro c e d u re has l e d us to l a r g e l y
d i f f e r e n t c o n c lu s io n s . Both P r o f e s s o r Snyder and I r e l y
upon an a b s t r a c t comic schema or " b l u e p r i n t " to guide
a n a l y s i s of comic e le m e n ts in t h e t r a g e d i e s , but in
d e r i v i n g h e r s she t u r n s t o a l l t h e s u r v i v i n g p o pular
comedies and t r a g ic o m e d ie s t h a t ap p eared i n th e y e a r s j u s t
p re v io u s t o Romeo and J u l i e t . 4 M y a p p ro ach i s t o l i m i t
th e comedies c o n s id e r e d t o S h a k e s p e a r e 's own. Among the
e ig h te e n p la y s Snyder c o n s u l t s in fram in g h er schema, only
f i v e a r e S h ak esp earea n , a l l of th e s e e a r l y e f f o r t s t h a t
a re in some r e s p e c t s l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g th a n th e l a t e r p la y s
7
she e x lu d e s — p la y s such as Much Ado About N o th in g , As You
Like I t , and T w e lfth N ig h t. Thus th e l i s t of comic
a t t r i b u t e s t h a t Snyder i s o l a t e s from o t h e r d r a m a t i s t s and
from S h a k e s p e a r e 's e a r l y work does not i n c l u d e th e most
s a l i e n t comic p a t t e r n s p e c u l i a r to S h a k e s p e a r e 's p la y s,
w hether comedies or t r a g e d i e s . Although S h ak esp eare
o b v io u sly sh a re d a g r e a t deal w ith h i s c o n te m p o r a rie s in
th e p r e s e n t a t i o n of comic drama, he was i n n o v a t i v e i n many
ways. When th e p l a y s chosen f o r a n a l y s i s a r e r e s t r i c t e d
t o S h a k e s p e a r e 's own comic work, one need not s e t out to
d e r i v e a comic schema ob ovo, because one t h a t i s both
c o h e r e n t and i l l u m i n a t i n g has been a v a i l a b l e f o r some time
in F r y e ' s sem inal d i s c u s s i o n s of S h ak esp earea n ro m a n tic
comedy. I am deep ly in d e b te d t o P r o f e s s o r Frye f o r my
u n d e r s ta n d in g of both S h a k e s p e a r e 's New Comedies and the
S h akespearean lo v e t r a g e d i e s . A lthough I had n o t i c e d
c o n n e c tio n s between th e two k in d s of p la y , i t was not
u n t i l I s tu d i e d F r y e ' s i d e a s and c o n te m p la te d th e comedies
i n h i s term s t h a t I began to see .the t r a g e d i e s as
som ething very s i m i l a r t o e x e r c i s e s in n e g a tio n on th e
same comic t r a d i t i o n .
Since Frye s e e s S h a k e s p e a r e 's comedies a s e x p r e s s i n g
b a s ic p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s o c i a l t r u t h s ab o u t human
s e x u a l i t y and c o u r t s h i p , my f i r s t c h a p te r p r o v id e s a b r i e f
8
survey of S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s h e r i t a g e in such m a t t e r s . The
changing a t t i t u d e s toward women, ro m a n tic lo v e , m a r ria g e ,
and fam ily l i f e a re t r a c e d from th e c l a s s i c a l p e rio d to
th e E n g lis h R e n a issa n c e , w ith p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n given
t o th e p re se n c e of th e s e a t t i t u d e s in p o e try and drama.
Chapter two g iv e s d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o F r y e ’ s i d e a s
on S h a k e s p e a r e 's comedies, p ro p o se s a schema, and t e s t s
th e components of t h i s schema a g a i n s t s p e c i f i c comedies.
C h a p te rs t h r e e , f o u r , and f i v e employ th e schema to
a n a ly z e and i n t e r p r e t Romeo and J u l i e t , O t h e l l o , and
Hamlet in t u r n .
9
Notes
1 D e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of F r y e 's t h e o r i e s and c i t a t i o n
of th e r e l e v a n t works can be found i n C hapter Two. Frye
has w r i t t e n t h a t he n e i t h e r w ants nor t r u s t s d i s c i p l e s ,
and t h a t he would be " h o r r i f i e d to h e a r of anyone
p ro p o sin g t o make h i s own work r e v o lv e around mine, u n l e s s
I were s u re t h a t meant a genuine freedom f o r him ."
P r o f e s s o r F r y e ’ s i d e a s have in f a c t meant freedom f o r me.
i n t h a t they have p ro v id e d a t h e o r e t i c a l framework and a
la n g u a g e w ith which t o e x p l a i n my o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e rn in g
th e p l i g h t of lo v e in th e t h r e e S h ak esp earea n t r a g e d i e s .
While no d i s c i p l e . I am in d e b te d . See S p i r i t u s Mundi:
E ssay s on L i t e r a t u r e . Mvth and S o c ie ty (Bloom ington:
I n d ia n a Univ. P r e s s , 1976), p. 100.
2 I am f o llo w in g Kenneth Muir in assum ing t h a t th e
a u th o r of th e Ur-Hamlet pro b ab ly changed O p h elia from a
s e d u c t r e s s to a g i r l who took H a m le t's lo v e s e r i o u s l y .
See The S ources of S h a k e s p e a r e 's Plavs (New Haven; Yale
Univ. P re ss , 1978), pp. 159-160 and p. 163.
3N orthrop Frye, A N a tu ra l P e r s p e c t i v e (New York:
Columbia Univ. P r e s s , 1965), pp. 76-86.
4S usan Snyder, The Comic Matrix of S h a k e s p e a r e 's
T r a g e d ie s ( P r i n c e t o n : P r in c e to n Univ. P r e s s , 1979), p. 7
and p. 17-18.
10
Chapter One
L i t e r a r y E x p re s sio n of Changing A t t i t u d e s tow ard Women,
C o u r ts h ip , and M arriage from C l a s s i c a l Times t o th e
R e n a issa n c e
Evidence from European s o c i a l h i s t o r y s u g g e s t s t h a t
th e p e r c e iv e d v a lu e of woman— a s an i n t e l l e c t , a s a lo v e
o b j e c t , and a s a m a r i t a l p a r t n e r — r o s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y in
th e l a t e Middle Ages and t h e R e n a issa n c e . But th e a c t u a l
change in s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s la g g e d f a r behind th e
e x p r e s s i o n of th e new a t t i t u d e s in p o e try .
For p e r s p e c t i v e we must r e c a l l th e s t r o n g l y
p a t r i a r c h a l c h a r a c t e r of c l a s s i c a l Greece and Rome.1 Both
c u l t u r e s assumed t h a t women .were i n f e r i o r and t h a t th e
fem ale mind la c k e d c a p a c i t y f o r f u l l a d u l t m ental and
moral developm ent. I n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s were th o u g h t p o s s i b l e only between m ales.
We see t h i s in th e P h a e d ru s , f o r example, where P l a t o
d i s c u s s e s a t l e n g t h th e s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s of lo v e , from
c r u d e s t to most sublim e, w ith o u t once m en tio n in g woman.
Of c o u rse , p a s s i o n a t e ro m a n tic l i a i s o n s between m a le s and
fe m a le s o c c u rre d , but t h e s e were g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e re d
unwise and p o t e n t i a l l y d i s a s t r o u s . In Greek and Roman
11
l i t e r a t u r e such lo v e f i n d s i t s home in tra g e d y . In r e a l
l i f e th e sa n e r p ro c e d u re was f o r a man t o marry a woman to
bear and r e a r h i s c h i l d r e n and to manage h i s household,
w h ile he c u l t i v a t e d th e f i n e r f e e l i n g s , i n c l u d i n g ro m a n tic
ones, e x t r a m a r i t a l l y among men.
C h r i s t i a n i t y d id l i t t l e t o a l t e r such a t t i t u d e s , a t
l e a s t i n i t i a l l y . The e a r l y Church F a t h e r s , no doubt in
p a r t because of t h e i r commitment to s t r i c t c e l i b a c y ,
proved as p a t e r n a l i s t i c in o u tlo o k a s t h e i r c l a s s i c a l
p r e d e c e s s o r s . The c h a s t i t y of th e p r i e s t h o o d in f a c t
became th e i d e a l f o r a l l C h r i s t i a n s , though Paul and
o t h e r s recommended m a rria g e as a s e c o n d - b e s t means of
a v o id in g s in f o r th o s e to o weak to p r a c t i c e th e i d e a l .
Romantic lo v e was f l a t l y d is c o u r a g e d , even w i t h i n
m a r ria g e . I t was presumed to anchor th e mind in th e
c a r n a l , e n t i c i n g t h e f l e s h toward s in and th u s p r e v e n tin g
f r e e and c l e a r communion w ith God. Woman, th e "weaker
v e s s e l , " was known t o be e s p e c i a l l y prone to e r r o r . Her
h e r i t a g e was t h a t of Eve th e se d u c e r, th ro u g h whom a l l
mankind had f a l l e n from g ra c e .
Thus from th e dawn of r e c o rd e d European h i s t o r y
th ro u g h th e f i r s t m ille n iu m A .D ., woman was r e g a rd e d not
only as l e s s th a n man, but a s an o b j e c t u n f i t to i n s p i r e
wholesome male p a s s io n . I t was ab o u t 1100, and in th e
c e n t u r i e s f o llo w in g , t h a t ev id e n c e of change appeared on
12
s e v e r a l fronts.. The most s p e c t a c u l a r o r i g i n a t e d in
s o u th e r n France, a s th e c o u r t l y lo v e t r a d i t i o n flo w e re d in
t h e p o e t i c l y r i c of t h e P roven 9a l t r o u b a d o u r s . 2 These
i t i n e r a n t p o e ts go f a r beyond a c c e p t i n g woman a s a
s u i t a b l e o b j e c t f o r male d e v o tio n ; they g l o r i f y h e r,
r e v e r i n g th e t r a n s c e n d e n t p a s s io n she a lo n e i s th o u g h t
c a p a b le of i n s p i r i n g in man. C o u rtly lo v e , though based
in p h y s ic a l d e s i r e , n o n e t h e l e s s became a recommended means
of s p i r i t u a l p u r i f i c a t i o n f o r both sexes. Moreover, t h e s e
new a t t i t u d e s toward lo v e and woman proved im m ediately
p o p u la r, s p re a d in g from Languedoc to th e p o e try of
n o r t h e r n F ran ce, and from t h e r e to Germany, I t a l y , Spain,
and England. W ithin a c e n tu ry of th e e a r l i e s t s u r v i v i n g
tro u b a d o u r l y r i c , th e movement had e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f , in
Maurice V a l e n c y 's words, "everyw here in t h e W estern w orld
where a c o u r t l y a r t co u ld c o n c e i v a b l y - t a k e r o o t . "3
About th e same t i m e , - th e C u lt of Mary was f l o u r i s h i n g
w i t h i n th e Church, a t t r a c t i n g d e v o te e s th ro u g h o u t Europe,
p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e s o u th e rn c o u n t r i e s . Valency e x p l a i n s
t h e c u l t as an o b v io u s r e a c t i o n to th e s e c u l a r lo v e
t r a d i t i o n . The w o rsh ip of Mary in th e South was " s t r o n g l y
e s t a b l i s h e d " by th e t w e l f t h c e n tu r y , and d u rin g th e next
hundred y e a r s " p r a c t i c a l l y d i s p l a c e d th e male T r i n i t y in
p o p u la r d e v o t i o n . " 1 * While th e common people prayed to th e
B le s s e d Mother t o i n t e r c e d e f o r them w ith God t h e F a th e r ,
13
r e l i g i o u s p o e ts la u d e d h er in v e r s e , o f t e n in language
q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h a t of c o u r t l y lo v e . The two p o e t i c
movements— so d i f f e r e n t in u l t i m a t e i n t e n t but s h a r i n g an
e c s t a t i c d e v o tio n t o woman— i n t e r t w i n e , m ingle, and f u s e
in t h e l y r i c of t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry and beyond.-. In
some of th e poems th e f u s i o n i s so com plete t h a t i t i s
d i f f i c u l t f o r th e modern r e a d e r t o d e te rm in e w hether th e
po et i s a d d r e s s i n g a f l e s h - a n d - b l o o d woman or t h e V i r g in
Mary.
A t h i r d t r a d i t i o n , P la to n ism , was a l s o employed t o
honor woman d u rin g t h i s p e r io d . P la to had argued in th e
Phaedrus and t h e Symposium t h a t pure and r e f i n i n g lo v e
between men could p ro v id e a l a d d e r f o r th e l o v e r ’s s o u l,
s p e e d in g i t s a s c e n t to d iv in e T ru th and B eauty. These
i d e a s re a c h e d m edieval Europe i n d i r e c t l y and in somewhat
d i f f e r e n t form th ro u g h P l a t o ' s i n t e r p r e t e r s , pagan and
C h r i s t i a n , and a p p a r e n t l y p ro v id e d a s t r u c t u r e f o r th e new
concept of c o u r t l y lo v e . In both P l a t o n i c and c o u r t l y
system s th e f i n e a p p r e c i a t i o n of th e b e l o v e d 's .beauty and
perso n opens a c c e s s t o d i v i n e knowledge. What th e
tro u b a d o u rs change i s th e sex o f t h e b elo v ed . Woman
becomes th e means to th e d iv in e , as homosexual lo v e y i e l d s
t o h e t e r o s e x u a l . In D a n te 's poems t o B e a t r i c e , c o l l e c t e d
in th e V i t a Nova, and in P e t r a r c h ' s to Laura ( th e
C a n z o n ie re ) , we see th e f i n e s t I t a l i a n pro d u ct of t h i s
14
h y b r i d i z a t i o n , a s c o u r t l y , P l a t o n i c , and C h r i s t i a n s t r a i n s
a r e blen d ed i n a l y r i c p o e try t h a t i s a r d e n t l y ro m a n tic ,
y e t h ig h ly s p i r i t u a l . M a r s i li o F i c i n o ' s new t r a n s l a t i o n s
of P l a t o l a t e i n th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu ry r e f r e s h e d and
s t r e n g t h e n e d th e P l a t o n i c and C h r i s t i a n e le m e n ts in th e
I t a l i a n l y r i c , and th e p o e try of h i s F l o r e n t i n e academy
and t h e i r i m i t a t o r s a id e d d i s s e m i n a t i o n th ro u g h o u t Europe.
The R eform ation changed th e s t a t u s of woman more
d i r e c t l y by r e d e f i n i n g C h r i s t i a n m a r ria g e . E a rly in th e
s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry two l o n g - s t a n d i n g P a u lin e d o c t r i n e s —
«•
t h a t th e b e s t l i f e i s t h e c e l i b a t e l i f e , and t h a t th e s o le
end of m a r ria g e i s p r o c r e a t i o n - - b e g a n to be q u e s ti o n e d by
b o th C a t h o l i c s and th e new P r o t e s t a n t r e f o r m e r s . W ithin
th e Church, Erasmus, V ives, and o t h e r h u m a n ists argued
t h a t m a rria g e could be a s c h a s t e and h o n o ra b le as
v i r g i n i t y , and t h a t th e c h i e f end of matrimony was not
p r o p a g a tio n , nor r e g u l a t i o n of th e sex d r iv e , but r a t h e r
m utual com panionship and s u p p o rt. On th e P r o t e s t a n t s id e ,
much th e same argum ents were advanced t o j u s t i f y
s a c e r d o t a l m a r ria g e . The l o g i c i s c l e a r . I f p r i e s t s can
m arry, m a rria g e must r e p l a c e c e l i b a c y a s th e C h r i s t i a n
i d e a l . For L u th e r, C a lv in , and B u l l i n g e r , and f o r th e
A n g lic a n s and P u r i t a n s in England, m a rria g e became a
m a t t e r of mind a s w e ll a s body— i d e a l l y a union both
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and s p i r i t u a l l y c lo s e , a l o v i n g C h r i s t i a n
15
f r i e n d s h i p . 5 Formerly valu ed a s a m other, th e w if e came
now t o be seen a s helpm ate and companion a s w e l l . She was
c r e d i t e d w ith a m ental l i f e and a so u l in many ways
e q u i v a l e n t to th o se of h e r husband. For t h e s e r e a s o n s , i t
was deemed a p p r o p r i a t e , even im p o rta n t, f o r him to lo v e
h e r, though w ith p h y s ic a l m o d e ra tio n .
In Tudor England th e s a n c t i t y of holy matrimony
became a f r e q u e n t theme in both A nglican and P u r i t a n
sermons, as m i n i s t e r s p o r tr a y e d t h e s p i r i t u a l jo y s t o be
so u g h t in m a r r i a g e . 6 As p r i n t i n g developed, m a r i t a l
*
handbooks and t h e o l o g i c a l t r a c t s on m a rria g e p r o l i f e r a t e d .
The a u t h o r s in g e n e r a l p r a i s e d m a r ria g e , and sometimes
d e p i c t e d i t as v i r t u a l p a r a d i s e on e a r t h . In t h e words of
Jeremy T a y lo r, " m a r i t a l lo v e i s a t h i n g pure as l i g h t ,
s a c r e d as a tem ple, l a s t i n g as t h e w o r l d . "7 They s t r e s s e d
th e need f o r m u t u a l i t y in m a r ria g e , advancing th e novel
id e a t h a t a man’s b e s t f r i e n d i s h i s w ife , w h ile
d i s c o u r a g i n g th e n o tio n of w ife as dom estic drudge,
d e s e r v in g t o be t y r a n n i z e d . 8 For them, as f o r t h e
P r o t e s t a n t m i n i s t e r s , th e man’s r o l e in m a rria g e rem ained
p rim ary , th e woman's s u b o r d i n a t e , but a new im p o rtan ce was
p la c e d on t h e h u s b a n d 's o b l i g a t i o n to t r e a t h i s w i f e w ith
t e n d e r n e s s and c o n s i d e r a t i o n . By H i l t o n ’s day, th e
P u r i t a n s were w i l l i n g t o g r a n t a t l e a s t s p i r i t u a l e q u a l i t y
between men and women (though n o t i n t e l l e c t u a l ) , and they
16
c a l l e d f o r reform of s e v e r a l o ld m a rria g e p r a c t i c e s which
were d i s t i n c t l y a n t i - f e m i n i s t : f o r c e d m a r ria g e , c h i l d
m a r ria g e , and m a rria g e f o r m o n e y .9 M ilton, of c o u rse ,
p laced such em phasis on th e need f o r m en tal and s p i r i t u a l
c o m p a t i b i l i t y between husband and w if e , t h a t , in t h e i r
a b sen ce, he c o n s id e r e d a .union n u l l and v o id . But h i s
argument f o r d iv o rc e in such c a s e s was to o r a d i c a l f o r
many in h i s tim e .
These new a t t i t u d e s toward woman and h er p la c e in
m a r ria g e , though im p o rta n t, did not r e s u l t i n immediate
s o c i a l b e n e f i t s f o r th e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g lis h woman.
Women co u ld not se rv e on j u r i e s , nor h o l d . p u b l i c
p o s i t i o n s , nor did they have c o n t r o l over t h e i r own l i v e s ,
but ten d ed t o pass d ir.e c tly from th e r u l e of t h e i r f a t h e r s
to t h a t of t h e i r h u s b a n d s .10 Only widows w ith an income
and women m a r r ie d t o u n u s u a lly u n d e r s ta n d in g men were a b le
to enjoy genuine p e r s o n a l freedom. For o t h e r s , su b m issio n
t o p a t r i a r c h y was th e r u l e , a s i t had been s in c e Anglo-
Saxon tim es. S t i l l , sweeping s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l change
was i n th e making.
Lawrence Stone has documented a m ajor s h i f t in fa m ily
s t r u c t u r e and v a l u e s t h a t took p la c e in England between
1500 and 1800, a s h i f t from " d i s t a n c e , d e f e r e n c e , and
p a t r i a r c h y " t o what he term s " A f f e c t i v e I n d iv i d u a l i s m . "11
For a t l e a s t a m illen n iu m and up to a b o u t 1600, Stone
17
a rg u e s, th e Open Lineage Family was th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
E n g lis h ty p e, e s p e c i a l l y among th e s o c i a l e l i t e . What
many now t h i n k o f as " f a m i l y " — th e n u c l e a r u n i t of
husband, w ife , and c h i l d r e n — was but p a r t of t h i s l a r g e r
group, submerged in s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s of k in s h a r i n g t h e
same la n d , o f te n th e same h o u seh o ld . I n d i v i d u a l fam ily
members were ex p e c te d t o s u b o r d i n a t e th e m se lv e s to th e
fam ily whole, and, in p a r t i c u l a r , to t h e i r e l d e r male
kinsmen who r u le d t h e l i n e a g e a l l but a b s o l u t e l y .
P e r s o n a l autonomy th u s te n d e d t o be low, e s p e c i a l l y f o r
women and c h i l d r e n . The e l d e r m ales norm ally even decid ed
who m a r rie d whom— and on th e b a s i s of p r o p e rty r a t h e r than
lo v e . Among t h e la n d e d g e n tr y , who found q u e s t i o n s of
i n h e r i t a n c e c r i t i c a l , m a r r i a g e s were o f te n n e g o t i a t e d
w h ile b r i d e and groom were s t i l l c h i l d r e n , and were
c e l e b r a t e d when a g i r l re a c h e d tw elve or t h i r t e e n , th e so-
c a l l e d "age of c o n s e n t . "12 For th e s e r e a s o n s , and because
death came e a r l y f o r so many, r e l a t i o n s among n u c l e a r
fa m ily members were much c o o l e r and more d i s t a n t th an i s
th e case t o d a y . 13 Love between husband and w if e was not a
common e x p e c t a t i o n , and c h i l d r e n were o f te n a s c l o s e to
a u n ts and u n c le s as t o t h e i r p a r e n t s .
A second fam ily ty p e , which Stone c a l l s t h e "Closed
D o m esticated N uclear Family, 1 1 g r a d u a l l y began t o r e p l a c e
t h e Open Lineage system a f t e r 1600, f i r s t among t h e
18
m e t r o p o l i t a n b o u rg e o s ie and th e s q u ir a c y , and s u b s e q u e n tly
among E n g lis h s o c i a l c l a s s e s above and below these* u n t i l
by th e end of th e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y i t had become th e
predom inant t y p e . 14 The new f a m i l i e s came i n t o b e in g a s
i n d i v i d u a l n u c l e a r u n i t s s e p a r a t e d from t h e i r l a r g e r
k i n s h i p groups i n o rd e r t o s e t up in d e p e n d e n t
ho u sek eep in g . W ithin them* fa m ily members s tr e n g t h e n e d
a f f e c t i o n a t e bonds among one a n o th e r a s r e l a t i o n s w ith
o t h e r k in dwindled i n im p o rta n c e . Many b r i d e s and grooms
now s e l e c t e d one a n o th e r p e r s o n a l l y , and they m a r r ie d f o r
lo v e more o f t e n th a n f o r economic advan tag e or s o c i a l
s t a t u s . I n i t i a l l y , th e a u t h o r i t y of th e husband
i n c r e a s e d , as he became th e s o le power w i t h i n th e n u c l e a r
u n i t , but a f t e r th e R e v o lu tio n th e old p a t r i a r c h a l
a t t i t u d e s weakened w h ile r e s p e c t f o r w ives and c h i l d r e n
i n c r e a s e d . All fa m ily members g ain ed in autonomy a s th e
r i g h t s of each i n d i v i d u a l to p riv a c y and to. p u r s u i t of .
h a p p in e s s came to be r e c o g n iz e d .
A p p a re n tly , th e n , th e com panionable m a rria g e t h a t th e
s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y London bu rg h er h e a rd e x t o l l e d in
church was an i d e a l i z e d v e r s i o n of t h e union both he and
h i s m i n i s t e r m ig h t i n c r e a s i n g l y be e x p e c te d to p r a c t i c e .
A f f e c t i o n a t e lo v e between husband and w ife was a p p a r e n t l y
on th e r i s e . Moreover, a s time p a s se d , th e P u r i t a n
argum ents f o r s t r i c t s u b o r d i n a t i o n of w ife t o husband
19
began to be u n d e rc u t by th e s t r e s s p r e a c h e r s p la c e d upon
th e d e s i r a b i l i t y of com panionship in m a r r i a g e . 15
Companionship o b v io u sly i m p l i e s c e r t a i n e q u a l i t i e s between
male and fem ale, and t h e s e in t u r n s u g g e s t th e need f o r
more eq u al d i s t r i b u t i o n of power w i t h i n m a r ria g e . With
th e d e c l i n e in a u t h o r i t y of husbands came l e g a l ,
p o l i t i c a l , and e d u c a t i o n a l changes b e n e f i t i n g women.
Although th e P u r i t a n c le rg y a r r i v e d a t i t s f e m i n i s t
views u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y and somewhat b e l a t e d l y , th e d ra m a tic
companies of th e E l i z a b e th a n t h e a t e r openly s u p p o rte d
women and th e new a t t i t u d e s toward lo v e from th e very
f i r s t and, th ro u g h a medium i d e a l l y d e v is e d to a t t r a c t
young m i d d l e - c l a s s Londoners, became th e vanguard of
change. J u l i e t D u s in b e rre f i n d s much of th e drama w r i t t e n
between 1590 and 1625 " f e m i n i s t i n sym pathy," i n c l u d i n g
th e work o f Marston, M iddleton, Dekker, W ebster, Heywood,
Jonson, M assinger, and e s p e c i a l l y S h a k e s p e a r e . 16 A ll, she
a r g u e s , sh a re d th e b e l i e f t h a t th e old P a u lin e d o c t r i n e s
c o n c e rn in g women and m a rria g e should be d is m is s e d , and
women t r e a t e d a s i n d i v i d u a l s . T h is i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y
c o r r e c t , but i t i s u s e f u l t o make d i s t i n c t i o n , as
D u s in b e rre does n o t, between p la y s w r i t t e n f o r th e
w e a lth y , s o p h i s t i c a t e d p a t r o n s of th e p r i v a t e s ta g e and
th o s e in te n d e d f o r th e much b roader a u d ie n c e of th e p u b l i c
t h e a t e r . I t i s only th e l a t t e r , th e p u b lic drama, t h a t
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f u l l y embodies t h e new a t t i t u d e s toward lo v e . Whereas th e
d r a m a t i s t s of th e p r i v a t e t h e a t e r o f te n examine a d u l t e r y ,
i n c e s t , p e r v e r s i o n , and s e x u a l i n t r i g u e in o rd e r to
s t i m u l a t e a p p e t i t e and c u r i o s i t y , th e p u b lic p la y w r ig h ts
dw ell upon l o v e ’s p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s : ’’t h e charm of
c o u r t s h i p , t h e d i g n i t y of wedded lo v e , and th e power of
f a m i l i a l a f f e c t i o n , ” t o q u o te A lf r e d H arbage.17 Lawrence
Stone b e l i e v e s t h a t th e p la y s of S h ak esp eare and h i s
c o l l e a g u e s s e rv e d as argum ents f o r ro m a n tic l o v e and f o r
t h e freedom of t h e young t o choose t h e i r own m ates,
i n f l u e n c i n g , in p a r t i c u l a r , th e g e n e r a t i o n e n t e r i n g
a d u lth o o d in th e l a t e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y .
In one r e s p e c t th e E l i z a b e t h a n s a r e deeply
c o n s e r v a t i v e in t h e i r d ra m a tic t r e a t m e n t of lo v e and
c o u r t s h i p . The p l o t they use in ro m a n tic comedy— t h a t of
a young man a t t e m p t i n g to win t h e woman of h i s d e s i r e s
a g a i n s t o p p o s i t i o n from o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r s —
a r i s e s from p s y c h o lo g i c a l c o n f l i c t s no doubt as old as
homo s a p i e n s . These p l o t s a p p e a r as e a r l y a s 300 B .C .,
in t h e Greek New Comedy of Menander and h i s
c o n te m p o r a rie s . Many of t h e s e p la y s were a d a p te d i n t o
L a t i n a c e n tu ry or two l a t e r by P l a u t u s a n d 'T e re n c e , and
came down t o th e E n g lis h R e n a issa n c e as a p a r t o f th e
B r i t i s h s c h o o lb o y ’s L a tin c u r ric u lu m .
In s t r u c t u r i n g t h e i r comedies on th e c l a s s i c a l
21
p a t t e r n of New Comedy, however, th e E l i z a b e t h a n s ten d ed to
i n c r e a s e g r e a t l y th e s t a t u r e of th e fem ale lo v e i n t e r e s t
and t o h e ig h te n th e q u a l i t y of th e a f f e c t i o n she i n s p i r e s
in h e r male p u r s u e r . The young women c h a r a c t e r s in th e
Greek and Roman p la y s a r e l e f t a lm o st wholly u n d e fin e d by
t h e i r a u t h o r s , e x c e p t f o r one c o n s t a n t a t t r i b u t e — t h e i r
p h y s ic a l b e a u ty . T y p ic a lly they do not ap p ear on s ta g e a t
a l l . I f they a p p e a r, they have few l i n e s and minimal
im p o rta n c e , as in M en an d er's Dvskolos (The M is a n th ro p e ),
th e only n e a r ly com plete Greek New Comedy we p o s s e s s . 19
Menander r e f e r s t o t h e g i r l h i s p r o t a g o n i s t S o s t r a t o s
f a l l s in lo v e w ith m erely a s " K n e m o n 's d a u g h t e r . ” She has
l i t t l e d ra m a tic s i g n i f i c a n c e , ex cep t as g o a l. S o s t r a t o s 1
i n t e n t i o n s tow ard th e g i r l a r e h o n o r a b le enough, s in c e
from t h e f i r s t he w ants t o marry, but he seems to be
a t t r a c t e d t o h e r by p h y s ic a l d e s i r e a lo n e . He does n o t
t e l l h er h i s f e e l i n g s e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y , and
a p p a r e n t l y she rem ain s ig n o r a n t of h i s lo v e u n t i l a f t e r
th e wedding agreem ent has been s e a l e d . Winning h e r i s
shown to be p u re ly a m a t t e r of S o s t r a t o s c o n v in c in g h e r
f a t h e r and h e r b r o t h e r t h a t he sh o u ld have h e r . Her
com pliance in a l l i s assumed by e v ery o n e. In th e p la y s of
P l a u t u s and T erence, t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r high-m inded
romance a r e even l e s s , s in c e th e young fem ale c h a r a c t e r s
a r e alm ost always e i t h e r c o u r t e s a n s or s l a v e s — u n s u i t a b l e
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o b j e c t s f o r matrimony, though f i n e f o r s e x u a l d a l l i a n c e .
I f , in th e end, th e g i r l i s o f te n d is c o v e r e d t o be a’
.fr e e b o rn Roman c i t i z e n i n o r d e r to p e rm it th e form al New
Comic c o n c lu s io n of n u p t i a l s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , th e m o tiv e f o r
ro m a n tic p u r s u i t b e g in s and ends in l u s t .
In th e E l i z a b e th a n com edies, by com parison, th e young
fem ale c h a r a c t e r s a r e n e a r l y alw ays d r a m a t i c a l l y im p o r ta n t
(som etim es c e n t r a l ) , and t h e i r c r e a t o r s i n v e s t them w ith
many p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s in a d d i t i o n to b e a u ty , i n c l u d i n g
c h a s t i t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , w i t , and p h y s ic a l courage.
M arg aret, th e “F a i r Maid of F r e s s i n g f i e l d , 1 1 i n R obert
G r e e n e 's F r i a r Bacon and F r i a r Buneav i s a good example.
Of a l l th e c h a r a c t e r s in th e p la y , she i s th e most
c o n s t a n t t o lo v e and th e b r a v e s t in d e fe n d in g i t . Though
only th e d a u g h te r of a c o u n try gamekeeper, she has enough
s t r e n g t h of c h a r a c t e r t o c o n v e r t th e sex u al advances of
h e r n a t i o n ' s P rin c e i n t o an e f f e c t i v e l e s s o n , t e a c h i n g him
t h a t lo v e cannot be f o r c e d . S i m i l a r l y , a s Susan Snyder
n o te s , Dorothea i n James th e F o u r t h . Em and Mariana in
F a i r Em, and Moll i n P o r t e r ' s The Two Angry Women of
A bineton a r e a l l a g g r e s s i v e , in d e p e n d e n t women, c a p a b le of
em ploying w it and s tr a ta g e m to a c t i v e l y p u rsu e t h e i r
e n d s . 20 Even Ben Jonson— so c a r e f u l to p a t t e r n h i s p la y s
as c l o s e l y a s p o s s i b l e on th e c l a s s i c a l m odels— b ro u g h t
f o r c e f u l fem ale c h a r a c t e r s t o th e comic s ta g e , such as
23
C e lia in Volpone and Grace W ellborn i n Bartholomew F a i r .
Grace c a p t u r e s th e new ty p e o f woman e x a c t l y in r e j e c t i n g
Q u a r lo u s ' p ro p o sa l f o r a m a rria g e of economic c o n v e n ie n c e :
" I must have a husband I must lo v e , or I cannot l i v e w ith
him. I s h a l l i l l make one of th o s e p o l i t i c w i v e s !"
( 4 . 3 . 1 6 - 1 8 ) . 21
But i t was S h a k e sp e a re who gave th e E n g lis h s ta g e i t s
s t r o n g e s t , most memorable comic h e r o i n e s . V i r t u a l l y a l l
a r e as c h a s t e and s t a l w a r t as a Grace or a M arg aret.
Some, l i k e R o s a lin d , V io la , and t h e P r i n c e s s of F ran ce in
LLL, a r e th e prime movers of t h e i r p la y s, i n s t r u c t i n g
o t h e r s in how t o lo v e b e t t e r , and o r c h e s t r a t i n g th e
p r o g r e s s of a p p r o p r i a t e p a i r s tow ard t h e co n c lu d in g
m a r r i a g e s . Many a r e i n t e l l i g e n t , w ise , w i t t y , and
g r a c i o u s l y a s s e r t i v e , f r e q u e n t l y a t t h e expense of men.
S h a k e s p e a r e 's d e e p - s e a t e d fem inism i s most o b v io u s in
t h e s e v i b r a n t comic women. P o r t i a i s , in and of h e r s e l f , a
most p a l a t a b l e and co m p e llin g argument f o r th e
i n t e l l e c t u a l e q u a l i t y of t h e s e x e s — as i s B e a t r i c e .
Women so a d m ira b le a s th o s e on th e E liz a b e th a n comic
s ta g e demanded a h ig h e r c a l i b e r o f d e v o tio n th a n was ever
p o r tr a y e d in Greek or Roman comedy; and they r e c e i v e d i t .
The R e n a issa n ce male l o v e r l o v e s t r u l y , w ith a l l h i s
h e a r t , and te n d s to p la c e h i s woman above h im s e lf , w h eth er
in t h e c o u r t l y f a s h i o n , or th e P l a t o n i c , or some
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com b in atio n of t h e s e . Nearly always t h e r e i s d i r e c t
communion between t h e l o v e r s , e m o tio n al and s p i r i t u a l in
c h a r a c t e r , c h a s t e in i n t e n t i o n . Both want to marry,
u s u a ll y from f i r s t s i g h t . L ust a p p e a r s in th e E n g lis h
p la y s , n a t u r a l l y enough, but .ra re ly in t h e boy or g i r l .
The sex d r i v e i s i n s t e a d e x o r c i s e d i n t o clowns, where i t
r e c e i v e s e x p r e s s i o n b e t t e r s u i t e d to i t s p e r c e iv e d p la c e
in th e new scheme of t h i n g s . L u st a l s o c ro p s up i n r i v a l
l o v e r s ( t y p i c a l l y a w ealth y o l d e r man imposed on th e g i r l
by h e r p a r e n t s ) . The d e s i r e t h e s e f a l s e l o v e r s f e e l i s
q u i t e s i m i l a r to what th e young Romans o f P l a u t i n e comedy
f e l t f o r t h e i r s la v e g i r l s , but in th e E n g lis h p la y s t h i s
i s enough to condemn them to f a i l u r e in t h e m a r i t a l
c o m p e titio n .
In tr a g e d y , to o , t h e d r a m a t i s t s o f th e E n g lis h
R en a issa n ce d iv e r g e d from t h e i r c l a s s i c a l p r e d e c e s s o r s in
r e p r e s e n t i n g women and ro m a n tic lo v e . B ecause th e s tr o n g
m a sc u lin e b i a s of th e a n c i e n t c u l t u r e s l e d them to demean
and d is c o u r a g e h e t e r o s e x u a l p a s sio n , th e p u r s u i t of such
p a s s io n in th e A t t i c and Roman t r a g i c drama i s always
p o r tr a y e d as a f o o l i s h , dangerous m i s t a k e — a s u r e so u rce
o f c a la m ity . These lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e a l l
e x t r a m a r i t a l , most a r e a d u l t e r o u s , some i n c e s t u o u s . They
a r i s e in l u s t and co n clu d e w ith t h e d e a th s of t h e l o v e r s .
Sometimes whole f a m i l i e s meet a t r a g i c end. In some
25
p l a y s , such as A e sc h y lu s' Agamemnon or S o p h o c l e 's O edi p u s
Rex, w rongful lo v e r e l a t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e d i r e c t l y to t r a g i c
c a t a s t r o p h e , though w i th o u t becoming th e c e n t r a l fo c u s of
th e drama. Among th e p la y s of E u r i p i d e s , however, we f i n d
s e v e r a l f u l l - b l o w n " lo v e t r a g e d i e s ” : p la y s , t h a t i s , in
which ro m a n tic p a s s io n s e r v e s both a s a p r i n c i p a l th e m a tic
co n cern and a s th e s o le p r e c i p i t a t i n g cause of t r a g i c
denouement. The a d u l t e r o u s lo v e of Jason f o r C r e o n 's
d a u g h te r in Medea, f o r example,, a r o u s e s h i s w i f e ’ s v i o l e n t
s e x u a l j e a l o u s y , i n s p i r i n g her o b l i t e r a t i o n of two
f a m i l i e s , one of them her own. S i m i l a r l y , th e pow erful
i n c e s t u o u s p a s s io n of Phaedra f o r h er s te p s o n in
H ip p o lv tu s l e a d s d i r e c t l y t o her d e a th and h i s . Love, in
many of t h e s e p la y s , i s d e p i c t e d as a form of m adness— an
u n c o n t r o l l a b l e d e s i r e v i s i t e d upon th e l o v e r by A p h ro d ite
(or by Venus and Cupid i n th e Senecan p l a y s ) . U su a lly th e
p o s s e s s e d i s fem ale, and she may do n o th in g t o d e s e rv e th e
a f f l i c t i o n , a s i n P h a e d r a ’ s ca se .
Some f e a t u r e s of th e old c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n , which
th e p l a y w r i g h ts i n h e r i t e d from Seneca, a re c l e a r l y
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n s e v e r a l of th e e a r l i e s t E l i z a b e th a n lo v e
t r a g e d i e s . In Gismond of S a le r n e and Dido, Queen of
C a r t h a g e , f o r i n s t a n c e , Cupid i n f la m e s th e h e r o in e w ith a
consuming p a s s io n t h a t u l t i m a t e l y b r i n g s d i s a s t e r t o
h e r s e l f and o t h e r s . Even in t h e s e e a r l y p la y s, however,
26
th e p r e s e n t a t i o n of ro m a n tic lo v e i s in many r e s p e c t s
p o s i t i v e . Love i s h an d led so t h a t we can sym pathize w ith
i t s p r o g r e s s , p erh ap s even hope f o r i t s s u c c e s s , a s was
never p o s s i b l e i n th e a n c i e n t drama.
G ism ond's s i t u a t i o n i s a c t u a l l y q u i t e s i m i l a r to t h a t
of th e c l a s s i c a l New Comic h e r o in e . A fte r her husband
d i e s , she w ants t o marry a g a in , but h er f a t h e r Tancred
f o r b i d s i t . I n s t e a d Gismond t a k e s a l o v e r . When Tancred
f i n d s o u t, he k i l l s th e man, m o t i v a t i n g Gismond1s s u i c i d e .
What i s im p o r ta n t and new h e re i s t h a t th e tra g e d y i s l e s s
a t t r i b u t a b l e to p a s s i o n a t e lo v e th a n to T a n c re d 1s v i o l e n t
and vag u ely i n c e s t u o u s j e a l o u s y . The romance i s -
u n f o r t u n a t e p r i m a r i l y i n t h a t i t can n o t f l o u r i s h openly
and be l e g i t i m i z e d by m a rria g e . Throughout th e p lay , th e
c h o ru s of Gismond d e l i v e r s th e t y p i c a l Senecan
condem nation of l u s t f u l p a s s io n , p r e d i c t i n g d i r e
m i s f o r t u n e f o r th e p a i r cau g h t i n i t s t h r o e s , b u t, as
Roger S t i l l i n g p o i n t s o u t, t h i s c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i s
u n d e rc u t by our e m o tio n al re sp o n se t o th e c h a r a c t e r s and
e v e n t s . 22 The c o n fu sio n i s e x p la in e d when we c o n s id e r th e
p l a y ’ s s o u rc e : a s to r y by B occaccio in th e Decameron. The
t a l e i s one of many i n which B o cc accio c o n v e r te d comic
p a t t e r n s to t r a g i c use, b a s i c a l l y by a llo w in g comedic
senex f i g u r e s to succeed i n t h e i r w i l l f u l o b s t r u c t i o n of
young l o v e r s . Tragedy, in th e s e s t o r i e s , en su es l e s s from
27
lo v e th a n from a t t a c k s upon lo v e . What t h e a u t h o r s of
Gismond did was t o t a k e t h i s new kind of t r a g i c lo v e s to r y
(one r e l y i n g on comic e v a l u a t i o n s of ro m a n tic p a s s io n ) and
r e c a s t i t a s drama in th e Senecan f i v e - a c t form, r e t a i n i n g
th e c o n v e n tio n a l c l a s s i c scorn of lo v e in th e c h o ra l
i n t e r l u d e s . The a c t i o n o f th e play c o n s e q u e n tly s ta n d s a t
odds w ith i t s d e c l a r e d message.
The Dido s t o r y , by com parison, i s c l a s s i c a l in
o r i g i n , coming from Book IV of The A eneid. In a d a p t i n g i t
f o r th e s ta g e , Marlowe and Nashe f o llo w e d V e r g i l ' s
n a r r a t i v e f a i r l y c l o s e l y , but they tra n s f o rm e d D i d o 's
p a s s i o n from a " s i c k n e s s " or a " s i n " i n V e r g i l ’ s t e l l i n g
t o an a rd o r a t tim e s P l a t o n i c , a s when she sa y s of Aeneas
" I f he f o r s a k e me n o t, I never dye, / For i n h i s lo o k e s I
see e t e r n i t i e , / And h e e l e make me im m o rtall w ith a
k i s s . "23 T h is i s th e R e n a issa n c e s p e a k in g , i f th ro u g h th e
mouth of a c l a s s i c a l t r a g i c h e r o in e . In a n o th e r of
M arlow e's t r a g e d i e s , Tam burlaine th e G r e a t , we f i n d a
s i m i l a r m a n i f e s t a t i o n in th e d r a m a t i s t ' s a d d i t i o n of a
lo v e s t o r y to th e e s t a b l i s h e d c h r o n i c l e of t h e n o t o r i o u s
b a r b a r i a n w a r r i o r . The romance between Tam burlaine and
h i s " d i v i n e " X enocrate i s n o t a b l e f o r i t s m u t u a l i t y , and
f o r i t s s p i r i t u a l and em o tio n al d ep th . His lo v e f o r h i s
Queen i s t h e s i n g l e f a c t o r m o d e ra tin g T a m b u r la in e 's c r u e l
and r u t h l e s s p e r s o n a l i t y , and when she d i e s , he
28
d e g e n e r a t e s , r a z i n g a c i t y in b l i n d an g e r. R ather th a n
th e lo v e b ein g a so u rc e of T a m b u r la in e ’ s d o w n fa ll, i t i s
h i s human s a l v a t i o n .
Kyd’ s S p a n ish Tragedy p r o v id e s p ro b ab ly th e b e s t
e a r l y example of th e new lo v e tra g e d y e v o lv in g in
E l i z a b e t h a n England. The play r e s e m b le s Gismond of
S a le r n e i n t h a t th e d r a m a t i s t u n d e r c u t s an i n i t i a l comic
developm ent by a llo w in g b lo c k in g f i g u r e s t o p r e v a i l in
t h e i r o b s t r u c t i o n of lo v e . But i n Kyd1s p la y , a s was n o t
th e case in Gismond, th e l o v e r s a r e never c r i t i c i z e d ,
w h ile th e b lo c k in g ty p e s a re p o r tr a y e d as b ein g wholly in
th e wrong. H o r a t i o and B e l - i m p e r i a want t o m arry, and in
th e c o n t e x t t h e play d e v e lo p s , they sh o u ld . T h e ir p a s s io n
i s m u tu al, c o n s t r u c t i v e , e n n o b lin g . We s id e w ith i t s
p r o g r e s s u n t i l th e murder of H o r a tio e x t i n g u i s h e s i t , and
a f t e r w a r d we sy m p ath ize w ith .B e l-im p e ria and H o r a t i o ’ s
f a t h e r as th e y c a r r y o u t t h e i r revenge on th e k i l l e r s .
Kyd c r e a t e s deep iro n y by merging th e rev en g e scene w ith
B e l - i m p e r i a ’ s f o r c e d wedding t o B a l t h a z a r , th e f a l s e or
r i v a l l o v e r . I n s t e a d of g a in in g a w ife he had no r i g h t
to , B a l t h a z a r d i e s , and a t th e hands of th o s e he has
i n j u r e d most. I m p l i c i t h e re i s th e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t th e
p o s i t i v e f o r c e s of lo v e a r e r e a s s e r t i n g t h e i r r i g h t f u l
p r i o r i t y over th e n e g a t i v e powers of h a t r e d and j e a l o u s y —
a c h i e v i n g a kind o f v i c t o r y i n th e end, however b le a k .
29
Only in i t s i n c l u s i o n of a Senecan rev en g e m o t i f does
The S p a n ish Tragedy borrow s i g n i f i c a n t l y from a n c i e n t lo v e
tr a g e d y . Nor does Kyd’ s play match th e p a t t e r n we a s c r i b e
to t r a g i c drama more g e n e r a l l y , f o r i t l a c k s a lo n e ,
a m b itio u s , e p ic h ero w i l l i n g to t e s t h i s s p i r i t a g a i n s t
th e powers of th e e a r t h or cosmos. In t h i s play and in
o t h e r s of i t s ty p e t h a t fo llo w , i n s t e a d o f s i n g l e t r a g i c
h e r o e s we f i n d p a i r s of l o v e r s ( u s u a l l y young) who want
n o th in g more th a n what comic l o v e r s w ant: t o e s t a b l i s h a
s a f e haven f-or th e m s e lv e s in th e oneness of m utual
a f f e c t i o n . 25 That they a r e p re v e n te d from l e g i t i m i z i n g
t h e i r lo v e i n m a r r i a g e — u n e q u iv o c a lly and
c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y — becomes t h e i r tra g e d y . T h is i s not to
say t h a t t h e l o v e r s a r e alw ays e n t i r e l y b la m e le s s . But
even when ’’f l a w s '1 e x i s t in th e m se lv e s or t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p , th e young peo p le te n d to be much l e s s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r t r a g i c f a t e s th a n th o s e who oppose
t h e i r lo v e .
With minimal d i s t o r t i o n , th e s e lo v e t r a g e d i e s can be
viewed as th e n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t s of th e E l i z a b e th a n New
Comedies. Whereas th e comedies c e l e b r a t e l o v e ' s triu m p h s
over o u t s i d e o p p o s i t i o n , th e t r a g e d i e s d e m o n s tra te th e
grim c o n seq u en ces of l o v e ' s d e f e a t . The p a t t e r n f o r t h i s
new ty p e of t r a g i c drama, a s I have a l r e a d y s u g g e s te d ,
o r i g i n a t e d i n I t a l y , i n t h e m ix ed -g e n re s t o r i e s and p la y s
30
of B o c c a c c io , B a n d e llo . C in th io . G u a r i n i , and o t h e r s . 26
Many of th e E n g lis h p la y s a r e i n f a c t l i t t l e more th a n
d i r e c t a d a p t a t i o n s of I t a l i a n o r i g i n a l s : Gismond of
S a l e r n e f o r example, or S h a k e s p e a r e 's O t h e l l o . The ready
a c c e p ta n c e of th e s e I t a l i a n models by th e E n g lis h may be
p a r t l y e x p la in e d by an E li z a b e th a n p e n ch an t f o r d ra m a tic
e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n in th e m ixing of g e n re s . C e r t a i n l y ,
however, th e new B r i t i s h a t t i t u d e s tow ard ro m a n tic lo v e
and m a r ria g e were im p o r ta n t f a c t o r s a s w e l l . The lo v e
t r a g e d i e s , l i k e t h e New Comedies, can be seen as
propaganda u rg in g s o c i a l change, s i n c e i n t h e i r very
s t r u c t u r e they c h a lle n g e th e v a l i d i t y of a r ra n g e d or
e n f o rc e d m a r ria g e .
31
N otes
i D e s p i t e th e g e n e r a l l y low esteem in which women were
h e ld , women’ s r i g h t s a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e d somewhat d u rin g
th e h a l f - m i l i e n n i u m of t h e Roman Empire, and t h e s e Roman
customs l a t e r h e lp e d l i b e r a l i z e th e Germanic codes. See
David H e r lih y , ’’Land, Family, and Women in C o n t i n e n t a l
Europe, 7 0 1 -1 2 0 0 ," i n Women in Medieval S o c i e t y , ed. Susan
Mosher S tu a rd ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : Univ. o f P e n n s y lv a n ia P re ss ,
1976), pp. 13-14; and F ra n c e s G ies and Jo sep h G ies, Women
i n th e Middle Ages (New York: B arnes and Noble, 1978), pp.
13-18.
2 See C. S. Lewis, The A llegory of Love (1936, r p t .
London: Oxford Univ. P r e s s , 1981), pp. 1— 13; Dorothy
Mercedes Finn, "Love and M arriage in R e n a issa n c e
L i t e r a t u r e , " D iss. Columbia 1955; Maurice V alency, In
P r a i s e of Love (New York: Macmillan, 1958), pp. 1-37; John
C. Moore, Love i n T w e lfth -C e n tu rv F rance ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :
Univ. of P e n n s y lv a n ia P r e s s , 1972), pp. 84-100; H e r l i h y ,
pp. 30-34; and G ie s and G ies, p. 48.
3Valency, p. 5.
^Valency, p. 24.
^Some examples of works e x p r e s s i n g t h e s e views a r e
Juan L u is V ives, de O f f i c i o M a r i t i (B ruges, 1529), t r a n s .
Thomas P a y n e ll as The O f f i c e and D u etie of an Husband
(London, 1540); Erasmus, De C o n s c r i b e n d i s , t r a n s l a t e d and
made a v a i l a b l e t o E n g lis h r e a d e r s in Thomas W i l s o n 's The
A rte of R h e to riq u e (London, 1553); H e i n r i c h B u llin g .er, Per
C h r i s t l i c h E e stan d ( Z u r ic h , 1540), t r a n s . M iles C overdale
a s The C h r i s t e n S t a t e o f Matrimonve (London, 1541); Henry
Smith, P r e p a r a t i v e t o M arriage (London, 1591) ; R o b ert
C leav e r and John Dod, A Godlv Form of Household
Governement ( London, 1598); and W illiam P e r k in s , C h r i s t i a n
Oeconomv (London, 1609).
6l awrence Stone, The Family, Sex and M arriage in
England, 1500-1800 (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), p.
136; W illiam H a l l e r and M a l l e v i l l e H a l l e r , "The P u r i t a n
A rt of L o v e ," H u n tin g to n L ib r a r y Q u a r t e r l y , 5 (1942), 235-
72; W illiam H a l l e r , "H ail Wedded L o v e ," ELH, 13 (1 9 4 6 ),
79-97.
32
^Quoted in H a l l e r , " P u r i t a n A r t , " p. 269.
