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Content RHETORICAL IMITATION A N D ENGLISH RENAISSANCE LITERACY
by
Edward E. Erdmann
A D is s e r ta tio n P resented t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f the
Requirem ents fo r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E nglish)
August 1988
UMI Number: DP23130
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This dissertation, w ritten by
under the direction of h..i.$....... D issertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted b y The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of re
quirements for the degree of
Ph.D.
£
h
us
Edward E. Erdmann
D O C TO R OF PH ILOSOPH Y
Dean of Graduate Studies
April 22, 1988
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairperson
i i
C ontents
P r e f a c e ................................................................... i i i
Notes . ............................................................................ xi
In tro d u c tio n ................................................................................... 1
Notes ................................................................................................... 20
I . C la s s ic a l Advice on R h e to ric a l Im ita tio n .................... 23
Notes .................................................................................................................... 49
I I . S o c ia l and P o l i t i c a l C onditions ......................................... 52
Notes .................................................................................................................... 86
I I I . E nglish Humanist E ducators on Im ita tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
N otes........................................................ 125
IV. Im ita tio n Pedagogy and E th ic a l I n d o c trin a tio n ........................ 130
Notes ..................................... 163
E pilogue ........................................................................................................ 166
Prim ary Sources ................................ 179
Secondary Sources: Im ita tio n ........................................................................ 187
Secondary Sources: G eneral ............................................................................. 190
P reface
The id ea fo r t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n came about in a co n v ersatio n
w ith W alter Beale o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f North C aro lin a a t
G reensboro. At work on h is own te x tb o o k , B eale mentioned th a t
among th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f modern tex tbooks fo r com position only
Edward P. J . C o rb e tt’s C la s s ic a l R h eto ric fo r th e Modern Student
1
e x p l i c i t l y advocates im ita tio n . B ea le ’s p o in t was th a t d e s p ite
th e continuous t r a d i t i o n o f pedagogical use o f r h e t o r i c a l
im ita tio n from c l a s s i c a l Greek tim es through th e Middle Ages, and
d e s p ite i t s having been th e r u le in the R enaissance schoolroom,
today such e x e rc is e i s v i r t u a l l y unknown to e d u c a to rs . I was
l e f t to wonder what had happened to r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n as a
method o f language e d u c a tio n . How could e x e r c is e s once
recognized a p r in c ip a l way o f language le a r n in g now be a l l but
unknown to most te a c h e rs o f w ritin g ?
M y choice to study th e s ix te e n th cen tu ry i s in p a rt an
e x p e d ie n t, n ecessary when one i s concerned w ith a phenomenon
which spans over tw o-thousand y e a rs. But th e r e i s more to i t
than expedience. W illiam R iley Parker and Warren G u th rie have
argued co g en tly t h a t th e ty p e o f education which Americans now
re c e iv e is a development as re c e n t as the l a t e n in e te e n th
2
c e n tu ry . Up to t h a t tim e , American education was o f the
" c l a s s i c a l ” ty p e , having much th e same form which o r ig in a te d in
i
I
! s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E n g lish h u m a n ists’ schools and im ported by
American c o lo n is ts in th e sev en teen th c en tu ry . My c h o ic e , th en ,
to stu d y th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry i s a lso s t r a t e g i c : I am
p a r t i c u l a r l y in te r e s t e d in knowing th e h is to r y o f th e ty p e o f
j education which I re c e iv e d as w ell as th a t which I did n o t. And
! r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n was an i n te g r a l p a r t o f th e l a t t e r .
The p re se n t stu d y i s shaped by my own b e l i e f t h a t what i s
j tru e o f our use o f language i s p a r t o f a la r g e r human t r u t h : what
| we do i s our response to what we en co u n ter. The conception i s
h a rd ly new: i t i s a b a s ic concept o f b io lo g y , psychology,
i epistem ology. The concept has always been f a m ilia r to
I
| r h e t o r i c i a n s , from th e s o p h is ts o f th e f i f t h c en tu ry B .C ., who
I
w rote o f k a i r o s , to Kenneth Burke, fo r whom "scene" i s an
o v e ra rch in g to p ic fo r in v e n tio n . I express t h i s b e l i e f a t th e
o u ts e t o f my second c h a p te r when I make e x p l i c i t th e prem ise th a t
a program o f ed u catio n must be seen to meet th e needs o f i t s tim e
and win th e favor o f th o se having the re so u rce s and p o l i t i c a l
power to i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e i t . But th e assum ption a c tu a lly
inform s th e whole o f t h i s stu d y . Hence, w hile th e focus o f t h i s
d i s s e r t a t i o n i s th e use o f im ita tio n in s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E nglish
r h e t o r i c a l e d u c a tio n , I begin w ith a d is c u s s io n o f c l a s s i c a l
Greek and Roman r h e t o r i c i a n s ’ advice on r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n , fo r
V
th e se c l a s s i c a l p re c u rso rs were to s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y hum anists a
v i t a l p a r t o f th e scen e. And from th a t broader c o n tex t I move in
su cc e ssiv e c h a p te rs through th e p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n tex t o f
Tudor E nglish ed u catio n to th e E nglish h u m a n ists' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
assum ptions about language and th e means and purposes o f
le a r n in g , b efo re I focus more narrow ly on th e phenomenon i t s e l f .
When I say th a t t h i s study i s concerned w ith r h e to r ic a l
im ita tio n , I do n o t mean t h a t i t i s concerned d i r e c t l y w ith the
l i t e r a r y p ro d u c t, th e " im ita tio n ." Nor i s i t concerned w ith the
a c tu a l mechanics o f th e pedagogy o f im ita tio n . Such exam inations
a lre a d y abound. R ath er, th e p re s e n t study examines th e p la c e and
fu n c tio n o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n pedagogy a t th e h e ig h t o f i t s
u se, b efo re i t f e l l from fa v o r. R h e to ric a l im ita tio n e x e rc is e s
were an im portant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e h u m a n istic,
r h e t o r i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d E n g lish school c u r r ic u la o f th e s ix te e n th
c e n tu ry , and th ey p e r s is te d w ith l i t t l e change as a common method
o f language ed u catio n u n t i l th e l a t e n in e te e n th cen tu ry .
The p re s e n t p r o je c t can only begin to ad d ress th e broad
q u estio n o f why r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n f e l l from fa v o r, o f why a
method o f language e d u c a tio n , p ra c tic e d fo r over two thousand
y e a r s , today i s v i r t u a l l y unknown. Toward such a b eg in n in g , the
d i s s e r t a t i o n examines th e s o c ia l and t h e o r e t i c a l c o n te x t in which
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n pedagogy fu n ctio n ed as p a r t o f
h u m a n ist-in sp ire d s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E nglish e d u c a tio n . To be
su re , r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n e x e r c is e s had a p la c e in th e classroom
in p a r t because o f a long t r a d i t i o n of t h e i r u s e . But t h i s study
dem o n strates th a t such e x e r c is e s were p a r t i c u l a r l y w e ll- s u ite d to
th e E nglish h u m a n ists’ assum ptions about eloquence and t h e i r
e t h i c a l and e d u c a tio n a l o b je c t iv e s . Moreover, th e study tr a c e s
th e ways th a t th e E nglish h u m a n ists’ p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s
in c l i n a t i o n s and e d u c a tio n a l programs s u ite d th e T udors’ need to
c o n tro l th e old a r is to c r a c y , ensure r e lig io u s co n fo rm ity , and
develop a pow erful, c e n tr a liz e d government. E n g lish hum anistic
ed u ca to rs b e lie v ed t h a t im ita tio n e x e rc is e s would h e lp t r a i n both
th e old and th e em ergent E n g lish g en try to be f l u e n t in L a tin and
in forms o f d isc o u rse s u ite d to th e needs o f burgeoning Tudor
bureau cracy .
The d i s s e r t a t i o n a ls o d em onstrates t h a t , i d e a l l y , r h e t o r i c a l
im ita tio n was a c r e a tiv e a c t i v i t y and th a t c l a s s i c a l and
R enaissance r h e to r ic ia n s reco g n ized t h i s i d e a l . A premium was
placed on th e im ita to r whose w r itin g not only developed q u a l i t i e s
o f th e model to a new e x c e lle n c e but a lso dem onstrated q u a l i t i e s
o f h is own t a l e n t s . Yet in th e R enaissance t h i s id e a l was
compromised by e d u c a to r s ’ need to develop p ed agogical methods
which could be r e p lic a t e d in classroom s o f many grammar sch o o ls
and a t th e u n i v e r s i t i e s . S ix te e n th -c e n tu ry hum anist ed u ca to rs
faced th e ta sk of tu rn in g f if te e n th - c e n tu r y h u m an istic tech n iq u es
o f p h ilo lo g ic a l stu d y in to classroom methods s u i t a b l e fo r
in c re a s in g numbers o f s tu d e n ts whose o b je c tiv e s m ight not be th e
i church or th e b a r, in d eed , who might have no p a r t i c u l a r concern
’ to com plete a form al d eg ree. When t h i s p r a c t i c a l o b je c tiv e
i
| combined w ith th e h u m a n ists’ c h a r a c t e r i s t i c concern fo r s tu d e n t s ’
I
| e t h i c a l developm ent, th e r e developed a program o f ed u catio n which
' might w ith o u t cynicism be c a lle d an in te n s e in d o c tr in a tio n .
Under th e se c o n d itio n s , r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n became a means o f
I such in d o c tr in a tio n .
i
| The stu d y begins w ith an in tr o d u c tio n c l a r i f y i n g term s which
[
i a re used throughout th e d is c u s s io n . I f i r s t d is tin g u is h
! r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n from "m im esis’’ (a term d e s ig n a tin g , ro u g h ly ,
t h a t a r t i s t i c p ro d u ctio n which r e p re s e n ts n a tu r e , or th e a c tio n s
o f men, or th e appearance o f th o se t h i n g s ) . I then address the
) s u b je c t o f im ita tio n e x e r c is e s , e x p la in in g what i s im ita te d in
such e x e rc is e s and how th e im ita tio n i s accom plished.
i
J R enaissance r h e to r ic ia n s were f a m ilia r w ith and eager to make
t h e i r own use o f c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s ’ id e a s . A ccordingly in
; th e f i r s t ch ap ter I d is c u s s some o f th e c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s '
id e a s on r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n . These w r ite r s were th e sources
from which R enaissance e d u c a tio n a l th in k e r s d e riv e d much o f t h e i r
own th in k in g about th e pedagogy o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n and i t s
v a lu e . Put only b r i e f l y h e re , th e id e a l o f im ita tio n which many
o f th e c l a s s i c a l r h e to r i c i a n s and R enaissance hum anists shared
was one in which th e im ita to r c a r e f u l ly s e le c te d models which
v iii
s u ite d h is own n a tu r a l i n c l i n a t i o n s . His goal was not to
d u p lic a te th e o r i g i n a l s , but to produce a new l i t e r a r y work,
perhaps re c o g n iza b ly echoing th e o r i g i n a l s , b u t always d i f f e r i n g
from them so as to be valued i t s e l f both as an im ita tio n and as a
new c r e a tio n . The im ita to r was to b rin g to h is work a z e a l not
j u s t to im ita te , but to o u t s t r i p th e e x c e lle n c e s o f h is m odels.
In th e second c h a p te r I e x p lain how, as a r e s u l t o f p o l i t i c a l
and s o c ia l changes under th e Tudors, grammar sc h o o ls and c o lle g e s
were founded, c h a r te r s were r e w r itte n , s tu d e n ts e n tered hig h er
ed u catio n in in c r e a s in g numbers, and o p p o r tu n itie s fo r th o se w ith
h ig h e r ed u catio n expanded. Under th e se c o n d itio n s , e d u c a tio n a l
programs in s p ire d by hum anists informed th e newly red esig n ed
c u r r ic u la o f a number o f E n g lish grammar sch o o ls and c o lle g e s
because such e d u c a tio n a l p la n s were b e lie v ed to p ro v id e
in d iv id u a ls w ith th e s o r t o f l i t e r a c y s k i l l s Tudor o f f i c i a l s
thought th ey needed and because th o se who championed such
e d u c a tio n a l p la n s were a t l e a s t in o ffe n s iv e t o , and were
sometimes p o l i t i c a l a p o lo g is ts fo r th e Tudor m onarchs.
The t h i r d c h a p te r examines th e o r ie s and assum ptions o f
E nglish hum anist e d u c a to rs which made r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n an
i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e e d u c a tio n a l program. These s c h o la rs and
ed u ca to rs b e lie v ed t h a t through r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n pedagogy
th e y could h elp a ss u re th e r e b i r t h and c o n tin u ity o f a c l a s s i c a l
i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n . Most s i g n i f i c a n t l y , th e se e d u ca to rs
ix
assumed th a t through im ita tio n o f c l a s s i c a l t e x t s t h e i r s tu d e n t s ’
e t h i c a l c h a ra c te r could be form ed.
A f i n a l c h ap te r d em o n strates t h a t although c l a s s i c a l and
R enaissance E nglish hum anist w r ite r s on r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n
agreed upon th e p o t e n t i a l o f im ita tio n to be a c r e a tiv e p ro c e ss,
th e c o n d itio n s o f s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E nglish ed u catio n c o n stra in e d
th e c r e a tiv e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n , making o f the
pedagogy a to o l fo r e t h i c a l in d o c tr in a tio n . In e f f e c t ,
R enaissance E nglish hum anist ed u ca to rs s a id one th in g and did
a n o th e r: in ad v o catin g r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n , th e y echoed th e
c l a s s i c a l demands fo r c r e a t i v i t y w hile in p r a c tic e th ey
c o n stra in e d s tu d e n t s ’ i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom. Tudor h u m an ists,
w ith t h e i r d e s ir e fo r o rd e r, developed e d u c a tio n a l programs which
helped r e a s s e r t p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s co nform ity w hile
ad d re ssin g the needs o f in c r e a s in g numbers o f s tu d e n ts seek in g
p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l ad v an tag e. From th e se c o n d itio n s E nglish
hum anist ed u cato rs developed methods o f i n s tr u c tio n which
i n s t i l l e d in stu d e n ts an e t h i c a l p e rs p e c tiv e . In t h i s c o n te x t,
s tu d e n ts were made to s e e , re a d , h e a r, and say what t h e i r
te a c h e rs w anted, and r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n became th e means by
which s tu d e n ts were made to argue from a predeterm ined e t h i c a l
p e r s p e c tiv e . Yet d e s p ite th e uses to which r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n
pedagogy was p u t, Erasmus, whose id e a s informed much o f th e
E nglish h um anistic program o f e d u c a tio n , makes c le a r in h is
C iceroneanus how r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n can be a c r e a tiv e a c t i v i t y
by which one develops h is own l i t e r a r y t a l e n t .
The d i s s e r t a t i o n concludes w ith an e p ilo g u e in which I sketch
a n ex t s te p fo r t h i s stu d y o f r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n . J u s t as th e
p re s e n t work i s an exam ination o f th e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and
i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n te x t in which r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n pedagogy
th r iv e d , so , to o , f u tu r e work must c o n sid e r th e s o c i a l ,
p o l i t i c a l , and i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n te x t in which r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n
f e l l from fa v o r. As I e x p lain ed above, th e im petus fo r t h i s
stu d y came from a c o lle a g u e , W alter B eale. The work o f another
c o lle a g u e , G rant B osw ell, shows th e d ir e c tio n fo r continued
stu d y . In h is 1986 R h eto ric S o c ie ty Q u a rte rly a r t i c l e "The
R h eto ric o f Pedagogy" Boswell dem onstrates t h a t e m p ir ic is t
th in k in g in th e sev e n te en th c en tu ry undermined th e hum anistic
b e l i e f th a t a l l le a r n in g proceeds by i m ita tio n . Such a change in
th e u n d e rly in g assum ption about language le a r n in g s e t th e stag e
fo r an e v en tu a l change in pedagogy, away from r h e t o r i c a l
im ita tio n toward th e s o r t s o f classroom w r itin g e x e r c is e s w ith
3
which we a re f a m ilia r to d ay .
Notes
^(New York: Oxford U n iv e rs ity P re ss, 1971), 496-538.
2
P a rk e r, "Where Do E n g lish Departments Come From?" C ollege
E n g lish 28 (February 1967): 339-51; G u th rie , "The Development of
R h e to ric a l Theory in Am erica, 1635-1850; The Dominance o f th e
R h eto ric o f S ty le , 1637-1730," Speech Monographs 13 (1946):
14-22; "The Growth o f th e C la s s ic a l T r a d itio n , 1730-1785," Speech
Monographs 14 (1948): 38-54; "Domination o f th e E n g lish
R h e to r ic s ," Speech Monographs 15 (1948): 61-71; and "The
Development o f American R h e to ric a l T heory," Speech Monographs 16
(1949): 98-113.
p
Grant M. B osw ell, "The R h eto ric o f Pedagogy: Changing
Assumptions in S even teen th -C en tu ry E nglish R h e to ric a l
E d u c a tio n ," R h eto ric S o c ie ty Q u a rte rly 16 (1986): 109-123.
In tro d u c tio n
Modern s c h o la rs r a r e l y a tte n d to r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n , but
when th ey do, th e y u s u a lly o f f e r as d e f i n i t i o n o f th e a c t i v i t y
th e se remarks from Ascham’s S choolm aster: " im ita tio n i s a fa c u lty
to e x p ress l i v e l y and p e r f e c t ly t h a t example which ye go about to
fo llo w " and " im ita tio i s d i s s i m i l i s m aterei s i m i l i s t r a c t a t i o
and a ls o s i m ilis m aterei d i s s i m i l i s t r a c t a t i o ." Ascham o f f e r s no
f u r th e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n , ex cep t to exem plify d i s s i m i l i s m aterei
s i m i l i s t r a c t a t i o w ith H orace’s im ita tio n o f P indar ("b u t e ith e r
o f them h is own argument and p e rso n , as th e one, H iero , King o f
S i c i l y , th e o th e r , Augustus th e Emperor") and to exem plify
s i m i l i s m aterei d i s s i m i l i s t r a c t a t i o w ith th e l o s t work o f
Terence im ita tin g Menander " in l i k e argum ent, in th e same
1
p e rso n s, w ith equal e lo q u en c e ." U n fo rtu n a te ly , Ascham's remarks
a re too vague to be u s e f u l as a d e f i n i t i o n , and in t h e i r p la c e I
o f f e r t h i s d e f i n i t i o n : r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n e x e r c is e i s an
in te n tio n a l e f f o r t to r e c r e a te through a p ro c e ss o f a b s tr a c tio n
some a sp e c t o f th e form or co n ten t o f l i t e r a r y m odels. To make
t h i s d e f i n i t i o n c l e a r , I w ill ta k e up in tu rn i t s component
te rm s, beginning w ith th e term " r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n ."
r
2
In l i t e r a r y th e o ry th e terra " im ita tio n ” i s used to re p re se n t
th e c l a s s i c a l conception t h a t th e a r t i s t im ita te s or re p re s e n ts
n a tu re in h is work. In 1928 T ate d is tin g u is h e d two meanings fo r
" im ita tio n " in P l a t o ’s w orks. One was th e "m erely im ita tiv e " in
| which th e a r t i s t " im ita te s only th e ap p aren t n a tu re o f th in g s
I which are ap p aren t to th e s e n s e s ." The second sen se in which
P la to used th e word was to in d ic a te th e im ita tio n o f th e id e a l
world by p h i l o s o p h e r / a r t i s t s who had achieved u n d e rsta n d in g o f
both th e id e a s in them selves and t h e i r images in th e world o f th e
2
s e n s e s . Most d is c u s s io n o f th e h is to r y o f c r i t i c a l th e o ry has
been concerned w ith th e f i r s t sense of " i m i t a t i o n ," most o fte n
ex p ressed by th e t r a n s l i t e r a t e d Greek "m im esis."
In h is 1936 a r t i c l e on "The Concept o f I m ita tio n in
A n tiq u ity ," Richard McKeon a c t u a l l y d is tin g u is h e s a t l e a s t f iv e
d e f i n i t i o n s f o r im ita tio n in c l a s s i c a l th e o ry , on ly one o f which
does not im m ediately d e sig n a te th e th e o ry o f a r t i s t i c
' r e p r e s e n ta tio n . R ath er, t h i s one sense o f i m ita tio n in d ic a te s
i
! th e s t u d e n t ’s or m ature w r i t e r ’s a ttem p ts to im ita te h is
I
p re d e c e s s o rs ' work. T his i s , as McKeon p u ts i t , im ita tio n in the
3
" r h e t o r i c a l sen se, im ita tio n o f o th e r a r t i s t s . " T his p a r t i c u l a r
!
sense o f " im ita tio n " i s th e concern o f th e p re s e n t d i s s e r t a t i o n .
To avoid co n fu sio n , th e n , th e ty p e o f im ita tio n in which th e
! a r t i s t or stu d e n t im ita te s an o th er a r t i s t or o th e r a r t i s t s w ill
th ro u g h o u t t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n be r e f e r r e d to by th e term
3
" r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n ," by th e L a tin "i m i t a t i o , " or sim ply by th e
term " i m ita tio n ." The term "m im esis," in th e t r a n s l i t e r a t e d
E n g lish form, w ill be tak en to r e f e r to p o e tic i m ita tio n , th e
th e o ry t h a t , ro u g h ly , th e a r t i s t r e p re s e n ts n a tu re in h is work.
M entioning I s o c r a t e s ’s , D ionysius o f H a lic a r n a s s u s 's , and
Q u i n t i l i a n ’s advice on r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n , McKeon b r i e f l y
c o n sid e rs r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n , n o tin g th a t th e co nception and
p r a c t i c e o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n " i s a t l e a s t contem porary" w ith
th e id e a o f p o e tic mimesis and "has perhaps an even lo n g er and
c e r t a i n l y l e s s d i s t o r t e d h is to r y " (2 6 ). That th e id e a and the
p r a c tic e o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n was contem porary w ith th e o r ie s
o f p o e tic mimesis r a i s e s th e q u estio n o f th e r e la t i o n s h i p between
th e two c o n ce p ts. C oncerning t h i s r e l a tio n s h ip McKeon r e c a l l s
th e s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry n e o c la s s ic a l dictum : " to im ita te Homer
[ i s ] to im ita te n a tu re " (2 9 ). And Donald A. R u sse ll a s s e r t s in
h is 1979 essay "de i m i t a t i o n e ," t h a t th e re i s more to t h i s
r e la t i o n s h i p than j u s t homonymy. Once th e term "mimesis" had
come to d e sig n a te p o e tic im ita tio n in th e sense developed by
! i
P la to , i t s l a t e r uses to d is c u s s l i t e r a t u r e "could not f a i l to be ,
a f f e c te d by th e a s s o c ia tio n s " o f p o e tic m im esis. "W ords," he i
e x p la in s , "have t h i s s o r t o f power to in flu e n c e ways o f
i
i th in k in g ." "In one s e n s e , a l l p o e ts were i m i t a t o r e s [ ; 3 in
i
a n o th er t h i s was tr u e only o f th o se who d id n ot ( l i k e Homer)
4
sta n d a t th e beginning o f a t r a d i t i o n . "
4
R u s s e l l ’s statem e n t t h a t p o e tic mimesis and r h e t o r i c a l
im ita tio n were r e l a t e d assumes th a t th e most a n c ie n t p o ets were
b e lie v e d to be im ita to r s o f n a tu re r a th e r than im ita to r s o f t h e i r
p re d e c e ss o rs . C e r ta in ly , th e Romans looked to Greek models in
a l l a r t s , and H e l l e n i s t i c w r ite r s looked to A ttic c u ltu r e and to
Homer fo r m odels. But n e ith e r McKeon nor R u sse ll p ro v id es d i r e c t
evidence o f th e a t t i t u d e t h a t a n c ie n t a u th o rs were " c lo s e r to
n a tu r e ." T rousdale rem arks on evidence o f t h i s b e l i e f in the
s ix te e n th c e n tu ry , c i t i n g V a s a r i's L ives o f th e P a i n t e r s . V asari
b e lie v ed t h a t M ichelangelo, R aphael, and da V inci could n o t have
a tta in e d th e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e i r a r t s through stu d y and p r a c tic e
a lo n e , b ut were a b le to ach iev e e x c e lle n c e a f t e r o b serv in g the
re d isc o v e re d Laocoon, H e rc u le s, to r s o o f B elv ed e re , Venus,
5
C le o p a tra , and A pollo.
In h is more re c e n t book C ritic is m in A n tiq u ity , R u sse ll
concedes th a t th e " lin k s between [ r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n ] and th e
g e n e ra l l i t e r a r y th e o ry o f mimesis a re te n u o u s," b ut th a t "an
im p o rtan t p o in t o f resem blance i s th e in s is t e n c e on th e need fo r
g e n eral u n d e rstan d in g o f th e model r a th e r than m echanical or (as
£
we m ight say) p h o to g rap h ic co p y in g ." R u ss e ll r e f e r s to th e
c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s ' " in s is te n c e on th e need fo r g en eral
u n d e rstan d in g o f th e m odel," and w hile he does n o t expand on
t h i s , such an in s is t e n c e resem bles the p la to n ic p re c e p t t h a t th e
tr u e im ita to r must have knowledge o f th e id e a l and not j u s t
F
I
5
im ita te appearances. The p o in t o f connection between p o e tic
mimesis and r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n seems to be assumed b u t
r e l a t i v e l y unex p lo red . A lthough i t i s n o t th e p la c e o f th e
p re s e n t work to c l a r i f y th e q u e stio n o f t h i s c o n n e c tio n , t h i s
stu d y w i l l dem onstrate in i t s d is c u s s io n o f s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y
hum anist e d u ca to rs t h a t a n c ie n t l i t e r a r y models were supposed to
be o f v alu e fo r t h e i r " e lo q u e n c e ,1 1 a term which to th e E n g lish
hum anists d e sig n ated n o t o n ly a w ork’s s t y l i s t i c e x c e lle n c e but
a ls o i t s v alu e as moral and p r a c t i c a l example f o r th e form ation
o f th e s t u d e n t 's c h a r a c te r .
The d e f in itio n o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n e x e r c is e o ff e re d above
s p e c if ie d th a t such e x e r c is e c o n s titu te d " in t e n t i o n a l e f f o r t to
r e c r e a te . . . some a s p e c t o f form or c o n ten t o f l i t e r a r y models"
put b e fo re th e s tu d e n t. T rousdale n o tes in h er d is c u s s io n o f
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n t h a t to d a y 's view o f l i t e r a t u r e a c c e p ts th a t
" p a t te r n s , commonplaces, form ulae make up [ th e ] c o n s t i t u t i v e
7
elem ents o f l i t e r a t u r e . " This being so , th e term " in te n tio n a l"
i s s i g n i f i c a n t . For any l i t e r a r y p r o d u c tio n - e v e n t h a t of
s tu d e n ts — could be u n d ersto o d in some g en eral sen se to be
im ita tio n o f c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s . But one s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e
between contem porary ed u ca tio n and th e " c l a s s i c a l e d u c a tio n " of
e a r l i e r c e n tu r ie s i s p r e c is e ly t h a t today most e d u c a to rs no
lo n g e r re c o g n iz e , much le s s encourage, r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n of
g
" p a t te r n s , commonplaces, fo rm u lae ." The fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n
6
w i l l c o n sid e r each ty p e o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n e x e r c is e n o tin g
how each c o n s t i t u t e s in t e n t i o n a l im ita tio n o f some a s p e c t or
a sp e c ts o f a l i t e r a r y m odel. But b efo re c o n sid e rin g th e ty p es o f
im ita tio n e x e r c is e s , one must f i r s t un d erstan d how s tu d e n t s '
stu d y o f grammar made p o s s ib le th e p ro c e ss e s o f a b s tr a c tio n
n e c e ssa ry to t h e i r im ita tin g a l i t e r a r y model.
The V ocabulary o f A b stra c tio n
R enaissance schoolboys were ta u g h t a whole vocab u lary fo r
p a tte r n s o f language from t h e i r te x tb o o k s in grammar and
r h e t o r i c . For example, th e grammar w r itte n between 1510 and 1515
f o r S t. P a u l's school by W illiam L ily in c o lla b o r a tio n w ith C olet
and Erasmus in clu d ed p re c e p ts and examples o f v a rio u s f ig u r e s o f
L a tin c o n s tr u c tio n . A fte r t r e a t i n g o f th e a lp h a b e t, p u n c tu a tio n ,
a c c id e n ce , and concord, L i l y 's grammar e x e m p lifie s e ig h t fig u r e s
o f L a tin c o n s tr u c tio n . To c o n sid e r one such f i g u r e — zeugma—
w i l l serv e th e p re s e n t p u rp o ses. Zeugma i s an e l l i p s i s o f a verb
or v erb s in which one v e rb a l c o n s tr u c tio n se rv e s fo r a l l s u b je c ts
or o b je c t s . The f ig u r e i s found in E nglish as w ell as L a tin , and
A rthur Quinn c o l l e c t s numerous examples in t r a n s l a t i o n . Among
Q u in n 's examples i s t h i s from I s a ia h 2 .3 . The v erb p hrase " s h a ll
7
go f o r t h ” i s o m itted from th e second c la u s e :
Out o f Zion s h a l l go f o r th th e law ,
and th e word o f th e Lord from Jeru sa le m .
And th e r e i s t h i s from H erodotus, in which a v erb p h rase i s
reduced (in E n g lish ) to a p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se:
A woman ta k e s o f f her claim to r e s p e c t
along w ith h er garm ents.
In c o n sid e rin g th e se exam ples, th e re a d e r may im agine
c o n s tr u c tin g some o f h is own. I t i s p o s s ib le to do so because a
s te p o f a b s tr a c tio n has o c c u rre d : through th e exam ples a re a d er
forms an a b s t r a c t sense o f th e s tr u c tu r e and can im agine s im ila r
language s t r u c t u r e s . Of c o u rse , the d e f i n i t i o n o f zeugma which
was o ffe re d j u s t above ( ”an e l l i p s i s o f a verb or v e rb s , one
v e rb a l c o n s tr u c tio n s e r v in g fo r a l l s u b je c t or o b je c t s " ) i s
i t s e l f an a b s tr a c tio n : i t g iv e s l i n g u i s t i c e x p re ss io n to th e
9
phenomenon.
Like th e grammars, s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y r h e t o r i c t e x t s o ffe re d
p re c e p ts and gave exam ples. E rasm us's De c o p ia , p re p a red in 1512
f o r th e s tu d e n ts o f S t. P a u l 's , p rim a rily c o n s is ts o f t h i s sort
o f l i s t i n g o f exam ples. Book One o f De copia g iv e s examples of
f ig u r e s o f speech, in c lu d in g th o se fig u r e s th e names o f which a re
s t i l l f a m i l i a r , such as metonymy and synecdoche. Some o f th e
examples Erasmus g iv es as ty p e s o f metonymy in c lu d e an in s ta n c e
from V i r g i l 's Aeneid in which th e p r o te c to r i s named f o r t h a t
which i s to be p r o te c te d , "Ceres sp o ile d by th e w a te r s " ; and an
8
in s ta n c e in which th e c o n ta in e r i s named fo r t h a t which i s
c o n ta in e d , tt[he] d ra in e d ju g s ” ; or th e le a d e r fo r th o se le d ,
10
”s ix ty thousand k i l l e d a t Canna by H a n n ib al." Metonymy, in
f a c t , i s an i n t e r e s t i n g c a se , f o r th e term encompasses a number
o f v a r i a t i o n s , among a l l o f w hich, by some p ro c e ss o f
a b s t r a c t i o n , a re a d e r re c o g n ize s th e s i m i l a r i t y . So, to o , th e
second book o f De co p ia o f f e r s examples o f f ig u r e s o f th o u g h t.
Among th e examples which Erasmus in c lu d e s are th e s e :
I t i s an o ffe n s e to f e t t e r a Roman c i t i z e n , a crim e to
flo g him, tre a so n to k i l l him, what s h a l l I say i t i s
to c ru c ify him?
For we have brought to your judgement n o t a t h i e f , b u t
a b rig a n d ; n o t an a d u l t e r e r , b u t a v i o l a t o r o f
c h a s t i t y ; not an im pious p e rso n , b ut an enemy o f sacred
and r e l i g i o u s th in g s ; n o t an a s s a s s in , b u t ^ m o s t c ru e l
m urderer o f our fe llo w c i t i z e n s and a l l i e s .
A re a d e r can e a s i l y re c o g n iz e th e s i m i l a r i t y between th e s e
exam ples. Each passage seems in ten d ed to b u ild up to a clim ax o f
s o r t s (Erasmus c a l l s th e f ig u r e increm entum . )
T rousdale says t h a t l i n g u i s t i c forms such as th e s e have
" p e r c e p tib le e x is te n c e " and a re " fre e forms . , , d e tac h a b le from
th e m a tte r which th ey o rd e r and in our eyes d e f in e " :
They re p re s e n t t h a t which can be co p ied , rep ro d u ced ,
sh ared . . . . They a re p e rc eiv e d by a c ts o f mind, and
we might see them as concepts which can be a b s tr a c te d
from phenomenal th in g s . But such hidden images seem to
have had more su b sta n c e f o r th e E liz a b e th a n s than th ey
do f o r u s. They seem to c o n s t i t u t e th o se i n t e l l e c t u a l
s tr u c t u r e s which ^ p r e s e n t what i s knowable in the
phenomenal w orld.
9
I f th e se form s— th e tro p e s and schemes o f r h e t o r i c — seemed to an
E liza b e th an to have more su b sta n c e , i t i s because a schoolboy
u n d ersto o d them through th e examples in h is te x tb o o k s . And i t
was p r e c is e ly h is a b i l i t y to p e rc e iv e language i n term s o f forms
o f s t y l e and arrangem ent o f m a tte r , and to re c o g n ize such form s,
which made p o s s ib le h is im ita tio n o f l i t e r a r y m odels. Aided by
h is i n s t r u c t i o n and guided by h is m a s te r 's p r a e l e c t i o (which w ill
be d isc u sse d n e x t) , he could re c o g n ize in th e models examples of
such form s. In a se n se , he c a r r ie d th e a b s t r a c t forms w ith him
and could use them to a n aly ze and to im i t a t e .