8jo h n C. Bean, "Comic S t r u c t u r e and t h e Humanizing of
Kate in The Taming of t h e Shrew," in The Woman's P a r t :
F e m in is t C r i t i c i s m of S h a k e s p e a re , ed. Carolyn Lenz, Gayle
G reene, and Carol Neely (U rbana: Univ. of I l l i n o i s P r e s s ,
1980), p. 69.
^ J u l i e t D u s in b e rre , S h ak esp eare and th e N ature of
Women (New York: B arn es and Noble, 1975), pp. 3-4.
10Maurice A shley, "Love and M arriage i n S e v e n te e n th
Century E n g la n d ," H i s to r y Today, 8 (1958), 667.
11 S tone, pp. 3-4.
1^A shley, p. 671.
1 ^stone,* pp. 4-7.
I^ S to n e , pp. 7 -9 .
1 5 s to n e , p. 325.
16d u s i n b e r r e , p. 5.
17Alfred- Harbage, S h ak esp ear e and th e R iv al T r a d i t i o n s
(1952; r p t . New York: B arn es and Noble, 1968), p. 190 and
p. 222.
i S s t o n e , p. 180 and p. 218.
19Menander, D v sk o lo s, in Menander i n Three Volumes,
ed. and t r a n s . W . G. A r n o tt (Cambridge: H arvard Univ.
P r e s s , 1979), I.
20Snyder, p. 27.
2lBen Jonson, Bartholomew F a i r , in The S t u a r t P e r i o d ,
Vol. I I o f Drama of th e E n g lis h R e n a is s a n c e , ed. R u s s e ll
A. F r a s e r and Norman Rabkin (New York: Macmillan, 1976).
22Roger S t i l l i n g , Love and Death in R e n a issa n c e
Traeedv (Baton Rouge: L o u is ia n a S t a t e Univ. P r e s s , 1976),
p. 25.
2 3 v e r g i l , The A eneid, t r a n s . James H. Mantinband (New
York: Ungar, 1964), 1 .5 and 1 .1 7 2 ; C h r i s t o p h e r Marlowe,
Dido, Queene of C a r t h a g e , in The Complete Works of
33
.
C h r i s t o p h e r Marlowe, ed. F redson Bowers (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. P r e s s , 1973), I, 4 . 4 .1 2 1 - 2 3 .
2 4 see S t i l l i n g , pp. 34-38.
25Leonora Leet Brodwin, Elizabethan L ove T raged y (New
York: New York Univ. P r e s s , 1971), pp. 34-36.
26 see Marvin T. H e r r ic k , Tragicom edy. Univ. of
I l l i n o i s S t u d i e s i n Lang, and L i t . , 39 (Urbana: Univ. of
I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1955), 1-142.
34
C hapter Two
N o rth ro p F r y e ’s T h e o rie s of Comedy
As I have said# th e t h r e e S h a k e sp e a re a n t r a g e d i e s
chosen as th e f o c u s f o r t h i s study a r e in many ways
S h a k e sp e a re a n comedies c o n s t r u c t e d in r e v e r s e . The
t r a g e d i e s a r e formed, t h a t i s , l a r g e l y by n e g a t i o n ,
i n v e r s i o n , or i r o n i c t r e a t m e n t of p a t t e r n s b a s i c t o th e
com edies. S in c e N o rth ro p Frye has, in my o p in io n , given
us t h e most i l l u m i n a t i n g s t r u c t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s of
S h a k e s p e a r e 's com edies, I t u r n t o h i s work in o r d e r to
d e r i v e a comic schema t h a t can be used f o r a n a l y s i s of th e
t r a g e d i e s .
I n t r o d u c i n g h i s r e a d e r t o th e s u b j e c t of A N a tu r a l
P e r s p e c t i v e , P r o f e s s o r Frye rem arks t h a t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s
te n d t o be e i t h e r " I l i a d c r i t i c s " or "Odyssey c r i t i c s . "1
His d i s t i n c t i o n a r i s e s from th e t r a d i t i o n a l - view of Horace
and o t h e r s t h a t l i t e r a t u r e has a t w o - f o ld p u rp o se : t o
d e l i g h t and to i n s t r u c t . I l i a d c r i t i c s a r e t h o s e who
em phasize t h e i n s t r u c t i v e f u n c t i o n , view ing t h e l i t e r a r y
t r a d i t i o n as "a v a s t i m a g i n a t i v e a l l e g o r y , th e end of
which i s a deeper u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e n o n l i t e r a r y c e n t e r
of e x p e r i e n c e . " S in c e they see th e c l a s s i c s as a means of
35
i n t e r p r e t i n g l i f e and r e a l i t y , I l i a d c r i t i c s p r e f e r
l i t e r a r y a r t t h a t c l o s e l y r e f l e c t s th e o b j e c t i v e w orld in
i t s c h a r a c t e r s and i n c i d e n t s , and t h a t e v in c e s s e r i o u s n e s s
of purpose th ro u g h theme and to n e . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y ,
I l i a d c r i t i c s v a lu e tra g e d y and i r o n y over comedy and
romance, s in c e t h e s e l a t t e r form s a r e c l e a r l y i n te n d e d to
e n t e r t a i n , and may d e p a r t w id ely from r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l
of c h a r a c t e r and e v e n t, t o th e p o in t a t tim e s of a p p e a r in g
f r i v o l o u s . Having s a id so much, Frye c o n f e s s e s t h a t he
has alw ays been by temperament an Odyssey c r i t i c , more
drawn t o comedy and romance th a n t o th e r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d
g e n re s . He f i n d s h im s e lf in th e m i n o r i t y , however, among
a "somewhat f u r t i v e and anonymous group who have n o t much
of a th e o r y , i m p l i c i t or e x p l i c i t , to hold them t o g e t h e r . 1 1
Frye i s b ein g f a c e t i o u s to some d e g re e , f o r th e
re m a in d e r o f A N a tu ra l P e r s p e c t i v e (1965) c o n t a i n s th e
most h ig h ly e l a b o r a t e d v e r s i o n of h i s own comic t h e o r i e s —
t h e o r i e s a p p a r e n t l y in t e n d e d to f i l l th e c r i t i c a l la c u n a
he m e n tio n s. E a r l i e r v e r s i o n s of F r y e ' s comic i d e a s a r e
found in "The Argument of Comedy" (1 9 4 8 ), in
" C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i n S h a k e s p e a ria n Comedy" (1953), and in
Anatomy of C r i t i c i s m ( 1957) .2 H is f o c u s of co u rse i s n o t
th e same in a l l works. In both "The Argument of Comedy"
and Anatomy of C r i t i c i s m F r y e ' s c h i e f goal i s to d e s c r i b e
th e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n of New Comedy a s we f i n d i t in
36
t h e p la y s of P l a u t u s and T e ren ce, th e main p ro m u lg a to rs of
th e t r a d i t i o n . T h e ir form of comedy, r e c e i v e d from
Menander and p assed on to th e p l a y w r i g h ts of th e
R e n a issa n c e and beyond, has changed l i t t l e i n th e p a s t
2 ,500 y e a r s , and a c c o u n ts f o r th e l i o n ’ s s h a re of comic
drama w r i t t e n d u rin g t h a t p e rio d . In A N a tu ra l
P e r s p e c t i v e and in h i s a r t i c l e on comic c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n ,
Frye t u r n s t o S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s comedies s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
e x p l a i n i n g how th e d r a m a t i s t e n la r g e d t h e New Comic
c o n v e n tio n s by adding m ed iev al romance and f o l k m a t e r i a l s ,
and by s h i f t i n g more a t t e n t i o n to th e lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between th e young peo p le of h i s p la y s . S in c e my concern
i s a lm o st e x c l u s i v e l y w ith S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s h a n d lin g of New
Comedy, I w i l l be r e l y i n g p r i m a r i l y upon t h e s e l a s t -
m entioned works, p a r t i c u l a r l y A N a tu ra l P e r s p e c t i v e ,
a l th o u g h F r y e ’ s more g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f New Comedy
w i l l be c o n s id e r e d whenever they c o n t r i b u t e t o our
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f S h a k e sp e a re , or when th e e v o l u t i o n of
F r y e ’ s i d e a s th ro u g h tim e i s of s i g n i f i c a n c e .
The S hakepearean comic schema t h a t Frye p ro p o se s i s ,
to be s u re , a s e l e c t i v e one. I t does n o t t r e a t each comic
elem ent in every p lay , nor does i t f i t a l l th e com edies
e q u a l l y w e l l , f o r The Merry Wives and The Comedy of
E r r o r s , in p a r t i c u l a r , show n o t i c e a b l e d iv e r g e n c e . But
such d i s c r e p a n c i e s as t h e s e a r e i n e v i t a b l e given th e scope
37
of F r y e ’ s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . H is model, never in t e n d e d to
be p r e s c r i p t i v e or a b s o l u t e , g a in s in e x p l a n a t o r y power
f o r i t s f l e x i b i l i t y . I t c a p t u r e s th e p r i n c i p a l r e c u r r i n g
f e a t u r e s of S h a k e s p e a r e 's comic p la y s , and more
i m p o r t a n t l y , shows us how t h e s e r e l a t i v e l y d i s c r e t e
m a t e r i a l s ( p l o t , c h a r a c t e r , theme, and mood) i n t e r r e l a t e
in th e p r o g r e s s i v e u n f o ld i n g of th e comic a c t i o n . On t h i s
s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l l e v e l , Frye e x p l a i n s th e com edies as
a group b e t t e r th a n anyone e l s e has done, I b e l i e v e . His
i n f l u e n c e on S h ak esp earea n c r i t i c i s m over th e p a s t t h r e e
*
d ecad es a t t e s t s t o t h i s . ' Yet he does more. Throughout
h i s d i s c u s s i o n s of s t r u c t u r e , he e l u c i d a t e s th e ways in
which comic form and p r o c e s s b ear meaning. That i s , he -
e x p l a i n s how S h a k e sp e a re a n comedy, in w orking from prem ise
t h ro u g h c o m p l i c a t i o n to c u l m i n a t i o n , e x p r e s s e s s e v e r a l
fu n d am en tal p s y c h o lo g i c a l and s o c i a l t r u t h s , a l l r e l a t e d
t o th e d i f f e r e n t i a l push and p u l l of th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s t i e s
t o ego, b e lo v ed , f a m ily , and community. Frye h e l p s us to
view S h a k e s p e a r e 's com edies a s a r t i n v e s t e d w ith profound
s o c i a l meaning, and a s e n t e r t a i n m e n t c o n n e c te d in a
c u r a t i v e way w ith th e psyche of th e i n d i v i d u a l p la y g o e r ,
th ro u g h th e a g e n c i e s of l a u g h t e r and i m a g in a tio n . In
s h o r t , Odyssey c r i t i c t h a t he i s , Frye a rg u e s
p e r s u a s i v e l y , though i n d i r e c t l y , t h a t S h a k e s p e a r e 's
com edies a r e as v a l u a b l e and i n s t r u c t i v e a s th e
38
d r a m a t i s t 1 s . g r e a t t r a g e d i e s , and t h a t we w i l l f i n d them so
i f we but u n d e r s ta n d and a c c e p t t h e i r d i f f e r e n t
c o n v e n tio n s .
The Comic P l o t
The l o g i c a l p la c e t o open d i s c u s s i o n of F r y e ' s
S h ak esp earea n comic model i s w ith th e c r i t i c ' s own f i r s t
c o n cern , th e comic p l o t :
At th e c o re of most R e n a issa n c e comedy,
i n c l u d i n g S h a k e s p e a r e 's , i s th e form ula
t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e New Comedy p a t t e r n of P l a u t u s
and Terence. The normal a c t i o n i s th e e f f o r t of
a young man to g e t p o s s e s s i o n of a young woman
who i s k e p t from him by v a r i o u s s o c i a l b a r r i e r s :
h e r low b i r t h , h i s m i n o r i t y or s h o rta g e of
fu n d s, p a r e n t a l o p p o s i t i o n , t h e p r i o r c la im s of
a r i v a l . These a re e v e n t u a l l y circ u m v e n te d , and
th e comedy ends a t a p o i n t when a new s o c i e t y i s
c r y s t a l l i z e d , u s u a l l y by th e m a rria g e or
b e t r o t h a l of h ero and h e r o in e . The b i r t h of th e
new s o c i e t y i s sym bolized by a c l o s i n g f e s t i v e
scene f e a t u r i n g a wedding, a banquet, or a
dance. T h is c o n c lu s io n i s norm ally accompanied
by some change of h e a r t on th e p a r t of th o s e who
have been o b s t r u c t i n g th e comic r e s o l u t i o n . 3
As Frye makes c l e a r e lse w h e re , th e c h a r a c t e r s who
" o b s t r u c t " t h e comic r e s o l u t i o n a r e most o f te n members of
t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n , so t h a t th e comic p l o t a r i s e s in
l a r g e p a r t from th e c o n f l i c t between youth and age. The
" s o c i a l b a r r i e r s " t h a t s e p a r a t e h ero and h e r o in e a r e
t y p i c a l l y imposed by one of t h e i r f a t h e r s , and a n o th e r
a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e — more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of s o c i e t y th a n of
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t h e f a m il y — may r e i n f o r c e th e b a r r i e r » a s T heseus does in
A Midsummer N i g h t 1s Dream. The assu m p tio n o f New Comedy
i s alw ays t h a t r i g h t i s on th e s id e of y o u th -- - th a t th e
c la im s of th e h e a r t a r e more v a l i d th a n th e v o ic e d
i n t e r e s t s of c la n or s o c i e t y . Those who s ta n d i n th e
young p e o p l e ’ s way, denying lo v e i t s due c o u rs e , a r e n o t
only wrong but te n d to be wrong in p a r t i c u l a r ways. They
v a lu e p r o p e r ty and p r e s t i g e to o g r e a t l y , and th e y demand
u n r e a s o n a b le o b ed ie n c e to th e m se lv e s and t o th e s t a t u s quo
they m a i n t a i n . They a r e o f t e n what Ben Jonson term ed
" h u m o rs ," p e r s o n s in m ental bondage— i g n o r a n t of t h e i r own
t
n a t u r e s , e n s la v e d by f o o l i s h i l l u s i o n s , " h e l p l e s s l y d riv e n
by r u l i n g p a s s i o n s , n e u r o t i c co m pulsions, s o c i a l r i t u a l s ,
and s e l f i s h n e s s . "4 The.movement of comedy i s in th e main
a movement toward t h e d e f e a t of th o se s e l f - d e l u d e d
c h a r a c t e r s and th e r i g i d , i n t o l e r a n t s o c i e t y they
dom inate. R a re ly , however, i s t h e i r d e f e a t b i t t e r . More
t y p i c a l l y th ey a r e h u m i l i a t e d i n t o s e l f - a w a r e n e s s l a t e in
t h e play and t h u s r e l e a s e d from t h e i r humorous bondage.
By t h e s e means they a r e a s s i s t e d to th e "change of h e a r t "
Frye m e n tio n s, e n a b l i n g them to a c c e p t, even welcome, th e
comic m a r r i a g e s . As they a r e l i b e r a t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y , so
i s s o c i e t y f r e e d from t h e i r b a l e f u l in flu e n c e ..
C onsequently New Comedy u s u a l l y c o n c lu d e s on a s tr o n g ,
p o s i t i v e n o te of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , made perm anent by th e
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comic m a r r ia g e s . Nowhere i s t h i s s p i r i t of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n
more a p p a r e n t th a n in S h a k e s p e a r e 's p la y s.
Frye has s u g g e ste d t h a t th e d e s i r e of th e b lo c k in g
c h a r a c t e r s to t h w a r t young lo v e may be a t r o o t
i n c e s t u o u s . 5 in th e Roman p l a y s , where f a t h e r and son
f r e q u e n t l y compete f o r s e x u a l p o s s e s s i o n of th e same g i r l ,
th e o u t l i n e s of th e O edipal c o n f l i c t seem f a i r l y o b v io u s.
In o t h e r New Comedies, i n c l u d i n g th o s e of S h a k e sp e a re , th e
e f f o r t s o f th e senex t o c o n t r o l h i s d a u g h t e r ’ s c h o ic e of a
husband y i e l d s a com parable p a t t e r n , e s p e c i a l l y when th e
man th e f a t h e r f a v o r s re se m b le s h im s e lf c l o s e l y in age,
w e a lth , and s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , a s i s o f t e n th e case.
Whether or not t h i s i n c e s t m o tif i s p r e s e n t in a
p a r t i c u l a r p la y , t h e r e i s alw ays to be found i n New Comedy
a s e x u a l . r e p r e s s i o n p r a c t i c e d by th e o ld a g a i n s t th e
young. Frye a r g u e s t h a t in S h a k e s p e a r e 's p la y s t h i s
r e p r e s s i o n f r e q u e n t l y t a k e s s o c i a l form in an " i r r a t i o n a l
l a w ” in t e n d e d to " r e g u l a t e th e sex d r i v e ” by d e c l a r i n g
n u l l and v o id th e r i g h t s of th e young to marry whom they
w i l l . 6 i h e A thenian r u l e u p h o ld in g E g e u s’ p a t e r n a l
a u t h o r i t y in A Midsummer- N i g h t ' s Dream i s a h a r s h and
p u n i t i v e example of such a law, w h ile th e o a th to f o r s w e a r
th e company of women ta k e n by th e Court of N avarre in
L o v e 's L a b o r 's L o st r e p r e s e n t s a m i l d e r , more in fo r m a l
v a r i a n t .
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Frye d i v i d e s th e p r o t o t y p i c New Comic p l o t i n t o t h r e e
s e q u e n t i a l p h a se s, c o r re s p o n d in g t o t h e t h r e e s ta g e s t h a t
th e comic community must p ass th ro u g h in i t s p r o g r e s s from
a r e p r e s s i v e and s t e r i l e s o c ie ty t o a f r e e and p o t e n t i a l l y
f e r t i l e o n e . 7 The f i r s t phase i s t h a t of th e " a n tic o m ic
s o c i e t y , " a "somber and gloomy p e r i o d . " During t h i s s ta g e
th e power of th e b lo c k in g c h a r a c t e r s a p p e a r s a l l but
i n s u p e r a b l e and t h e " p r i n c i p l e of s t e r i l i t y " i s in f o r c e ,
i n h i b i t i n g t h e m a tin g r i t e s of y o u th . The second phase i s
t h a t of " l i c e n s e and c o n f u s io n of v a l u e s , " b e s t
r e p r e s e n t e d by " th e c a r n i v a l , th e S a t u r n a l i a and th e
f e s t i v a l s of prom iscuous se x u a l union t h a t ap p ear in e a r l y
r e l i g i o n s . " Through d i s g u i s e and by o t h e r means many of
th e comic c h a r a c t e r s l o s e t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s — p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e i r sex u al i d e n t i t i e s — and th e r i g i d , l e g a l i s t i c s o c i e t y
of th e f i r s t phase b e g in s to break down a m id st
bew ild erm en t and u p h e a v a l. T hird i s th e p e r io d of
f e s t i v i t y and of " d i s c o v e r y . o f i d e n t i t y . " C h a r a c t e r s who
have been b l i n d t o t h e i r own n a t u r e s f i n d out who they
r e a l l y a r e , p e r m i t t i n g t h e f o rm a tio n of a new s o c i a l
o r d e r — one t h a t u p h o ld s th e v a lu e s o f t h e young l o v e r s and
i s based upon c o o p e r a t i o n r a t h e r th a n r e p r e s s i o n . T h is
f i n a l p e r io d , r e l a t e d to th e r e v e l or komos from which
comedy i s th o u g h t t o ta k e i t s name, i s marked by wedding
f e s t i v i t i e s , j u b i l a n t c e l e b r a t i o n , and th e r i t u a l b l e s s i n g
42
o f th e newlyweds in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r f r u i t f u l se x u a l union.
The Comic G reenworld
A ccording t o Frye. S h a k e s p e a r e 's most fu n d am en tal
d e p a r t u r e from th e p a t t e r n s of Roman New Comedy c o n s i s t s
in h i s method of p o r t r a y i n g th e second comic phase, d u rin g
which th e comic r e s o l u t i o n norm a lly o c c u r s . 8 in th e
com edies o f P l a u t u s and T erence th e e n t i r e d r a m a tic a c t i o n
u n f o l d s i n one l o c a l e ( u s u a l l y u rb a n ), and th e p e r io d o f
l i c e n s e and c o n fu s io n i s m a n i f e s t e d c h i e f l y in th e havoc
*
w rought by an u n s c ru p u lo u s s la v e who i s a c t i n g t o a b e t th e
young l o v e r s in t h e i r e f f o r t s to circ u m v e n t t h e i r p a r e n t s .
Jonson and t h e R e s t o r a t i o n p l a y w r i g h ts fo llo w e d t h e Romans
c l o s e l y i n b o th r e s p e c t s — w r i t i n g c i t y comedies which
employ t r i c k y s e r v a n t s a s comic i n s t i g a t o r s — but
S h a k e sp e a re , e x c e p t in The Comedy o f E r r o r s , did not.
Most S h ak esp earea n comedies open i n th e c i t y , c e r t a i n l y ,
but th e n a s th e second p e r io d of comic a c t i o n b e g in s , th e
c h a r a c t e r s move to a l e s s c i v i l i z e d s e t t i n g , o f t e n a
f o r e s t l o c a l e (o r "g re e n w o rld " i n F r y e ’ s t e r m in o lo g y ) .
S h a k e sp e a re a l s o s h i f t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c r e a t i n g th e
r e q u i s i t e comic c o n f u s io n from s l a v e s or s e r v a n t s to h i s
h e r o i n e s , though o c c a s i o n a l l y he g iv e s th e f u n c t i o n t o a
male ( P e t r u c h i o ) , to f a i r i e s , or to o t h e r s . Frye
e x p l a i n s :
43
The Two Gentlemen of Verona i s an o rthodox
New Comedy e x c e p t f o r one t h i n g . The hero
V a l e n t i n e becomes c a p t a i n of a band of o u tla w s
in a f o r e s t , and a l l th e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s a re
g a t h e r e d i n t o t h i s f o r e s t and become c o n v e rte d .
Thus th e a c t i o n of th e comedy b e g in s i n a w orld
r e p r e s e n t e d a s a normal w orld, moves i n t o th e
green w orld, goes i n t o a m etam o rp h o sis t h e r e in
which th e comic r e s o l u t i o n i s a c h ie v e d , and
r e t u r n s to th e normal w orld. The f o r e s t i n t h i s
p lay i s th e embryonic form of t h e f a i r y w orld of
A Midsummer N i g h t ’ s Dream, t h e F o r e s t of Arden
in As You Like I t , Windsor F o r e s t i n The Merrv
Wives of W in d so r, and th e p a s t o r a l w orld of th e
m y th ic a l s e a - c o a s t e d Bohemia in The W i n t e r ’ s
T a l e . In a l l th e s e com edies t h e r e i s t h e same
rh y th m ic movement from normal w orld to green
w orld and back a g a in .
Elsew here among S h a k e s p e a r e 's com edies th e green w o rld i s
somewhat l e s s th a n a f o r e s t , but re m a in s r e c o g n i z a b l e .
The park s e t t i n g of L o v e 's L a b o r 's L o s t — w i l d enough t o
f o r a g e d e e r — c l e a r l y f u n c t i o n s as a green w orld, p r o v id in g
an a p p r o p r i a t e n a t u r a l s i t e f o r th e c o n f u s io n v i s i t e d upon
th e s c h o l a r s of th e Academe. The c o u n t r y s i d e between
Padua and P e t r u c h i o ' s r u r a l e s t a t e in Shrew may s e rv e a
s i m i l a r p u rp o se : s e v e r a l of K a t e ' s h u m i l i a t i o n s occur
t h e r e , as does h er e v e n tu a l c o n v e r s io n . Even i n Much Ado,
c o n fin e d to th e c i t y of Messina, we f i n d a g re e n w orld of
s o r t s i n L e o n a t o 's gard en , where b o th B enedick and
B e a t r i c e a r e t r i c k e d i n t o abandoning f a l s e p r id e .
S h a k e sp e a re was n o t t h e f i r s t E l i z a b e t h a n p la y w r ig h t
t o i n c l u d e a g re e n w o rld i n h i s com edies, b u t r a t h e r
j o i n e d a d ra m a tic t r a d i t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d i n England by
Lyly* P eele, Greene, and t h e masque w r i t e r s . The s o u rc e s
of t h i s t r a d i t i o n a r e n a t i v e and p o p u la r — n o t l i t e r a r y —
and can be t r a c e d f a r back i n t o a n t i q u i t y , u l t i m a t e l y to
th e s y m p a th e tic magic of p r i m i t i v e r e l i g i o n : "T his i s th e
drama of f o l k r i t u a l , of th e S t . George play and t h e
mummers' play, of t h e f e a s t of th e a s s and t h e Boy Bishop,
and of a l l t h e d r a m a tic a c t i v i t y t h a t p u n c tu a te d th e
C h r i s t i a n c a l e n d a r w i t h th e r i t u a l s of an immemorial
p a g a n i s m ."9 The pagan r i t e s t h a t Frye r e f e r s t o a r e th o s e
u t i l i z e d , we now t h i n k , by a l l p r e - h i s t o r i c a g r i c u l t u r a l
p e o p le s in t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o i n s u r e th e f e r t i l i t y of t h e i r
c r o p s . The theme o f th o s e cerem onies i s alw ays th e
"triu m p h of l i f e over t h e w a s t e l a n d . " T y p i c a l l y t h e d e a th
and r e v i v a l of t h e y e a r a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by a c e n t r a l human
f i g u r e who i s " k i l l e d " th e n b ro u g h t back t o l i f e . I t may
w e ll be t h a t w herev er drama has o r i g i n a t e d from f o l k
s o u r c e s , s i m i l a r f e r t i l i t y r i t u a l s have p ro v id e d i t s
i n i t i a l form. E a r l i e r t h i s c e n tu r y , F. M. C o rn fo rd showed
us t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t w e s te r n comedy a p p e a rs t o have
ev o lv ed from Greek f e r t i l i t y cerem onies t h a t were o b se rv e d
d u rin g t h e F e s t i v a l o f D i o n y s u s . 10 in t h e e x t a n t comedies
of A r is to p h a n e s , C o rn fo rd l o c a t e d a r e p e a t e d p a t t e r n
r e se m b lin g c l o s e l y t h e d e a th and r e s u r r e c t i o n of t h e god.
S ubsequent w e s te rn comedy h as r e t a i n e d t h i s p a t t e r n ,
though in forms t h a t a r e more a b s t r a c t , and sometimes very
45
a b s t r a c t in d e e d . In Roman New Comedy, f o r example, we may
d i s c e r n th e vague o u t l i n e s of th e o ld r i t u a l in th e
f o r t u n e s v i s i t e d upon th e t r i c k y s la v e , who i s o f t e n
t h r e a t e n e d w ith d e a th and b e a te n , but who triu m p h s i n th e
end, u s u a l l y w inning h i s freedom.
Frye b e l i e v e s t h a t when S h a k e sp e a re began w r i t i n g New
Comedy e a r l y i n h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l c a r e e r , he became aware
of t h e a r c h a i c p a t t e r n of d e a th and r e v i v a l i m p l i c i t in
t h e Roman p la y s , and, a t t r a c t e d by t h e p r o f u n d i t y of t h i s
p a t t e r n , began c o n s c i o u s l y to em phasize and r e d e f i n e i t ,
i n f u s i n g new s u b s ta n c e from th e a n a lo g o u s m a t e r i a l s of
E n g lis h g re e n w orld d ra m a .11 Somewhat p a r a d o x i c a l l y , by
draw ing on th e f o l k p l a y s n a t i v e t o h i s own peo p le,
S h ak esp eare was a b le t o re a c h back to th e u n i v e r s a l
o r i g i n s of drama, making o p e r a t i v e a g a in "a prim eval
d ra m a tic s t r u c t u r e t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y a n y t h i n g in th e shape
of a human a u d ie n c e can resp o n d t o . "12 Evidence f o r t h e s e
c la im s i s n o t d i f f i c u l t to f i n d . The s o l s t i t i a l t i t l e s of
A Midsummer N i g h t ’ s Dream and T w e lfth N ight r e l a t e t h e s e
p la y s d i r e c t l y to th e an n u al c y c le of t h e E n g lis h
a g r i c u l t u r a l f e s t i v a l s , and s u g g e st i n f a c t t h a t we should
r e g a r d th e p la y s th e m se lv e s a s r i t u a l c e l e b r a t i o n s , which
of c o u rs e they a r e . When Oberon commands h i s f a i r i e s to
b l e s s th e b r i d a l beds in a c t f i v e of Dream, th e f e r t i l i t y
r i t u a l alw ays l a t e n t in comedy i s made m a n i f e s t . Frye
46
p o i n t s to th e d e b a te between S p rin g and W in ter t h a t
c o n c lu d e s Love’ s L a b o r ' s L o st as a n o th e r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s
g e s t u r e to th e an n u al c o n t e s t between f e r t i l i t y and
d e a t h . 13 And he i n t e r p r e t s F a l s t a f f * s punishm ent by th e
f a i r i e s in t h e r e s o l u t i o n of Merrv Wives a s a parody, of
D ionysus b ein g r e n t by h i s w o rs h ip p e rs i As F a l s t a f f
h i m s e l f has s a i d in t r y i n g t o s o l i c i t sex from two women
a t once: "D ivide me l i k e a b r i b 'd - b u c k , each a haunch"
( 5 . 5 . 2 4 ) . 1 ^ The dismemberment o f A n tig o n u s i n The
W i n t e r 's Tale p r o v id e s an even c l e a r e r p a r a l l e l w ith th e
d e a th of th e Greek god.
A ntigonus and F a l s t a f f a r e somewhat anom alous thought
becau se S h ak esp eare t y p i c a l l y e x p r e s s e s th e d e a th and
r e v i v a l m o t i f th ro u g h h i s comic h e r o i n e s . 15 in most of
h i s comedies th e h e r o i n e d i s a p p e a r s d u rin g th e second
comic phase, e i t h e r by d i s g u i s i n g h e r s e l f a s a boy
(R o s a lin d t V i o l a ) t or by going i n t o h i d i n g (Hero.
Herm ione). With th e a d v e n t of th e t h i r d phaset she comes
back a g a in t j o i n i n g th e new comic s o c i e t y t h a t has been
formed l a r g e l y under her g u id an ce or influence-. The d e a th
and r e v i v a l p a t t e r n i s e a s i e s t to r e c o g n iz e in h e r o i n e s
who n o t only a r e hidden but who a r e r e p o r t e d dead by
o t h e r s . T h e ir r e t u r n to th e s ta g e has every a p p e a ra n c e of
an a c t u a l r e s u r r e c t i o n f o r th e c h a r a c t e r s (o r a u d ie n c e )
not p riv y t o th e t r u t h . Frye b e l i e v e s t h a t w i t h Hermione.
47
S h a k e sp e a re openly e s t a b l i s h e s t h e a s s o c i a t i o n — alw ays
i m p l i c i t — between th e comic h e r o i n e and P r o s e r p i n e , whose
annual v i s i t s to th e Underworld were s a id to c o n t r o l th e
changing of t h e s e a so n s . The g re e n w orld i s a f t e r a l l th e
n a t u r a l w orld, and th e n a t u r a l w orld i s p re d o m in a n tly
fe m in in e , j u s t a s T h e s e u s ’ A thens i s p re d o m in a n tly
m a s c u lin e . Woman’ s s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to n a t u r e i s
e x p l a i n e d by h e r c a p a c i t y t o . bear c h i l d r e n , but f o r
S h a k e sp e a re , a s f o r th e a u th o r of th e P r o s e r p i n e myth,
m a t e r n i t y i s i n s e p a r a b l e from fe m in in e lo v e , p o s s e s s e d of
i t s own s p e c i a l powers to r e v i v i f y . The c o n sta n c y of a
Hermione or a V io la i s a s u b t l e b u t im p la c a b le f o r c e t h a t
can and w i l l s e t a l l t h i n g s r i g h t , t r a n s f o r m i n g even th e
s e l f - d e l u d e d m a s c u lin e h e a r t — so e a s i l y h y p n o tiz e d by
power, by law, or by th e o t h e r a c c o u te r m e n ts of
c i v i l i z a t i o n .
The E d u c a tio n of Comic Lovers
S h a k e s p e a r e 's comedies d i f f e r from th o s e of th e
Romans i n t h e i r i n c l u s i o n of a g re e n w orld, and in one
o t h e r i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t , a c c o r d in g t o Frye. In th e Roman
com edies, a s in t h e comic drama o f Jonson and M o lie re , t h e
prim ary f o c u s i s c e n t e r e d upon one or more of th e b lo c k in g
c h a r a c t e r s . These c a r e f u l l y d e f i n e d , e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e
t y p e s supply t h e main e t h i c a l i n t e r e s t of t h e i r dramas
48
th ro u g h t h e i r g r o s s e r r o r s , w h ile t h e t r i c k s play ed
a g a i n s t them y i e l d most o f t h e fun. They a lo n e undergo
comic e d u c a tio n b e c a u se they a lo n e l a c k s e lf - k n o w le d g e ,
and need t o change. The young l o v e r s of th e Roman p la y s ,
by c o n t r a s t , a r e assumed t o be e n t i r e l y in th e r i g h t — t o
need no e d u c a t i o n — and t h e r e f o r e , beyond t h e i r f u n c t i o n as
s t r u c t u r a l d e v ic e s , they te n d to play u n im p o rta n t r o l e s .
The hero and h e r o i n e a r e u s u a l l y l e f t u n d e fin e d , and one
or both may rem ain o f f s t a g e f o r th e e n t i r e p l a y . 16 in th e
comedies of S h a k e sp e a re , however, a l l of t h i s changes.
Except in The Comedy of E r r o r s and The Merrv W ives, which
f o llo w th e Roman p a t t e r n , S h a k e sp e a re s h i f t s t h e d ra m a tic
f o c u s from th e o ld humors and t h e i r o b s e s s i v e
a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m t o t h e young l o v e r s and a new ty p e of
humorous bondage, one he c r e a t e s e s p e c i a l l y f o r them. In
most c a s e s t h i s bondage has t o do w ith th e i n a b i l i t y of
e i t h e r h e ro or h e r o i n e t o lo v e in an o t h e r - d i r e c t e d ,
m utual manner. The o ld b lo c k in g c h a r a c t e r s a r e s t i l l
p r e s e n t in S h a k e s p e a r e ’s p la y s , and have t h e i r form er
f u n c t i o n s , but now they a r e t h e ones r e l e g a t e d to th e
s t a t u s of s t r u c t u r a l d e v ic e s and l e f t vag u ely d e f in e d .
O ften t h e i r c o n v e r s io n s happen so r a p i d l y t h a t we see no
p r o c e s s of e d u c a tio n a t a l l . The tim e t h a t m ight have
been devoted t o them i s i n s t e a d s p e n t d e p i c t i n g th e
e d u c a t i o n s of th e l o v e r s , who a r e by some means bro u g h t t o
U9
d e e p e r s e lf - k n o w le d g e , e n a b l i n g them to t r a n s c e n d s e l f -
r e f l e x i v e or s o l i p s i s t i c in v o lv e m e n t. S h a k e sp e a re a n
comedy i s a new k in d of comic drama, c h i e f l y f o r t h i s
r e a s o n . I t s main concern i s w i t h problem s i n t e r n a l t o th e
comic l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , w h ereas p r e v i o u s l y in comedy
young lo v e had alw ays been presumed f r e e of t h e s e .
In L o v e 's L abors L o s t , f o r example, th e King and h i s
s c h o l a r s a r e i n i t i a l l y bound n o t only by th e o a th th ey
have ta k e n to f o rs w e a r th e company of women, but i n a more
prim ary way by t h e i r e x c e s s i v e m a s c u lin e p r i d e , which
t e n d s t o be e x p r e s s e d th ro u g h h ig h ly a r t i f i c i a l speech,
w i t in p a r t i c u l a r . 17 The s o n n e ts w r i t t e n by th e men t o -
t h e i r l a d i e s a r e a l l s e l f - r e f l e x i v e , and Armado's l o v e
l e t t e r t o J a q u e n e t t a i s a r r o g a n t , openly d i s d a i n f u l .
B e fo re gen u in e lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be formed between
t h e p a i r s of t h i s p la y , th e m ales must overcome t h e i r
p r i d e , and t h i s i s of c o u rse th e f u n c t i o n of th e
p u n ish m e n ts or t r i a l s t h a t th e l a d i e s a s s i g n them a t
p l a y ' s end. The P r i n c e s s sends th e King, who w anted to
found an e x c l u s i v e m a s c u lin e s o c i e t y , to a " f o r l o r n and
naked h e r m ita g e " ( 5 . 2 . 7 9 5 ) , w h ile R o s a lin e o r d e r s Berowne
t o a h o s p i t a l , where he i s to e n t e r t a i n th e s i c k and d y in g
w ith h i s w i t u n t i l c u re d of i t s e x c e s s e s .
Much of th e p l o t of The Taming of th e Shrew i s ta k e n
up w ith th e h u m i l i a t i o n s t h a t Kate s u f f e r s a t t h e hands of
50
her new husband a s he l i b e r a t e s h er from th e humor of
s h r e w i s h n e s s . 18 I n i t i a l l y Kate i s a s p o i l e d b r a t , t o t a l l y
c au g h t up in h er own needs, i n c a p a b l e of l o v i n g anyone or
of i n s p i r i n g lo v e . P e t r u c h i o ’ s " c u r e " may seem
u n n e c e s s a r i l y c r u e l , but i t has p s y c h o lo g i c a l v a l i d i t y ,
f o r h i s method i s t o mimic K a t e 's own o u t l a n d i s h
b e h a v i o r — c r e a t i n g a s t i r on any p r e t e x t , demanding th e
i m p o s s ib le from every o n e, b estow ing i n s u l t s and i n j u r i e s
f r e e l y . He keep s t e l l i n g Kate t h a t h i s a p p a l l i n g l y
e g o i s t i c a c t s a r e a l l done f o r her sake, and r e a l l y th ey
a r e . By t h e s e means he t e a c h e s h er what i t f e e l s l i k e to
be bombarded by a w holly s e l f i s h p e r s o n a l i t y , w h ile a t th e
same tim e showing h er how she a p p e a r s to o t h e r s .
P e t r u c h i o r e i n f o r c e s h i s l e s s o n w ith p h y s ic a l p r i v a t i o n ,
u n t i l a t l a s t Kate " b r e a k s . n s u b m i t t i n g t o h i s w i l l .
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e a f f e c t i o n t h a t d e v e lo p s between th e two
a f t e r w a r d a p p e a r s genuine and deep, so t h a t I t h i n k we
e x p e c t t h e i r m a r r ia g e to b rin g both of them h a p p in e s s and
m utual com panionship. The new Kate i s a b l e to put
a n o t h e r ' s needs b e f o r e h e r own, p ro b a b ly a n e c e s s a r y
s u b o r d i n a t i o n f o r someone of her ty p e , i f she i s to g iv e
and r e c e i v e lo v e .
L overs who f a l l s h o r t of m u t u a l i t y in t h e i r a f f e c t i o n
a r e e d u c a te d i n o t h e r comedies o f S h a k e sp e a re too.
P r o te u s in The Two Gentleman of Verona and L ysander in £
I
51
Midsummer N i g h t 's Dream b o th succumb t o l u s t — t h e most
s e l f - r e f l e x i v e of r o m a n tic p a s s i o n s — abandoning women who
lo v e them t r u l y in o r d e r to p u rsu e women who do not and
can n o t lo v e them. D riven by t h e i r humors, t h e s e two
f i c k l e men t h i n k and a c t only f o r th e m se lv e s u n t i l f i n a l l y
cu red in comic f o r e s t s , one th ro u g h d i s c l o s u r e and
h u m i l i a t i o n , th e o t h e r by f a i r y magic. Benedick i n Much
Ado i s a n o t h e r f i c k l e m ale, a c c o r d in g t o B e a t r i c e , whom he
has a p p a r e n t l y j i l t e d sometime i n th e p a s t ( 1 . 1 . 7 5 - 7 7 ;
2 . 1 . 2 7 6 - 8 2 ) . R e l a t i o n s between th e two have s i n c e
d e g e n e r a te d i n t o a war of m utual d e r i s i o n , th ro u g h which
th ey e x p r e s s t h e i r a t t r a c t i o n f o r one a n o t h e r in th e same
words they use t o vehem ently deny i t . Trapped h e l p l e s s l y
by t h e i r p o s t u r e s , th ey would p ro b ab ly rem ain a t odds and
a lo n e were i t n o t f o r th e p l o t t e r s , who expose th e s i n c e r e
l o v e b e n e a th th e b a n t e r , r e n d e r i n g a c t i v e and f r u i t f u l a
l o n g - s u p p r e s s e d m u t u a l i t y . 19 in B e a t r i c e ' s c o u s in Hero we
e n c o u n te r a comic h e r o i n e who f u l f i l l s th e d e a th and
r e v i v a l p a t t e r n i n an o b v io u s way as she i s " s a c r i f i c e d ”
t o h e r f i a n c e ' s l o s s of f a i t h in h er. One r e a s o n Don
J o h n 's p l o t su c c e e d s so e a s i l y w ith C la u d io i s t h a t he has
n o t got to know th e i n n e r Hero w e l l , b u t from th e s t a r t of
t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p , when he l e t Don Pedro do h i s wooing
f o r him, he has d e a l t w ith her p u b l i c l y , r e s t r i c t i n g h i s
a c q u a i n t a n c e to her outward s e l f , th e p a r t of her t h a t he
52
can see (o r t h a t o t h e r s t e l l him a b o u t ) . When H e r o ’ s
p u b l i c s e l f becomes t a i n t e d * Claudio* concerned deeply
w ith h i s own r e p u t a t i o n , f e e l s im p e lle d t o d i s s o c i a t e
h i m s e l f from h er e m p h a t i c a l l y . True t o form, he chooses a
p u b l i c occasion* one c a l c u l a t e d t o h u m i l i a t e her in f r o n t
o f everyone she knows. C l a u d i o ’ s e v e n t u a l l e s s o n i s t h a t
a b re a c h of f a i t h such as h i s can be f a t a l . He a t o n e s by
a g r e e i n g t o m arry a woman he has never seen-—a c o n v in c in g
way t o prove h i s newfound c a p a c i t y f o r t r u s t .
O rlando and S i l v i u s i n As You Like I t e r r by p la y in g
P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r s , i d e a l i z i n g t h e i r l a d i e s to an e x t e n t
t h a t i n h i b i t s or even p r e v e n t s m u t u a l i t y . As R o sa lin d
p o i n t s o u t, th e main consequence of S il v i u s * s e l f -
d e p r e c a t i n g p u r s u i t of h i s la d y has been to g iv e Phebe an
i n f l a t e d i d e a of h er own w o rth , so t h a t — s i c k w ith s e l f -
l o v e — she im a g in e s h e r s e l f to o good f o r a p e r f e c t l y
s u i t a b l e mate. O rlando, m eanwhile, m esm erized by a v i s i o n
of "h eav en ly R o s a l i n d , " c o n v e r t s a p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l
p a s s io n i n t o a f e r v o r f o r t r e e c a r v i n g and i n e p t
v e r s i f i c a t i o n — n e i t h e r e f f e c t u a l in b r i n g i n g him c l o s e r t o
h i s b e lo v ed . A ll t h r e e of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a re h in d e r e d
by a t o o - e x a l t e d n o tio n of lo v e , and R o s a lin d , who seems
by n a t u r e to u n d e r s ta n d l o v e ’ s s e c r e t s , t a k e s i t upon
h e r s e l f t o e d u c a te them. She mocks th e P e tr a r c h a n
p r e t e n s i o n s of th e m a le s— showing O rlando, i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
53
how to r e l a t e t o a woman d i r e c t l y r a t h e r th a n in h i s
mind— and e x o r c i s e s P h e b e 's n a r c i s s i s m by a c t i n g a s a
l i g h t n i n g rod f o r t h e g i r l ' s f i r s t ( m i s d i r e c t e d )
e x t e r n a l i z e d lo v e . When t h e l e s s o n s a r e com plete (and
th ey occupy a good p o r t i o n of t h e p l a y ) , th e comic
m a r r i a g e s can be c e l e b r a t e d .
In T w e lfth N i g h t . V io la does not s e t out t o be a
t e a c h e r , y e t h e r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w ith O l i v i a and O rsin o
u l t i m a t e l y changes both p r o fo u n d ly , f r e e i n g t h e Countess
from h er s t e r i l e , e x a g g e r a te d s t a t e of mourning and th e
Duke from h i s s o l i t a r y a d d i c t i o n to u n r e q u i t e d l o v e . In
V i o l a ’s f i r s t scen e w ith e i t h e r of t h e s e ingrown
c h a r a c t e r s we see th e p r o c e s s b e g in n in g . O rsin o t a k e s h i s
new f r i e n d i n t o c lo s e c o n f e r e n c e — "I have u n c l a s p 'd / To
t h e e th e book even o f my s e c r e t s o u l ” ( '1 .4 .1 3 - 1 4 ) — w h ile
O l i v i a removes h e r v e i l , presumably f o r t h e f i r s t tim e
s i n c e h e r b r o t h e r ' s d e a th , so t h a t V io la can view h e r
f a c e . T his p r o c e s s of th e humors t u r n i n g outw ard t o V io la
c o n t i n u e s u n t i l they a r r iv e , a t t h e p o i n t of a c t i v e l y
s e e k in g m ates. Once th ey seek f o r th e m s e lv e s , a f t e r an
i n i t i a l e r r o r , they f i n d t h e m ates i n te n d e d f o r them.
V i o l a ' s r o l e as c a t a l y s t in th e play i l l u s t r a t e s a r u l e I
b e l i e v e h o ld s t r u e in S h a k e s p e a r e 's comedies g e n e r a l l y :
d i r e c t f a c e - t o - f a c e c o n t a c t i s r e q u i r e d t o d ev elo p t h e
k in d o f lo v e t h a t m a r ria g e i s founded upon. M utual,
54
com panionate lo v e does n o t happen in t h e a b s t r a c t * or a t a
d is ta n c e * or th ro u g h i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , or w i t h i n one l o v e r ’ s
im a g in a tio n . I t happens between p e o p le who meet and
become a c q u a i n t e d on a p e r s o n a l l e v e l .
The Comic C o n fu sio n Elem ents
S h a k e s p e a re a s s i g n s t h e e d u c a t i o n of th e young l o v e r s
t o th e second phase of th e comic p l o t : th e green w o rld
phase or th e p e r i o d of comic c o n f u s io n . In one se n se , as
we have seen, th e l e s s o n s t h e l o v e r s r e c e i v e a r e t a i l o r e d
to them i n d i v i d u a l l y , b e in g d e s ig n e d to mend s p e c i f i c
ro m a n tic sh o rtc o m in g s. In some im p o r ta n t ways, though,
a l l th e l e s s o n s a r e th e same. What t y p i c a l l y happens i s
t h a t t h e young p eo p le f l e e or a r e b a n ish e d from a
r e p r e s s i v e s o c i e t y i n t o a n a t u r a l woodland a r e a , where
th o s e n eed in g t o change m eet t h e i r e d u c a t o r s , most o f t e n
th e comic h e r o i n e , and under h er g u id a n c e a r e s u b j e c t e d to
r a d i c a l d i s o r i e n t a t i o n by one or more a g e n t s of c o n f u s i o n :
dream, madness, i l l u s i o n , d i s g u i s e , d a r k n e s s , d r in k , or
magic. The f u n c t i o n of c o n f u s io n , w h a te v e r i t s form, i s
t o a c t a s m en tal p u r g a t i v e , r i d d i n g t h e l o v e r o f th e
f i x a t i o n t h a t b in d s him t o h i s p e r s o n a l form of
s e l f i s h n e s s . The p r o c e s s of c o n f u s io n b e g in s when th e
l o v e r i s t r i c k e d i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t some i l l u s i o n i s
r e a l i t y ( t h e h e r o i n e ' s m a s c u lin e d i s g u i s e , f o r i n s t a n c e ) .
55
Having a c c e p te d th e i l l u s i o n , which may mimic th e l o v e r ’ s
own ro m a n tic b l i n d s p o t, he comes to depend upon i t . even
t o b u i l d hopes upon i t . ' When t h i s commitment i s com plete,
th e h e r o in e or o t h e r t e a c h e r i n a u g u r a t e s th e t h i r d comic
phase by suddenly d i s p e l l i n g th e i l l u s i o n i n t h e p re s e n c e
of th e l o v e r , r o c k i n g h i s e n t i r e r e a l i t y o r i e n t a t i o n a t
l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y . Although th e l o v e r soon a d j u s t s to th e
new r e a l i t y , he f i n d s h i m s e l f changed i n perm anent ways by
h i s m en tal odyssey.
"The g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t s come to us th ro u g h madness
when i t i s bestow ed on us a s a g i f t of th e g o d s , 1 1 P la to
w r o t e . 20 He went on to i d e n t i f y s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s of
" f i n e " madness, i n c l u d i n g p r o p h e t i c p o s s e s s i o n , p o e t i c
i n s p i r a t i o n , and— most d e s i r a b l e of a l l — " l o v e - m a d n e s s , "
t h ro u g h which he b e l i e v e d man co u ld come to know th e
d i v i n e . Erasmus arg u ed in The P r a i s e of F o l l y t h a t
madness i s c l o s e l y a k in to r e l i g i o u s e c s t a s y and r o m a n tic
l o v e , both of which he v a lu e d f o r t h e i r c a p a c i t y to
d e v e lo p s e l f l e s s n e s s and h u m i l i t y . In S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s
com edies, to o , madness i s f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e
p a s s i o n of lo v e and t e n d s to be giv en a b e n e f i c i a l ,
c u r a t i v e f u n c t i o n , even i f c h a r a c t e r s do n o t alw ays speak
w e ll of i t . L ike P l a t o and Erasmus, S h a k e sp e a re
r e c o g n iz e d th e s i m i l a r i t y between lo v e and madness i n th e
re m a rk a b le power of e i t h e r t o t r a n s f o r m a p e rso n by
56
r a d i c a l l y a l t e r i n g b o th h i s s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n and h i s view
o f th e e x t e r n a l world* c r e a t i n g , a s i t were, a new man
o v e r n i g h t . As Speed s a y s t o V a l e n t i n e , "Now you a r e
m e ta m o rp h is 'd w ith a m i s t r e s s , t h a t when I lo o k on you, I
can h a r d ly t h i n k you my m a s t e r . "21 Moreover, i f th e
m adness of r o m a n tic p a s s io n can tr a n s f o r m an o r d in a r y man
i n t o a S h a k e sp e a re a n l o v e r , o t h e r k in d s of madness in th e
com edies h e lp t o c o n v e r t s e l f i s h lo v e i n t o u n s e l f i s h . For
m adness i s t h e q u i n t e s s e n t i a l a g e n t of S h a k e sp e a re a n comic
c o n f u s io n , th e o r i g i n a l from which th e o t h e r s d e r i v e .
Dream, f o r i n s t a n c e , r e p r e s e n t s th e "madness of th e
n i g h t , " a s t a t e f r e e i n g th e demons of th e s u b c o n s c io u s
i n t o th e s l e e p i n g h i g h e r b r a i n , where they a c t out " c r a z y "
d e s i r e s and i r r a t i o n a l - f e a r s t h a t we s u p p re s s d u rin g our
r a t i o n a l , waking l i v e s . D runkenness i s t h e madness
b ro u g h t by w ine, p e r s o n i f i e d i n S h a k e sp e a re by F a l s t a f f ,
or by S i r Toby (who e n j o i n s in d u lg e n c e u n t i l " b r a i n s t u r n
o ’ t h 1 t o e l i k e a p a r i s h - t o p " ) .2 2 O b e r o n 's lo v e p o t i o n
i n d u c e s a h a l l u c i n a t o r y s t a t e q u i t e c l o s e to madness,
j u d g in g from i t s e f f e c t s on T i t a n i a and th e l o v e r s . Even
d a r k n e s s and d i s g u i s e can p r e c i p i t a t e d i s l o c a t i o n of
r e a l i t y — d a r k n e s s by s t i m u l a t i n g th e im a g in a tio n u n t i l , a s
Theseus say s, one su p p o ses a bush a b o ar, d i s g u i s e by
d e c e i v i n g th e s e n s e s .
The f a n t a s t i c , dream q u a l i t y of th e comic f o r e s t ,
57
p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n th e woodland o f A Midsummer
N i g h t ' s Dream, s u g g e s t s t h a t th e g reen w o r l d .d o e s not
r e p r e s e n t an a c t u a l p la c e , but r a t h e r an e x p e r i e n c e or a
frame of mind— a l o c a l e deep in th e human i m a g in a tio n
where th e r u l e s of dream p e r t a i n . As Frye e x p l a i n s , "we
o f t e n have t o t h i n k o f th e main a c t i o n of a comedy as ' t h e
m i s t a k e s of a n i g h t , ' a s t a k i n g p la c e in a dream or
n ig h tm a re w orld t h a t th e f i n a l scene su d d en ly removes us
from and th e r e b y makes i l l u s o r y . "23 A ccording to Frye,
th e i r r a t i o n a l s o c i e t y of t h e f i r s t comic phase r e p r e s e n t s
th e s o c i a l r e a l i t y we l i v e i n — w ith a l l i t s i n h i b i t i o n s
and f r u s t r a t i o n s — w h ile t h e g re e n w o rld s y m b o liz e s a
u t o p i a we hope f o r but never se e : th e l a n d of Eden or th e
Golden Age.24 And y e t , he a r g u e s , such a d i s t i n c t i o n i s
to o easy , f o r w h ile th e
w o rld o f f a i r i e s , dreams, disem bodied s o u ls , and
p a s t o r a l l o v e r s may not be a " r e a l " w o rld , . . .
t h e r e i s som ething e q u a l l y i l l u s o r y in t h e
s tu m b lin g and b l i n d e d f o l l i e s of t h e "norm al"
w o rld , of T h e se u s ' Athens w ith i t s i d i o t i c
m a r r ia g e law , [and] of Duke F r e d e r i c k and h i s
m elan ch o ly ty ra n n y . . . . The famous speech of
P ro sp e ro a b o u t th e dream n a t u r e o f r e a l i t y
a p p l i e s e q u a l l y t o Milan and t h e e n c h a n te d
i s l a n d . We spend our l i v e s p a r t l y i n a waking
w o rld we c a l l normal and p a r t l y i n a dream w orld
which we c r e a t e o u t of our own d e s i r e s .
S h a k e sp e a re endows bpth w o rld s w ith equal
i m a g i n a t i v e power, b r i n g s them o p p o s i t e one
a n o t h e r , and makes each w orld seem u n r e a l when
seen by th e l i g h t of th e o t h e r . 25
e
58
Frye has w r i t t e n more r e c e n t l y t h a t th e s e two op p o sin g
w o rld s become i n t e g r a t e d in th e comic c o n c l u s io n , a s
members of th e younger and o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n s a l i k e awaken
t o f i n d th e dreams they have e x p e r ie n c e d i n t h e f o r e s t
in fo r m in g both th e m se lv e s i n d i v i d u a l l y and th e new comic
s o c i e t y t h a t a l l r e j o i n . 26 Through c o n t a c t w ith a dream
w o rld , which i s a l s o a n a t u r a l w o rld , th e c i t i z e n s a r e . p u t
back i n to u c h w i t h t h e i r i n n e r ( n a t u r a l ) s e l v e s and th e
community i s r e j u v e n a t e d . A lthough S h a k e sp e a re s k e tc h e s
th e new s o c i a l o r d e r only v ag u ely in th e l a s t comic
s c e n e s , we can be c e r t a i n t h a t i t w i l l be f r e e r and more
f e r t i l e th a n th e s o c i e t y which p reced ed i t , because of i t s
g r e a t e r accommodation to t h e n a t u r a l w i t h i n man. I t w i l l
be a s o c i e t y , we presume, t h a t b a l a n c e s th e c la im s of
c i v i l i z a t i o n a g a i n s t th o s e of our anim al o r i g i n s i n such a
way a s t o promote i n d i v i d u a l h a p p in e s s , sound m a r r i a g e ,
and h e a l t h y c h i l d r e n .
The Comic Clown
One S h a k e sp e a re a n comic t y p e — th e clown— i s
r e l a t i v e l y im p e rv io u s to th e comic e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s
b ecau se he i s never r e a l l y o u t of to u c h w ith th e animal
s id e of h i s own being. O ften in f a c t clowns a r e used t o
r e p r e s e n t th e i n s t i n c t i v e or a t a v i s t i c i n man, t h e prim al
a s a g a i n s t t h e a c c u l t u r a t e d . 27 Leo S a l i n g e r h as w r i t t e n
t h a t t h e clown or f o o l sp eak s " f o r th e f l e s h , a g a i n s t th e
p r e t e n s i o n s of th e s p i r i t . "28 and o f t e n , i t i s t r u e , we
f i n d t h e s e d o w n - t o - e a r t h t y p e s debunking t h e highflow n
s e n ti m e n t s of o t h e r s . Clowns mock young l o v e r s , in
p a r t i c u l a r , re m in d in g them t h a t t h e i r sublim e p a s s i o n s a r e
u l t i m a t e l y grounded i n crude p h y s ic a l d e s i r e . Of a l l
comic c h a r a c t e r s , t h e clown most p e r s o n i f i e s th e s p i r i t of
h o lid a y r e l e a s e , b o th th ro u g h h i s s tr o n g a p p e t i t e s f o r
sex, food, and d r in k , and by h i s i r r e v e r e n t speech, which
he employs t o u n d e r c u t th e d i g n i t y of e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i a l
a u t h o r i t i e s . He i s c l e a r l y one of th e o l d e s t comic ty p e s ,
and rem ain s c l o s e r th a n o t h e r s t o h i s r i t u a l o r i g i n s . In
most com edies h i s f u n c t i o n i s c e n t r a l and e s s e n t i a l . The
comic h e r o e s , o f A r is to p h a n e s a r e clown t y p e s , 29 a s a r e th e
t r i c k y s l a v e s of Roman comedy and t h e c r a f t y s e r v a n t s of
Ben Jonson. In New Comedy g e n e r a l l y th e clown i s most
o f t e n th e c h a r a c t e r i n ch arg e of f l e e c i n g t h e senex on
b e h a l f of th e young l o v e r s . He i s what we m ight term th e
comic " f a c i l i t a t o r , " f o r h i s c h i e f p u rp o se i s to
f a c i l i t a t e or a s s i s t th e f o r m a tio n of th e a p p r o p r i a t e
comic ra a rrig e s w h i l e d i s c o u r a g i n g u n io n s t h a t should not
be.
In S h a k e s p e a r e 's com edies, as I m en tio n ed e a r l i e r ,
th e r o l e of clown i s re d u c e d in d r a m a tic im p o rta n c e a s
s e v e r a l of th e c l o w n 's f u n c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h a t of comic
60
f a c i l i t a t o r , p ass to t h e h e r o i n e . R o salin d , V io la , and
th e P r i n c e s s o f F ran ce a r e th e c h a r a c t e r s in t h e i r p lay s
who f u l f i l l t h e d e a th and r e v i v a l m o tif, m asterm ind t h e
comic c o n fu s io n , e d u c a te th e humors, and c o n s o l i d a t e th e
comic m a r r i a g e s . The clowns who ap p ear w ith them a re
m ainly com m entators; th ey do l i t t l e p l o t t i n g and a lm o st
n o th in g to f u r t h e r th e i n t e r e s t s o f lo v e . Only
S h a k e s p e a r e 's bumbling comic clowns, such as Dogberry,
Launce, and Bottom, a r e in any sen se comic f a c i l i t a t o r s ,
but always u n w i t t i n g l y , w i t h o u t i n t e n t i o n . These t y p e s
can s c a r c e l y be c o n s id e r e d i n t r i g u e r s . S h a k e s p e a r e 's
r e a s o n f o r u s in g comic h e r o i n e s (or sometimes o t h e r
l o v e r s , such as P e t r u c h io or Oberon) t o f u l f i l l what had
been clown f u n c t i o n s i s q u i t e p ro b ab ly r e l a t e d t o h i s
i n n o v a t i v e fo c u s on t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n and problem s o f
r o m a n tic lo v e . In t h e Roman p la y s , where t h e o b s t a c l e s t o
lo v e a r e n e a r ly always l a c k o f funds and th e i n t e r f e r e n c e
of a p o s s e s s i v e o ld man, th e u n s c ru p u lo u s s l a v e i s p e rh a p s
t h e i d e a l f a c i l i t a t o r . But in S h a k e s p e a r e 's comedies,
where many o f th e im pedim ents t o lo v e a r e i n t e r n a l t o th e
l o v e r s th e m se lv e s , th e need i s f o r a f a c i l i t a t o r whose
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f lo v e i s com prehensive and whose methods
a r e g e n t l e . S h a k e s p e a r e 's clowns s t i l l speak f o r t h e
f l e s h , as clowns always have, and they mock i d e a l i s t i c
young l o v e r s as w e ll as p r e t e n t i o u s s o r t s such as J a c q u e s
61
and M alv o lio , b u t they te n d to flow w ith th e comic a c t i o n
r a t h e r th a n g u id in g i t . They a r e b a s i c a l l y c h o r i c '
f i g u r e s . 30
The Comic Wedding
The l a s t comic phase i s th e b r i e f e s t of th e t h r e e ,
sometimes only a scene in d u r a t i o n . I t s p r i n c i p a l e v e n ts
a r e th e comic w eddings and th e n u p t i a l f e s t i v i t i e s
s u rr o u n d in g them, a lm o st alw ays i n c l u d i n g songs and
d a n cin g , and o c c a s i o n a l l y f e a s t i n g , d r i n k i n g , or o t h e r
e n t e r t a i n m e n t s . Frye d e s c r i b e s a " g e n e r a l atm osphere of
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n " t h a t t y p i c a l l y p e rv a d e s th e t h i r d comic
phase, making th e m a r r i a g e s p o s s i b l e :
As t h e hero g e t s c l o s e r to th e h e r o in e and
o p p o s i t i o n i s overcome, a l l th e r i g h t - t h i n k i n g
p eo p le come over to h i s s id e . Thus a new s o c i a l
u n i t i s formed on th e s t a g e , and th e moment t h a t
t h i s s o c i a l u n i t c r y s t a l l i z e s i s th e moment of
comic r e s o l u t i o n . In t h e l a s t scene, when th e
d r a m a t i s t u s u a l l y t r i e s t o g e t a l l h i s
c h a r a c t e r s on th e s ta g e a t once, th e a u d ie n c e
w i t n e s s e s th e b i r t h of a renewed sen se of s o c i a l
i n t e g r a t i o n . In comedy a s i n l i f e th e r e g u l a r
e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s i s a f e s t i v a l , w hether a
m a r r i a g e , a dance, or a f e a s t . 31
Most of S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s comedies co n c lu d e w ith m a trim o n ia l
f e s t i v i t i e s . E i t h e r we w atch th e w eddings in p r o g r e s s , or
e v e n ts l e a d i n g up to th e w eddings, or we j o i n th e p o s t
n u p t i a l r e v e l s . All th e c h a r a c t e r s in Shrew, f o r
i n s t a n c e , g a t h e r a t L u c e n t i o ' s house in t h e l a s t scene f o r
62
f e a s t i n g , d r in k i n g , and g o o d -n a tu re d w agers i n c e l e b r a t i o n
o f weddings t h a t have a lr e a d y o c c u r r e d . Much Ado ends
w ith th e c a s t assem bled f o r a double w edding. As th e
c u r t a i n f a l l s , B enedick, t h e form er c y n ic , l e a d s th e
o t h e r s i n t o dance: " S t r i k e up, p i p e r s . ” As You Like I t
c o n c lu d e s in th e comic f o r e s t w ith a q u a d r u p le wedding in
p r o g r e s s , co n d u cted by th e god Hymen and accom panied by
m usic, song,, and dance. And i n A Midsummer N i g h t ’s Dream
t h e e n t i r e f i f t h a c t i s g iv en over t o p o s t - n u p t i a l r i t e s
and c e l e b r a t i o n s . We have th e m e c h a n ic s ' p la y , th e
Bergomask dance, T h e se u s ' announcement of t h e f o r t n i g h t of
" r e v e l s and new j o l l i t y " ( 5 .1 . 3 6 9 - 7 0 ) , and f i n a l l y th e
b l e s s i n g o f th e b r i d a l beds by Oberon and h i s f a i r i e s , who
s in g and dance as th ey perform t h e i r m agic.
Mucic and d a n c in g were of co u rse t r a d i t i o n a l a t
w eddings in S h a k e s p e a r e 's day. Song, dance, and f e a s t i n g
were a l s o e s s e n t i a l to t h e m edieval v i l l a g e f e s t i v a l s ,
where, a c c o r d in g t o E. K. Chambers, th e f e r t i l i t y of cro p s
and humans were c l o s e l y r e l a t e d : " A f te r r e l i g i o n , th e
commonest m o t i f o f dance and song a t th e v i l l a g e f e s t i v a l s
must have been l o v e . T h is i s q u i t e in k e e p in g w ith th e
amorous l i c e n c e w hich was one of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The goddess of t h e f e r t i l i t y of th e e a r t h was a l s o th e
goddess o f t h e f e r t i l i t y of w o m e n . "32 The f e s t i v i t i e s
t h a t s u rro u n d t h e S h a k e sp e a re a n comic m a r r i a g e s , I am
63
s u g g e s t i n g , seem t o r e l a t e d i r e c t l y t o th e c y c le of
n a t u r e , b ein g q u i t e pro b ab ly s u r v i v a l s of a n c i e n t
i n i t i a t i o n r i t u a l s — p r a y e r s or i n c a n t a t i o n s meant t o
i n f l u e n c e n a t u r e . S h a k e sp e a re makes t h e c o n n e c tio n
between song and th e n a t u r a l c y c le o b v io u s a t t h e
c o n c lu s io n of L o v e 's L abors L o s t , where th e p a i r e d songs
o f S p rin g and W inter s u g g e s t by t h e i r o r d e r th e tem porary
f r u s t r a t i o n o f f e r t i l i t y in t h i s " i n c o m p l e t e 1 1 or
m a r r i a g e l e s s comedy.33 The s i n g i n g and dan cin g of t h e
f a i r i e s as they b l e s s t h e f u t u r e progeny of t h e newlyweds
i n A Midsummer N i g h t 's Dream, o r Duke S e n i o r ' s c a l l f o r
" r u s t i c r e v e l r y " in t h e l a s t scene of As You Like I t ,
s i g n i f y , by c o n t r a s t , a co m p le tio n of th e comic d r i v e , an
ending f r a u g h t w ith new b e g i n n i n g s : "P lay , m usic, and you •
b r i d e s and brid g ro o m s a l l , / With m easure h e a p 'd i n jo y ,
t o t h ' m easu res f a l l " ( 5 . 4 . 1 7 7 - 7 9 ) . Music in t h e f i n a l
comic phase may a l s o a l l u d e to a n a t u r a l w o rld unmarked by
s e a s o n a l change— t o a l o n g - l o s t Eden se re n a d e d by th e
m usic o f t h e spheres*.34 Through m usic, t h e r e g e n e r a t e d ,
harm onious comic s o c i e t y a s s e r t s r e - a f f i l i a t i o n w ith t h e
Golden Age.
In S h a k e s p e a r e 's lo v e t r a g e d i e s we e n c o u n te r t h e same
comic s t r u c t u r a l e le m e n ts t h a t Frye i d e n t i f i e s , but
i n v e r t e d , d i s t o r t e d , m ir r o r e d , mocked, or made i r o n i c .
64
The comic p l o t i s h u r r i e d fo rw ard a t a f e v e r p i t c h ,
b r i n g i n g e a r l y m a r r i a g e s t h a t beg in to go awry a s soon as
th ey a r e c u lm in a te d . F a u l t s in th e m u t u a l i t y of th e
c o u p le s l e a v e th e l o v e r s v u l n e r a b l e to th e a n tic o m ic
f o r c e s , which do n o t k i l l them d i r e c t l y , but cause them t o
k i l l th e m s e lv e s or one a n o t h e r . The green w orld, i f i t
e x i s t s , has no e f f i c a c y . The c o n fu s io n e le m e n ts f a i l .
The h e r o in e , i g n o r a n t of h e r s e l f , can h a r d ly e d u c a te
o t h e r s . F a c i l i t a t o r s f a c i l i t a t e , but i t i s th e
d e s t r u c t i o n of lo v e and l i f e t h a t they a s s i s t r a t h e r than
m a r ria g e . Clowns, song, and dance e x i s t l a r g e l y as comic
v e s t i g e s , d e p l e t e d o f f u n c t i o n and o f t e n s a d d le d w ith a
heavy burden of ir o n y . Where we would f i n d w eddings in
th e com edies, we f i n d f u n e r a l s in th e t r a g e d i e s — f u n e r a l s
la d e n w ith th e t r a p p i n g s of m a r ria g e c e l e b r a t i o n . Nowhere
a r e th e s e p a t t e r n s of i n v e r s i o n and n e g a t i o n e a s i e r to
d i s c e r n th a n in Romeo and J u l i e t , S h a k e s p e a r e 's f i r s t
a tte m p t a t lo v e tra g e d y c o n s t r u c t e d a g a i n s t th e comic
plan.
65
Notes
"•Frye. N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 1-2.
2N o rth ro p Frye. "The Argument of Comedy." i n E n g lis h
I n s t i t u t e E ssay s (1948), ed. D. A. R obertson. J r . (New
York: Columbia Univ. P r e s s . 1949); " C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n in
S h a k e s p e a ria n Comedv." S h a k e sp e a re Q u a r t e r l y . 4 (1953).
271-77; N o rth ro p Frye, Anatomy of C r i t i c i s m ( P r i n c e t o n :
P r i n c e t o n Univ. P r e s s . 1957). pp. 43-49 and pp. 163-84.
3Frye, N a tu ra l P e r s p e c t i v e , p . 72.
4Frye» "Argument of Comedy," p. 61.
^ F ry e . "Argument of Comedy." pp. 58-59.
^ F ry e , N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 73-74.
?Frye> N a tu ra l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 73 -7 9 ; Frye, Anatomy
o f C r i t i c i s m , p. 171.
^Frye. "Argument of Comedy," pp. 67-68.
9Frye, "Argument of Comedy," p. 67; see a l s o E. K.
Chambers, The Medieval S tag e (1903; r p t . London: Oxford
Univ. P r e s s , 1963), I, pp. 89-419; C. L. B a rb e r,
S h a k e s p e a re * s F e s t i v e Comedv ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n Univ.
P r e s s , 1959); Leo S a l i n g a r , S h a k e sp e a re and th e T r a d i t i o n s
o f Comedv (London: Cambridge Univ. P r e s s , 1974); R obert
Weimann, S h a k e sp e a re and th e P o p u la r T r a d i t i o n in th e
T h e a t e r , ed. R obert Schwartz ( B a ltim o r e : The Johns Hopkins
Univ. P r e s s , 1978).
1°F. M . C o rn fo rd , The O r ig in of A t t i c Comedv, ed.
Theodor H. G a s t e r (Garden C ity , New York: Anchor, 1961).
1lFrye» "Argument of Comedy," pp. 67-69.
12Frye, N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , p. 58.
13prye, "Argument of Comedy," pp'. 68-69.
1 4 w illia m S h a k e sp e a re , The Merry Wives of W in d so r, in
The R i v e r s i d e S h a k e s p e a r e , gen. ed. G. Blakemore Evans
66
(B oston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1974). All q u o t a t i o n s from
S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s a r e ta k e n from t h i s e d i t i o n .
15Frye, N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 83-84; F rye,
"Argument of Comedy," p. 69.
l6 F ry e , Anatomy o f C r i t i c i s m , p. 167.
17Frye, N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 80-81.
l8 F ry e , N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , p. 79.
19Frye, N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , p. 81.
20piato, Phaedrus, trans. W. C. Helmbold and W. G.
Rabinowitz (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956), p. 25.
^ W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a re , The Two Gentlemen of V erona,
2. 1 .3 0 -3 2 .
22vJilliam S h a k e sp e a re , T w elfth N i g h t , 1 .3 .4 1 - 4 2 .
23Frve, N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , p. 128.
24prye, N a tu ra l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 142-43.
25Frye, "Argument of Comedy," p. 72.
26prye, N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 129-30.
27For background on the Medieval and Renaissance clown
see Enid Welsford, The Fool (New York: Farrar and
Rinehart, 1936); Walter Kaiser, Praisers of Follv, Harvard
Studies in Comparative Literature, vol. 25 (Cambridge:
Harvard Univ. Press, 1963); Michel Foucault, Madness and
Civilization, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Pantheon,
1965); William Willeford, The Fool and His Scepter
(Evanston: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1969); and Paul V. A.
Williams, ed., The Fool and the Trickster: Studies in
Honour of Enid Welsford (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer; Totowa,
N . J . : Rowman and Littlefield, 1979).
2 8s a l i n g a r , p. 16.
2 9 s a l i n g a r , p. 89.
30prye, N a tu ra l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 92-97.
3lFrye, "Argument of Comedy," pp. 60-61.
67
32chambers, p. 169.
33prye» N a tu ra l P e r s p e c t i v e , p. 155.
34Frye, N a tu r a l P e r s p e c t i v e , pp. 136-37
C hapter Three
Romeo and J u l i e t
Next t o H a m le t, Romeo and J u l i e t i s S h a k e s p e a r e 's
most f r e q u e n t l y perform ed and b e s t lo v e d play. Almost
f o u r c e n t u r i e s have p a s se d s in c e i t s f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e , y e t
i t s power to move a u d ie n c e s has ero d ed not i n th e l e a s t .
T h is i s a lo v e s to r y we a l l know, however p a r t i a l l y or
i n a c c u r a t e l y . I t s broad and c o n tin u o u s d i s s e m i n a t i o n
th ro u g h o u t our c u l t u r e has made i t th e p r o t o t y p i c a l s to r y
o f i l l - f a t e d young lo v e , a g a i n s t which a l l s i m i l a r s t o r i e s
a r e i n e v i t a b l y m easured.
Given th e p l a y ’ s f a m i l i a r i t y , we a r e l i k e l y to
o v e rlo o k th e e x p e rim e n t i t was when f i r s t p e r f o r m e d .1
Most p r e v i o u s E n g lis h t r a g e d i e s had ta k e n t h e i r s t o r i e s
e i t h e r from c l a s s i c a l myth ( o f t e n f i l t e r e d th ro u g h
S e n e c a ’ s p l a y s ) , or from E n g lis h h i s t o r y . The
p r o t a g o n i s t s of t h e s e dramas were th e g r e a t , th e r u l e r s of
th e e a r t h , or a t l e a s t of n a t i o n s , and tra g e d y was th e
s to r y of t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l l y documented f a l l s , n e c e s s a r i l y
p r e c i p i t o u s . C o n tr a s te d w i t h t h e s e , Romeo and J u l i e t a r e
s m a l l - s c a l e f i g u r e s — a mere boy and g i r l , a p a i r of l o v e r s
from th e minor a r i s t r o c r a c y , p o w e rle ss i n t h e i r s o c i e t y by
69
v i r t u e of y o u th . Nor i s t h e i r t a l e one t h a t would have
been th o u g h t s i g n i f i c a n t i n th e l a t e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y .
I t i s a romance, a lo v e s t o r y , th e s t u f f of p o p u la r n o v e ls
and of s ta g e comedy, but n o t of tra g e d y .
What makes Romeo and J u l i e t most u n u s u a l, however, i s
n o t t h e low s t a t u s of i t s t r a g i c c h a r a c t e r s , nor th e
p o p u la r s o u rc e of i t s p l o t , but r a t h e r i t s c o n v e r s io n ,
midway, from one g e n re (comedy) to th e a n t i t h e t i c a l g en re
( t r a g e d y ) . The play b e g in s w ith th e promise of an
e v e n tu a l happy r e s o l u t i o n and c o n t i n u e s t o make t h a t
prom ise f o r two f u l l a c t s , th e n t u r n s suddenly downward
e a r l y i n a c t t h r e e , t o p u rsu e an o p p o s i t e , unhappy
c o n c l u s io n w ith a l l th e c a u s a l i n e v i t a b i l i t y we e x p e c t of
t r a g i c form. Throughout th e f i r s t h a l f of th e d r a m a tic
a c t i o n th.e p a s s i o n s of t h e l o v e r s , a s w e ll a s th o s e o f th e
p l a y ’s b r a w l e r s , a r e p r e s e n t e d to amuse, but w ith th e
k i l l i n g of M ercutio and t h e r e a f t e r , e x a c t l y th e same
p a s s i o n s a r e employed t r a g i c a l l y . 2 in a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n
th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e i n i t i a l l y o r g a n iz e d i n a p a t t e r n
d e c id e d ly comic, w ith t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n and th e younger
o p p o sin g one a n o t h e r over t h e i s s u e of how young lo v e
sh o u ld p r o c e e d , 3 but i n s t e a d of t h e young f o l k s w in n in g
and r e c o n s t i t u t i n g s o c i e t y th ro u g h t h e i r v i c t o r y , they
l o s e , and th u s everyone l o s e s , a s th e c i t i z e n s of Verona
become bound up in a s t e r i l i t y of t h e i r own b l i n d
70
i m p o s i t i o n . Romeo and J u l i e t i s t h u s " i n e s se n c e a comedy
t h a t t u r n s o u t t r a g i c a l l y . "4 I t "becomes, r a t h e r th a n i s ,
t r a g i c . 5
The play was of c o u rse one of S h a k e s p e a r e 's e a r l i e s t
v e n t u r e s in th e t r a g i c g e n re , and t h u s th e t e m p t a t i o n
e x i s t s to view i t a s a d a r in g , though immature e f f o r t a t
g e n re -m ix in g . Such a view i s p a r t l y a c c u r a t e . I s h a l l
argue t h a t S h a k e sp e a re was l a t e r a b le to a c h ie v e t h e same
m ix tu re more s k i l l f u l l y , and much more c o v e r t l y , making
h i s New Comic i n f u s i o n s i n t e g r a l to t h e t r a g i c
dev elo p m en ts of O t h e l l o and H am let. But s t i l l , Romeo and
J u l i e t i s by no means a f a i l e d e x p e rim e n t, nor a clumsy
one. T h is t a l e of young lo v e works w e ll on s t a g e — th e
only a re n a f o r which i t was i n t e n d e d — however d i s j u n c t i v e
i t sometimes sounds in d i s c u s s i o n s o f i t s s t r u c t u r e .
C a re fu l t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s o f th e p la y r e v e a l s a g r e a t
c o n s i s t e n c y i n S h a k e s p e a r e 's f u s i o n of th e comic and
t r a g i c g e n r e s . Awareness of t h i s f u s i o n sh o u ld g u id e our
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
The m ix tu re of g e n re s in Romeo and J u l i e t i s more
complex th a n th e c r i t i c s I have c i t e d assume i t to be.
They view th e play a s a t r u n c a t e d comedy a b u t t e d and f u s e d
t o a t r u n c a t e d tr a g e d y . . I b e l i e v e t h a t th e play c o n t a i n s
two com p lete d r a m a tic a c t i o n s — a f u l l comedy p lu s a f u l l
tr a g e d y . I t i s u s e f u l to compare Romeo and J u l i e t t o The
71
W in ter *s T a l e , which i s s t r u c t u r a l l y i t s m i r r o r image. In
The W i n t e r 1s T ale a tra g e d y i s com pleted i n t h r e e a c t s ,
capped by th e D io n y sia n r e n d in g of A n tig o n u s, and th e n in
th e re m a in in g two a c t s a comedy u n f o ld s . Romeo and J u l i e t
r e v e r s e s th e s t r u c t u r e . A f u l l comedy, from m e e tin g of
boy and g i r l th ro u g h comic m a r ria g e ceremony u n f o ld s
r a p i d l y in two a c t s , s p u r r e d by th e i m p e t u o s i t y of th e
l o v e r s , and th e n i n t h e l a s t t h r e e a c t s a com plete but
h u r r i e d tra g e d y o c c u r s , b e g in n in g w i t h th e i n i t i a l t h r e a t
to th e l o v e r s and t h e i r lo v e and c o n t i n u i n g th ro u g h th e
s u i c i d e s t h a t r e a l i z e th e t h r e a t in t r a g i c denouement.
The m a r ria g e o f Romeo and J u l i e t , which t a k e s p la c e
o f f s t a g e between a c t s two and t h r e e , marks th e c e n t e r of
th e play b o th t h e m a t i c a l l y and s t r u c t u r a l l y .
Perhaps in c o n te m p la tin g B r o o k e 's n a r r a t i v e poem, h i s
c h i e f so u rc e f o r Romeo and J u l i e t , S h a k e sp e a re saw th e
p o s s i b i l i t y of c r e a t i n g tra g e d y by c o n d e n sin g a New Comic
p l o t in o r d e r to use th e p ro d u c t of t h a t p l o t , i t s
m a r r i a g e , as a f o c u s f o r t r a g i c d e s t r u c t i o n . A p p a re n tly
S h a k e sp e a re th o u g h t th e m ix tu re s u c c e s s f u l or he would not
have r e p e a t e d i t , w ith v a r i a t i o n s , i n O t h e l l o and H am let.
In each of th e t h r e e t r a g e d i e s one f i n d s a h o s t of
s i g n a l s , a l l p o i n t i n g t o th e double s t r u c t u r e , and
p a r t i c u l a r l y to i t s i r o n y — an iro n y i n h e r e n t in th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of tra g e d y from th e b a s i c e le m e n ts of comedy.
72
In no play a r e th o s e s i g n a l s more o v e r t th a n in Romeo and
J u l i e t , where th ey a r e being used e x p e r i m e n t a l l y and
b o l d l y .
I
The most e s s e n t i a l elem en t of New Comedy i s p l o t , and
a s I have s a i d we f i n d a com plete comic p l o t in a c t s one
and two of Romeo and J u l i e t . To f o r c e th e f u l l comic
developm ent i n t o two a c t s o b v io u s ly r e q u i r e d S h a k e sp e a re
t o condense, to r u s h t h e p r i n c i p a l a c t i o n fo rw ard a s
s w i f t l y a s p o s s i b l e , and t h i s he d id . Between th e m e e tin g
of th e l o v e r s a t th e C a p u le t masque in 1.5 and J u l i e t ' s
a b r u p t p ro p o s a l of m a r ria g e two s c e n e s l a t e r in th e
C a p u le t g ard en ( 2 . 2 ) , only a few h o u rs of s to r y tim e
e l a p s e . The a u d ie n c e h e a r s a b o u t 250 l i n e s of d i a l o g u e .
In 2 .2 , s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e wooing ad v a n c e s w ith s t a r t l i n g
r a p i d i t y ; th u s we f i n d J u l i e t p r o c la im in g i n l i n e s 117-118
t h a t she has "no jo y of t h i s c o n t a c t t o - n i g h t , / I t i s too
r a s h , to o u n a d v i s 'd , to o s u d d e n ," b u t 30 l i n e s l a t e r she
commits h e r s e l f t o m a r r ia g e , p ro v id e d only t h a t Romeo's
lo v e "be h o n o r a b l e ." A f te r t h r e e more sc e n e s th e two a r e
wed.
S h a k e s p e a re of c o u rse a c c o m p lis h e s o t h e r s to r y
demands th a n th o s e of comedy i n th e f i r s t two a c t s of
73
Romeo and J u l i e t . The opening of t h e p l a y ’ s f i r s t scene
and p a r t s of o t h e r sc e n e s a r e in t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y to
foreshadow and m o t i v a t e th e v i o l e n c e t h a t w i l l come in th e
t r a g i c h a l f of th e play. The c o n c l u s io n of th e f i r s t
sc e n e , th e c o n c lu s io n of th e second, and most of th e
f o u r t h a r e dev o ted t o p o r t r a y i n g Romeo’ s i n f a t u a t i o n w ith
R o s a lin e , a ro m a n tic e p is o d e not i m p o r t a n t e i t h e r to comic
or t o t r a g i c p l o t , though i t may t e l l us much ab o u t th e
immature Romeo's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of lo v e and about th e
i n c o n s t a n c y of h i s p a s s io n .
Romeo and J u l i e t ’ s romance i s b r i e f , t o say th e
l e a s t . I t s a c c e l e r a t i n g pace communicates th e b u i l d i n g
i n t e n s i t y of t h e i r p a s s io n , as w e ll a s i t s low p r o b a b i l i t y
f o r a lo n g l i f e . The l o v e r s ' ru sh to th e a l t a r l e a v e s
them no tim e to become t r u l y a c q u a i n t e d w ith one a n o th e r ,
and t h i s i s one o f s e v e r a l s e r i o u s f la w s in t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t i s a flaw t h a t many or even th e most
r o m a n tic r e l a t i o n s h i p s e v in c e in t h e i r i n f a n c y , in l i f e a s
on s ta g e , but i t i s a flaw t h a t S h a k e s p e a re , in h i s
com edies, alw ays t a k e s tim e to h e a l , by i n t r o d u c i n g
im pedim ents t h a t slow ly e d u c a te t h e i g n o r a n t l o v e r s to one
a n o t h e r ' s t r u e n a t u r e s . In Romeo and J u l i e t t h a t tim e i s
n o t allow ed.
T h r e a t s t o Romeo's and J u l i e t ' s lo v e e x i s t , t o be
s u r e , but in a c t s one and two th e s e h a s t e n r a t h e r th a n
74
r e t a r d t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e l o v e r s toward m a r r i a g e . The
t h r e a t s become a c t i v e only a f t e r t h e wedding has o c c u r r e d ,
in t h e t r a g i c h a l f of t h e p la y . In t h e comic a c t s , they
m erely foreshadow problem s to come. The comic b lo c k in g
f i g u r e s , f o r example, r e p r e s e n t e d p r i m a r i l y by Lord
C a p u le t and P a r i s , a r e in a c t s one and two muted though
r e c o g n i z a b l e v e r s i o n s of t h e b lo c k in g t y p e s New Comedy
r o u t i n e l y p r o v id e s . C a p u le t p e r c e i v e s as e a r l y a s 1.2
t h a t P a r i s i s t h e husband he would choose f o r h i s
d a u g h te r , but he r e f u s e s t o f o r c e h i s c h o ic e on h e r , and
i s in f a c t so m in d fu l o f J u l i e t ' s w e l f a r e t h a t he i n s i s t s
on d e l a y i n g t h e whole m a t t e r of m a r ria g e f o r a t l e a s t two
y e a r s , u n t i l she a c h i e v e s a more s u i t a b l e m a t u r i t y ( 1 . 2 . 8 —
11). In th e meantime he g iv e s P a r i s le a v e t o "woo h e r , "
but s t i p u l a t e s t h a t -the young s u i t o r must " g e t h e r h e a r t "
b e f o r e he, a s f a t h e r , w i l l c o n s e n t t o th e union. The
t y p i c a l senex i r a t u s o f New Comedy does not co n cern
h i m s e l f w ith h i s d a u g h t e r 's h e a r t . He o r d e r s h e r t o marry
t h e man of h i s c h o ic e , no q u e s t i o n s asked. P a r i s , in a c t s
one and two, seems a m i l d e r v e r s i o n of th e comic r i v a l
l o v e r . He has s o c i a l s t a t u s and w e a lth , but l a c k s th e
r i v a l ' s u n l i k a b l e p e r s o n a l i t y . R ath er th a n t r y i n g t o buy
J u l i e t from h er f a t h e r w ith e x t r a v a g a n t o f f e r s of cash and
p r o p e r t y , P a r i s su b m its s i l e n t l y t o C a p u l e t 's w i l l ,
a p p a r e n t l y c o n t e n t t o p u rsu e t h e g i r l ' s h e a r t in t h e most
75
h o n o ra b le f a s h i o n .
A nother p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t to th e l o v e r s i s th e l o n g
s t a n d i n g feud between t h e i r f a m i l i e s , which a c c o r d in g to
Susan Snyder f u n c t i o n s much l i k e th e " i r r a t i o n a l law" in
s e v e r a l o f S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s New Comedies: "Imposed from
o u t s i d e on th e y o u t h f u l l o v e r s , who f e e l th e m se lv e s no
p a r t of i t , th e feu d i s a b a r r i e r p la c e d a r b i t r a r i l y
between them, l i k e th e A th e n ia n law g i v i n g f a t h e r s th e
d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e i r d a u g h t e r s . "6 In d eed , th e feu d i s
q u i t e s i m i l a r to t h e i r r a t i o n a l law o f comedy in t h a t i t s
p re se n c e t e n d s to i n h i b i t m a r ria g e and t o a id th o s e f o r c e s
in s o c i e t y t h a t would impose s t e r i l i t y on th e young, and
y e t i t does n o t r e a l l y become a f a c t o r in th e lo v e of
Romeo and J u l i e t u n t i l a c t t h r e e , when t h e comedy has be'en
e x h a u s te d and th e tr a g e d y i s under way. In a c t s one and
two th e l o v e r s s u c c e s s f u l l y evade th e t h r e a t o f th e feud
by k eep in g t h e i r f e e l i n g s and t h e i r , p l a n s s e c r e t from
t h e i r p a r e n t s .
I am a r g u in g t h a t S h ak esp eare smooths th e c o u rse of
Romeo and J u l i e t ' s lo v e th ro u g h o u t th e comic h a l f of th e
play by m u tin g , or r e d u c in g th e e f f e c t o f, s e v e r a l
i d e n t i f i a b l e New Comic b lo c k in g e l e m e n t s — e le m e n ts whose
f u n c t i o n in t h e com edies i s . t o make l o v e ' s c o u rse
t u r b u l e n t , but which h e re allow lo v e to bloom o v e r n i g h t.
The C a p u le t masque i s i n s t r u c t i v e , f o r in o r d e r t o g iv e
76
Romeo and J u l i e t tim e to meet and f a l l in l o v e ,
S h a k e sp e a re employs th e s e n e x , C a p u le t, as a d i r e c t
o b s t a c l e to T y b a lt, th e embodiment of i r r a t i o n a l law. By
a r g u in g , th e s e two b l o c k i n g f i g u r e s c a n c e l one a n o t h e r
o u t, in e f f e c t , a s lo v e t h r i v e s . An i n t e r e s t i n g secondary
pu rp o se of th e argum ent i s to foreshadow th e v i o l e n t
argum ent of 3 .1 , by d i s p l a y i n g C a p u l e t 1s h a i r - t r i g g e r
tem per and T y b a l t ' s i n t e n s e v e n g e f u l n e s s . The q u i c k anger
of th e two men, though d i r e c t l y h e l p f u l to l o v e ' s p r o g r e s s
a t th e f e a s t , h i n t s t h a t l o v e ' s p a th w i l l n o t be smooth
f o r lo n g .
The m a r ria g e of Romeo and J u l i e t c o n c lu d e s th e New
Comedy p l o t , but does not e x h a u s t th e comic m a t e r i a l s in
th e p la y . From 3.1 on. as th e t r a g i c p l o t u n f o ld s .
S h a k e sp e a re u s e s a number of comic s t r u c t u r a l d e v i c e s t o
c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t , though o b v io u sly n o t in t h e t y p i c a l
comic manner, f o r h i s p u rp o se i s now c o n t r a r y t o t h a t o f
comedy. The comic m a t e r i a l s a r e used i n v e r s e l y or
n e g a t i v e l y , e i t h e r t o promote th e t r a g i c c o n c l u s io n , or t o
comment i r o n i c a l l y on what i s h appening t o l o v e , to
m a r r i a g e , and to th e prom ise of new l i f e a s tr a g e d y
u n f o ld s .
In 3 .1 , where th e t r a g i c p l o t suddenly t a k e s on
momentum, we f i n d s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s of t h i s i n v e r s e use of
comic m a t e r i a l s . For example, t h e r e i s a marked
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s t r u c t u r a l s i m i l a r i t y between t h i s scene and 1 .1, i n t h a t
both t r a c e t h e e s c a l a t i o n of j o v i a l b a n t e r th ro u g h i n s u l t
t o v i o l e n t q u a r r e l , but w hereas 1.1 c o n c lu d e s in f a r c e ,
3.1 ends i n k i l l i n g . Much th e same sequence of e v e n ts ,
p r e s e n t e d a lm o st w holly to amuse in t h e opening scene of
th e comic p l o t , d e v e lo p s i n t o som ething b r u t a l and
d ism aying i n th e f i r s t scene of th e t r a g i c p l o t . The
v i o l e n c e o f 3.1 can i t s e l f be r e l a t e d t o th e comic, f o r
th e armed d u el i s a s t a p l e of S h a k e sp e a re a n New Comedy.
In A -Midsummer N i g h t ’ s Dream D em etriu s and Lysander ch a se
one a n o t h e r i n th e d a rk w ith drawn sw ords; in Much Ado
Benedick t r i e s t o provoke C lau d io i n t o a d u e l; in T w e lfth
N ight t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l armed f i g h t s . The d i f f e r e n c e i s ,
of c o u r s e , t h a t in comedy (o r i n t h e f i r s t scene of Romeo
and J u l i e t ) t h e f i g h t i s r e s o l v e d b e f o r e anyone can be
h u r t , w h ile i n t r a g e d y t h e f i g h t i n g r e s u l t s in one or more
d e a t h s . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o compare th e M e rc u tio - T y b a lt
q u a r r e l w i t h th e duel which a lm o st o c c u r s between B enedick
and C la u d io in Much Ado ( 5 . 1 ) , f o r i n th e two c a s e s we
f i n d " w i t " — a fu n d am en tal elem ent of comedy— used very
d i f f e r e n t l y . M ercutio, a clown f i g u r e -in many r e s p e c t s ,
u s e s h i s i n s u l t i n g w i t to s t a r t a f i g h t t h a t T y b a lt w is h e s
t o a v o id , w h ereas C lau d io d e f l e c t s B e n e d i c k 's a g g r e s s i o n
w i t h j o v i a l w it. C l a u d i o 's w i t i s e n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o
comedy, where t h r e a t s to l o v e and l i f e must be " o u t w i t t e d "
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by t h e young l o v e r s and .th o se who h e lp them. M e r c u t i o ’ s
( i n 3 .1 ) i s j u s t a s c l e a r l y t r a g i c in f u n c t i o n . However
funny we may f i n d h i s words, t h e i r e f f e c t i s to
p r e c i p i t a t e a f a t a l q u a r r e l whose r e v e r b e r a t i o n s c o n t r o l
th e l a t t e r , t r a g i c , h a l f of th e p l a y ' s p l o t .
I s u g g e s te d e a r l i e r t h a t th e M ontague-C apulet feu d
may f u n c t i o n a s a comic " i r r a t i o n a l la w ” i n Romeo and
J u l i e t , w i t h th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t i t s e f f e c t s a r e muted
in th e f i r s t two a c t s to p e rm it th e romance t o d e v elo p .
In 3 .1 , however, th e feud a s s e r t s i t s e l f su d d en ly and
h a r s h l y , b r i n g i n g two im m ediate d e a t h s and s e p a r a t i n g th e
newlyweds. We a r e t h u s c o n f r o n te d by an i r r a t i o n a l law
t h a t k i l l s (and w i l l k i l l a g a i n ) — a law t h a t a c t u a l l y
c a r r i e s th ro u g h w i t h th e l e t h a l t h r e a t i m p l i c i t in th e
i r r a t i o n a l law of New Comedy. A p p a re n tly , t h i s law i s
f i n a l l y r e s c i n d e d a t p l a y ’ s end, a s Montague and C a p u le t
r e c o n c i l e , but by t h a t tim e th e l o v e r s a r e dead.
C a p u le t, th e s e n e x , a l s o changes f u n c t i o n in th e
t r a g i c h a l f of th e p la y . The m ild, c o n s i d e r a t e f a t h e r of
a c t s one and two becomes, in a temper ta n tru m , th e r a g i n g
t y r a n t of a c t t h r e e , o f f e r i n g h i s d a u g h te r th e t r a d i t i o n a l
comic c h o i c e — "and you w i l l not wed . . . / Graze where
you w i l l , you s h a l l n o t house w ith me" ( 3 . 5 . 1 8 7 - 8 ) — but
going beyond t h a t to o , a b u s in g h er a s a comic f a t h e r
p ro b a b ly would n o t: "go w ith P a r i s t o S a i n t P e t e r ’ s
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c h u rc h , / or I w i l l d rag t h e e on a h u r d le t h i t h e r " (154-
5 ) . C a p u l e t ’ s a n g e r, h i s i n f l e x i b i l i t y , and h i s d e g ra d in g
t r e a t m e n t of J u l i e t a r e a l l ta k e n from t r a i t s found in th e
comic s e n e x , but i n C a p u le t th e s e t r a i t s a r e p lay ed to th e
h i l t , and made more r e a l i s t i c , so t h a t he e n g e n d e rs none
of th e amusement of h i s comic o r i g i n a l but r a t h e r sorrow
and a n g e r a t h i s c r u e l t y , and p i t y f o r th e d e s p e r a t e
p o s i t i o n of h i s young d a u g h te r . In h i s f u r i o u s
p ig h e a d e d n e s s he im poses a m a rria g e t h a t she can n o t
a c c e p t , th e n r e f u s e s to l i s t e n t o h er p r o t e s t s , n a rro w in g
h er p o s s i b l e c h o i c e s d r a s t i c a l l y .
Romeo’ s banishm ent by E s c a lu s in a c t t h r e e i s a
f u r t h e r example of comic m a t e r i a l r e t o o l e d f o r t r a g i c use.
The ban ish m en t p a r a l l e l s th e many e x p u l s i o n s of young
l o v e r s from t h e i r s o c i e t i e s i n " S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s " g re e n
w o rld " com edies, y e t Romeo’ s e x i l e i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e s e
o t h e r s i n im p o r ta n t ways. For one, Romeo a p p e a r s to
d e s e rv e th e punishm ent. He has k i l l e d a man i n a n g e r.
Banishm ent i s t h e r e f o r e a f a i r l y l e n i e n t s e n te n c e , a s
F r i a r L aurence p o i n t s o u t. Also, Romeo has no comic g reen
w orld to e sc a p e to , t h u s none to be e d u c a te d and c u re d by.
R ath er he s o jo u r n s in Mantua, an urban c e n t e r t h a t i s
p ro b a b ly a s c o r r u p t and s t e r i l e a s h i s n a t i v e Verona. All
we know of Mantua i s th e a p o th e c a ry and h i s p o t e n t p o iso n .
To Romeo, i t i s " p u r g a to r y , t o r t u r e , h e l l i t s e l f " ( 3 .3 . 1 8 )
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s in c e J u l i e t i s n o t t h e r e . Mantua i s in e s se n c e a p r i s o n ,
a p la c e t o v e g e t a t e , t o daydream— w h ereas th e g reen w orld
i s a n a t u r a l , open sp ace, f e r t i l e and m ira c u lo u s , a p la c e
where one i s l i b e r a t e d from s o c i e t y ' s r e s t r a i n t s and from
b in d in g i n d i v i d u a l humors a s w e l l . Although Romeo
d e s p e r a t e l y needs t o l e a r n how t o l o v e b e t t e r , so a s t o
p r o t e c t J u l i e t and h i m s e l f from t h e i r own r a s h p a s s i o n ,
Mantua can t e a c h him n o th in g .
S h a k e s p e a re does p r o v id e a green w orld o f s o r t s in
Romeo and J u l i e t , but i t i s v e s t i g i a l , fra g m e n te d , and n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y b e n e f i c e n t . P a r t of i t i s found in t h e woods
where F r i a r Laurence g a t h e r s h i s h e r b s ( p l a n t s t h a t can
k i l l or c u r e ) , p a r t in th e C a p u le t o rc h a rd , where th e lo v e
between Romeo and J u l i e t blooms so r a p i d l y t h a t i t can n o t
e s t a b l i s h th e f irm r o o t s needed to s u s t a i n i t in
a d v e r s i t y . The C a p u le t o r c h a r d i s com parable to L e o n a t o ’ s
g ard en i n Much Ado. Both a r e c u l t i v a t e d , m i n i a t u r e
v e r s i o n s of th e comic green w o rld — n a t u r e c i v i l i z e d and
tamed. Yet L e o n a t o 's garden f u n c t i o n s much more l i k e a
comic f o r e s t , f o r i t i s h e r e t h a t B enedick and B e a t r i c e
a r e c u re d of t h e i r humors when th e p l a y ' s f a c i l i t a t o r s
t r i c k them i n t o abandoning th e proud s e l f - e s t e e m t h a t h a s
k e p t them a p a r t . At l a s t they can l o v e f u l l y , m u tu a lly ,
m a tu re ly . No s i m i l a r " l e s s o n " or " c u r e " o c c u r s in t h e
C a p u le t o rc h a rd . As Romeo s ta n d s in th e p o s tu r e of a
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P e t r a r c h a n s u i t o r , g a z in g up a t J u l i e t on h e r b a l c o n y , 7 a
pow erful but h ig h ly s u b lim a te d p h y s ic a l a t t r a c t i o n
f l o u r i s h e s in th e d a r k — an u n r ip e , d e s p e r a t e lo v e ,
i g n o r a n t of th e ways of t h e w orld.
A cts f o u r and f i v e of S h a k e sp e a re a n New Comedy a r e
devoted t y p i c a l l y t o p r e p a r a t i o n f o r m a r r i a g e , and
sometimes th e wedding i t s e l f o c c u rs ( u s u a l l y o f f s t a g e ) .
In a c t s f o u r and f i v e of Romeo and J u l i e t , S h ak esp eare
u s e s t h i s comic p a t t e r n but o v e r l a y s i t w i t h a n o t h e r , so
t h a t th e s p e c t r e of a happy comic c o n c l u s i o n i s r a i s e d
behind th e i n e v i t a b l e downward p r o g r e s s of tr a g e d y .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , he c r e a t e s h ig h ly i r o n i c v e r s i o n s of th e
n u p t i a l f e s t i v i t i e s . Wedding r i t u a l d e g e n e r a t e s to mock
f u n e r a l , wedding n i g h t u l t i m a t e l y t o m utual s u i c i d e i n a
tomb. Lord C a p u le t* s speech i n 4 . 5 , spoken over J u l i e t ’ s
drugged ''body,*1 c a p t u r e s i n e x p r e s s i v e d e t a i l t h i s i r o n i c ,
1 8 0 -d e g re e c o n v e r s io n of comic wedding ceremony to t r a g i c
f u n e r a l r i t u a l :
All t h i n g s t h a t we o r d a in e d f e s t i v a l ,
Turn from t h e i r o f f i c e to b l a c k f u n e r a l :
Our i n s t r u m e n t s to m elancholy b e l l s ,
Our wedding c h e e r to a sad b u r i a l f e a s t ;
Our solemn hymns to s u l l e n d i r g e s change;
Our b r i d a l f l o w e r s s e rv e f o r a b u r ie d c o r s e ;
And a l l t h i n g s change them to th e c o n t r a r y .
(84 -9 0 ) .