B efore s tu d e n ts perform ed any im ita tio n e x e r c is e , th ey heard
and o fte n p a r t i c i p a t e d in an a n a ly s is o f th e s a l i e n t f e a tu r e s o f
th e t e x t to be im ita te d . T y p ic a lly th e sch o o lm aster in tro d u ced
th e t e x t which he was to read to th e s tu d e n ts in a p r a e l e c t i o .
W hile th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e p r a e le c tio w i l l be co n sid ered in a
l a t e r c h a p te r, th e form o f th e p r e le c tio n may be t y p i f i e d
13
h e re . Having s e le c te d a t e x t or a p o rtio n o f a t e x t by the
au th o r whose s t y l e or th in k in g h i s wished h is p u p ils in some way
to im i t a t e , th e m aster would f i r s t t e l l h is s tu d e n ts about the
au th o r and th e h i s t o r i c a l circu m stan ces o f th e p a r t i c u l a r t e x t .
Next th e m aster might l i s t p a r t i c u l a r s t y l i s t i c t a l e n t s and
h a b its o f argum entation f o r which th e a u th o r i s known. He might
th en summarize th e main p o in ts o f th e w o rk 's "argum ent" (a term
which could r e f e r to th e p o in ts in an o r a tio n , th e p l o t o f a
10
p la y , even th e movement o f id e a s in a poem). Since th e s tu d e n ts
were s t i l l m asterin g a second lan g u ag e, L a tin , th e sch o o lm aster
m ight a ls o have e x p la in e d some d e t a i l s o f grammar and
v o c ab u la ry . Then draw ing on th e s tu d e n t s ' e d u ca tio n in grammar,
he could have noted p a r t i c u l a r forms o f argum ent, s t y l i s t i c
d e v ic e s , or c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e a u th o r 's L a tin com position
which he wished th e p u p ils to im i t a t e . At some p o in t th e m aster
m ight a ls o have p o in te d o u t th e moral im p lic a tio n o f th e work.
Of c o u rse , th e d e t a i l o f th e p r a e l e c t i o and th e s p e c i f i c i t y of
th e s c h o o lm a s te r's i n s t r u c t i o n s depended on th e s t u d e n t s ' age and
e x p e rie n c e . Whereas o ld e r , ex p erien ced s tu d e n ts needed th e l e a s t
gu id an ce, th e young p u p ils needed very s p e c if ic i n s t r u c t i o n .
Then, to o , in v a ry in g d e g re e s , a t th e prom pting o f th e m a s te r’s
q u e s tio n s , th e s tu d e n ts m ight have taken p a r t in th e p r a e l e c t i o .
Once th e p r a e le c tio had been com pleted, th e m aster read th e t e x t ,
perhaps w ith th e s t u d e n t s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Then w orking from
co p ies th ey had made th em selv es (o r p rin te d co p ies in th o se cases
where such might be a v a il a b le ) th e p u p ils perform ed any of the
s o r t s o f im ita tio n e x e r c is e .
R h e to ric a l T r a n s la tio n
T r a n s la tio n , one o f th e most elem entary e x e r c is e s used in
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y s c h o o ls , was j u s t i f i e d by E n g lish hum anist
e d u c a to rs on th e a u th o r ity o f Roman r h e t o r i c i a n s . T r a n s la tio n
e x e r c is e was o f two ty p e s : t r a n s l a t i o n from a c l a s s i c a l language
to E n g lish or "double t r a n s l a t i o n , " from a c l a s s i c a l language,
(u s u a lly L a tin ) to E n g lish and then back to th e o r ig i n a l
language. Simple t r a n s l a t i o n w i l l be d isc u sse d f i r s t . That
t r a n s l a t i o n was a common e x e r c is e i s , o f c o u rs e , no s u r p r i s e , fo r
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y schoolboys were le a r n in g a fo r e ig n language.
But Donald Lemen C lark c l a s s i f i e s t r a n s l a t i o n o f L a tin in to
E n g lish as a type o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n on th e grounds t h a t
such e x e r c is e ta u g h t s tu d e n ts "to speak and w r ite b e t t e r L a tin "
(M ilto n a t S t. P a u l* s, 171). Of c o u rse, t r a n s l a t i o n i s a common
form o f e x e r c is e in modern hig h school and c o lle g e language
c l a s s e s , but in modern in s ta n c e s th e o b je c tiv e i s to b u ild
s t u d e n t s ’ vocab u lary and command o f th e grammar o f t h e i r own and
th e fo r e ig n lan g u ag e. C lark b e lie v e s R enaissance t r a n s l a t i o n
e x e r c is e did more: i t ta u g h t schoolboys th e s p e c i f i c s t y l i s t i c
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f approved L a tin a u th o rs , n o ta b ly C icero , and i t
"en rich e d " th e E n g lish language by b rin g in g in to th e v e rn a c u la r
new s t y l i s t i c c o n s tr u c tio n s and L a tin a te v o cab u lary . As evidence
12
t h a t such was th e R en aissan ce in te n tio n o f t r a n s l a t i o n e x e r c is e ,
C lark c i t e s C ic ero , who rem arks th a t he e n ric h ed L a tin through
t r a n s l a t i o n , and Q u in t i l i a n , who e x p la in s t h a t in t r a n s l a t i n g
Greek a u th o rs in to L a tin , th e stu d e n t f i r s t le a r n s th e " v a r ie ty
o f [th e G re e k s'] m a tte r . . . and th e a r t in a l l t h e i r
e lo q u e n c e ," b u t he must a ls o in v e n t fo r L a tin "a g r e a t number and
v a r ie ty o f [ f ig u r e s o f speech] . . . sin c e in t h i s r e s p e c t the
Roman idiom d i f f e r s l a r g e l y from th e Greek ( M ilton a t S t. P a u l 's ,
14
171).
The i n t e n t o f th e e x e r c is e determ ines w hether such sim ple
t r a n s l a t i o n f i t s th e d e f i n i t i o n I have given above f o r r h e t o r i c a l
im ita tio n . I f th e sch o o lm aster a ssig n ed t r a n s l a t i o n in te n d in g
t h a t h is ch arg es would r e c r e a t e in E n g lish ( i n s o f a r as i s
p o s s ib le ) th e s t y l i s t i c s t r u c t u r e s of th e L a tin o r i g i n a l , then
15
t r a n s l a t i o n might be a s p e c ie s o f s t y l e i m i t a t i o n . But in s o fa r
as any t r a n s l a t i o n a tte m p ts to r e c r e a te in a n o th e r language th e
c o n te n t o f th e o r i g i n a l , and in s o f a r as such t r a n s l a t i o n u s u a lly
p re s e rv e s th e arrangem ent o f th e o r i g i n a l , i t i s i m i t a t i o n — and
s la v i s h im ita tio n a t t h a t — n o t so much by in te n t i o n as by
n e c e s s ity . Since we cannot always determ ine th e p e d ag o g ical
i n t e n t o f sim ple t r a n s l a t i o n , i t i s b e st to be c a u tio u s w ith
s p e c i f i c c laim s.
But "double t r a n s l a t i o n , " th e e x e r c is e which Ascham
p a r t i c u l a r l y advocated fo r b e g in n e rs, i s avowedly and by design a
16
form o f r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n . An e x e r c is e in double
t r a n s l a t i o n began w ith th e t e a c h e r 's p r e l e c t i o n , in which m aster
and s tu d e n t to g e th e r analyzed th e c o n te n t, grammar, and s t y l e o f
th e s e le c te d t e x t . Im m ediately t h e r e a f t e r , th e s tu d e n t, u n aid ed ,
t r a n s l a t e d th e L a tin of th e o r i g i n a l in to E n g lish . The m aster
th en took away th e p u p i l 's L a tin copy and, some tim e l a t e r
(Ascham recommends a t l e a s t an h o u r), in s tr u c te d th e s tu d e n t to
r e tu r n th e passage to L a tin (S ch o o lm aster, 8 5 -8 6 ).
The o b je c t o f th e e x e r c is e c l e a r l y was n o t fo r th e s tu d e n t to
c r e a te h is own L a tin v e rs io n o f th e o r i g i n a l , b u t to reproduce
th e o r i g i n a l ; f o r once th e s tu d e n t had produced h is r e t r a n s l a t i o n
in to L a tin , he and th e m aster were to compare c lo s e ly h is v e rsio n
w ith th e o r i g i n a l . Ascham s p e c i f i c a l l y a d v ise s th e te a c h e r to
show th e s tu d e n t e x a c tly where h is r e t r a n s l a t i o n d i f f e r s from th e
o r i g i n a l in d i c t i o n , gram m atical c o n s tr u c tio n , and s t y l e . With
such guidance, Ascham c la im s , th e p u p il w ill m aster " lik e
in v e n tio n o f argum ents, l i k e o rd er in d i s p o s i t i o n , l i k e u tte r a n c e
in e lo c u t io n ." Double t r a n s l a t i o n e x e r c is e , th e n , i s im ita tio n
to th e e x te n t th a t by such p r a c t i c e , th e s tu d e n t "must needs by
l i t t l e and l i t t l e draw unto [ h is mind] th e l i k e shape o f
eloquence as th e a u th o r doth use which i s read" ( S ch o o lm aster,
87 ). In deed, were i t th e a c t i v i t y o f a m ature w r i t e r , double
14
t r a n s l a t i o n would be counted a most s la v i s h i m i t a t i o n , l i t t l e
b e t t e r th an copying. O bviously, as w ith sim ple t r a n s l a t i o n , th e
s tu d e n t was rep ro d u cin g th e c o n te n t and o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e
o r i g i n a l . And given th e c lo se com parison o f th e s t u d e n t ’s
v e rs io n w ith th e o r i g i n a l , most l i k e l y th e le a r n e r was a t l e a s t
a tte m p tin g to reproduce th e d ic tio n and s t y l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f th e o r i g i n a l . However, were th e o b je c t o f double t r a n s l a t i o n
mere copying, then sim ple copying would have s u f f ic e d : th e re
would have been no need f o r th e more co m plicated r i t u a l of the
m a s te r 's removing th e L a tin o r i g i n a l and w a itin g some tim e b efo re
having h i s p u p ils atte m p t to reproduce i t . But Ascham's words,
c ite d above, argue t h a t th e c o m p lic atio n s o f double t r a n s l a t i o n
e x e r c is e p ro v id e i t s b e n e f i t . For to have reproduced th e
o r i g i n a l once i t had been tak en away from him, th e s tu d e n t m ust,
in d eed , have "draw[n] u n to [ h is mind] th e l i k e shape o f eloquence
as th e au th o r doth u s e ." Since e f f e c t i v e l y to memorize m a te ria l
r e q u ir e s t h a t one a b s t r a c t and p a tte r n th e in fo rm a tio n , to have
r e tr ie v e d s u c c e s s f u lly t h a t which he had memorized an hour ago,
th e s tu d e n t must have o rg a n iz ed th e in fo rm a tio n w e ll in th e f i r s t
p la c e . To have been a b le to memorize and r e t a i n th e o r i g i n a l so
he may reproduce i t , th e s tu d e n t must f i r s t somehow have
o rg an ized i t s c h e m a tic a lly . Hence, th e s tu d e n t must somehow have
reco g n ized th e p a tte r n s o f arrangem ent and o f s t y l e and must have
und ersto o d or a t l e a s t sensed th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f th e
m odel’s argum ent. As was i l l u s t r a t e d above, s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y
schoolboys stu d y in g grammar le a rn e d to i d e n t i f y p a tte r n s o f
arrangem ent ( ’’schemes” ) and o f s t y l e and meaning ( ’’t r o p e s ” ) and
were ta u g h t to re c o g n iz e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c argum ents in th e forms o f
maxims, aphorism s, and o th e r s o r t s o f s e n t e n t i a e . P r io r to
a tte m p tin g double t r a n s l a t i o n , p u p ils follow ed t h e i r m aster in an
a n a ly t ic p r a e l e c t i o , d u rin g which such f e a tu r e s o f th e t e x t were
p o in te d o u t. Hence th e s e s tu d e n ts had a t t h e i r command a
v o cab u lary fo r p a tte r n s (tr o p e s and schemes) by which th ey
a b s tr a c te d in s ta n c e s o f language in to s t r u c t u r e s . S tu d en ts
p r a c t i c i n g double t r a n s l a t i o n , th e n , could o rg a n iz e m a te r ia l
around a scheme o f language s t r u c t u r e s and i n t e r r e l a t e argum ents
w ith o th e r argum ents th ey had copied in t h e i r n o teb o o k s. Such
p a tte r n in g in memory made o f p u p i l s ’ double t r a n s l a t i o n e x e r c is e
more than mere copying (though i t s r e s u l t s on paper m ight have
seemed to be su c h ). Through double t r a n s l a t i o n , s tu d e n ts were
a s s im ila tin g — ta k in g in , i n t e r r e l a t i n g w ith o th e r knowledge, and
r e t a i n i n g — th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e o r ig i n a l a u t h o r 's s t y l e and
th in k in g .
I
I
16
R h e to ric a l P araphrase
A nother s o r t o f im ita tio n e x e r c is e i s p a ra p h ra s e , o f which
th e r e were many v a r i e t i e s . Follow ing a s u i t a b l e p r e l e c t i o n , th e
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y schoolboys sometimes were in s tr u c te d to
p a ra p h rase an o ra tio n or a h i s t o r y , or tu rn a poem to p ro se and
th e n , p erh ap s, tu rn i t back a g ain to v e rs e . They m ight have been
in s tr u c te d to a l t e r th e L a tin com position of a poem, r e ta i n i n g
th e o r i g i n a l 's v e rse form , or to a l t e r th e v e rs e form o f a poem.
They might sim ply have changed p h ra ses in a poem or p ro se work
from one gram m atical form to an o th er or a l t e r e d d ic tio n by u sin g
17
synonyms. As m ight be obvious to any i n s t r u c t o r who has noted
modern s t u d e n t s ’ i n a b i l i t y to p a ra p h ra se , such e x e r c is e re q u ir e s
an extended v o cab u lary and th e a b i l i t y to produce a v a r ie ty of
gram m atical s t r u c t u r e s . As such, p a ra p h rase e x e r c is e s may have
h elp ed to extend R enaissance s t u d e n t s ' l i n g u i s t i c f l e x i b i l i t y in
both L a tin and, p erh ap s, even in th e v e rn a c u la r. As r h e t o r i c a l
im i t a t i o n , p a rap h rase e x e r c is e s are most analogous to fin g e r
e x e r c is e s f o r p i a n i s t s : th e y d r i l l a component s k i l l o f
r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n . As Ascham says o f a n o th e r kind of
r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n , p a ra p h ra se s a re c o n c e n tra te d e x e r c is e s in
s i m i l i s m a te re i, d i s s i m i l i s t r a c t a t i o ( S ch o o lm aster, 117).
17
In The Schoolm aster Ascham g iv es i m i t a t i o as i t s e l f a sp ec ie s
o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n e x e r c is e , although one n o t in te n d e d fo r
b e g in n e rs. While E n g lish hum anist e d u c a to r s ’ assum ptions and
recommendations on i m i t a t i o n (and Erasm us’s and Ascham’s advice
in p a r t i c u l a r ) w ill l a t e r be c o n sid ered a t le n g th , Ascham's
rem arks on i m i t a t i o a re w orth c o n sid e rin g h e re . These remarks
a re in them selves vague, b u t th e y become more m eaningful when
co n sid ered in th e l i g h t o f th e d e f i n i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n
e x e r c is e which t h i s c h a p te r has been i l l u s t r a t i n g .
Ascham says t h a t im ita tio n i s ’’d i s s i m i l i s m a te re i s i m i l i s
t r a c t a t i o and a ls o s i m i l i s m a te re i d i s s i m i l i s t r a c t a t i o . ” The
s tu d e n t who perform ed t r a n s l a t i o n and double t r a n s l a t i o n
e x e r c is e s might be s a id to have produced s im ila r tre a tm e n ts of
s im ila r m a te r ia l. The v a rio u s forms o f p a ra p h ra s e , on th e o th e r
hand, are c l e a r l y d i s s i m i l a r tre a tm e n ts o f s im ila r m a te r ia l. In
e x p la in in g i m i t a t i o , Ascham w r ite s t h a t he would want th e
im ita to r to have exam ples o f how C icero h im s e lf im ita te d
Demosthenes. Ascham would have t e x t s o f Demosthenes and C icero
l a i d s id e by s id e , " to te a c h p l a i n l y w ith a l a f t e r t h i s s o r t : "
1. T u lly r e t a i n e t h th u s much o f th e m a tte r , th e s e
se n te n c e s , th e s e w ords.
2. This and t h a t he le a v e th o u t, which he doth w i t t i l y
to t h i s end and p u rp o se.
3. T his he addeth h e r e .
4. This he d im in ish e th th e r e .
5. This he o rd e re th th u s , w ith p la c in g t h a t h e r e , n o t
th e r e .
6. This he a l t e r e t h and changeth e i t h e r in p ro p e rty o f
w ords, in form o f s e n te n c e , in su b stan ce o f th e m a tte r,
18
or in one or o th e r co n v en ien t circu m stan ce o f th e
a u th o r ’s p re s e n t p u rp o se. ( S ch o o lm aster, 118)
P o in ts two and s ix o f Ascham's l i s t su g g est t h a t th e purpose of
i m i t a t i o i s to r e c r e a te some a s p e c t o r a s p e c ts o f form or c o n te n t
o f a l i t e r a r y model to s u i t ’’th e a u t h o r 's p r e s e n t p u rp o se ." What
made such im ita tio n p o s s ib le — -the means by which th e im ita to r may
an aly z e and choose what to add, what to d e l e t e , what to r e o r d e r ,
and what to change—was th e p ro c e ss o f a b s tr a c tio n by which th e
i m ita to r p e rc eiv e d forms o f m a tte r and s t y l e , and by which he
r e c r e a te d th e s e in ways s u i t a b l e to th e new c o n te x t. In s o f a r as
th e y were th e means by which th e i m ita to r developed such s k i l l s ,
th e p r e le c ti o n s and e x e r c is e s o f t r a n s l a t i o n , double t r a n s l a t i o n ,
and p ara p h rase serv ed as p ro p a e d u e tic s to i m i t a t i o .
I opened t h i s c h a p te r on R enaissance i m i t a t i o w ith Ascham’s
rem arks on r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n , and so I c lo s e w ith h is
d e c la r a tio n th a t i m i t a t i o i s "a f a c u lty to e x p re ss l i v e l y and
p e r f e o tly th a t example which ye go about lu fo llo w "
( S ch o o lm aster, 114). A " f a c u l t y ," o f c o u rse, i s a c a p a c ity , an
a b i l i t y , a power to do som ething. How such a f a c u l t y of
im ita tio n i s a cq u ired has j u s t been e x p la in e d . To " e x p r e s s ," in
a sen se now o b s o le te but c u r r e n t when Ascham was w r iti n g , meant
18
"to be an image or lik e n e s s o f" someone o r som ething.
" L iv e ly ," now a ls o o b s o le te as an adverb but c u r r e n t in th e
19
s ix te e n th c e n tu ry , su g g ested "as a l i v i n g p e rs o n ” and c a r r ie d
then as now th e su g g e stio n o f co m p leten ess. I t becomes c le a r
when th e term s o f Ascham’s remark a re p u t to g e th e r t h a t im ita tio n
was fo r him th e c a p a c ity v i r t u a l l y to b rin g th e model back to
l i f e , as i f th e o r i g i n a l a u th o r had c re a te d th e work. I m ita tio n ,
th e n , was th e q u i n t e s s e n t i a l R enaissance a c t i v i t y , in e f f e c t
g iv in g a new k in d o f l i f e to th e L a tin p o e ts , h i s t o r i a n s , and
o r a to r s o f th e golden age o f L a tin l i t e r a t u r e .
I
1
20
Notes
1
Roger Ascham, The Schoolm aster (1 5 7 0 ). e d ite d by Lawrence V.
Ryan ( C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : U n iv e rs ity P ress o f V irg in ia fo r F o lg er
Shakespeare L ib ra ry , 1967), 114 and 117.
2
J . T a te , " 'I m i t a t i o n 1 in P l a t o 's R ep u b lic ," C la s s ic a l
Q u a rte rly 22 (1928): 23.
3
R ichard McKeon, " L ite r a r y C ritic is m and th e Concept o f
I m ita tio n in A n tiq u ity ," Modern P h ilo lo g y 34 (August 1936): 27.
4
DConald] ACndrew] R u ss e ll "de i m ita tio n e " in C re a tiv e
I m ita tio n and L a tin L i t e r a t u r e , e d ite d by David West and Tony
Woodman (Cambridge: Cambridge U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1979), 4.
5
Marion T ro u sd a le , "R ecurrence and R en aissan ce: R h e to ric a l
I m ita tio n in Ascham and S turm ," E n g lish L i te r a r y R enaissance 6
(S p rin g 1976): 157.
^DConald] A[ndrew] R u s s e ll, C ritic is m in A n tiq u ity (B erk eley :
U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia P r e s s , 1981), 113.
7
T ro u sd a le , "R ecurrence and R en a issa n c e," 156.
p
Of c o u rse , i n s t r u c t o r s who giv e t h e i r s tu d e n ts " re a d e rs "
m ight e x p ect t h e i r s tu d e n ts to i m i t a t e , b ut j u s t what s tu d e n ts
are to im ita te and how i s most o fte n l e f t u n e x p la in e d . Many
tex tb o o k s o f f e r examples o f "modes" o f d is c o u r s e , and te a c h e r s
o fte n a s s ig n e ssa y s in one or a com bination o f th e s e "m odes." In
t h i s p r a c t i c e we can re c o g n iz e an in s ta n c e o f form im i t a t i o n .
V arious ed u ca to rs have recommended im ita tio n e x e r c is e s o f s o r t s ,
b u t many o f th e se e d u c a to rs seem to have been unaware o f th e
h i s t o r y o f such e x e r c is e , and most ig n o re th e c r u c i a l s te p o f
a n a ly s is provided by th e p r a e l e c t i o , in which s tu d e n ts a re shown
what to im ita te and how. Examples o f te a c h e rs who recommend
im ita tio n in c lu d e James F. McCampbell, "Using Models fo r
Im proving C om position," E n g lish Jo u rn a l 55 (September 1966): 772-
76; and R obert W allace, "A W ritin g E x ercise T hat W orks," E n g lish
J o u rn a l 49 (O ctober 1960): 489-90. O ther e d u c a to rs , aware o f th e
h i s t o r y o f im ita tio n e x e r c is e , have recommended schemes o f
i m i t a t i o n . Edward P. J . C o rb e tt in tro d u ce d r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n
to modern i n s t r u c t o r s in "The Theory and P r a c tic e o f I m ita tio n in
21
C la s s ic a l R h e t o r ic ," C ollege Com position and Communication 22
(O ctober 1971), 243-50. C o r b e tt’s textbook ( C la s s ic a l R h eto ric
f o r th e Modern S tu d e n t [New York: Oxford U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1971]:
496-538) recommends and o f f e r s models fo r im ita tio n and i t s e l f
c o n s t i t u t e s an a n a ly s is o f in v e n tio n , d is c o u rs e arrangem ent, and
s t y l e which s tu d e n ts m ight apply to th e m odels. Frank J .
D 'A n g elo 's a r t i c l e , " I m ita tio n and S ty le " (C ollege Composition
and Communication 24 [O ctober 19733: 283-90) c i t e s C o r b e tt's 1971
a r t i c l e and o f f e r s means o f s t y l i s t i c a n a ly s is and im ita tio n .
D 'A ngelo's scheme in v o lv e s a ''p re lim in a ry re a d in g o f th e model in
o rd e r to g e t an overview o f th e dominant im p re s s io n ," follow ed by
an " a n a ly s is " u sin g " se n te n c e -b y -se n te n c e d e s c r ip ti o n o f
p o t e n t i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l i n g u i s t i c f e a tu r e s . . . and r h e t o r i c a l
method" and then " c lo se im ita tio n o f th e m odel."
9
The examples a re tak en from A rthur Quinn, F ig u re s o f Speech:
60 Ways to Turn a P hrase ( S a lt Lake C ity : Gibbs M. Sm ith, 1982),
29-30.
^ De co p ia in C o lle c te d Works o f Erasmus, Vol. 24: L i te r a r y
and E d u c a tio n a l W ritin g s 2; De c o p ia / De r a tio n e s t u d i i ,
t r a n s l a t e d by B e tty I . K nott (T oronto: U n iv e rs ity o f T oronto
P re s s , 1978), 1, c h a p t. XXII. ("C eres s p o ile d by th e w a ters" i s
from V ir g il Aeneid 1 .177; " s i x ty thousand k i l l e d a t Canna by
H annibal" i s tak en from Q u in tilia n 8 .6 .2 6 .)
11
Erasmus, De c o p ia , 2, "N inth Method o f E n la rg in g ." The
examples are from C icero A g ain st V erres 5 .5 6 ; 5 .6 6 .7 0 .
12
Marion T ro u sd a le , "R ecurrence and R e n a issa n c e ," 169 and
176.
13
On th e form and purposes o f th e p r a e l e c t i o see Donald Lemen
C la rk , John M ilton a t S t. P a u l's School: A Study o f A ncient
R h e to ric in E n g lish R en aissan ce E ducation (New York: Columbia
U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1948), 157-68, and h is d is c u s s io n o f th e sample
p r e le c ti o n on Phaedrus 234-36 and 263-64 in R h e to ric in
Greco-Roman E ducation (New York: Columbia U n iv e rs ity P re s s,
1957), 162-66. Forms o f th e p r a e l e c t i o a re su g g este d in
Q u in tilia n 2 .5 .6 - 7 ; D e sid e riu s Erasmus, De r a tio n e s t u d i i in
C o lle c te d Works o f Erasm us, Vol. 24: L ite r a r y and E d u c a tio n a l
W ritin g s 2; De c o p ia / De r a t i o n e s t u d i i , t r a n s l a t e d by B rian
McGregor (T oronto: U n iv e rs ity o f Toronto P r e s s , 1978), 682-83;
and Ascham S ch o o lm aster, 14.
14
C lark i s c i t i n g C icero De o ra to re 1 .34.155 and Q u in tilia n
2 .5 .2 - 3 . The t r a n s l a t i o n o f Q u in tilia n given h e re i s n o t t h a t
used by C la rk , b ut i s t h a t o f H. E. B u tle r , The I n s t i t u t i o
22
Oratoria of Q uintilian (Cambridge: Harvard U niversity Press, Loeb
C lassical Library, 1969). Erasmus follow s Q uintilian in h is
reasons for recommending tra n sla tio n ; see De cop ia, 1, chapt. 9
and De ratione s t u d ii, 679.
15
Whether or n o t sch o o lm aste rs in ten d ed t r a n s l a t i o n e x e r c is e
to a f f e c t s tu d e n t s ' E n g lish p ro se and p o e tic s t y l e , t h i s was
n e v e r th e le s s th e o v e r a ll e f f e c t . R ichard F o s te r Jones
d em o n strates t h a t men such as S ir Thomas Hoby and R ichard Eden
b e lie v e d t r a n s l a t i o n to be a way to e n ric h E n g lis h , making o f i t
a language r i c h e r in l i t e r a r y works and in s t y l i s t i c
f l e x i b i l i t y . See Jo n e s, The Triumph o f th e E n g lish Language: A
Survey o f Opinions Concerning th e V ernacular from th e
In tr o d u c tio n o f P r in tin g to th e R e s to ra tio n (S ta n f o rd : S ta n fo rd
U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1953)* 18.
16
W hile Ascham i s known as th e advocate o f double
t r a n s l a t i o n , t h i s form o f im ita tio n e x e r c is e i s h a rd ly o f h is
in v e n tio n . Ascham c r e d i t s i t to P lin y th e Younger (S c h o o lm a ster,
8 5 ). W illiam E. M ille r n o te s t h a t Ascham's te a c h e r , S ir John
Cheke, used th e method, t h a t i t was known to Yives and perhaps
o th e r s on th e c o n tin e n t b e fo re V ives, and t h a t i t was m entioned
in th e 1566 R ivington Grammar School s t a t u t e s b e fo re th e
p u b lic a tio n o f The S ch o o lm aster. "Double T r a n s la tio n in E n g lish
H um anistic E d u c a tio n ," S tu d ie s in th e R enaissance 10 (1963):
168-69.
17
Q u in tilia n (1 0 .5 .4 - 1 1 ) l i s t s th e se forms o f p a ra p h rase
e x e r c is e . Erasmus recommends them in De r a t i o n e s t u d i i , 679, and
most o f Book One o f De c o p ia c o n s is ts o f examples o f such
e x e r c is e s . See a ls o C icero De o ra to re 1 .3 4 .1 5 4 -1 5 5 . Ascham
(S c h o o lm a ster, 87-98, 99-106) fo llo w s C icero in d isa p p ro v in g o f
p a ra p h ra se e x e r c is e s , a t l e a s t fo r th e in e x p e rie n c e d , on th e
grounds t h a t th e o r i g i n a l s a lre a d y re p r e s e n t th e b e s t p o s s ib le
e x p re ssio n o f a given id e a .
18
The O.E.D. e x p la in s t h a t "ex p ress" in th e sen se o f "to be
an image or lik e n e s s o f" comes from th e L a tin verb e x p rim e re . In
f a c t , Ascham c a l l s exprim ere "a p ro p e r word o f im ita tio n "
( S ch o o lm aster, 127), so he may have had th e L a tin verb in mind
when a few pages e a r l i e r (114) he o ffe re d th e E n g lish " e x p r e s s ."
23
I
Classical Advice on Rhetorical Imitation
I h a rd ly need m ention t h a t any a u th o r who w r ite s on e d u ca tio n
cannot begin a f r e s h , f o r to a ttem p t to do so would be to make h is
ta s k im p o ssib ly long and to w aste h is e n e rg ie s in re in v e n tin g
t h a t which i s well-known or even assumed. Any a u th o r who would
w r ite a work on ed u ca tio n must borrow h e a v ily from th o se who
preceded him. So w h ile he works he m ust put b e fo re him— i f not
l i t e r a l l y th en a t l e a s t in memory— th e t r e a t i s e s o f th o se who
preceded him. Those o f th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry who w rote on th e
aims and methods o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n o fte n must have p ut
b e fo re them n o t only th e works o f t h e i r c o n te m p o ra rie s, b u t th e
work o f c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s such as I s o c r a t e s , C ic ero , and
Q u in t i l i a n . In th e p re s e n t stu d y , th e n , we have a double purpose
in p u ttin g b e fo re us th e ad v ice o f c l a s s i c a l a u th o rs b e fo re we
c o n sid e r th e works on e d u ca tio n o f some s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E n g lish
h u m a n ists. For one, we w i l l le a r n j u s t what th o s e who w rote on
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n c o n sc io u s ly borrowed from t h e i r c l a s s i c a l
p re d e c e s s o rs . In d eed , R enaissance a u th o rs n o t o n ly borrowed
id e a s from c l a s s i c a l w orks, b u t th e se s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y w r i t e r s
o fte n c i t e d th e names o f c l a s s i c a l a u th o rs as a u th o r ity fo r t h e i r
recom m endations. For a n o th e r , by f i r s t exam ining th e works o f
24
r h e t o r i c i a n s and e d u c a to rs such as I s o c r a t e s , C icero and
Q u in tilia n we w i l l be a b le to see what assum ptions about language
and le a r n in g th e s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E n g lish e d u c a to rs borrowed as
th e y r e i t e r a t e d and adapted th e a d v ice o f c l a s s i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s .
T his c h a p te r b egins w ith one assum ption found among some
c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s on e d u c a tio n : t h a t im ita tio n i s a n a tu r a l and
p le a s u r a b le p ro c e ss o f le a r n in g n ot only th e w ords, b u t th e very
b eh av io r o f o n e 's p r e d e c e s s o r s . I t c o n tin u e s by e x p la in in g th e
term s sunousia and z e l o s i s , both o f which d e f in e th e s o r t o f
c lo s e a f f i n i t y between th e im ita to r and h is model which n o t only
f a c i l i t a t e s th e i m i t a t o r s ' le a r n in g b u t s tim u la te s him to s t r i v e
fo r e x c e lle n c e . Then in tu rn i t w ill cover th e c l a s s i c a l
in ju n c tio n to im i t a t o r s to s u i t th e model to t h e i r n a tu r a l
c a p a c itie s and i n c l i n a t i o n s , to e x e r c is e judgm ent in choosing and
s c r u t i n i z i n g t h e i r m odels, and to compete w ith o r add som ething
o f t h e i r own to th e models th e y i m i t a t e . In g iv in g such a d v ice ,
c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s hoped to en su re both th e in d iv id u a l
i m i t a t o r 's d ev elo p in g h is own b e s t a b i l i t i e s and th e c o n tin u a l
o v e r a ll p ro g re s s o f t h e i r a r t . In l a t e r c h a p te rs we w i l l see
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y a u th o rs g iv in g th e same a d v ic e , t h i s tim e not
only to ensure th e i n d i v i d u a l 's d ev elo p in g r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l s and
to e le v a te th e a r t o f r h e t o r i c , b u t a ls o to h e lp form the
i n d i v i d u a l 's e t h i c a l c h a r a c te r and, th e re b y , to h e lp en su re th e
1
h e a lt h o f th e E n g lish commonwealth.