Elsew here i n 4 .5 , s i m i l a r i r o n i e s a r i s e . F r i a r L aurence
t e l l s th e f a m ily to b e a r J u l i e t to h er f u n e r a l " in her
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b e s t a r r a y ” ( 8 1 ) — presum ably her wedding d r e s s . 8 P e t e r
a s k s th e wedding m u s i c i a n s to co m fo rt him w i t h a "merry
dump," som ething they r e j e c t a s i n a p p r o p r i a t e . But, most
s i g n i f i c a n t l y , C a p u le t i n s p e a k in g to P a r i s , th e in t e n d e d
b ridgroom , p e r s o n i f i e s "D eath" a s J u l i e t ’ s bridegroom (3 5 -
40). Death has " l a i n " w i t h J u l i e t , he s a y s, h as
" d e flo w e re d " h e r. C a p u le t a l s o r e f e r s to d e a th as h i s
" s o n - i n - l a w , " and th e n a s h i s " h e i r . " On dying, C a p u le t
s a y s, he w i l l l e a v e e v e r y t h i n g t o Death. I m p l i c i t in h i s
words i s th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t h i s d a u g h te r , th e b r i d e ,
has been wed to s t e r i l i t y , and w i l l t h e r e f o r e produce no
g r a n d c h i l d r e n . Worse y e t , s in c e J u l i e t i s an only c h i l d ,
w ith h e r th e e n t i r e l i n e a g e must e x p i r e . For Lord and
Lady C a p u le t th e c o n t i n u i t y of g e n e r a t i o n s prom ised by
comedy i s t o . b e s e v e re d i r r e v o c a b l y . The u l t i m a t e i ro n y
i s t h a t J u l i e t ’ s f a t h e r i s wrong. She l i v e s even a s he
s p e a k s. Soon enough, however, a l l t h a t he has s a id w i l l
be t r u e .
In th e p l a y ’ s f i n a l scen e, S h a k e sp e a re t r e a t s
i r o n i c a l l y a n o th e r a s p e c t of th e comic m a r i t a l f e s t i v i t i e s
by f o r g i n g co m p ariso n s between th e C a p u le t tomb and th e
t r a d i t i o n a l m a r ria g e bed, s i t e and symbol, of s o c i a l l y
approved f e r t i l i t y . P a r i s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o s s e s f l o w e r s
on th e tomb, s a y in g to- J u l i e t i n s i d e , "w ith f l o w e r s th y
b r i d a l bed I s tre w " ( 5 . 3 . 1 2 ) ; and Romeo r e f e r s to th e
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C a p u le t monument a s a "bed of d e a th " (2 8 ). I n s i d e th e
tomb, a d d r e s s i n g J u l i e t , Romeo sp e a k s of Death a s h er
l o v e r , much as C a p u le t h as done. But Romeo’ s
p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f Death a s a " l e a n " and "amorous" d e v o te e
h i n t s a p p a l l i n g l y a t th e l u s t of n e c r o p h i l i a :
Ah, dear J u l i e t ,
Why a r t th o u y e t so f a i r ? s h a l l I b e l i e v e
That u n s u b s t a n t i a l Death i s amorous,
And t h a t th e l e a n a b h o rre d m o n ste r keeps
Thee h e re in dark t o be h i s paramour?
(101-5)
These l i n e s a r e a r r e s t i n g — not very p r e t t y . But th e
n o tio n of Death making lo v e to J u l i e t e x p r e s s e s in a b r i e f
f i g u r e an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of h er p r e d ic a m e n t, f o r though
she m ight have e x e r c i s e d h er f e r t i l i t y in motherhood, she
w i l l choose i n s t e a d t o r e l i n q u i s h i t th ro u g h s u i c i d e . The
c o n t r a r y of a comic h e r o i n e , she t a k e s d e a th f o r a l o v e r ,
r e j e c t i n g l i f e and p r o p a g a tio n . And Romeo, of c o u rs e ,
f o ll o w s . At p l a y ’ s end, th e s e a d o l e s c e n t l o v e r s l i e s id e
by s id e i n t h e i r " b e d ," u n i t e d in d e a th and s t e r i l i t y .
Frye d e s c r i b e s a s p i r i t of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n which
t y p i c a l l y p e rv a d e s th e c o n c l u s i o n s o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's
com edies. R i f t s opened in f a m i l i e s and i n s o c ie ty by
d is a g re e m e n t over who sh o u ld marry whom a r e h e a le d in th e
. c o u r s e of th e p la y , u s h e r i n g i n t h e comic w eddings—
d e s i r e d , a t l a s t , by everyone. In t h e c o n c lu d in g s c e n e s
most a l l th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e b ro u g h t on s ta g e a t once,
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p r e s e n t i n g t h e a u d ie n c e w ith " th e b i r t h of a renewed se n se
of s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . "9 Something s i m i l a r of c o u rse
happens i n S h a k e sp e a re a n t r a g e d y , but th e c o n c lu d in g
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n i s s o b e r, r e f l e c t i v e , and p a i n f u l . S o c ie ty
has been changed, as in comedy, but by d e c im a tio n r a t h e r
th a n by r e j u v e n a t i o n . The s u r v i v o r s must t r y t o p i e c e
t h e i r w orld back t o g e t h e r , to go on, d e s p i t e th e d e a th and
d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t t r a g i c denouement has w rought.
The f i n a l scene of Romeo and J u l i e t o b v i o u s l y , and
a p p r o p r i a t e l y , p r e s e n t s us w ith th e t r a g i c ty p e of
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , and y e t in some ways t h i s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n
i s c o n s t r u c t e d on (or r a t h e r a g a i n s t ) th e comic p la n .
T h is a g a in c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to th e d iv e r g e n c e between what
has happened and what m ig h t have happened had lo v e
c o n q u ered a l l . ' For example, s in c e most of th e young
peo p le d i e , t h e re m a in in g c h a r a c t e r s a s th e play draws t o
a c l o s e a r e p r i m a r i l y members of th e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n , and
th ey a r e a l l l o o k in g fo rw a rd t o d e a t h — an e x p e c t a t i o n
a n t i t h e t i c a l to t h a t of comedy, where th e b i r t h of
c h i l d r e n i s a n t i c i p a t e d . Lady Montague, g r i e f - s t r i c k e n
over her s o n 's b an ish m en t, has d ie d b e f o r e th e f i n a l scene
( 5 . 3 . 2 1 0 - 1 1 ) . Her husband i n d i c a t e s t h a t h i s l i f e may be
s h o r t a l s o , by a s k in g "What f u r t h e r woe c o n s p i r e s a g a i n s t
mine age?" (212). Lady C a p u le t e x c la im s a s she view s
J u l i e t ' s body "0 me, t h i s s i g h t of d e a th i s a s a b e l l /
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That w arns my old age t o a s e p u lc h r e " (2 0 6 -7 ). And F r i a r
L a u ren ce sp e a k s o f h i s " s h o r t d a te of b r e a t h " (229).
Moreover, we know t h a t J u l i e t w a s.a n only c h i l d , and Romeo
may have been a s w e ll ( 5 . 3 . 2 0 9 ) . I f so, b o th h o u se s a r e
c o n f r o n t i n g som ething more s e r i o u s th a n th e d e a th s of
i n d i v i d u a l f a m ily members. They see th e end of t h e i r
f a m ily l i n e s . In p la c e of comic re n e w a l, prom ised by
m a r r i a g e , we f i n d t r a g i c e x t i n c t i o n . The " f a t a l l o i n s " of
th e two f a m i l i e s , by b re e d in g c h i l d r e n who lo v e d , have
c o n t r i b u t e d to th e o b l i t e r a t i o n of t h e i r progeny.
The r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of th e f a m i l i e s i s r e p r e s e n t e d
most d i r e c t l y when Lord C a p u le t and Lord Montague shake
hands and p led g e to e r e c t gold s t a t u e s in honor of one
a n o t h e r ’ s c h i l d r e n ( 5 .3 . 2 9 6 - 3 0 4 ) . The prim ary f u n c t i o n . o f
t h i s exchange i s to c o n clu d e th e tr a g e d y on a s tr o n g ,
p o s i t i v e n o te . The feu d i s now o v er. There w i l l be no
more k i l l i n g . Irony a r i s e s even h e r e , however, f o r th e
handshake i s term ed by C a p u le t "my d a u g h t e r ' s j o i n t u r e "
( i . e . m a r ria g e s e t t l e m e n t ) . I t i s a s i f th e d r a m a t i s t
means t o p o r t r a y th e m utual g i f t of s t a t u e s a s a
p r e m a r i t a l f i n a n c i a l agreem ent, one needed in comedy to
s e a l m a r r i a g e l e g a l l y , and one t h a t would be q u i t e
a p p r o p r i a t e h e r e between th e s e two f a t h e r s - i n - l a w , e x c e p t
t h a t th e b r i d e and groom have a l r e a d y m a r r ie d and d ie d .
The seco n d ary f u n c t i o n of th e s t a t u e s i s th u s once a g a in
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t o make i r o n i c g e s t u r e toward th e happy lo v e s to r y t h a t
m ight have been, but w a s n ’ t .
Since th e s t a t u e s a r e m a rb le in S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s so u rc e
s t o r y , h i s making them gold in Romeo and J u l i e t i s w o rth
c o n s i d e r i n g . 10 We r e c a l l Romeo’ s words t o th e a p o th e c a r y
a b o u t t h i s p r e c i o u s m e t a l :
There i s thy g o ld , w orse p o iso n t o men’ s s o u ls ,
Doing more m u rth e r i n t h i s lo ath so m e w o rld ,
Than t h e s e poor compounds t h a t thou m ayest not s e l l .
I s e l l th e e p o iso n , thou h a s t s o ld me none.
( 5 . 1 . . 8 0 - 3 )
E a r l i e r in th e p la y , Romeo a d m itte d t r y i n g t o seduce
R o s a lin e w ith gold ( 1 . 1 . 2 1 4 ) . And when th e F r i a r in fo rm s
him of h i s b an ish m en t he sa y s ’’Thou c u t ’ s t my head o f f
w i t h a g o ld e n a x e ” ( 3 . 3 . 2 2 ) . I f g o ld c a r r i e s a n e g a t i v e
v a lu e e ls e w h e re in th e p la y , m ight not thi-s be t r u e a l s o
in th e f i n a l .scene? A lthough t h e s t a t u e s sym bolize th e
end of th e v i o l e n t fe u d , they may a l s o r e p r e s e n t i t s
s u b li m a t i o n i n an o v e r l y g e n e ro u s, alm o st c o m p e t i t i v e
e x p e n d i t u r e t h a t w i l l b e n e f i t a b s o l u t e l y no one. In The
M erchant of V enice A ntonio r e f e r s t o gold a s ’’b a r r e n
m e ta l" ( 1 . 3 . 1 3 4 ) , m eaning t h a t i t can n o t ’’b reed
n a t u r a l l y , " a s a n im a ls can. A p p r o p r ia te t h a t t h e two
l o v e r s , s t e r i l e . i n d e a th , a r e to be c a s t in t h i s b a r r e n
m e t a l .
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II
We t u r n now from th e d i s c u s s i o n of p l o t in Romeo and
J u l i e t t o c o n s i d e r th e n a t u r e of th e ro m a n tic a tta c h m e n t
between t h e two l o v e r s . Again, i t w i l l be q u i t e u s e f u l to
keep th e comic model in mind, becau se in s e v e r a l im p o r ta n t
ways Romeo and J u l i e t f a l l s h o r t of th e d u r a b le lo v e
S h a k e sp e a re p o r t r a y s in h i s com edies, and t h i s f a i l u r e t o
b u i l d a m u tu a lly b e n e f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p has an im p o rta n t
b e a r in g on th e l o v e r s 1 tr a g e d y . T h e ir f a l l i s b ro u g h t
ab o u t by f a t e and c h a r a c t e r in c o n j u n c t i o n . The lo v e t h a t
b in d s th e two, though b e a u t i f u l and a p p e a l i n g f o r i t s
i n t e n s i t y , i s a s d an g ero u s t o l i f e a s th e v i o l e n t h a t r e d
t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e i r f a m i l i e s .
The a d o le s c e n c e of Romeo and J u l i e t i s a prim ary
d e te r m in in g f a c t o r in th e s w i f t developm ent o f t h e i r l o v e ,
but one they do n o t c o n t r o l . I t has been n o te d t h a t
S h a k e sp e a re made J u l i e t much younger th a n h er a n a lo g u e s i n
t h e so u rc e s t o r i e s . 11 In B r o o k e 's poem she i s s ix te e n * i n
P a i n t e r ’ s p ro se t a l e e i g h t e e n . But i n S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s play
she i s n o t y e t f o u r t e e n — b a r e l y p u b e s c e n t i n o t h e r words,
younger th a n any of th e a u t h o r ’ s comic h e r o i n e s (th o u g h
P e r d i t a in The W i n t e r ’ s T a le i s j u s t s i x t e e n ) . Romeo's
age i s not som ething we a r e t o l d , but he i s c o n s i s t e n t l y
p o r t r a y e d a s a very young man, and one assum es him to be
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under tw e n ty , p e rh a p s a s young as f i f t e e n or s i x t e e n .
S in c e i n E l i z a b e t h a n England men m a r r i e d a t an a v e ra g e age
o f a b o u t 27 o r 28, and women t y p i c a l l y between a g e s 20 and
2 4 ,1 2 even making a llo w a n c e f o r d i f f e r e n t I t a l i a n custom s,
an E n g lis h a u d ie n c e i n S h a k e s p e a r e 's day would l i k e l y have
viewed Romeo and J u l i e t a s b e in g f a r to o young f o r
m a r r i a g e . Many of th e w eak n esses in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p
a r e d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e i r y o u th . To term t h e i r
t r a g e d y one of " c h a r a c t e r " i s th u s somewhat p r o b le m a ti c ,
because t h e i r a d u l t c h a r a c t e r s a r e s t i l l b e in g formed. In
many ways they view th e w orld a s c h i l d r e n do, and l i k e
c h i l d r e n need to be p r o t e c t e d from th e m s e lv e s .
Toward th e m id d le of a c t two, t h i n k i n g Romeo t o be in
l o v e w i t h R o s a lin e s t i l l , M ercutio t e a s i n g l y r e f e r s to h i s
f r i e n d a s a P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r : "Now he i s f o r th e numbers
t h a t P e t r a r c h f l o w 'd in . Laura t o h i s la d y was a k i t c h e n
wench" ( 2 . 4 . 3 8 - 4 0 ) . D e s p ite M e r c u t i o 's m is ta k e r e g a r d i n g
Romeo's c u r r e n t a f f e c t i o n s , he a c c u r a t e l y i d e n t i f i e s th e
m elan ch o ly l o v e r we meet e a r l y in a c t one. Young,
i g n o r a n t , i n e x p e r i e n c e d in th e ways of women, Romeo
s t r i k e s a l l t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p o s t u r e s a p p r o p r i a t e to
P e t r a r c h a n lo v e in h i s h o p e l e s s , i n e f f e c t u a l p u r s u i t of
R o s a l i n e — w h ile she, l i k e P e t r a r c h ' s L a u ra, re m a in s a l o o f ,
u n a t t a i n a b l e , c h a s t e , a s p i r i t u a l i d e a l n o t to be to u c h e d .
Her b eau ty c a u s e s Romeo p a in , d e p r e s s i o n , and l o s s of
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s l e e p , a l l c o n v e n t i o n a l t o P e t r a r c h a n lo v e , as a r e h i s
r e f e r e n c e s t o h i s p a s s io n as so m eth in g holy ( " t h e devout
r e l i g i o n o f mine eye") and t h e oxymorons w ith which he
d e p i c t s l o v e ’s e x c r u c i a t i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , born of th e
f a c t t h a t a s p i r i t u a l l y p e r f e c t la d y c a n n o t be a t t a i n e d :
0 heavy l i g h t n e s s , s e r i o u s v a n i t y ,
M isshapen chaos o f w e ll- s e e m in g form s,
F e a t h e r of l e a d , b r i g h t smoke, c o ld f i r e , s i c k
h e a l t h ,
S t i l l - w a k i n g s l e e p , t h a t i s n o t what i t i s !
T h is lo v e f e e l I, t h a t f e e l no l o v e in t h i s .
( 1 .1 .1 7 8 - 8 2 )
By c a s t i n g Romeo as a P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r , and by
s t r e s s i n g h i s c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y in t h a t r o l e , S h a k e sp e a re
e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t t h e young man i s a ra n k n o v ic e in lo v e ,
enamored n o t so much o f h i s lad y as of h i m s e l f in th e
p o s t u r e of l o v e r , l i k e S i l v i u s in As You Like I t o r O rsin o
in T w e lfth N i g h t . A ccording to M arianne Novy, both o f t h e
two b a s i c ty p e s o f P e t r a r c h a n poem— t h e b lazo n or
i d e a l i z i n g d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e la d y , and th e l o v e r ’s
i n t r o s p e c t i o n on h i s s u f f e r i n g s — "c o u ld be w r i t t e n
i n d e f i n i t e l y w i t h o u t p o r t r a y i n g any i n t e r a c t i o n between
th e two p a r t i e s . "13 T h is p o e tr y , w h ile seeming t o a s k f o r
a r e s p o n s e from t h e beloved, i s o f t e n more co n cern ed w ith
th e p o e t ’ s own s u b j e c t i v i t y .
Romeo’ s l o v e f o r R o s a lin e i s n o t f ir m l y grounded in a
l i v i n g , b r e a t h i n g o b j e c t ; i t l a c k s a r e a l i t y to h o ld i t
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c o n s t a n t . Romeo can swear h e a te d ly t o h i s f r i e n d s t h a t no
o t h e r woman on e a r t h co u ld ever t u r n h i s head, but t h i s i s
mere t a l k . I t i s shown to be such, l i k e th e words of th e
p l a y e r Queen in H a m le t, when th e very n e x t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r
lo v e p r e s e n t s i t s e l f . At a p a rty where he went t o see
R o s a l i n e , Romeo n o t i c e s J u l i e t a c r o s s t h e room and l o v e s
h er i n s t a n t l y :
0, she d o th te a c h th e t o r c h e s to burn b r i g h t !
I t seems she hangs upon th e cheek of th e n i g h t
As a r i c h jew el in an E t h i o p ' s e a r —
Beauty to o r i c h f o r u se , f o r e a r t h too d e a r!
( 1 .5 .4 4 - 7 ) ,
From th e f i r s t , b e f o r e he knows a n y th in g a b o u t J u l i e t ,
Romeo's i n c l i n a t i o n i s t o p l a t o n i z e h i s l a d y ' s b e a u ty , and
t o e n s h r i n e her a s a s p i r i t u a l b ein g " to o r i c h f o r use,
f o r e a r t h to o d e a r ! " O bviously he i s p r e p a r e d to play th e
P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r a g a i n , and a c t u a l l y i n v i t e s i t , f o r h i s
f i r s t words to J u l i e t b e g in a P e t r a r c h a n s o n n e t,
r e c o g n i z a b l e f o r i t s m e t a p h o r ic a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of lo v e
t o a r e l i g i o n whose s a i n t i s t h e belo v ed and whose p i l g r i m
i s th e male l o v e r .
J u l i e t m ight sp u rn Romeo a t t h i s j u n c t u r e . I n s t e a d
she an sw e rs him in h i s own P e t r a r c h a n m e ta p h o rs, m a tch in g
w i t s w i t h him a s they com plete th e poem in a l t e r n a t i o n .
U n lik e R o s a lin e , J u l i e t p la y s th e game of lo v e w i l l i n g l y ,
becau se she i s charmed by Romeo's, ad v an ces. But one
91
sh o u ld n o t i c e th e iro n y t h a t a r i s e s from t h e i r use of
r e l i g i o u s or s p i r i t u a l f i g u r e s to n e g o t i a t e f l e s h and
blood k i s s e s . The p h y s i c a l a t - t r a c t i o n t h a t P e t r a r c h i s m
works t o s u b li m a t e i s d i r e c t l y exposed, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t
th e c o n c l u s io n of th e s o n n e t, when J u l i e t a llo w s Romeo
tw ic e to k i s s h e r l i p s . T h is ir o n y i s q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e
t o th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e g in n in g between them, becau se in
c e l e b r a t i n g t h e i r lo v e th ey w i l l te n d t o i d e a l i z e one
a n o t h e r a s s p i r i t u a l b e i n g s , even a s t h e i r b o d ie s a r e
y e a r n in g f o r th e p h y s ic a l union f i n a l l y consummated i n th e
second balcony scene.
Romeo r e p e a t e d l y p o r t r a y s J u l i e t a s a h e av en ly or
s p i r i t u a l o b j e c t . S ub seq u en t to t h e "holy p a lm e r”
exchange, he c a l l s h e r a " b r i g h t a n g e l" ( 2 . 2 . 2 6 ) , a
"winged m essenger of heaven" ( 2 . 2 . 2 8 ) , and a " s a i n t "
( 2 . 2 . 5 5 ) . Twice he r e f e r s t o h er a s h i s " s o u l " ( 2 .2 . 1 6 4
and 3 . 5 . 2 5 ) , and he t e l l s th e F r i a r t h a t Verona i s
"Heaven" b e c a u se J u l i e t l i v e s t h e r e ( 3 . 3 . 2 9 - 3 2 ) , J u l i e t
i s somewhat more r e s t r a i n e d , but i n th e f i r s t balcony
scene she te rm s Romeo " th e god of my i d o l a t r y " ( 2 . 2 . 1 1 4 ) ,
c o n f e s s i n g i n a f i g u r e t h e i d o l a t r o u s c h a r a c t e r of h e r
lo v e , and l a t e r she im a g in e s him b e in g " c u t . . . out in
l i t t l e s t a r s " t o "make th e f a c e of heaven so f i n e / That
a l l th e w orld w i l l be in l o v e w ith n i g h t " ( 3 . 2 . 2 2 - 4 ) . R.
M . Frye a r g u e s t h a t both Romeo and J u l i e t p u rsu e an
92
" i d o l a t r o u s l o v e , " and he l o c a t e s i t s o r i g i n in l u s t ,
e s p e c i a l l y " l u s t of th e e y e s . "14 B a tte n h o u s e , m eanwhile,
t h i n k s t h a t t h e i n o r d i n a t e p a s s io n i s p r i m a r i l y Romeo's,
and t h a t t h e young m a n 's e r r o r i n making J u l i e t " th e l i g h t
of h i s heaven" i s a s o u rc e of t h e l o v e r s ' t r a g i c f a t e . 15
As Berowne say s of L o n g a v i l l e ' s P e t r a r c h a n p a s s i o n in
L o v e 's L a b o rs L o s t :
T h is i s th e l i v e r - v e i n , which makes f l e s h a d e i t y ,
A g reen goose a g o d d e ss; pure, pure i d o l a t r y .
God amend us, God amend! we a r e much out a* t h ' way.
( 4 .3 . 7 2 - 7 4 )
Romeo, t h e P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r , f i n d s i n J u l i e t a woman
w i l l i n g t o make l o v e her a l l , a s he has done. Each comes
t o mean e v e r y t h i n g t o th e o t h e r , so t h a t f i n a l l y i t i s
d i f f i c u l t t o im agine e i t h e r o f them c o n t i n u i n g i n l i f e
a f t e r th e d e a th of th e o t h e r . 16 The i n t e n s i t y of t h i s
m utual d e v o tio n and i t s y o u t h f u l in n o c e n c e make i t
a t t r a c t i v e , b u t im m e d ia te ly we wonder how such lo v e can
s u r v i v e in a h a r s h w orld. I t c a n n o t, of c o u r s e , a s even
J u l i e t i s aware e a r l y i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . In th e f i r s t
b alcony sc e n e , she c a u t i o n s Romeo:
I have no jo y o f t h i s c o n t a c t t o - n i g h t ,
I t i s to o r a s h , to o u n a d v i s 'd , to o sudden.
Too l i k e t h e l i g h t n i n g , which doth c e a s e to be
Ere one can say i t l i g h t e n s .
( 2 .2 . 1 1 7 - 2 0 )
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L ater» t h e F r i a r w i l l g iv e Romeo much th e same w a r n in g —
•’Those v i o l e n t d e l i g h t s have v i o l e n t ends, / And in t h e i r
triu m p h d ie , l i k e f i r e and powder, / Which a s they k i s s
consume" ( 2 . 5 . 9 - 1 1 ) .
With th e s h o r t - s i g h t e d n e s s and i m p u l s i v e n e s s of
a d o l e s c e n t s , Romeo and J u l i e t i n v e s t e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e i r
l o v e , th e n i n s i s t on b r i n g i n g i t to an im m ediate
consummation. When c ir c u m s t a n c e s h in d e r them t e m p o r a r i l y ,
th ey r e b e l a g a i n s t l i f e i t s e l f , b o th r a s h l y c h o o sin g
s u i c i d e a s a s o l u t i o n . A ccording t o Dickey, i t i s
p r i m a r i l y Romeo’ s "h ead lo n g f u ry and b l i n d d e s p a i r " t h a t
p r e c i p i t a t e th e d e a t h s of th e t w o , 17 but o t h e r s have
d i v i d e d blame more e v e n ly . S t a u f f e r a r g u e s t h a t th e
"d a n g e ro u s f a u l t " of both l o v e r s i s t h e i r "extrem e
r a s h n e s s , "18 and Kahn t h a t th e two d i s p l a y th e t y p i c a l
f a u l t s o f y o u th , " i t s s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n and r e c k l e s s
e x trem ism , i t s headlong s u r r e n d e r to e r o s . "19
From th e b e g in n in g of a c t t h r e e S h a k e sp e a re t a k e s
g r e a t p a i n s to c h a r a c t e r i z e b o th l o v e r s a s d e s p a i r i n g and
s u i c i d a l . The i n s t a n c e s of t h i s f o re s h a d o w in g a r e more
numerous i n J u l i e t ’ s case th a n i n Romeo's. She f i r s t
t h r e a t e n s s u i c i d e in th e p re se n c e o f h e r n u r s e , when she
b e l i e v e s Romeo may have d ie d in th e f i g h t w ith T y b a lt
( 3 . 2 . 4 5 - 6 0 ) . She does i t a g a in , more b o l d l y , when h er
p a r e n t s t r y to impose th e m a r ria g e w ith P a r i s : "Delay t h i s
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m a r ria g e f o r a month, a week, / Or i f you do n o t, make th e
b r i d a l bed / In t h a t dim monument where T y b a lt l i e s ”
( 3 .5 . 1 9 9 - 2 0 1 ) . At th e end of th e same s c e n e , now in
s o l i l o q u y , she adds, " I f a l l e l s e f a i l , m y s e lf have power
t o d i e ” (2 4 2 ). S peaking t o F r i a r L a u ren ce in t h e scene
f o l l o w i n g , she t h r e a t e n s to k i l l h e r s e l f s e v e r a l tim e s,
w ith k n i f e i n hand: "Give me some p r e s e n t c o u n s e l, or,
b eh o ld , / Twixt my e x tre m e s and me t h i s bloody k n i f e /
S h a l l p lay th e umpeer . . . I lo n g t o d i e " ( 4 . 1 . 6 1 - 6 ; see
a l s o l i n e s 5 2 - 5 9 ). F i n a l l y , a lo n e in h e r bedroom, t r y i n g
t o d e c id e w h eth er or n o t t o ta k e th e F r i a r ’ s p o t i o n , she
c o n te m p la te s h er dagger and th e r e l e a s e i t can b rin g
sh o u ld th e drug f a i l : " S h a l l I be m a r r i e d th e n tomorrow
m orning? / No, no, t h i s s h a l l f o r b i d i t " ( 4 . 3 . 2 2 - 3 ) .
Romeo, l i k e w i s e , i s p o r t r a y e d a s d e s p e r a t e and
s u i c i d a l lo n g b e f o r e he makes th e d e c i s i o n t o buy poison
and k i l l h i m s e l f . We see t h i s s i d e of h i s c h a r a c t e r most
c l e a r l y i n 3 .3 , when t h e F r i a r in fo rm s him o f h i s
b an ish m en t. A f f l i c t e d w i t h d e s p a i r , Romeo c a s t s h i m s e l f
down on th e f l o o r of th e F r i a r ’ s c e l l , " t a k i n g th e m easure
of our unmade g r a v e , " a s he e x p l a i n s i t (7 0 ). L a t e r , when
t h e Nurse d e s c r i b e s J u l i e t ' s mourning, Romeo p r e s s e s a
k n i f e to h i s c h e s t , o f f e r i n g to c u t out h i s now d e s p is e d
i d e n t i t y : "In what v i l e p a r t of t h i s anatomy / Doth my
name lo d g e ? T e ll me, t h a t I may sack / The h a t e f u l
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m a n sio n ” ( 1 0 6 - 8 ) . A p p a lle d by th e young man’ s w i l d words,
t h e F r i a r u s e s r e a s o n t o t r y t o calm him, b u t even a s he
does so we see th e b le a k f u t u r e of th e two l o v e r s
p r e f i g u r e d i n h i s w ords: "W ilt thou s la y t h y s e l f ? " (116-
18). T h is i s o f c o u rs e e x a c t l y what w i l l happen in th e
p l a y ’ s l a s t scene. Romeo, by k i l l i n g h i m s e l f , w i l l rob
J u l i e t of h e r r e a s o n to l i v e , and she w i l l fo llo w .
S u i c i d e was c o n s id e r e d a g r ie v o u s s in i n R e n a is s a n c e
England, and c o n tin u e d t o be r e g a r d e d as such even a f t e r
John Donne’ s B i a t h a n a t o s was p u b l i s h e d in 1646 or 1647.20
The t r a d i t i o n a l C a t h o l i c t e a c h i n g d e r i v e d from A u g u stin e
and A quinas, who had arg u e d t h a t God g r a n t s us our l i v e s
and b o d ie s , but only to u s e , n o t to harm or d e s t r o y . 21
S u i c i d e was a l s o th o u g h t t o c o n f l i c t w ith th e s i x t h
commandment, "Thou s h a l t n o t k i l l . " The A n g lican ch u rch
a c c e p t e d t h e s e view s and added a n o t h e r , a r g u in g t h a t
s u i c i d e was c o n t r a r y t o P ro v id e n c e and to th e p r i n c i p l e s
of u n i v e r s a l r e a s o n and n a t u r a l law, which prompted s e l f -
p r e s e r v a t i o n . In S p e n s e r ’ s The F a e r i e Q ueene, we may
r e c a l l , t h e Red Cross k n i g h t must overcome t e m p t a t i o n t o
s u i c i d e by a very p e r s u a s i v e D e s p a ir in o rd e r to a c h ie v e
H o l i n e s s ( I , i x ) . And i n t h e I n f e r n o Dante r e l e g a t e s
s u i c i d e s to a wood deep i n th e s e v e n th c i r c l e of H e l l .
S in c e b a r b a r i a n w a r r i o r s dwell in th e r i v e r of blood n e a r
th e wood, Dante a p p a r e n t l y saw l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e between
96
th o s e who k i l l th e m s e lv e s and th o s e who k i l l o t h e r s .
The e le m e n t common to b o th s u i c i d e and m urder i s of
c o u r s e l e t h a l v i o l e n c e . As th e F r i a r sa y s of J u l i e t l y i n g
dead in th e C a p u le t tomb: "she . . . d id v i o l e n c e on
h e r s e l f " ( 5 . 3 . 2 6 3 - 4 ) . N orm ally, when we t h i n k of th e
theme of v i o l e n c e i n Romeo and J u l i e t we t h i n k of th e feud
and i t s r e p e r c u s s i o n s , b u t S h a k e sp e a re a l s o a p p e a r s to
have d e v e lo p e d t h e same theme, s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t l y , i n
h i s d e p i c t i o n of th e u n f o r t u n a t e romance between th e two
l o v e r s . Those who k i l l o t h e r s in th e p l a y - - T y b a l t and
Romeo— do so by g i v i n g in to th e s in of an g e r. Those who
k i l l th e m s e lv e s — Romeo and J u l i e t - - d o so by g i v i n g i n to
th e s in of d e s p a i r . Thus th e p l a y ' s h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
and i t s one m ajor lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p a l l produce e x a c t l y
th e same outcome: w ro n g fu l d e a th . The l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
i s d i s t i n c t in but one r e s p e c t : both p a r t i e s to i t d ie
i n s t e a d of j u s t one.
I t i s u s e f u l to compare th e lo v e o f Romeo and J u l i e t
and i t s developm ent w i t h t h a t we f i n d between h e ro and
h e r o i n e in a t y p i c a l S h a k e sp e a re a n New Comedy. As You
L ike I t , f o r example, p r o v id e s an e x c e l l e n t b a s i s f o r
com parison b ecau se O rlando p la y s th e P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r in
h i s p u r s u i t of R o s a lin d . L ik e Romeo, he d e i f i e s h i s
l a d y — "But h e a v e n ly R o s a l i n d ! " ( 1 . 2 . 2 8 9 ) - - a n d d e v o te s
h i m s e l f f e e l i n g l y to b la z o n s and p l a i n t s . U n lik e Romeo,
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however, he l o v e s a la d y who p e r c e i v e s t h a t he i s a c t i n g
th e f o o l and s e t s out to e d u c a te him, so t h a t in th e
c o u r s e of th e play he l e a r n s t o lo v e her as a s p e c i f i c
woman r a t h e r th a n a s some s p i r i t u a l i z e d v e r s i o n of
womankind. R o s a lin d manages t h i s l e s s o n in two ways: by
t e a s i n g O rlando f o r d e i f y i n g h e r name '( 3 .2 . 363), and by
mocking t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e unhappy P e t r a r c h a n
l o v e r in h i s p r e s e n c e ( 3. 2. 373- 84).2 2 Thus she b r i n g s him
down to e a r t h by h e l p i n g him j e t t i s o n th e P e t r a r c h a n
im pedim ents t o lo v e , so t h a t t o g e t h e r th ey can found a
m u tu a l, d u r a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p , one s u i t e d to a w orld in
which women a r e n o t g o d d e s se s and men a r e n o t gods. The
c o n t r a s t between t h e s e comic l o v e r s and Romeo and J u l i e t
i s a l l to o o b v io u s.
I l l
S h a k e sp e a re employs o t h e r comic m a t e r i a l s i n Romeo
and J u l i e t , t i e d d i r e c t l y n e i t h e r t o th e p l o t nor t o th e
bond between th e l o v e r s . I have in mind h i s use of comic
f a c i l i t a t o r s , th e comic clown, and s e v e r a l comic c o n f u s io n
e le m e n ts (dream, d i s g u i s e , and m ad n ess).
I t i s by now a commonplace t h a t F r i a r L a u ren ce and
J u l i e t ' s Nurse a c t in th e c a p a c i t y of comic f a c i l i t a t o r s ,
d i v i d i n g between th e m s e lv e s th e c h i e f d u t i e s of t h e t r i c k y
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s l a v e of Roman New Comedy— t h a t is» c o z e n in g t h e b l o c k i n g
f i g u r e s and a s s i s t i n g t h e comic l o v e r s i n t h e i r movement
tow ard m a r r ia g e . I t has a l s o been n o te d t h a t becau se of
t h e i r advanced a g e s . Romeo and J u l i e t s f a c i l i t a t o r s move
a t a much slo w e r pace th a n t h e l o v e r s , so t h a t a t p o i n t s
i n t h e play f a c i l i t a t o r s and l o v e r s s l i p o u t of s te p ,
p av in g t h e way f o r t r a g i c m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a s when th e
F r i a r a r r i v e s a t th e C a p u le t tomb to o l a t e t o p r e v e n t
Romeo from k i l l i n g h i m s e l f . Comic f a c i l i t a t o r s such as
t r i c k y s l a v e s or S h a k e sp e a re a n h e r o i n e s s ta y a s t e p ahead
of th e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e i r p la y s , w h ereas th e F r i a r ,
in p a r t i c u l a r , i s a l l to o o f te n found t a g g i n g a lo n g behind
th e e v e n t s he has s e t in m otion.
But t h e r e i s a n o t h e r more s i g n i f i c a n t way in which
t h e F r i a r and Nurse d iv e r g e from t h e i r comic p r o t o t y p e s .
They, in a s e n s e , f i n d th e m s e lv e s in th e wrong p la y ,
f a c i l i t a t i n g a m a r r ia g e t h a t i s i l l - a d v i s e d and p rem atu re.
As I have t r i e d t o show, th e extrem e y o u th and n a i v e t e of
t h e l o v e r s make them d a n g e ro u s to one a n o t h e r . However
w ise and w e ll i n t e n t i o n e d t h e F r i a r may be, he does not
a c t w i s e ly when he u s e s h i s s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y to
s a n c t i o n t h i s c o v e r t and v o l a t i l e union. H aving l e s s
a u t h o r i t y , J u l i e t ’ s Nurse i s p ro b ab ly l e s s blam eworthy,
b u t she does behave f o o l i s h l y in her a s s i s t a n c e and a d v ic e
t o J u l i e t . P l a c i n g an e x c e s s i v e v a lu e on s e x u a l lo v e , she
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i s u n a b le to p e r c e i v e h er c h a r g e ’ s t r u e needs. She w a n ts
J u l i e t wedded and bedded a t any c o s t , or so she b e l i e v e s
b e f o r e th e c o s t i s known. In s h o r t , because o f t h e n a t u r e
of t h e lo v e th ey champion, th e F r i a r and t h e Nurse
f a c i l i t a t e t r a g i c developm ent, n o t comic. To t h e e x t e n t
th e y f u n c t i o n a t a l l , th e y f u n c t i o n t o h e l p d e s tr o y th o s e
th ey a r e t r y i n g t o a s s i s t .
Somewhat more complex i s S h a k e s p e a r e 's h a n d l i n g of
clowns i n Romeo and J u l i e t . M ercutio p ro b a b ly comes
c l o s e s t t o th e r o l e , 23 f o r he, l i k e Touchstone i n As You
Like I t , u s e s p e n e t r a t i n g w i t t o u n d e r c u t th e g r a n d io s e
p r e t e n s i o n s o f th e P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r o f h i s p la y . And y e t ,
a s M ercu tio ex p o se s th e se x u a l f o u n d a t io n of Romeo's lo v e ,
he somehow c a r r i e s th e bawdy to o f a r , becoming g r a p h i c and
lewd. H is view of r o m a n tic lo v e i s r e a l l y n o t so f a r
removed from I a g o ' s . I t i s no wonder t h a t Romeo i g n o r e s
h i s f r i e n d . He im a g in e s t h a t M ercu tio i s w holly i g n o r a n t
of th e s o r t o f l o v e he f e e l s ("He j e s t s a t s c a r s t h a t
never f e l t a wound"), and th u s c o n t i n u e s t o s u b lim a te h i s
s e x u a l a t t r a c t i o n to J u l i e t , i g n o r i n g th e d a n g e rs
i n v o lv e d . The c lo w n 's debunking f u n c t i o n , though
p e rfo rm ed , a c h i e v e s n o th in g . F u rth e rm o re , M e r c u t i o 's
c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e p l a y ' s v i o l e n c e theme s i g n a l s a
marked d e p a r t u r e from th e comic p a t t e r n . Here i s a clown
a s ready to k i l l a s t o jo k e , a clown who u s e s h i s f e r t i l e
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comic w i t . l i k e a r a p i e r , to provoke o p p o n e n ts to combat.
A com parison between t h i s l e t h a l clown and F a l s t a f f would
m easure th e d i s t a n c e we have come from M e r c u t i o 's comic
o r i g i n .
The C a p u le t clown who a p p ro a c h e s Romeo w ith th e g u e s t
l i s t f o r th e masque and P e te r , t h e N u r s e ’ s s e r v a n t , a r e
b oth p u re r clown t y p e s th a n M erc u tio , but they mean l i t t l e
f o r th e p la y , e x c e p t i n s o f a r as t h e fo rm er, th ro u g h
i g n o ra n c e , h e l p s t h e l o v e r s to m eet. P e t e r ’ s b a n t e r i n g
exchange w i t h t h e w edding M u sic ia n s, though i t does
n o th in g t o f u r t h e r t h e p l o t , i s n o n e t h e l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g
b ecause in i t we f i n d a clown who i n s i s t s on p l a y in g t h e
clown even in t h e f a c e o f t r a g e d y . S in ce J u l i e t i s
supposed dead, P e t e r ' s p l a y f u l n e s s i s o u t o f p la c e , j u s t
a s t h e wedding M u sic ia n s and t h e i r i n s t r u m e n t s of
c e l e b r a t i o n a r e o u t o f p l a c e . The s h i f t from- wedding t o
f u n e r a l has been so r a p i d t h a t , in e f f e c t , t h e s e s to c k
comic f i g u r e s have been l e f t su sp en d ed , unneeded, r e f u g e e s
o f a h a p p i e r w o rld b e in g o v e rru n by t r a g e d y . S h a k e sp e a re
g e n e r a t e s iro n y th r o u g h t h e i r d i s p l a c e m e n t.
We s h o u ld r e c a l l t h a t th e s e v e r a l New Comic
" c o n f u s io n e le m e n ts " (which i n c l u d e dream, madness,
d i s g u i s e , and f a i r y magic) a r e t h e b a s i c comic a g e n t s of
change, h e l p i n g t o t r a n s f o r m both young l o v e r s and
b lo c k in g f i g u r e s i n t o b e t t e r , more s e l f - a w a r e v e r s i o n s o f
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th e m s e lv e s . S e v e ra l of th o s e c o n f u s io n e le m e n ts a r e
p r e s e n t in Romeo and J u l i e t , b u t th e y do n o t perform t h e i r
u s u a l comic f u n c t i o n s . I t i s a s i f t h e i r magic l a c k e d
power i n t h i s t r a g e d y . T y b a lt , f o r example, im m e d ia te ly
p e n e t r a t e s Romeo’ s d i s g u i s e a t t h e , C a p u l e t masque, and t h e
i n s u l t he f e e l s i n co n seq u en ce m o t i v a t e s h i s d e s i r e f o r
rev en g e r i g h t up to th e d u e l s o f 3 .1 . Dream, t h a t r i c h
and h e a l i n g " b o t t o m l e s s ” w orld of th e com edies, becomes
mere p re m o n itio n in Romeo and J u l i e t , sometimes f a l s e
p r e m o n itio n , a s when Romeo r e p o r t s t h a t he h a s dreamed of
" j o y f u l news a t hand" ( 5 . 1 . 2 ) j u s t b e f o re B a l t h a s a r
a r r i v e s t o t e l l him of J u l i e t ' s b u r i a l . At b e s t , dreams
p r e f i g u r e or warn in t h i s t r a g e d y ; they c a n n o t c u re . The
f a i r y w o rld , m eanw hile, i s re d u c e d by M ercutio to t h e
f i c t i o n a l Queen Mab, "The hag, when maids l i e on t h e i r
b ack s, / That p r e s s e s them and l e a r n s them f i r s t t o b ear"
( 1 . 4 . 9 2 - 3 ) . Mab i s an in c u b u s , an e v i l o p p o s i t e of th e
f a i r i e s who b l e s s t h e m a r r i a g e beds in Midsummer N i g h t ’ s
Dream. F i n a l l y , madness in Romeo and J u l i e t i s e i t h e r th e
m adness of p a s s i o n a t e lo v e or th e madness of v i o l e n t
a n g e r. Both l e a d t o d e a th . Romeo, who i s c a l l e d a
"madman" by M ercutio and by F r i a r L aurence ( 2 . 1 . 7 and
3 . 3 . 6 1 ) , sa y s th e same t h i n g of h i m s e l f i n th e p l a y ’ s
f i n a l scen e a s he w arns P a r i s to f l e e : "A madman's mercy
b id th e e run away" ( 5 . 3 . 6 7 ) . S h o r tl y a f t e r , in h i s
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" m a d n e s s ," he k i l l s P a r i s , th e n h i m s e l f .
In c o n c lu d in g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of comic s t r u c t u r e in
what I c o n s i d e r S h a k e s p e a r e 's f i r s t m a jo r t r a g e d y , I would
l i k e t o s u g g e s t t h a t Romeo and J u l i e t can be r e l a t e d in an
i r o n i c way t o t h e an n u al c y c le of E n g l i s h ch u rch and f o l k
f e s t i v a l s from which T w e lfth N ight and Midsummer N i g h t 's
Dream ta k e t h e i r t i t l e s . The Nurse t e l l s us i n 1 .3 t h a t
J u l i e t was born on "Lam m as-eve." Lammas Day. or lammas-
t i d e , f a l l i n g on August 1, a p p e a r s t o have been th e
t r a d i t i o n a l E n g lis h day of c e l e b r a t i o n f o r t h e " f i r s t
f r u i t s of th e c o r n , " a h a r v e s t f e s t i v a l , in o t h e r words,
upon which l o a v e s were made from th e new w heat, th e n
c o n s e c r a t e d . 24 on t h i s same day c e n t u r i e s e a r l i e r th e
D ru id s a r e t h o u g h t to have c e l e b r a t e d one of t h e i r fo u r
an n u a l f e s t i v a l s marked by th e g r e a t f i r e s . For them a s
w e l l , t h e h o l i d a y -seems to have been d e d i c a t e d t o th e
s a c r i f i c e of t h e f i r s t f r u i t s of th e s o i l . I f I am
r e a d i n g t h e a l l u s i o n c o r r e c t l y , S h a k e s p e a re means to
a s s o c i a t e J u l i e t w i t h th e h a r v e s t , w i t h f e c u n d i t y — in a
word, w ith m otherhood. But th e a s s o c i a t i o n i s i n d i r e c t or
i r o n i c , f o r we l e a r n i n th e same scene t h a t J u l i e t ’ s
b i r t h d a y i s s t i l l two weeks away. She w i l l n o t be
f o u r t e e n u n t i l "a f o r t n i g h t and odd d a y s , " a c c o r d i n g t o
h er m other (1 5 ). S h a k e sp e a re , who moved fo rw a rd t h e d a te
of J u l i e t ' s w edding t o P a r i s from Septem ber i n Brooke to
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J u l y , a p p e a r s t o be im p ly in g t h a t however f e r t i l e th e g i r l -
i s p o t e n t i a l l y , she i s n o t y e t read y to begin r e a l i z i n g
t h a t p o t e n t i a l th ro u g h m a r r ia g e and m otherhood. Her
f a t h e r has s a id p r e c i s e l y t h i s i n h i s e a r l i e r a d v i c e t o
P a r i s :
M y c h i l d i s y e t a s t r a n g e r in th e w o rld ,
She h a th n o t y e t seen t h e change of f o u r t e e n y e a r s ;
L e t two more summers w i t h e r in t h e i r p r i d e ,
Ere we may t h i n k h e r r i p e to be a b r i d e .
( 1 . 2 . 8 - 11 ) _
J u l i e t m ight have been a comic h e r o i n e . Her s t r e n g t h and
d e c i s i v e n e s s c o u ld have e n a b le d h er to c irc u m v e n t even th e
f a m ily fe u d had she n o t embraced so d e s p e r a t e l y an
im m ature, ro m a n tic p a s s i o n i n c l i n i n g h e r tow ard s u i c i d e .
As i t i s , she becomes t h e h e r o i n e of a comedy d e s tr o y e d ,
dying much a s she h e r s e l f p r e d i c t s she w i l l : "maiden-
widowed" ( 3 . 2 . 1 3 5 ) . U l t i m a t e l y her f e r t i l i t y i s w a ste d ,
and we a r e made t o f e e l th e l o s s .
104
Notes
i F r a n k l i n Dickey* Not W isely But Too Well (San
Marino, C a l i f . : H u n tin g to n L i b r a r y , 1957), p. 87; Harry
L e v in , "Form and F o r m a lity i n Romeo and J u l i e t . "
S h a k e sp e a re Q u a r t e r l y , 11 (1960), 3-1 1 ; H. B. C h a r lto n ,
S h a k e s p e a ria n Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. P r e s s ,
1948), pp. 49-53.
2Dickey, p. 102.
3john Wain, The L iv in g World of S h a k e s p e a re (New
York: St. M a r t i n 's P r e s s , 1964), p. 107.
^Wain, p. 108.
^Snyder, p. 57.
^Snyder, p. 59.
f
7 M a rjo r ie G arb er, Coming of Age in S h a k e sp e a re (New
York: Methuen, 1981), p. 165.
8w a r r e n D. Smith, "Romeo's F i n a l Dream," Modern
Language Review, 62 (1 9 6 7 ), 581.
^Frye, "Argument of Comedy," pp. 60-61.
10Smith, p. 582.
Ann J e n n a l i e Cook, "The Mode of M arriage in
S h a k e s p e a r e 's E n g la n d ," S o u th ern H u m a n itie s Review. 11
(1 9 7 7 ), 128.
12Cook, p. 126; A shley, p. 672.
13Marianne L. Novy, "'And You Smile Not, He's Gagged':
Mutuality in Shakespearean Comedy," Philological
Quarterly, 55 (1 9 7 6 ), 182.
1^Roland M. Frye, "The Accepted E t h i c s and Theology of
S h a k e s p e a r e 's Audience a s U t i l i z e d by t h e D r a m a t i s t i n
C e r t a i n R e p r e s e n t a t i v e T r a g e d ie s , w ith P a r t i c u l a r
A t t e n t i o n t o Love and M a r r ia g e ," 15 (1 9 5 5 ), 581-82
( P r i n c e t o n ) .
105
15Roy V J. B a tte n h o u s e , ’’S h a k e sp e a re a n T ragedy: A
C h r i s t i a n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 1 1 i n The T r a g ic V is io n -and th e
C h r i s t i a n F a i t h , ed. Nathan A. S c o t t , J r . (New York:
A s s o c i a t i o n P r e s s . 1957). p. 89.
1 6 M a rjo rie Kolb Cox, "A d o le sc e n t P r o c e s s i n Romeo and
J u l i e t , » P s y c h o a n a l y ti c Review, 63 (1 9 7 6 ), 389.
17Dickey, p. 102.
l^D onald A lf r e d S t a u f f e r , S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s World of
Im a g e s, 2nd ed. (1949; B loom in g to n : I n d ia n a Univ. P r e s s ,
1966), p. 56.
19 c o p p e l i a Kahn, "Coming of Age in V e r o n a , " i n Lenz e t
a l . , p. 172.
20s. E. S p r o t t , The E n g lis h Debate on S u i c i d e : From
Donne to Hume (La S a l l e , I l l i n o i s : Open C ourt, 1961), pp.
5-6.
21s p r o t t , pp. 2 -3 .
22fjovy, p. 183.
23snyder, p. 61.
2 4 s i r Henry E l l i s , e d . , O b s e r v a t i o n s of P o p u la r
A n t i q u i t i e s , a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of The P o p u la r A n t i q u i t i e s
o f G r e a t B r i t a i n , by John Brand (1795; r p t . London: C h a tto
and Windus, 1913), p. 190.
106
C h ap ter Four
O t h e l l o
O t h e l l o , l i k e Romeo and J u l i e t , i s s e t in I t a l y , and
f o r t h e same r e a s o n : i t s s t o r y o r i g i n a t e d t h e r e . In t h e
c a se o f Romeo and J u l i e t , t h e i m p o r t a t i o n was i n d i r e c t ,
f o r S h a k e s p e a re to o k i t s p l o t from th e n a r r a t i v e poem o f
h i s countrym an A r th u r Brooke, who had borrowed i t i n t u r n
from a n o v e l l a by I t a l i a n M atteo B a n d e llo . The s t o r y of
O t h e l l o S h a k e s p e a re a c q u i r e d d i r e c t l y from an I t a l i a n
s o u r c e — t a l e 3.7 in G i r a l d i C i n t h i o ' s l i f e l o n g c o l l e c t i o n
of s h o r t f i c t i o n , H e c a to m m ith i.
I m entioned e a r l i e r t h a t one r e a s o n we f i n d ' p l o t
s t r u c t u r e s and c h a r a c t e r s r e s e m b lin g th o s e of comedy i n
t h e two S h a k e s p e a re a n t r a g e d i e s i s t h a t t h e comic e le m e n ts
w ere p r e s e n t , or a t l e a s t u n m ista k a b ly s u g g e s te d , in t h e
o r i g i n a l I t a l i a n s t o r i e s — a s i t u a t i o n n o t to o s u r p r i s i n g .
During th e R e n a is s a n c e , I t a l i a n e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n in new
f i c t i o n a l and d r a m a tic form s, i n c l u d i n g mixed g en re forms,"
l a r g e l y p re c e d e d and in p a r t gu id ed com parable e x p e r im e n ts
among t h e E l i z a b e t h a n d r a m a t i s t s . 1 As i t happens, t h e
I t a l i a n p la y w r ig h t and c r i t i c from whom S h a k e sp e a re
a p p r o p r i a t e d t h e O t h e l l o s t o r y was a key f i g u r e in
107
R e n a is sa n c e i n n o v a t i o n s of th e t r a d i t i o n a l d r a m a tic
g e n r e s . 2 C i n t h i o w ro te t r a g e d i e s w i t h happy e n d in g s, or
t r a g i c o m e d i e s , a t a tim e when t h e l e g i t i m a c y of t h e s e
"mixed" p l a y s was a m a t t e r of g r e a t c o n t r o v e r s y in I t a l i a n
l e t t e r s . He a l s o made m ajor c o n t r i b u t i o n s to th e
developm ent of modern tra g e d y , i n c l u d i n g l o v e tr a g e d y .
H is Qrbecche (1543) employs th e f a m i l i a r comic p l o t
c o n f l i c t between senex and young l o v e r s i n o r d e r to
p r e c i p i t a t e a bloody t r a g i c denouement, somewhat in th e
manner o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's Romeo and J u l i e t , w r i t t e n h a l f a
c e n tu r y l a t e r .
In o t h e r ways to o C i n t h i o a n t i c i p a t e d d ev elo p m en ts in
t h e E l i z a b e t h a n drama. A d e v o te e of " l e c u l t e de l 'a m e
f e m i n i n e , " he was among th e f i r s t p l a y w r i g h t s to
c o n s i s t e n t l y b r in g v i t a l , co u ra g e o u s, dom inant fem ale
c h a r a c t e r s to th e s t a g e (even to th e comic s t a g e ) , 3 and he
h e lp e d open new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of
t r a g e d y by a d v o c a tin g th e use of f i c t i o n a l p l o t s in p la c e
of th e h i s t o r i e s recommended by alm o st e v ery o n e
p r e v i o u s l y . 4 C i n t h i o in f a c t t u r n e d s e v e r a l o f h i s own
t a l e s from H ecatom m ithi i n t o t r a g e d i e s , t h e Orbecche s t o r y
among them.
T h is v e r s a t i l e a u th o r e n r i c h e d European drama c h i e f l y
by h e l p i n g to b re a k down most of th e t r a d i t i o n a l
d i s t i n c t i o n s between th e two o f f i c i a l l y r e c o g n i z e d
108
d r a m a t ic g e n r e s : comedy and t r a g e d y . When m a t e r i a l s
p r e v i o u s l y r e s t r i c t e d t o use in one g e n re were opened to
b o th , h y b r i d i z a t i o n o c c u r r e d , and new t y p e s o f p la y s
f l o u r i s h e d . There was one of th e old d e m a r c a tio n s between
th e g e n re s t h a t C i n t h i o n e v e r q u e s t i o n e d , however. Like
most o t h e r s o f h i s tim e, he assumed t h a t t r a g e d y was
n e c e s s a r i l y t h e s t o r y of Kings and Queens, comedy t h a t of
t h e low er s o c i a l c l a s s e s . 5 His Orbecche s t o r y co u ld
become tra g e d y b e c a u se i t s p e rs o n a g e s were r o y a l , but h i s
t a l e of th e j e a l o u s Moor c o n t a i n s c h a r a c t e r s to o p l e b e i a n
f o r t h e t r a g i c s t a g e , and was nev er d r a m a tiz e d . I t
rem ained f o r th e E l i z a b e t h a n s to b re a k down t h i s l a s t
d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e g e n r e s . F o llo w in g t h e p r a c t i c e s
of t h e i r n a t i v e drama and th e C h r i s t i a n T e ren ce,
S h a k e s p e a re and h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s d e m o c ra tiz e d tr a g e d y ,
sometim es by m ixing h ig h c h a r a c t e r s w i t h low, sometimes by
f o c u s i n g on a d o m e s t i c . c r i s i s i n v o l v i n g m id d le c l a s s
l o v e r s o r a young b o u r g e o is m a r r i e d c o u p le .
S h a k e sp e a re , view in g C i n t h i o ' s t a l e of t h e Moor from
t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f one who saw n o t h i n g wrong w i t h
b o u r g e o is t r a g i c p r o t a g o n i s t s , may w e ll have d i s c e r n e d th e
s t o r y ' s p o t e n t i a l f o r s t a g e tra g e d y im m e d ia te ly . One
r e a s o n f o r t h i n k i n g so i s t h a t i n a d a p t i n g t h e t a l e he
fo llo w e d th e o r i g i n a l p l o t c l o s e l y . He added c h a r a c t e r s
and s c e n e s , deepened m o t i v a t i o n , d ev elo p ed image p a t t e r n s ,
109
c o m p lic a te d them es, and t r a n s f o r m e d C i n t h i o * s p r o s e , but
i n te rm s of b a s i c p l o t S h a k e sp e a re used most of what he
found, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e g e n e r a l o u t l i n e s of d r a m a tic
tra g e d y a r e l a t e n t i n t h e f i c t i o n a l v e r s i o n . The m ajo r
p l o t change S h a k e sp e a re makes i s i n h i s ending, where he
c r e a t e s a t r a g i c c a t h a r s i s c o m p lete w ith r e c o g n i t i o n and
r e v e r s a l by h a v in g O t h e l l o l e a r n t h a t he m urdered h i s w if e
n e e d l e s s l y (a s C i n t h i o * s Moor n e v e r d o e s ).
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , in th e opening s e n te n c e s of th e
o r i g i n a l O t h e l l o s t o r y , we a l s o fin d - m in im a l b u t c l e a r
s u g g e s t i o n s of what would be a' comic p l o t , i f d e v e lo p e d ,
when C i n t h i o t e l l s us t h a t a f t e r Disdemona and t h e Moor
f e l l i n l o v e , h e r p a r e n t s " s t r o v e a l l they c o u ld t o in d u c e
h er t o ta k e a n o t h e r h u sb a n d . "6 H ere, once a g a in , i s t h e
c o n f l i c t between g e n e r a t i o n s fu n d a m e n ta l t o New Comedy.
Having fram ed th e c o n f l i c t , however, C i n t h i o a t once
r e s o l v e s i t , t e l l i n g us n e x t t h a t Disdemona m a r r ie d th e
Moor, th e n t h a t th e two " l i v e d in such harmony and peace
i n Venice t h a t no word e v e r p a s se d between them t h a t was
n o t a f f e c t i o n a t e and k i n d . " T h is b l i s s th e newlyweds
e x p e r i e n c e i s a l r e a d y p o s t-c o m ic in c h a r a c t e r . I t i s
com parable t o th e h a p p in e s s we m ig h t e n v is a g e f o r a p a i r
l i k e R o s a lin d and O rlando i n th e a f t e r m a t h of t h e i r p la y .
At j u s t t h i s p o i n t in h i s s t o r y , C i n t h i o i n t r o d u c e s h i s
l a r g e r , t r a g i c a c t i o n by s h i f t i n g a t t e n t i o n to th e Moor’ s
110
r e a s s ig n m e n t to Cyprus— th e c o u p l e ' s f i r s t r e a l problem.
During th e re m a in d e r of t h e t a l e we w i t n e s s th e r a p i d
d e t e r i o r a t i o n and e v e n t u a l d e s t r u c t i o n n o t only of wedded
b l i s s , b u t of t r u s t , lo v e , and l i f e . As we have seen,
t h e s e a r e th e v a l u e s t h a t comedy t y p i c a l l y c e l e b r a t e s , but
t h a t l o v e t r a g e d y t e n d s t o q u e s t i o n or c h a l l e n g e .
In c r e a t i n g h i s v e r s i o n of th e O t h e l l o s t o r y ,
S h a k e sp e a re f l e s h e s o u t t h e s e b are o u t l i n e s o f comedy t h a t
he f i n d s in C i n t h i o ’ s n o v e l l a , g i v i n g us, in a c t one of
h i s t r a g e d y , a c o m p lete p l o t developm ent and s e v e r a l
c h a r a c t e r s o b v io u s ly comic i n d e r i v a t i o n . Moreover, much
a s i n Romeo and J u l i e t , even a f t e r he has e x h a u s te d t h i s
comic p l o t S h a k e sp e a re c o n t i n u e s to employ i t s m a t e r i a l s
in o r d e r b o th to s t r u c t u r e , and t o comment upon, th e
p l a y ’ s main p l o t . Some o f th e comic m a t e r i a l s in O t h e l l o
a r e used c o n t r a r y t o t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s , most
o f t e n to h a s t e n t r a g i c denouement. O th e r s , m erely by
bein g so " o u t of p l a c e , " g e n e r a t e i r o n y . O c c a s i o n a l l y th e
m a t e r i a l s s e rv e b o th p u rp o se s a t once.
A number of w r i t e r s have commented upon th e p r e s e n c e
o f t h e s e comic s t r u c t u r a l e le m e n ts i n O t h e l l o . Most p o i n t
o u t t h a t t h e p l a y ’ s p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r s c l o s e l y resem b le
comic t y p e s , though d is a g r e e m e n t e x i s t s a s to th e p r e c i s e
o r i g i n s of t h e s e ty p e s . B a rb a ra de Mendonya, f o r example,
b e l i e v i n g t h a t O t h e l l o ’ s c h a r a c t e r s a r e borrowed from
commedia d e l l ’a r t e , view s Iago as meneiar-de- i e u , B r a b a n t i o
a s P a n ta lo n e , Desdemona a s am o ro sa. and Roderigo as comic
d u p e .7 D ouglas S te w a r t, a c l a s s i c i s t , a r g u e s on t h e o t h e r
hand t h a t t h e s e same c h a r a c t e r s d e r i v e from Roman New
Comedy. Thus he s e e s i n O t h e l l o th e n e a r l y p e r f e c t m i l e s
g l o r i o s u s , in Iago t h e c o n n iv in g s la v e , i n B r a b a n t i o th e
heavy f a t h e r , in Desdemona t h e comic h e r o i n e , and in
R oderigo th e " h e ro -b o o b of comedy. "8 S tep h an Rogers f i n d s
much th e same r e l a t i o n s h i p s to p e r t a i n , as does Ann B lake
a p p a r e n t l y . 9 Almost ev ery o n e seems to a g r e e t h a t Iago i s
m odeled upon th e comic i n t r i g u e r , b u t o p i n i o n s vary as to
what k in d : E l i z a b e t h a n r u s t i c c l o w n ,10 f a l l a x s e r v u s of
Roman New Comedy,11 m o r a l i t y v i c e , 12 or "an i m a g i n a t i v e
c o m p o s i t e ” of a l l t h r e e and th e M achiavel b e s i d e s . 13
S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s use of comic p l o t in O t h e l l o has a l s o
r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n . L e s l i e F i e d l e r a r g u e s
t h a t O t h e l l o i s a c t u a l l y two p l a y s ’’i n t r i c a t e l y l i n k e d
t o g e t h e r y e t f i n a l l y q u i t e s e p a r a b l e ” : a o n e - a c t comedy
f o llo w e d by a f o u r - a c t t r a g e d y . The tra g e d y e x te n d s and
r e f l e c t s i r o n i c a l l y upon th e i n i t i a l comic a c t i o n . 1^
S tep h an Rogers, d e s c r i b i n g t h e play a s ’’comedy in
r e v e r s e , ” i d e n t i f i e s an e a r l y comic p l o t ( c u l m i n a t i n g
a c c o r d in g to him in th e S e n a te s c e n e ) , and d i s c u s s e s ways
in w hich S h a k e sp e a re a d a p t s o t h e r comic m a t e r i a l s , such a s
t h e i d e e f i x e and th e wedding ceremony, t o a n t i - c o m i c or
112
t r a g i c p u rp o se s in t h e l a s t f o u r a c t s of t h e d ra m a .15 Ann
B lake a rg u e s t h a t t h e main p l o t of O t h e l l o , though
c e r t a i n l y n o t comic in outcome, o p e r a t e s upon th e t h e a t e r
a u d ie n c e in comic f a s h i o n — l a r g e l y by making us p riv y t o
t h e m a c h in a tio n s o f an i n t r i g u e r as he " g u l l s ” o t h e r s .
The comic p e r s p e c t i v e dev elo p ed by t h e s e means, she
c la im s , s e r v e s n o t only to d i s t a n c e us from O t h e l l o but to
a r o u s e a s u b t l e sympathy f o r I a g o . 16 A ccording t o Carol
Neely, O t h e l l o opens, as many com edies do, w ith a male
p r o t a g o n i s t in need o f "some r e a l i s t i c g ro u n d in g in t h e
f a c t s of s e x , " b u t a s t h e p l o t u n f o l d s O t h e l l o ' s problem
i s a g g r a v a t e d r a t h e r th a n s o lv e d . Neely t h i n k s th e play
ends n o t q u i t e as t r a g e d y , but more l i k e "can k ered
comedy." She p o i n t s to th e t h r e e b o d ie s on th e m a r ria g e
bed as sym bolic o f " a r r e s t e d grow th" and " d e v a s t a t e d
f e r t i l i t y ."17 B a rb a ra de Mendonca, m eanw hile, t r a c e s th e
o r i g i n o f tra g e d y in O t h e l l o t o t h e c l a s h between t h e
p r o t a g o n i s t ' s a l i e n and i n f l e x i b l e p o i n t of view and t h e
more t o l e r a n t "comic" v i e w p o i n t s of t h e comedia d e l l ' a r t e
ty p e s he f i n d s h i m s e l f su rro u n d e d b y . 18 For h e r , O t h e l l o
i s a t r a g i c f i g u r e a d r i f t in a comic w o rld he cannot
u n d e r s t a n d or c o n t r o l .
Susan S n y d e r 's a n a l y s i s of comic s t r u c t u r e in O t h e l l o
i s more co m p reh en siv e th a n t h e s e o t h e r s , and I b e l i e v e
more i l l u m i n a t i n g . 19 She a r g u e s t h a t S h a k e sp e a re
113
d e l i b e r a t e l y s e t s up t h e s t o r y of O t h e l l o and Desdemona as
p o s t- c o m ic , t r e a t i n g c o u r t s h i p and m a r r ia g e a s a
" p r e l i m i n a r y t o t r a g e d y . " W hile Snyder g r a n t s t h a t t h e
l o v e r s a r e , to a d e g re e , v i c t i m s of o u t s i d e f o r c e s , she
m a i n t a i n s t h a t
in t h e i r tra g e d y d e s t r u c t i o n comes from w i t h i n as
w e l l , and comedy i s one means by which S h a k e s p e a re
p ro b e s more deep ly i n t o h i s c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r
l o v e . He g iv e s us i n t h e e a r l y s c e n e s a b r i e f but
com p lete comic s t r u c t u r e and th e n d e v e lo p s h i s
tra g e d y o f lo v e by e x p l o i t i n g th e p o i n t s of s t r a i n
and paradox w i t h i n t h e system o f comic a s s u m p tio n s
t h a t in fo rm s t h a t s t r u c t u r e . 20
Snyder c o n t r a s t s O t h e l l o w ith S h a k e s p e a r e 's com edies,
where t h e v a lu e o f lo v e and m a r r ia g e and t h e v i r t u e of
d i m i n i s h i n g o n e ’s s e l f h o o d i n o r d e r to u n i t e w ith a n o t h e r
a r e assumed a u t o m a t i c a l l y , j u s t as i t i s assumed t h a t
powers g r e a t e r th a n man— e s p e c i a l l y n a t u r a l powers— w i l l
c o o p e r a t e i n p r o t e c t i n g l o v e r s from th o s e who seek t o
i n j u r e or o b s t r u c t them. A ll t h e s e a ssu m p tio n s a r e
c o n t r o v e r t e d in O t h e l l o . S h a k e s p e a re c r e a t e s l o v e r s who
a r e very d i f f e r e n t from one a n o th e r (much more so th a n in
C i n t h i o ' s s to r y or in any comedy), j o i n s t h e s e l o v e r s in a
m a r r i a g e l a c k i n g t r u e m u t u a l i t y , th e n a llo w s t h e m a r ria g e
t o be a s s a u l t e d by l o v e ’s comic enem ies ( h a t r e d , j e a l o u s y ,
r a t i o n a l i t y ) , w i t h o u t p r o t e c t i o n from l o v e ’ s comic
d e f e n d e r s ( n a t u r e , t o g e t h e r n e s s ) . In th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f
t h e m a r r ia g e , Snyder c la im s , we w i t n e s s , beyond t h e
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t r a g e d y of t h e l o v e r s th e m s e lv e s , "an a c t i n g o u t o f th e
t r a g i c i m p l i c a t i o n s in any lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p . " Thus,
u n l i k e th o s e who have m a i n t a i n e d t h a t O t h e l l o l a c k s
u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n s , 21 she b e l i e v e s t h e play e x p l o r e s th e
same g e n e r a l them es t h a t co n cern S h a k e s p e a re in h i s
s o n n e t s : l o v e ' s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and i n a d e q u a c i e s , or what
we m ight t h i n k o f . as t h e " o t h e r s i d e " o f comedy's
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of romance.
At one p o i n t i n h e r d i s c u s s i o n of comic p a t t e r n s in
O t h e l l o , as she i s e x p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e " w in n e rs" in comedy
a r e th o s e i n tu n e w ith n a t u r e and l i f e , P r o f e s s o r Snyder
r e f e r s t o N orthop F r y e ' s c o n c e p t of th e comic g re e n w o rld
in o r d e r to e l a b o r a t e h e r a r g u m e n t ;22 she does n o t,
however, h e r e or e lse w h e re , a t t e m p t t o apply F r y e ' s i d e a s
d i r e c t l y to t h e t r a g e d y . R. A. Yoder b e g in s to do so in
h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e "two w o r ld s " o f O t h e l l o , by u s in g
F r y e ' s g re e n w o rld , a lo n g w i t h C. L. B a r b e r ' s n o tio n of
" h o l i d a y , " t o e x p l a i n how th e s t e r i l e , s o p h i s t i c a t e d
s o c i e t y o f V en ice in v a d e s Cyprus and d i s r u p t s i t s
p o t e n t i a l l y f e r t i l e and c u r a t i v e en v iro n m e n t, th e r e b y
s e a l i n g t h e lo v e r s * f a t e s . 23 W hile Y o d e r 's f i n d i n g s a r e
co g en t (we w i l l l o o k a t them l a t e r i n more d e t a i l ) , i t i s
c l e a r t o me t h a t by r e s t r i c t i n g h i m s e l f t o a n a l y s i s of t h e
u r b a n / g r e e n w o r l d o p p o s i t i o n he l e a v e s u n t e s t e d most
p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n s of F r y e 's comic t h e o r i e s t o O t h e l l o .
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These a r e w o rth p u r s u in g e x t e n s i v e l y , f o r F r y e ’ s
e x p l a n a t i o n s can h e lp uncover comic s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n s
t h a t have n o t been t r e a t e d by o t h e r s , and more
i m p o r t a n t l y , they can p ro v id e a means to i n t e r r e l a t e a l l
th e comic m a t e r i a l s i n t h e play under th e g u id a n c e of a
s i n g l e g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s — y i e l d i n g , u l t i m a t e l y , a I,com ic,,
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of O t h e l l o t h a t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t
from o t h e r s we have c o n s id e r e d .
I
Both Romeo and J u l i e t and O t h e l l o c o n t a i n co m p le te ,
a c c e l e r a t e d New Comic p l o t s , but t h e two p la y s combine
t h e s e p l o t s w i t h tra g e d y in q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ways. The
comedic p l o t in Romeo and J u l i e t , as we have seen, spans
two f u l l a c t s , c o n c lu d in g w ith t h e m a r r ia g e of t h e l o v e r s
b e f o r e a c t t h r e e . O t h e l l o and Desdemona, by c o n t r a s t ,
marry o f f s t a g e a t t h e very commencement of a c t one, or
p e rh a p s even b e f o r e t h e i r play b e g in s, so t h a t t e c h n i c a l l y
t h e c o u r t s h i p between t h e two l i e s e n t i r e l y in b a c k s t o r y .
We l e a r n some of t h e d e t a i l s o f t h i s c o u r t s h i p , of c o u r s e ,
b u t we do n o t see i t . I t comes t o us i n r e t r o s p e c t , and
i n d i r e c t l y , as husband and w i f e defen d t h e i r f a i t acco m p li
b e f o r e t h e V e n e tia n S e n a te . The p o r t i o n o f comic p l o t
t h a t S h a k e s p e a re d w e lls upon in O th e llo in l i e u of t h e
116
c o u r t s h i p p e r i o d i s t h a t p o r t i o n new Comedy most r o u t i n e l y
n e g l e c t s : t h e h o u rs between w edding and consummation of
m a r r i a g e . In O t h e l l o t h i s p e r i o d i s expanded t o days, or
even weeks o f s t o r y tim e (d ep en d in g on th e l e n g t h o f th e
voyage t o C yprus), and t o one and a h a l f a c t s of s ta g e
tim e — a d u r a t i o n much g r e a t e r th a n we would e x p e c t in
comedy, but do f i n d on o c c a s io n , as in The Taming o f t h e
Shrew. A f te r consummation of t h e i r u n io n , O t h e l l o and
Desdemona s e t t l e down a s a f u l l y l e g i t i m a t e m a r rie d p a i r
t o what they hope w i l l be a l o v i n g and happy d o m e s t i c i t y .
At t h i s p o i n t in t h e i r drama ( 2 . 3 ) , they have a t t a i n e d
what Romeo and J u l i e t se e k t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r play but n e v e r
a c t u a l l y e n jo y . O t h e l l o i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n more s i m i l a r
t o d o m e stic l o v e t r a g e d i e s l i k e W e b s t e r 's Duchess of M alfi
and Thomas M i d d l e t o n 's Women Beware Women- - p l a v s in which
tra g e d y s t r i k e s an e s t a b l i s h e d m a r r ie d p a i r — th a n t o
t r a g i c dramas f e a t u r i n g t h e unhappy f a t e s o f l o v e r s
y e a r n i n g t o u n i t e , such a s The S p a n ish T ra g e d y , or T ancred
and Gismond.
Whereas many com edies end w i t h a m a r ria g e , O t h e l l o
b e g in s w i t h one, and i n th e op en in g s c e n e s of th e play
S h a k e s p e a re d e p i c t s t h e r e a c t i o n s o f v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r s a s
they l e a r n of i t . We w i t n e s s in p a r t i c u l a r th e s u r p r i s e ,
an g e r, and f r u s t r a t i o n of t h e q u a s i- c o m i c b lo c k in g
f i g u r e s — R oderigo, B r a b a n t i o , and I a g o — who, f a r from
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d e l a y i n g t h e wedding f o r f i v e a c t s , f i n d th e m s e lv e s in
t h i s play s u c c e s s f u l l y e lu d e d by t h e l o v e r s a t t h e very
o u t s e t , ca u g h t a lm o st t o t a l l y o f f g u a r d by t h e e lo p em en t.
The drama in f a c t opens w i t h R o d erig o — a c h a r a c t e r c l o s e
i n k in d t o t h e comic g u l l — c o m p la in in g t o Iag o t h a t he has
been duped i n t o s q u a n d e rin g money on a woman now m a r r ie d
t o somebody e l s e . Much l i k e S i r Andrew Aguecheek i n
T w e lfth N i g h t , t h i s l o v e - s t r i c k e n young " s n i p e " w i l l
t h r o u g h o u t t h e play be f l e e c e d o f h i s gold and maneuvered
i n t o q u a r r e l s a g a i n s t h i s n a t u r e by a p a r a s i t i c
m
m a n i p u l a t o r who c o n t r o l s him w ith e a s e . In t h i s i n s t a n c e ,
as in th o s e t h a t f o llo w , Ia g o a l l a y s th e s u s p i c i o n s so
d e f t l y t h a t Roderigo ends up more deeply e m b ro ile d th a n
b e f o r e . He j o i n s Iag o in r o u s i n g one of th e c i t y ’s
s e n a t o r s from bed w ith o b scen e s h o u ts about t h e
m a g n i f i c o ’s b e lo v e d d a u g h t e r — an o u tra g e o u s b e h a v io r , and
a d a n g e ro u s one g iv e n B r a b a n t i o ’ s s t a t u r e i n th e
community.
In r e s p o n d in g t o t h e i n s u l t s o f t h e two men, and as
he slow ly comes to b e l i e v e them, B r a b a n t i o a c t s in s e v e r a l
ways t h e p a r t of a New Comic s e n e x . As soon as he l e a r n s
who Roderigo i s , f o r example, he imposes t h e t y p i c a l comic
b a r on. young male s u i t o r s — "I have c h a r g 'd t h e e n o t t o
h a u n t a b o u t my doors . . . . M y d a u g h te r i s n o t f o r t h e e "
( 1 . 1 . 9 6 - 9 8 ) — and he adds, j u s t a s a heavy f a t h e r m ight,
118
t h a t he p o s s e s s e s t h e power and t h e c o n n e c t i o n s to p u n ish
Roderigo i f t h e need a r i s e s (1 0 3 -1 0 4 ). A man i n i t i a l l y so
i g n o r a n t of h i s d a u g h t e r 's l i f e as B r a b a n t i o , and, on
l e a r n i n g a b o u t h e r m a r r ia g e , so im p etu o u s and i n f l e x i b l e
i n d e a l i n g w ith h e r im agined r e b e l l i o n , would a p p e a r s e l f -
d elu d ed in th e manner o f a comic humor. On o c c a s io n
B r a b a n t i o even seems t h e f o o l i s h P a n t a l o n e , as when he
d escen d s t o th e s t r e e t in h i s nightgow n t o r e p o r t to
Roderigo t h a t Desdemona i s in d eed , j u s t a s h e r s l a n d e r e r
has cla im e d , a b s e n t from bed. "How g o t she o u t? " he a s k s
in l u d i c r o u s p a t e r n a l agony. His w i l d a c c u s a t i o n s
c o n c e rn in g O t h e l l o ' s use o f drugs t o win Desdemona
l i k e w i s e smack o f t h e comedic r i d i c u l o u s .
Yet d e s p i t e t h e s e many comic a t t r i b u t e s , B r a b a n t i o
( l i k e l o r d C a p u le t) i s som ething more t h a n a comic f a t h e r
to o , f o r o v e r a l l he i s more r e a l i s t i c a l l y p o r tr a y e d , and
t h e r e f o r e both more t h r e a t e n i n g in. a n g e r and more p i t i f u l
in d e f e a t th a n th e comic senex. T h is i s a pow erful and
r e s p e c t e d man, a f t e r a l l , whose hopes f o r h i s d a u g h te r and
f o r th e f u t u r e o f h i s l i n e a g e have been d e a l t what he
c o n s i d e r s a k i l l i n g blow. The deep iro n y e n t a i l e d i n h i s
sudden b u t b e l a t e d c h o ic e o f R oderigo f o r a s o n - i n - l a w — "0
would you had had h e r ! " (1 7 5 )— s u g g e s t s t h a t in h i s ey es
a lm o st any bridegroom on e a r t h would have been p r e f e r a b l e
t o t h e one h i s d a u g h te r has chosen. He w i l l d ie of a
11 9
b ro k e n h e a r t b e f o r e t h e p la y c o n c l u d e s .
T h e re i s i n O t h e l l o a c l o s e p a r a l l e l t o t h e
i r r a t i o n a l law o f S h a k e s p e a r e ’s c o m e d ie s , even an e x p l i c i t
p r o c e s s o f a d j u d i c a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t we f i n d i n A
Midsummer M i g h t ’s Dream, and i n i t i a l l y we a r e l e d t o
b e l i e v e t h a t B r a b a n t i o c o n t r o l s b o th law and l e g a l
p r o c e s s , a s he s u r e l y w ould in comedy. l a g o ’ s w a r n in g t o
O t h e l l o i s c l e a r :
Be a s s u r ’ d o f t h i s ,
T h a t t h e m a g n i f i c o i s much b e l o v ’d,
And h a t h in h i s e f f e c t a v o i c e p o t e n t i a l
As d o u b le as t h e D uke’ s. He w i l l d i v o r c e you,
Or p u t upon you w hat r e s t r a i n t o r g r i e v a n c e
The law ( w i th a l l h i s m ig h t t o e n f o r c e i t on)
W ill g i v e him c a b l e .
( 1 . 2 . 11- 1 7 )
U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r B r a b a n t i o , t h e outcom e o f j u d i c i a l
p r o c e s s i s n o t w hat Iago- p r e d i c t s , f o r D esdem ona’s f a t h e r
l o s e s h i s c a s e t h e moment he names t h e d e f e n d a n t . N e i t h e r
t h e Duke n o r any s e n a t o r t a k e s h i s s i d e t h e r e a f t e r , n o r
d o es a n y o n e c r e d i t B r a b a n t i o ’s s p e c i f i c c h a r g e s . The
s e n a t o r s i n s t e a d prom pt O t h e l l o ' s d e f e n s e , and when t h e
Duke a d d r e s s e s B r a b a n t i o i t i s o n ly t o calm him, and t o
t r y t o r e c o n c i l e him t o t h e b i t t e r know ledge t h a t h i s s o n -
i n - l a w , a t l e a s t in tim e o f w ar, i s a more e s s e n t i a l , more
p o w e r f u l man th a n B r a b a n t i o h i m s e l f , and t h e r e f o r e must
t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r him in t h e e y e s o f t h e la w . The
comic c o n v e n t i o n t h a t t h o s e who w i e l d power a l s o c o n t r o l
120
t h e i r r a t i o n a l law h o ld s t r u e in O t h e l l o i n a new and
i r o n i c way, as an ag in g , p u i s s a n t male l o v e r b e a t s th e
senex a t h i s own game, v i n d i c a t i n g h i s lo v e and
l e g i t i m i z i n g h i s m a r r i a g e . I n s t e a d of h a v in g to f l e e
t h e i r s o c i e t y , O t h e l l o and Desdemona f i n d th e m s e lv e s
q u i c k l y r e i n t e g r a t e d a s t r u s t e d , r e s p o n s i b l e c i t i z e n s ,
w ith f u l l freedom t o l o v e and to breed as they p l e a s e .
In th e S e n a te scen e of O t h e l l o , as a t t h e C a p u le t
masque, S h a k e s p e a re n u l l i f i e s t h e p o t e n t i a l im pact of one
b lo c k in g f i g u r e ( t h e s e n e x ) by o p p o sin g him w i t h a n o t h e r
( t h e Duke), and as a r e s u l t lo v e t h r i v e s unhampered and
u n o b s t r u c t e d , a t l e a s t f o r a tim e . O ther forms of menace
or h in d r a n c e t o t h e l o v e r s a r i s e in a c t s one and two o f
O t h e l l o , b u t, e x c e p t f o r I a g o ' s p l o t — which does n o t
a f f e c t O t h e l l o and Desdemona s i g n i f i c a n t l y u n t i l a c t
t h r e e - - t h e s e v a r i o u s problem s a r e no so o n er posed th a n
S h a k e s p e a re d i s p e l s them, som etim es so a b r u p t l y t h a t we
may d e t e c t a deux ex m a c h in a .24 O t h e l l o ' s a ssig n m e n t t o
Cyprus a t f i r s t t h r e a t e n s to d i v i d e th e newlyweds, but
th ey p e r s u a d e t h e S e n a te t o l e t Desdemona accompany h e r
husband t o h i s new p o s t . Then, on t h e voyage to Cyprus,
t h e c o u p le i s en d an g ered i n i t i a l l y by T urks, n e x t by a
t e r r i f i c m a r itim e storm — t h e kind o f storm t h a t in comedy
s i n k s s h i p s and d i v i d e s f a m i l i e s — but b o th husband and
w if e emerge from t h e s e o r d e a l s u n s c a th e d , t o r e u n i t e amid
121
g e n e r a l r e j o i c i n g on Cyprus. M ir a c u lo u s ly , th e same
te m p e st t h a t w a f t s th e l o v e r s t o s a f e t y d e v a s t a t e s th e
T u r k is h f l e e t . Q u ite o b v io u s ly , h e r e a g a in , we f i n d
S h a k e s p e a re u s in g one p o s s i b l e b l o c k in g elem ent to c a n c e l
a n o t h e r , a p p a r e n t l y so as t o smooth t h e p r o g r e s s of lo v e
d u r in g O t h e l l o 1s opening comic ph ase.
O t h e l l o and Desdemona embark f o r Cyprus e x p e c t i n g t o
e n t e r a m a r t i a l s o c i e t y b e le a g u e r e d by t h e enemy, but f i n d
i n s t e a d an i s l e newly a t peace and prim ed f o r
c e l e b r a t i o n — seem ingly t h e i d e a l s e t t i n g f o r consummation
o f t h e i r m a r r i a g e . R. A. Yoder c a l l s our a t t e n t i o n t o t h e
re se m b la n c e between th e Cyprus o f a c t two and th e h o lid a y
s o c i e t i e s we f i n d in t h e g r e e n w o rld o f S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s
com edies. When O t h e l l o ' s H e ra ld p r o c la im s " f u l l l i b e r t y "
f o r f e a s t i n g , d a n cin g , and d r i n k i n g — f o r " s p o r t and r e v e l "
a c c o r d in g t o each man’ s t a s t e — v i c t o r y triu m p h merges w i t h
n u p t i a l c e l e b r a t i o n i n what Yoder te rm s "a f e s t i v a l of
renew al p r e s i d e d over by t h e ' d i v i n e Desdemona," v i r g i n —
symbol of c h a s t i t y and f e r t i l i t y ."2 5 He i s e s s e n t i a l l y
r i g h t , I b e l i e v e . E a rly a c t two o f O t h e l l o c o r re s p o n d s t o
th e f i n a l comic phase, a p e r i o d when r e v e l i n g p r e v a i l s and
t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of th e f o r e s t in v a d e A thens and th e p a l a c e
i n o r d e r t o b l e s s t h e m a r ria g e beds. O t h e l l o ' s o r d e r t o
b u i l d b o n f i r e s ( 2 . 2 . 5 ) makes s p e c i f i c a l l u s i o n to t h e
g r e a t f i r e s of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f e s t i v a l s , whose r e l a t i o n
122
t o f e r t i l i t y r i t u a l we have t r a c e d , and C a s s io , though
pro b ab ly u n w i t t i n g l y , has c a s t both h i s g e n e r a l and th e
" d i v i n e Desdemona” i n t h e r o l e s of f e r t i l i t y gods i n h i s
p ra y e r t o Jove f o r O t h e l l o ’s s a f e t y :
G re a t Jove, O th e llo guard,
And s w e ll h i s s a i l w ith t h i n e own pow’r f u l b r e a t h ,
T hat he may b l e s s t h i s bay w ith h i s t a l l s h ip ,
Make l o v e ’ s q u i c k p a n t s in Desdemona's arms,
Give re n e w ’ d f i r e t o our e x t i n c t e d s p i r i t s ,
And b r in g a l l Cyprus c o m fo rt!
( 2 .1 . 7 7 - 8 2 )
"Sw ell h i s s a i l ” and " t a l l s h i p ” would a p p e a r to s u g g e s t
m a s c u lin e tum escence and e r e c t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y , w h ile th e
" b a y ” seems d i s t i n c t l y fe m in in e in c o n n o t a t i o n . The
c o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s e s p e c i a l b e in g s , i t i s h i n t e d , can
f u n c t i o n as a s o u rc e o f r e g e n e r a t i o n and ren ew al f o r th e
e n t i r e C y p rio t community. C a s s i o ' s p r a y e r i s in e f f e c t a
v e i l e d i n c a n t a t i o n .
Cyprus i s a f e r t i l e Eden th e n , but not f o r lo n g ,
b e c a u se a s in th e o r i g i n a l p a r a d i s e a s e r p e n t i n t e r v e n e s .
At l e a s t tw ic e S h a k e s p e a re a s s o c i a t e s Iago w ith sn ak es
( 4 . 2 . 1 5 - 1 6 ; 5 . 2 . 2 8 5 ) , most t e l l i n g l y in t h e b r o t h e l s c e n e ,
when E m ilia c a l l s down t h e " s e r p e n t ’s c u r s e " on whoever
h a s been a b u s in g O t h e l l o ' s mind. The a s s o c i a t i o n i s
r a t h e r o b v io u s on one l e v e l becau se of I a g o ' s f u n c t i o n as
te m p te r and p u re p r i n c i p l e o f e v i l , b u t i t goes d e e p e r
t o o . The s e d u c t io n o f O t h e l l o i s c l o s e in k in d to E v e 's ,
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p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h a t t h e two f a l l s e x p l o r e t h e a m b i g u i t i e s
of knowledge and human s e x u a l it y * even as th ey e s t a b l i s h
t h e primacy o f f a i t h . In t h e c o n t e x t O t h e l l o p r o v id e s ,
t h e s e r p e n t ’s p h a l l i c shape i s a l s o q u i t e s u g g e s t i v e .
A f t e r a l l , what Iago te rm s h i s " p o i s o n 1 ’ ( 3 .3 .3 2 5 - 3 2 9 )
p ro v es more p o t e n t th a n th e " r i t e s " o f l o v e — f o r t h e
newlyweds of t h i s play w i l l go c h i l d l e s s , w h ile Iago
becomes a f a t h e r . As th e A n cien t says on f i r s t
" c o n c e iv in g " t h e means to make O t h e l l o j e a l o u s : "I h a v e ’t .
I t i s e n g e n d 'r e d . H e ll and n i g h t / Must b r in g t h e i r
m o n stro u s b i r t h t o th e w o r l d ' s l i g h t " ( 1 .3 . 4 0 3 - 4 0 4 ) .
I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , I b e l i e v e , t h a t th e c o n c e p tio n and
e a r l y g e s t a t i o n o f I a g o ' s p l o t i s m on o g en etic and s o l e l y
m a s c u li n e — so t h a t th e " c h i l d " has a f a t h e r but no m o th e r.
There f o ll o w s , however, a p r o c e s s o f romance by which Iago
c o u r t s , s e d u c e s , and f i n a l l y "weds" O t h e l l o , and d u r in g
t h i s romance t h e A n c ie n t i m p l a n t s i n h i s l o v e r ' s mind an
em bryonic j e a l o u s y t h a t O t h e l l o would n o t have c o n c e iv e d
on h i s own, th e n n u r t u r e s t h i s j e a l o u s y to m a t u r i t y as
hom ocidal m adness. When E m ilia can f i n d no a p p a r e n t ca u se
f o r O t h e l l o ' s o b s e s s i o n , she w i l l t e l l Desdemona t h a t i t
i s "a m o n ste r / Begot upon i t s e l f , born on i t s e l f "
( 3 . 4 . 1 6 1 - 1 6 2 ) . What she sa y s seems to be t r u e of I a g o ' s
j e a l o u s i e s (and t h e r e a r e many), b u t i s c l e a r l y n o t t r u e
o f O t h e l l o ' s . The g e n e r a l ' s "m o n ster" i s b e g o tte n upon
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him by t h a t form of a d u l t e r y i n v o l v i n g t h e i l l i c i t
p e n e t r a t i o n o f one i m a g i n a t i v e male mind by a n o t h e r .
Iag o f u n c t i o n s a s t h e " t r a g i c f a c i l i t a t o r " of h i s
p la y , w orking t o d e c o n s t r u c t a m a r ria g e t h a t a lr e a d y
e x i s t s i n s t e a d of h e l p i n g to b r in g a new one i n t o b e in g .
Even h i s means o f doing so a re modeled a g a i n s t t h e comic
p a t t e r n , f o r w h ile th e comic f a c i l i t a t o r s e e k s t o break
down o b s e s s i o n s and s e l f - d e c e p t i o n s i n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s ,
Iago does j u s t th e o p p o s i t e , i m p la n tin g and c u l t i v a t i n g an
id e e f i x e i n O t h e l l o , 26- c r e a t i n g a humor w here none was
b e f o r e . T h e r e a f t e r , Iag o u se s t h i s d e lu d e d f i g u r e t o
d e s tr o y p r e c i s e l y th o s e v a l u e s th e comic f a c i l i t a t o r
t y p i c a l l y d e f e n d s : lo v e , union, f e r t i l i t y , and l i f e .
Susan Snyder p o i n t s out t h a t Iago a l s o f u n c t i o n s in some
r e s p e c t s l i k e a S h a k e s p e a re a n comic clown, e x c e p t t h a t , i n
him, t h e c l o w n 's l o w - l i f e debunking p e r s p e c t i v e i s p r e s s e d
i n t o t h e s e r v i c e of an a c t i v e m a l e v o l e n c e . 27 Clowns a r e
c h a r a c t e r s we e x p e c t " t o speak b a re t r u t h s , " a s Erasmus
s a i d , 28 e s p e c i a l l y t r u t h s c o n c e rn in g th e an im al s i d e of
our n a t u r e , but Iago t e l l s l i e s , d i s p e l l i n g O t h e l l o ' s
r o m a n ti c i z e d p e r c e p t i o n s o f Desdemona, t o be s u r e , but
only to r e c o n s t r u c t h e r i n h e r h u s b a n d ’ s mind a s a ja d e d
and c y n i c a l a d u l t r e s s — som ething she c o u ld n e v e r be.
I a g o ' s p l o t b e a r s f i r s t p a l p a b l e f r u i t when Roderigo
l u r e s C a s s io i n t o th e drunken q u a r r e l and t h e l i e u t e n a n t
125
l o s e s h i s com m ission. These e v e n t s , we s h o u ld n o t i c e ,
c o i n c i d e w i t h th e consummation o f t h e m a r ria g e , so t h a t
t h e comic p l o t of O t h e l l o c o n c lu d e s j u s t as th e t r a g i c
p l o t (alw ays l a t e n t i n I a g o ’s schemes) s u r f a c e s su d d en ly
in t h e d r a m a tic a c t i o n . Beyond t h i s p o i n t , th e a c t i o n of
O t h e l l o f o l l o w s an u n m is ta k a b le t r a g i c c o u rs e , and when
comic m a t e r i a l s a p p e a r, as they o f t e n do, S h a k e sp e a re
e i t h e r p u ts them t o p u rp o se s o p p o s i t e t h e i r comic
f u n c t i o n s , or u s e s them to engender i r o n y - - o r b o th . As we
have seen, Iago r e v e r s e s both f a c i l i t a t o r and clown
f u n c t i o n s i n h i s d e s t r u c t i v e and u n t r u t h f u l p s y c h o lo g i c a l
a s s a u l t upon O t h e l l o . The a n c i e n t ’s use of d r i n k t o
underm ine C a s s io p r o v id e s a more l i m i t e d example o f
f u n c t i o n a l r e v e r s a l or i n v e r s i o n . In comedy a lc o h o l i s
one o f t h e c o n f u s io n e le m e n ts , w ith t h e c a p a c i t y t o
promote f e s t i v e r e l e a s e , b u t in O t h e l l o wine m erely
r e n d e r s C a s s io v u l n e r a b l e to I a g o ’s schem es. That th e
w ine C a ssio succumbs t o i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e wedding r e v e l s
o b v io u sly d e v e lo p s iro n y t o accompany t h e f u n c t i o n a l
i n v e r s i o n .
The s u b s e q u e n t aubade sc e n e ( 3 .1 ) f u r n i s h e s s e v e r a l
i n t e r e s t i n g exam ples of comic m a t e r i a l s b ein g used
i r o n i c a l l y , b u t w ith sm all d r a m a tic im p o rt. When C a ssio
b r i n g s m u s ic ia n s t o play f o r O t h e l l o , presum ably w h ile t h e
g e n e r a l and Desdemona a r e s t i l l in bed, i t t u r n s o u t t h a t
126
O t h e l l o i s put o f f by t h e m usic and se n d s h i s clown to
s i l e n c e i t , " f o r l o v e ’s sa k e " ( 1 2 -1 3 ) . Now c o n c e iv a b ly
t h e b a g p ip e s a r e to o ra u c o u s f o r O t h e l l o ’ s t a s t e e a r l y in
t h e morning, y e t I a l s o f i n d h e re th e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t th e
f i r s t n i g h t o f l o v e between b r i d e and groom h as been in
some way "o u t o f t u n e , " p e rh a p s because of t h e age
d i f f e r e n c e between husband and w if e . The c lo w n ’-s punning
on " t a i l s " and "wind i n s t r u m e n t s " t h a t " s p e a k i ’ th*
n o s e ," though d i f f i c u l t t o pin down p r e c i s e l y , a p p e a r s t o
l i n k sex w ith both v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e and f l a t u l e n c e , and
t h i s a g a in can be viewed as u n f l a t t e r i n g t o t h e l o v e r s ,
however i n d i r e c t l y . The iro n y o f C a s s io o p e n in g h i s
" c o u r t s h i p " o f O t h e l l o w i t h a s e re n a d e th e m orning a f t e r
O t h e l l o ’ s own consummation o f m a r ria g e i s somewhat more
o b v io u s . I r o n i c to o t h a t t h e c lo w n ’s a p p e a ra n c e h e re ,
though b r i e f and u n im p o rta n t, r e p r e s e n t s h i s most
s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e p la y . His c h i e f d ra m a tic
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s have of c o u rse been a p p r o p r i a t e d by Iago,
t h e f a l s e clown, l e a v i n g t h e genuine a r t i c l e w ith l i t t l e
t o do.
In O t h e l l o ' s c e n t r a l scene, 3 .3 , comic m a t e r i a l s used
i n v e r s e l y and iro n y d e r i v e d from t h e f u s i o n o f New Comedy
and lo v e tra g e d y p r o l i f e r a t e , as t h e " n o b le " Moor i s
re d u c e d , in ab o u t 450 l i n e s , from a good and t r u s t i n g
husband t o a man t o r t u r e d by j e a l o u s y and sworn to th e
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mur-der of h i s w i f e . While i t i s common t o r e f e r to 3 .3 as
t h e " t e m p t a t i o n 1 1 scen e, " s e d u c t i o n " sc e n e would p ro b a b ly
be more a c c u r a t e , f o r I a g o ' s d e f t p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s s a u l t on
O t h e l l o i s fram ed by S h a k e s p e a re on th e paradigm of an
a d u l t e r o u s c o u r t s h i p . The s u i t o r ’ s g i f t s — h i s l i e s - - w i n
O t h e l l o away from Desdemona by w eakening, th e n d e s t r o y i n g ,
th e m u t u a l i t y t h a t e x i s t s between husband and w if e . As
O t h e l l o ’ s bona f i d e lo v e i s e c l i p s e d by h u m i l i a t i o n and
h a t r e d , a new, p s e u d o - m u tu a lity a r i s e s between h i m s e l f and
Iago, one t h a t O t h e l l o p l a c e s g r e a t f a i t h in , but t h a t
Iago m a n i p u l a t e s to h i s own ends. Many tim e s in 3 .3 Iag o
d e c l a r e s h i s " lo v e " f o r h i s commander, and each tim e he
a s s o c i a t e s t h e l o v e w ith h i s f a b r i c a t i o n s c o n c e rn in g
Desdemona: "I hope you w i l l c o n s id e r what i s spoke / Comes
from my lo v e " (2 1 6 -2 1 7 ); " P r i c k ’ d t o ’t by f o o l i s h h o n e s ty
and lo v e , / I w i l l go on" <412-413; see a l s o 212-213, 380,
and 1 1 5 -1 1 8 ). O t h e l l o , t a k i n g h i s " h o n e s t " c o n s o r t a t
f a c e v a lu e , acknow ledges and a c c e p t s t h e lo v e , c o m m ittin g
h i m s e l f to t h e m utual t r u s t he b e l i e v e s i t g u a r a n t e e s : "I
g r e e t thy l o v e , / Not w i t h v a in t h a n k s , b u t w ith
a c c e p ta n c e b o u n te o u s" (4 6 9-4701; " I am bound t o t h e e f o r
e v e r" (2 1 3 ).
As t h e s e d u c t i o n p ro c e e d s, O t h e l l o a c q u i e s c e s
g r a t e f u l l y i n I a g o ’s v i o l a t i o n of h i s mind w ith
s u s p i c i o n s , i n s i n u a t i o n s , and p a r t i a l t r u t h s , and t h i s
128
mock s e x u a l p e n e t r a t i o n , a s I have s a id , b e g e t s a
m o n stro u s j e a l o u s y whose growth i s so s w i f t in t h e f e r t i l e
womb o f O t h e l l o ’s im a g i n a t i o n , t h a t , by m id -s c e n e , when
Desdemona t r i e s t o bind t h e h eadache i t c a u s e s w ith h er
h a n d k e r c h i e f , she c a n n o t. The developm ent o f h e r
h u s b a n d 's o b s e s s i o n has a lr e a d y o u t s t r i p p e d t h e c a p a c i t y
o f woman's lo v e , or of charmed n a p k in s, to c o u n t e r i t .
The b re a c h in m u t u a l i t y between husband and w i f e i s by now
so g r e a t they can h a r d ly communicate. When Iag o r e t u r n s
t o h i s a s s a u l t i n t h e rem ain d er o f t h e scen e, he f i n d s h i s
v i c t i m w rought by such b l i n d p a s s io n t h a t th e d i r e c t l i e
becomes s a f e , and w ith two of t h e s e — one c o n c e r n in g
C a s s i o ' s dream, th e o t h e r Desdemona’s h a n d k e r c h i e f — th e
A n c ie n t s u c c e s s f u l l y p e r s u a d e s O t h e l l o t o renounce
Desdemona and lo v e , and t o embrace vengeance and h a t r e d in
t h e i r p l a c e :
A ll my fond l o v e t h u s t o I blow to h eaven.
’T is gone.
A r is e , b la c k v engeance, from hollow h e l l !
Y ie ld up, 0 lo v e , thy crown and h e a r t e d t h r o n e
To ty ra n n o u s h a t e ! S w ell, bosom, w ith thy f r a u g h t ,
For ' t i s of a s p i c s ' to n g u e s !
(445-450)
F o llo w in g t h i s r e n u n c i a t i o n , O t h e l l o and Iago swear
rev en g e in a ceremony p e r v e r s e l y r e m i n i s c e n t of- holy
m atrim ony. The co u p le k n e e l t o g e t h e r , and each makes a
" s a c r e d vow" t o heaven, O t h e l l o to t a k e rev en g e, Iago to
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" g iv e up / The e x e c u t i o n o f . . . w i t , hands, h e a r t , / To
w ro n g ’d O t h e l l o ' s s e r v i c e " (4 6 5 -4 6 7 ). "I g r e e t thy lo v e , 1 1
O t h e l l o an sw ers, s e a l i n g t h e m utual com pact. S h o r tly
a f t e r w a r d , a s though by way of payment o r s e t t l e m e n t , th e
g e n e r a l g r a n t s Iago C a s s i o ' s o ld p o s t : "Now a r t th o u my
l i e u t e n a n t . " "I am y o u r own f o r e v e r , " Iago r e p l i e s .
T h is t r a v e s t y of t h e m a r ria g e r i t e s by t h e two
c o n s p i r a t o r s has been m entioned by o t h e r w r i t e r s . Jan e
Adamson view s t h e r e c i p r o c a l p le d g e s a s "an abom inable
parody of t h e very m a r r i a g e whose d e s t r u c t i o n i t commits
i t s e l f t o . "29 " A n t i - m a r r ia g e " i s S te p h a n Rogers
s u g g e s t i v e a p p e l l a t i o n . 30
In a s p i r i t u a l s e n se , t h e union betw een O t h e l l o and
Desdemona i s e f f e c t i v e l y t e r m i n a t e d b e f o r e Desdemona
r e a l i z e s a problem e x i s t s . Her f i r s t c l u e o f som ething
s e r i o u s l y am iss comes in 3 .4 , when O t h e l l o a s k s h e r t o
produce t h e h a n d k e r c h i e f he t h i n k s she h a s g iv en C a s s io .
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h i s "magic" n ap k in , a wedding g i f t from
husband t o w if e , has a v a lu e c l o s e l y a k in t o t h a t of an
engagement o r wedding r i n g in comedy. I t i s a lo v e
t a l i s m a n , s y m b o liz in g and in v o k in g m a r i t a l c h a s t i t y and
e n d u rin g commitment. For i t to be r e l i n q u i s h e d — as
O t h e l l o makes c l e a r — c o n s t i t u t e s a v i o l a t i o n of f a i t h .