25
Assumption: Imitation is a Natural Learning Process
The e x ta n t works o f c l a s s i c a l r h e to r i c i a n s and e d u c a to rs
d em o n strate t h a t many o f th e s e a u th o rs b e lie v e d alm ost a l l
le a r n in g to proceed by im i t a t i o n : to them, human k in d had both a
n a tu r a l i n c l i n a t i o n and c a p a c ity to le a r n by i m i t a t i n g . The
assum ption t h a t people n a t u r a l l y le a r n through im ita tio n is
c r u c ia l to P l a t o ’s a tta c k s on th e rhapsodes and h i s ex clu d in g
p o e try from h is i d e a l r e p u b lic . P la to fin d s t h a t in r e c i t i n g
p o e try , th e rhapsodes n o t o n ly im ita te th e words o f th e poem, b ut
th e y in c a u tio u s ly i m i t a t e th e b ehavior o f th e c h a r a c te r s in the
work. Such im ita tio n i s dangerous because i t in d u ces s im ila r
2
il l - c o n s i d e r e d b eh av io r in th e a u d ito r s ( Ion 533d-36d). Such
im ita te d b e h av io r, P la to b e lie v e s , becomes h a b i t — a p a r t o f o n e’s
own c h a r a c te r . When P la to e x p la in s what b e h a v io rs he would have
th e g u a rd ia n s o f th e id e a l re p u b lic im ita te i f th e y a re to be
" e x p e rt craftsm en o f c iv ic l i b e r t y , ” he i s o pposing im ita tio n o f
th e s o r t o f b eh av io r th e rhap so d es en act in s in g in g p o e try .
N o n e th ele ss, P la to i s assum ing th a t b eh av io r i s a cq u ire d through
i m i t a t i o n :
b u t th in g s unbecoming th e f r e e man [th e g u a rd ia n s of
th e r e p u b lic ] should n e ith e r do nor be c le v e r a t
i m ita tin g , nor y e t any o th e r sham eful th i n g , l e s t from
th e im ita tio n th e y im bibe th e r e a l i t y . Or have you not
observed t h a t i m i t a t i o n s , i f co n tin u ed from youth f a r
in to l i f e , s e t t l e down in to h a b its and second n a tu re in
th e b o d y ,-th e sp eech , and th e th o u g h t. (R epublic
3 . 395c-d)
26
A r i s t o t l e , to o , b e lie v e s t h a t p eople have a n a tu r a l c a p a c ity
to im ita te and to le a r n by i m i t a t i n g . He b e lie v e s , to o , t h a t
because people le a r n by i m i t a t i n g and by s e e in g i m i t a t i o n s , they
ta k e p le a s u re in s e e in g and c r e a t i n g im i t a t i o n s . In th e P o e tic s
A r i s t o t l e w r ite s t h a t " th e i n s t i n c t f o r im ita tio n i s in h e r e n t in
a man from h i s e a r l i e s t d a y s ," and t h a t " a lso in b o rn in a l l o f us
i s th e i n s t i n c t to e n jo y works o f i m i t a t i o n ." A ccording to
A r i s t o t l e , men ta k e p le a s u re in im ita tin g and s e e in g im ita tio n s
because o f th e le a r n in g which im ita tio n e f f e c t s :
We en jo y lo o k in g a t a c c u ra te lik e n e s s e s o f th in g s which
a re them selves p a in f u l to s e e , obscene b e a s ts , fo r
in s ta n c e , and c o rp s e s . The reason i s t h i s . L earn in g
th in g s g iv e s g r e a t p le a s u re n o t only to p h ilo s o p h e rs
b ut a ls o in th e same way to a l l o th e r men, though th e y
sh a re t h i s p le a s u re only to a sm all d e g re e. (P o e tic s
4 .2 -6 r
In th e R h eto ric A r i s t o t l e r e p e a ts th e e x p la n a tio n t h a t " sin c e
le a r n in g and adm iring a re p l e a s a n t , a l l th in g s connected w ith
them must a ls o be p l e a s a n t ." As examples o f th e s e t h in g s , he
c i t e s works o f i m i t a t i o n , naming p a in tin g , s c u lp t u r e , and
p o e tr y . Even i f th e " o b je c t o f im ita tio n i s n o t p l e a s a n t ," a l l
good im ita tio n s cause p le a s u r e , fo r th e o b je c t o f im ita tio n i s
n o t what causes th e p le a s u r e ; r a t h e r , i t i s " th e in f e r e n c e t h a t
th e im ita tio n and th e o b je c t im ita te d a re i d e n t i c a l , so t h a t th e
5
r e s u l t i s t h a t we le a r n som ething" (R h eto ric 1.9.23).
The same b e l i e f t h a t im i t a t i o n i s an in n a te human le a r n in g
c a p a c ity ap p ears fo u r hundred y e a rs l a t e r in Q u i n t i l i a n ’s
27
I n s t i t u t i o o r a t o r i a . When l i s t i n g th e q u a l i t i e s he seeks as
in d ic a tio n s o f a s t u d e n t ’s n a tu r a l le a r n in g a b i l i t i e s , Q u in tilia n
f i r s t i n s i s t s upon th e c h i l d ’s ’’good memory” and n ex t h is ’’power
o f i m i t a t i o n . ” A ccording to Q u in tilia n , an a b i l i t y to im ita te
r e a d i l y and n o t m a lic io u s ly i s ”a sig n t h a t th e c h ild i s
te a c h a b le ” ( 1 .3 .1 - 2 ) . But Q u in tilia n i s most concerned w ith th e
p u p i l ’s im ita tio n o f good L a tin s t y l e . In g iv in g i n s t r u c t i o n s to
th e te a c h e r about re a d in g assignm ents fo r s tu d e n t s , Q u in tilia n
u rg e s th e te a c h e r to choose c a r e f u l l y , f o r th e s tu d e n ts have not
y e t formed e f f e c t i v e c r i t i c a l judgm ent. He would n o t have th e
boys g e t a "h arsh and b lo o d le s s s t y l e ” from th e stu d y o f Cato and
th e G racch i; nor would he have them " f a l l v ic tim s to th e
p e rn ic io u s a llu re m e n ts o f th e p re c io u s blooms produced by our
modern e u p h u i s t s .” Q u in tilia n does allo w , o f c o u rs e , t h a t th e re
are " c e r ta in a u th o rs who d e se rv e im ita tio n in t h e i r e n t i r e t y , "
but w hile " e r r o r in th e ch o ice o f e a r l i e r a u th o rs i s a tte n d e d
w ith le s s d a n g e r," he would n o t have boys stu d y " th e m oderns,"
f e a r in g th e p u p ils "should im ita te them b e fo re [th e y ] are
q u a l i f i e d to judge o f t h e i r m e rits " ( 2 .5 .2 1 - 2 6 ) . Q u i n t i l i a n ’s
concern proceeds from th e assum ption t h a t s tu d e n ts w i l l n a t u r a l l y
im i t a t e th e s t y l e o f th e w r i t e r s who a re put b e fo re them.
The s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E n g lish hum anists whose works on
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n I s h a l l l a t e r d is c u s s made th e same
assum ptions th e s e c l a s s i c a l p h ilo so p h e rs and r h e t o r i c i a n s made:
r
i
28
t h a t im ita tio n i s a n a tu r a l p ro c e ss by which p eo p le le a r n , and
t h a t through im ita tio n s tu d e n ts a c q u ire both th e s t y l e and th e
th in k in g o f th e w r i t e r s p u t b e fo re them. But f o r many
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E n g lish h u m an ists, th e concern fo r both s t y l e
and su b stan ce became u r g e n t. Like Q u in tilia n , th e s e R enaissance
E n g lish r h e t o r i c i a n s w ished to see s t u d e n t s ’ form a good L a tin
s t y l e ; in d eed , th e y were o f te n eager to see t h e i r s tu d e n ts
develop an Augustan or C iceronean L a tin s t y l e . But given t h e i r
r e l i g i o u s c o n se rv a tism , th e E n g lish hum anists were as d eep ly
concerned about s t u d e n t s ’ d ev elo p in g c h a r a c te r , and th e y saw
i m ita tio n as a means to form ing good c h a r a c te r .
’’S u n o u sia” and "Z e lo s is ” :
The R e la tio n s h ip Between th e Im ita to r and H is Model
The c l a s s i c a l Greek and Roman b e l i e f t h a t le a r n in g proceeds
by im ita tio n may have been based on e x p e rie n c e . From e a r l i e s t
tim es th e young had been assumed to le a r n by i m i t a t i n g , and th e
s t r u c t u r e o f Greek e d u c a tio n was b u i l t upon t h i s assum ption. The
Homeric canon p ro v id e s w r itt e n evidence t h a t a n c ie n t Greek
e d u ca tio n in v o lv ed a b o y 's im ita tio n o f h i s m en to r. In P reface
to P la to E ric Havelock d is c u s s e s what i s now common knowledge
about th e tra n s m is sio n o f Homeric e p ic : such o r a l tra n s m is sio n
29
p re s e rv e s s o c i a l norms and c o h e siv e n e ss. Havelock c a l l s th e
Homeric canon "th e c o n te n ts o f th e e d u c a tio n a l a p p a ra tu s o f th e
g r o u p . I n d e e d , th e p a s s in g on of th e Homeric canon was in a
sen se th e sum o f a n c ie n t e d u c a tio n . Yet th e poems o f Homer
p rovided n o t o n ly th e su b sta n c e o f a n c ie n t e d u c a tio n , b u t a lso
th e model f o r th e means o f e d u c a tio n . The method o f such
e d u ca tio n was im i t a t i o n . In A H is to ry o f E ducation in A n tiq u ity ,
H. I . Marrou c i t e s th e example o f th e young A c h ille s r e c e iv in g
h i s e d u c a tio n from h is beloved t u t o r Phoenix. E s p e c ia lly b e fo re
th e f i f t h c e n tu ry , e d u ca tio n o f th e Greek a r i s t o c r a c y by tu te la g e
7
i s t y p i c a l . In such e d u c a tio n th e o ld e r man o fte n serv ed as th e
boy’s h e ro , a " h ig h e r ty p e who was to be th e model to whose le v e l
[ th e boy] would t r y to r i s e . " The o b je c tiv e o f t h i s s o r t o f
e d u c a tio n was to make o f th e Greek boy a good c i t i z e n , e f f e c t i v e
both as w a rrio r and as o r a t o r . The q u a l i t i e s o f th e o ld e r man
which th e boy im ita te d were both te c h n ic a l and e t h i c a l : th e boy
was assumed to le a r n by im ita tio n n o t o n ly th e ways to h an d le
both weapons and words b u t a ls o th e reaso n s to h an d le weapons or
8
w ords. Such te c h n ic a l and e t h i c a l le a r n in g was made p o s s ib le by
th e c lo s e a f f i n i t y between th e boy and h is m entor. The Greeks
c a ll e d t h i s s p e c ia l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n between th e boy and h is
Q
te a c h e r s u n o u sia , " o f-o n e -m in d e d n e ss ." Because o f such
s u n o u s ia , th e i m ita to r worked z e a lo u s ly to be l i k e h i s model— in
c h a r a c te r as w ell as in s k i l l s . L a te r w r i t e r s on r h e t o r i c a l
30
im ita tio n c a lle d a s im ila r r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e i m ita to r and
th e o r a to r he sought to im ita te z e l o s i s .
The Greek noun fo r im ita tio n i s m im esis, b u t o fte n t h i s term
was used in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e term z e l o s i s . R u s s e ll c i t e s
t h i s p assag e from th e frag m en ts o f D ionysius o f H a lic a r n a s s e s ’s
P e ri mimeseos to d e fin e th e term z e lo s is and d i s t i n g u i s h i t from
m im esis:
Mimesis i s an a c t i v i t y rep ro d u cin g th e model by means
o f t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s , z e lo s i s an a c t i v i t y o f th e
m ind, roused to a d m ira tio n o f som ething b e lie v e d to be
b e a u ti f u l [k a l o s ] .
R u ss e ll e x p la in s t h a t th e p ro c e ss e s o f mimesis and z e l o s i s are
n o t e x c lu s iv e o f one a n o th e r , fo r in com bination th ey both work
toward th e same end: c r e a tiv e r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n . ^ In To
Demonicus, I s o c r a t e s w r ite s in p r a is e o f H ip p o n icu s, Demonicus’s
f a t h e r . I s o c r a t e s u rg e s th e boy to im ita te h i s f a t h e r ,
recommending t h i s com bination o f im ita tio n and z e l o s i s
f o r th e p r e s e n t, how ever, I have produced a sample o f
th e n a tu re o f H ip p o n icu s, a f t e r whom you would p a tte r n
your l i f e as a f t e r an ensam ple, re g a rd in g h i s conduct
as your law , and s t r i v i n g to im ita te and em ulate
[ m im etein de k a i z e l o t e i n ] your f a t h e r ’s v i r t u e .
In su p p o rt o f h is u rg in g th e boy to im ita te h i s f a t h e r , I s o c r a t e s
draws th e analogy between t h i s p e rso n a l im i t a t i o n and a r t i s t i c
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n :
fo r i t were a shame, when p a in te r s r e p r e s e n t
[ a p e k a z e in ] th e b e a u t i f u l among a n im a ls, f o r c h ild re n
not to im ita te [m im esth ai] th e iji^ble among t h e i r
a n c e s to r s . (To Demonicus 11-12)
I s o c r a t e s ' lin k in g th e r h e t o r i c a l m im esis w ith th e id e a o f a
b o y 's im ita tin g h is h e r o ic model su g g e sts t h a t th e a n c i e n t s '
c o n cep tio n o f r h e t o r i c a l im i t a t i o n was r e l a t e d to t h e i r
u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e kind o f im ita tio n which to o k p la c e in th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e young man and h is m en to r. As th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between A c h ille s and Phoenix was d e s c rib e d as
s u n o u sia , so th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Demonicus and h i s f a t h e r ,
H ip p o n icu s, was to be z e l o s i s .
'L o n g in u s ,' to o , c o n jo in s mimesis and z e l o s i s in On S u b lim ity
to d e s c rib e how im ita tio n may be a means to s u b lim ity in
w r iti n g . He recommends " im ita tio n and em u latio n [mimesis t e k ai
z e l o s i s ] o f th e g r e a t w r i t e r s o f th e p a s t" as " a n o th e r road to
s u b lim ity ," and he d e s c r ib e s such a p ro cess o f im ita tio n in term s
o f i n s p i r a t i o n :
th e genius o f th e a n c ie n ts a c ts as a k in d o f o r a c u la r
c av ern , and e f f lu e n c e s flow from i t in to th e minds o f
t h e i r i m i t a t o r s . Even th o s e p re v io u s ly n o t much
in c lin e d to prophesy become in s p ir e d and s h a re th e
enthusiasm which comes from th e g re a tn e s s o f o th e r s .
(On S u b lim ity 13.2)
In th e n e x t c h a p te r 'L o n g in u s' goes on to giv e some id e a o f j u s t
how t h i s com bination o f m im esis and z e l o s i s w orks:
when we a re w orking on som ething which needs l o f t i n e s s
o f e x p re ssio n and g re a tn e s s o f th o u g h t, i t i s good to
im agine how Homer would have s a id th e same th i n g , or
how P la to or Demosthenes or ( in h i s t o r y ) Thucydides
would have in v e s te d i t w ith s u b lim ity . These g r e a t
f i g u r e s , p re s e n te d to us as o b je c ts o f em u latio n and,
as i t w ere, s h in in g b e fo re our gaze, w i l l somehow
e le v a te our minds to th e g re a tn e s s o f which we form a
m ental image. They w i l l be even more e f f e c t i v e i f we
32
ask o u rs e lv e s 'How would Homer or Demosthenes have
r e a c te d to what I am s a y in g , i f here had been h e re ?
What would h is f e e lin g s have been? ( On S u b lim ity
1 4 .1 -2 )
In t h i s p a ssa g e , 'L o n g in u s' a d v ise s t h a t th e im i t a t o r s t r i v e to
i m i t a t e both th e language and th in k in g o f h is m odel. The
i m ita to r i s to im agine h im s e lf as h is model and to im agine h is
model as th e c r i t i c a l au d ien ce f o r h i s work. Such im agining
seems c o n c r e te ly to d e s c rib e th e a f f i n i t y between th e im ita to r
and h is model: th e good im i t a t o r s t r i v e s to be l i k e h is m odel,
d ev elo p in g s u n o u s ia , " o f-o n e -m in d e d n e ss," w ith h is m odel. The
d e s c r ip ti o n su g g e sts t h a t su n o u sia and z e l o s i s are s im ila r
p sy c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e s , th e form er d e n o tin g th e b o y 's a t t i t u d e
tow ard h i s t u t o r , th e l a t t e r d e n o tin g th e i m i t a t o r 's a t t i t u d e
tow ard th e w r itt e n model.
C icero p ro v id e s in De o r a to r e a good i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a
l e a r n e r who accom plishes much th ro u g h j u s t such z ea lo u s
i m i t a t i o n . In th e d ia lo g u e A ntonius t e l l s o f th e d ev elo p in g
a b i l i t i e s o f young S u lp i c iu s . A ntonius n o te s S u l p i c i u s 's n a tu r a l
t a l e n t s , h i s f in e " p re se n c e " and " b ea rin g " b ut a ls o h is d e liv e r y
( " ra p id and im petuous— th e r e s u l t o f h i s g e n iu s" ) and h is d ic tio n
( " a g i t a t e d and a l i t t l e to o e x u b e ra n t, as was n a tu r a l to h is
a g e " ). R ecognizing S u l p i c i u s ’s t a l e n t s , A ntonius recommends to
th e a s p ir in g o r a to r a model co n g en ia l to h is a b i l i t i e s :
I i n s t a n t l y p e rc e iv e d h i s q u a l i t y and d id n o t m iss th e
o p p o rtu n ity , b u t u rged him to re g a rd th e la w -c o u rts as
h is s c h o o l, ch oosing what m aster he p le a s e d , b ut L ucius
33
C rassus i f he would ta k e my a d v ice ; he cau g h t a t t h i s
su g g estio n and a ssu re d me t h a t he would fo llo w i t ,
ad d in g , o u t o f p o l i t e n e s s , o f co u rse, t h a t I to o should
be h i s te a c h e r . ( De o r a to r e 2 .2 1 .8 9 )
A ntonius then t e l l s o f th e r e s u l t o f S u l p i c i u s 's z e a lo u s
im ita tio n ( f o r th e r e i s l i t t l e b e t t e r E n g lish to c a p tu re the
sen se o f z e l o s i s ) o f th e f o r t u i t o u s l y chosen m odel:
S c a rc e ly a y ear had e la p s e d , a f t e r t h i s a d v is o ry t a l k
w ith me, when our f r ie n d p ro se cu te d G aius N orbanus,
whom I was d e fe n d in g . I n c r e d ib le was th e d if f e r e n c e I
saw between th e S u lp ic iu s o f t h a t day and o f a y ear
e a r l i e r . A ssu red ly N ature h e r s e l f was le a d in g him to
th e grand and g lo rio u s s t y l e o f C rassu s, b u t could
never have made him p r o f i c i e n t enough, had he n o t
p re sse d forw ard on t h a t same way by c a r e f u l i m i t a t i o n ,
[ s tu d io atq u e i m i t a t i o n e ] and fo r formed h a b i t o f
sp eak in g w ith ev ery th o u g h t and a l l h is so u l fix e d in
con tem p latio n o f C ra ssu s. ( De o r a to r e 2 .2 1 .8 9 )
T his p assag e from De o r a to r e r e i t e r a t e s th e p o in t of th e p re s e n t
d iscu ssion : ancient and c la s s ic a l educators knew that successfu l
im ita tio n r e q u ir e s th e i m i t a t o r ’s z e a l to be l i k e h is model.
Sulpicius is the good student who im itates zea lo u sly , "with every
th o u g h t and a l l h i s so u l fix e d in c o n tem p latio n " o f h i s model.
But the passage suggests as w ell another important r e q u isite of
s u c c e s s fu l im i t a t i o n . In h is g iv in g a d v ic e , A ntonius i s li k e th e
te a c h e r who re c o g n iz e s h is s t u d e n t ’s n a tu r a l b e n t and recommends
a model both co n g en ia l to h is t a l e n t s and c o r r e c t iv e o f t h e i r
e x c e s se s. The d is c u s s io n t u r n s , th e n , to th e m a tte r o f s e l e c t i n g
th e model both as a c o r r e c t i v e and to s u i t th e i m i t a t o r s ’
p a r t i c u l a r t a l e n t s .
34
One R e q u is ite o f S u c c e ssfu l I m i ta ti o n :
S u itin g th e Model to th e I m i t a t o r 's N a tu ra l T a le n ts
I t was o fte n p o s s ib le f o r te a c h e r s in th e tim e o f c l a s s i c a l
G reece, or d u rin g H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman tim e s, to u n d e rsta n d w ell
t h e i r s t u d e n t s ' in d iv id u a l t a l e n t s , C onsider th e c o n d itio n s
under which th e se e d u c a to rs ta u g h t. S o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l changes
in f i f t h - c e n t u r y Athens le d to in c re a s e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e
a f f a i r s o f th e p o lis and encouraged th e b e l i e f t h a t each
i n d i v i d u a l 's o p in io n had v a lu e to th e s t a t e . These c o n d itio n s
c r e a te d demand fo r th e s o r t o f r h e t o r i c a l e d u c a tio n th e s o p h is ts
14
o f f e r e d . But w h ile th e s o p h is ts d id o f f e r t r a i n i n g in p u b lic
sp eak in g to th o se who could a f f o r d i t and who p e rc e iv e d i t to be
a means to power, t h e i r s was by no means mass e d u c a tio n . Working
w ith b u t a few s tu d e n ts a t a tim e , th e s o p h is ts adopted from
Greek a r i s t o c r a t i c e d u c a tio n th e methods o f in d iv id u a l
15
t u t e l a g e . I s o c r a t e s , f o r exam ple, a p p a re n tly enjoyed some
f i n a n c i a l su ccess from h i s te a c h in g , b u t he p ro b a b ly took on no
16
more than e ig h t s tu d e n ts a t a given tim e . Perhaps I s o c r a t e s '
te a c h in g lo ad was l i g h t compared to t h a t faced by H e l l e n i s t i c and
Roman te a c h e r s , b u t th e r e i s no reaso n to b e lie v e t h a t even th e s e
l a t e r te a c h e rs were burdened w ith a n y th in g l i k e th e
m a ss-p ro d u ctio n e d u c a tio n known to d a y . M oreover, th e Roman
35
schoolboy u s u a lly had h i s pedagogue who could a ff o r d him
in d iv id u a l a t t e n t i o n . Bonner p o in ts o u t t h a t w h ile th e
p ed agogue's r o l e was seldom confused w ith th e s c h o o lm a s te r's
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , th e pedagogue m ight have a tte n d e d le s s o n s w ith
th e boy and been r e s p o n s ib le f o r s e e in g t h a t he le a r n e d . Indeed,
" th e more l i t e r a t e he was h im s e lf, th e b e t t e r , " and in r a r e c ase s
th e pedagogue m ight even do some o f th e te a c h in g h im s e lf. Bonner
c i t e s th e example o f Diogenes th e C ynic, pedagogue to a r i c h
C o r in th ia n 's so n s, who n o t on ly e s c o rte d th e boys to v a rio u s
le s s o n s , b u t saw t h a t th e y memorized p assag es from p o ets and even
17
from h is own w r iti n g s . The p o in t of t h i s i s n ot t h a t one
should be envious o f c l a s s i c a l Greek or Roman t e a c h e r s ' l i g h t
c la s s lo a d s and a s s is ta n c e (though one m ight j u s t as w e l l ) .
R a th e r, th e p o in t i s t h a t e l i t i s t e d u c a tio n may f a c i l i t a t e
in d iv id u a liz e d i n s t r u c t i o n — and an e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t y o f
in d iv id u a liz e d i n s t r u c t i o n i s th e t e a c h e r 's o p p o rtu n ity to
re c o g n iz e each s t u d e n t ’s in d iv id u a l t a l e n t s and i n c l i n a t i o n s .
Again and a g a in , c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s s t r e s s t h a t i t i s
im p o rta n t both to re c o g n iz e th e s t u d e n t 's n a t u r a l a b i l i t y and to
r e s p e c t th e s o r t o f n a tu r a l t a l e n t s a s tu d e n t d e m o n stra te s.
I s o c r a t e s compared th e te a c h e r o f o r a to r y to th e te a c h e r o f
g y m n astics. N e ith e r s o r t o f te a c h e r , he w ro te , p o s se ss e s "a
s c ie n c e by which th e y can make cap ab le a t h l e t e s or cap ab le
o r a to r s o u t o f whomsoever th e y p l e a s e ." Each can a t b e st
36
" c o n tr ib u te in some d eg ree to th e se r e s u l t s . " I s o c r a t e s b e lie v e s
t h a t both t r a i n i n g and n a t u r a l a b i l i t y a re r e q u i s i t e f o r tr u e
s u c c e ss: " th e s e powers a re never found in t h e i r p e r f e c t io n save
in th o se who e x c e l by v i r t u e both o f t a l e n t and t r a i n i n g "
(A n tid o s is 185).
C icero o f f e r s th e same c o n c lu s io n . In De o r a to r e C rassus
advances th e view t h a t n a tu r a l t a l e n t i s th e " c h i e f c o n tr ib u to r
to th e v i r t u e o f o r a to ry " and th o se who f a i l o f te n want "inborn
c a p a c ity ." C rassus em phasizes t h a t a r t cannot "waken to l i f e "
t a l e n t s o f in v e n tio n , s t y l e and memory, b ut o n ly "g iv e p o lis h " to
good a b i l i t i e s and "quicken and amend" th e m ediocre
(1 .2 5 .1 1 3 -1 5 ). A ntonius l a t e r r e p e a ts th e s e id e a s when he
a s s e r t s t h a t " th e c h ie f so u rce o f t h i s endowment [e lo q u en ce] i s
n a tu r e ," and r h e t o r i c " f o s t e r s and s tre n g th e n s th in g s t h a t have
a lre a d y sprung to b i r t h w ith in us" (2 .8 7 .3 5 6 ) . Q u in t i l i a n , to o ,
s t r i k e s th e same b alan ce between ed u ca tio n and t a l e n t : n a tu re can
"accom plish much w ith o u t th e a id o f e d u c a tio n " and th e l a t t e r i s
" v a lu e le s s w ith o u t th e a id o f n a tu r e " ; s t i l l , " th e average o r a to r
owes most to n a tu r e , w h ile th e p e r f e c t o r a to r owes more to
e d u c a tio n " ( 2 .1 9 .1 - 2 ) .
Only th e a u th o r o f th e Ad Herennium makes no m ention of
n a t u r a l a b i l i t y . In f a c t , what a l l o th e r s g iv e to n a tu r a l
t a l e n t , he a t t r i b u t e s t o i m i t a t i o n . A ll f i v e f a c u l t i e s o f
r h e t o r i c , he c la im s,
37
we can a c q u ire by th r e e means: Theory, I m i ta ti o n , and
P r a c t i c e . By th e o ry i s meant a s e t o f r u l e s t h a t
p ro v id e a d e f i n i t e method and system o f sp eak in g .
I m ita tio n s tim u la te s us to a t t a i n , in accordance w ith a
s tu d ie d method, th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f c e r t a i n models in
sp ea k in g . P r a c tic e i s a ssid u o u s e x e r c is e and
e x p e rie n c e in sp e a k in g . ( 1 . 2 . 3 . )19
One m ight ta k e e x c e p tio n to th e unknown a u th o r o f th e te c h n ic a l
r h e t o r i c a d d ressed to H e ren n iu s: i n s t r u c t i o n and im ita tio n cannot
com pensate f o r a la c k o f a b i l i t y , nor can th e s e be s u c c e s s f u l i f
th e y c o u n te r th e p u p i l 's n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n s .
With th e e x ce p tio n o f th e a u th o r o f th e Ad Herennium,
c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s concerned w ith te a c h in g re c o g n ize d th e
im portance o f s u i t i n g th e i n s t r u c t i o n to th e s t u d e n t 's p a r t i c u l a r
t a l e n t s . C icero w r ite s t h a t th o s e who t r a i n p u p ils in o r a to r y
are o b lig e d " to be most c a r e f u l to observe th e d i r e c tio n in which
each seems to be e s p e c i a l l y c a r r ie d by h i s own n a t u r e . 1 '
For as a m a tte r o f f a c t we n o tic e t h a t p u p ils have
emerged from th e same s c h o o l, k e p t by e x p e r ts and
m a sters o f supreme eminence in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e s t y l e s ,
who though q u ite u n lik e o n e -a n o th er a re y e t w orthy o f
commendation, in c a se s when th e t e a c h e r 's c u rric u lu m
has been ad ap ted to th e n a tu re o f th e in d iv id u a l p u p il.
( De o r a t . 3 .9 .3 5 -3 6 )
He c o n tin u e s , g iv in g th e example o f I s o c r a t e s , who "made a
p r a c t i c e o f em ploying th e spur w ith Ephorus and th e b r i d l e w ith
Theopompus" th e re b y e n co u rag in g th e fo r m e r 's " h e s i t a t i o n and
d if f id e n c e " and checking th e l a t t e r ' s "exuberance and b o ld n ess"
p o
( D e o r a t . 3 .9 .3 5 -3 6 ) .
38
Both C icero and Q u in tilia n s p e c i f i c a l l y ap p ly to im ita tio n
pedagogy th e g e n eral p r i n c i p l e t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n should be s u ite d
to in d iv id u a l t a l e n t . In De o r a to r e A ntonius n o te s th e bad
example o f a F u f iu s , now f o r g o tte n , who u n f o r tu n a te ly copied th e
"uncouth m outhings and broad p ro n u n c ia tio n s " o f G aius F im b ria,
b u t f a i l e d even to a t t a i n h i s m o d e l's "energy in sp e a k in g ."
F u fiu s f a i l e d because "he d id n o t know how to choose th e model
whom he would m ost w i l l i n g l y resem b le, and i t was p o s i t i v e l y th e
f a u l t s in h is chosen p a t t e r n t h a t he e le c te d to co p y ." I n s te a d ,
A ntonius a d v ise s one who would i m i t a t e e f f e c t i v e l y to " f i r s t be
w a tch fu l in making h is c h o ic e , and a fte rw a rd s e x trem ely c a r e f u l
in s t r i v i n g to a t t a i n th e most e x c e lle n t q u a l i t i e s o f th e model
he has approved" (De o r a t . 2 .2 2 .9 1 -9 2 ) . And in recommending ways
a te a c h e r m ight s e l e c t th e model fo r h i s s tu d e n t to i m i t a t e ,
Q u in tilia n u rg es th e te a c h e r n o t to e x p ect o f th e s tu d e n t " th in g s
w hich, though c ap ab le o f i m i t a t i o n , may be beyond th e c a p a c ity o f
any given in d iv id u a l, e i t h e r because h is n a tu r a l g i f t s a re
i n s u f f i c i e n t or o f a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r ." Q u in tilia n concedes
t h a t th e te a c h e r must n o t " c o n fin e h im s e lf to te a c h in g th o se
th in g s f o r which he p e rc e iv e d h i s in d iv id u a l p u p ils to have most
a p t i t u d e ," f o r th e te a c h e r must "make good t h e i r d e f i c i e n c i e s as
f a r as may b e ," and " c o r r e c t t h e i r f a u l t s and tu rn them to b e t t e r
t h i n g s ." Even so , th e te a c h e r " w ill w aste h is la b o u r in
39
a tte m p tin g to develop q u a l i t i e s to th e a tta in m e n t o f which he
p e rc e iv e s n a t u r e ’s g i f t s to be opposed” (1 0 .2 .1 9 - 2 1 ) .
Another R e q u is ite to S u c c essfu l I m i ta ti o n :
C r i t i c a l Judgment
Among th e e x ta n t works o f c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s on
r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n , no o th e r w r i t e r c o n sid e re d th e to p ic so
much and to no o th e r was r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n so im p o rta n t as i t
was to Q u in tilia n . Q u i n t i l i a n ’s most s i g n i f i c a n t ad v ice on th e
s u b je c t o f e f f e c t i v e i m i t a t i o n concerns n o t how, w hat, or whom to
i m i t a t e , b u t what to do b e fo re a tte m p tin g any i m i t a t i o n . Whether
he i s d is c u s s in g re a d in g , v o c a b u la ry - b u ild in g , or im i t a t i o n ,
Q u in tilia n demands t h a t any m a te r ia l f i r s t be c r i t i c a l l y
c o n s id e re d . He u rg e s t h a t th e s tu d e n t in h i s re a d in g u n d erstan d
th e w r i t e r ’s purpose and th e c o n te x t o f th e w r i t e r 's d is c o u rs e .
He wants th e s tu d e n t to " c o n s id e r th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s w ith which
th o se o r a to r s h an d le th e circ u m stan c es and p e rso n s inv o lv ed [and
t o ] o b serv e th e judgem ent and powers o f a rra n g e m e n t." E v ery th in g
must be read w ith th e purpose o f th e d is c o u r s e in mind; th e
re a d e r must observe how " e v e ry th in g th ey say . . . i s
c o n c e n tra te d on s e c u rin g v ic to r y over t h e i r op p o n en ts"
( 1 0 .1 .2 5 ) . In d is c u s s in g i m i t a t i o n , Q u in tilia n u se s a crude
40
an alo g y w ith b i o lo g ic a l a s s im ila tio n to show t h a t what one has
re a d one must c a r e f u l l y r e c o n s id e r :
j u s t as we do n o t swallow ou r food t i l l we have chewed
i t and reduced i t alm ost to a s t a t e o f l i q u e f a c t i o n to
a s s i s t th e p ro c e ss o f d ig e s t io n , so what we read must
not be committed to th e memory f o r su b seq u en t im ita tio n
w h ile i t i s s t i l l in a crude s t a t e , b u t must be
s o fte n e d and, i f I may use th e p h ra s e , reduced to a
pulp by fr e q u e n t r e - p e r u s a l . (1 0 .1 .1 9 )
Only a f t e r i n s i s t i n g t h a t th e s tu d e n t "th o ro u g h ly a p p r e c ia te "
e v e ry th in g about th e m odel, from th e circ u m stan c es to which th e
d is c o u r s e was s u ite d to th e a u th o r ’s s t y l e , does Q u in tilia n allow
t h a t th e s tu d e n t " s h a l l be a b le t o im i t a t e [ h is ] models w ith
a ccu ra cy " (10.1.19).