Comic r i n g s , of c o u rs e , have a way o f r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r
owners u n e x p e c te d ly , even when t h e i r owners do not seem to
130
d e s e r v e them (a s P r o te u s . B ertram . B a s s a n io , and G r a tia n o
d i s c o v e r ) . Desdem ona's n ap k in , on th e o t h e r hand, th ro u g h
no f a u l t o f h e r s rem ain s l o s t , and, in t h e wrong hands,
becomes in 4.1 t h e " o c u l a r p ro o f" Iago u se s t o move
O t h e l l o from m urderous pled g e to v i o l e n t a c t . U l t i m a t e l y
th e n , th e n a p k in , w i t h i t s p u t a t i v e m a g ic a l weave, seems
t o sy m b o lize f a t e — t r a g i c f a t e — r a t h e r th a n unending
m a r i t a l lo v e . The iro n y of O t h e l l o t h i n k i n g Desdemona
g u i l t y of a d u l t e r y goes r a t h e r deep. I t i s he who has
been u n f a i t h f u l , j u s t a s i t i s he who h a s l o s t th e
h a n d k e r c h i e f ( 3 . 3 . 2 8 7 - 2 8 8 ) . I f f a t e a c t s , i t a c t s by h i s
hand.
O t h e l l o ' s d e fa m a tio n o f Desdemona in t h e b r o t h e l
scen e has c l e a r comic p a r a l l e l s in C l a u d i o 's v i l i f i c a t i o n
o f Hero, and i n L e o n te s ' s c o r i n g o f Hermione, b u t when t h e
g e n e r a l s t r i k e s h i s w i f e ( 4 . 1 ) , he exceed s comic bounds
and fo resh ad o w s t h e t r a g i c v i o l e n c e of 5 . 2 . T h is murder
s c e n e , a s w e l l as t h e w illo w song sc e n e which f u n c t i o n s as
i t s p r e lu d e ( 4 . 3 ) , a r e w o rth lo o k in g a t c a r e f u l l y , becau se
in them we f i n d th e comic themes o f lo v e , m a r r i a g e , and
f e r t i l i t y s u b j e c t e d t o much t h e same i r o n i c u n d e r c u t t i n g
e v i d e n t i n 4 .5 and 5 .3 o f Romeo and J u l i e t , where
S h a k e s p e a re c o n v e r t s w edding t o f u n e r a l , c a s t s d e a th as
" l o v e r , " and a s s o c i a t e s t h e C a p u le t tomb w ith a b r i d a l
bed.
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In O t h e l l o , t h e id e a o f s t r a n g l i n g Desdemona on t h e
c o u p l e ' s w edding bed— "even th e bed she h a th c o n t a m i n a t e d 1 '
( 4 . 1 . 2 0 7 - 2 0 8 ) — o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y t o Ia g o . but on h e a r i n g
th e id e a O t h e l l o a t once makes i t h i s own, much p l e a s e d by
" t h e j u s t i c e of i t . " Desdemona, m eanwhile, a p p a r e n t l y
s e n s in g h e r f a t e in th e a f t e r m a t h of t h e b r o t h e l
c o n f r o n t a t i o n , has h e r " w e d d in g - s h e e ts " put on th e bed
( 4 . 2 . 1 0 5 ) , t e l l i n g E m ilia " I f I do d i e b e f o r e th e e ,
p r i t h e e sh ro u d me / In one o f t h e s e same s h e e t s " ( 4 . 3 . 2 4 -
2 5 ). T h is m a r r i a g e bed and th e n u p t i a l l i n e n , used b u t
t h e n i g h t b e f o r e to f u l f i l l a l e g i t i m a t e wedding ceremony,
w i l l soon p r o v id e th e l o c u s f o r a n o t h e r , a n t i t h e t i c a l
ceremony— one t h a t c a n c e l s O t h e l l o ' s m a r ria g e w ith h i s
w if e even a s i t consummates h i s union w i t h I a g o - - a n d I
b e l i e v e S h a k e s p e a re s i g n a l s t h e s e m a t t e r s by showing b o th
t h e m u r d e r e r - t o - b e and h i s i n t e n d e d v i c t i m a n t i c i p a t i n g
th e r i t u a l , a s a r i t u a l , in t h e h o u rs im m ediately
p re c e d in g i t s e n a c tm e n t. I f i n d o t h e r s i g n a l s to o .
O t h e l l o tw ic e sp e a k s t o Iago of Desdem ona's k i l l i n g in
te rm s s u g g e s t i v e of th e r i t u a l dismemberment of Dionysus
(o r h i s s t a n d - i n ) a t t h e a n c i e n t Greek f e s t i v a l s — " I ' l l
t e a r h e r a l l t o p i e c e s " ( 3 . 3 . 4 3 1 ) ; "I w i l l chop h e r i n t o
m esses" ( 4 . 1 . 2 0 0 ) — and i n t h e murder scen e he openly c a l l s
h e r s l a y i n g a " s a c r i f i c e , " d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i t from
" m u r t h e r , " which he does n o t i n t e n d ( 5 . 2 . 6 3 - 6 5 ) .
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Somewhat in t h e manner of a comic h e r o i n e . Desdemona
u n d erg o es r i t u a l e c l i p s e j u s t a s t h e d r a m a t ic a c t i o n of
h e r play peaks, b u t u n l i k e Hero and Hermione. and u n l i k e
Dionysus ( th e p r o t o t y p e ) , Desdemona can n o t be r e v i v e d or
r e b o r n . Once dead, she i s dead f o r a l l tim e . S h a k e sp e a re
d e v e lo p s t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between r e v e r s i b l e d e a th and
i r r e v e r s i b l e d e a th w ith g r e a t c l a r i t y in t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s
of Desdemona1s e x e c u t i o n e r . As O t h e l l o s t a n d s o v er h i s
w i f e ' s s l e e p i n g form on t h e eve of t h e m urder, he compares
h e r e x i s t e n c e w ith t h a t o f h i s l a m p 's fla m e :
Put out t h e l i g h t , and th e n put out t h e l i g h t :
I f I quench t h e e , th o u fla m in g m i n i s t e r ,
I can a g a in thy fo rm er l i g h t r e s t o r e ,
Should I r e p e n t me; but once put o u t thy l i g h t ,
Thou c u n n i n g 's t p a t t e r n of e x c e l l i n g n a t u r e ,
I know n o t where i s t h a t Promethean h e a t
T h a t can thy l i g h t relu m e . When I have p l u c k 'd thy
r o s e ,
I Cannot g iv e i t v i t a l growth a g a in ,
I t needs must w i t h e r .
(5 . 2 . 7 - 15 )
In t h i s play th e h e r o i n e and h e r lo v e can n o t save th e male
l o v e r from h i m s e l f , nor can she s u r v i v e s a c r i f i c e t o u s h e r
in a new and b e t t e r s o c i e t y . I n s t e a d h e r o k i l l s h e r o i n e ,
k i l l i n g l o v e i t s e l f in t h e p r o c e s s , d e s t r o y i n g m a r ria g e
and th e prom ise of c h i l d r e n — and a l l b ecau se he i s d e lu d e d
by an a b s u rd (humorous) b e l i e f t h a t h i s w i f e , t h e most
c h a s t e o f women, i s an i n s a t i a b l e a d u l t e r e s s , and t h a t i t
i s h i s duty as husband t o a n n i h i l a t e h e r in o r d e r to save
133
o t h e r men from h e r i n f l u e n c e ( 5 . 2 . 1 - 6 ) .
O t h e l l o i s i n h e r e n t l y a good man, but in t h e c o u rs e
of h i s play he i s metamorphosed by j e a l o u s y i n t o th e
" f a l s e l o v e " o f Desdemona! s w illow song, t h e c r u e l male
l o v e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w illo w g a r l a n d s and th e sycamore (o r
" s i c k am our"), w ith madness, u n f a i t h f u l n e s s , and d e a th .
Under th e i n f l u e n c e of th e p o t e n t " m e d ic in e " Iago p o u rs in
h i s e a r , O t h e l l o , l i k e t h e l o v e r s i n A Midsummer M i g h t s
Dream, l i v e s th ro u g h s e v e r a l h o u rs of midsummer madness,
b l i n d e d by p u re i l l u s i o n . "My l o r d i s n o t my l o r d , "
Desdemona say s of him, "nor sh o u ld I know him / Were he in
f a v o r as in humor a l t e r ’ d" ( 3 . 4 . 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ) . And Lodovico
a s k s , "Are h i s w i t s s a f e ? I s he n o t l i g h t of b r a i n ? "
( 4 . 1 . 2 6 9 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h e Moor, he wakes up from
h i s madness a l i t t l e l a t e , so t h a t even as he sh ed s t h e
humor t h a t h a s been p e r v e r t i n g h i s t r u e r s e l f , he must
s u f f e r t h e h o r r o r of a t r a g i c r e c o g n i t i o n n e a r l y as s e v e r e
as t h a t O edipus e x p e r i e n c e s . By means of t h i s to r m e n t i n g
v i s i o n , he f o r g e s a b e t t e r s e l f , t e m p o r a r i l y — " T h a t ’s he
t h a t was O t h e l l o ; h e r e I am" ( 5 . 2 . 2 8 4 ) — b u t t h i s new s e l f ,
u n a b le to b e a r what th e o ld s e l f has done, k i l l s both w i t h
one s t r o k e , condemning t h e whole man to c e r t a i n p e r d i t i o n .
The words O t h e l l o sp e a k s d u rin g s u i c i d e make c l e a r t h a t he
view s h i m s e l f as two d i f f e r e n t men, one who murdered
Desdemona, one who p u n is h e s t h a t m u r d e r e r : "I to o k by t h '
134
t h r o a t th e c ir c u m c is e d dog, / And smote him— t h u s ”
( 5 . 2 . 3 5 5 - 3 5 6 ) .
O t h e l l o re s e m b le s t h e young l o v e r s o f Romeo and
J u l i e t in t h a t he ca n n o t c o n t r o l h i s l o v e p a s s i o n , but
r a t h e r a llo w s i t t o c o n t r o l him, w ith f a t a l c o n seq u en ces
f o r h i m s e l f and o t h e r s . T h is i s pro b ab ly why S h a k e s p e a re
a s s o c i a t e s O t h e l l o ' s lo v e w ith m o r t a l i t y and n e c r o p h i l i a ,
much as he d id Romeo's and J u l i e t ’s p a s s i o n i n th e e a r l i e r
t r a g e d y . During t h e murder scen e, f o r example, O t h e l l o
k i s s e s Desdemona w h ile she s l e e p s , and f i n d s h e r "balmy
b r e a t h " a b i t to o a l l u r i n g : "Be th u s when thou a r t d e a d ,"
he s a y s, "and I w i l l k i l l t h e e / And lo v e t h e e a f t e r "
( 5 . 2 . 1 8 - 1 9 ) . L a t e r , as he i s dying, he a g a in k i s s e s h i s
w if e , s a y in g t o h e r c o r p s e "I k i s s ' d t h e e e r e I k i l l ' d
t h e e . No way but t h i s , / k i l l i n g m y s e lf, t o d ie upon a
k i s s " ( 5 . 2 . 3 5 8 - 3 5 9 ) . As t h e tra g e d y draws t o a c l o s e , th e
b o d ie s o f t h e p l a y ' s s i n c e r e l o v e r s — Desdemona, O th e llo ,
and E m ilia ( th e o t h e r f o r s a k e n w i f e ) — l i e s i d e by s id e on
Desdemona's m a r r ia g e bed. A s t r o n g s u g g e s t i o n o f f
s t e r i l i t y and w a s te i s e v i d e n t from t h i s s t a g i n g , even
w i t h o u t L o d o v i c o 's comment - on " t r a g i c l o a d i n g " (363) .
These t h r e e p o t e n t i a l p a r e n t s w i l l n o t be p a r e n t s , and th e
f o u r t h member of t h e i r group, though s t i l l a l i v e , c o u ld
only be e x p e c te d t o produce more " m o n ste rs" i f g iv en th e
chance.
135
Nor w i l l t h e r e be r e c o n c i l i a t i o n between th e
g e n e r a t i o n s in t h i s p la y , f o r B r a b a n t i o , Desdemona’s only
p a r e n t , has d ie d ad am an tly opposed to h er m a r r i a g e , in
f a c t b e c a u se of i t i f G r a t i a n o i s r i g h t : "Thy match was
m o r ta l t o him, and pure g r i e f / Shore h i s old t h r e a d in
tw a in " ( 5 . 2 . 2 0 5 - 2 0 6 ) . S in c e Desdemona i s , l i k e J u l i e t , an
o n ly c h i l d , t h e e n t i r e fa m ily l i n e e x p i r e s w ith h e r , a
l o s s more s e r i o u s th a n i n d i v i d u a l d e a th f o r th o s e who
g r e a t l y v a l u e f a m i l i a l c o n t i n u i t y , as th e E l i z a b e t h a n s
c e r t a i n l y d id . At t h e c o n c l u s io n o f O t h e l l o , o r d e r i s
r e s t o r e d , but o t h e r w i s e t h e mood seems u n r e l i e v e d l y b le a k
and p e s s i m i s t i c . No fe u d has been r e s o l v e d by t h e l o v e r s 1
d e a th s , a s i n Romeo and J u l i e t ; no a d m ir a b le q u a l i t y o f
human n a t u r e has been d e l i n e a r t e d by t h e a c t i o n and
s u f f e r i n g o f t h e t r a g i c h e r o ; and no one has l e a r n e d much
beyond t h e p u r e ly n e g a t i v e l e s s o n t h a t l o v e abused b r i n g s
n e e d l e s s and c a t a s t r o p h i c sorrow .
I I .
Not lo n g b e f o r e I a g o ’s p l o t b e g in s to u n fo ld in t h e
drunken q u a r r e l , t h i s c y n i c a l m is a n th r o p e d e l i v e r s a
s u r p r i s i n g l y p o s i t i v e o p i n i o n on O t h e l l o ’s c a p a c i t y a s a
s p o u s e :
The Moor. . .
136
I s of a c o n s t a n t , l o v i n g , n o b le n a t u r e ,
And I d a re t h i n k h e ' l l prove t o Desdemona
A most d e a r husband.
( 2 .1 .2 8 8 - 2 9 0 )
Because t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n comes t o us in an a s i d e , we can
be c e r t a i n t h a t Ia g o i s n o t l y i n g , and giv en h i s a c u t e
i n s i g h t i n t o m ale psy ch o lo g y (though n o t f e m a le ) , we must
l e n d h i s judgm ent some c r e d e n c e . He seems to be s a y in g
t h a t th e m a r r i a g e would work o u t w e ll i f l e f t a lo n e .
O t h e l l o ' s p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l as a h usband— however— i s not
t h e whole m a t t e r , as Iago knows q u i t e w e ll b u t does not
t h i n k t o m e n tio n . O t h e l l o a l s o has i t in him to be an
e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y bad husband. Few j e a l o u s men k i l l t h e i r
w iv es, a f t e r a l l . Most husbands co u ld n o t even under th e
most e x trem e p r o v o c a t i o n . B ecause o f who O t h e l l o i s , and
b e c a u se of who Desdemona i s , t h e m a r ria g e th ey u n d e r ta k e
t o g e t h e r i s s u b j e c t t o e x t e r n a l m a n i p u l a t i o n i n ways
o t h e r s a r e n o t, and w ith t h i s v u l n e r a b i l i t y comes an
i n h e r e n t p o t e n t i a l f o r t r a g e d y p e rh a p s a s g r e a t as th e
m a r r i a g e ' s p o t e n t i a l f o r h a p p in e s s and f r u i t i o n .
Prompted by t h e p l a y ' s M a c h i a v e l l ia n , O t h e l l o o f
c o u r s e e v e n t u a l l y r e a l i z e s i n f u l l t h e t r a g i c
p o s s i b i l i t i e s l a t e n t in h i s u n io n — and in h i m s e l f —
com m ittin g a t e r r i b l e and i r r e p a r a b l e crim e. Given th e
wide d iv e rg e n c e between t h i s m urderous O t h e l l o of a c t f i v e
and t h e O t h e l l o whom we meet in a c t one, i t i s not
137
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e d is a g r e e m e n t has a r i s e n among
com m entators c o n c e rn in g t h e q u a l i t y of O t h e l l o ' s "n o b le "
n a t u r e , some s e e i n g him as f a r from n o b l e . 31 The q u e s t i o n
i s c e r t a i n l y w o rth s e t t l i n g , b e c a u se we cannot comprehend
t h i s p r o t a g o n i s t ' s tra g e d y w i th o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g who he i s
and why he a c t s a s he does, but t h e prim ary i n q u i r y , i t
seems to me, sh o u ld be i n t o th e n a t u r e of O t h e l l o ' s
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Desdemona. To u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r bond,
and t o a p p r e c i a t e I a g o ' s method of a s s a u l t upon i t , i s t o
u n d e r s t a n d O t h e l l o by th e b e s t means a v a i l a b l e — th ro u g h
c o n t e x t , by v iew in g him as a p a r t n e r i n a p a r t i c u l a r , and
r a t h e r e x o t i c , m a r i t a l m atch.
I t i s i n s t r u c t i v e t o compare S h a k e s p e a r e 's p o r t r a y a l
o f t h e O thello-D esdem ona union w ith C i n t h i o ' s , f o r i t
q u i c k l y becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t in a d a p t i n g t h i s t a l e of
"mixed" m a r r i a g e t o t h e s t a g e , th e E n g lis h d r a m a t i s t
worked c a r e f u l l y t o em phasize t h e a r e a s o f d i f f e r e n c e
between husband and w i f e . 32 C i n t h i o m e n tio n s t h e M oor's
b l a c k n e s s only one tim e, w hereas S h a k e s p e a re c o n t i n u a l l y
b r i n g s i t t o our a t t e n t i o n , both th ro u g h th e u n f l a t t e r i n g
rem arks on O t h e l l o ’ s ra c e by o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s - - " t h e t h i c k -
l i p s " ( 1 . 1 . 6 6 ) , "old b la c k ram" ( 1 . 1 . 8 8 ) , "so o ty bosom"
( 1 . 2 . 7 0 ) — and by means of a fu n d a m e n ta l b l a c k / w h i t e
o p p o s i t i o n s t r u c t u r e d i n t o th e f a b r i c of th e play th ro u g h
theme and im agery. Also, C i n t h i o ' s Moor seems t o be c l o s e
138
t o h i s w if e i n age. and we a r e t o l d t h a t he i s " o f a
handsome p e r s o n , " th u s com plem enting Desdemona's
" m a rv e llo u s b e a u t y . "33 S h a k e s p e a r e 's O t h e l l o , by
c o n t r a s t , i s much o l d e r th a n Desdemona— " d e c l i n ' d i n t o th e
v a l e of y e a r s , " a s he say s h i m s e l f ( 3 . 3 . 2 6 5 - 2 6 6 ) — and we
a r e g iv en no r e a s o n to c o n s i d e r - him p h y s i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e .
E ld re d J o n e s h as e x p l a i n e d t h a t b e c a u se o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g
E l i z a b e t h a n i d e a l o f b e a u ty — f a i r s k in , b lo n d e h a i r , ruddy
l i p s and c h e e k s — t h e A f ric a n came t o s y m b o liz e b e a u t y ’ s
o p p o s i t e . 3^ So may O t h e l l o . Although s t a n d a r d s of beau ty
have changed s i n c e t h e R e n a issa n c e , and w h i l e many
s o c i e t i e s , i n c l u d i n g our own, have become more a c c e p t i n g
o f i n t e r r a c i a l m a r ria g e , t h e c o n t r a s t between an o l d e r
b la c k O t h e l l o and a f a i r - s k i n n e d and b e a u t i f u l young
Desdemona s t i l l c a r r i e s , f o r most o f us, c o n s i d e r a b l e
d r a m a tic f o r c e , however d i f f e r e n t l y we may r e a c t t o t h a t -
f o r c e on t h e b a s i s o f p e r s o n a l p r e j u d i c e , c o n v i c t i o n , or
e x p e r i e n c e .
P a r t i c u l a r l y i n S h a k e s p e a r e 's v e r s i o n o f t h e O t h e l l o
s t o r y , t h e s e outw ard, p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f
d i s s i m i l a r i t y between husband and w i f e a r e accom panied by
l e s s o b v io u s but i n t h e lo n g run more c o n s e q u e n t i a l k in d s
o f d i f f e r e n c e s : t h o s e o f n a t i o n a l i t y , c u l t u r e , r e l i g i o n ,
w e a lth , s o c i a l m i l i e u , and mode of u p b r i n g i n g . 35
S h a k e s p e a re a c t u a l l y seems t o have gone out of h i s way to
139
deny O t h e l l o and Desdemona a n y th in g of im p o rta n c e in
common, beyond t h e i r m utual a t t r a c t i o n (in d e e d q u i t e
s t r o n g ) , and t h e war s t o r i e s t h a t O t h e l l o has t o l d t o win
h i s l a d y ' s h e a r t — s t o r i e s whose v e r a c i t y we must q u e s t i o n ,
I b e l i e v e , u n l e s s we a r e p r e p a re d t o c r e d i t t h e e x i s t e n c e
o f a s u c c e s s f u l s e v e n - y e a r - o l d s o l d i e r ( 1 . 3 . 8 3 - 8 5 ) .
B ecause of t h e i r many im p o r ta n t d i f f e r e n c e s , O t h e l l o
and Desdemona l a c k t h a t r e s e r v o i r of s h a re d u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h a t c o u p le s w ith more s i m i l a r backgrounds p o s s e s s .
Between them t h e r e a r e , n e c e s s a r i l y , a h o s t of m ism atch in g
c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s t h a t n e i t h e r i s l i k e l y to be
aware of, but t h a t can crop up a t any tim e as s o u r c e s of
a l i e n a t i o n . Moreover, t h e i r m a r ria g e r e p r e s e n t s an
immense change i n l i v i n g a r ra n g e m e n ts f o r both- I t i s th e
g e n e r a l ' s f i r s t s e r i o u s v e n t u r e i n t o c i v i l l i f e , j u s t as
i t i s Desdem ona's f i r s t e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w o rld
beyond h e r f a t h e r ' s h o u s e h o ld , a w o rld she has been
" s h i e l d e d ” from a c c o r d i n g t o th e custom s of t h e day.
S in c e t h e s o c i e t y t h e s e two e n t e r as a m a r r ie d p a i r i s an
u n u s u a lly s o p h i s t i c a t e d one— th e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d and
d e c a d e n t in s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry Europe— b o th a r e q u i t e out
of t h e i r ele m e n t, though n e i t h e r seems t o s u s p e c t t h i s .
For a l l t h e s e r e a s o n s t h e i r union l a c k s many of t h e
m oorings t h a t co u ld be co u n ted upon t o keep most c o u p le s
t o g e t h e r and in to u c h d u r in g t h e e a r l y months of
140
m a trim o n ia l a d j u s t m e n t .
Lovers so d i f f e r e n t in background a s O t h e l l o and
Desdemona need most of a l l t o become a c q u a i n t e d w ith one
a n o t h e r , on many l e v e l s , th ro u g h i n t i m a t e and t r u t h f u l
c o n v e r s a t i o n . They need t o t a k e tim e to e x p lo r e t o g e t h e r
th o s e f a c e t s i n each o t h e r t h a t a r e d a rk or d i s t o r t e d from
th e p e r s p e c t i v e of th e o t h e r , and th e y need to r o o t o u t
t h e f a n t a s i e s th ey h o ld a b o u t one a n o t h e r and about
th e m s e lv e s t h a t co u ld be d an g ero u s t o th e m a r r i a g e .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , p ro b a b ly in l a r g e p a r t b e c a u se of th e
d i f f e r e n c e s between them i n age and e x p e r i e n c e , t h e i r
c o u r t s h i p p ro c e e d s n o t th ro u g h m utual c o n v e r s a t i o n , but
r a t h e r th ro u g h a s e r i e s of monologues d e l i v e r e d by th e
g e n e r a l as he r e c a p i t u l a t e s t h e f u l l c a t a l o g u e o f h i s
"most d i s a s t r o u s c h a n c e s" and " h a i r - b r e a d t h s c a p e s"
( 1 . 3 . 1 2 8 - 1 4 5 ) .
We must r e c o g n i z e t h a t n o t f a r b e n e a th O t h e l l o ' s
commanding e x t e r i o r r e s i d e s t h e m i l e s g l o r i o s u s . While
t h i s man i s d o u b t l e s s a b ra v e and c a p a b le o f f i c e r , in
t a l k i n g ab o u t h i m s e l f he i s n o n e t h e l e s s prone t o
e x a g g e r a t e , som etim es w i l d l y , e s p e c i a l l y when he f e e l s t h e
need to make an im p re s s io n or i s t h r e a t e n e d . His cla im
b e f o r e t h e S e n a te t o have been a c h i l d s o l d i e r , and h i s
p r e p o s t e r o u s h i s t o r y o f th e "magic" n a p k in , t o l d t o
f r i g h t e n Desdemona ( 3 . 4 . 5 5 - 7 6 ) , a r e c l e a r examples of
141
p a t e n t l i e s , and i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e s e most of th e
m i l i t a r y a d v e n t u r e s seem s u s p e c t , as does t h e g e n e r a l ’s
avowal of r o y a l p a r e n t a g e ( 1 . 2 . 2 1 - 2 2 ) . O t h e l l o ’ s
f a b r i c a t i o n s a r e b a s i c a l l y t h o s e of a man t r y i n g to
b o l s t e r h i s own ego by b u i l d i n g h i m s e l f up in t h e eyes of
o t h e r s . His u n t r u t h s a r e o c c a s i o n a l , and I doubt he i s
aware o f them as u n t r u t h s , f o r such p o s t u r i n g i s most
e f f e c t i v e when t h e a c t o r comes t o b e l i e v e t h e a c t .
Under most c i r c u m s t a n c e s O t h e l l o i s p ro b ab ly a f a i r l y
h o n e s t man, much a s he im a g in e s h i m s e l f t o be. When, f o r
i n s t a n c e , t h e S e n a te ask s him to e x p l a i n h i s c o u r t s h i p of
Desdemona, a lth o u g h he may shade or c o n c e a l some m a t t e r s ,
h i s re s p o n s e , in t h e main, seems t r u t h f u l and d i r e c t . As
he s a y s in summary, ’’She l o v ' d me f o r th e d a n g e rs I had
p a s s ' d , / And I l o v ' d h e r t h a t she d id p i t y them"
( 1 . 3 . 1 6 7 - 1 6 8 ) . T h is a lm o st h as t o be th e t r u t h , becau se
i f O t h e l l o were l y i n g , he would s u r e l y make a b e t t e r case
of h i s m a r ria g e th a n he does. The p i c t u r e h i s words
c o n j u r e up b e a r s s c a n t re se m b la n c e to t h a t o f an a d u l t man
and woman deeply and m u tu a lly in l o v e . 36 R a th e r each
a p p e a r s to have r o m a n ti c i z e d t h e o t h e r , Desdemona by
l o o k i n g up in a d m i r a ti o n and wonder, as t o a h e r o i c f a t h e r
s u r r o g a t e , O t h e l l o by l o o k in g down w ith p r i d e and
g r a t i t u d e on t h e a n g e l i c i n n o c e n t who e n a b l e s him t o
s u s t a i n an image of h i m s e l f more com plete th a n he h as ev er
142
e v e r known. A lthough Desdemona t h i n k s she l o v e s t h e i n n e r
man— "I saw O t h e l l o ’ s v i s a g e in h i s mind" ( 1 . 3 . 2 5 2 ) — she
i s a c t u a l l y enamored o f t h e e x a l t e d id e a o f t h e man t h a t
has been p r o j e c t e d o n to t h e s c r e e n of h e r y o u t h f u l
i m a g i n a t i o n . While O t h e l l o i s co n v in ced he l o v e s
Desdemona, he r e a l l y l o v e s h i m s e l f f i r s t , and not in an
e s p e c i a l l y h e a l t h y way.
Iago u n d e r s t a n d s t h e s e two f a r b e t t e r th a n they
u n d e r s t a n d th e m s e lv e s , a s he d e m o n s tr a te s w ith g r e a t
method and f i n e s s e by a t t a c k i n g t h e i r union a t e x a c t l y i t s
w e a k e st p o i n t s . His m a s te r s t r o k e i s a c c u s in g Desdemona
of a d u l t e r y , f o r as he knows, a man l i k e O t h e l l o , who
s u s t a i n s h i s s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e by pluming h i s m a s c u l i n i t y in
t h e p u b l i c eye, i s most v u l n e r a b l e p r e c i s e l y in h i s
r e p u t a t i o n a s a s e x u a l ly a t t r a c t i v e and p o t e n t male. No
so o n e r does Iago b eg in h i n t i n g a t Desdemona’s i n f i d e l i t y
th a n he h o l d s O t h e l l o by t h e h e a r t s t r i n g s , c o n t r o l l i n g t h e
g e n e r a l ' s d e e p e s t f e a r , a f e a r t h a t b l i n d s O t h e l l o as i t
e n l a r g e s r a p i d l y t o . t h r e a t e n h i s v e r y . e x i s t e n c e . By t h e
second h a l f o f t h e t e m p t a t i o n scen e, O t h e l l o i s ready to
r e l i n q u i s h h i s m i l i t a r y c a r e e r — which, s i g n i f i c a n t l y , he
r e v e a l s has p ro v id e d t h e prim ary meaning and joy of h i s
l i f e — and a l l becau se he s u s p e c t s t h a t h i s w if e has s l e p t
w i t h a n o th e r man. Iag o , as O t h e l l o ’ s m i l i t a r y
s u b o r d i n a t e , h as a l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d a c c e s s to h i s
143
commander’ s e a r . and he u s e s t h i s c h a n n e l t o d i s r u p t t h e
com m unication between b r i d e and groom, o v e r r i d i n g h i s
g e n e r a l ’s new and s t i l l u n f a m i l i a r m a r i t a l bond w i t h th e
known and t r u s t e d m i l i t a r y bond. O t h e l l o i s th u s drawn
back i n t o t h e s o l d i e r ’ s s i m p l i s t i c view o f sex and
c u c k o ld s , a view c o n d i t i o n e d by y e a r s o f camp t a l k and one
t h a t alw ays d i v i d e s womankind n e a t l y i n t o two g ro u p s: t h e
a n g e l s and th e s t r u m p e t s . During th e c o u r s e of t h e
te m p t a t i o n , t h e c l o s e " m u t u a l i t y ” t h a t d e v e lo p s between
O t h e l l o and Iago becomes a t tim e s a lm o st t e l e p a t h i c , as
Iago in a c y n i c a l parody of i n c i s i v e m a s c u lin e r e a s o n i n g
" p r o v e s ” Desdemona f a l s e t o h i s d u p e ’s t o t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n .
O t h e l l o , who has p r e v i o u s l y made t h e m is ta k e of c h e r i s h i n g
h i s w if e as a f a u l t l e s s a n g e l, now t h i n k s of h e r .
i n e v i t a b l y , a s " t h a t cunning whore o f V e n ic e " ( 4 . 2 . 8 9 ) .
I a g o ’s d i s t o r t e d view o f women p r e v e n t s him from
s e e i n g i n t o Desdemona as deeply as he can O t h e l l o , but
s t i l l he u n d e r s t a n d s h e r w e l l enough f o r h i s p u r p o s e s . He
knows, f o r example, t h a t Desdemona's i n n a t e g e n e r o s i t y
w i l l impel h e r t o p u rsu e C a s s i o ’ s r e a p p o in tm e n t w i t h
p e r s i s t e n c e and v i g o r , c a u s in g h e r to e n c ro a c h n a i v e l y on
h e r h u s b a n d ’s m a s c u lin e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a t a tim e when
O t h e l l o f e e l s h e a v i l y t h r e a t e n e d in c l o s e l y r e l a t e d
m a t t e r s . Iago knows to o , I b e l i e v e , t h a t th e young b r id e
i s i g n o r a n t o f t h o s e d a rk r e c e s s e s o f h e r h u s b a n d ’ s
144
p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t make him p o t e n t i a l l y q u i t e d a n g e ro u s.
When E m ilia f i r s t s u g g e s t s t h a t O t h e l l o may be " j e a l i o u s , "
and Desdemona answ ers "I t h i n k t h e sun- w here he was born /
Drew a l l such humors from him” ( 3 . 4 . 3 0 - 3 1 ) , S h a k e sp e a re
e s t a b l i s h e s t h e w i f e ’ s o b l i v i o u s n e s s to h er s p o u s e 's
i n n a t e c h a r a c t e r w i t h heavy iro n y , b ecau se i t was a
commonplace d u r in g t h e R e n a is sa n c e t h a t th e n e a r e r t h e sun
a. p e o p le l i v e d , th e more h o t- b l o o d e d th ey te n d e d to b e , 37
and Moors s p e c i f i c a l l y were n o t o r i o u s f o r t h e i r
u n g o v e rn a b le te m p e rs and f o r t h e v i o l e n t j e a l o u s y w i t h
which they gu ard ed t h e c h a s t i t y of t h e i r w i v e s . 38
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , C i n t h i o ’ s Desdemona i s f u l l y aware of h e r
h u s b a n d ’ s p o t e n t i a l f o r b r u t a l i t y . "You Moors a r e o f so
h o t a n a t u r e , " she t e l l s him, " t h a t every l i t t l e t r i f l e
moves you t o a n g e r and r e v e n g e . "39 g u t S h a k e s p e a r e 's
Desdemona re m a in s in th e d a rk . Even when c o n f r o n te d by
c l e a r e v id e n c e of O t h e l l o ' s j e a l o u s y , she d e n ie s what she
s e e s , u n a b le t o a c c e p t r a t i o n a l l y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e r
husband i s n o t e n t i r e l y th e "n o b le Moor" whom she f e l l in
lo v e w i t h and m a r r i e d .
Desdem ona's r e f u s a l t o e n t e r t a i n a n e g a t i v e o p in io n
o f O t h e l l o s e a l s h e r f a t e , f o r she can n o t t a l k t o him
a b o u t h i s problem, nor can she t a k e t h e s t e p s n e c e s s a r y to
p r o t e c t h e r s e l f from h i s ag o n iz e d c o n f u s io n . Always th e
i d e a l i s t i c , o b e d i e n t , c h i l d b r id e , she keeps h e r eyes
145
c l o s e d r i g h t up u n t i l t h e murder scene, op en in g them only
when i t i s to o l a t e . J u s t b e f o re O t h e l l o s m o th e rs h e r , he
adm onishes— "Think on thy s in s ." --a n d she answ ers, "They
a r e t h e l o v e s I b e a r t o you" ( 5 . 2 . 3 9 - 4 0 ) . I t would ap p ear
t h a t she a t l a s t p e r c e i v e s h e r m is ta k e , though w ith what
c l a r i t y and c o m p le te n e s s we cannot g u e s s. Looking a t h e r
p re d ic a m e n t from our e x t e r n a l v a n ta g e p o i n t , we can see
t h a t d e s p i t e t h i s young woman's gen u in e b e n e v o le n c e and
f a i t h f u l n e s s , i t i s h e r g r e a t m i s f o r t u n e t o l a c k th e
s t r e n g t h and p e r s p i c a c i t y of S h a k e s p e a r e 's comic h e r o i n e s ,
a l l of whom choose men t h a t re se m b le th e m s e lv e s c l o s e l y in
"c lim e , com plexion, and d e g r e e , " and a l l of whom work hard
t o e s t a b l i s h deep m u t u a l i t y between t h e i r men and
th e m s e lv e s b e f o re c o m m ittin g to m a r r i a g e . Had she ta k e n
t h e s e same b a s i c p r e c a u t i o n s , Desdemona to o m ight have
l i v e d " h a p p ily ev er a f t e r . "
146
Notes
1See H e r r i c k , pp. 63-171 and pp. 215-321.
2H e r r i c k , pp. 63-92.
3 H e r ric k , pp. 65-66.
^ H e r r i c k , pp. 75-76.
5 H e r r ic k , pp. 77-78.
^ G i r a l d i C i n t h i o , H ecatom m ithi 3 .7 , t r a n s . John
Edward T a y lo r , i n O t h e l l o V ario ru m , ed. Horace Howard
F u r n e s s ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : L i p p i n c o t t , 1886), p. 377.
^ B a rb a ra H. C. de Mendon9a, "O t h e l l o : A Tragedy B u i l t
on a Comic S t r u c t u r e , " S h a k e s p e a re S u rv e y . 21 (1 9 6 8 ), 32-
35.
^Douglas J. S te w a r t, "O t h e l l o : Roman Comedy as
N ig h tm a re ," Emorv U n i v e r s i t y Q u a r t e r l y . 22 (1 9 6 7 ), 252-
253.
^ S te p h a n Rogers, "O t h e l l o : Comedy i n R e v e rs e ,"
S h a k e s p e a re Q u a r t e r l y , 24 (1 9 7 3 ), 220; Ann B lake, "The
Comedy of O t h e l l o , " The C r i t i c a l Review ( A u s t r a l i a ) , 15
(1 9 7 2 ), 46-51.
IGSnyder, PP* 79-80.
U s t e w a r t , p. 252; Rogers, p. 220.
12Frye, Anatomy of C r i t i c i s m , p. 216; arid B ernard
S pivak, S h a k e sp e a re and t h e A lle g o ry of E v il (New York:
Columbia Univ. P r e s s , 1958).
13e . E. S t o l l , S h a k e sp e a re and O th er M asters
(Cam bridge: H arv ard Univ. P r e s s , 1940), p, 231.
" ^ L e s l i e A. F i e d l e r , The S t r a n g e r i n S h a k e sp e a re (New
York: S t e i n and Day, 1972), p. 139.
15R0 g e r s , pp. 210-220.
1^ B lak e, pp. 50-51.
147
1 7 c a ro l Thomas N eely, "Women and Men in O t h e l l o , " in
Lenz e t a l . , pp. 211-239.
iSMendonga, p. 37.
19See Snyder, pp. 7 0 -9 0 .
20Snyder» p. 56.
21See H elen G ard n er, "O t h e l l o : a R e t r o s p e c t , 1 9 0 0 -6 7 ,"
Sha-kespeare S u r v e y . 21 (1 9 6 8 ), 1-3.
2 2 S n y d e r* p. 71.
23 r. a. Yoder, "The Two Worlds of O t h e l l o , » South
A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y , 72 (1 9 7 3 ), 213-219.
2 4 see Snyder, pp. 73-74.
25 Yoder, pp. 218-219.
26R0gers, p. 217.
27 Snyder, pp. 79-80.
, 2 8 D e s i d e r i u s Erasmus, The P r a i s e of F o l l y (London:
A lle n and Unwin, 1915), p. 64.
29 j
ane Adamson, O t h e l l o a s T ra g e d y : Some Problem s of
Judgment and F e e l i n g (Cam bridge: Cambridge Univ. P re ss ,
1980), p. 112.
30Rogers, p. 216.
31 See C. 0. G ard n er, " T r a g ic F i s s i o n i n O t h e l l o . "
E n g l i s h - S t u d i e s i n A f r i c a , 20 (1 9 7 7 ), p. 11.
32see Snyder, pp. 83-84.
33c i n t h i o , p. 377.
34Eldered Jones, Othello's Countrymen (London: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1965), p. 127.
35L,e s i i e F i e d l e r has n o te d t h a t Desdemona ( u n l i k e
P o r t i a i n The Merchant of V e n i c e ) c h o o se s t o m arry " th e
s t r a n g e r " from A f r i c a , a man a t th e " f u r t h e s t p o s s i b l e
c u l t u r a l remove from h e r . " See F i e d l e r , p. 141 and p.
173.
148
36A number of o t h e r com m entators on th e play have
n o t i c e d s e r i o u s f la w s in th e O thello-D esdem ona union. See
D. A. T r a v e r s i , An. Approach to S h a k e s p e a r e . 3rd ed. ( 1938;
r p t . Garden C ity , New York: Doubleday, 1969), pp. 401-403;
G. B. H a r r i s o n , S h a k e s p e a r e 's T r a g e d i e s (London: R o u tled g e
and P a u l, 1951), p. 137; G. R. E l l i o t t , Flaming M i n i s t e r
(Durham: Duke Univ. P r e s s , 1953), pp. x x x -x x x i; John
B ay ley , The C h a r a c t e r s of Love (London: C o n s ta b le , 1960),
pp. 160-161; F. R. L e a v is , The Common P u r s u i t (New York:
New York Univ. P r e s s , 1964), pp. 146-147; T. H. Adamowsky,
"The A e s t h e t i c A t t i t u d e and N a r c is s is m in O t h e l l o , 1 1
L i t e r a t u r e and P sy c h o lo g y , 18 (1 9 6 8 ), 77; David L. J e f f r e y
and P a t r i c k G ra n t, " R e p u ta tio n in O t h e l l o , " S t u d i e s i n
E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , 13 (1 9 7 3 ), pp. 259-260; A l b e r t G e ra rd ,
" ’E g r e g io u s ly an A s s 1: The Dark Side of th e Moor. A View
of O t h e l l o ’ s Mind," i n A s p e c ts of O t h e l l o , ed. Kenneth
Muir and P h i l i p Edwards (Cam bridge: Cambridge Univ. P r e s s ,
1977), p. 17; G ayle G reene, " ’ T h is That You C a ll L o v e ’ :
Sexual and S o c ia l Tragedy i n O t h e l l o , " J o u r n a l of Women’ s
S t u d i e s in L i t e r a t u r e , 1 (1 9 7 9 ), 16-32; and Adamson, pp.
119-128 and pp. 217-219.
3 7 jo n e s , p. 8.
38john W illiam D raper, The O t h e l l o of S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s
Audience (New York: Octagon Books, 1966), p. 169; K. W .
Evans, "The R a c ia l F a c t o r in O t h e l l o . " S h a k e s p e a re
S t u d i e s , 5 (1 9 6 9 ), 124.
3 9 c i n t h i o , p. 380.
149
C h ap ter F ive
Hamlet
For p e r s p e c t i v e on th e use of comic m a t e r i a l s i n
S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s H a m le t, one needs to c h a r t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s
of c h a r a c t e r and p l o t as they were d e v e lo p e d i n th e
e a r l i e r v e r s i o n s of t h e Hamlet s t o r y by Saxo Grammaticus,
F r a n c o i s de B e l l e f o r e s t , and Thomas Kyd. Kyd’ s The
S p a n ish Tragedy a l s o o f f e r s some u s e f u l a n a lo g u e s f o r
S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s p la y . What I s h a l l f o c u s on h e re i s th e
a d d i t i o n of th e theme of ro m a n tic lo v e to t h e Hamlet
le g e n d by one or b o th of th e E l i z a b e t h a n d r a m a t i s t s .
S h a k e s p e a r e 's s o u rc e f o r Hamlet d i f f e r s from th e
n a r r a t i v e s t h a t he drew upon f o r Romeo and J u l i e t and
O t h e l l o i n t h a t i t s o r i g i n s a r e in m e d ie v a l S c a n d in a v ia n
o r a l le g e n d r a t h e r th a n th e w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e of th e
I t a l i a n R e n a is s a n c e . Saxo Grammaticus f i r s t r e c o r d e d th e
Hamlet s to r y a b o u t 1200 in h i s G esta Danorum. or H i s t o r y
of th e Danes, a p p a r e n t l y a f t e r c o l l a t i n g s e v e r a l o r a l
v e r s i o n s . 1 How o ld th e t a l e was in S a x o 's day we do n o t
know. I t s s e t t i n g , however, i s p r e - C h r i s t i a n , and i t s
v a l u e s a r e c l e a r l y h e r o i c , th o s e of a w a r l i k e f e u d a l i s t i c
p e o p le .
150
S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s m o d e r n iz a t io n o f Saxo i s most a p p a r e n t
i n t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s . Amleth and Hamlet a r e s i m i l a r in
t h a t b o th a r e p r i n c e s f o r c e d f o r a tim e i n t o th e r o l e o f
f o o l i n o r d e r t o e lu d e u s u r p in g and m urderous ’’f a t h e r -
u n c l e s . " Both a r e in g e n i o u s p l o t t e r s , g iv en to r i d d l e s
and w i t t y sarcasm . But, u n l i k e Hamlet, S ax o ’ s p r i n c e i s a
h e ro f o r an age t h a t b e l i e v e d i n h e r o e s . H is i n c r e d i b l e
i n g e n u i t y , c o n firm e d a t every t u r n of t h e p l o t , b e to k e n s
s u p e r n a t u r a l power, most o b v io u s ly when he d i v i n e s th e
s e c r e t s o f th e E n g l i s h r o y a l f a m il y over d i n n e r , or when
he d e f e a t s th e E n g lis h k in g w ith an army of dead men.
Amleth i s a l s o an a c t i v e and e f f e c t i v e r e v e n g e r. Midway
t h ro u g h h i s s t o r y he k i l l s not only h i s u n c le , but a l l th e
n o b le s in l e a g u e w i t h th e e v i l king. Aml.eth’ s ro m a n tic
s u c c e s s e s a r e a l s o p r o d i g i o u s . At r i s k of h i s l i f e , he
dodges h i s u n c l e ’ s s p i e s f o r ah i l l i c i t a l l i a n c e w ith a
la d y of t h e c o u r t ( t h e o r i g i n a l f o r O p h e l i a ) , and
a f t e r w a r d m a r r i e s two o t h e r women: t h e E n g lis h p r i n c e s s ,
and th e n , big am o u sly , th e Queen o f S c o ts . A m le th 's h o ld
over h i s f i r s t w ife i s so g r e a t t h a t she r e c o n c i l e s
h e r s e l f t o th e second, even s a c r i f i c e s h er f a t h e r , t o keep
from l o s i n g him.
S h a k e s p e a r e 's Ham let, by c o n t r a s t , has no m y th ic
s t a t u r e . I n t e l l e c t u a l l y g i f t e d but s c a r c e l y superhuman,
he i s more r e a l i s t i c and co n tem p o rary th a n Amleth.
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W hereas Amleth f u n c t i o n s a s t h e pure p r i n c i p l e of revenge
r e q u i r e d by h e r o i c l e g e n d — s in g le - m in d e d , r u t h l e s s , and
s t o i c — S h a k e s p e a r e 's p r i n c e i s burdened by a mind t h a t can
q u e s t i o n w h e th e r he should k i l l , and by em o tio n s
t r a u m a t i z e d by h i s f a t h e r ' s d e a th and h i s m o t h e r ' s h a s ty
r e m a r r i a g e . M o r a l i s t i c and r e f l e c t i v e by n a t u r e , Hamlet
bro o d s over th e s i n s t h a t have been com m itted by th o s e
c l o s e t o him in blood. He i s c o n s c i o u s of a f a m i l i a l
b l i g h t , and f e e l s p e r s o n a l l y t a i n t e d . He i s q u i c k to
c r i t i c i z e o t h e r s f o r m oral s h o rtc o m in g s, h i s mother in
p a r t i c u l a r , y e t c a s t i g a t e s h i m s e l f a s w e l l . Though not
mad, he i s c o n fu se d , s e l f - d o u b t i n g , m e la n c h o ly , a t tim e s
s u i c i d a l . In p a r t b ecau se he i s a t war w ith h im s e lf , he
ca n n o t e m u la te A m le th 's c a r e f u l l y p lan n ed and e f f i c i e n t
c l e a n s i n g of t h e p o l l u t e d k i n g s h i p , b u t i n s t e a d w a i t s f o r
e v e n t s to e v o lv e a s o t h e r s d i r e c t . In a d d i t i o n , h i s
m ental tu r m o il h a n d ic a p s him a s a l o v e r . Deeply
a m b iv a le n t a b o u t h i s m other, h a t i n g y e t l o v i n g h e r , he
d r i f t s i n t o misogyny and . r a i l s a t O p h e lia , th u s h e l p i n g t o
d e s tr o y th e woman who sh o u ld have been h i s w ife .
O ther w r i t e r s b e s i d e s S h a k e sp e a re o f c o u rse had a
hand i n th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of Amleth i n t o Hamlet. S a x o 's
le g e n d a p p a r e n t l y r e a c h e d th e E n g l i s h s t a g e th ro u g h
F r a n c o i s de B e l l e f o r e s t ' s F rench t r a n s l a t i o n (1 5 7 0 ), and
th e U r-H am let. a l o s t E l i z a b e t h a n drama a d a p te d from
152
B e l l e f o r e s t t h a t most s c h o l a r s a t t r i b u t e to Thomas Kyd.2
S h a k e s p e a r e ’s t r o u p e e v i d e n t l y p u rc h a se d th e Ur-Hamlet and
p erfo rm ed i t f o r a tim e in t h e 1 5 9 0 ’s, and th e n around
1600 gave i t t o S h a k e s p e a re t o r e v i s e . Whereas
B e l l e f o r e s t changed S a x o 's p l o t and p r o t a g o n i s t h a r d ly a t
a l l , Kyd seems t o have made e x t e n s i v e changes in b o th .
D e l e t i n g t h e second h a l f of t h e le g e n d c o n t a i n i n g A m le th ’ s
m a r r i a g e s and h i s m i l i t a r y cam paigns, probably in o r d e r to
c o n v e r t t h e lo n g and ra m b lin g n a r r a t i v e i n t o w o rk ab le
drama, Kyd n e c e s s a r i l y metamorphosed both p l o t and
p r o t a g o n i s t . H a m le t’s re v e n g e was s h i f t e d to t h e end o f
t h e a c t i o n , so t h a t h i s s t o r y became one o f w a i t i n g t o do
what he must do, i n s t e a d o f p la n n in g i t and th e n f o ll o w i n g
th ro u g h . Thus Hamlet became in Kyd's play much l e s s
a c t i v e . The e x c l u s i o n o f h i s m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s red u ced
him as a s o l d i e r , and th e e r a d i c a t i o n of h i s m a r r i a g e s
d im in is h e d him as a l o v e r . Kyd made a t l e a s t two o t h e r
s i g n i f i c a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n s in th e o ld t a l e , no doubt
r e l a t e d : he changed t h e murder o f t h e o ld k in g from an
open t o a s e c r e t a c t , c r e a t i n g d o u b ts f o r Hamlet a b o u t h i s
u n c l e ' s g u i l t , and he added a g h o st t h a t a p p e a r s on s t a g e
t o cry f o r re v e n g e , p r e s s u r i n g Hamlet to k i l l even in t h e
f a c e of h i s d o u b ts . T h is i s much t h e same dilemma t h a t
c o n f r o n t s S h a k e s p e a r e ’s P r in c e .
S h a k e s p e a r e ’s Hamlet in h i s lo n g d e la y and s e l f -
153
c r i t i c i s m a l s o r e s e m b le s a n o t h e r of K yd's a v e n g in g h e r o e s ,
Hieronirno o f The S p a n ish T ra g e d y . Bound t o re v e n g e th e
b r u t a l murder of h i s son, Hieronirno a c t s t h e f o o l to
c o n c e a l h i s p u rp o se , p o s tp o n in g a c t i o n u n t i l ' h e i s c e r t a i n
who th e g u i l t y p e r s o n s a r e . Twice i n t h e p la y , deeply
d i s t u r b e d by th e i n j u s t i c e o f h i s s o n ’s d e a th , Hieronirno
c o n te m p la te s s u i c i d e ( 2 .6 .1 2 2 - 1 3 4 ; 3 . 2 . 1 - 1 9 ) , and as th e
l a s t a c t a p p ro a c h e s and t h e crim e re m a in s u n p u n ish ed he
re b u k e s h i m s e l f a t l e n g t h f o r h i s h e s i t a t i o n ( 3 . 1 3 . 9 5 -
158). These re s e m b la n c e s between Hieronirno and
S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s Hamlet m ight have been s u g g e s te d by revenge
p a t t e r n s t h a t both d r a m a t i s t s found in S e n e c a ’s t r a g e d i e s ,
but o t h e r s i m i l a r i t i e s between Hamlet and The S panish
Tragedy go beyond what one would a t t r i b u t e t o sh a re d
Senecan i n f l u e n c e . G e o ffre y B u llo u g h c a t a l o g u e s more th an
twenty p a r a l l e l s between th e two p l a y s , 3 n o t i n g t h a t
b e s i d e s r e v e n g e r s , they have in common a s e c r e t m urder, a
g h o s t y e a r n i n g f o r re v e n g e , a woman who l o s e s h e r m ental
b a la n c e and k i l l s h e r s e l f o v er a s l a i n lo v e d one, a
’’m o u s e t r a p ” p l a y - w i t h i n - a - p l a y , and a m oral c l i m a t e heavy
w i t h i n t r i g u e , b e t r a y a l , and " s e e m i n g . ”
Most p e r t i n e n t h e r e i s a n o t h e r f e a t u r e t h a t The
S p a n ish Tragedy has in common w ith H amlet— a s w e ll as w ith
Romeo and J u l i e t and O t h e l l o — t h a t i s , i t s i n c l u s i o n of an
a b b r e v i a t e d comic p l o t e a r l y in t h e p la y . Kyd’ s two young
154
l o v e r s , H o r a tio and B e l - i m p e r i a , in t h e i r e f f o r t s to u n i t e
a r e opposed by c h a r a c t e r s c l o s e to th e t r a d i t i o n a l comic
b l o c k in g f i g u r e s : senex i r a t u s (Don C y p r ia n ) , m eddling
b r o t h e r (L o re n z o ), and f o o l i s h r i v a l l o v e r ( B a l t h a z a r ) . 2 *
In Kyd’ s p l a y — as i n H a m le t, but not Romeo and J u l i e t and
O t h e l l o — t h e b lo c k in g t y p e s su c c e e d in t e r m i n a t i n g t h e
l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e f o r e i t can be consummated. T h e ir
m ethods a r e b r u t a l : th ey m urder t h e male l o v e r . K yd's
p la y , l i k e S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s l o v e t r a g e d i e s , c a l l s i r o n i c
a t t e n t i o n to th e i n c o n g r u i t y i n h e r e n t in t h e d e a th or
d e s t r u c t i o n of l i f e - g i v i n g p r o p a g a t i v e lo v e . But Kyd i s
n o t a s s u b t l e a s S h a k e s p e a re . When,, f o r i n s t a n c e , Kyd
m erges t h e murder of H o r a t i o w ith The Span i s h T ragedy*s
p r i n c i p a l lo v e sc e n e , th e c o n t r a s t s upon which th e
l o v e / d e a t h i r o n i e s depend a r e c a r r i e d t o t h e i r e x tre m e s .
One moment H o r a t i o i s w in n in g B e l - i m p e r i a 1s c o n s e n t t o
’’d i e ” w i t h him in t h e a c t of lo v e , and t h e n e x t he i s t o r n
from h e r em braces by th e b r o t h e r and t h e r i v a l l o v e r and
c r u c i f i e d on t h e a r b o r whiph soon would have s e r v e d as
m a r r i a g e bed. Death, h a t r e d , and s t e r i l i t y — embodied by
t h e k i l l e r s — th u s d e f e a t lo v e in th e very g ard en o f l o v e .
As B e l - i m p e r i a ’s b r o t h e r s t a b s H o r a t i o , he makes p a t e n t
t h e i r o n i c c o n v e r s io n of f e r t i l i t y to f a t a l i t y : "Ay, th u s ,
and t h u s , t h e s e a r e t h e f r u i t s o f l o v e " ( 2 . 4 . 5 5 ) .
Kyd r e t u r n s t o t h i s i r o n i c f u s i o n o f l o v e and d e a th
*
I
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I
1 .«________________
them es in l a t e r s c e n e s , but i t i s t h e m u rd e re rs who a r e
s u b j e c t e d t o i r o n i c u n d e r c u t t i n g r a t h e r th a n th e l o v e r s .
One of t h e k i l l e r s , B a l t h a z a r , i s h i m s e l f a l o v e r , f o r c i n g
B e l - i m p e r i a t o become h i s w if e . As t h e e n f o r c e d wedding
a p p ro a c h e s, Revenge, a c t i n g a s c h o ru s, mocks t h e g ro o m 's
c o r r u p t , e g o c e n t r i c a s p i r a t i o n s by d e l i v e r i n g an
e p ith a la m iu m t h a t changes halfw ay th ro u g h from a happy to
a s i n i s t e r i n v o c a t i o n : 5
The two f i r s t , t h e n u p t i a l t o r c h e s bore,
As b r i g h t l y b u rn in g as t h e m i d ’d a y 's sun;
But a f t e r them doth Hymen h i e as f a s t ,
C lo th ed in s a b le , and a s a f f r o n robe,
And blows them out and q u e n c h e th them w ith
blood,
As d i s c o n t e n t t h a t t h i n g s c o n tin u e so.
( 3 .1 4 . 3 0 - 3 5 )
Hymen's d o u sin g of t h e m a r r ia g e t o r c h e s w ith blood
i p r e f i g u r e s t h e re v e n g e sc e n e ( 4 . 4 ) , where a g a in t h e i r o n i c
l o v e / d e a t h o p p o s i t i o n s a r i s e a s H o r a t i o ' s f a t h e r and t h e
u n w i l l i n g b r i d e s t r u c t u r e th e e x e c u t i o n s o f t h e b lo c k in g
f i g u r e s i n t o a d r a m a t ic i n t e r l u d e p r e s e n t e d t o e n t e r t a i n
t h e w edding g u e s t s . I n s t e a d o f a c q u i r i n g a w if e , t h e
u n d e s e rv in g groom d i e s p l a y - a c t i n g th e r o l e o f a S u l t a n
who had com m itted t h e same c rim e s a g a i n s t young l o v e as
t h e a c t o r had in h i s own l i f e .
S t i l l a n o t h e r scene in The S p a n ish Tragedy employs
| r e l a t e d i r o n i c c o n t r a s t s t o e x p r e s s m e t a p h o r i c a l l y th e
j u l t i m a t e co n se q u e n c e s of l o v e ’ s d e f e a t by th e powers of
j
I 156
d e a th . S h o r tl y b e f o r e k i l l i n g h e r s e l f , H o r a t i o ’s
d i s t r a c t e d m other " t a k e s re v e n g e " on t h e g ard en o f lo v e by
c u t t i n g down t h e a r b o r where h e r son was s l a i n , c u r s i n g
i t s fecu n d v e g e t a t i o n w ith perm anent s t e r i l i t y : " F r u i t l e s s
f o r e v e r may t h i s gard en be" ( 4 . 2 . 1 4 ) . Having p u n ish e d
g r e a t e r N atu re ( f o r h a v in g robbed h e r o f h e r s o n ),
I s a b e l l a th e n t u r n s t h e c u r s e s a g a i n s t h e r own " g a r d e n " —
"So s h a l l my womb be c u r s e d f o r h i s s a k e " —-and h e r k n i f e
a g a i n s t th e b r e a s t s " t h a t gave H o r a t i o suck" ( 4 . 2 . 3 5 - 3 8 ) .
In t h e s e ways, however c o n f u s e d ly , she a c t s out t h e d e f e a t
o f f e r t i l i t y and l i f e i n h e r e n t in t h e d e a th of h e r son.
Of a l l t h e p a r a l l e l s between The S p a n ish Tragedy and
H am let, Senecan i n f l u e n c e i s l e a s t l i k e l y t o e x p l a i n t h e s e
s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a t a r i s e from both a u t h o r s ’ d e r i v a t i o n of
tr a g e d y from t h e p l o t and c h a r a c t e r s o f New Comedy* As we
have se en ., t h i s new ty p e o f lo v e tra g e d y o r i g i n a t e d in
R e n a is s a n c e I t a l y , and was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o E n g lis h drama
by t h e c o - a u t h o r s o f Gismond o f S a l e r n , by Thomas Kyd,
S h a k e s p e a re , and o t h e r s . S in c e K yd's S p a n ish Tragedy was
t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e p la y s t o . a c h i e v e a l a r g e p o p u la r
s u c c e s s , i t s i n f l u e n c e on o t h e r w r i t e r s e x p e r im e n tin g w ith
t h e same m ix tu re o f g e n r e s was p ro b ab ly c o n s i d e r a b l e .
S h a k e s p e a re , w r i t i n g Romeo and J u l i e t d u r in g The S p a n ish
T r a g e d y ' s heyday in t h e m id -1 5 9 0 ’s, may have had Kyd’s
| play in mind, a t tim e s , a s he c o n s t r u c t e d h i s own lo v e
157
tra g e d y from A rth u r B r o o k e 's n a r r a t i v e . Both t h e i r o n i e s
s u r r o u n d i n g J u l i e t ' s e n f o r c e d m a r r i a g e to P a r i s and th e
many a l l u s i o n s t o s t e r i l i t y , which S h a k e s p e a re a s s o c i a t e s
w ith t h e d e a th s o f th e l o v e r s , c o u ld have been s u g g e s te d
by The S p a n ish T ra g e d y .
In t h e c a s e of H am let, S h a k e s p e a r e 's d eb t t o Kyd f o r
t h e comic m a t e r i a l s he used was p ro b a b ly much g r e a t e r . M y
a s su m p tio n — based i n p a r t on K yd's h a n d l i n g of p l o t and
c h a r a c t e r in The S p a n ish T ra g e d y , and i n p a r t on t h e
s t r u c t u r a l changes s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e Kyd made in t h e o ld
Amleth l e g e n d — i s t h a t h i s Ur-Hamlet c o n ta in e d t h e
o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f t h e broken romance between Hamlet and
O p h e lia , i n c l u d i n g h e r madness and s u i c i d e , and p e rh a p s
even some o f t h e i r o n i c th e m a t i c o p p o s i t i o n s between lo v e
and d e a th (and f e r t i l i t y and s t e r i l i t y ) t h a t we w i l l
examine i n H a m le t. 6 There would be n o t h in g u n u su a l in
S h a k e s p e a r e ' s f o l l o w i n g a p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e t h i s c l o s e l y ,
e s p e c i a l l y one a l r e a d y c o n v e r t e d t o drama. D o u b tle s s he
m o d ifie d w h a te v e r comic m a t e r i a l s he borrowed. Kyd d id
n o t w r i t e comedy (a s f a r as we know), w hereas -
S h a k e s p e a r e 's p r a c t i c a l a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e genre was
e x t e n s i v e , p e rh a p s e n a b l i n g him t o se e much more c l e a r l y
th a n Kyd th e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e New C o m i c / t r a g i c f u s i o n .
Almost c e r t a i n l y i t was S h a k e s p e a re whose p s y c h o l o g i c a l
i n s i g h t s l e d t o a Hamlet whose c a p a c i t y t o t r u s t o r lo v e a
woman was c r i p p l e d by h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G e r t r u d e and
by h e r m a r r i a g e . S u re ly S h a k e sp e a re d e v e lo p e d t h e
e l a b o r a t e image p a t t e r n s in H a m le t's d i a l o g u e which
a s s o c i a t e sex w i t h s i n , b e s t i a l i t y , d i s e a s e , d e a th , and
posthumous c o r r u p t i o n : "For i f t h e sun b re e d maggots i n a
dead dog, b ein g a good k i s s i n g c a r r i o n . . ( 2 . 2 . 1 8 1 -
182). P ro b a b ly , to o , S h a k e s p e a re more th a n Kyd i s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s u b t l e t y and th e a l l u s i v e n e s s o f th e
i r o n i c l o v e / d e a t h o p p o s i t i o n s so a b u n d an t l a t e r in th e
p la y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in O p h e l i a ' s songs and in t h e g ra v e y a rd
of 5 . 1 . These o p p o s i t i o n s i n v i t e us to c o n s i d e r th e
i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n s between th e p l a y ' s p r o b le m a ti c lo v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t h e t r a g i c f a t e s o f a l l f o u r l o v e r s : ’
G e r tr u d e , C la u d iu s , Hamlet, and O p h e lia .
U n t i l we p o s s e s s a copy of t h e U r-H am let, we can only
s p e c u l a t e on what Kyd c o n t r i b u t e d i n comic m a t e r i a l s t o
t h e Hamlet s t o r y , and what S h a k e s p e a re c o n t r i b u t e d . What
we can be c e r t a i n o f i s t h a t one o r both E l i z a b e t h a n s
added th e m a t e r i a l s , and t h a t t h e s e comedic i n f u s i o n s
changed th e s t o r y , l a r g e l y by making r o m a n tic l o v e a
c e n t r a l co n cern , as i t had not been in any p r e v i o u s
t e l l i n g . The Amleth le g e n d in th e hands of t h e E n g lis h
d r a m a t i s t s becomes n o t a l o v e s t o r y , but t h e a n t i t h e s i s of
one. In i t t h e d e e p e s t v a l u e s of r o m a n tic comedy a r e
a f f i r m e d th ro u g h n e g a t i v e exam ple. On t h e one hand,
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C la u d iu s and G e r tr u d e f u l f i l l the- r i g h t p a t t e r n
( m a r r i a g e ) , but f o r th e wrong r e a s o n s ; and on t h e o t h e r .
Hamlet and O p h e lia , who would co m p le te th e comic p a t t e r n
by m a rry in g , f a i l in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . These " f a i l u r e s
o f l o v e . " or o f l o v e r s , a r e among th e f a c t o r s t h a t l e a d t o
t r a g i c denouement, f o r t h e Q u e e n 's bad m a rria g e h e l p s to
m o t i v a t e H a m le t’s re v e n g e , and t h e s e v e ra n c e between him
and O p h e lia c o n t r i b u t e s t o h e r i n s a n i t y , and, th ro u g h
L a e r t e s , t o H a m le t’ s d e a th . Kyd and S h a k e s p e a re , a s t h e
s t o r y r e q u i r e s , change S a x o ’ s s e x u a l l y a d v e n tu ro u s m y th ic
h e ro i n t o a modern man r o m a n t i c a l l y im m o b ilize d by
misogyny and r e v u l s i o n toward sex. Obsessed by th e
b e t r a y a l s , r e a l and im agined, o f h i s m other and h i s ex
l o v e r , Hamlet becomes a d e c l a r e d enemy of romance, of
m a r r ia g e , o f p r o c r e a t i o n . Under t h e co v er o f h i s a n t i c
d i s p o s i t i o n he assumes t h e r o l e of clown, but w ith a
d i f f e r e n c e . T h is n a t u r a l (a s P o lo n iu s l e a r n s to o l a t e )
can p u n c t u a t e h i s w i t w ith a r a p i e r , and in him s e x u a l
c y n ic ism blossom s m a l i g n a n t l y t o a s s a i l th e p l a y ’s two
women*
A lthough Hamlet i s not u s u a l l y th o u g h t t o be as
f u n d a m e n ta lly c o n cern ed w i t h ro m a n tic lo v e as I am
s u g g e s t i n g , and c r i t i c s have g iv e n l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n to t h e
p r e s e n c e and f u n c t i o n o f th e New Comic m a t e r i a l s , a few
w r i t e r s have to u c h e d on t h e s e m a t t e r s . R. S. White has
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w r i t t e n t h a t Hamlet and O p h e lia a r e " i d e a l c a n d i d a t e s f o r
a ro m a n tic com edy.”7 T h e ir problem, in h i s view, i s
O p h e lia , who when fa c e d by' t h e t r a d i t i o n a l comic c h o ic e
p l a c e s th e commands of h e r fa m ily b e f o r e t h e needs of her
l o v e r , c o m m ittin g a " s i n " a g a i n s t t h e law s t h a t p e r t a i n in
comedy. Both she and Hamlet must s u f f e r f o r " h e r l a c k of
f a i t h i n t h e power of m utual l o v e . " Susan Snyder,
e x p l a i n i n g t h e im p o rta n c e o f P o lo n iu s , d i s c u s s e s H a m le t1s
comic p l o t . As she s e e s i t , P o lo n iu s f i l l s two comic
r o l e s in se q u e n c e : f i r s t t h a t of t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l
o b s t r u c t i v e f a t h e r , " and th e n , in r e s p o n s e to t h e P r i n c e ' s
a n t i c d i s p o s i t i o n , t h a t o f comic m a n i p u l a t o r , " th e b e t t e r
to c o n t r i v e a happy e n d i n g . "8 P o lo n iu s would become
f a t h e r - i n - l a w t o th e n e x t king " i f Hamlet were in f a c t a
ro m a n tic comedy," b u t t h e play i s not comedy, and t h i s
" c o m i c - g a r r u l o u s " f i g u r e i n s t e a d d i e s i n h i s m a n i p u l a t o r
r o l e , o b l i v i o u s t o t h e l a s t of t h e d a n g e rs i n h e r e n t in
b e in g " to o b u s y ." Snyder r e g a r d s P o l o n i u s ' m urder a s
p i v o t a l , s e t t i n g t h e drama " u n a l t e r a b l y on c o u rse to th e
f i n a l c a t a s t r o p h e . " Roger S t i l l i n g rem ark s on H a m l e t 's
dependence upon t h e p l o t o f r o m a n tic comedy y e t u l t i m a t e
d iv e r g e n c e from i t : " a lth o u g h S h a k e s p e a re has in Hamlet
made a new e q u a t i o n , he began w ith t h e same numbers: y o u th
in lo v e s e t a g a i n s t an o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n t h a t makes
f r u i t i o n of lo v e i m p o s s i b l e . "9 Like W hite, S t i l l i n g
J
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b e l i e v e s O p h e l i a ’s f a i l u r e to a s s e r t h e r s e l f in d e f e n s e of
lo v e v i o l a t e s t h e b a s i c comic p a t t e r n , w ith t r a g i c
c o n s e q u e n c e s. He a l s o exam ines H a m le t's s e x u a l confusion*
i t s c a u s e s and e f f e c t s , and e x p l a i n s th e i r o n i c use o f
comic m a t e r i a l s in O p h e l i a ' s f u n e r a l sc e n e . I s h a l l l a t e r
c o n s i d e r S t i l l i n g ' s i d e a s more f u l l y .
To my knowledge, no one has s t u d i e d H a m le t' s o t h e r
romance in te rm s of comedy. T h is i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e ,
b e c a u se beyond t h e f a c t t h a t G e r tr u d e and C la u d iu s m arry,
th e y s h a r e l i t t l e w ith t h e l o v e r s o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's
com edies. Yet t h e d i f f e r e n c e , I would arg u e , i s p r e c i s e l y
th e p o i n t . What th e union of t h e s e o l d e r , l e s s i n n o c e n t
l o v e r s r e p r e s e n t s ( in both form and f u n c t i o n ) i s so m eth in g
q u i t e l i k e t h e p o l a r o p p o s i t e of comic m a r r i a g e . We see
t h i s even in t h e way S h a k e sp e a re p o s i t i o n s G e r t r u d e ' s
wedding in r e l a t i o n t o t h e p l o t . Whereas h i s comic
c o u p le s most o f t e n wed i n t h a t i d y l l i c " h a p p ily ev er
a f t e r " which comedy i n v i t e s us t o im agine beyond t h e f i n a l
c u r t a i n , G e r t r u d e and C la u d iu s marry a month or two b e f o r e
t h e . p l a y , d u rin g a gloomy p e r i o d o f s e c r e t crim e, f u n e r a l
o b s e rv a n c e , and p r e p a r a t i o n f o r w ar. More i m p o r t a n t ,
comic m a r r i a g e c u l m i n a t e s and r e s o l v e s comic p l o t ,
l e g i t i m i z i n g l o v e a s i t b r i n g s s t a b i l i t y and harmony to
j
l i n d i v i d u a l s , t o f a m i l i e s , and t o t h e community.
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G e r t r u d e ' s m a r ria g e , by c o n t r a s t , t o a man who has k i l l e d
h i s b r o t h e r f o r t h e crown, c o n s o l i d a t e s an i l l e g i t i m a t e
k i n g s h i p a t t h e same tim e i t r i t u a l l y c o n s e c r a t e s a lo v e
bond i d e n t i f i e d a s i n c e s t u o u s by E n g lis h l a w . 10 T his
w ro n g fu l union, which has d e f e a t e d H a m l e t 's own hopes f o r
c o r o n a t i o n ( 5 . 2 . 6 5 ) , c o n t a i n s a l l t h e s e e d s o f t h e tra g e d y
t h a t e n s u e s. H a m l e t 's m u tu a lly r e i n f o r c i n g needs t o
avenge h i s f a t h e r , to r e c t i f y th e u s u r p a t i o n , and t o l i f t
h i s m other from " c o r r u p t i o n " compel him to e x e c u te th e
e v i l " u n c i e - f a t h e r ." As th e two "mighty o p p o s i t e s "
c o n t e s t , t h e e n t i r e r o y a l fam ily i s a n n i h i l a t e d , alo n g
w ith most of th e Danish c o u r t . P erh ap s w orse, as Hamlet
l i e s dying he must s u r r e n d e r h i s n a t i o n ' s s o v e r e i g n t y to
F o r t i n b r a s , t h e n a t i o n a l enemy, f o r t h e p u rp o se of
r e s t o r i n g o r d e r t o t h e body p o l i t i c . In t h e s e ways th e
p l a y ’s bad m a r r i a g e l e a d s d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y to th e
t r a g i c s a c r i f i c e o f a l l t h e v a l u e s r o m a n tic comedy
t y p i c a l l y c e l e b r a t e s : lo v e , fa m ily , and community.
When C la u d iu s s a y s of h i s w if e , "she i s so
c o n j u n c t i v e t o my l i f e and s o u l, / T h a t, as th e s t a r moves
n o t b u t i n h i s s p h e re , / I co u ld n o t but by h e r " ( 4 . 7 . 1 4 -
16), I t a k e him to be t e l l i n g th e t r u t h . Throughout th e
p lay h i s lo v e f o r G e r tru d e a p p e a r s g e n u in e and deep, as
h e r s f o r him may be a s w e l l . The s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r
a f f e c t i o n , however, begs t h e q u e s t i o n , f o r t h e lo v e
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betw een them i s c l e a r l y of t h e u n f o r t u n a t e , d e s t r u c t i v e
kind c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c l a s s i c a l l o v e t r a g e d y . Moreover,
t h e d ep th of t h e i r m utual u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s p r o b le m a ti c .
E i t h e r t h e Queen does n o t know t h a t t h e man she has
m a r rie d i s t h e man who m urdered h e r f i r s t husband (making
h e r m u t u a l i t y w i t h C la u d iu s a f r a u d ) , or e l s e she does
know (but th e n t h e c o u p l e ' s m e n ta l and s p i r i t u a l communion
m ight b e t t e r be term ed " c o m p l i c i t y ” ) . . In my o p in io n ,
G e r tr u d e i s n o t so g u i l t y a s t h e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e would
have h e r . She a p p a r e n t l y l e a r n s of C l a u d i u s ' crim e, and
th u s o f h i s t r u e c h a r a c t e r , when h e r son c o n f r o n t s h e r in
t h e c l o s e t sc e n e ( 3 . 4 . 2 9 - 3 0 ) . Some have argued t h a t t h e
Queen com m itted a d u l t e r y w ith C la u d iu s b e f o r e t h e d e a th of
h e r f i r s t h u s b a n d , 11 but t h e r e i s no e v id e n c e f o r t h i s in
th e p la y , and a g a in I can n o t firtd h e r c a p a b le of so
f l a g r a n t an i m p r o p r i e t y . She seems weak r a t h e r th a n
w i l f u l l y c o r r u p t . Lady Macbeth, G o n e r i l , and Regan a r e
e v i l S h a k e s p e a r ia n women, G e r tr u d e m erely an u n a s s e r t i v e
one, a meek s o u l who l i k e C h ek h o v 's D a r lin g n e v e r d e v e lo p s
t h e i n n e r d i r e c t i o n and p lu c k r e q u i r e d t o g u id e h e r own
l i f e , and who must t h u s be g u id ed . As Rosamond P u t z e l has
w r i t t e n ,
She i s , t h r o u g h o u t, d o m e stic , m a l l e a b l e , and
d u c t i l e — n e v e r o r i g i n a l or t h o u g h t f u l or
in d e p e n d e n t, never v i c i o u s . For such a woman,
t h e most c r e d i b l e p a t t e r n o f p r e v io u s a c t i o n
would have been o b e d ie n c e t o t h e e l d e r Hamlet
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u n t i l he died# fo llo w e d by b e w ild e rm e n t when h e r
g u id e was gone, fo llo w e d by r a p i d a c q u ie s c e n c e
i n C l a u d i u s 's s u i t becau se h e r n a t u r e r e q u i r e d a
l e a d e r . 12
G e r tru d e would have w anted t o rem ain queen, and h e r
m a r ria g e t o C la u d iu s a s s u r e d h e r t h a t she would. In p a r t
C la u d iu s m ight have p e rsu a d e d h e r by a r g u in g t h a t t h e i r
j o i n t r e i g n r e p r e s e n t e d a s t a b i l i z i n g d y n a s t i c c o n t i n u i t y
t o c o u n te r t h e sudden d e a th of t h e o ld k in g . G e rtru d e and
C la u d iu s in d eed had many r e a s o n s f o r m a rry in g , b u t among
t h e s e t h e d e s i r e f o r c h i l d r e n d id n o t f i g u r e .
In h e r i n f e r t i l i t y , in h e r d i s l o y a l t y , and most o f
a l l in h e r weakness o f c h a r a c t e r , G e r tru d e c o n t r a s t s
m arkedly w i t h comic h e r o i n e s such a s R o s a lin d or B e a t r i c e .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between C la u d iu s and comedy i s more
complex. He re s e m b le s l o v e r s l i k e D em etrius o r P r o te u s in
t h a t he d e s i r e s and p u r s u e s a woman who i s m o ra lly
com m itted to somebody e l s e , but in h i s c a s e t h e woman i s
a l r e a d y m a r r ie d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s no b e n e f i c e n t
n a t u r a l f o r c e t o c u re C la u d iu s o f h i s midsummer madness,
to ro c k h i s d i s t o r t e d p e r s p e c t i v e th ro u g h c o n f u s i o n .
W ithout t h i s check he commits m urder, t r a n s f o r m i n g h i m s e l f
i n t o what t h e E l i z a b e t h a n s would have r e g a r d e d as an
i
u l t i m a t e c r i m i n a l : a f r a t r i c i d e and r e g i c i d e i n one.
Moreover, becau se t h e o b j e c t of h i s a f f e c t i o n s i s weak,
she m a r r i e s him, and t h e r e a f t e r t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n of one
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a n o t h e r (and t h e i r crowns) becomes t h e p r i n c i p a l bar to
t h e r e p e n t a n c e and s a l v a t i o n o f b o th . G e r tr u d e i s in d eed
" c o n j u n c t i v e " t o t h e new k i n g ’ s l i f e and s o u l, as he i s to
h e r s .
S h a k e s p e a re p r o v id e s a g re e n w o rld in Hamlet t h a t
f u n c t i o n s a s i r o n i c backdrop f o r t h e s e m id d le -a g e d ,
po w erfu l l o v e r s and t h e i r romance. I t i s t h e o r c h a r d
where Hamlet, S r. i s p o iso n e d , a c u l t i v a t e d n a t u r a l m i l i e u
r e p r e s e n t i n g a Danish Garden o f Eden, com plete w ith
s e r p e n t , Eve, a p p le , and Fail'. The g h o s t of th e old king
e s t a b l i s h e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r a l l e l s d u rin g t h e second
b a t t l e m e n t s s c e n e : "The s e r p e n t t h a t did s t i n g thy
f a t h e r ’s l i f e , " he t e l l s Hamlet, "Now w ears h i s crow n."
W ea k -w ille d G e r tr u d e , by e x t r a p o l a t i o n , becomes Eve, and
t h e " t r a i t o r o u s g i f t s " t h a t C la u d iu s se d u c e s h e r w ith
r e p l a c e t h e a p p l e . Roger S t i l l i n g b e l i e v e s t h a t C l a u d i u s '
" g i f t s " a r e p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e s c o n f e r r i n g a s tr o n g s e x u a l
a p p e a l , 13 b u t even i f they a r e n o t, i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t
S h a k e s p e a re in Hamlet makes much more of th e e r o s l a t e n t
i n t h e C h r i s t i a n a c c o u n t of th e F a l l th a n he d id in
O t h e l l o (where, as we have seen , s i m i l a r Edenic p a r a l l e l s
a r i s e ) . The hom oerotism in I a g o ’s s e d u c t i o n o f h i s
g e n e r a l rem ain s i m p l i c i t , more sy m b o lic th a n a c t u a l ,
w h e re a s G e r tr u d e and C la u d iu s r a t h e r o b v io u s ly s h a r e a
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! s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , even i f i t i s n o t so e n e r g e t i c and
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l u s t f u l as th e g h o s t and Hamlet f e a r .
S h a k e s p e a re a l s o i d e n t i f i e s C la u d iu s w i t h a n o th e r
f i g u r e from G e n e s is . As t h e king sa y s in th e p ra y e r
scenei ”0. my o f f e n s e i s rank, i t s m e l l s t o heaven. / I t
h a t h t h e p rim al e l d e s t c u r s e u p o n ’ t , / A b r o t h e r ' s
m u r t h e r . " S i g n i f i c a n t l y , C a i n 's k i l l i n g o f Abel— a
f r a t r i c i d e m o t i v a t e d by envy— was n o t only th e f i r s t human
murder (and t h e r e f o r e t h e p r o to t y p e f o r a l l su b se q u e n t
k i l l i n g ) , but th e f i r s t i n i q u i t y o f p o s t l a p s a r i a n h i s t o r y ,
t h e s i n t h a t i n t r o d u c e d s i n i n t o t h e f a l l e n w o rld beyond
Eden. C l a u d i u s ' crim e, w i t h i n t h e more l i m i t e d c o n t e x t of
Denmark, i s in many ways a n a lo g o u s, e x c e p t t h a t C la u d iu s
i n t r o d u c e s s i n i n t o h i s w orld much more d i r e c t l y . By
s t r i k i n g down t h e l e g i t i m a t e king, he th ro w s t h e c o u r t and
th e e n t i r e p o l i t y i n t o d i s a r r a y ; and by a p p r o p r i a t i n g th e
crown and h i s c o u n t r y ' s Queen, he e n s u r e s t h e c o n tin u e d
p o l l u t i o n o f th e body p o l i t i c from t h e very s o u rc e of
n a t i o n a l power. C la u d iu s a l s o d e s t r o y s a f a m ily ,
m u rd e rin g i t s f a t h e r , "w horing" th e m other, and condemning
t h e son to a re v e n g e t h a t w i l l make him a m u rd e re r a l s o .
The new r o y a l fa m ily t h a t C la u d iu s e s t a b l i s h e s i s a
l i v i n g h o r r o r t o t h e " a d o p te d " son, as i t i s t o t h e g h o st
of h i s s u p p l a n t e d f a t h e r . Both H am lets f e e l t h e l o v e r s
a r e g u i l t y of i n g r a i n e d s e l f i s h n e s s and b l i n d n e s s to
f a m i l i a l b e s t i n t e r e s t s , and they communicate t h i s by
167
r e p e a t e d l y l e v e l i n g t h e ch arg e o f i n c e s t ( 1 . 2 . 1 5 7 ; 1 . 5 . 4 2 ;
1 . 5 . 8 3 ; 3 . 3 . 9 0 ; and 5 . 2 . 3 2 5 ) . F a t h e r and son dw ell t o an
a lm o st a b s u rd e x t e n t on t h e s e x u a l a s p e c t of G e r t r u d e ' s '
t r a n s g r e s s i o n , r e v e a l i n g a g r o s s and o b s e s s i v e c u r i o s i t y
ab o u t t h e p h y s i c a l in tim a c y between the. m id d le -a g e d
l o v e r s . A p p alled by t h e i r im ag in ary c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f
lo v e -m a k in g i n t h e r o y a l cham bers— "Nay, but t o l i v e / In •
th e ra n k sweat of an enseamed b ed"— th e two H am lets
undergo what Roger S t i l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i z e s as a c r i p p l i n g
p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e g r e s s i o n : "From R e n a is sa n c e humanism they
b a c k s te p t o g e t h e r i n t o a m e d ie v a l m o n a stic h o r r o r of
woman." The e n t i r e fem ale sex becomes i d e n t i f i e d in t h e i r
t r o u b l e d minds w i t h Eve, and t h e human s e x - d r i v e w i t h t h e
r o o t o f e v i l . One r e s u l t o f t h e s e u n b alan ced
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i s t h a t Hamlet, t h e son, i s c o n v e r t e d t o
what S t i l l i n g te rm s an " a g e n t o f d e a t h , " a man n o t m erely
com m itted t o k i l l i n g , but i n t e n t on r e j e c t i n g h i s own
s e x u a l i t y and c a p a c i t y f o r lo v e . Even th e " to o to o
s u l l i e d f l e s h " of h i s own body o f f e n d s him, as does God’ s
s u b lu n a ry c r e a t i o n , w hich he view s as a w holly c o r r u p t e d
Eden, "an unweeded g ard en / T hat grows t o seed, t h i n g s
ra n k and g r o s s in n a t u r e / P o ss e s s i t m e re ly " ( 1 . 2 . 1 3 5 -
137). As S t i l l i n g e x p l a i n s , l a r g e l y under t h e burden o f
an i n t e n s e , morbid i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h i s dead f a t h e r ,
Hamlet "has tu r n e d away from woman b ecau se she b e t r a y s ; by
j . 168
t h i s a c t , away from s e x u a l i t y becau se i t c o r r u p t s i n t o
b e s t i a l i t y ; by t h i s away from p r o c r e a t i o n i t s e l f and
t h e r e f o r e p h y s i c a l l i f e . He has t u r n e d away from lo v e
which b in d s men t o g e t h e r t o vow h i m s e l f t o h a t r e d — s e l f
p o is o n in g . c l a u s t r o p h o b i c t o t h e s p i r i t , i n every way
d e s t r u c t i v e .
O p h e l i a ' s abandonment o f Hamlet as h e r l o v e r , a t a
tim e when he i s s t i l l deeply u n s e t t l e d by t h e g h o s t ' s
news, c o u ld only co n firm th e P r in c e i n h i s n e g a t i v e
a t t i t u d e s to w a rd woman, sex, and lo v e . He s u s p e c t s t h a t
O p h e lia has f a l l e n i n l e a g u e w ith t h e e v i l k in g — as most
of t h e r e s t of th e c o u r t a p p e a r s to have done, i n c l u d i n g
h e r f a t h e r — and t h e d i s l o y a l t y he a t t r i b u t e s t o h e r on
t h i s b a s i s s t r e n g t h e n s h i s p r e - e x i s t i n g i n c l i n a t i o n t o
i _ ”
i d e n t i f y O p h elia w ith h i s m other. T h e r e a f t e r , he f i n d s i t
easy t o b e l i e v e t h a t a l l G e r t r u d e ' s f a u l t s e x te n d t o th e
p l a y ' s second Eve. We see t h i s t r a n s f e r e n c e o r p r o j e c t i o n
in 2 . 2 , f o r example, when Hamlet h i n t s t o P o lo n iu s t h a t
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s e x u a l l i a i s o n e x i s t s between O phelia
and C la u d iu s : "Let h e r n o t w alk i ' t h ' s u n , " he w arn s.
"C o n cep tio n i s a b l e s s i n g , b u t as y o u r d a u g h te r may
c o n c e iv e , f r i e n d , lo o k t o ' t . " And we see i t a g a i n , much
more c l e a r l y , in t h e Nunnery and t h e M ousetrap s c e n e s ,
when H a m le t's c r i t i c i s m o f h i s e x - l o v e e s c a l a t e s t o v e r b a l
a s s a u l t in one i n s t a n c e and lewd i n s u l t in t h e o t h e r .
S in c e O p h e lia alm o st s u r e l y rem ain s in t h e d a rk a b o u t t h e
old k i n g ' s murder, she can n o t g u ess H a m le t's
v u l n e r a b i l i t y , nor t h e im pact t h a t h er r e j e c t i o n has upon
him. She seems overwhelmed by h i s a b u s iv e s a rc a s m s, and
u n a b le t o d e te rm in e t h e i r c a u se . Perhaps she b e l i e v e s
t h a t i n b r e a k in g o f f t h e romance she did th e r i g h t and th e
n e c e s s a r y t h i n g , p r o t e c t i n g h e r s e l f and h e r fa m ily from
t h e h u m i l i a t i o n t h a t unwed m otherhood would b r i n g . Both
h e r b r o t h e r and h e r f a t h e r have u rg ed t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e
a f f a i r on th e s e grounds, and t h e i r argum ents a r e w e ll
ta k e n , f o r d e s p i t e what t h e Queen sa y s a t O p h e l i a ' s
g r a v e s i d e , 15 Hamlet, a s Denm ark's P r in c e , i s in d e e d "out
o f [ O p h e l i a 's ] s t a r " m a t r i m o n i a l l y , under most
c i r c u m s t a n c e s . He c o u ld marry a woman of h e r s t a t u s only
i f he were so much in l o v e as t o champion t h e unequal
match a g a i n s t t h e p r e d i c t a b l e p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i o n s , and
t h e r e i s no c l e a r e v id e n c e in t h e play t h a t h i s d e v o tio n
was e v e r t h i s w h o l e h e a r t e d . T h e re i s some e v id e n c e t o t h e
c o n t r a r y , and we w i l l examine i t s h o r t l y .
W hile i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r s ta n d O p h e l i a ' s
b e h a v i o r , we do n o t, I b e l i e v e , adm ire i t . Her meek
a c q u i e s c e n c e a s L a e r t e s and P o lo n iu s impugn h e r l o v e r , and
h e r u n q u e s ti o n i n g a c c e p ta n c e of h e r f a t h e r ' s d e c r e e n o t t o
sp e a k t o t h e P r in c e a g a in , s u g g e s t a s u b m is s iv e (and
j
j p ro b ab ly u n r e f l e c t i n g ) p e r s o n a l i t y somewhat l i k e t h a t I
170
have p o s t u l a t e d f o r G e r tr u d e . O p h e l i a ’ s y o u th and
in n o c e n c e make h e r co m p lian ce more u n d e r s t a n d a b l e th a n t h e
Q u e e n 's, but b o th women a r e u n u s u a lly p a s s i v e f o r fem ale
S h a k e s p e a r ia n c h a r a c t e r s of t h e i r d r a m a tic im p o rta n c e .
Most o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's h e r o i n e s , w h eth er comic or t r a g i c ,
know what they want and seek i t . d e f i n i n g th e m se lv e s
th ro u g h a c t i o n and by t h e i r e f f e c t on o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s .
In p u rp o se , v i v a c i t y , and a s s e r t i v e n e s s , B e a t r i c e ,
R o s a lin d , and J u l i e t a r e a w orld a p a r t from G e r tru d e and
O p h e lia . H a m le t' s women a r e th e w a l l f l o w e r s o f t h e i r
%
p lay , re m a in in g on t h e p e r ip h e ry of t h e a c t i o n and
a f f e c t i n g o t h e r s , when they do, l a r g e l y th ro u g h n e g l i g e n c e
and o m iss io n . C o n seq u en tly , both rem ain vaguely d e f in e d ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y O p h e lia . In 1.3 she f i n d s h e r s e l f in alm o st
p r e c i s e l y th e same p o s i t i o n a s a comic h e r o i n e — b a r re d
from h e r l o v e r by h e r male r e l a t i v e s — b u t u n l i k e any comic
h e r o i n e , and u n l i k e J u l i e t and Desdemona, she c a p i t u l a t e s
t o t h e p a t e r n a l command w i t h o u t o b j e c t i o n : "I s h a l l obey,
my l o r d . " P e rh a p s she must b re a k o f f w i t h Hamlet, but
when we c o n s i d e r t h a t in a g r e e i n g t o do so she o f f e r s no
c o u n te r arg u m en ts, e x p r e s s e s no d o u b ts, no r e g r e t s , and no
s t r o n g e m o tio n s w h a ts o e v e r, we m ig h t f i n d r e a s o n to
q u e s t i o n th e d e p th o f h e r f e e l i n g s . Could t h i s be th e
re s p o n s e of a woman in lo v e ?
Nowhere in t h e play does O p h elia say t h a t she lo v e s
171
Hamlet, or t h a t she e v e r lo v e d him, a lth o u g h t h e r e a r e a t
l e a s t t h r e e o c c a s i o n s when t h i s would seem a p p r o p r i a t e .
In 1 .3 , when h e r f a t h e r demands t o know "what i s b etw een "-
Hamlet and h e r s e l f , she answ ers as though th e q u e s t i o n
a p p l i e d only t o h e r s u i t o r : "He h a th , my l o r d , of l a t e
made many t e n d e r s / Of h i s a f f e c t i o n t o m e." O ph elia of
c o u r s e knows t h a t from h e r f a t h e r ’s p o i n t of view t h e
P r i n c e ’ s a r d o r i s th e p r i n c i p a l i s s u e , but i t seems odd
t h a t she does n o t even m ention h er own f e e l i n g s . A
s i m i l a r r e t i c e n c e p o s s e s s e s h e r in t h e Nunnery s c e n e , when
Hamlet t e l l s h er "I d id l o v e you o n c e ." "In d e e d , my l o r d ,
you made me b e l i e v e s o , " she r e p l i e s , mute as t o what she
f e l t f o r him. In h e r s o l i l o q u y a t t h e c o n c l u s io n o f t h i s
sc e n e , i t i s t r u e t h a t she r e v e a l s a g en u in e d i s t r e s s over
H a m le t’s t u r b u l e n t m en tal s t a t e , but once a g a in she does
n o t e x p r e s s any a f f e c t i o n f o r him, and h e r co n cern i s
h a r d ly t h a t of a l o v e r . Though she may be, as she p u ts i t
"o f l a d i e s most d e j e c t and w r e t c h e d , " t h i s seems more a
consequence of f r u s t r a t e d e x p e c t a t i o n s th a n of
d i s a p p o i n t e d lo v e . The Hamlet who once wooed h e r w i t h
"m usic v o w s ," s e e k s, i n h i s derangem ent, t o to rm e n t h e r,
and she f e e l s w renched from h e r in n o c e n c e , p e rh a p s
f o r s a k e n : "0 woe i s me / T ’have seen what I have seen,
s e e what I s e e ! "
O p h e l i a ’s sp eech i n v i t e s c l o s e r s c r u t i n y , b e c a u se h er
172
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e P r in c e as she once knew him can
p r o v id e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r form er
r e l a t i o n s h i p :
0. what a n o b le mind i s h e re o ’ e rth ro w n !
The c o u r t i e r ' s , s o l d i e r ' s , s c h o l a r ' s , eye, tongue,
sword,
T h ' e x p e c t a t i o n and r o s e of t h e f a i r s t a t e ,
The g l a s s o f f a s h i o n and t h e mould of form,
T h ' o b s e r v 'd o f a l l o b s e r v e r s , q u i t e , q u i t e down!
And I, o f l a d i e s most d e j e c t and w re tc h e d ,
That s u c k 'd t h e honey o f h i s m usic vows,
Now see t h a t n o b le and most s o v e r e i g n r e a so n
L ike sw eet b e l l s j a n g l e d out o f tim e , and h a r s h ;
That u n m a tc h 'd form and s t a t u r e of blown y o u th
B l a s t e d w i t h e c s t a s y .
O p h e l i a 's r e s p e c t and a d m i r a ti o n f o r Hamlet a r e
c o n s p ic u o u s in t h i s p a ssa g e , b u t h e r a t t i t u d e tow ard him
i s im p e r s o n a l. Except f o r h er m ention of h i s "noble
m i n d , " a l l th e p r o p e r t i e s she c a t a l o g u e s apply to th e
outw ard, p u b l i c man, none t o t h e i n n e r p e rs o n . She
p r a i s e s him f o r h a v in g p lay ed s e v e r a l r o l e s w ith
d i s t i n c t i o n ( c o u r t i e r , s c h o l a r , s o l d i e r , p r i n c e ) , f o r
b e in g Denm ark's c h i e f p o l i t i c a l hope, and f o r f u n c t i o n i n g
a s a Danish paragon, but t h e s e a r e q u a l i t i e s o f Hamlet t h e
p erso n ag e r a t h e r th a n Hamlet th e p e r s o n . Even in t h e
words O p h e lia c h o o ses we can n o t i c e a r e l i a n c e on
a b s t r a c t i o n s and s u p e r l a t i v e s t h a t d i s t a n c e s h e r from him,
m erging h e r i n e f f e c t w ith h i s r e t i n u e of a d m ire rs .
A p p a re n tly t h e r e i s an elem ent o f h e ro w o rsh ip in h e r
a t t r a c t i o n to him. I n i t i a l l y she must have been
173
overwhelmed by h i s r o m a n tic a t t e n t i o n s , awed t h a t he would
f a v o r h e r , and p ro b a b ly she has not s i n c e managed t o come
t o term s w ith him as a man. Whenever they ta lk * she pays
him t h e same d e g re e of r e s p e c t t h a t she. shows h e r f a t h e r
o r t h e king, u s in g t h e p o l i t e , s u b m is s iv e form o f addre.ss
("my l o r d " ) and c o n d u c tin g h e r s e l f w ith s e l f - c o n s c i o u s
p r o p r i e t y . In t h e company of h er b r o t h e r , whom she
c o n s i d e r s an e q u a l, she i s more r e l a x e d , l e s s fo rm a l, a b le
on o c c a s io n to t e a s e ( 1 . 3 . 4 5 - 5 1 ) . P robably she would have
been more c o m f o r ta b le w ith a l o v e r more s i m i l a r t o h e r s e l f
i n s t a t u s and a u t h o r i t y .
A lthough we a r e n ev er t o l d O p h e l i a ' s age, she seems
young in com parison w i t h Hamlet, or a t l e a s t l e s s
m a t u r e . 16 She a l s o d i f f e r s from him w idely in e d u c a t i o n a l
a t t a i n m e n t , in knowledge o f th e w o rld beyond E l s i n o r e , and
(one presum es) in i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y and b r e a d t h of
i n t e r e s t . For a l l t h e s e r e a s o n s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to
b e l i e v e t h a t a deep m u t u a l i t y co u ld have e x i s t e d between
t h e p a i r . From th e play we l e a r n only t h a t Hamlet pledged
h i s lo v e , and t h a t O p h e lia l i s t e n e d and b e l i e v e d him
(1 . 3 .9 9 - 1 0 0 ; 1 .3 .1 1 0 - 1 1 4 ; 3 . 1 .1 1 4 - 1 1 5 ; 3.1 .1 5 6 ) . ; They may
have t a l k e d ab o u t o t h e r t h i n g s as w e l l , but we do n o t h e a r
o f t h e s e . I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t Hamlet asked h e r t o marry
him, b e c a u s e , i f he had, O ph elia would s u r e l y have
m en tio n ed t h i s t o h e r f a t h e r and b r o t h e r in 1 .3 .
t
(
t
! 174
P o s s i b l y , as P o lo n iu s f i r s t s u s p e c t s , H a m le t's a t t r a c t i o n
t o h e r was l a r g e l y p h y s i c a l . N o th in g in th e play
s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n t r a d i c t s t h i s view . P o lo n iu s l a t e r comes
t o b e l i e v e t h a t Hamlet was and i s deeply i n lo v e w i t h h i s
d a u g h te r , but t h i s " r e a l i z a t i o n " i s based on a s u r f a c e
r e a d i n g o f H a m l e t 's a n t i c d i s p o s i t i o n and t h e r e f o r e can
h a r d ly be t r u s t e d . The l e t t e r from Hamlet t o O p h elia t h a t
P o lo n iu s p ro d u c e s i n o r d e r t o prove t h e P r i n c e ' s d ep th o f
p a s s i o n t o t h e King and Queen i s d u b io u s e v id e n c e in d e e d .
T h is l o v e l e t t e r and th e poem i t c o n t a i n s a r e n o t
what they a p p e a r . Examined c a r e f u l l y , they r e v e a l — am id st
seeming p r a i s e — s e v e r a l s u b t l e d is p a r a g e m e n ts of O p h e lia
and h e r charms as w e ll as a contem ptuous p re su m p tio n t h a t
she w i l l prove i n c a p a b l e of r e a d i n g between th e l i n e s .
H a m l e t 's s a l u t a t i o n — "To t h e c e l e s t i a l and my s o u l ' s i d o l ,
t h e most b e a u t i f i e d O p h e l i a " — may b e g in w e ll enough ( i f we
d e t e c t no iro n y i n t h e i n f l a t e d r h e t o r i c o f lo v e ) but to
c a l l O p h e lia " b e a u t i f i e d " i s q u i t e u n f l a t t e r i n g , a s even
h e r f a t h e r r e c o g n i z e s . I t s u g g e s t s t h a t h e r beau ty i s
p a i n t e d on w ith c o s m e ti c s . The n e x t l i n e : — "In h e r
e x c e l l e n t w h i t e bosom, t h e s e , e t c . " — f o c u s e s d i r e c t l y on
O p h e l i a ' s b r e a s t s ( " t h e s e " ) , c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n to h er
s e x u a l i t y in a manner t h a t i s o b t r u s i v e and somewhat
humorous. The l i n e may i n i t i a t e , in t h e l e t t e r , a
p a s t i c h e of t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p o e t i c i n v e n t o r y of th e
1-75
b e l o v e d 's p h y siq u e , but P o lo n iu s , I am assum ing,
b o w d le r iz e s , s u b s t i t u t i n g " e t c . " f o r f u r t h e r s u g g e s t i v e
r e f e r e n c e s t o h i s d a u g h t e r ' s anatomy. He th e n r e a d s
H a m le t's v e r s e :
Doubt th o u t h e s t a r s a r e f i r e ,
Doubt t h a t th e sun doth move,
Doubt t r u t h t o be a l i a r ,
But n ev er doubt I lo v e .
T h is o s t e n s i b l e l o v e poem t o O p h e lia seems to say no more
th a n t h a t she sh o u ld doubt e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e u n i v e r s e
e x c e p t t h a t Hamlet l o v e s h e r . I f , however, we t r y to
d e te rm in e th e meaning of i n d i v i d u a l l i n e s , we soon become
bogged down in i n s o l u a b l e a m b i g u i t i e s , l a r g e l y b ecau se th e
meaning o f "d o u b t" i s so e q u i v o c a l . Also, t h e poem 's
extrem e b r e v i t y and i t s sim p le rhymes and rhythm a r e a t
odds w i t h i t s g r a n d i o s e c o n t e n t . Such i n c o n g r u i t y may
cause us t o s u s p e c t i ro n y in t h e p o e t ' s to n e . T h is
s c a r c e l y seems t h e s o r t o f la n g u a g e t h a t a man o f H a m le t's
i n t e l l i g e n c e would use to d e c l a r e h i s l o v e . To be s u re ,
l i k e B e n e d ic k he a p o l o g i z e s f o r h i s i n e p t i t u d e a s a
v e r s i f i e r — "I have n o t a r t t o reck o n my g r o a n s " — b u t even
: in h i s e x p r e s s i o n o f r e g r e t we can d i s c o v e r what may be
I
! sarcasm . "G roaning" i s a word he r e t u r n s t o i n t h e
| M ousetrap sc e n e t o r e f e r t o th e sounds O p h e lia presumably
i
j - makes d u r in g s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e : " I t would c o s t you a
i
| g ro a n in g t o t a k e o f f mine e d g e . "
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P o lo n iu s does not say when h i s d a u g h te r r e c e i v e d t h e
l e t t e r , b u t i t s c o n t e n t s s u g g e s t t h a t i t was w r i t t e n a f t e r
G e r t r u d e ' s r e m a r r i a g e , a t a tim e when H a m l e t 's m i s t r u s t of
fe m a le s (and sex) was a lr e a d y fo rm in g . P robably th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e d i s s i m i l a r l o v e r s could never
have s u c c e e d e d . I f i t blossom ed w i t h H a m l e t 's r e t u r n t o
E l s i n o r e f o r h i s f a t h e r ' s f u n e r a l , as a p p e a r s to be th e
c a s e , th e n G e r t r u d e ' s r e m a r r i a g e , f o ll o w i n g "h ard upon"
t h e f u n e r a l , would have underm ined t h e romance alm ost from
i t s i n c e p t i o n . I t i s O p h e lia of c o u r s e who a d m i n i s t e r s
t h e coup de g r a c e by r e p e l l i n g H a m l e t 's l e t t e r s and
r e f u s i n g t o see him. T h is a p p a r e n t l y happens s h o r t l y
a f t e r a c t one, w h i l e he i s s t i l l r e e l i n g under t h e f r e s h
knowledge o f h i s f a t h e r ' s murder, so t h a t th e e f f e c t of
h e r r e b u f f i s m a g n if ie d . She becomes i n h i s u n s e t t l e d
mind t h e yo u n g er double o f h i s l u s t f u l , b e t r a y i n g m other,
and he i n c l u d e s h e r among t h o s e he w i l l e lu d e and c h a s te n
w ith th e p i e r c i n g w i t of h i s a n t i c d i s p o s i t i o n .