Q u in tilia n demands o f th e im ita to r n o t on ly s u f f i c i e n t
c r i t i c a l acumen to avoid ob v io u s f a u l t s , b u t a c t u a l l y r e q u ir e s o f
him y e t f i n e r c r i t i c a l i n t e l l i g e n c e so he may avoid i m i t a t i n g
more s u b tle in a d e q u a c ie s : " th e n i c e s t c r i t i c a l judgem ent i s
r e q u ire d in th e exam ination o f e v e ry th in g connected w ith t h i s
d ep artm en t o f stu d y [ i . e . i m i t a t i o n ] . " C r i t i c a l judgem ent i s
needed when one c o n s id e rs whom to i m i t a t e , fo r " th e r e a re many
who have shown a p a s s io n a te d e s i r e to im i t a t e th e w o rst and most
d ecad en t a u th o r s ." So, to o , such judgement i s n e c e s sa ry in
ch oosing "what i t i s t h a t we should s e t o u rs e lv e s to i m i t a t e in
th e a u th o rs th u s ch o sen . For even g r e a t a u th o rs have t h e i r
b le m is h e s ." Yet Q u i n t i l i a n adds f u r th e r t h a t "even th o s e who
have s u f f i c i e n t c r i t i c a l acumen to avoid th e f a u l t s o f t h e i r
41
models w i l l n o t fin d i t s u f f i c i e n t to produce a copy o f t h e i r
m e r i t s . ” But on th e prem ise t h a t each p a r t i c u l a r e x c e lle n c e in
an a u th o r i s v ery n ear to an e x c e s s , Q u in tilia n adds t h a t th e
im ita to r must be a b le to d is c r im in a te between th e m e rits o f th e
model and such m e rits tak en to e x c e s s.
But t h i s i s j u s t what happens to th o s e who mould
them selves on th e f i r s t im p ressio n s d e riv e d from th e
s t y l e o f th e m odel, w ith o u t d e v o tin g th em selv es to a
thorough i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f i t s good q u a l i t i e s , and,
d e s p ite th e b r i l l i a n c e o f t h e i r im ita tio n . . . not
o n ly f a i l a b s o lu te ly to a t t a i n th e fo rc e o f s t y l e and
in v e n tio n p o sse sse d by th e o r i g i n a l , b u t as a r u le
d e g e n e ra te in to som ething w orse, and a ch ie v e m erely
th o se f a u l t s which are h a r d e s t to d i s t i n g u i s h from
v i r t u e s . (1 0 .2 .1 4 -1 6 )
Q u i n t i l i a n ’s i n s i s t e n c e on c r i t i c a l judgment m ust be k e p t in
mind? f o r fo u r te e n hundred y e a rs l a t e r t h i s em phasis w i l l inform
much o f what Erasmus has to say n o t o n ly on i m i t a t i o n , b u t on
l i t e r a r y e d u ca tio n as a w hole. But th e r e i s y e t more a d v ice from
I s o c r a t e s , C ic ero , Q u i n t i l i a n , and o th e r s which w i l l s u rfa c e
ag ain in th e R en aissan ce amid th e C iceronean c o n tro v e rs y and in
books on l i t e r a r y e d u c a tio n . R enaissance w r i t e r s re p e a t th e se
c l a s s i c a l a u th o r s ’ ad m onitions to le a r n e r s to see them selves as
com peting to outdo t h e i r m o d els’ e x c e lle n c i e s , to add som ething
o f t h e i r own to th e i m i t a t i o n , and to im ita te many o r a t o r s , n o t
j u s t a s in g le ty p e . The f i n a l s e c tio n o f t h i s c h a p te r c o n sid e rs
th e s e th r e e r e q u i s i t e s f o r s u c c e s s fu l i m i t a t i o n .
42
Three R e q u is ite s o f S u c c e ssfu l I m i ta ti o n :
Competing, S e le c t in g , C o n trib u tin g Something o f One’s Own
At th e opening o f th e P a n e q y ric u s, I s o c r a t e s defends h is
sp eak in g on a w ell-w orn them e: " i f i t were p o s s ib le to p r e s e n t
th e same s u b je c t m a tte r in one form and in no o t h e r , one m ight
have reaso n to th in k i t g r a tu ito u s to weary o n e ’s h e a r e r s by
sp eak in g ag ain in th e same manner as h is p r e d e c e s s o r s .” But he
adds t h a t " o ra to ry i s o f such a n a tu re t h a t i t i s p o s s ib le to
d is c o u r s e on th e same s u b je c t in many d i f f e r e n t w ays." Yet
I s o c r a t e s goes beyond th e c o n te n tio n t h a t th e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r
v a r i e t y w a rra n ts h is sp ea k in g ag ain on th e same s u b j e c t : he
in tr o d u c e s th e id e a t h a t each sp eak er may seek to o utdo h is
p r e d e c e s s o r s :
one must n o t shun th e s u b je c ts upon which o th e r s have
spoken b e fo re , b u t m ust t r y to speak b e t t e r th an th e y .
For th e deeds o f th e p a s t a r e , in d e ed , an in h e r ita n c e
common to us a l l ; b u t th e a b i l i t y to make p ro p e r use o f
I them a t th e a p p r o p r ia te tim e , to conceive th e r i g h t
' se n tim e n ts about each o f them in each in s ta n c e , and to
s e t them f o r th in f in i s h e d p h ras^ i s th e p e c u li a r g i f t
o f th e w ise. (P an e g y ric u s 9-10)
I
I
Of c o u rs e , I s o c r a t e s i s n o t in t h i s in s ta n c e concerned to
f w
I
| i n s t r u c t o th e rs about e f f e c t i v e i m i t a t i o n . But th e id e a of
| com peting w ith o n e ’s p re d e c e s s o rs i s re p e a te d l a t e r by th o s e who
1 would te a c h im ita to r s how to go beyond m im icry. I m ita tio n " i s
n o t t h e f t , " contends ’L o n g in u s,' when th e i m i t a t o r seek s to
43
o u t s t r i p h i s m odel. 'L o n g in u s' a t t r i b u t e s P l a t o 's l i t e r a r y
e x c e lle n c e to what he supposes was th e p h ilo s o p h e r 's e f f o r t in
im i t a t i n g Homer to a c t u a l l y outdo h i s model.
P la to would nev er have re a re d so many o f th e s e flo w e rs
to bloom among h i s p h ilo s o p h ic t e n e t s , n ever have
wandered so o fte n w ith Homer in to th e re g io n s and
p h ra se s o f p o e try , had he n o t s t r i v e n , yea w ith h e a r t
and s o u l, to c o n te s t th e p r iz e w ith Homer l i k e a young
a n ta g o n is t w ith one who has a lre a d y won h i s s p u rs . (On
S u b lim ity 13.4)
Q u in tilia n a tte m p ts to e x p la in why com peting w ith o n e 's model
i s more e f f e c t i v e th an m erely r e p l i c a t i n g i t . F i r s t he says th a t
" th e man whose aim i s to prove h im s e lf b e t t e r th a n a n o th e r , even
i f he does n o t s u rp a ss him, may hope to equal h im ." Q u in tilia n
th en r e p e a ts a few v a r i a t i o n s on th e id e a t h a t th e im ita tio n i s
i n e v i t a b l y i n f e r i o r :
th e mere fo llo w e r must always la g behind . . . .
W hatever i s l i k e a n o th er o b j e c t , must n e c e s s a r i l y be
i n f e r i o r to th e o b je c t o f i t s i m i t a t i o n , j u s t as th e
shadow i s i n f e r i o r to th e s u b sta n c e , th e p o r t r a i t to
th e f e a tu r e s which i t p o r tr a y s , and th e a c ti n g o f th e
p la y e r t o th e f e e lin g s which he endeavours to
re p ro d u c e . (I n s t . 1 0 .2 .9 )
Q u in tilia n e x p la in s t h a t th e o r i g i n a l s "have a genuine and
n a tu r a l f o r c e ," b u t th e i m ita tio n i s a r t i f i c i a l and moulded to a
p urpose which was n o t t h a t o f th e o r i g i n a l o r a t o r . " He adds th a t
" th e g r e a t e s t q u a l i t i e s o f th e o r a to r a re beyond a l l i m ita tio n ,
by which I mean t a l e n t , in v e n tio n , f o r c e , f a c i l i t y and a l l th e
q u a l i t i e s which a re in d ep en d en t o f a r t " ( I n s t . 1 0 .2 .9 -1 3 ) .
44
A lthough c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s were n o t unanimous on th e
22
p o i n t , some o f them ad v o cated a n o th e r means by which th e
im i t a t o r m ight avoid mere copying: th ey urged th e l e a r n e r to
im i t a t e n o t one m odel, b u t many. I s o c r a t e s i n s t r u c t s Demonicus
to draw from many s o u rc e s in h i s re a d in g ,
fo r j u s t as we see th e bee s e t t l i n g on a l l th e flo w e rs ,
and s ip p in g th e b e s t from each, so a ls o th o s e who
a s p ir e to c u ltu r e ought n o t to le a v e a n y th in g u n ta s te d ,
b u t should g a th e r u s e f u l knowledge from e v e ry s o u rc e .
(To Demonicus 51-52)
Here I s o c r a t e s i s recommending e c l e c t i c re a d in g h a b i t s , b u t l a t e r
r h e t o r i c i a n s w i l l apply th e a d v ic e to both re a d in g and
i m i t a t i o n . The E ld er Seneca o f f e r s j u s t t h i s a d v ice in th e
p re fa c e to h i s C o n tro v e rs ia e . Seneca approves o f i m i t a t o r s who
seek models from th e p a s t as w e ll as th o se from among t h e i r
c o n te m p o ra rie s. The g r e a t e s t advantage i s in i m i t a t i n g many
m odels. "You should n o t im i t a t e one man, however d is tin g u is h e d :
f o r an im i t a t o r never comes up to th e le v e l o f h i s model”
( 1 . p r e f a c e .6 ).
C icero o f f e r s a most complex answer to th e q u e s tio n o f
w hether o f n o t th e l e a r n e r should im ita te only one model. W hile
he does n o t n e c e s s a r ily ag ree w ith th e o th e rs t h a t i t i s b e s t to
fo llo w a v a r i e t y o f m odels, h i s view allow s f o r each s tu d e n t to
develop h i s own s t y l e o f o r a to r y and fo r th e a r t as a whole
th e re b y to p ro g r e s s . On t h i s p o i n t , F antham 's a r t i c l e " Im ita tio n
and E v o lu tio n ” i s e n lig h te n in g . Fantham e x p la in s C ic e r o 's b e l i e f
45
t h a t o r a to r y e v o lv es as s tu d e n ts in each g e n e ra tio n s e l e c t a
f a v o r i t e model to i m i t a t e . In De o r a to r e A ntonius asks why
" n e a rly ev ery age has produced i t s own d i s t i n c t i v e s t y l e o f
o r a to r y ? " His answer i s t h a t " t h e i r u n ifo rm ity o f s t y l e could
n ever have come a b o u t, had th e y n o t k e p t b e fo re them some s in g le
24
model fo r im ita tio n ( 2 .2 2 .9 2 - 9 3 ) . Fantham rem inds us t h a t in
De o r a to r e C icero took I s o c r a t e s ( e .g . "A g ain st th e S o p h is ts " ) as
h i s source on i m i t a t i o n , b e lie v in g t h a t s tu d e n ts c lo s e ly resem ble
a f a v o r i t e te a c h e r whom th e y im ita te d . But a t r a d i t i o n in which
a te a c h e r p a sse s on h i s e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t i e s to h i s s tu d e n ts s t i l l
a llo w s f o r developm ent o f th e a r t o f o r a to r y . F o r, as I s o c r a t e s
shows in A n tid o s is , th e te a c h e r h im s e lf p a sse s on th e knowledge
he has in d e p e n d e n tly d is c o v e re d (2 0 8 ). Through such a p ro c e s s ,
each g e n e r a tio n , becoming in tu rn te a c h e r to a new g e n e r a tio n ,
p a sse s on what i t has le a rn e d from i t s p re d e c e s s o rs as w e ll as
what i t le a rn e d in d e p e n d e n tly ; th e e f f e c t i s a growing e x c e lle n c e
in o r a to r y . M oreover, th e e f f e c t i v e te a c h e r i s f l e x i b l e , v a ry in g
h i s h a n d lin g o f p u p i l s , as in th e example o f I s o c r a t e s ' h a n d lin g
o f Ephorus and Theopompus. The r e s u l t o f t h i s a d d itio n and
v a r i a t i o n , say s Fantham , i s "both growth between g e n e r a tio n s , and
c o n tr o lle d d iv erg en ce w ith in th e g e n e r a tio n ." T his p ro c e ss o f
a d d itio n and v a r i a t i o n by which each su cceed in g g e n e ra tio n
d ev elo p s th e a r t o f o r a to r y m ight b e s t be u n d e rsto o d through th e
in s ta n c e o f S u l p i c i u s ’s im i t a t i n g C ra ssu s, upon which A ntonius
46
rem arks in De o r a to r e 2 .2 1 .8 9 . In F antham 's w ords,
To r e a l i z e th e maximum p o t e n t i a l o f th e young o r a t o r , a
fu s io n o f h i s n a t u r a l te n d e n c ie s ( n a tu r a , ingenium ,
i n d o l e s ) w ith th e r i g h t k in d o f im ita tio n i s needed.
S u lp ic iu s* tem peram ent s u i t s him t o th e im ita tio n o f a
p a r t i c u l a r genus d i c e n d i , t h a t o f C rassus r a t h e r th an
A n to n iu s. By b le n d in g im ita tio n o f C rassus* genus w ith
h is own t a l e n t s , S u lp ic iu s produces a new compound, h i s
m ature genus.
The d is c u s s io n o f C ic e ro ’ s u n d e rsta n d in g o f how e f f e c t i v e
i m ita tio n allo w s f o r p ro g r e s s in o r a to r y le a d s us t o th e id e a
t h a t , as a r e s u l t o f h i s n a t u r a l a b i l i t y and in d ep en d en t
d is c o v e ry , each i m i t a t o r adds som ething o f h i s own to h i s model.
O ther r h e t o r i c i a n s e x p l i c i t l y d ir e c te d i m ita to r s to add som ething
o f t h e i r own. I s o c r a t e s a d v is e s t h a t o r a to r y , b e in g a c r e a tiv e
p ro c e s s , cannot be ta u g h t by hard and f a s t r u l e s :
What has been s a id by one speaker i s n o t e q u a lly u s e f u l
fo r th e sp eak er who comes a f t e r him; on th e c o n tr a r y ,
he i s accounted most s k i l l e d in t h i s a r t who speaks in
a manner w orthy o f h i s s u b je c t and y e t i s a b le to
d is c o v e r in i t t o p i c s which a re nowise th e same as
th o se used by o th e r s . . . . O rato ry i s good o n ly i f
i t has th e q u a l i t i e s o f f i t n e s s f o r th e o c c a sio n
[k a i r o s ] , p r o p r ie ty o f s t y l e C prep o n ] , and o r i g i n a l i t y
o f tre a tm e n t [k a in o s ] . ( A g ain st th e S o p h ists 12-13)
I s o c r a t e s * comments im ply t h a t no good i m ita to r could m erely copy
w ith o u t adding som ething o f h i s own, fo r to do so would be to
v i o l a t e th e re q u ire m e n ts o f **fitness to o c c a s io n , p r o p r ie ty of
s t y l e , and o r i g i n a l i t y o f tr e a tm e n t." For th e im i t a t o r to wrench
d is c o u r s e from one c o n te x t o f tim e and p la c e t o a n o th e r c o n te x t
would make th e d is c o u r s e i l l - s u i t e d to th e i m i t a t o r 's new
c irc u m stan c es and p u rp o s e s. Q u i n t i l i a n 's rem ark, c i t e d e a r l i e r ,
47
a g ain i s to th e p o in t. W hile o n e rs model m ight "have a g en iu s
and n a tu r a l f o r c e , ” a mere copy would be " a r t i f i c i a l and "moulded
to a purpose which was n o t t h a t o f th e o r i g i n a l o r a to r
(10. 2 . 9- 1 2 ).26
Summary
The c h a p te rs t o fo llo w w i l l show t h a t th e men o f th e
s ix te e n th c en tu ry who recommended r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n were
f a m i l i a r w ith c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s ' a d v ice on i m i t a t i o n . S ix te e n th -
c e n tu ry E n g lish hum anist e d u c a to rs sh ared w ith th e c l a s s i c a l
r h e t o r i c i a n s and p h ilo s o p h e rs th e assum ption t h a t im ita tio n i s an
in n a te c a p a c ity s u ite d to le a r n in g . They n o ted how im p o rta n t i t
was f o r te a c h e r s to re c o g n iz e s t u d e n t s ' in d iv id u a l t a l e n t s and to
choose r h e t o r i c a l models both to complement and to improve th o se
t a l e n t s . From Q u i n tilia n and o th e r s , th e E n g lish hum anist
e d u c a to rs le a rn e d to p r e s e n t a model t o s tu d e n ts w ith a
p r e l e c t i o n co n cern in g i t s au d ien ce and p u rp o se , l e s t s tu d e n ts
a tte m p t to wrench models in to in a p p r o p r ia te c irc u m sta n c e s . They
f u r t h e r urged upon s tu d e n ts th e f i n e s t c r i t i c a l d is c r im in a tio n ,
th e d e s ir e to t r y to o u t s t r i p t h e i r m odels, and to giv e som ething
o f t h e i r own to th e e f f o r t . Yet d e s p it e in a l l t h e i r borrow ing,
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y w r i t e r s on e d u ca tio n d id n o t adopt c l a s s i c a l
id e a s p u r p o s e le s s ly . L ike th e c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s , th e s e
R en aissan ce e d u c a to rs b e lie v e d t h a t th e s tu d e n t would im ita te not
o n ly th e s t y l e o f h is r h e t o r i c a l m odels, b u t th e th in k in g as
w e ll. And in t h e i r e ra o f r e l i g i o u s c o n tro v e rs y , th e s e l a t e r
e d u c a to rs o fte n c o n sid e re d th e e t h i c a l v a lu e o f th e model as
im p o rta n t as i t s v a lu e to s t u d e n t s 1 d ev elo p in g r h e t o r i c a l
s k i l l s . For th e s e men th e o b je c tiv e of e d u c a tio n was n o t sim ply
to im p art te c h n ic a l s k i l l s ; th e more im p o rta n t o b je c t iv e o f
e d u c a tio n was t o form th e c h a r a c te r . R h e to r ic a l i m i t a t i o n , th e n ,
was c o n sid ered a to o l fo r profound le a r n in g ; i t was b e lie v e d to
be a means to d e v elo p in g s t u d e n t s 1 e t h i c a l and m oral c h a r a c te r as
w e ll as t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l s .
49
Motes
1
Recommendations o f some c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s on r h e t o r i c a l
im i t a t i o n a re d is c u s s e d by H arold Ogden W hite, P la g ia ris m and
I m ita tio n During th e E n g lish R en aissan ce: A Study in C r i t i c a l
D is tin c tio n s (Cam bridge, M assa c h u se tts: H arvard U n iv e r s ity P re s s,
1935). See e s p e c i a l l y W h ite ’s d is c u s s io n o f th e a n c ie n t p re c e p ts
o f " r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " and th e need fo r th e i m i t a t o r to " o u t s t r i p
th e model" (9 -1 1 ). On th e c o m p le x itie s o f d e f in in g " i m i t a t i o n ,"
see R ichard McKeon, " L ite r a r y C ritic is m and th e Concept o f
I m ita tio n in A n tiq u ity ," Modern P h ilo lo g y 34 (A ugust 1936): 1-35
and G erald F. E ls e , " 'I m i t a t i o n ’ in th e F i f t h C e n tu ry ," C la s s ic a l
P h ilo lo g y 53 (A p ril 1958): 73-90.
2
T ra n s la te d by Lane Cooper in The C o lle c te d D ialogues o f
P l a t o , e d ite d by E d ith H am ilton and H untington C airn s (P rin c e to n :
P rin c e to n U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1961).
3
T ra n s la te d by Paul Shorey in H untington and C airn s (se e note
2).
4
T r a n s la te d by W. Ham ilton Fyfe (Cambridge, M a ssa c h u se tts:
H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib r a r y , 1982).
5
T ra n s la te d by John Henry F ree se (Cam bridge, M a ssa c h u se tts:
H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib r a r y , 1965).
^E ric A. H avelock, P re fa c e to P la to (Cam bridge: Belknap P ress
o f H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1963), 42.
7
H. I . M arrou, A H is to r y o f E ducation in A n tiq u ity ,
t r a n s l a t e d by George Lamb (NY: New American L ib ra r y o f World
L i t e r a t u r e , Mentor Books, 1946), 28-34.
g
Marrou, E ducation in A n tiq u ity , 55.
q
F re d e ric h A. G. Beck, Greek E d u catio n , 450-350 B.C. (London:
Methuen and C o., 1964), 268.
10R u s s e ll, "De I m i t a t i o n e ," 10. The t r a n s l a t i o n g iv e s
" b e a u tif u l" fo r k a lo s [g en . tou k alou in th e o r i g i n a l ] , Kalos
im p lied more th a n j u s t th e a e s t h e t i c sen se o f " b e a u t i f u l " : i t
m ight im ply as w ell t h a t which (o r one who) s e r v e s good p u rp o se,
50
o r t h a t which (o r one who) i s m o rally good, r i g h t , n o b le . Again
t h i s su g g e sts t h a t th e im i t a t o r may have been assumed to a c q u ire
n o t on ly h i s m odel’s s t y l e o r s u p e r f i c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b u t
a ls o to absorb i t s e t h i c s .
11
T ra n s la te d by George N o rlin in I s o c r a t e s V ol. 1 (Cam bridge,
M a ssa c h u se tts: H arvard U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib ra r y ,
1966).
12
T ra n s la te d by DEonald] A[ndrew] R u ss e ll in A n cien t L i t e r a r y
C r i t i c i s m , e d ite d by D. A. R u s s e ll and M . W interbottom (O xford:
Oxford U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1972). In t h i s and su b seq u en t c i t a t i o n s
to On S u b lim ity I have r e ta in e d th e s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y c h a p te r
d i v i s i o n s . I have t r a n s l i t e r a t e d th e Greek from th e Loeb e d itio n
o f On The Sublime (Cam bridge, M assa c h u se tts: H arvard U n iv e rs ity
P r e s s , Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib r a r y , 1982).
13
*n De o r a to r e Books I - I I , t r a n s l a t e d by E. W. S u tto n and H.
Rackham (Cambridge, M a ssa c h u se tts: H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , Loeb
C la s s ic a l L ib ra r y , 1979).
14
W. K. C. G u th rie , The S o p h is ts (Cam bridge: Cambridge
U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1971)♦ 19-21. See a ls o M arrou, E ducation in
A n tiq u ity , 67-69.
15
For more d is c u s s io n o f th e s o p h i s t s ' pedagogy see Beck,
Greek E d u c a tio n , I 6 7 f f . And, perhaps i r o n i c a l l y , th e Phaedrus
p ro v id e s an example o f j u s t how th e s tu d e n t and h i s s o p h i s t i c
te a c h e r m ight have p ro ceed ed ; on t h i s see a ls o Donald Lemen
C la rk , R h e to ric in Greco-Roman E d u c a tio n , 162-67.
16
R. Johnson, " I s o c r a t e s Method o f T e a ch in g ," American
J o u rn a l o f P h ilo lo g y 80 (1 9 5 9 ): 28.
17
S ta n le y F. B onner, E ducation in A noient Rome (B e rk e ley :
U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia P r e s s , 1977), 38-40.
18
T ra n s la te d by George N o rlin (Cambridge, M a ssa c h u se tts:
H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib r a r y , 1968).
19
T ra n s la te d by H arry Caplan (Cambridge, M a ssa c h u se tts:
H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib r a r y , 1977).
20
Q u in tilia n c i t e s th e same example when he d is c u s s e s th e
need f o r i n s t r u c t i o n s u ite d to i n d i v i d u a l s ’ p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s . See
I n s t i t u t i o O ra to ria I I . v i i i . 1 1 . There i s no e d i t o r i a l n o te in
th e Loeb t r a n s l a t i o n s o f De o r a to r e or I n s t i t u t i o o r a t o r i a , nor
in W heelock’s n o te s to th e Twayne s e le c tio n s o f th e I n s t i t u t i o ,
51
to a u th e n t ic a te C ic e r o ’s and Q u i n t i l i a n ’s h av in g a s c rib e d t h i s
example to I s o c r a t e s . Johnson m entions t h a t th e h i s t o r i a n s
Theopompus, E phorus, and A nd ro tio n were a l l s a id to have a tte n d ed
I s o c r a t e s ’ i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t he does n o t n o te t h i s anecdote
( ’’I s o c r a t e s Method o f T e a c h in g ,” 30 ). E la in e Fantham a ls o c i t e s
t h i s example b u t w ith o u t comment on th e so u rc e ( " I m ita tio n and
E v o lu tio n : The D iscu ssio n o f R h e to ric a l I m i ta ti o n in C icero De
o r a to r e 2, 87-97 and Some R elate d Problems o f C iceronean T h e o ry ,”
C la s s ic a l P h ilo lo g y 73 [Ja n u ary 1978]: 4 and n o te 12).
21
See n o te 11. I s o c r a t e s i s a ls o in tr o d u c in g h e re th e
c o n c e p tio n s o f f i t n e s s to th e o c ca sio n [k a i r o s ] and p r o p r ie ty o f
s t y l e [ p re p o n ] , about which see below (page 2 1) under th e
d is c u s s io n o f th e a n c i e n t s ’ adm onitions to th e i m ita to r to add
som ething o f h i s own.
22
R u s s e ll ( ”De I m i t a t i o n e , ” 5) b e lie v e s t h a t o n ly Hermogenes
advocated e x c lu s iv e im ita tio n o f one m odel, Dem osthenes. The
p o in t may n o t have been so s e t t l e d , even among th o s e d isc u sse d
h e r e . In th e I n s t i t u t i o o r a t o r i a Q u in tilia n shows a decided
p re fe re n c e f o r C ic ero . Q u in tilia n c a l l s C icero " th e name of
elo q u en ce i t s e l f " and would have a s tu d e n t " ta k e him [C ic ero ] as
h i s p a t t e r n " r e a l i z i n g t h a t "he has made r e a l p ro g re s s i f he i s a
p a s s io n a te adm irer o f C icero " ( 1 0 .2 .1 1 2 f f . ) But Q u in tilia n
f i n a l l y does n ot recommend e x c lu s iv e and u n c r i t i c a l im ita tio n o f
C ic e ro , as i s r e f l e c t e d in th e passage o f I n s t i t u t i o o r a t o r i a
when, faced w ith th e q u e s tio n o f w hether i t would n o t be enough
to j u s t im ita te C ic e ro , Q u in tilia n concedes t h a t , " fo r my own
p a r t , I sh ould c o n sid e r i t s u f f i c i e n t , i f I could alw ays im ita te
him s u c c e s s f u l l y ." But he ask s what harm th e r e could be in
tu r n in g as w e ll to i m i t a t e " th e v ig o u r o f C ae sar, th e vehemence
o f C a e liu s , th e p r e c is io n o f P o ll io or th e sound judgem ent of
C alvus" ( 1 0 .2 .2 5 - 2 6 ).
23
T ra n s la te d by M, W interbottom in The E ld er Seneca Vol. I
(Cam bridge, M a ssa c h u se tts: H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , Loeb
C la s s ic a l L ib ra r y , 1974).
24
The e x p la n a tio n h e re fo llo w s E la in e Fantham , " Im ita tio n and
E v o lu tio n ."
25
Fantham , " I m ita tio n and D e c lin e ," 14.
26
On t h i s p o i n t , see a ls o D. A. R u s s e ll, "De I m i t a t i o n e " , 12
and C r itic is m in A n tiq u ity (B erk eley , U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia
P r e s s , 1981), 112-13.
52
II
S o c ia l and P o l i t i c a l C o n d itio n s
I t i s a prem ise o f t h i s c h a p te r t h a t a program o f ed u ca tio n
i s u n lik e ly t o fin d fa v o r on i t s i n t r i n s i c m e r its a lo n e : a scheme
o f ed u ca tio n must m eet, or appear to m eet, th e needs o f th e day
and must win th e a p p ro v al o f th o s e who have th e p o l i t i c a l and
f i n a n c i a l re s o u rc e s to e s t a b l i s h such i n s t r u c t i o n in th e
e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s to which th e many or th e i n f l u e n t i a l in
a s o c ie ty r e s o r t . To u n d e rsta n d t h i s p rem ise, i t i s u s e f u l to
r e c a l l r e c e n t e v e n ts in modern h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . Because o f th e
p o p u la tio n in c re a s e o f th e p o st-w ar baby boom, e n ro llm e n ts in
American i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in c r e a s e d in th e l a t e
1960’ s and e a r ly 1970’s . And because o f such e v e n ts as th e c i v i l
r i g h t s movement, th e la u n c h in g of th e space r a c e , and th e
f e m in is t movement, n o t o n ly d id th e number o f s tu d e n ts in h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n in c r e a s e , b u t s o , to o , did th e v a r i e t y o f ty p e s of
s tu d e n t s . Responding to th e in c r e a s in g demand f o r h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n , some i n s t i t u t i o n s reduced ad m issio n s s ta n d a r d s ; o th e rs
adopted p o l i c i e s o f "open e n ro llm e n t" ; most expanded f a c i l i t i e s
to meet in c r e a s in g e n ro llm e n ts . To se rv e s tu d e n ts unp rep ared to
fa c e th e t r a d i t i o n a l demands o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , th e f a c u l t i e s
a t most i n s t i t u t i o n s (and e s p e c i a l l y a t p u b lic ly -f u n d e d c o lle g e s
and u n i v e r s i t i e s ) were p re s se d to te a c h v ario u sly -n am ed form s o f
what was o fte n reg ard ed as rem ed ial e d u c a tio n . F a c u lty in
E n g lish language and l i t e r a t u r e found th e m se lv e s— o f te n a g a in s t
t h e i r w i l l — p re sse d to te a c h "co m p o sitio n ” c l a s s e s . Many o f
th o s e who took on t h i s new r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f e l t i l l - p r e p a r e d to
a d d re ss th e needs o f th e s tu d e n ts th e y fa c e d . To meet th e
c h a lle n g e , te a c h e rs and "co m p o sitio n r e s e a r c h e r s " (th e
a p p e ll a tio n i t s e l f i s t e l l i n g ) tu rn e d f o r h e lp to t h e o r ie s o f
e d u c a tio n , to p sy ch o lo g y , to s o c io lo g y , to l i n g u i s t i c s — f i n a l l y
some even have tu rn e d to r h e t o r i c a l th e o r y . Out o f t h i s
e x p e rie n c e th e r e developed a se n se o f cam arad erie as th o se
i n t e r e s t e d in com position founded or r e v i t a l i z e d p u b l i c a t i o n s ,
a tte n d e d o r conducted summer sem in ars, and banded to g e th e r in new
or re d e d ic a te d p r o f e s s io n a l g ro u p s. To some e x t e n t , th e se
e d u c a to rs and r e s e a r c h e r s b ro u g h t to E n g lish language and
l i t e r a t u r e d ep artm en ts assu m p tio n s about th e p ro c e s s e s o f
lan g u ag e le a r n in g which d i f f e r from th o s e upon which l i t e r a c y
e d u ca tio n had p re v io u s ly been founded. So, to o , th e s e e d u c a to rs
atte m p ted a pedagogy which s u ite d t h e i r a ssu m p tio n s.
Much as p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l changes o f th e m id -tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry a f f e c te d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , so p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l e v e n ts
o f th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry c r e a te d th e needs in re sp o n se to which
some E n g lish hum anists resh ap ed th e c u rric u lu m and m issio n o f th e
E n g lish grammar sc h o o ls and u n i v e r s i t i e s o f t h e i r own tim e . I t
54
i s th e b u s in e s s o f t h i s c h a p te r to t r a c e th e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
c o n d itio n s which f o s te r e d hum anist e d u c a tio n , f o r th e program o f
e d u c a tio n formed by some E n g lish hum anists o f th e l a t e r f i f t e e n t h
and s ix te e n th c e n tu r ie s in E ngland, w hile in many ways h a rd ly
new, n o n e th e le s s su rv iv e d i n t o th e p re s e n t c e n tu ry as th e b a sic
o u t l i n e o f what came to be known as " c l a s s i c a l " e d u c a tio n . And
as t h i s c l a s s i c a l e d u c a tio n endured fo r fo u r hundred y e a r s , so ,
to o , d id r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n pedagogy. The d is c u s s io n b e g in s,
th e n , by c o n s id e rin g th e p o l i t i c a l fo r tu n e o f th o s e s ix te e n th -
c e n tu ry E n g lish h um anists who were p ro fo u n d ly to a f f e c t E n g lish
e d u c a tio n . The Tudors were th e g r e a t p a tro n s o f a number o f
E n g lish h u m an ists: to h e lp c o n s o lid a te t h e i r power a g a in s t r i v a l
houses and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , a g a in s t th e Roman C a th o lic Church,
th e s e monarchs and t h e i r a d m in is tr a to r s p ro v id ed a group o f
E n g lish hum anists o p p o r tu n i tie s fo r s t a t u s and pow er, in some
c a se s even h ig h government p o s i t i o n s . Next t h i s c h a p te r review s
th e ways in which th e s e E n g lish h u m a n ists' "new" r h e t o r i c a l and
l i t e r a r y ed u ca tio n was in e f f e c t e s ta b lis h e d by u n o f f i c i a l
p r a c t i c e i f n o t a c t u a l l y p r e s c rib e d by o f f i c i a l s t a t u t e s , as
Tudor o f f i c i a l s founded and refounded grammar s c h o o ls and
c o lle g e s , hoping to s e c u re r e l i g i o u s co n fo rm ity and a lle g ia n c e to
th e monarchy. F i n a l l y th e d is c u s s io n tu r n s to th e way in c re a s e d
s o c i a l s t a t u s and o p p o r tu n i tie s f o r th o se w ith h u m a n is t-in s p ire d
h ig h e r e d u ca tio n a t t r a c t e d to grammar sc h o o ls and th e
55
u n i v e r s i t i e s g r e a te r numbers o f s tu d e n ts from both th e
e s ta b lis h e d and th e new ran k s o f th e p r iv i le g e d in
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E n g lish s o c i e t y .
English Humanists and Tudor Patrons
The problem s th e Tudor monarchs fa c ed as th e y c o n s o lid a te d
t h e i r power and r e a s s e r t e d th e dominance o f th e E n g lish th ro n e
e v e n tu a lly a f f e c te d even th e E n g lish R enaissance grammar sc h o o ls
and c o lle g e s . The Tudor monarchs needed f o r th e a d m in is tr a tio n
o f a s tr o n g , c e n tr a li z e d government i n d iv id u a ls w ith th e l i t e r a c y
s k i l l s and power o f mind which hum anist e d u c a tio n prom ised. To
se rv e t h i s need, Tudor monarchs and t h e i r a d m in is tr a to r s founded
and drew upon hum anist e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The p r e s e n t
d is c u s s io n b eg in s by re v ie w in g th e fo r c e s o f i n s t a b i l i t y a g a in s t
which th e Tudor monarchs worked a s th e y e s ta b lis h e d a pow erful
c e n t r a l i z e d government w ith an e f f e c t i v e b u re a u c ra c y .
As l a t e as th e f o u r te e n th c e n tu ry th e E n g lish had n o t seen
th e s o r t o f fra g m e n ta tio n m edieval France and Germany had known;
in s t e a d , th e E n g lish k in g rem ained a t th e apex o f power in th e
m edieval E n g lish fe u d a l s t r u c t u r e . But when Edward I I assumed
power in 1307, g r e a t n o b le s who o rg a n iz ed and r e ta in e d by
in d e n tu re t h e i r own m ercenary arm ies began to gain power.
56
S im ila r system s o f e s s e n t i a l l y c o n tr a c tu a l r e l a t i o n s developed as
w ell in o th e r p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n s as pow erful lo rd s
b u i l t around th em selv es g r e a t households o f lo y a l r e t a i n e r s who
h e ld in d e n tu r e s , l e t t e r s p a t e n t , or g ra n ts s p e c if y in g t h e i r
o b lig a tio n s and p r i v i l e g e s . I t was th e s e " p r i v a t e magnate
arm ies" which h elp ed d e s t a b i l i z e th e th ro n e and d im in ish th e
a u th o r ity o f th e E n g lish k in g d u rin g th e co u rse o f th e fo u r te e n th
and f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , as f i r s t th e L a n c a s tr ia n s , and th en th e
Y o r k is ts , p u t k in g s on th e th ro n e and underm ined th e l e g a l system
w ith c o ercio n and f o r c e , c o n t r o l l i n g j u r i e s and s u p p o rtin g t h e i r
fo llo w e rs in l e g a l a c t i o n s . The r e s u l t o f th e s e p o l i t i c a l
ch an g es, G. R. E lto n e x p la i n s , i s t h a t th e Tudors in h e r i t e d a
weakened k in g s h ip , b u t one n o n e th e le s s w ith th e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f a
1
fo rm e rly pow erful monarchy i n t a c t .
When Henry VII won th e th ro n e in 1485, he began th e ta s k o f
r e s t o r i n g th e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f s tro n g k in g s h ip , f o r w h ile th e s e
were in p la c e , th e y w ere, as E lton p u ts i t , " o v e r la id . . . w ith
an a l l u v i a l slim e o f in d iv id u a l la w le s s n e s s and g e n e ra l
c o r r u p tio n ." Yet th e Tudors faced a f u r t h e r p o l i t i c a l problem .
There rem ained in England pow erful " f r a n c h i s e s ," fe u d a l c o u rts
s e p a r a te from th o s e which had developed o u t o f th e s tr u g g le s fo r
th e th ro n e . The houses o f Durham and L a n c a s te r, o f Ripon and
Richmond enjoyed p r i v i l e g e s and exem ptions from th e power o f th e
crown. The most n o ta b le f r a n c h is e was t h a t o f th e Church, which
57
enjoyed p r i v i l e g e s in d ep en d en t o f c i v i l a u t h o r i t y : b e n e f i t o f
c le r g y , a s e p a ra te l e g a l sy stem , s a n c tu a ry , lan d and f i n a n c i a l
h o ld in g s .
An im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e T u d o rs’ s o lu tio n to th e s e p o l i t i c a l
problem s was to dev elo p a b u re a u cra c y o f ed ucated
a d m in is tr a to r s . In The Tudor R ev o lu tio n in Government E lto n
s tu d ie s p a r t i c u l a r l y th e changes in a d m in is tr a tio n between 1530
and 1542. E lto n g e n e r a liz e s t h a t "ev ery r e o r g a n iz a tio n t h a t took
p la c e was in th e d i r e c t i o n o f g r e a te r d e f i n i t i o n , o f
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , o f b u r e a u c r a tic o r d e r . ” He c i t e s as exam ples th e
developm ent o f th e form al p riv y c o u n c il in p la c e o f th e in fo rm al
k i n g 's c o u n c ilo rs and th e developm ent o f n a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
fo r fin a n c e to assume d u t i e s once l e f t to th e k i n g ’s p e rs o n a l
2
s e r v a n ts and household o f f i c e s . To f i l l th e a d m in is tr a tiv e
p o s i t i o n s in t h i s new b u re a u c ra c y , th e Tudors drew on educated
g e n tr y —th o s e o f lo n g - e s ta b l is h e d f a m i l i e s , b u t, as w e ll, th o s e
o f th e new g e n try which developed o u t o f th e economic changes o f
th e p re c e d in g c e n tu ry . Needing to m inim ize th e role and power o f
th e t r a d i t i o n a l n o b i l i t y w ith which th e y had w arred fo r th e
th r o n e , H en ries VII and V III a l l i e d th em selv es w ith th e upcoming
g e n try : landed k n ig h ts , e s q u i r e s , and gentlem en dom inated th e
t h e i r p riv y c o u n c ils . The c h ild r e n o f th e low er g e n try who had
sec u re d lan d or e n ric h e d th em selv es through m erchant a c t i v i t i e s
took advantage o f e d u c a tio n a l o p p o rtu n ity and were u s e f u l to th e
T udors. N otable exam ples in c lu d e W olsey, More ( th e son o f an
u n d is tin g u is h e d London fa m ily o f minor g e n t i l i t y ) , and Cromwell
(who d id much h im s e lf to b u ild up th e Tudor b u re a u c ra c y and
su p p o rt th e E n g lish h u m a n is ts ). H en ries VII and V III sometimes
e le v a te d th e lower g e n try to t i t l e s , and Henry V III used
c o n f is c a te d m on astic la n d s f u r t h e r to e n ric h t h i s g e n try w hile
l in k in g t h e i r f o r tu n e s to h i s own. O ther g e n try were given r u r a l
p o s itio n s o f a u th o r ity in th e forms o f J u s t i c e o f Peace o r High
S h e r i f f : t h i s gave them what S ir Thomas E ly o t c a l l e d th e
"o n ero u se" d u ty o f ju d g in g c i v i l and c rim in a l c a s e s and
3
p u b lis h in g laws in r u r a l a r e a s .
Among th e "new" gentlem en who d i r e c t l y b e n e f ite d from th e
T u d o r's need f o r ed u cated a d m in is tr a to r s were some o f th e E n g lish
hum anists th e m se lv e s. In d e e d , hum anists o fte n a c t i v e l y sought
p a tro n a g e . John P a ls g ra v e , f o r exam ple, in 1512-1513 was paid by
Henry V III to t u t o r P rin c e s s Mary and in 1525 assumed th e same
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r Henry F i t z r o y , Duke o f Richmond, th e n a tu r a l
son o f Henry V III. In 1540 P a lsg ra v e d e d ic a te d h i s t r a n s l a t i o n
4
o f A c o lastu s to Henry V I I I . A number o f th e h u m an ists who were
in v o lv ed as a d m in is tr a to r s and te a c h e r s a t th e grammar sch o o ls
and u n i v e r s i t i e s a ls o won h ig h government p o s i t i o n s i n s e r v ic e o f
th e T udors. Paul N. S ie g e l n o te s th e examples o f C o le t, More,
5
and E ly o t, who were g iven p o s itio n s under Henry V I I I . Lawrence
V. Ryan t r a c e s Ascham's p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r , from h i s t u t o r i n g
59
P rin c e s s E liz a b e th th ro u g h h i s s e c r e t a r i a t to S ir Roger M orison,
am bassador to Emperor C h arles V, to h is s e r v ic e as L a tin
S e c r e ta r y to Mary and E liz a b e th .^
As F r i t z C aspari p u ts i t , "The a r i s t o c r a c y o f th e pen began
to invade and even d is p la c e th e a r i s t o c r a c y o f th e sw o rd ." The
l i k e s o f S ir Thomas E ly o t a re k n ig h te d n o t because o f f e a t s o f
courage in b a t t l e , b u t f o r i n t e l l i g e n t s e r v ic e in government or
as am bassadors. The l i t e r a t u r e o f th e tim e r e f l e c t s t h i s
r e d e f i n i t i o n o f g en tlem an ly q u a l i t i e s . S ir Thomas H oby's 1561
t r a n s l a t i o n o f C a s t i g l i o n e 's The Book o f th e C o u r tie r was fo r th e
E n g lis h , as fo r th e I t a l i a n s , a ’how t o ' manual fo r gentlem en.
On th e to p ic o f e d u c a tio n in th e f i r s t book o f The C o u r t i e r , th e
Count o f Urbino u rg e s t h a t th e c o u r t i e r be ex p ec te d to
d em o n strate th e same a r t f u l a r t l e s s n e s s , th e same s p r e z z a t u r e , in
7
sp eak in g and w r iti n g as th e c o u r t i e r does on h o rse b a c k . And i t
i s t e l l i n g t h a t in The Governor E ly o t, who h im s e lf b e n e f ite d from
th e Tudors because o f h is e d u c a tio n , u rg es "g o v ern o rs o f realm s
8
and c i t i e s " to "employ t h e i r stu d y and mind to th e p u b lic w eal"
and to p o sse ss " s a p ie n c e ,"
th e sc ie n c e o f th in g s d iv in e and human, which
c o n s id e re th th e cause o f e v e r y th in g , by re a so n w hereof
t h a t which i s d iv in e she fo llo w e th , t h a t which i s human
she esteem eth f a r - u n d e r th e goodness o f v i r t u e . (The
G overnor, 219-20)
Modern s c h o la r s , to o , have re c o g n ize d th e changing r o l e o f th e
gentlem an in s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y England. Two o f th e " th r e e
60
s i g n i f i c a n t developm ents’* which Ruth K elso n o te s as marks o f th e
changing d e f i n i t i o n o f th e gentlem an in th e Tudor e ra b ear on th e
im p o rtan ce to th e Tudors o f ed u cated c i v i l s e r v a n ts : " th e
s h i f t i n g em phasis to c i v i l employments" and " th e a d d itio n o f
10
le a r n in g as n e c e s sa ry e q u ip m e n t." And Mark H. C u r tis rem arks
t h a t w h ile th e p r a c t i c e o f a p p o in tin g u n i v e r s i t y men to
government p o s itio n s i s as o ld as Oxford and Cambridge
th e m se lv e s, under H en ries VII and V III th e expanding government
a ffo rd e d new o p p o r tu n i tie s f o r ro y a l s e r v ic e which "g e n e ra te d on
th e one s id e a sen se o f urg en cy about th e s c a r c i t y o f tr a in e d
t a l e n t and on th e o th e r s te a d y p r e s s u r e to a c q u ire th e s k i l l s
11
t h a t were in demand."
Such examples as th o se j u s t c i t e d d em o n strate t h a t Henrys VII
and V III sought men ed u ca te d in L a tin l i t e r a c y to a d m in is te r
t h e i r governm ents. M oreover, th e r e i s th e ev id en ce o f Tudor
o f f i c i a l s ’ re p e a te d c o m p la in ts o f a la c k o f such e d u c a tio n among
th e n o b i l i t y . Baron Edmund Dudley, who as a k i n g 's c o u n c ilo r to
Henry VII h elp ed r e i n s t a t e c o l l e c t i o n o f th e k i n g ’s fe u d a l d u e s,
com plained t h a t f o r la c k o f le a r n in g among th e n o b le s , " 't h e
c h ild r e n o f poor men and mean f o lk s a re promoted to th e prom otion
and a u t h o r i t y t h a t th e c h ild r e n o f noble blood sh ould have i f
th e y were meet t h e r e f o r . 1" Henry V III i s s a id to have com plained
o f h av in g to f i l l governm ent p o s itio n s w ith ed u cated l e s s e r
g e n try f o r la c k o f le a rn e d men o f th e th e n o b i l i t y who m ight do
12
th e jo b . And in 1548 Hugh L atim er com plained to an audience o f
n o b le s a t S t. P a u l’s in h i s Sermon o f th e Plough t h a t
Yf th e r e be n ever a wyse man, make a w ater b e a r e r , a
t i n k e r , a c o b le r , a s l a v e , a page, c o m p tro lle r o f th e
mynte. Make a meane gentylm an, a groom, a yeoman, make
a poore begger Lorde p r e s i d e n t : Thus^I speak n o t th a t I
would have i t s o , b u t to your shame.
The work o f James K. McConica d e m o n strates t h a t n o t o n ly did
th e Tudors use hum anists and th o se w ith hum anist e d u c a tio n fo r
governm ent, b u t, in f a c t , th e E n g lish c o n ta c t w ith I t a l i a n
humanism comes through th e E n g lish c o u r t. As ev id en c e McConica
c i t e s th e example o f Andrew Ammonius, "M ountjoy’s d is c o v e ry and
Erasm us’s f r ie n d a t c o u r t" who " i s in many ways a f ig u r e from th e
f i f t e e n t h c e n tu ry , in f u s in g I t a l i a n l i t e r a r y in f lu e n c e s
th ro u g h o u t Church and c o u r t . " McConica n o te s t h a t Henry VII and
Henry V III were " c a r r y in g on th e f u n c tio n s o f p a tro n a g e i n h e r ite d
from t h e i r Y o rk is t p re d e c e s s o rs " by fo unding th e R egius
p r o f e s s o r s h ip s and p ro v id in g fo r a H is to r io g r a p h e r R oyal. There
i s a ls o th e example o f Lady M argaret B e a u fo rt, who founded a
c o u rt sch o o l in th e 1490's and serv ed as th e " p r i n c i p a l b rid g e
between th e humanism o f th e Y o rk is t c o u rt and t h a t o f th e new
n1 1 1
a g e . "
In d eed , a p a r t from c i v i l employment, th e E n g lish hum anists
enjoyed th ro u g h o u t th e Tudor e ra th e c o n s ta n t p a tro n a g e o f
a r i s t o c r a t s who m a in ta in ed th e h ig h e s t governm ent c o n n e c tio n s .
I t i s n e c e ssa ry h e re to c i t e b u t a few exam ples o f such
p a tro n a g e . McConica n o te s t h a t w h ile Henry V III h im s e lf would
a u to m a tic a lly r e c e iv e th e a t t e n t i o n o f th o se s e e k in g p a tro n a g e ,
he was n o n e th e le s s f,a man so w e ll ed u cated as to a t t r a c t th e
u n fe ig n e d r e s p e c t o f th e b e s t o f [th e E n g lish h u m a n is ts ] ," a f a c t
which h e lp s account f o r many o f th e E n g lish h u m a n is ts' c o n tin u ed
l o y a l t y to th e k in g and th e Tudor d y n a sty . C a th e rin e o f Aragon
su p p o rted Jean L u is V iv es, w h ile More, V ives, and Erasmus
re g a rd ed h e r as th e fem in in e exam plar o f p ie ty and l e a r n i n g . S ir
Thomas B oleyn, f a th e r o f a n o th e r o f Henry V I I 's qu een s,
commissioned Erasmus to w r ite r e l i g i o u s t r e a t i s e s . W illiam
B lo u n t, f o u r th Lord Mountjoy and h i s son C h arles w ere p a tro n s o f
Erasm us. The e ld e r B lount had s tu d ie d under Erasmus in P a r is
ab o u t 1496, and he b ro u g h t Erasmus to England and su p p o rted th e
s c h o la r w h ile he was t h e r e . B lount corresponded r e g u l a r l y w ith
Erasm us, and Erasmus claim ed to have w r itt e n De c o n s c rib e n d is
e p i s t o l i s a t B lo u n t's s u g g e s tio n . The Dutch s c h o la r d e d ic a te d
h i s 1500 Adagiorum c o lle c ta n e a to W illiam B lount and su b seq u en t
e d i t i o n s o f th e Adagiorum to th e son C h a rle s. A ll th e tim e he
was co n nected w ith Erasmus as p a tr o n , W illiam B lount p lay ed a
r o l e in Henry V I I I 's d iv o rc e and break w ith th e Roman Church, and
he even sig n ed th e a r t i c l e s a g a in s t Wolsey in 1530. Three y e ars
l a t e r he sig n ed th e d e c l a r a t i o n o f p a rlia m e n t com m unicating to
Clement VII th e t h r e a t t h a t th e k in g would renounce p a p al
supremacy and, as ch am b erlain to Queen C a th e rin e , he took h e r th e
63
news o f H enry’s i n t e n t to d iv o rc e . Among o th e r c o n s ta n t p a tro n s
o f hum anists were C a rd in a l R eginald Pole and h i s b ro th e r
G e o ffre y . C u rio u s ly , Erasmus and some E n g lish hum anists rem ained
f a v o r i t e s o f th e E n g lish a r i s t o c r a c y , even a f t e r th e k i n g ’s break
w ith Rome and even w h ile th e y enjoyed p a tro n a g e o f C a th o lic
o f f i c i a l s (E n g lish H um anists, 5 4 -6 4 ).
There i s ample ev id en ce t h a t th e Tudors tu rn e d to men w ith
th e l i t e r a c y s k i l l s and power o f mind which hum anist e d u c a tio n
claim ed t o p ro v id e in o rd e r to so lv e th e problem s th e y faced as
th e y c o n s o lid a te d t h e i r power and r e a s s e r t e d th e dominance o f th e
E n g lish th ro n e . And, in d e e d , McConica p ro v id e s ev id en ce t h a t th e
h u m an ists enjoyed ro y a l and n o b le p a tro n a g e beyond c i v i l
employment. But w ith Henry V I I I ’s break w ith Rome came a f a r
g r e a te r need fo r n o t j u s t th e h u m a n is ts' l i t e r a c y s k i l l s , b u t fo r
t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l powers and r e l a t i v e l y c o n s e r v a tiv e i n c l i n a t i o n s
re g a rd in g r e l i g i o u s refo rm . I t i s in th e m a tte r s o f r e l i g i o u s
refo rm and th e R eform ation t h a t Henry V I I I 's s u c c e s s iv e
c h a n c e llo r s had g r e a t e s t need f o r th o se o f h um anist e d u c a tio n and
sy m p ath ies.
In E n g lish Hum anists and R eform ation P o l i t i c s McConica
d e m o n strates th a t th e E n g lish h u m a n is ts ’ view s on r e l i g i o u s
refo rm in c lin e d them to su p p o rt Henry V I I I 's R efo rm atio n , o fte n
as a p o lo g is ts fo r h i s a c t i o n s . McConica c a l l s th e E n g lish
h u m anists " E ra s m ia n s," th e w r itin g s o f Erasmus on r e l i g i o n
64
( p a r t i c u l a r l y th e E n c h irid io n m i l i t i s C h r i s t i a n i ) d e f in in g th e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f E n g lish h u m a n is ts' b e l i e f s ab o u t r e l i g i o u s
re fo rm . Erasmus was g iven to s a t i r i z i n g e s t a b l i s h e d id e a s and
i n s t i t u t i o n s when th e s e o ffen d e d h is id e a l o f th e C h r is tia n
s o c i e t y , and he p a r t i c u l a r l y o b je c te d to " th e v u lg a r p i e t i e s o f
p re a c h in g f r i a r s " and th e " p r e te n t io u s v a c u ity o f o v e r - s u b tle
s c h o l a s t i c th e o lo g ia n s " (E n g lish H um anists, 1 6 ). S c h o la s tic is m
was o b je c tio n a b le to Erasmus because i t was a b s tr a c te d from th e
everyday l i f e o f th e l a i t y and could do n o th in g to e x h o rt them to
p i e t y : r a t h e r th an d is c o v e r t r u t h , s c h o l a s t i c s u b t l e t i e s obscured
th e a n c ie n t and sim ple t r u t h embodied in th e New T estam ent and
p a t r i s t i c w r iti n g s . In such works as th e E n c h irid io n m i l i t i s
C h r i s t i a n i , Erasmus ad v o cated an e d u c a tio n th ro u g h which laymen
m ight a c q u ire th e c r i t i c a l s k i l l s , th e la n g u a g e s, and a knowledge
o f th e th in k in g and custom s o f a n c ie n t tim es so th e y m ight b e t t e r
be a b le to u n d e rsta n d th e S c r ip t u r e s and w r iti n g s o f th e church
f a t h e r s . Such e d u c a tio n was a t th e same tim e to i n c u l c a t e
h u m ility and p i e t y (a s w e ll as what sound m oral p r e c e p ts
c l a s s i c a l pagan w r i t e r s could o f th em selv es p r o v id e ) . Through
t h i s method th e in d iv id u a l was to a ch iev e a l i f e in im ita tio n o f
15
C h r is t ( E n g lish H um anists, 1 7 -2 5 ).
From 1529 to 1532, th e p e rio d o f S ir Thomas M ore's
c h a n c e llo r s h ip , a c c o rd in g to McConica, Henry V III appeared
d e d ic a te d to r e l i g i o u s re fo rm , and as a r e s u l t th e r e was a "c lo se
65
a s s o c ia ti o n o f hum anist a c t i v i t y w ith th e c o u r t" and an
" i n s t i n c t i v e r a l l y i n g to th e K in g 's s u p p o rt" (E n g lish H um anists,
111-47). S t i l l , d e s p it e th e ro y a l d iv o rc e , th e break w ith Rome,
and th e e x ec u tio n o f More, H e n ry 's m in is te r Cromwell managed to
m a in ta in th e l o y a l t y o f many E n g lish hu m an ists and use t h e i r
w r iti n g both as a p o lo g e tic f o r th e k i n g 's a c tio n s and to
e s t a b l i s h th e d o c tr in e o f th e new E n g lish Church. McConica
d iv id e s th e w r iti n g "em anating from th e hum anist group under
[C ro m w ell's] im m ediate o r i n d i r e c t in f lu e n c e " i n t o th re e
c a t e g o r i e s . The f i r s t i s a "mass o f seco n d ary works a s s o c ia te d
w ith th e o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o u s fo r m u la r ie s " (serm ons, p rim e rs , th e
1536 Augsburg C o n fe ssio n ) ; th e second a "co re o f fra n k propaganda
produced to meet th e c h a lle n g e s o f th e day (p a p a l summons o f th e
C ouncil o f Mantua, th e N o rth ern R e b e llio n , and th e c o n sp ira c y o f
th e C o u rte n ay s), and th e t h i r d , "a whole penumbra o f a p o lo g e tic
and p i e t i s t i c work . . . in fo rm in g th e t a s t e and c o n scien ce o f
th e whole re a d in g p u b l i c ." Under th e le a d e r s h ip o f Cromwell, th e
w r iti n g s o f th e hum anists h elp ed e s t a b l i s h w ith in f i v e y e a rs o f
th e E n g lish R eform ation a "H en rician commonwealth" w ith th e
c h a r a c te r o f "an Erasm ian p o l i t y " which could s u s ta in C h r is tia n
o p in io n s s h o r t o f P r o te s ta n tis m or "a ro o te d a tta ch m e n t to Rome"
(E n g lish H um anists, 166 -6 7 ). McConica e x p la in s t h a t i t was
p o s s ib le f o r Cromwell to r e t a i n th e a c t i v e l o y a l t y o f many o f th e
E n g lish hum anists because th e c h a r a c te r o f th e E n g lish
6 6
R eform ation was ro o te d in th e Erasm ian i n c l i n a t i o n t o r e l i g i o u s
refo rm born in England a t th e tu r n o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry :
S c e p tic a l o f t r a d i t i o n a l th e o lo g y , i n d i f f e r e n t to a
v en al Rome, and l o y a l t o a refo rm in g monarch who seemed
determ ined to p r e s e r v e what th e y f e l t to be th e
e s s e n t i a l s o f C a th o lic o rth o d o x y , [ th e E n g lish
h u m an ists] c o n tr ib u te d t h e i r le a r n in g and e n e r g ie s to
fo r m u la r ie s fo r f a i t h and th e d e v o tio n s o f th e f a i t h f u l
in th e hope o f r e a l i z i n g th e Erasmian dream in England.
(E n g lish H um anists, 199)
By 1540 th e o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l d o c tr in e s o f th e
new E n g lish church were in e f f e c t , b u t E n g lish h u m an ists
c o n tin u e d to p u b lis h p a t r i o t i c t r e a t i s e s , p i e t i s t i c e x h o r ta tio n s ,
and t r e a t i s e s on e d u c a tio n . Upon th e do w n fall o f Cromwell, th e
E n g lish hum anists found a s i g n i f i c a n t new Tudor p a tro n in
C a th e rin e P a rr (E n g lish H u m an ists, 201 -3 4 ). But by t h i s tim e ,
E n g lish humanism was i n t o what has been c a ll e d i t s ’’m iddle
p e r i o d , ” a tim e when many young men who were to make t h e i r
f o r tu n e s under E liz a b e th were r e c e iv in g t h e i r e d u c a tio n a t Oxford
and Cambridge. A h um anist e d u c a tio n had become, in e f f e c t , th e
16
r e q u i s i t e o f good p r o s p e c ts in Tudor s e r v ic e .
To t h i s p o in t, th e d is c u s s io n has o u tlin e d ways th e E n g lish
h u m an ists proved u s e f u l t o th e Tudors in e s t a b l i s h i n g a pow erful
c e n t r a l i z e d government and an a p o lo g e tic fo r t h e i r b reak from th e
C a th o lic Church. As i n d i r e c t r e t u r n f o r such s e r v i c e , th e
E n g lish hum anists gained fa v o r and p a tro n a g e , n o t o n ly f o r t h e i r
w r i t i n g , b u t f o r t h e i r ty p e o f e d u c a tio n as w e ll, e s p e c i a l l y as
p a tro n s b e lie v e d such e d u c a tio n could prove u s e f u l t o th e T u d o rs’
d e s ig n s . I t i s a p p r o p r ia te , th e n , to tu rn now to more d i r e c t
ev id en ce o f th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f hum anist e d u c a tio n in th e
grammar s c h o o ls and a t Oxford and Cambridge.
Hum anist E ducation in th e Grammar S chools and U n iv e r s itie s
I t was in th e grammar s c h o o ls t h a t hum anist c u r r i c u l a and
pedagogy h e ld g r e a t e s t sway. The most o f te n s tu d ie d o f th e
h u m a n is t-in s p ire d grammar s c h o o ls i s t h a t a t th e C ath ed ra l o f S t.
P a u l, b u t w ith c h a r i t a b l e endowments and p o l i t i c a l e v e n ts o f th e
m id - s ix te e n th c e n tu ry came o th e r sc h o o ls w ith c u r r i c u l a desig n ed
17
a lo n g hum anist l i n e s . C itin g th e exam ples o f th e sc h o o ls of
Harrow, M erchant T a y lo r s ’ , Shrew sbury, Rugby, and T onbridge,
C asp ari se e s evidence in th e c h a r t e r s and s t a t u t e s o f th e
in c r e a s in g number o f fo u n d a tio n s under Henry V I I I , Edward VI,
Mary, and E liz a b e th t h a t th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s were re q u ire d to
’’prom ote h u m a n istic s t u d i e s and to c e n te r t h e i r program s o f
18
te a c h in g in th e m .” C itin g th e examples o f W estm inster and
E to n , Raymond R. B olgar c o n c lu d e s, to o , t h a t w ith th e d isb an d in g
o r re fo u n d in g under Henry V III and Edward VI o f many o f th e
n e a r ly fo u r hundred s c h o o ls a s s o c ia te d w ith Roman C a th o lic
i n s t i t u t i o n s , most o f th e l a r g e r s c h o o ls o f f i c i a l l y o r in
19
p r a c t i c e adopted hum anist e d u c a tio n .
68
W hile Kenneth C h arlto n doubts t h a t th e m id - s ix te e n th c en tu ry
grammar sc h o o ls r e p r e s e n te d a '’golden age o f hum anism ," he in
f a c t r e a f f ir m s C a s p a r i’ s and B o lg a r’s c o n c lu s io n s . For C h arlto n
su g g e sts th e p o l i t i c a l e x p la n a tio n f o r th e h u m a n is ts ’ h av in g won
such w idespread refo rm o f e d u c a tio n . C h arlto n q u e s tio n s w hether
i t was th e m e rits o f hum anist th e o ry which won th e day so much as
th e d e sig n s o f th e Tudor a d m in is tr a to r s . T hat hum anist c u r r i c u l a
were e s ta b lis h e d in th e grammar s c h o o ls , C h arlto n a rg u e s ,
" ig n o re s th e extrem e d egree o f u n ifo rm ity imposed on th e sc h o o ls
by s u c c e s s iv e so v e re ig n s f o r r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l e n d s ." Such
p r e s s u r e , he c o n tin u e s , " r e s u l t e d in a p r e s c r ib e d Grammar, a
p r e s c r ib e d C atechism , a p r e s c r ib e d Prim er and u l t i m a t e l y a
p r e s c r ib e d B ib le ." R ath er th an being a " b re e d in g grounds fo r
hum anist i d e a s ," C h arlto n c o n c lu d e s, th e grammar s c h o o ls were
made by th e Tudors i n t o " in s tru m e n ts o f n a tio n a l p o lic y , a means
20
o f s tr e n g th e n in g th e s t a t e a g a in s t r e l i g i o u s in n o v a tio n ."
In d e e d ,th e Tudors d id a tte m p t to impose r e l i g i o u s u n ifo rm ity
th ro u g h c o n tr o l o f e d u c a tio n , b u t such e d u c a tio n was o f th e type
which th e hum anists a d v o c a te d . R eg ard less o f t h e i r i n t e n t , when
th e Tudors refounded so many i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e y gave th e
h u m a n is ts ’ program o f e d u c a tio n j u s t th e p o l i t i c a l s a n c tio n i t
needed. The p r e s c rib e d Grammar to which C h a rlto n a llu d e s was
L i l y ’s L a tin Grammar which Erasmus and C o let had r e - e d i t e d fo r
S t. P a u l’s S chool. The p r e s c r ib e d c ate c h ism , p rim e r, and B ib le
69
a re th o s e works which h u m an ists p ro v id ed w ith Crom well’s
o v e r s ig h t. In d eed , in h i s argum ent C h arlto n seems to h i t very
n ear th e p o in t o f th e p r e s e n t d is c u s s io n : th e a tte m p ts to c o n tro l
Tudor s o c i e t y f a c i l i t a t e d th e h u m a n is ts ’ e d u c a tio n a l program s
because th e h u m a n is ts ’ b e l i e f s c o n ce rn in g r e l i g i o u s refo rm and
e d u c a tio n seemed to s u i t th e Tudors* n eed s.
Yet w h ile hum anist e d u c a tio n made i t s g r e a t e s t in ro a d s in th e
grammar s c h o o ls , th e u n i v e r s i t i e s a ls o adopted hum anist
c u r r i c u l a , though to a d i f f e r e n t d eg ree and in a compromise w ith
t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c t r a d i t i o n . In Oxford and Cambridge in
T r a n s i t i o n , Mark C u r tis se e s th e p e rio d o f 1505 to 1571 as a
m ajor phase o f change in th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , d u rin g which tim e new
hum anist t e x t s were adopted and te a c h in g em phasis s h i f t e d from
21
lo g ic to grammar and r h e t o r i c . He n o te s t h a t Wolsey planned
C a rd in a l C ollege to p ro v id e a hum anist c u rric u lu m , and a f t e r
Wolsey d ied Henry V III com pleted some o f th e p la n , e s t a b l i s h i n g
l e c t u r e r s in Greek and Hebrew a t both Oxford and Cambridge. With
th e r e v is io n o f th e s t a t u t e s o f Cambridge and Oxford by Edward
V i’s com m ission, " th e second g e n e ra tio n o f E n g lish hum anists won
a g r e a t v ic to r y by g e t t i n g th e whole u n i v e r s i t y c u rric u lu m in th e
22
l i b e r a l a r t s m odified a c c o rd in g to t h e i r i d e a s . " The p a th s o f
hum anist in ro a d s in to th e c u rric u lu m o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s were
o f te n th ro u g h th e newly founded c o lle g e s , and to t h i s im p o rta n t
change th e d is c u s s io n tu r n s n e x t.
70
M cConica's c o n tr ib u tio n s to th e t h i r d volume o f th e H is to ry
of th e U n iv e rs ity o f Oxford d em o n strate t h a t th e s t a t u t o r y
re q u ire m e n ts o f th e new ly-founded c o lle g e s supplem ented th e
s t a t u t o r y u n i v e r s i t y c u rric u lu m and t h a t th e c o lle g e s p ro fo u n d ly
a f f e c t e d te a c h in g by p ro v id in g t u t o r i n g as new means o f
i n s t r u c t i o n . With th e 1379 fo u n d a tio n o f New C o lle g e , O xford,
i n s t r u c t i o n w ith in th e c o lle g e began as o ld e r s c h o la r s took on
some r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r i n s t r u c t i n g th e younger s t u d e n t s . The
s t a t u t e s o f Magdalen C ollege ( o f f i c i a l l y founded in 1480, b ut
o p e r a tin g in th e 1 4 6 0 's) a c t u a l l y pro v id ed f o r two to th r e e o f
th e t h i r t y s c h o la rs on h a l f - s t i p e n d s to be dev o ted to th e s tu d ie s
o f grammar, p o e try , and o th e r h u m a n itie s, on th e e x p e c ta tio n t h a t
th e y m ight n o t proceed to th e p r ie s th o o d , b u t would become
23
s c h o o lm a s te rs.