E v id e n tly O p h elia f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e s H a m le t's f e i g n e d
madness in h e r c l o s e t , o f f s t a g e , n e a r t h e b e g in n in g of a c t
two. As she t e l l s h e r f a t h e r a f t e r w a r d :
My l o r d , a s I was sewing i n my c l o s e t ,
Lord Hamlet, w ith h i s d o u b l e t a l l u n b r a c 'd ,
No h a t upon h i s head, h i s s t o c k i n s f o u le d ,
U n g a r t ’red , and down-gyved t o h i s a n k le ,
P a le a s h i s s h i r t , h i s knees knocking each
o t h e r ,
And w i t h a lo o k so p i t e o u s in p u r p o r t
177
-As i f he had been l o o s e d o u t of h e l l
To speak of h o r r o r s — he comes b e f o r e me.
( 2 . 1 .7 4 - 8 1 )
Assuming t h a t h er d e s c r i p t i o n i s a c c u r a t e , and we have no
r e a s o n t o t h i n k i t i s n o t, Hamlet a p p a r e n t l y p la y e d two
complementary " a n t i c " r o l e s f o r h e r a t th e same tim e , one
alm o st s u r e l y p r e m e d i ta te d , th e o t h e r i n s p i r e d by t h e
em o tio n s o f th e moment and somewhat e n i g m a t i c even t o
h i m s e l f . The prim ary r o l e i s t h a t o f a r e j e c t e d
P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r . The P r in c e s i g n a l s t h i s p a r t c l e a r l y
w i t h h i s g e n e r a l d i s h a b i l l e — h i s h a t l e s s n e s s , u n la c e d
j a c k e t , and f a l l e n s t o c k i n g s — and th ro u g h o u t t h e sc e n e he
p l a y s i t t o t h e h i l t , a c t u a l l y o v e r p la y s i t , e x a g g e r a t i n g
h i s g e s t u r e s and c o n c lu d in g h i s keen p e r u s a l o f O p h e l i a ’ s
f a c e w ith an enormous and p r e p o s t e r o u s s ig h t h a t seems to
s h a t t e r h i s very b e in g . S u re ly we a r e n o t t o t a k e him a t
f a c e v a l u e . His h y p e r b o l i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e timeworn
l i t e r a r y p o s t u r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y s e lf - m o c k i n g . By t h e s e
means he p a r o d i e s h i s own g u l l i b i l i t y f o r h a v in g c o u r t e d
and t r u s t e d a l e s s th a n t r u s t w o r t h y woman. The o t h e r r o l e
he e n a c t s i s much l e s s c o n v e n t i o n a l and a p p a r e n t l y c l o s e r
t o h i s h e a r t . O ph elia d i s c l o s e s i t when she m e n tio n s t h a t
j Hamlet was " p a le as h i s s h i r t " and lo o k e d a s though he had
been " lo o s e d o u t of h e l l / To speak of h o r r o r s . " Her
words summon up t h e image o f t h e g h o st in t h e second
I b a t t l e m e n t s sc e n e . Why p r e c i s e l y Hamlet w ould r e p r e s e n t
i
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h i s dead f a t h e r i s u n c e r t a i n , but he o f co u rse i d e n t i f i e s
s t r o n g l y w i t h h i s f a t h e r ( p a r t i c u l a r l y in h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p
t o e i t h e r of t h e p l a y ' s women), and may do so h e r e w ith a
vengeance as he c o n te m p la te s O p h e l i a ' s r e c e n t b reach of
f a i t h and i t s s i m i l a r i t y t o th e Q u e e n 's . I f t h i s i s so,
beh in d t h e mask of a P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r , he b r in g s t o l i f e
t h e most f e a r e d a u t h o r i t y in h i s m oral pantheon, f i x i n g
O p h e lia w i t h a lo n g s t a r e seem ingly f u l l of l o v e ' s
t o rm e n t, but in f a c t c h a rg e d w i t h s u s p i c i o n .
I r o n i c a l l y , H a m l e t 's a n t i c s c o n v in c e both O p h e lia and
h e r f a t h e r t h a t h i s l o v e i s a u t h e n t i c . I t i s i r o n i c to o
t h a t as th e p l a y ' s b r i e f and u n d ev elo p ed comic p l o t s t a l l s
s h o r t o f m a r r ia g e in a s t a n d o f f between t h i s t o o - o b e d i e n t
d a u g h te r and t h i s to o -w ary son, t h e main b lo c k in g f i g u r e
c o n v e r t s su d d en ly t o comic m a n i p u l a t o r and b e g in s t r y i n g
t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e union he has h e lp e d d e f e a t .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , P o l o n i u s ' d e v io u s m ethods, based on f a l s e
a s su m p tio n s and c lu m sily e x e c u te d , p ro b a b ly s e rv e only t o
deepen H a m l e t 's c o n v i c t i o n t h a t he i s b e in g to y e d w ith ,
d r i v i n g him f u r t h e r from O p h elia as t h e play u n f o ld s .
Wiien Hamlet and O p h e lia meet on s ta g e f o r th e f i r s t
tim e in t h e Nunnery scen e ( 3 . 1 ) , h i s e s tr a n g e m e n t i s f a r
advanced. Lynda B o o s e has d i s c e r n e d t h e o u t l i n e s o f an
i n v e r t e d m a r r i a g e ceremony in t h i s s c e n e , an i r o n i c
p a t t e r n t h a t S h a k e s p e a re a p p a r e n t l y employs to r e p r e s e n t
179
a b s t r a c t l y th e demise o f hopes f o r m a r r ia g e between t h e
two l o v e r s . 17 P o l o n i u s 1 " l o o s i n g " of h i s d a u g h te r t o h i s
p o t e n t i a l s o n - i n - la w and O p h e l i a ' s e n tr y t o Hamlet w i t h a
p r a y e r book in hand a r e b o th a c t i o n s f o l l o w i n g t h e form of
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m a r ria g e r i t u a l , but a l l e l s e i s t u r n e d
u p s id e down. I n s t e a d of t h e co u p le ex ch an g in g r i n g s ,
O p h e lia a sk s Hamlet to t a k e . b a c k t h e p r e s e n t s he gave h er
d u r in g th e c o u r t s h i p (much a s she has asked him t o t a k e
back t h e lo v e he once sw o re ). Hamlet, in t u r n , s t e p s i n t o
t h e r o l e of O p h e l i a ' s f a t h e r in o r d e r to bestow a v e r b a l
"dowry" upon h e r , in a c t u a l i t y a m a l e d i c t i o n : " I f th o u
d o s t m arry, I ' l l g iv e t h e e t h i s p lag u e f o r thy dowry: be
th o u as c h a s t e as i c e , as pure as snow, th o u s h a l t not
e s c a p e calu m n y ." And in p la c e of th e c o u p l e ' s m a r r i a g e
vows, we f i n d t h e P r in c e banning t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of
matrimony i t s e l f — "I say we w i l l have no more m a r r i a g e .
Those t h a t a r e m a r rie d a l r e a d y ( a l l but one) s h a l l l i v e ,
t h e r e s t s h a l l keep a s they a r e . " His a d v ic e to O p h e lia
th ro u g h o u t t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h e scen e to " g e t " h e r s e l f
t o a nunnery in o r d e r t o av o id becoming "a b r e e d e r o f
s i n n e r s " e x p r e s s e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of h i s c a t e g o r i c a l
i m p e r a t i v e t o h e r s p e c i f i c ca se , making more e x p l i c i t t h e
d isc o u ra g e m e n t o f f e r t i l i t y c o n t a i n e d i n h i s m a trim o n ia l
b a r.
• In 3 .4 , as Hamlet c o n f r o n t s h i s m other in h e r
!
I
180
bedchamber, he renews h i s a t t a c k upon m a r ria g e , but w i t h a
g r e a t d e a l more s in g le m in d e d n e s s , f o r he now opposes an
e x i s t i n g union, one t h a t he r e g a r d s as i n c e s t u o u s and
h i g h l y d e g r a d in g t o t h e Queen. By means o f c a r e f u l l y
c o n s t r u c t e d arg u m en ts, v i v i d l y p r e s e n t e d and sometimes
b r u t a l , he s u c c e e d s i n w r e s t i n g th e b l i n d f o l d from
G e r t r u d e ' s m oral v i s i o n , so t h a t she can p e r c e i v e as
c l e a r l y a s he does th e u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s of h e r c o n tin u e d
in tim a c y w i t h t h e " b l o a t k i n g . " W hether t h e Queen
a f t e r w a r d v a c a t e s h e r m a r ria g e bed as h e r son r e q u e s t s we
can n o t know, but she does, in h i s p r e s e n c e , g e n u in e ly
r e p e n t t h e union w i t h C la u d iu s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , in th e
p r o c e s s o f " s a v in g " h i s m other, Hamlet s l a y s P o lo n iu s , an
e r r o r he seems t o c o n s i d e r q u i t e minor in com parison w i t h
G e r t r u d e ' s p u r p o r t e d c a r n a l i t y . So c a u g h t up i s he w ith
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e Q u e e n 's g u i l t t h a t he o v e r lo o k s th e
alm o st p r e d i c t a b l e r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f th e c o u n s e l o r ’s d e a th
upon h i s c h i l d r e n . Because of t h e k i l l i n g , a more
e x t e n s i v e and more s e n s e l e s s t r a g e d y th a n was prom ised a t
t h e s c e n e ' s b e g in n in g looms i n e v i t a b l y by i t s end, and
under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s H a m le t's c la im t o be t h e
" sc o u rg e and m i n i s t e r " of heaven a p p e a r s h ig h ly
q u e s t i o n a b l e .
O p h e l i a ' s a w aren ess t h a t h e r form er a d m ire r and h e r
p r i n c e , o f a l l p e r s o n s , i s th e m u rd e re r of h e r f a t h e r may
181
w e l l c o n t r i b u t e t o h e r m en tal breakdown, though i t s
p r i n c i p a l cause i s s u r e l y traum a over P o l o n i u s 1 d e a t h .
T h is benign old man has been th e key f i g u r e i n h e r l i f e ,
and w ith him gone (and L a e r t e s a b r o a d ) , she l a c k s n o t only
th e f a m i l i a r and t r u s t e d g u id e , but any g u id e a t a l l . Her
f e a r s and u n c e r t a i n t i e s fe e d upon th e m s e lv e s u n t i l she
f o r f e i t s h e r r e a s o n t o e n t e r t a i n f a n t a s i e s , over which she
h as more c o n t r o l .
Oddly enough, madness c o n f e r s c h a r a c t e r upon O p h e lia .
As a l u n a t i c she becomes a t h r e a t t o t h e c o u r t , a p erso n
t o be reck o n ed w ith , o u tsp o k e n , a lm o st a g g r e s s i v e , even to
t h e King and Queen. When she p e rfo rm s f o r h e r c a p t i v e
a u d ie n c e in 4 . 5 , she shows a pu rp o se and a s s e r t i v e n e s s n o t
p r e s e n t e a r l i e r . T h is i s n o t t o q u e s t i o n t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y
o f h er d e m e n tia — f o r she i s as mad as Lear on t h e h e a t h s -
but a p p a r e n t l y , l i k e L e a r, she a r r i v e s a t some b a s i c
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s in t h e t h r o e s o f h e r lu n a c y , and e x p r e s s e s
t h e s e t o th e c h a r a c t e r s most i n need of c o n f r o n t i n g them.
Her i n s i g h t s co n cern v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e bonds o f lo v e , and
she communicates them in two ways. She s in g s , u s in g th e
song l y r i c s t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p o s i t i v e l o v e t i e s in
Hamlet t h a t have been n e g l e c t e d o r f r u s t r a t e d s i n c e t h e
d e a th of t h e o ld king, and she p r e s e n t s f lo w e r s ,
s y m b o l i c a l l y recom pensing th e p l a y ' s s e v e r a l l o v e r s
a c c o r d in g t o t h e q u a l i t y and c o n sta n c y of t h e i r lo v e . The
182
’’method" i n h e r madness i s w orth c o n s i d e r i n g in d e t a i l .
A f t e r O p h e l i a ’s i n i t i a l e n t r y on 4 .5 , she s in g s two
songs, t h e f i r s t o f which S h a k e s p e a re p ro b a b ly d e r i v e d
from one o f t h e E n g lis h Walsingham b a l l a d s . 18 She a p p e a rs
t o d e l i v e r t h e song d i r e c t l y t o G e r tru d e , f o r she comes
s e e k in g t h e Queen s p e c i f i c a l l y , and b e g in s s i n g i n g only
when she has found h e r . Also, in t h e d i a l o g u e t h a t
d i v i d e s t h e song s t a n z a s , th e g iv e and ta k e between th e
two women s u g g e s t s t h a t G e r tru d e r e c e i v e s t h e l y r i c alm o st
as she would a r i d d l e . I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o apply t h e
s o n g 's c o n t e n t t o what we know o f G e r tru d e and h e r
r e l a t i o n s w i t h h e r two h u sb a n d s. I f th e d i a l o g u e i s
o m itte d and t h e fo u r fra g m e n ts a r e combined, th e b a l l a d
r e a d s as f o l l o w s :
How sh o u ld I your t r u e - l o v e know
From a n o t h e r one? ' .
By h i s c o c k le h a t and s t a f f ,
And h i s s a n d a l shoon.
He i s dead and gone, la d y ,
He i s dead and gone,
At h i s head a g r a s s - g r e e n t u r f ,
At h i s h e e l s a s to n e .
W hite h i s shroud a s t h e m ountain snow
Larded a l l w ith sweet f lo w e r s ,
Which bewept t o t h e ground d id n o t go
W ith t r u e - l o v e show ers.
In s ta n z a one, O p h e lia a p p a r e n t l y ask s t h e Queen how
she (O p h e lia ) can d i s t i n g u i s h G e r t r u d e ' s " t r u e - l o v e " from
" a n o th e r one" (from a f a l s e lo v e p r e s u m a b ly ) ,1 9 and th e n
183
answ ers h e r own q u e s t i o n : one d i f f e r e n t i a t e s by th e t r u e
l o v e ' s " c o c k le h a t , " s t a f f , and " sa n d a l s h o o n , " ite m s of
a p p a r e l t h a t an E l i z a b e t h a n would r e a d i l y have a s s o c i a t e d
w ith a r e l i g i o u s p i l g r i m . 20 The d ev o ted m ale l o v e r as
p i l g r i m was o f c o u rs e a c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n c e i t . In t h e
Walsingham b a l l a d s and e ls e w h e re , th e p i l g r i m was one who
"w o rshipped" h i s la d y and who u n d e rto o k lo v e t a s k s or
" p i l g r i m a g e s " f o r h e r . However, t h e n o t i o n t h a t one can
i d e n t i f y a p i l g r i m by hiTs d r e s s i s i r o n i c , f o r S h a k e sp e a re
o f te n u ses c l o t h i n g f i g u r a t i v e l y to em phasize th e
d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e outw ard a p p e a ra n c e and t h e i n n e r
r e a l i t y o f c h a r a c t e r s . The s u g g e s t i o n seems t o be t h a t
t h e Queen has m ista k e n h e r l o v e r s , and of c o u r s e t h i s i s
t h e c a s e . G e r t r u d e ' s t r u e lo v e and h e r p i l g r i m was s u r e l y
King Hamlet r a t h e r th a n C la u d iu s . Her f i r s t h u s b a n d 's
c o u r t s h i p was t h e more l e g i t i m a t e , and h i s d e v o tio n th e •
more p u re . King Hamlet i s a l s o now "dead and gone, " a
f a c t we l e a r n ab o u t t h e t r u e lo v e i n s ta n z a two o f t h e
song. We a r e a l s o t o l d t h a t t h e l o v e r ’s body was b u r ie d
w i t h i t s f e e t p o i n t i n g tow ard t h e h e a d s t o n e — backward,
t h a t i s . A lthough t h i s i s pro b ab ly n o t l i t e r a l l y t r u e ,
th e i n v e r s i o n i s a p p r o p r i a t e m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , f o r i t can
sy m b o liz e t h e i m p r o p r i e t i e s s u rr o u n d in g t h e o ld k i n g ' s
d e a th and b u r i a l , i n c l u d i n g t h e f a i l u r e of h i s queen t o
mourn him p r o p e r l y . T h is n e g lig e n c e on G e r t r u d e ' s p a r t
{
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1
i 184
becomes t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e s o n g 's l a s t s t a n z a . O ph elia
say s t h a t a lth o u g h t h e Q u e e n 's t r u e lo v e was d r e s s e d in an
im m aculate w h ite shroud and " l a r d e d " w i t h f lo w e rs , t h e
t e a r s shed f o r him were n o t " t r u e - l o v e s h o w e rs ." Hamlet
has made s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same ch arg e e a r l i e r : "Ere y e t
th e s a l t of most u n r ig h t e o u s t e a r s /H a d l e f t t h e f l u s h i n g
i n h e r g a l l e d e y e s, / She m a r r i e d " ( 1 . 2 . 1 5 4 - 1 5 6 ) .
As she s i n g s h e r f i r s t song, O p h e lia may w e ll be only
p a r t i a l l y aware of i t s im p o rt. P erh ap s s u s p i c i o u s of
w rongdoing t h a t she f o r c e d t o th e back of h e r mind emerge
in madness, and she f i n a l l y e x p r e s s e s them, though in
d i s g u i s e d form. S in c e t h e s o n g 's c o n t e n t a l l u d e s t o r e a l
e v e n ts , h e a r i n g i t must s t i n g G e r tr u d e , who by t h i s p o i n t
in t h e play i s h y p e r s e n s i t i v e to blame ( 4 . 5 . 1 7 - 2 0 ) .
O p h e l i a 's seeond l y r i c , t h e V a l e n t i n e song, i s s i m i l a r to
th e f i r s t in s u b j e c t m a t t e r and a l s o i n i t s a c c u s a to r y
en d in g , but i t s c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith r e a l i t y i s probably
much l e s s d i r e c t . I f th e i n t e r v e n i n g d i a l o g u e i s d e l e t e d ,
t h e b a l l a d r e a d s
To-morrow i s S a i n t V a l e n t i n e ' s day,
A ll in t h e m orning betim e,
And I a maid a t your window,
To be your V a l e n t i n e .
Then up he r o s e and d o n n 'd h i s c l o ' e s ,
And d u p p 'd th e cham ber-door,
L e t in t h e maid, t h a t out a maid
Never d e p a r t e d more.
By G is, and by S a i n t C h a r ity ,
185
Alack, and f i e f o r shame!
Young men w i l l d o 11 i f t h e come t o ' t ,
By Cock, th ey a r e to blame.
Quoth she, "B e fo re you tum bled me,
You p r o m i s 'd me t o w ed."
"So would I ' a ' done, by yonder sun,
And th o u h a d s t not come t o my b e d . "
From b e g in n in g to end t h e song i s c o n c e rn e d w ith
s e x u a l i t y and m a tin g . B i r d s were s a i d to p a i r o f f on
V a l e n t i n e ' s Day, and i n p a r t s of England young men and
women drew l o t s , su p p o se d ly to d e te rm in e t h e i r f u t u r e
s p o u s e s . 21 i f t h e " I " of s ta n z a one i s O p h e lia , th e n she
a p p a r e n t l y s in g s of h e r q u e s t or d e s i r e f o r Hamlet as a
l o v e r and husband. Her a t t i t u d e tow ard th e s e d u c t io n
p o r t r a y e d in th e b a l l a d i s p e r p l e x i n g , however. In th e
s o n g 's f i r s t two s t a n z a s she c a s t s h e r s e l f in t h e r o l e of
s e x u a l p u r s u e r , d e s c r i b i n g how she came t o h e r l o v e r ' s
window e a r l y in t h e m orning, w h ile he was s t i l l u n d re s s e d
and in bed, and ask ed him t o adm it h e r , r a t h e r c l e a r l y
i n v i t i n g p h y s i c a l i n t i m a c y . But in t h e l a s t two s t a n z a s
O ph elia t r e a t s t h e man a s though he p u rsu e d h e r , and
u n s c r u p u l o u s l y . She heaps r e p r o v a l on-him f o r h av in g
com plied w ith h e r a p p a r e n t w ish, a s s e r t i n g t h a t he t r i c k e d
h e r i n t o bed w ith a f a l s e prom ise of m a r r i a g e .
T h is V a l e n t i n e song has been v a r i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d .
Those who b e l i e v e O p h e l i a ' s c h a r a c t e r to be l i k e t h a t o f
t h e g i r l in th e s o u r c e s f o r t h e Hamlet s t o r y te n d t o
186
r e g a r d h e r song a s a l i t e r a l c o n f e s s i o n t h a t she and h e r
p r in c e have e n jo y e d s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s a t some tim e in th e
p a s t . 22 Those who b e l i e v e O ph elia to be c h a s t e o b v io u sly
i n t e r p r e t th e song in o t h e r ways. S e v e r a l c r i t i c s t h i n k
she i s s u f f e r i n g from " lo v e madness" o r " lo v e m e la n c h o ly ."
an a c u t e manic d e p r e s s i o n t h a t th e E l i z a b e t h a n s presumed
was cau sed by e x c e s s i v e f r u s t r a t i o n o f a young p e r s o n ’ s
need t o mate w ith h i s or h e r lo v e d o n e .2 3 in t h i s view,
t h e s e x u a l c o n t e n t of h e r song i s w i s h - f u l f i l l m e n t , a
s u b s t i t u t i o n of f a n t a s y f o r d e s i r e d f a c t . I a g re e , but
would add t h a t O phelia e x p r e s s e s h e r w ish only to
r e p u d i a t e i t , a s we have seen. She both w ants sex and
f e a r s i t . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , h e r c o n t r a d i c t o r y or p a r a d o x i c a l
a t t i t u d e to w ard th e p r o p a g a t i v e a c t r e c a p i t u l a t e s in one
psyche t h e fu n d am en tal c o n f l i c t between d a u g h te r s and
f a t h e r s t h a t u n d e r p in s a l l New Comedy. O p h e lia has
a p p a r e n t l y i n t e r n a l i z e d h e r f a t h e r ’s r e p r e s s i v e m o r a l i t y ,
and u s e s i t t o b lo c k h e r own n a t u r a l d r i v e s f o r
com panionship and s e x u a l f u l f i l l m e n t . The s to r y of th e
b a l l a d , t o l d f i g u r a t i v e l y , i s t h u s h e r own s t o r y : t h a t of
a young woman whose b l i n d o b e d ie n c e has undermined h e r
s e x u a l i t y , making lo v e i m p o s s i b l e . H a m l e t 's e a r l i e r ban
on m a r ria g e i n d i c a t e s t h a t he to o h a s i n t e r n a l i z e d t h e
se x u a l p r o h i b i t i o n s o f th e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n , though f o r
d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s .
j 187
During O p h e l i a ' s second a p p e a ra n c e i n 4 .5 , she s in g s
a g a in , m ixing f ra g m e n ts from two f u n e r a l d i r g e s w i t h l i n e s
from r i b a l d b a l l a d s . The most co m p lete fra g m e n t, th e
l a s t , i s from a d i r g e and can only r e f e r t o h e r f a t h e r ,
f o r she sa y s t h e d e c e a s e d 's beard was "w h ite as snow ,"
w h ereas we know t h a t t h e b e a rd of th e o ld king was
" g r i s l ' d " ( 1 . 2 . 2 3 9 ) . Her song i s d esp o n d en t but t e n d e r ,
an a p p r o p r i a t e l y e m o tio n a l l e a v e - t a k i n g from a f a t h e r she
lo v e d d e e p ly . The d i r g e i s p reced ed by a o n e - l i n e
fragm ent-— "For bonny sw eet Robin i s a l l my j o y " — t h a t
alm o st c e r t a i n l y r e f e r s t o young Hamlet, and i s s e x u a l l y
s u g g e s t i v e . The l i n e was ta k e n from one of t h e o ld Robin
Hood b a l l a d s , songs t h a t by S h a k e s p e a r e 's day had
d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o bawdy l y r i c s co n c e rn e d w ith i l l i c i t lo v e
i n t h e "g reenw ood." Harry M orris p o i n t s out t h a t t h e name
Maid M arian had become "a by-word f o r p r o m i s c u i t y , " and
t h a t t h e ta g "Robin" was used to r e f e r to t h e male
p h a l l u s . 24 O p h e l i a 's a t t r i b u t i o n of a l l h e r joy t o
" R o b i n , " i n a p a ssa g e o t h e r w i s e a d d r e s s e d to h e r dead
f a t h e r , r e s u r r e c t s t h e c o n f l i c t she ad u m b ra te s i n h e r
V a l e n t i n e song, a l th o u g h h e re h e r b i t t e r n e s s tow ard Hamlet
has p a sse d and she i s a b l e to p r a i s e him a lo n g w i t h h e r
f a t h e r . O phelia a l s o d e l i v e r s two l i n e s from a d i r g e
t
| p ro b ab ly d e p i c t i n g t h e p u b l i c f u n e r a l of th e fo rm er k in g :
"They b o re him b a r e f a c ' d on t h e b i e r , / And i n h i s g rav e
188
r a i n ' d many a t e a r . "25 T h is fra g m e n t, I b e l i e v e , i s meant
t o t a k e us back t o O p h e l i a ' s f i r s t b a l l a d , the^W alsingham
song, and to t h e " t r u e - l o v e , " / f a l s e lo v e dichotomy i t
p o s t u l a t e s . In th e f o l i o e d i t i o n s of t h e p la y , a bawdy
p h r a s e — "Hey non nonny, nonny, hey nonny"— a p p e a rs between
th e two l i n e s of th e d i r g e , i n j e c t i n g a j a r r i n g ex u b e ra n c e
r e m i n i s c e n t o f s p r i n g t i m e and young l o v e . The i r o n i c
c o n t r a s t may r e c a l l , once a g a in , th e u n s e e m lin e s s and
u n t i m e l i n e s s o f G e r t r u d e ' s and C l a u d i u s ' n u p t i a l s .
E s s e n t i a l l y O p h e l i a ' s songs perform a c h o r a l
f u n c t i o n . On t h e eve o f th e t r a g i c denouement, as she
l a b o r s under th e m ix tu r e of freedom and c o n f u s io n imposed
by h e r madness, she s in g s of t h e i m p o r t a n t v i o l a t i o n s o f
lo v e bonds i n th e play and o f th e m o r t a l i t y o f H a m le t' s
two " t r u e l o v e r s , " summ arizing i n t h e s e ways t h e c a u s e s
t h a t have made a t r a g i c c o n c lu s io n u n a v o id a b le . One l i n e
i n t h e f i n a l fra g m e n t may p r e f i g u r e t h e c a t a s t r o p h e .
A f te r s i n g i n g of h e r f a t h e r , "No, no he i s d e a d ," she adds
"Go t o thy d e a th bed" [ i t a l i c s mine i n b o th c a s e s ] ,
r e f e r r i n g , i t would a p p e a r, e i t h e r t o h e r s e l f , or p erh ap s
t o C la u d iu s , G e r tru d e , and h e r b r o t h e r , who s ta n d
l i s t e n i n g . S i m i l a r l y c h o r a l in f u n c t i o n i s O p h e l i a 's
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f lo w e r s , f o r each bloom she c o n f e r s
s y m b o liz e s t h e r e c i p i e n t ' s d e m o n stra te d c a p a c i t y a s a
l o v e r . The f lo w e r s a l s o inform us t h a t s p r i n g has a r r i v e d
189
in E l s i n o r e . S e v e r a l months have p a s se d s i n c e t h e w i n t e r
c o ld r e p o r t e d i n t h e b a t t l e m e n t s s c e n e s , and i n t h e
meantime Denmark has become green a g a in . S h a k e sp e a re
d e v e lo p s iro n y by moving th e Danish r o y a l fam ily tow ard
a n n i h i l a t i o n a t t h a t tim e o f y e a r when th e n a t u r a l w o rld
beyond th e c a s t l e w a l l s i s b u r s t i n g w ith new l i f e . The
d e a th of t h e p l a y ’ s young h e r o i n e , in a p a s t o r a l s tre a m
overhung w i t h l u s h v e g e t a t i o n (some of i t s e x u a l l y
s y m b o lic ) , e n l a r g e s t h e same i r o n y . O p h e l i a ’ s e sc a p e from
c o u r t to g reen w o rld can n o t su cceed because she t a k e s t h e
t r o u b l e s o f th e c o u r t a lo n g w ith h e r . When she d i e s i n
t h e p l a c i d brook, c l e a r l y o u t of harmony w ith th e n a t u r a l
o r d e r , i t i s h e r c o u r t l y g arm en ts t h a t drag h e r u n d e r.
Had H a m le t’s ru d im e n ta ry comic p l o t been g iv e n f u l l
developm ent, O ph elia and h e r p r in c e would have overcome
t h e odds and m a r r ie d in a c t f i v e , but in th e play as i t
was w r i t t e n we f i n d i n s t e a d th e f u n e r a l o f t h e p o t e n t i a l
b r i d e . T hroughout th e s c e n e , in d i f f e r e n t ways,
S h a k e s p e a re a l l u d e s t o t h e w a s te i m p l i c i t i n O p h e l i a 's
d e a th , o f t e n u n d e r s c o r i n g h i s p o i n t w i t h i r o n y . T h is i s
most o b v io u s a t h er g r a v e s i d e , when G e r tru d e sp eak s
d i r e c t l y o f t h e m a r r ia g e t h a t c o u ld have been a s she
I r e p a y s O p h e l i a 's e a r l i e r g i f t o f f l o w e r s :
1
Sweets to th e sw eet, f a r e w e l l !
I h o p ’d thou s h o u l d s t have been my H a m le t’s w if e .
I th o u g h t thy b r i d e - b e d t o have d e c k ’ d, sw eet
190
maid
And n o t have s t r e w ’ d thy g ra v e .
The Q ueen’ s a s s o c i a t i o n o f b r i d a l bed w i t h grave p a r a l l e l s
s i m i l a r i r o n i c a s s o c i a t i o n s in both Romeo and J u l i e t and
O t h e l l o , p la y s i n w hich o t h e r young h e r o i n e s a r e robbed by
d e a th of t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to become m o th e rs . Irony of
a n o th e r s o r t i s g e n e r a t e d when S h a k e s p e a re r e a n im a te s th e
comedic im passe between t h e young male l o v e r and t h e
fa m ily of th e b r i d e by b r i n g i n g Hamlet and L a e r t e s i n t o
c o n f l i c t over O p h e l i a ’ s body, in h e r g r a v e . The se x u a l
f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e c o n f l i c t a r e a p t l y r e p r e s e n t e d in th e
s h a p e s o f t h e two m ales s ta n d i n g u p r i g h t i n t h e same
h o r i z o n t a l " p i t , ” w hich each s t r u g g l e s t o dom inate. T hat
t h e fem ale o b j e c t o f t h e i r c o m p e titio n i s now dead makes
t h e i r c o n tin u e d p u r s u i t a b s u rd , a c o n t e s t o f m a sc u lin e
"honor" o n ly . E qually a b s u rd i s C l a u d i u s ’ pled g e t o
p ro v id e a " l i v i n g monument" f o r O p h e l i a ’ s g ra v e . Such a
m em orial, had he l i f e enough to a c c o m p lish i t , would be as
f r u i t l e s s a s t h e gold s t a t u e s of Romeo and J u l i e t t h a t
C ap u let and Montague prom ise to e r e c t .
Hamlet c o n t a i n s o t h e r f e a t u r e s and p a t t e r n s common t o
S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s com edies, and t h e s e to o te n d to be employed
i n ways t h a t s u b v e r t or n u l l i f y t h e i r normal comedic
f u n c t i o n s . Madness, t h e p r o t o t y p i c comic c o n fu s io n
elem ent, s u c c e e d s in c o n f u s in g O ph elia t o be s u r e , but
191
i n s t e a d o f a s s i s t i n g h e r t o new s e lf - k n o w le d g e and a t r u e r
s a n i t y i t d e s t r o y s both h e r mind and body. Nor a r e dreams
e f f i c a c i o u s in t h e t r a g e d y . As Hamlet t e l l s R osen cran tz
and G u i l d e n s t e r n , "bad dreams" a r e th e r e a s o n Denmark
seems l i k e a p r is o n to him ( 2 .2 . 2 4 1 - 2 5 6 ) ; and l a t e r ,
d e b a t i n g s u i c i d e , t h e P r in c e i s i n t i m i d a t e d by th e
n ig h tm a re s he may c o n f r o n t d u r in g th e " s l e e p of d e a th "
( 3 . 1 . 6 3 - 8 1 ) . Wine, t h a t l i b e r a t i n g c o r d i a l b a s i c to comic
r e v e l s and f e s t i v i t i e s , i s in Hamlet what t h e " b l o a t " king
uses to f u e l h i s w ild n o c t u r n a l c a r o u s e s , d r i n k i n g bo u ts
p u n c t u a t e d by u n r e s t r a i n e d r o y a l d an cin g and d i s c h a r g e s o f
cannon t h a t blasphem ously announce t o heaven each consumed
cup. C la u d iu s th u s c e l e b r a t e s g r o te s q u e l y h i s
i l l e g i t i m a t e power, even a s he t r i e s t o numb h i s g u i l t
th ro u g h i n e b r i a t i o n . Wine becomes more s i g n i f i c a n t in
i
5 .2 , when G e r tru d e u n w i t t i n g l y d r i n k s from t h e p o iso n e d
s to u p , c a u s in g h e r own d e a th . As Roger S t i l l i n g p o i n t s
o u t, S h a k e sp e a re may i n t e n d th e p e a r l or "u n io n " t h a t
C la u d iu s u s e s t o p r e p a r e t h e f a t a l d r i n k t o be sym bolic o f
th e p l a y ' s bad m a r r ia g e ( 5. 2 . 272),2 6 and i f so, t h e r e i s
p o e t i c j u s t i c e i n G e r t r u d e dying by t h i s means. A f e a s t
i s a l s o m en tio n ed a t th e end of th e p la y , by F o r t i n b r a s ,
who speaks f i g u r a t i v e l y o f t h e banquet t h a t "proud d e a th "
w i l l soon make upon t h e " p r i n c e s " t h a t l i e s l a u g h t e r e d a t
h i s f e e t ( 5 .2 . 3 6 4 - 3 6 7 ) . Comedies o f t e n end w ith f e a s t s of
t
I
s
L 1 9 2
c o u rse , b u t t y p i c a l l y ones t h a t c e l e b r a t e l i f e and
re n e w a l. D e a t h 's " f e a s t " upon th e D anish r o y a l fam ily i s
a c e l e b r a t i o n of s t e r i l i t y , p r o v is i o n e d by th e now e x t i n c t
f i r s t l i n e a g e o f Denmark. Also, as i n comedy, d i s g u i s e i s
r i f e in H am let, where i t goes by th e name of "se e m in g ."
P r e te n d in g t o be what one i s not may be b e n e f i c i a l to
some— Hamlet perhaps---but p ro v es f a t a l f o r l e s s c l e v e r
m a sq u e ra d e rs, such as P o l o n i u s , . O p h e lia , and t h e K in g 's
m in io n s, R o se n c ra n tz and G u i l d e n s t e r n .
Hamlet has a comic clown as w e l l , o r r a t h e r s e v e r a l •
clowns, t h e most n o t a b l e being th e p l a y ' s p r o t a g o n i s t , who
e a r l y in a c t two assumes t h e r o l e o f c o u r t j e s t e r v a c a te d
by Y orick alm o st a g e n e r a t i o n b e f o r e . 27 as i t happens,
t h e P r i n c e ' s p r e t e n s e o f f o o l i s h n e s s i s t h e o l d e s t , most -
i n v a r i a n t f e a t u r e of h i s s t o r y . The name "Hamlet" i t s e l f
a p p a r e n t l y d e r i v e s from t h e Old Norse word f o r " f o o l " or
" i d i o t . " But S h a k e sp e a re , or p erh ap s Thomas Kyd, was th e
f i r s t t o i n t r o d u c e o t h e r clowns i n t o t h e s t o r y , ones t h a t
i n a c e r t a i n s e n se e d u c a te Hamlet by a s s i s t i n g him to
" f o o l i s h wisdoms" c o n c e r n in g d e a th and b o d ily c o r r u p t i o n .
The comic S ex to n , f o r example, i n 5 .1 , u s e s h i s " a b s o l u t e "
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g r a v e s and c o r p s e s to o u t w i t h i s s o c i a l
s u p e r i o r w i t h e a s e , so t h a t Hamlet, d e s p i t e h i s f a c i l i t y
w ith words, f i n d s h i m s e l f f o r a tim e p l a y i n g s t r a i g h t man
t o a d e l v e r who p ro b es more deeply th a n Hamlet can i n t o
m a t t e r s o f human m o r t a l i t y . Y orick i s t h e o t h e r clown
added by th e E l i z a b e t h a n s to t h e s t o r y . He may be
i m p o r t a n t in a n e g a t i v e way. because h i s ab se n c e d u r in g
th e p r e v io u s two d ecad es has p e rh a p s e n c o u ra g e d th e Danish
crown t o i n v i t e d i s a s t e r by t a k i n g i t s e l f to o s e r i o u s l y ,
but t h i s dead clown a l s o p la y s a more d i r e c t r o l e in t h e •
t r a g e d y . Hamlet u s e s Y o r i c k 's s k u l l , g iv e n him by th e
S exton, t o commune w i t h Death as a n t i c — t h e p l a y ’ s supreme
c l o w n . 28 By musing on t h e t r a n s i e n c e of t h e f l e s h t h a t
once composed t h e f a c e of h i s i n t i m a t e c h ild h o o d f r i e n d ,
t h e Danish P r in c e a r r i v e s a t a d e ta c h e d , p h i l o s o p h i c a l
view of th e e n t r o p i c p r o c e s s t h a t r e d u c e s every human
bein g , even t h e most renowned, to i g n o b l e d u s t f i t t o plug
a "b u n g h o le. "
H a m le t’s i n s i g h t - i n t o t h e e s s e n t i a l m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s
o f i n d i v i d u a l human e x i s t e n c e when t h a t e x i s t e n c e i s
c o n s id e r e d a g a i n s t t h e i n f i n i t e span o f tim e i s a t r u t h
worthy o f h i s c lo w n ’s p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o th e n a t u r e of
p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y . T h is i s t h e t r u t h t h a t t h e play keeps
l e a d i n g him back t o , i n many ways. Because of who he i s
and becau se o f t h e s i t u a t i o n he f i n d s h i m s e l f in , he
becames le a g u e d w ith d e a th , so t h a t t h e f a c t of human
m o r t a l i t y seems t o him t h e whole t r u t h , t h e u l t i m a t e
s e c r e t of human l i f e . A lthough h i s t r u t h i s a s u r e one,
c a t e g o r i c a l in i t s a p p l i c a t i o n , i t i s but a p a r t i a l t r u t h ,
i
194
as Hamlet would know had he a c c e s s t o a p e r s p e c t i v e o t h e r
th a n h i s own. Opposed t o h i s tru th * and q u a l i f y i n g i t , i s
tl^e s o c i a l t r u t h t h a t deems human l i f e b a s i c a l l y
p r o p a g a t i v e , r e g e n e r a t i v e , and t h e r e f o r e p o t e n t i a l l y as
l o n g - l i v e d as tim e . T h is s o c i a l t r u t h , as we have seen,
i s th e b a s i c prem ise of New Comedy, and i t to o i s p a r t i a l .
I d e a l l y , t h e two t r u t h s can be viewed a s complementary to
one a n o t h e r : we t r u s t t h e r a c e w i l l s u r v i v e even as
i n d i v i d u a l s l i v e , b reed , and d i e . I t i s H a m l e t 's
p a r t i c u l a r m i s f o r t u n e t o be t r a p p e d in c ir c u m s t a n c e s t h a t
t h r u s t him p re m a tu re ly i n t o s o l e c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e more
p e s s i m i s t i c t r u t h . B e tra y e d both by th e woman who gave
him b i r t h and by t h e woman he m ight have m a r rie d , b e r e f t
of h i s f a t h e r and f o r c e d t o k i l l on t h a t a c c o u n t, he i s
condemned t o c o n clu d e t h a t s i n and human m o r t a l i t y a r e a l l
t h a t we can know f o r c e r t a i n ab o u t human l i f e . T h is to o
i s h i s t r a g e d y .
What we see in Hamlet i s th e most complex
d e m o n s tr a tio n of S h a k e s p e a r e 's t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of comic
c o n s t r u c t s i n t o t r a g i c ones. In Romeo and J u l i e t , th e
f i r s t of t h e a u t h o r ' s lo v e t r a g e d i e s based on New Comedy,
| t h e comic m a t e r i a l s a r e l e a s t changed. H a lf t h e d ra m a tic
a c t i o n f o ll o w s comic p l o t c l o s e l y , c h a r a c t e r s such as
J u l i e t ’ s Nurse and P e t e r seem borrowed d i r e c t l y from
195
comedy, and t h e h e ro and h e r o i n e s t r o n g l y re se m b le comic
l o v e r s , e x c e p t t h a t , s t i l l immature, they y i e l d to o e a s i l y
t o d an g ero u s im p u ls e s . In O t h e l l o , many o f t h e same
comedic s t r u c t u r e s and d e v i c e s a r e employed as i n Romeo
and J u l i e t , but more s u b t l y , and more a b s t r a c t l y . O t h e l l o
c o n t a i n s a much b r i e f e r comic p l o t , c h a r a c t e r s t h a t a r e
l e s s o b v io u sly comic, and l o v e r s who, becau se o f t h e i r
many i m p o r t a n t d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s , a r e im p ro b ab le c a n d i d a t e s
f o r a r o m a n tic comedy. The m a rria g e of O t h e l l o and
Desdemona i n v i t e s tra g e d y even more c l e a r l y th a n t h a t of
Romeo and J u l i e t . H am let, though w r i t t e n a few y e a r s
b e f o r e O t h e l l o , c o n t a i n s th e same u n d e r s t a t e d use o f comic
m a t e r i a l s a s t h e l a t e r p la y , and i n t r o d u c e s t h e a d d i t i o n a l
c o m p l i c a t i o n of an " e x t r a " p a i r o f l o v e r s , ones u n i t e d by
a m a r r ia g e based on p a s s i o n of t h e d e s t r u c t i v e , c l a s s i c a l
v a r i e t y . As we have seen , t h i s u n f o r t u n a t e union h e l p s t o
s u b v e r t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a more l e g i t i m a t e one, though
w h e th e r Hamlet and O p h e lia would have been w e ll a d v i s e d t o
marry even under t h e b e s t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s i s
q u e s t i o n a b l e , s i n c e i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p S h a k e s p e a re
d e p i c t s t h e r e seems l i t t l e prom ise f o r t h e developm ent of
e n d u rin g i n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l com panionship.
P robably t h e i r m a r ria g e would have been a m is ta k e , as i s
i
th e c a se f o r th e o t h e r t r a g i c l o v e r s c o n s id e r e d h e r e . The
g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t we m ight ta k e from t h e s e t h r e e
196
p l a y s i s t h a t i n t h e a b se n c e o f deep and m a tu re m ental
communion between a c o u p le , a communion such as we
t y p i c a l l y f i n d between h e r o e s and h e r o i n e s i n th e f i f t h
a c t of S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s com edies, m a r ria g e p ro v e s a h a z a rd
r a t h e r th a n a haven.
M arriag e s e r v e s a m e ta p h o r ic f u n c t i o n i n
S h a k e s p e a r e ’s ro m a n tic comedies t h a t has been w idely
r e c o g n iz e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y s in c e t h e a p p e a ra n c e o f N o rth ro p
F r y e ’s a n a l y s e s of t h e s e p la y s as a group. The comic
m a r r i a g e s r e p r e s e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n and f e r t i l i t y , embodying
a s they do t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r renew al of b o th f a m i l i e s and
com m unities and s e r v i n g a s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s s o l e
l e g i t i m a t e means t o pass alo n g h i s g e n e t i c i n h e r i t a n c e t o
h i s d e s c e n d a n ts . My p u rp o se h e re has been t o a s s i s t in a
f u l l e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s l o v e t r a g e d i e s by
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h a t m a r r ia g e in t h e s e p l a y s has an o b v e rse
m e ta p h o r ic f u n c t i o n — one t h a t has n o t been r e c o g n i z e d .
The t r a g i c m a r r i a g e s , which e n t a i l t h e d e a t h s of t h e
l o v e r s , th e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r fa m ily l i n e s , and th e
d e p l e t i o n o f t h e community’s n ex t g e n e r a t i o n , r e p r e s e n t a
s t e r i l i t y and a c o n c l u s io n t h a t t r a n s c e n d i n d i v i d u a l
d e s t i n y .
1 97
Notes
1See Humphrey M ilfo rd , The S o u rc e s o f Hamlet (London:
Oxford Univ. P r e s s , 1926), pp. 1-27; G e o ffre y B u llo u g h ,
e d . , N a r r a t i v e and D ram atic S o u rc e s o f S h a k e sp e a re (New
York: Columbia Univ. P r e s s , 1973), V II, 5 -9 ; and W illiam
F. Hansen, Saxo Grammaticus and t h e L i f e of Hamlet
(L in c o ln and London: Univ. of N ebraska P r e s s , 1983), pp.
1-15.
2See B u llo u g h , pp. 15-59; Muir, pp. 158-170; and
Hansen, pp. 6 6 -6 8 .
3B u llo u g h , pp. 16-17.
^Roger S t i l l i n g d i s c u s s e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f ro m a n tic
lo v e by t h e f o r c e s of h a t e in The S p a n ish T ra g e d y , but
does not c o n s i d e r th e f u n c t i o n o f comic p l o t and comic
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i n th e p lay . See S t i l l i n g , pp. 26-40.
^ E p ith a la m ia t h a t r e v e r s e some o r a l l o f th e normal
e p i t h a l a m i c c o n v e n tio n s have a lo n g h i s t o r y b e f o re Thomas
Kyd. These " a n t i - e p i t h a l a m i a " a r e t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h im proper u n io n s. See V i r g i n i a T u f t e , The P o etry o f
M a r r ia g e , Univ. o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a S t u d i e s in
Com parative L i t e r a t u r e , v o l . 2 (Los A n g e le s: Tinnon-Brown,
1970), 3 7 -5 5 .
^See V i r g i l K. W h itak er, S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s Use of
L e a rn in g (San M arino: The H u n tin g to n L i b r a r y , 1953), pp.
340-343; and Muir, pp. 160-163.
7 r. S. W hite, "The Tragedy o f O p h e l i a , " A r i e l , 9
(1978), 4 2 -4 3 .
8snyder, pp. 107-110.
^stilling, pp. 105-106.
10M argaret L o f tu s Ranald, " ’As M arriag e B inds, and
Blood B r e a k s ’ : E n g lis h M arriage Law and S h a k e s p e a r e , "
S h a k e s p e a re Q u a r t e r l y , 30 (1978), 73.
I 1 lF o r a l i s t of th o s e who have ta k e n t h i s p o s i t i o n in
j our c e n tu r y , see Rosamund P u t z e l , "Queen G e r t r u d e ’ s
: C rim e ," R e n a is sa n c e P ap ers (1961), pp. 37-38.
i
I
I
I
I
1
1 198
1 2 p u tz e li pp. 45-46.
13S t i l l i n g , pp. 110-111.
Instilling, pp. 112-113.
1^ G e r t r u d e ' s comments to t h e e f f e c t t h a t she had hoped
f o r m a r ria g e between Hamlet and O ph elia ( 5 .1 .2 4 3 - 2 4 6 ) i s
p ro b ab ly i n te n d e d t o p l a c a t e L a e r t e s r a t h e r th a n t o r e p o r t
h e r form er a p p ro v a l of th e m a r ria g e , which I doubt
e x i s t e d .
gee John W. D raper, The Hamlet of S h a k e s p e a r e ’s
Audience (New York: Octagon Books, 1970), pp. 56-5 7 ; and
White, pp. 41-42.
1?Lynda E. Boose, "The F a t h e r and t h e B r id e in
S h a k e s p e a r e ," PMLA, 97 (1982), 329.
l 8 p e t e r J. Seng, The V ocal Songs i n t h e P la y s of
S h a k e sp e a re (Cam bridge: H arvard Univ. P r e s s , 1967), pp.
137-140.
T^Often i t i s assumed t h a t O ph elia s in g s i n t h i s f i r s t
song of h e r own " l o v e r s " — of Hamlet and h e r f a t h e r — but
t h a t seems u n l i k e l y , becau se th e p u b l i c f u n e r a l d e s c r i b e d
in v e r s e t h r e e can n o t r e f e r t o P o l o n i u s ’ b u r i a l , which was
done " in hugger-m ugger" ( 4 . 5 . 8 4 ) .
20seng, p. 134.
2 1E l l i s , p. 28.
22 S a lv a d o r de M adariaga, On H am let, 2nd ed. (1948;
r p t . New York: B a rn e s and Noble, 1964), p. 42 and pp. 68-
71; Max Huhner, S h a k e s p e a r e ’s Hamlet (New York: F a r r a r and
S t r a u s , 1950), p. 150; Olav Lokse, O u tra g e o u s F o rtu n e
(O slo : Oslo Univ. P r e s s , 1960), p. 48; and see a l s o J . Max
P a t r i c k , "The Problem o f O p h e l i a , " i n S t u d i e s in
S h a k e s p e a r e , I, ed. A rth u r D. Matthews and C la rk M. Emery
(C o ral G a b le s : Univ. of Miami P r e s s , 1953), pp. 139-144.
23See Harry M o rris, " O p h e l i a ’s 'Bonny Sweet R o b i n , '"
PMLA, 73 (1958), 601-603; Jean B. J o fe n , "Two Mad
H e r o in e s : A Study of t h e Mental d i s o r d e r s o f O p h elia in
Hamlet and M a rg a re te i n F a u s t , » L i t e r a t u r e and P sy c h o lo g y .
11 (1 9 6 1 ), 7 0 -7 1 ; H aro ld J e n k i n s , "Hamlet and O p h e l i a , "
P ro c e e d in g s of t h e B r i t i s h Academy. 49 (1963), 150-151;
C a r r o l l Camden, "On O p h e l i a ’s M adness," S h a k e s p e a re
I Q u a r t e r l y , 15 (1 9 6 4 ), 252-254; R obert T racy, "The Owl and
199
th e B a k e r 's D a u g h te r: A Note on Hamlet IV .V .4 2 - 4 3 ,"
S h a k e sp e a re Q u a r t e r l y . 17 (1966)* 8 3 -8 4 .
24M orris, pp. 601-603; and P e t e r J. Seng. " O p h e l i a ’ s
Songs i n H am let. 1 1 Durham U n i v e r s i t y J o u r n a l . 25 (1964).
83-84.
2 5 se e Roy W alker. The Time i s Out o f J o i n t (London:
Andrew D akers, 1948), p. 127.
26See S t i l l i n g , p. 121, fn . 12.
27Leo S a l i n g a r , "The E l i z a b e t h a n L i t e r a r y
R e n a issa n c e , 1 1 in The Age of S h a k e s p e a r e , ed. B o r is Ford
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1955), pp. 8 8 8-89; G e o ffre y Bush,
S h a k e s p e a re and th e N a tu r a l C o n d itio n (Cam bridge: H arvard
Univ. P r e s s , 1956), p. 100; Harry L e v in , The Q u e s tio n of
Hamlet (New York: Oxford, 1959), p. 124; W i l l e f o r d , pp.
192-193 and p. 196; and Snyder, p. 116.
2 8s a l i n g a r , " E l i z a b e t h a n L i t e r a r y R e n a i s s a n c e , " pp.
8 8-89.
200
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