Yet i t i s Corpus C h r i s t i c o lle g e (founded 1517), t h a t appears
to have been th e f i r s t Oxford i n s t i t u t i o n g e n u in e ly inform ed by
hum anist id e a s o f e d u c a tio n . The language o f R ichard F o x e 's
statutes o f Corpus C h r i s t i r e v e a ls F o x e 's hu m an ist sy m p ath ies,
and McConica b e lie v e s t h a t Foxe in te n d e d to in fo rm th e p ro v is io n s
o f each o f th e c h a p te rs o f th e s t a t u t e s w ith " th e i d e a l s o f th e
new hum anist and r h e t o r i c a l e d u c a tio n a l program m e." F o x e 's
p re fa c e to th e Corpus C h r i s t i s t a t u t e s and th e b e g in n in g o f each
c h a p te r a re w r itt e n in f l o r i d p ro se t y p i c a l o f h u m a n is ts' works.
Foxe w r ite s ab o u t th e c o lle g e as a beehive f u l l o f s tu d e n ts who
71
a re busy bees i n t e n t upon th e honor o f God and th e gain o f a l l
24
C h r i s t i a n i t y . But p erh ap s th e re q u ire m e n ts o f th e s t a t u t e s a re
more t e l l i n g . S tu d e n ts e le c te d to th e c o lle g e were n o t o n ly to
have a knowledge o f L a tin , b u t were so th o ro u g h ly to know L a tin
p o e ts , o r a t o r s , and h i s t o r i a n s as to be a b le to compose
extem poraneous v e rs e and l e t t e r s . Once a c c e p te d , such s tu d e n ts
could e x p e c t, in a d d itio n to th e u n i v e r s i t y l e c t u r e s , l e c t u r e s in
L a tin o r a to r y from th e works o f C icero and Q u i n t i l i a n , h i s t o r y
from S a l l u s t , V a le r iu s Maximus and S u e to n iu s , and re a d in g s from
V i r g i l , O vid, Lucan, J u v e n a l, T e ren ce, or P la u tu s . And fo r
p r i v a t e re a d in g th e s e s tu d e n ts were e x p ected to cover such
f a v o r i t e hum anist t r e a t i s e s as Lorenzo V a lla ’s E l e g a n tia e . On
h o lid a y s th e s e s tu d e n ts were to compose L a tin v e r s e s and l e t t e r s
which were to be checked by th e re a d e r in h u m a n itie s . Upon
a p p ly in g f o r th e B .A .— beyond any re q u ire m e n ts made upon them by
u n i v e r s i t y s t a t u t e s — th e y m ight be re q u ir e d by th e c o lle g e
p r e s id e n t t o expound a t e x t from a L a tin p o e t, o r a t o r , o r
h i s t o r i a n whom th e y had h eard in l e c t u r e . F o x ’s s t a t u t e s a ls o
p ro v id ed f o r l e c t u r e r s in th e h u m a n itie s, G reek, and th e o lo g y .
(In th e b eg in n in g th e c o lle g e may have r e l i e d on th e l e c t u r e s
a v a i l a b l e t o th e whole o f Oxford by th e p ro v is io n o f C ard in a l
W olsey. I f t h i s was s o , th e n s c h o la r s a t Corpus C h r i s t i from
1518 to 1526 m ight have h e ard th e l e c t u r e s o f th e h u m an ists John
25
Clem ent, Thomas L u p se t, or Juan L u is V iv e s.)
72
Humanist c u r r i c u l a and pedagogy were b ro u g h t to th e
u n i v e r s i t i e s n o t j u s t by c o lle g e fo u n d a tio n s : when i t s u i t e d
t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s , th e Tudor a d m in is tr a tio n s in te rv e n e d d i r e c t l y
t o e s t a b l i s h hum anist e d u c a tio n a t Oxford and Cam bridge. The
o f f i c i a l v i s i t a t i o n o f Queen C a th e rin e and C a rd in a l Wolsey to
Oxford in 1518, w ith S ir Thomas More in th e e n to u ra g e , bro u g h t to
th e u n i v e r s i t y l e c t u r e s su p p o rted by C ard in a l W olsey ( to th e
b e n e f i t o f new ly-founded Corpus C h r is ti c o l l e g e ) . More’s b e l i e f
was t h a t "a r e v iv a l o f c l a s s i c a l le a r n in g a t th e u n i v e r s i t i e s
would le a d to a renew al o f p ie ty in th e c h u r c h .” But W olsey’s
o b je c t iv e in b rin g in g humanism to th e u n i v e r s i t y may have been
somewhat d i f f e r e n t : "he gave more em phasis to th e need f o r th e
u n i v e r s i t i e s to p ro v id e a su p p ly o f w e l l - t r a i n e d d ip lo m a ts and
26
a d m in is tr a to r s f o r th e s t a t e . " L a te r o f f i c i a l v i s i t s served
double p u rp o ses as w e ll. That o f 1535 to Oxford was in te n d e d to
e n su re r e l i g i o u s c o n fo rm ity and r e c o g n itio n o f th e Act o f
Supremacy in th e u n i v e r s i t y . But th e v i s i t o r s , chosen and
d ir e c t e d by Cromwell, a l s o sought e v id en ce o f th e "new
27
l e a r n i n g . "
A part from th e r e c o rd s o f c o lle g e fo u n d a tio n s and o f f i c i a l
v i s i t s , th e r e i s some e v id e n c e in stu d e n ts* n o te s and l e t t e r s to
s u g g e s t th e in f lu e n c e o f humanism a t th e u n i v e r s i t y . McConica
q u o te s from a 1552 l e t t e r o f one Conrad ab Ulmis from B roadgates
H a ll, O xford, a "commoner" s tu d y in g a t C h r is t C hurch. T his
73
l e t t e r o f f e r s d i r e c t ev id en c e o f n o t only h um anist s t u d i e s a t
O xford, b u t o f a t l e a s t one s t u d e n t ’s p r a c t i c e in i m i t a t i o n .
R e p o rtin g to h i s Sw iss b e n e f a c to r on h i s s t u d i e s and p r o g r e s s ,
th e young Conrad w r i t e s :
im m ediately a f t e r d in n e r I re a d C ic e r o 's O f f i c e s , a
t r u l y golden book, from which I d e riv e no l e s s th an a
tw o fo ld enjoym ent, b o th from p u r it y o f th e lan g u ag e and
th e knowledge o f p h ilo s o p h y . From one to t h r e e I
e x e r c is e my p en, c h i e f l y in w r iti n g l e t t e r s , w herein as
f a r as p o s s i b l e , I i m i t a t e C ic ero , who i s c o n sid e re d to
have ab u n d an tly s u p p lie d u s a l l w ith i n s t r u c t i o n s
r e l a t i n g to p u r i t y o f s t y l e . 28
Even as one re c o g n iz e s t h a t t h i s s tu d e n t i s e ag e r to d em o n strate
to th e one who p ro v id e s h i s s u p p o rt t h a t he i s s t u d io u s , one
re c o g n iz e s as w e ll th e echo o f th e h u m a n is ts ’ co n cern f o r ’’pure
L a t i n ’’ and th e p r a c t i c a l "p h ilo so p h y " a v a il a b le in th e works of
C ic e ro . From th e same c o lle g e tw enty y e a rs l a t e r come th e
d i a r i e s o f R ichard and Matthew Carnsew, a c c o u n tin g fo r t h e i r
re a d in g and th e way th e y went about com pleting t h e i r w ork. On
May 5 o f 1572, th e b r o th e r s ’’made d e f i n i t i o n s o f homo f i v e w ay s;’’
by th e s ix te e n th o f t h a t month th e y f in is h e d re a d in g Sturm and
began S a l l u s t . On June 1 o f t h a t year th e y began re a d in g th e
R h e to ric a ad H erennium , and t h e r e a f t e r one o r both attem p ted
29
t r a n s l a t i o n s o f F o x e’s serm ons and C ic e r o 's De a m i c i t i a . In
th e l e t t e r o f Ulm and th e d i a r i e s o f th e Carnsew b r o t h e r s , one
se e s ev id en ce o f h um anist pedagogy: even a t th e u n i v e r s i t y th e se
young men im ita te d and t r a n s l a t e d c l a s s i c a l L a tin .
74
D e sp ite c o lle g e s t a t u t e s r e q u ir in g s tu d e n ts to read th e
h u m a n is ts' f a v o r i t e c l a s s i c a l and contem porary w orks, d e s p ite
t h e i r r e q u ir in g d e c la m a tio n s and s e t t i n g d eg ree re q u ire m e n ts,
d e s p it e th e p re s s u re from o f f i c i a l v i s i t o r s sy m p a th e tic to
hum anist "new l e a r n i n g ," d e s p it e th e d i r e c t e v id e n c e o f Oxford
s tu d e n ts p r a c t i c i n g i m ita tio n e x e r c is e s and e ch o in g hum anist
t e a c h e r s , and d e s p ite a l l th e changes b ro u g h t about by hum anist
c u r r i c u l a and pedagogy— d e s p it e a l l t h i s , th e r o l e o f l o g ic in
th e u n i v e r s i t i e s rem ained v i r t u a l l y unchanged. Logic r e ta in e d
i t s im portance in e d u c a tio n a t Oxford and Cam bridge. Humanist
s tu d ie s took p la c e a lo n g s id e th e stu d y o f lo g ic as e d u c a to rs
tu rn e d to h u m a n istic works on lo g ic which made th e d i s c i p l i n e
more " r h e t o r i c a l , " l e s s a b s t r a c t .
I t i s im p o rtan t to remember t h a t u n d e rg ra d u a te s c h o la r s
e n te r in g th e u n i v e r s i t i e s had been th o ro u g h ly t r a i n e d in L a tin
e i t h e r in a grammar sch o o l o r th ro u g h p r i v a t e t u t o r i n g . As noted
e a r l i e r , f o r adm ission to Corpus C h r i s t i , O xford, a young man was
to d em o n strate in an e n tra n c e ex am ination h i s com petence in L a tin
30
l i t e r a t u r e as w e ll as grammar. O ther c o lle g e s a t Oxford
a c t u a l l y su p p o rted " fe e d e r" grammar s c h o o ls . The s t a t u t e s o f New
C o lleg e c a l l e d f o r a y e a r 's a tte n d a n c e a t W in ch ester C o lleg e
( a c t u a l l y a grammar sc h o o l) b e fo re a d m issio n . And th e n , as now,
Magdalen C o lleg e had w ith in i t Magdalen C ollege S chool, i t s e l f o f
hig h re p u te fo r i t s e a r l y use o f "new m ethods" o f te a c h in g L a tin
75
and f o r i t s grammar t e x t , in te n d e d to compete w ith L i l y 's grammar
31
a t S t. P a u l's S ch o o l. In th e s e " f e e d e r ” s c h o o ls and o th e r
grammar s c h o o ls , s tu d e n ts s tu d ie d L a tin grammar, re a d o r a t o r s ,
p o e ts , and h i s t o r i a n s , and im ita te d L a tin p ro se and v e rs e
c o m p o sitio n . Having such p r e p a r a t io n , s tu d e n ts in th e
u n i v e r s i t i e s could tu r n to th e r i g o r s o f l o g i c , and so lo g ic
32
rem ained most im p o rta n t in u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a tio n .
Yet w h ile lo g ic r e t a i n e d i t s im p o rtan ce, w ith th e in fu s io n o f
hum anist id e a s , th e lo g ic t e x t s used by R en aissan ce E n g lish
u n i v e r s i t y s c h o la rs d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th o s e used by th e
m edieval s c h o la r s . The h um anist e d u c a to rs p r e f e r r e d Rudolphus
A g r ic o la 's De in v e n tio n e d i a l e c t i c a to th e m edieval lo g ic o f
P e te r o f S p ain . More " te a c h a b le " th an P e te r o f S p a in 's l o g i c ,
th e lo g ic o f A g ric o la , which su p p lan ted th e m ed iev al t e x t in th e
1530' s , was " r h e t o r i c a l , " r e l y i n g more on p la c e s or t o p i c s o f
in v e n tio n , l e s s on s y l l o g i s t i c lo g ic . In d eed , in i t s second and
t h i r d books, A g r ic o la 's lo g ic d is c u s s e s such m a tte r s as
arrangem ent o f th e o r a t i o n , exam ple, entbymeme, p a t h e t i c e f f e c t ,
c o p io u sn e ss— even arran g em en t o f m a te r ia l in p o e tr y and
33
h i s t o r y . L isa J a r d in e shows th a t both A g r ic o la 's lo g ic and
a n o th e r f a v o r i t e hum anist l o g i c , Lorenzo V a l l a 's D ia le c tic a e
d i s p u t a t i o n e s , were modeled on C ic e r o 's De in v e n tio n e and
Q u i n t i l i a n 's I n s t i t u t i o o r a t o r i a and were in te n d e d to s e rv e as
r ig o r o u s t r a i n i n g fo r th o s e who would go on to w r i t e and speak on
76
p u b lic a f f a i r s . She c h a r a c t e r i z e s th e hum anist u n i v e r s i t y course
in lo g ic as "one fo cu sed on th e form al a n a l y s i s o f language in
d i a l e c t i c , " complemented by stu d y o f f o r e n s ic o r a to r y and
34
h i s t o r y .
Combined w ith grammar sch o o l e d u c a tio n , th e more
r h e t o r i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d s o r t o f e d u c a tio n c r e a te d by th e c o lle g e
c u r r i c u l a could p ro v id e th e young Englishm an o f th e m id - s ix te e n th
c e n tu ry w ith i n s t r u c t i o n and p r a c t i c e in a l l f iv e o f th e
d ep artm en ts o f r h e t o r i c : in v e n tio n , d i s p o s i t i o n , s t y l e , memory,
and d e liv e r y . From such hum anist lo g ic s as A g r i c o l a 's and
V a l l a 's , th e u n i v e r s i t y s c h o la r could r e c e iv e t r a i n i n g in
in v e n tio n and d i s p o s i t i o n , th e a b i l i t i e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , to
d is c o v e r and o rg a n iz e argum ents to s u p p o rt a given p r o p o s itio n .
P r a c tic e in such s k i l l s was p ro v id e d f o r by re q u ire d d is p u ta tio n s
and d e cla m a tio n s ( in such in s ta n c e s where th e l a t t e r were
r e q u i r e d ) . From t h e i r r e a d in g , i m i t a t i o n , and p r a c t i c e in
grammar sch o o l th e p u p ils were e x e r c is e d in L a tin s t y l i s t i c s , in
memory, and in d e liv e r y (a s th e y were o fte n made to memorize and
r e c i t e p assag es th e y had re a d and memorize and d eclaim from
memory t h e i r own c o m p o s itio n s ). As J a r d in e s a y s , th e man
in te n d e d f o r a c a r e e r in p u b lic a f f a i r s i s p re p a re d by such
i n s t r u c t i o n "to m a n ip u la te lan g u ag e w ith e a s e , t o th in k on [ h is ]
f e e t , to break down a l e g a l argum ent s k i l f u l l y , and to r e t a l i a t e
35
e f f e c t i v e l y . "
77
I n c r e a s in g Numbers o f S tu d e n ts
There were many in th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry w i l l i n g to ta k e
advantage o f an e d u c a tio n s u i t e d to c a r e e r s in s e c u la r a f f a i r s .
In g e n e r a l, th e r e was d u rin g m id -ce n tu ry an in c r e a s e in th e
number o f p u p ils in grammar s c h o o ls and s tu d e n ts a t u n i v e r s i t y
* 5 / *
and th e Inns o f C o u rt. But t h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n was opened t o th e whole p o p u la tio n : beyond th e p e tty
s c h o o l, e d u c a tio n — p a r t i c u l a r l y L a tin language e d u c a tio n — was not
open to a l l c l a s s e s o f E n g lish s o c ie ty . The grammar sc h o o ls took
in c h ild r e n o f s o c i a l o r i g i n s ra n g in g from sons o f s k i l l e d
tradesm en to th e sons o f th e k n ig h te d (th e so n s o f th e n o b i l i t y
o fte n r e c e iv in g p r i v a t e t u t o r i n g ) , and any o f th e s e m ight have
37
gone on to u n i v e r s i t y . Yet i s was th e sons o f gentlem en and
even sons o f th e n o b i l i t y whose in c r e a s e in numbers a t th e
u n i v e r s i t i e s i s most n o ta b le . In f a c t , th e lan d ed c l a s s e s ,
w hether t h e i r w e a lth was lo n g - s ta n d in g or n o t, tu rn e d in
i n c r e a s in g numbers to th e grammar sc h o o ls and u n i v e r s i t i e s — so
much so t h a t d u rin g th e l a t t e r p a r t o f Henry V I I I ’s re ig n
c o m p la in ts a ro se t h a t sons o f th e n o b i l i t y and g e n try were
crow ding o u t "p o o r” m en's so n s, e s p e c i a l l y a t Eton and W inchester
38
S chools and Oxford and Cam bridge.
!
78
The Oxford c o lle g e s founded in th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry made
p ro v is io n fo r sons o f gentlem en and n o b le s who could pay t h e i r
way. Known as "com m oners,1 1 th e s e young men were by c o lle g e
s t a t u t e p u t under th e e d u c a tio n a l and m oral guidance o f t u t o r s .
W illiam o f W a y n e fle te ’ s Magdalen C o lleg e s t a t u t e s o f th e
r a id - f if te e n th c e n tu ry had made such p ro v is io n f o r up to tw en ty
commoners each under th e s u p e r v is io n o f a g ra d u a te fe llo w
" c r e a n s e r ." A p p a ren tly W ay n eflete knew th e v a lu e o f noble
p a tro n a g e , and t h i s p r o v is io n o f h is s t a t u t e s may have been
in te n d e d to c u rry such f a v o r . But l a t e r c o lle g e fo u n d ers
fo llo w ed h i s le a d . The B rasenose s t a t u t e s o f 1512 p ro v id e fo r
o n ly s ix commoners, a g a in w atched over by " c r e a n s e r s . 1 1 A lthough
Foxe in te n d e d a l l s c h o la r s a t Corpus C h r i s t i to proceed to
p r ie s th o o d , he d id a llo w f o r fo u r to s ix commoners, each ag ain
h av in g h i s t u t o r . The Conrad ab Ulmis whose l e t t e r was c i t e d
e a r l i e r r e s id e d in B ro ad g ates H a ll, a r e s id e n c e f o r commoners
annexed to C h ris t Church. S t a r t i n g i n 1565 T r i n i t y C o lleg e
a n n u a lly ad m itte d te n to tw e n ty - f iv e commoners fo r one to th r e e
y e a rs eac h . Since gentlem an commoners were im p o rta n t t o th e
c o lle g e , th e 1555 s t a t u t e s o f T r i n i t y i n d ic a te c l e a r s o c i a l
d i s t i n c t i o n s in s e a tin g arran g em en t o f commons. Sons o f lo r d s
and k n ig h ts s a t a t th e h ig h t a b l e ; j u s t below to th e e a s t a t th e
f i r s t t a b l e s a t commoners o f low er b i r t h among th e c o lle g e
f e llo w s ; o th e r s c h o la r s were s e a te d lo w e s t, even s e r v in g as
i
i
79
w a ite r s . S t. J o h n ’s C o lle g e , s h o r t o f i t s needed endowment f o r
tw e n ty - f iv e y e a r s , was more or l e s s k e p t in e x is t e n c e by payments
from commoners, who r e s id e d in numbers ra n g in g from a high o f
f i f t y - s e v e n in 1571 to a s te a d y tw enty to t h i r t y in th e 1580’s .
F ello w s a t both T r i n i t y and S t. Jo h n ’s enjoyed th e income th ey
made as commoners’ t u t o r s . In a d d itio n to th e commoners pro v id ed
f o r by th e v a rio u s c o lle g e s t a t u t e s , th ro u g h o u t th e l a t t e r h a l f
o f th e c e n tu ry a number o f commoners liv e d in th e town o f Oxford
i t s e l f . These a l s o o f te n took t u t o r s from among th e c o l l e g e s ’
39
f e llo w s . McConica co n clu d es t h a t i t was th e i n c r e a s in g numbers
o f commoners in th e town which ’’brought a new p r o s p e r i t y t o the
40
E liz a b e th a n u n i v e r s i t y . "
Why, th e n , such in c r e a s e in th e number o f s tu d e n ts a t
u n i v e r s i t y in th e m id - s ix te e n th c en tu ry ? Why, in p a r t i c u l a r , th e
in c r e a s in g numbers o f sons o f n o b i l i t y ? One answer has a lre a d y
been p ro v id e d : th e Tudors drew on th e e d u cated t o f i l l
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s i t i o n s in th e new b u re a u c ra c y , so th e c h ild re n
o f th e n o b le s and gentlem en a l i k e took ad v an tag e o f th e new
e d u c a tio n .
But th e r e a re o th e r re a so n s as w e ll. For one, th e hum anists
th e m se lv e s, w ith t h e i r p en ch an t f o r r h e t o r i c , w ere a d v o ca te s o f
e d u c a tio n fo r th e gen tlem an . S ir Thomas E ly o t, f o r exam ple, asks
"why, in our tim e , noblemen be n o t as e x c e l l e n t in le a r n in g as
th e y were in th e o ld tim e among th e Romans and G re e k s." The
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41
q u e s tio n , o f c o u rs e , i s lo a d e d . A fte r c o n ten d in g t h a t i t i s
" p r id e " which p re v e n ts th e noble from w anting to be known as
"w ell le a r n e d ," E ly o t draws on th e example o f Henry I , who was
"one o f th e most noble p r in c e s t h a t ev er re ig n e d in th e realm "
and who was "openly c a l l e d beau c l e r k . " E ly o t th e n compares
Henry to h is two b r o t h e r s , W illiam Rouse and R obert l e C o u rto is e ,
both "n o t h av in g sem blable le a r n in g w ith s a id H en ry ." W illiam
Rouse, f o r h i s " d i s s o l u t e l i v i n g and ty r r a n y b e in g h a te d o f a l l
h i s n o b le s and p eo p le" met an end "su d d en ly s l a i n by th e sh o t o f
an arrow , as he was h u n tin g in th e f o r e s t . " R obert l e C o u rto is e ,
"when he invaded t h i s re a lm ," was re p e a te d ly d e fe a te d by Henry
beau c l e r k , "more by wisdom th a n power, a ls o by l e a r n i n g , adding
p o lic y to v i r t u e and co u rag e" (Governor 1 .1 2 ). From t h i s example
E ly o t works back in tim e , f i n a l l y to th e Roman em perors, showing
how th e most le a rn e d were th e most v i c t o r i o u s . The argum ent
a p p e a ls to j u s t th e a u t h o r i t i e s th e E n g lish n o b i l i t y re s p e c te d
and j u s t th e q u a l i t i e s th e n o b i l i t y c h e r is h e d . F o llo w in g t h i s
argum ent E ly o t co n ten d s t h a t th e a r i s t o c r a t s ' sco rn o f le a r n in g
m ight be seen as " a v a r i c e ." Noble p a r e n t s , he c la im s , " w ill n o t
a d v e n tu re to send [ t h e i r so n s] f a r o u t o f t h e i r p ro p e r c o u n tr ie s
p a r t l y f o r f e a r o f d e a th . . . p a r t l y f o r expense o f money."
A gain, i f n o b le p a r e n ts " h i r e a sch o o lm aste r to te a c h in t h e i r
h o u ses, th e y c h i e f l y in q u ir e w ith how sm all a s a l a r y he w i l l be
c o n te n te d ." Here E ly o t p r ic k s a t th e n o b i l i t y 's b e n e fic e n c e and
m agnanim ity, q u a l i t i e s by which th e y o fte n d e fin e d them selv es
(Governor 1 .1 3 ).
A part from th e h u m a n is ts ' p ro p a g a n d iz in g , th e r e were o th e r
re a so n s f o r th e sons o f gentlem en and a r i s t o c r a t s to seek some
u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a tio n . C h arlto n contends t h a t " i t was landed
w e a lth which f i r s t and fo rem o st enabled a man to r i s e in s o c ia l
s c a l e . " N o n e th e le ss, he b e lie v e s t h a t a tte n d in g u n i v e r s i t y
h e lp ed p ro v id e " t h a t e s s e n t i a l o f Tudor and S t u a r t s o c i e t y ,
42
c o n n ex io n ." Kearney o f f e r s two o th e r e x p la n a tio n s f o r th e
in c re a s e d p o p u la r ity o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . F i r s t , he n o te s t h a t a
y ear o r two a t u n i v e r s i t y or one o f th e In n s o f C ourt would
p ro v id e th e s t a t u s o f "gentlem an" and w ith i t a tte n d a n t
p r i v i l e g e s in "alm o st e v e ry a s p e c t o f e x is t e n c e : m a rria g e ,
pu n ish m en ts, r e l i g i o u s w o rs h ip ." Second, K earney p o in ts o u t t h a t
up to th e 1560’s commerce was expanding, p ro v id in g a l u c r a t i v e
c a r e e r f o r many urban g e n tr y . But w ith Henry V I I I 's d is s o lu t io n
o f th e Roman C a th o lic c le r g y came new c l e r i c a l o p p o r tu n ity as
w e ll. Hence, a f t e r th e 1 5 6 0 's " th e s e c u r i t y o f f e r e d by th e
c l e r i c a l p ro f e s s io n had become more a t t r a c t i v e th a n th e h a za rd s
43
o f commerce."
To th e s e e x p la n a tio n s Stone adds y e t th r e e m ore. One i s th a t
th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry saw a changing a t t i t u d e tow ard c h ild r e n as
p a r e n ts came to re g a rd c h ild r e n l e s s as th e p r o p e r ty o f a f a th e r
and more as i n d iv id u a ls whose " p o t e n t i a l i t i e s sh o u ld be developed
and whose o p in io n s sh ould (w ith in l i m i t s ) be r e s p e c t e d . ” The
second i s t h a t some o f th e lan d ed c l a s s e s began to p re p a re t h e i r
c h ild r e n t o a tte n d one o f th e In n s o f C ourt f o r some l e g a l
e d u c a tio n so th e y m ight m a in ta in e s t a t e s in an e ra o f ’’in c e s s a n t
44
l i t i g a t i o n " o r se rv e as J u s t i c e s o f th e P eace. The t h i r d o f
S to n e ’s e x p la n a tio n s i s t h a t th e d e c lin e in th e m i l i t a r y r o l e o f
th e a r i s t o c r a c y m ight have m eant new u s e s f o r th e e d u c a tio n f o r
th e younger sons o f n o b le s : u n ab le to a c q u ire m i l i t a r y
com m ission, th e s e m ight need t o tu rn to " p r o f e s s io n a l c a r e e r s in
th e b u re a u c ra c y , law , th e church or m ed icin e, a l l o f which
45
demanded l i t e r a r y s k i l l s . "
To a l l o f th e s e re a so n s fo r th e p o p u la r ity o f u n i v e r s i t y
e d u c a tio n m ight be added y e t one m ore: th e developm ent in th e
s ix te e n th c e n tu ry o f th e t u t o r i a l system . As was n o ted e a r l i e r ,
w ith each new Oxford c o l l e g i a t e fo u n d a tio n came p ro v is io n n o t
o n ly f o r commoners, b u t f o r t h e i r guidance under a t u t o r .
T y p ic a lly , a c o lle g e fe llo w would add to h i s s t a t u t o r y
o b l i g a t i o n s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a young commoner. The t u t o r would
look a f t e r h i s c h a r g e 's f in a n c e s and b e h av io r as much as h i s
46
i n s t r u c t i o n . The f a c t t h a t th e t u t o r s were r e s p o n s ib le f o r n o t
j u s t i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t f o r t h e i r t u t e e ’ s sp en d in g , p e rs o n a l
47
a p p e a ra n c e , and h a b i t s was r e a s s u r i n g l y a p p e a lin g to p a r e n ts .
Edward, Lord H e rb e r t, who a tte n d e d Oxford a t th e end o f th e
s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , recommended in h i s 1631 a u to b io g ra p h y t h a t a
83
young man should a tte n d a u n i v e r s i t y w ith "a governor f o r
48
m a n n e rs.” The knowledge t h a t a t u t o r m ight be r e s p o n s ib le fo r
o v e rs e e in g t h e i r so n s, th e n , h e lp ed encourage a f f l u e n t p a re n ts to
send t h e i r sons to u n i v e r s i t y as commoners.
One m ust n o t su p p o se, how ever, t h a t a l l th e s e s tu d e n t s — sons
o f gentlem en, sons o f n o b le s — e n te r e d th e u n i v e r s i t i e s to p ursue
d e g re e s . In d eed , th e f a c t t h a t many o f them d id n o t com plete
49
d e g re e s , b u t s ta y e d f o r j u s t a y ear o r two, s u g g e s ts t h a t n o t
alw ays were t h e i r o b je c t iv e s th e c a r e e r s fo r which such d eg rees
p re p a re d them— th e p r ie s th o o d , m ed icin e, and te a c h in g . In s te a d
many tu rn e d to th e u n i v e r s i t i e s lo n g enough to a c q u ire th e
f a c i l i t y f o r language which would s u i t them f o r c i v i l c a r e e r s ,
h e lp them to a d m in is te r e s t a t e s , o r p re p a re them t o a tte n d one o f
50
th e In n s o f C o u rt. One must remember t h a t p o s s e s s in g a degree
may n o t in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry have been th e p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r
su c c e ss i t so o fte n i s s a id to be to d a y . L i t e r a r y knowledge and,
e s p e c i a l l y , r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l s — n o t th e d e g re e —would have been
th e im p o rta n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r th e young gentlem an. In d eed , to
have com pleted th e d eg ree m ight in some in s ta n c e s have been
c o u n te r - p r o d u c tiv e . As was noted e a r l i e r , l o g i c d id n o t lo s e i t s
im p o rtan ce in th e u n i v e r s i t i e s ; in s t e a d , i t serv ed as a
c u lm in a tio n o f s t u d i e s , c o m p letin g i n s t r u c t i o n and p r a c t i c e in
th e f i v e canons o f r h e t o r i c . W ith i t s d i s p u t a t i o n s and
c o n c e n tra tio n on l o g i c , th e n , th e f i n a l two y e a r s o f th e
r
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u n i v e r s i t y program m ight have been a p o s i t i v e n u isa n c e to th e
young man need in g j u s t th e s k i l l s s u ite d to th e realm o f p u b lic
d is c o u r s e . In f a c t , McConica c r e d i t s to th e f l e x i b i l i t y o f Tudor
Oxford th e f a c t t h a t so many could tu rn to i t s i n s t r u c t i o n
w ith o u t need to com plete d e g re e s . The s t a t u t e s w ere i n t e r p r e t e d
w ith enough f l e x i b i l i t y such t h a t th e y c o u ld a t t r a c t th e sons o f
gentlem en and n o b le s ,
a commoner who eschewed a u n i v e r s i t y d e g re e m ight
assem ble alm ost any c o u rse o f s tu d ie s t h a t he wanted
and t h a t h i s t u t o r would ap p ro v e. T h is f a c t combined
w ith th e v a r i e t y to be found among th e c o lle g e s in
r e g io n a l and s o c i a l c h a r a c te r may have been d e c is iv e in
th e a p p a re n tly q u i t e u n stu d ie d trium ph o f th e
u n i v e r s i t i e s o v er a l t e r n a t i v e schemes f o r a r i s t o c r a t i c
ed u catio p .|w h ich were advanced th ro u g h o u t th e s ix te e n th
c e n tu ry .
C onclusion
L et me conclude by r e t u r n i n g to th e p rem ise s t a t e d a t th e
o u t s e t o f t h i s d is c u s s io n . E d u catio n al program s g a in fa v o r n o t
o n ly on t h e i r i n t r i n s i c m e r its . Programs o f e d u c a tio n must seem
to o f f e r th e s o r t o f i n s t r u c t i o n which m eets needs o f th e day and
must win th e s u p p o rt o f th o s e who have th e p o l i t i c a l and
f i n a n c i a l re s o u rc e s to e s t a b l i s h such program s in e d u c a tio n a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s . The hu m an ists b e lie v e d t h a t t h e i r ty p e o f
r h e t o r i c a l e d u c a tio n co u ld m eet th e needs o f s i x te e n th - c e n tu r y
85
| i
i <
i
E n g lish s o c ie ty by p ro v id in g c ap a b le government s e r v a n ts , w r i t e r s
and sp e a k e rs o f L a tin a b le to arg u e e f f e c t i v e l y and th in k on
t h e i r f e e t . The E n g lish h u m an ists were a b le to win th e T u d o rs’
a p p ro v al o f t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l program by c o n v in c in g th e Tudors
and t h e i r a d m in is tr a to r s t h a t t h e i r ty p e o f e d u c a tio n would
p ro v id e e f f e c t i v e governm ent s e r v a n ts . The h u m an ists a ls o won
fa v o r by u sin g t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l s as th e a p o lo g is ts f o r th e
T u d o rs’ ty p e o f r e l i g i o u s re fo rm . With such a p p ro v a l, hum anist
e d u c a tio n o b v io u sly had th e backing o f th o se who have th e
p o l i t i c a l and f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s . Humanist e d u c a tio n was
e s t a b l i s h e d by c o lle g e fo u n d a tio n s and by d i r e c t i n te r v e n tio n o f
r o y a l v i s i t o r s . At th e same tim e in c r e a s in g numbers o f th e
i n f l u e n t i a l in th e s o c i e t y — th e sons o f gentlem en and
n o b le s — r e s o r te d to h u m an ist e d u c a tio n , urged on by hum anist
p ro p a g a n d iz in g , by t h e i r p a r e n t s ’ a p p ro v al o f t h e i r h av in g a
t u t o r as m oral and e d u c a tio n a l g u id e , by th e d e s i r e f o r im p o rta n t
c o n n e c tio n s and s t a t u s , and by th e hope o f a c q u ir in g th e s k i l l s
w ith which th e y m ight manage e s t a t e s , win a governm ent p o s itio n
o r p u rsu e c a r e e r s in law or in th e new E n g lish Church. By th e s e
m eans, under th e s e c o n d itio n s , hum anist r h e t o r i c a l e d u c a tio n
found fa v o r in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry E n g lish grammar s c h o o ls and
u n i v e r s i t i e s . And w ith th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f hu m an ist e d u c a tio n
came th e pedagogy o f i m i t a t i o n .
86
Notes
1
For t h i s summary a cco u n t o f p o l i t i c a l e v e n ts up le a d in g to
th e T u d o rs' e s t a b l i s h i n g power, I am draw ing on G [e o ffre y ]
RCudolph] E lto n , England Under th e Tudors (London: Methuen,
1955), 3 -1 5 .
2
E lto n , The Tudor R ev o lu tio n in Government: A d m in is tra tiv e
Changes in th e Reign o f Henry V III (Cam bridge: Cambridge
U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1953)* 415. See a ls o Paul N. S ie g e l, "E n g lish
Humanism and th e New Tudor A r is to c r a c y ," J o u rn a l o f th e H is to ry
o f Id e a s 13 (1 9 5 2 ):4 5 0 -6 8 , e s p e c i a l l y 453-55 on th e T u d o rs' use
o f hum anists in governm ent.
3
F r i t z C a s p a ri, Humanism and th e S o c ia l Order in Tudor
England (New York: T each ers C o lleg e P r e s s , 1968), 3 -7 .
4
F o s te r W atson, The B eg in n in g s o f th e T eaching o f Modern
S u b je c ts in England (London: S ir I s a a c Pitm an and Sons, 1909),
3. See a ls o C a sp a ri, Humanism and th e S o c ia l O rd e r, 281-82.
5
Paul N. S ie g e l, " E n g lish Humanism and th e New Tudor
A r is to c r a c y ," J o u rn a l o f th e H is to ry o f Id e a s 13 (1 9 5 2 ):4 5 5 .
See a ls o Kenneth C h a rlto n , E d u catio n in R en aissan ce England
(T o ro n to : U n iv e rs ity o f T oronto P r e s s , 1965), 41-49; and S ta n fo rd
E. Lehm berg's o u t l i n e o f E l y o t 's c a r e e r in governm ent in S ir
Thomas E ly o t, The Book Named th e G overnor (1 5 3 1 ), e d ite d by S. E.
Lehmberg (London: J . M. Dent and Sons, 1975), v and v i i - v i i i .
^Lawrence V. R y an 's b io g rap h y o f Ascham i s Roger Ascham,
(S ta n f o rd : S ta n fo rd U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1963.)
7
B a ld a s sa re C a s tig lio n e , The Book o f th e C o u rtie r (1 5 2 8 ),
t r a n s l a t e d by S ir Thomas Hoby (New York: E. P. D u tto n , 1975),
49-50. C e r ta in ly th e I t a l i a n s o f th e p re c e d in g c e n tu ry had known
th e v a lu e o f l i t e r a r y e d u c a tio n to th o s e s e e k in g p a tro n a g e and
governm ent s e r v ic e : I t a l i a n h u m an ists b e n e f ite d from th e
p a tro n a g e o f th e r i c h and p o w erful o f t h e i r day, o f te n because o f
t h e i r a b i l i t y to p ro v id e th e k in d o f s k i l l s and e d u c a tio n s u ite d
to th o s e r i s i n g to c o n tr o l o f t h e i r s o c i e t i e s . See W illiam
H a rriso n Woodward, S tu d ie s in E ducation During th e Age o f th e
R en aissan ce 1400-1600 (New York: T each ers C o lleg e P r e s s , 1967),
12-13, 43-44; V itto r in o da F e l t r e and O ther Humanist E d u cato rs
87
(New York: T eachers C o lleg e P r e s s , 1963), 24; and W allace K.
F erg u so n , "The R ev iv al o f C la s s ic a l A n tiq u ity o r th e F i r s t
C entury o f Humanism: A R e a p p r a is a l," in R en a issa n c e S tu d ie s by
W allace K. F erguson ( U n iv e r s ity o f W estern O n ta rio S tu d ie s in
H u m an ities, No. 2, U n iv e r s ity o f W estern O n ta r io , 1963), 94.
Q
S ir Thomas E ly o t, The Book Named th e Governor (1531)* e d ite d
by S. E. Lehmberg (London: J . M. Dent and Sons, 1975), I , i v .
g
On th e meaning o f " s a p i e n t i a " see C ic e ro , de O f f i c i i s
1 .4 .1 4 - 5 .1 5 ; Douglas Bush, The R enaissance and E n g lish Humanism
(T o ro n to : U n iv e r s ity o f T oronto P r e s s , 1956), 5 8 -5 9 ; and W illiam
H a rriso n Woodward, D e s id e riu s Erasmus C oncerning th e Aim and
Method o f E d u catio n ( C la s s ic s in E d u cation No. 19, New York:
Columbia U n iv e rs ity T eachers C o lleg e Bureau o f P u b li c a tio n s ,
1964), 32-37.
10
Ruth K elso , The D o c trin e o f th e E n g lish Gentlem an in th e
S ix te e n th C en tu ry , U n iv e r s ity o f I l l i n o i s S tu d ie s in Language and
L i t e r a t u r e , No. 14 (U rbana: U n iv e r s ity o f I l l i n o i s , 1929), 17.
11
Mark H. C u r t i s , Oxford and Cambridge in T r a n s i t i o n ,
1558-1642: An E ssay on Changing R e la tio n s betw een th e E n g lish
U n i v e r s i t i e s and E n g lish S o c ie ty (O xford: C larendon P r e s s , 1959),
7 5-76.
12
P aul N. S ie g e l, " E n g lish Humanism and th e New Tudor
A r is to c r a c y ," J o u rn a l o f th e H is to ry o f Id e a s 13 (1 9 5 2 ): 455.
13
K e lso , D o ctrin e o f th e E n g lish G entlem an, 114.
14
James K elsey McConica, E n g lish Hum anists and R eform ation
P o l i t i c s under Henry V III and Edward VI (O xford: Clarendon P r e s s ,
1965), 6 -8 , 55. S ubsequent r e f e r e n c e s in t h i s c h a p te r to
McConica’s E n g lish H um anists w i l l be given in p a re n th e s e s in th e
t e x t .
15
On th e s tro n g C h r is tia n c h a r a c te r o f E n g lish and n o rth e rn
c o n tin e n ta l humanism as w e ll as l a t e r I t a l i a n humanism see
Douglas Bush, The R en aissan ce and E n g lish Humanism, 34-54, and
W illiam J . Bouwsma, "Changing A ssum ptions i n L a te r R enaissance
C u ltu r e ," V ia to r 7 (1 9 7 5 ): 421-40, e s p e c i a l l y 427-28.
16
D iv id in g th e h i s t o r y o f s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E n g lish humanism
t o in c lu d e a m iddle p e rio d from th e e x e c u tio n o f More to th e
a c c e ss io n o f E liz a b e th seems to be e s ta b lis h e d p r a c t i c e . The
v i t a l i t y E n g lish humanism and th e c o n tr ib u tio n o f E n g lish
h um anists to s c h o la r s h ip d u rin g t h i s m iddle p e rio d i s deb ated by
88
R. W. Chambers, Thomas More (London: n . p . , 1935); D ouglas Bush,
"Tudor Humanism and Henry V I I I ," U n iv e rs ity o f T oronto Q u a rte rly
7 (1 9 3 8 ): 162-77, and The R en aissan ce and E n g lish Humanism
(T o ro n to : U n iv e rs ity o f T oronto P r e s s , 1956), 7 3 -7 9 ; and Kenneth
C h a rlto n , E ducation in R en aissan ce England (T o ro n to : U n iv e r s ity
o f T oronto P r e s s , 1965), 157-59.
17
The s tu d ie s o f S t. P a u l’s School a re Donald Lemen C la rk ,
John M ilton a t S t. P a u l’s School (New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 1948), and T. W. B aldw in, W illiam S h a k e sp e re ’s Sm all
L a tin e and L esse G reek e, 2 v o l s . (U rbana, I l l i n o i s : U n iv e r s ity o f
I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1944.)
18
C a s p a ri, Humanism and th e S o c ia l O rd e r, 254.
19
RCaymond] R. B o lg a r, The C la s s ic a l H e rita g e and I t s
B e n e f i c i a r i e s from th e C a ro lin g ia n Age to th e End o f th e
R en aissan ce (New York: H arper and Row, 1964), 364.
20
Kenneth C h a rlto n , E d u catio n in R en aissan ce England
(T o ro n to : U n iv e r s ity o f T oronto P r e s s , 1965), 129-30.
21
C u r t i s , Oxford and Cambridge in T r a n s i t i o n , 5.
22
C u r tis , Oxford and Cambridge in T r a n s i t i o n , 72.
23
James [K elsey ] McConica, "R ise o f th e U ndergraduate
C o lle g e ," in The C o lle g ia te U n iv e r s ity : The H is to r y o f th e
U n iv e r s ity o f O xford, V ol. 3, e d ite d by T. H. Aston (O xford:
C larendon P r e s s , 1986), 2 -3 .
24
McConica, "R ise o f th e U ndergraduate C o lle g e ," 19.
25
McConica, "R ise o f th e U ndergraduate C o lle g e ," 2 0 -2 6 . As
w e ll as p ro v id in g such l e c t u r e s as th o s e j u s t m en tio n ed , in
1524-1525 C ard in al Wolsey made a m b itio u s p la n s ( r e a l i z e d
u l t i m a t e l y in 1540 as C h r is t Church C o lleg e) f o r a c o lle g e even
more th o ro u g h ly hum anist in i t s c u rric u lu m th a n was Corpus
C h r i s t i . Wolsey in te n d e d to p ro v id e f o r d a ily l e c t u r e s in L a tin
and Greek a u th o r s , and th e s tu d e n ts were to w r ite w eekly
r h e t o r i c a l d e cla m a tio n s th e s u b je c t f o r which was to be s e t and
th e q u a l i t y o f which was to be m onitored weekly by th e
l e c t u r e r s . See McConica, "R ise o f th e U ndergraduate C o lle g e ,"
30. On d e cla m a tio n s in Edwardian Oxford see a ls o J . M.
F l e t c h e r ’s "The F a c u lty o f A r t s ," in The C o lle g ia te U n iv e r s ity ,
194. By th e end o f th e c e n tu r y even B rasenose C o lle g e , n o t "so
u n re c o n s tr u c te d " as many would make i t o u t to b e , had o f f i c i a l
p r o v is io n f o r l e c t u r e r s in d i a l e c t i c , G reek, hum anity, and
89
n a tu r a l p h ilo so p h y . See McConica, "R ise o f th e U ndergraduate
C o lle g e ,” 9, 17.
C la ire C ross, “Oxford and th e Tudor S t a t e , ” in The
C o lle g ia te U n iv e r s ity , 120-21.
^ C r o s s , “Oxford and th e Tudor S t a t e , " 120-21 and 128-29.
(See a ls o McConica in th e same volume 6 6 -6 8 .) The l e s s
s u c c e s s f u l v i s i t s o f 1548-49 to both Oxford and Cambridge seem to
have been more s in g ly m o tiv a te d to ends s e r v in g o n ly th e s t a t e ’ s
i n t e r e s t s : t o in s u r e r e l i g i o u s co n fo rm ity and to encourage th e
stu d y o f c i v i l law (1 3 5 ).
28
McConica, "R ise o f th e U ndergraduate C o lle g e ," 40-41.
29
McConica, "The C o lle g ia t e S o c ie ty ," in The C o lle g ia te
U n iv e r s ity , 697-99.
30
McConica, "The R ise o f th e U ndergraduate C o lle g e ," 28-29.
In "The C o lle g ia te S o c ie ty " (668) McConica n o te s ways Corpus
C h r i s t i p ro v id ed s u p p o rt f o r p ro m isin g s c h o la r s who m ight make up
f o r sho rtco m in g s in th e L a tin s k i l l s b e fo re b e in g a d m itte d .
31
McConica, "R ise o f th e U ndergraduate C o lle g e ," 3, 5. On
th e h i s t o r y o f Magdalen C o lleg e School and i t s grammar, see
RCobert] S [p e n se r] S t a i n e r , Magdalen S chool: A H is to r y o f
Magdalen C ollege School O xfo rd , Oxford H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty , new
s e r i e s 3 (O xford: C larendon P r e s s , 1940).
32
On l o g i c 's c o n tin u e d im portance a t Oxford and Cambridge,
se e C u r t i s , Oxford and Cambridge in T r a n s i t i o n , 96; C h a rlto n ,
E d u catio n in R en aissan ce E n g lan d , 144-46; F l e t c h e r , "The F a c u lty
o f A r t s ," 179-80; and W alter J . Ong, S . J . , Ramus Method, and th e
Decay o f D ialogue: From th e A rt o f D isco u rse to th e A rt o f Reason
(Cam bridge, M A: H arvard U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1958), 2 7 6 ff.
33
Ong, Ramus, 96-103.
34
L isa J a r d in e , "Humanism and D i a l e c t i c in S ix te e n th -C e n tu ry
Cam bridge: A P re lim in a ry I n v e s t i g a t i o n , " in C la s s ic a l In f lu e n c e s
on European C u ltu re A.D. 1500-1700, P ro ceed in g s o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l
C onference Held a t K in g 's C o lle g e , Cam bridge, A p ril 1974, e d ite d
by R. R. B olgar (Cam bridge: Cambridge U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1976),
141-54. J a r d in e co n clu d es t h a t th e use o f th e s e new 'refo rm ed
d i a l e c t i c s ' " f a r from s u g g e s tin g a s c h o l a s t i c c o n se rv a tism . . .
goes a c o n s id e ra b le way tow ards j u s t i f y i n g th e c laim t h a t t h i s
was e s s e n t i a l l y a h u m an ist programme o f s tu d y ." J a r d i n e 's
a sse ssm e n t i s s p e c i f i c a l l y o f th e new " r h e t o r i c a l " l o g i c s used a t
90
Cam bridge, b u t h er c o n c lu s io n s ap p ly to Oxford as w e ll. McConica
c i t e s th e example o f John Case who y e a r ly p re s e n te d h i s own
s tu d e n ts f o r m a tr ic u la tio n a t O xford. Case w ro te h i s own lo g ic
t e x t , th e Summa veterum in te r p r e tu m in universam d ia le c tic a m
A r i s t o t e l i s , a p p a r e n tly a work in flu e n c e d by h is own te a c h in g
e x p e r ie n c e . C ase, say s McConica, " se e s d i a l e c t i c as a
r h e t o r i c i a n w o u ld ," r e j e c t i n g th e s u p p la n tin g o f s y l l o g i s t i c
lo g ic w ith Ramist c l a s s i f i c a t o r y l o g i c , b u t s e e in g d i a l e c t i c as
th e "handmaiden o f a v a s t , r h e t o r i c a l c u l t u r e " ; see "Humanism and
A r i s t o t l e in Tudor O x fo rd ," E n g lish H i s t o r i c a l Review 94 (1979):
298-300. In a r e c e n t monograph on C ase, C h a rle s B. S ch m itt
a llo w s t h a t m edieval lo g ic was re p la c e d by h um anist r h e t o r i c a l
v e r s io n s in England p a r t l y because th e E n g lish re fo rm a tio n was
s e t t l e d by f i a t , and as a r e s u l t th e r e was n o t th e th e need f o r
s c h o l a s t i c t r a i n i n g to c o n tin u e th e d e b ate over r e l i g i o u s
q u e s tio n s in England as on th e c o n tin e n t; see John Case and
A r i s t o t e l i a n i s m in R en aissan ce England (K ingston and M o n treal:
M cG ill-Q ueens U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1983), 19, 21.
35
J a r d in e , "Humanism and th e S ix te e n th -C e n tu ry Cambridge A rts
C o u rse," H is to ry o f E d u catio n 4 (1975): 20, 28.
See fo r example McConica " S tu d ie s and F a c i l i t i e s :
I n t r o d u c t i o n ," in The C o lle g ia te U n iv e r s ity , 1 5 2 ff; and C u r tis ,
Oxford and Cambridge in T r a n s i t i o n , 70, 72, 77. Lawrence S to n e ’s
"The E d u c a tio n a l R e v o lu tio n in E ngland, 1560-1640" ( P a st and
P r e s e n t 28 [ J u ly 1964]: 41-80) a tte m p ts s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is o f
th e phenomenon. W hile Hugh Kearney d is p u te s th e re a so n s fo r th e
in c r e a s e in th e number o f s tu d e n ts in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , he
n o n e th e le s s acknow ledges th e i n c r e a s e ; S c h o la rs and G entlem en:
U n i v e r s i t i e s and S o c ie ty in P r e - I n d u s t r i a l B r i t a i n 1500-1700
( I th a c a : C o rn e ll U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1970), 23.
37
S to n e , " E d u c a tio n a l R ev o lu tio n in E n g lan d ", 45. F o s te r
Watson s u g g e s ts t h a t m e rc h a n ts ’ sons had no u se f o r grammar
s c h o o l, where boys in te n d in g c a r e e r s in commerce were n e ith e r
among th o se o f l i k e m ind, no r l i k e l y to g et e d u c a tio n s u ite d to
t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . T y p ic a lly , say s W atson, such boys would
"exchange th e ’a r t s ’ f o r th e ’m a r t s ', " and a p p r e n tic e to o th e r
m e rc h an ts; see The B eginnings o f th e T eaching o f Modern S u b je c ts
in England (London: S ir I s s a c Pitm an, 1909), x x x v i- x x x v iii.
C a s p a ri, Humanism and th e S o c ia l O rd e r, 260.
39
On th e p re sen c e o f and s t a t u t o r y p ro v is io n f o r commoners a t
th e v a rio u s c o lle g e s , see McConica, "The R ise o f th e
U n d ergraduate C o lleg e" f o r Magdalen ( 7 ) , B rasenose (1 2 -1 3 ),
Corpus C h r i s t i (2 8 ) , C h r is t Church (4 0 ) , T r i n i t y (4 4 -4 5 ), and f o r
91
S t . Jo h n ’ s (4 6 -4 7 ). On e v id en ce o f commoners l i v i n g in town, see
pages 48-50 and 50, n o te 4.
40
McConica ’’S tu d ie s and F a c i l i t i e s , ” 155. In ’’The C o lle g ia te
S o c ie ty ” (6 7 1 -8 0 ), McConica d e t a i l s th e ra n k s and d u r a tio n o f
s tu d y o f sons o f gentlem en and n o b le s a t Corpus C h r i s t i .
41
E ly o t i s s e t t i n g up a "tim e when’’ arg u m en t. See A r i s t o t l e ,
R h e to ric 1397b.6. As E ly o t su g g e s ts in th e p a ssa g e quoted h e re ,
th e r e was some a r i s t o c r a t i c r e s i s t a n c e to th e ’’new l e a r n i n g . ”
E a rly in th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , in a l e t t e r t o C o le t, R ichard
Pace re c o u n ted t a l k i n g w ith an unnamed p e er who com plained t h a t
he ’’r a t h e r t h a t [ h i s ] son sh ould hang th a n s tu d y l e t t e r s , ” f o r
such stu d y was unbecoming o f a gentlem an and more a p p r o p r ia te to
’’sons o f r u s t i c s ” ; c i t e d in S ie g e l, "E n g lish Humanism and th e New
Tudor A r is to c r a c y ," 455; and Lawrence S to n e, The C r i s i s o f th e
A r is to c r a c y 1558-1641 (O xford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1965), 674-75.
L ate in th e s ix te e n th c e n tu r y th e c o n s e rv a tiv e Duke o f N orfolk
was n oted to have s a id ( in a s p i r i t o f r e s i g n a t i o n ? ) t h a t
"England was m erry England b e fo re a l l t h i s New L e a rn in g came
i n " ; C a s p a ri, Humanism and th e S o c ia l O rd e r, 271» and S ie g e l,
" E n g lish Humanism and th e New Tudor A r i s t o c r a c y ," 455 n o te 13.
But among th e n o b i l i t y th e r e were a d v o cates o f le a r n i n g as w e ll.
Lord B urghley se rv ed u nder E liz a b e th as C h a n c e llo r o f Cambridge
and in 1562 developed a program o f e d u c a tio n f o r th e young
Edward, E a rl o f Oxford which re q u ire d th e boy even on h o lid a y
d a i l y to stu d y French and L a tin b e fo re g iv in g o v er h i s tim e to
r i d i n g , s h o o tin g , o r d a n c in g . Stone c a l l s Lord B urghley " th e key
f ig u r e in th e tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f th e e d u c a tio n o f th e
a r i s t o c r a c y " ; The C r i s i s in th e A r is to c r a c y , 679-80. Stone a ls o
c r e d i t s th e h u m a n is ts ’ advocacy o f e d u c a tio n and th e "new s o c ia l
i d e a l s s e t o u t by C a s tig lio n e " w ith h a v in g co n v in ced some o f th e
lan d ed a r i s t o c r a c y to g e t f o r t h e i r sons th e s o r t o f "b o o k ish ,
c l a s s i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d t r a i n i n g " which ev ery gentlem an ought to
h av e, "w hether to se rv o h i s P r in c e , to h o ld h i s a u d ie n c e s in th e
House o f Commons o r L o rd s, o r to converse a g re e a b ly w ith men o f
h i s own s ta n d in g ” ; see " E d u c a tio n a l R ev o lu tio n in E n g lan d ," 70.
42
C h a rlto n , E d u catio n in R enaissance E n g lan d , 149.
43
Kearney, S c h o la rs and G entlem en, 26-33.
44
S to n e , "E d u c a tio n a l R ev o lu tio n in E n g lan d ," 70.
45
S to n e, in tr o d u c tio n to W illiam H a rriso n Woodward’s S tu d ie s
in E d u catio n D uring th e Age o f th e R e n a issa n c e , 1400-1600 (New
York: T eachers C o lleg e P r e s s , Columbia U n iv e r s ity , 1967), x i - x i i .
92
46
McConica, "The R ise o f th e U ndergraduate C o lle g e ," 66.
J . M. F le tc h e r co n ten d s t h a t w ith i t s u ltim a te developm ent in th e
s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry " o rd in a ry l e c t u r e s could no lo n g e r be
re g a rd ed as th e e s s e n t i a l so u rc e o f academ ic in fo rm a tio n " f o r
w h ile t r a d i t i o n a l e x e r c is e s co n tin u ed to be r e q u ir e d f o r th e
B .A ., t u t o r s , a b le to p u rc h a se books a t l e s s expense th a n in th e
e a r l y s ix te e n th c e n tu r y , took over much o f th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
u n d e rg ra d u a te e d u c a tio n ; see "The F a c u lty o f A r t s ," 168.
47
C u r t i s , Oxford and Cambridge in T r a n s i t i o n , 7 8-80.
48
McConica, "The C o lle g ia te S o c ie ty ," 696.
49
See C h a rlto n , E d u catio n in R enaissance E n g lan d , 138.
50
Many, in d e e d , d id go on to one o f th e In n s a f t e r some
e d u c a tio n a t O xford. In d e t a i l i n g th e rank and c a r e e r s o f
gentlem an commoners a t Corpus C h r i s t i , McConica c i t e s a number
exam ples o f men who went to In n s o f C o u rt, some even a f t e r
a c t u a l l y co m p letin g BA o r even M A d e g re e s ; see "The C o lle g ia te
S o c ie ty ," 672-80.
51
McConica, "The C o lle g ia te S o c ie ty ," 722.
1
: 1 1 1
i
! English Humanist Educators on Imitation
The p re v io u s c h a p te r o f f e r e d th e prem ise t h a t no scheme o f
I e d u c a tio n can fin d fa v o r w ith o u t m e e tin g , or a p p e a rin g to m eet,
th e needs o f th e day and w inning th e ap p ro v a l o f th o s e w ith
p o l i t i c a l and f i n a n c i a l power. S o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s
j in Tudor England p ro v id e d an i n f l u x o f s tu d e n ts who so ught th e
k in d o f l i t e r a c y s k i l l s which hum anist e d u c a to rs prom ised to
p ro v id e , and Tudor a d m in is tr a to r s e s ta b lis h e d hum anist c u r r i c u l a
in th e grammar s c h o o ls and c o lle g e s . R h e to r ic a l im ita tio n
pedagogy was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h i s hum anist scheme o f
e d u c a tio n . The p r e s e n t c h a p te r exam ines th e t h e o r e t i c a l
i n c l i n a t i o n s o f E n g lish hum anist e d u c a to rs which h elp ed make
j i m i t a t i o n im p o rta n t to t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l program s. The j
i
' d is c u s s io n w i l l f i r s t c o n sid e r th e u ses to which th e R en aissan ce
hum anist e d u c a to rs in te n d e d to p u t th e c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e which
I
| th e y had re c o v e re d . Next i t w i l l examine th e h u m a n is ts'
I
I i
assu m p tio n s about la n g u ag e ; and f i n a l l y i t w i l l c o n sid e r t h e i r j
j b e l i e f s about th e r o l e and p u rp o ses o f l i t e r a c y e d u c a tio n . These
a t t i t u d e s and assu m p tio n s form th e r a t i o n a l e which d eterm in ed th e
i
im p o rtan ce o f r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n to hum anist e d u c a tio n . j
i 1
94
New Uses f o r C la s s ic a l L e a rn in g :
th e E d u catio n o f th e G overning C la s s e s .
Many hum anists t h i n k e r s o f th e R en aissan ce b e lie v e d
th em selv es to be f o s t e r i n g a c u l t u r a l r e b i r t h . H e rb e rt W eisinger
has s tu d ie d th e s e lf - a w a r e n e s s o f th e R en aissan ce h u m a n ists, and
he n o te s t h a t th e y viewed t h e i r own age as d i f f e r e n t from any
p re c e d in g e ra and t h a t th e y atte m p ted to acco u n t f o r th e
d i f f e r e n c e s . From th e l a t e fo u r te e n th th ro u g h th e end o f th e
s ix te e n th c e n t u r i e s , men b e lie v e d a R en a issa n c e was ta k in g p la c e
t
in t h e i r own tim e s . So s e lf - c o n s c io u s were th e s e men o f th e
R en aissan ce t h a t th e y were sometimes concerned to ask who was to
be c r e d ite d f o r b e g in n in g th e r e v iv a l o f c l a s s i c a l le a r n in g and
th e y a t t r i b u t e d to Erasmus th e b eg in n in g s o f such le a r n in g in
1
E ngland. In "R en aissan ce A ccounts o f th e R ev iv al o f L e a rn in g ,"
W eisin g er co n clu d es t h a t th e men o f th e R en a issa n c e n o t only
c r e a te d th e R e n a issa n c e , b u t "were w e ll aware o f what th e y were
2
d o in g ," re c o g n iz in g and d e f in in g t h e i r own p la c e in h i s t o r y .
W allace Ferguson f in d s t h a t q u a tro c e n to I t a l i a n h i s t o r i a n s viewed
t h e i r own tim es as a d i s t i n c t h i s t o r i c a l e r a , a tim e o f r e b i r t h .
But Ferguson em phasizes t h a t th e R enaissance d id n o t view i t s e l f
as r e - c r e a t i n g th e c l a s s i c a l w o rld ; r a t h e r , th e s e men viewed
95
t h e i r own c i v i l i z a t i o n as "new and o r i g i n a l c r e a t i o n , in many
3
r e s p e c ts l i k e t h a t o f a n t i q u i t y , b u t d i s t i n c t l y t h e i r own."
The E n g lish h u m a n ists, to o , in te n d e d n o t to r e - c r e a t e th e
c l a s s i c a l w o rld , b u t to p u t i t s knowledge to u se in t h e i r own
tim e f o r new pu rp o ses s u i t e d to new s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l needs o f
Tudor s o c i e t y : to e d u c a te f u t u r e g o v ern o rs f o r e f f e c t i v e s e r v ic e
in a s tr o n g , c e n t r a l i z e d a d m in is tr a tio n under r o y a l c o n t r o l .
T h is use f o r c l a s s i c a l knowledge i s o f te n th e u n ex p ressed prem ise
o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on th e e d u c a tio n and conduct o f th e E n g lish
gentlem an. I t i s th e p rem ise o f E l y o t 's Governor (1 5 3 1 ). For
E ly o t, th e h i e r a r c h i c a l s o c i e t y w ith th e monarch a t i t s apex i s
th e i d e a l form o f governm ent: he does n o t o f f e r th e E n g lish
go v ern in g c la s s e s th e le a r n in g o f c l a s s i c a l G reece and Rome
tow ard th e end o f r e - c r e a t i n g th e c o n d itio n s o f th e Roman
r e p u b lic or A ttic dem ocracy. E ly o t a llo w s to a l l Englishm en some
s p e c i a l fu n c tio n in s o c i e t y : to th e g o v ern o rs he a llo w s th e
i n t e l l e c t u a l power to d i r e c t s o c ie ty :
th e y which e x c e l o th e r in t h i s in flu e n c e o f
u n d e rs ta n d in g , and do employ i t to th e d e ta i n in g o f
o th e r w ith in th e bounds o f r e a s o n , and show them how to
p ro v id e fo r t h e i r n e c e s s a ry l i v i n g . . . t h a t by th e
beams o f t h e i r e x c e l l e n t w i t , showed th ro u g h th e g la s s
o f a u t h o r i t y , o th e r o f i n f e r i o r u n d e rs ta n d in g may be^
d ir e c te d to th e way o f v i r t u e and commodious l i v i n g .
To a s s i s t th e g o v e rn o rs ’ " u n d e r s ta n d in g ," so he can d i r e c t th e
" p u b lic w eal" to " v ir tu o u s and commodious l i v i n g , " E ly o t u rg e s
th ro u g h o u t h is book an e d u c a tio n in th e wisdom o f th e c l a s s i c s .
9 6
Erasmus, to o , would b rin g c l a s s i c a l wisdom to th e s e r v ic e o f
th e C h r is tia n p r in c e . In th e d e d ic a to ry p r e f a c e o f h i s
Apophthegms (1 5 6 4 ), Erasmus acknowledges t h a t h i s purpose in
c o l l e c t i n g such apothegm ata i s to p ro v id e c l a s s i c a l p r i n c i p l e s in
a form t h a t may be e a s i l y r e c a l l e d when needed to g u id e th e
a f f a i r s o f p o l i t i c a l l i f e .
Though a p rin c e m ight have v o id e tymes enough, to
p e ru se th e i n f i n i t e m u ltitu d e o f bookes o f h i s t o r i e s ,
what man were h a b le t o comprehende and kepe them a l l
f r e s h e in h i s memory . . . t h e i t h a t t r a u a i l l in th e
b u is ie o ccu p acio n s o f peace and o f w a rre , m ust o f
congruence haue a r e a d in e s s e su er r e w le s , by which th e i
maie be p u t in rem em braunce, what i s in t h a t p r e s e n t
case n e d e f u ll, o r e x p e d ie n te to be doen, & what n o t.
And in t h i s b e h a l f , we see t h a t d iu e r s e h ig h ly w ell
le a rn e d men, haue a s s a ie d . . . to e ase th e
c a r e f u ln e s s e o f p r in c e s and n o b le men, emong which some
haue w r itt e n le s s o n s o f v e r tu e in b r i e f
s e n te n c e s . . . .
The same assum ption t h a t c l a s s i c a l le a r n in g i s needed f o r th e
conduct o f th e contem porary p r in c e inform s th e The E ducation o f a
C h r is tia n P rin c e (1 5 4 0 ). In th e d e d ic a to ry e p i s t l e , Erasmus
w r ite s t h a t "we have done i n t o L a tin I s o c r a t e s ’ p re c e p ts on
r u l i n g a kingdom" so t h a t th e s e p re c e p ts may be m o d ified to be
a p p lie d to contem porary u s e . "That s o p h is t [ I s o c r a t e s ] was
i n s t r u c t i n g a young k in g , o r r a t h e r a t y r a n t : one pagan
i n s t r u c t i n g a n o th e r ." Erasmus i s th e C h r is tia n w r i t e r : " I a
th e o lo g ia n , am a c ti n g th e p a r t o f te a c h e r to a d is tin g u is h e d and
&
p u re -h e a r te d p r in c e — one C h r is tia n to a n o th e r ."
97
The h u m a n is ts ’ s e lf - a w a r e n e s s and t h e i r d e s i r e to make
contem porary use o f c l a s s i c a l wisdom has im p lic a tio n s fo r
r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n . W hile th e R en aissan ce h u m an ists d id n o t
u n d e rsta n d th em selv es to be r e c r e a t i n g c l a s s i c a l c i v i l i z a t i o n ,
th e y d id ta k e th e w r i t t e n works o f G reece and Rome as a mine o f
p r a c t i c a l and e t h i c a l know ledge. In th e w r i t i n g s o f a n t i q u i t y ,
th e y saw what th e y b e lie v e d to be a s u p e r io r c u l t u r e o f f e r i n g
them a developed system o f p r a c t i c a l e t h i c s e a s i l y ad ap ted to
C h r is tia n p u rp o se s. S ince th e c l a s s i c s were a s o u rc e o f wisdom
to be mined and p u t to use in s e r v ic e o f th e a f f a i r s o f th e
contem porary s t a t e , r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n was recommended n o t
sim p ly as e x e r c is e in L a tin s t y l e : i t was in i t s e l f to be a means
to i n c u lc a tin g t h a t which i s u s e f u l and v ir t u o u s in c l a s s i c a l
know ledge.
E n g lish H u m an ists' A ttitu d e s Toward L a tin :
th e E leg a n t and L a s tin g R e p o sito ry o f L e a rn in g .
The g r e a t e s t s i n g l e so u rc e o f c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e f o r th e
R en aissan ce was l i t e r a t u r e . A ll o f p h ilo so p h y , th e p h y s ic a l
s c ie n c e s , m e ta p h y sic s, m e d ic in e , e t h i c s , r h e t o r i c , law— a l l
c l a s s i c a l le a r n in g and much o f th e contem porary t r a d i t i o n o f
w e ste rn knowledge— was in L a tin or G reek. W alter Ong c a l l s t h i s
98
f a c t o f th e w e alth o f i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n th e "unacknowledged
re a so n fo r te a c h in g L a t i n , " and he arg u es t h a t " to e s t a b l i s h and
m a in ta in c o n ta c t w ith academ ic and s c i e n t i f i c th o u g h t p u p ils had
7
to be a b le to read i t , w r i t e i t and th in k in i t . " The r e a l
o b je c t iv e o f R enaissance e d u c a tio n was to make th e s tu d e n t f lu e n t
in L a tin , and even th e stu d y o f r h e t o r i c , which th e h u m anists
fa v o re d , was f i n a l l y "a p ro p a e d u e tic to f u r t h e r s t u d i e s , " a means
o f r e f i n i n g s k i l l in L a tin so th e s tu d e n t could re a d " th e only
language in which l o g i c , p h y s ic s , m ed icin e, law , and th e o lo g y
8
could be s t u d i e d ." W hile some o f th e h u m anists th em selv es m ight
have d is a g re e d w ith Ong’s r e d u c tio n o f r h e t o r i c to a
" p r o p a e d u e tic ," Ong’s p o in t t h a t L a tin was th e lan g u ag e o f
i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n i s u n q u e stio n e d . In an age b e fo re
t r a n s l a t i o n s o f th e c l a s s i c s were g e n e r a lly a v a i l a b l e , i t i s a
tru is m in th e w r iti n g s o f th e h u m anists t h a t a l l l e a r n in g i s to
be had in L a tin and G reek. I t w i l l s u f f i c e to c i t e a few
exam ples.
In The Governor E ly o t d is c u s s e s th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e c h i l d ’s
n u r s e , t u t o r , and m a ster w ith concern f i r s t f o r what s o r t o f
m oral and e t h i c a l models th e s e w i l l be f o r th e boy and n e x t fo r
t h e i r p r o f ic ie n c y in L a tin . Upon f i n i s h i n g w ith th e s e m a tte r s ,
E ly o t recommends th e c o u rse o f th e c h i l d ’s re a d in g o f L a tin and
Greek a u th o r s . "L earn in g " f o r E ly o t i s equated w ith p r o f ic ie n c y
99
in L a tin language and f a m i l i a r i t y w ith L a tin l i t e r a t u r e (Governor
q
1 .4 - 6 , 9 -1 1 ). A ll w o rthw hile knowledge i s in L a tin , and
p r im a r i ly , alth o u g h n o t e x c lu s iv e ly , in c l a s s i c a l t e x t s . In deed,
to le a r n m oral p h ilo so p h y from A r i s t o t l e , E l y o t ’s governor needs
a s w e ll to be p r o f i c i e n t in G reek, " f o r th e t r a n s l a t i o n s t h a t we
y e t have be b ut a ru d e and g ro ss shadow o f th e eloquence and
wisdom o f A r i s t o t l e " (G overnor 1 .1 1 ). D isc u ssin g im ita tio n
e x e r c is e in th e S ch o o lm aster (1 5 7 0 ), Ascham a d v is e s t h a t
i f you would speak as th e b e s t and w is e s t do, ye must
be c o n v e rsa n t where th e b e s t and w is e s t a r e , b u t i f you
be born and b ro u g h t up in a ru d e c o u n try , ye s h a l l n o t
choose b u t to speak r u d e ly . The r u d e s t man o f a l l
knoweth t h i s to be t r u e . (114)
R e c a ll t h a t "ru d e" a t th e tim e meant " u n le a rn e d " o r " la c k in g in
knowledge o r b o o k - le a r n in g ." In t h i s p a ss a g e , "ru d e " i s opposed
to " b e s t and w is e s t" and l a t e r E ly o t u ses both "ru d e " and
"b a rb a ro u s" to d e s c rib e th e v e rn a c u la r as t h a t which i s
" u n p o lis h e d , w ith o u t l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e . " Hence, to "speak as th e
b e s t and w is e s t do" and to "be c o n v e rsa n t where th e b e s t and
w is e s t a re " i s to speak and w r ite L a tin , th e lan g u ag e o f a l l
le a r n e d wisdom.
The assum ption t h a t th e w ealth o f le a r n in g i s c o n ta in e d in
th e c l a s s i c a l lan g u ag es in fo rm s most o f E rasm u s's method o f
e d u c a tio n . While t h i s method w i l l be d is c u s s e d in d e t a i l l a t e r ,
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ev id en c e o f th e assum ption m ight h e re be n o te d .
In De c o n s c rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s (1521) Erasmus p r o t e s t s t h a t th o se
100
who p r e f e r m edieval L a tin to th e " c o r r e c t l a t i n i t y " o f Augustan
Rome would "allo w th e Roman to n g u e , to which so many e x c e lle n t
b ran ch es o f le a r n in g and th e C h r is tia n r e l i g i o n i t s e l f have been
10
e n t r u s t e d , to d ie o u t . " Here le a r n in g i s p re s e rv e d n o t j u s t in
L a t i n , b u t in th e L a tin o f a s p e c i f i c s ta g e o f i t s developm ent.
In De r a t i o n e s t u d i i (1511) Erasmus w r ite s t h a t grammar must be
th e f i r s t m a tte r f o r b o y s ' i n s t r u c t i o n and Greek and L a tin must
be le a rn e d to g e th e r .
T his i s n o t o n ly because alm o st e v e r y th in g w orth
le a r n in g i s s e t f o r t h in th e s e two la n g u a g e s , b u t in
a d d itio n because each i s so co g n ate t o th e o th e r t h a t
both can be more q u ic k ly a s s im ila te d when th e y a re
tak en in c o n ju n c tio n th an <^e w ith o u t th e o t h e r , or a t
l e a s t L a tin w ith o u t G reek.
Here th e im portance o f L a tin as a r e p o s i t o r y o f le a r n in g i s
e x p re ssed as an a s id e to th e main argum ent in fa v o r o f b o y s’
s im u lta n e o u s ly l e a r n in g Greek and L a tin . T hat t h i s s ta te m e n t i s
e x p re sse d p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n d i c a t e s how p e r v a s iv e was th e
assu m p tio n . In d e e d , C .S. Baldwin rem arks as e x c e p tio n a l th e 1540
I t a l i a n D ialogo d e l l e lin g u e o f Sperone S p ero n i w hich, even in
p a s s in g , q u e s tio n s th e o r i e n t a t i o n o f a l l e d u c a tio n tow ard L a tin
12
language le a r n in g .
Humanist e d u c a to rs concerned w ith te a c h in g E n g lish boys a
second language and a somewhat a l i e n c u l t u r e w ere bound to fav o r
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n i n s o f a r as i t h elp ed s tu d e n t s d ev elo p L a tin
f lu e n c y . T his i s an o b v io u s , p r a c t i c a l ad v an tag e to such
pedagogy. Yet beyond such p r a c t i c a l i t y l a y a t t i t u d e s toward th e
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v a lu e o f a language which made i t a l l th e more u rg e n t t h a t
th ro u g h r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n th e s tu d e n t m aster more th a n th e
ru d im en ts o f L a tin .
R e ta in in g as i t had th e i n t e l l e c t u a l t r e a s u r e o f w e ste rn
c u l t u r e , L a tin was f o r many h u m an ists th e lan g u ag e o f permanence
and s c h o la r s h ip . Baldwin c i t e s from Montaigne t h i s example o f
th e b e l i e f t h a t L a tin was f o r works o f l a s t i n g v a lu e :
I am w r itin g my book f o r a few men and a few y e a r s . I f
th e r e had been any id e a o f i t s l a s t i n g , I m ust-have
committed i t to a lan g u ag e o f more s t a b i l i t y .
In England may be found th e same a t t i t u d e t h a t L a tin i s fo r works
in te n d e d to l a s t beyond th e moment, o fte n combined w ith th e
b e l i e f t h a t L a tin i s th e p r e s e r v e o f most l e a r n i n g . One o f th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s in E rasm u s's d ia lo g u e De r e c t e p r o n u n tia tio n e (1528)
bemoans th e d i v e r s i t y o f v e r n a c u la r la n g u ag e s.
I t i s no good w r i t i n g in th e language o f th e man in th e
s t r e e t i f you w ish your work to s ta y f r e s h and to l a s t
fo r e v e r . . . . So i t i s im p o rta n t fo r s c h o la r s to
c o n fin e th em selv es to th o se lan g u ag es t h a t have alm o st
e x c lu s iv e ly been used in le a rn e d w r i t i n g . The reaso n
i s t h a t th e y do n o t depend f o r t h e i r g u a ra n te e on
ordinary p e o p le . The p e o p le a re poor c u s to d ia n s o f
q u a l i t y , w hereas th e g u a ra n te e o f th e i n t e g r i t y o f th e
le a rn e d ^gnguages r e s t s in th e books w r itt e n by good
a u th o r s .
Ascham, to o , c o n sid e re d th e v e rn a c u la r l e s s h o n o ra b le ( " h o n e s t" ) ,
and when he w ro te h is T ox o p h ilu s in E n g lis h , he f e l t p re s s e d to
a p o lo g iz e : "ev ery th in g i s so e x c e l l e n t l y done [ i n L a tin and
G reek] t h a t none can do b e t t e r " ; w h ereas, in E n g lish " ev e ry th in g
[ i s done] in a manner so m eanly both f o r th e m a tte r and h a n d lin g ,
1 102
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t h a t no man can do w o r s e .” And in a le n g th y 1568 l e t t e r to
Johann Sturm , Ascham e x p la in e d t h a t he chose to w r i t e h is
S choolm aster in E n g lis h ,
because my S c o le m a ste r was n o t fe tc h e d from G reece or
I t a l y , b u t was born on t h i s b arb aro u s i s l a n d , and
b ecause he was re a re d w ith in my ^gme, he sp eak es ■
t h e r e f o r e in a b a rb a ro u s to n g u e.
Ascham c o n tin u e s to say t h a t he in te n d e d th e S ch o o lm aster fo r use
in E ngland, "n o t to f o r e i g n e r s , ” and he f e l t t h a t he would be
j u s t i f i e d in u s in g E n g lish ”i f i n t e r e s t can be awakened to some
e x te n t in p a re n ts f o r c h e r is h in g , and n u r tu r in g l i b e r a l l e t t e r s ,
and z e a l in t h e i r c h ild r e n fo r le a r n in g e a g e r l y . ” F o s te r Watson
s e t s 1531 to 1582 as a tim e when "even th e w r i t i n g in E n g lish on
s u b je c ts o f s c h o la r s h ip was n o t a lto g e th e r a p p ro v e d .” Watson
c i t e s as e v id en ce o f t h i s d is a p p r o v a l such m aneuvers as th e
app earan ce in 1563 o f L aurence H um frey's O p tim a te s, s iv a de
n o b i l i t a t e a f u l l th r e e y e a rs b e fo re i t s p u b lic a tio n in E n g lish
17
as The N obles, or o f N o b i l i t y e .
As R ichard F. Jones e x p la in s in The Triumph o f th e E n g lish
Language, as l a t e as 1575 E n g lish was s t i l l seen as " ru d e , g ro s s ,
b a r b a r o u s ,” perhaps c a p a b le o f e x p re s s in g m o ra lly and e t h i c a l l y
sound i d e a s , b u t la c k in g th e f l e x i b i l i t y o f s t y l e s u ite d to
s u b tle th o u g h t. The s ix te e n t h - c e n t u r y m eanings o f th e term s
" r u d e ,” " g r o s s , ” "and " b a rb a ro u s ” confirm th e two assum ptions
about language which th e p re v io u s d is c u s s io n h as r e v e a le d . One
b e l i e f re g a rd s s u b s ta n c e : "one gauge o f th e w orth o f a language
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i s th e amount o f l e a r n i n g c o n ta in e d in i t . " The o th e r b e l i e f
r e g a rd s s t y l e : a n o th e r m easure o f th e v a lu e o f a la n g u ag e i s i t s
" a b i l i t y to make u se o f th e p r i n c i p l e s ( e s p e c i a l l y th o s e
18
p e r t a i n i n g to e l o c u t i o ) o f c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c . " For th e
E n g lish hum anists L a tin was b o th th e most s t y l i s t i c a l l y f l e x i b l e
and th e most le a rn e d la n g u a g e .
These a t t i t u d e s tow ard L a tin h e lp e x p la in why r h e t o r i c a l
i m i t a t i o n e x e r c is e s were seen as e f f e c t i v e p r e p a r a t io n f o r
p u p i l s ' m ature use o f la n g u a g e . The f i r s t b e l i e f , t h a t L a tin was
th e language most v alu ed f o r i t s le a r n in g , r e a f f ir m s th e
s u g g e s tio n made e a r l i e r t h a t r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n m ight be
recommended n o t sim p ly as e x e r c is e in L a tin s t y l e , b u t m ight in
i t s e l f be a means to i n c u l c a t i n g t h a t which i s u s e f u l and
v ir t u o u s in c l a s s i c a l know ledge. And given th e o th e r assum ption
t h a t a m easure o f th e v a lu e o f a language was i t s s t y l i s t i c
f l e x i b i l i t y , such i m i t a t i o n e x e r c is e s as double t r a n s l a t i o n ,
v e rs e p a ra p h ra s e s o f p ro se and p ro se p a ra p h ra s e s o f v e r s e , v e rse
and p ro se ep ito m es, and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , " v a ry in g th e p h r a s e ,"
e x e r c is e d th e s tu d e n t in th e f l e x i b i l i t y o f L a tin p ro se and v e rse
s t y l e , a llo w in g them as m atu re w r i t e r s to make u se o f th e
" flo w e rs " o f L a t i n . ^
104
E n g lish H um anists' C o n serv atism and T h e ir G oals f o r E d u c a tio n . i
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E n g lish h um anists may have fa v o re d r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n as
n o t j u s t an e x e r c is e in L a tin s t y l e , b u t as an e d u c a tio n in th e
knowledge and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , th e e t h i c a l and m oral p r e c e p ts o f
th e c l a s s i c s . O b v io u sly , to i m i t a t e an c l a s s i c a l o r a t o r , p o e t,
o r h i s t o r i a n , th e p u p il needed to read a t l e a s t some p a r t o f t h a t
i n d i v i d u a l 's w orks, and in such re a d in g would e n c o u n te r such
e t h i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n . T h is b ein g so , th e re a d in g i t s e l f would
s u f f i c e . But in t h i s re g a rd im ita tio n m ight have been a more
pow erful te a c h e r th an re a d in g a lo n e . To see how t h i s m ight be
s o , one must c o n sid e r th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e h u m a n is ts '
p r e f e r e n c e fo r o r d e r , t h e i r c o n se rv a tism , t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s fo r
e d u c a tio n , and t h e i r b e l i e f s about th e i d e a l c i t i z e n - o r a t o r who
i s to be im ita te d . The d is c u s s io n f i r s t d e f in e s th e se n se in
which th e s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g lish hum anist e d u c a to rs m ight be
c o n sid e re d t o have been c o n s e r v a tiv e .
The purpose o f th e i n i t i a l th r e e c h a p te rs o f E l y o t 's Governor
i s to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between th e "common w eal” and a " p u b lic
w e a l." E ly o t r e j e c t s th e form er te rm , fo r i t s u g g e s ts to him a I
i
d is o rd e re d s o c ie ty in which " e v e ry th in g should be to a l l men in
common, w ith o u t d is c re p a n c e o f any e s t a t e or c o n d itio n " and
t h e r e f o r e "moved more by s e n s u a l i t y th an by any good re a so n or
i n c l i n a t i o n to h u m a n ity ." Such a s o c ie ty would be " c h a o s ."
105
E ly o t p r e f e r s in s te a d th e l a t t e r te rm , " p u b lic w eal" f o r t h i s to
him echoes th e L a tin Res p u b lic a or Res p l e b e i a , which f o r him
a re "words o n ly made f o r th e d is c re p a n c e o f d e g re e s , w hereof
p ro c e e d e th o r d e r ." E ly o t compared th e " p u b lic w eal" to " th e
o rd e r t h a t God h a th p u t g e n e r a lly in a l l H is c r e a t u r e s , b e g in n in g
a t th e most i n f e r i o r or b a se , and a scen d in g upward" (Governor
1. 1).
E ly o t* s p re fe re n c e f o r a h i e r a r c h i c s o c i e t y c o n tin u e s a
m edieval view t h a t th e u n iv e r s e was o rd e re d , r e f l e c t i n g G od's
re a s o n , and t h a t t h i s o rd e r and reaso n i s re p e a te d in th e s o c i a l
and p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s which govern m an's l i f e on e a r t h .
A rth u r L ovejoy c a l l s t h i s assum ption o f an h i e r a r c h i c o rd e r o f
th e u n iv e r s e th e " g r e a t ch ain o f b e in g " :
th ro u g h th e M iddle Ages and down to th e l a t e e ig h te e n th
c e n tu r y , many p h ilo s o p h e r s , most men o f s c ie n c e , and,
in d e e d , most e d u cated men, were to a c c e p t w ith o u t
q u e s tio n . . . th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e u n iv e r s e as a
'G re a t Chain o f B e i n g ,' ra n g in g in h i e r a r c h i c a l o rd e r
from th e m e ag e re st k in g o f e x i s t e n t s . . . th ro u g h 2Q
'e v e r y p o s s i b l e ' g rad e up to th e ens p e rfe c tis s lm u m .
Paul S ie g e l e x p la in s t h a t t h i s h i e r a r c h i c c o n c e p tio n o f cosmology
was to th in k e r s o f th e m iddle ages r e f l e c t e d in th e o rg a n iz a tio n
o f human s o c ie ty i n t o a " h ie r a r c h y o f e s t a t e s or c l a s s e s . "
A ccording to S ie g e l, th e h u m an ists sh ared t h i s h i e r a r c h i c
c o n c e p tio n w ith t h e i r m ed iev al f o r e b e a r s , c o n tin u in g " to u se th e
an alo g y between th e s o c i a l h ie r a r c h y and th e o th e r h i e r a r c h i e s o f
21
n a t u r e ," b u t ad d in g b i b l i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e i r view . To
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th e h u m a n ists, e x p la in s S ie g e l, s o c i a l o rd e r i s " c o n s ta n tly
th r e a te n e d by d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . " The p r in c e , as th e apex o f th e
s o c i a l h ie r a r c h y , i s e n tr u s te d w ith r e t a i n i n g o r d e r :
Through him human s o c i e t y a c h ie v e s u n i t y , th e same
u n i t y as have a l l th in g s in heaven and e a r t h , which a re
’ gouerned b y ^ n e god, by one p e r p e tu a l! o r d r e , by one
p r o u id e n c e .*
The an alo g y between th e o rd e r or reaso n o f th e u n iv e r s e and
th e o rd e r which th e p r in c e b rin g s to th e s t a t e i s e x p re sse d
th ro u g h v a rio u s m etap h o rs. C a s tig lio n e makes th e p r in c e a
l i k e n e s s o f God j u s t as th e u n iv e rs e r e f l e c t s God:
Even as in th e firm am ent th e sunne and th e moone and
th e o th e r s t a r r e s shew to th e w o rld s (as i t w ere) in a
g la s s e a c e r t a i n e lik e n e s s e o f God: So upon th e e a r t h a
much more l i k e r image o f God a re th o se good P rin c e s
t h a t lo v e and w orship him , and shew unto th e p eo p le th e
c l e a r e l i g h t o f h i s j u s t i c e accompanied w ith a shadow
o f th e h eav en ly re a so n and u n d e rs ta n d in g .
S im ila r ly , Erasmus c a l l s th e p rin c e " th e lik e n e s s o f th e E te r n a l
P rin c e " who " p la ce d a b e a u t i f u l lik e n e s s o f H im self in th e
h eav en s— th e su n , and he rem inds th e p rin c e to fo llo w th e example
o f God who " r u le s th e u n iv e r s e w ith supreme ju d g e m e n t." And
a g a in :
No one see s God in h i s government o f th e u n iv e r s e , b u t
o n ly f e e l s Him and H is k in d n e s s . The p r i n c e ’s n a tiv e
lan d should n o t f e e l h i s pow ers, e x ce p t when i t s
tr o u b l e s ajje m itig a te d th ro u g h h i s wisdom and
goodness.
Erasmus a ls o makes com parisons among God’s r u l e over th e
u n iv e r s a l o rd e r, th e m ind’s r u l e o v er human body, and th e
107
p r i n c e ’s r u l e o f th e s t a t e :
In a man i t i s th e f i n e l y o rg a n iz ed p a r t (nam ely, th e
mind) t h a t e x e r c is e s th e c o n t r o l . L ikew ise in th e mind
i t i s i t s f i n e s t e le m e n t, re a s o n , t h a t a s s e r t s i t s e l f .
And God, who r u l e s th e u n iv e r s e , i s th e v e ry esse n ce o f
a l l t h i n g s . T h e re fo re , whosoever assumes th e f u n c tio n s
o f r u l e in a s t a t e , as in a s o r t o f g r e a t body, sh ould
e x c e l a l l o th e r s in goodness, wisdom, and
w a tc h fu ln e s s .
As th e s e examples show, th e E n g lish h u m a n is ts ’ view o f th e
u n iv e r s e as an o rd e r o f c r e a tio n le d them to b e lie v e as w e ll t h a t
such o rd e r should be r e f l e c t e d in human s o c ie ty s te a d ie d by a
p r in c e o f th e h ig h e s t m oral and e t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r . Such a b e l i e f
made th e s e men c o n s e r v a tiv e , t h a t i s , in c lin e d to p ass alo n g th e
c o n v e n tio n a l in c u l t u r e . I t w i l l be u s e f u l to c o n s id e r t h i s
c o n se rv a tism in g r e a t e r d e t a i l b e t t e r to u n d e rsta n d how
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n was th o u g h t t o h e lp prom ote e t h i c a l and
m oral o r d e r .
Jacq u es Barzun c a l l s th e c o n s e r v a tiv e h a b it o f mind th e
" c l a s s i c ” view o f l i f e . In e v ery a g e , Barzun e x p l a i n s , men seek
th e com fort o f p e rs o n a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l u n i t y . "The
s t r a i g h t e s t p a th to u n i t y , " Barzun e x p la in s , i s to "choose" th o se
ways o f l i v i n g which seem "most p r o f i t a b l e , most s e n s i b l e , most
g e n e r a l" t o th o s e in power and to " e n fo rc e th e s e as a code f o r
p u b lic and p r iv a te b e h a v io r ."
Such a system produces s t a b i l i t y in th e s t a t e . . .
w h ile in th e i n d iv id u a l i t produces m o r a lity and peace
by showing him t h a t v a lu e s a re ro o te d in th e u n iv e r s e ,
r a t h e r th ag g d ep en d en t upon h i s f a l l i b l e and changing
judgem ent.
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| B a rz u n 's words d e s c r ib e w e ll th e c o n se rv a tism o f th e E n g lish
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h u m a n ists, w ith t h e i r i n c l i n a t i o n tow ard p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l
J o r d e r , e t h i c a l and m oral s t a b i l i t y . A ccording to W illiam
I
j Bouwsma, t h i s c o n se rv a tism i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e l a t e r ,
! n o rth e rn European R en a issa n c e and i s in some ways a r e a c tio n to
th e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m o f th e f o u r t e e n t h - and f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
I t a l i a n R en a issa n c e . Such I t a l i a n R en a issa n c e f ig u r e s as V alla
and A l b e r t i , says Bouwsma, developed a s t r a i n o f c u l t u r a l
1 r e l a t i v i s m , b e lie v in g t h a t s in c e "form s o f th o u g h t can . . . be
p e rc e iv e d as h i s t o r i c a l l y d e te rm in e d ," so , to o , " i n t e l l e c t u a l
a c t i v i t y i s r e l a t i v e to i t s tim e s ." Bouwsma e q u a te s such
r e l a t i v i s m w ith th e s e h u m a n is ts ' p re fe re n c e f o r r h e t o r i c over
p h ilo s o p h ic a l a b s o lu t e s :
R h e to ric was a g n o s tic in re g a rd to g e n e ra l
t p r o p o s itio n s ; from i t s s ta n d p o in t man could n o t hope to
p e n e tr a te to th e u ltim a te o rd e r o f th in g s b u t o n ly make
p a r t i c u l a r sen se o f h i s im m ediate e x p e r ie n c e .
I
In th e l a t e r f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y such r e l a t i v i s m became l e s s
a c c e p ta b le , e s p e c i a l l y as C h r is tia n h u m a n ists— n o ta b ly
Erasmus— could n o t view th e Gospel a s r h e t o r i c a l com m unication,
"dependent on th e c o n tin g e n c ie s o f e lo q u e n c e ." The b e l i e f in a
o rg a n iz e d u n iv e rs e guided by G od's re a so n r e a s s e r t e d i t s e l f w ith
th e a tte n d a n t f i x i n g o f m oral and e t h i c a l norm s. T his
c o n s e rv a tiv e swing was a ls o m o tiv a te d by th e d e s i r e fo r a c tu a l as
w e ll as i n t e l l e c t u a l o rd e r and peace a f t e r th e a c tu a l d is o r d e r o f
27
f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w ars in F ran ce and England.
109
E n g lish h u m anists hoped to r e tu r n to s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
o rd e r by c r e a tin g e n lig h te n e d , ed u cated le a d e r s on th e model o f
th e c i t i z e n - o r a t o r , such as th e y b e lie v e d Demosthenes and C icero
to have been . T h e ir means to such a r e tu r n was to e d u c a te th e
E n g lish g e n try by th e methods and th ro u g h th e works o f th e
c l a s s i c s . To th e h u m a n ists, a l l s e r io u s a u th o rs were moral
te a c h e r s . The ’’c l e a r s e l f - e v i d e n t w orking m o r a lity c u r r e n t in
th e b e s t minds o f th e p e rio d between C aesar and th e A n to n in es”
p ro v id ed th e p r i n c i p l e s o f everyday e t h i c s by which le a d e r s m ight
28
l i v e . Thus in w r i t i n g on e d u c a tio n , such w r i t e r s as Erasmus
and E ly o t recommend f o r a boy from th e y o u n g est age onwards
c o u rses o f re a d in g in L a tin and G reek. Such r e a d in g b e g in s w ith
A esop’s f a b le s in G reek. F o r, as Erasmus w r i t e s , ’’when [ th e
l i t t l e fe llo w ] has f in i s h e d h i s la u g h , th en th e te a c h e r should
p o in t o u t th e new m o ra l” ( C h r is tia n P rin c e 1 4 6 -4 7 ); or as E ly o t
recommends; ”i t i s a much p le a s a n t le s s o n and a ls o p r o f i t a b l e "
(G overnor 1 .1 0 ) . And such recom m endations f o r re a d in g in c lu d e d
Homer f o r h i s ’’incom parable wisdom, and i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r p o l i t i c
g o v ern an ce"; th e t r a g e d i e s , by which one l e a r n s t o e x e c r a te and
abhor th e i n t o l e r a b l e l i f e o f t y r a n t s " ; and, o f c o u rs e ,
Demosthenes and C ic e ro , " o f which two o r a t o r s may be a t t a i n e d n o t
o n ly eloquence . . . b u t a ls o p re c e p ts o f wisdom, and g e n tle
m anners, w ith most commodious exam ples o f a l l n o b le v i r t u e s and
29
p o l i c y ."
1. 110
C e r ta in ly th e hum anist e d u c a t o r s ’ recom m endation o f th e
c l a s s i c s f o r t h e i r e t h i c a l p re c e p ts i s n o t t h e i r in v e n tio n .
T h e ir p r a c t i c e e x ten d s t o th e R en aissan ce th e m ed iev al h a b i t o f
a b so rb in g pagan l i t e r a t u r e i n t o C h r is tia n t r a d i t i o n . But th e
h u m a n is ts ’ p h i l o l o g i c a l p u r s u i t s added to th e m ed iev al f a i t h in
th e power o f l i t e r a t u r e to form th e c h a r a c te r a " s t r e n g t h d e riv e d
from f u l l e r know ledge, a d m ira tio n , and u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
c l a s s i c s , " and t h e i r o b je c t iv e s fo r e d u ca tio n were ro o te d in t h i s
w orld and l i f e : " t r a i n i n g in v i r t u e and good l e t t e r s . . .
t r a i n i n g f o r th e a c t i v e C h r is tia n l i f e , e s p e c i a l l y p u b lic
30
l i f e . ” The im p o rta n t r o l e o f r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n in hum anist
e d u c a tio n stem s in p a r t from E n g lish h u m a n is ts ’ d e s i r e to
accom plish th e se o b j e c t i v e s . M orris C ro ll e x p la in s t h a t by u sin g
c l a s s i c s as l i t e r a r y and e t h i c a l m odels, th e hum anist e d u c a to rs
p ro v id ed f o r t h e i r gentlem en s c h o la r s
a p a lp a b le d e s ig n , a s i n g l e and sensuous p a t t e r n , which
m ight f i n a l l y te a c h them— when th e y had le a r n e d t o
conform t h e i r sp eech , t h e i r m anners, t h e i r e x te r n a l
l i v e s to i t — th e method o f app reh en d in g th e t r u t h
i t s e l f .
P a ra p h ra sin g Thomas W ilso n , C ro ll shows th e E n g lish hum anists to
have b e lie v e d t h a t " i f we le a r n th e g e s tu r e o f th e e n c i e n t s , we
31
s h a l l n o t f a i l a t l a s t t o have minds l i k e t h e i r s t o o . ” These
E n g lish hum anist e d u c a to rs b e lie v e d t h a t by i m i t a t i n g c l a s s i c a l
l i t e r a t u r e , s tu d e n ts would become n o t j u s t v e r b a l l y f a c i l e , b u t
a l s o would a s s i m i l a t e th e e t h i c a l q u a l i t i e s and p e rs u a s iv e
111
a b i l i t y o f th e c l a s s i c a l c i t i z e n - o r a t o r and could use such
knowlege and s k i l l to meet th e needs o f t h e i r own s o c i e t y .
Rhetorical Imitation as Ethical Imitation
As th e l a s t c h a p te r e x p la in e d , d u rin g th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry
in c r e a s in g numbers o f b o th th e e s ta b lis h e d a r i s t o c r a c y and th e
new E n g lish g e n try came to th e grammar s c h o o ls , u n i v e r s i t i e s , and
In n s o f C ourt where th e y re c e iv e d a h u m a n is t-in s p ire d e d u c a tio n .
The E n g lish hum anists m ost o f te n were concerned w ith p ro v id in g
e d u c a tio n f o r th e p o l i t i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y p r i v i l e g e d — th o s e who
were to become th e " g o v e r n o r s ." M y d is c u s s io n h e re nex t
c o n s id e rs th e E n g lish h u m a n is ts ’ id e a l "go v ern o r" and how h is
m oral c h a r a c te r as w e ll as h i s L a tin s t y l e could be formed by
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n e x e r c i s e .
W hile I t a l i a n hu m an ist e d u c a to rs w ished to t r a i n th e uomo
u n i v e r s a l e , E n g lish h u m an ists w anted e d u c a tio n to form th e
c h a r a c te r o f th e " g o v e rn o r." To th e e x te n t t h a t th e e d u c a tio n
th e y o f f e r e d was e l i t i s t in both i n t e n t and p r a c t i c e , th e E n g lish
h u m an ists m odified th e e d u c a tio n a l o b je c t iv e s th e y i n h e r i t e d from
t h e i r I t a l i a n p r e d e c e s s o r s . The o b je c t iv e s o f such I t a l i a n
hum anist e d u c a to rs as P ico d e l l a M iran d o la, G u arin o , o r V itto r in o
da F e l t r e w ere, to be s u r e , p r a c t i c a l : as C h arlto n e x p la i n s , in
U:" « rd»>e£* 112
th e I t a l i a n e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y , " th e
p r a c t i c a l wisdom o f C icero i s p r e f e r r e d to th e t h e o r e t i c a l wisdom
o f th e s e lf - c o n ta in e d s c h o l a r . ” But th e I t a l i a n h u m a n is ts' aim
was b ro a d e r, more d e m o cratic th a n what th e E n g lish would l a t e r
make o f i t . Whereas E ly o t or Ascham in te n d e d to t r a i n th o s e who
would be or be n e ar th e head o f s t a t e , P ico d e l l a M iran d o la,
G u arin o , and Da F e l t r e in te n d e d to produce "a man w e ll- v e r s e d in
l e t t e r s , aware o f h i s d u t i e s to h is fe llo w men and equipped to
32
c a r r y them o u t ." The l a t t e r i s I t a l i a n " c i v i c humanism" w ith
i t s em phasis on each m an's o b lig a tio n s to h i s f e llo w s . The
form er i s what Kearney c a l l s E n g lish " c o u rt hum anism ," which
em phasized th e h i e r a r c h i c p o l i t i c a l o rd e r o f th e m onarchy; in
c o u rt humanism th e w e ll-ro u n d e d c i t i z e n i s l e s s im p o rta n t than
th e p rin c e or governor and h is e d u c a tio n , c o n d u c t, and o b lig a tio n
33
to h i s i n f e r i o r s . J . H. H exter c h a r a c t e r i z e s th e I t a l i a n uomo
u n iv e r s a le as th e man d e v o tin g h im s e lf to d e v e lo p in g th ro u g h a
l i t e r a r y e d u c a tio n "a rounded p e r s o n a l i t y , a com plete
i n d i v i d u a l i t y . " But to t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y H ex ter c o n t r a s t s th e
o b je c t iv e s o f e d u c a tio n in n o rth e rn Europe and E ngland. Taking
th e cue from th e head o f c h a p te r fo u r o f E l y o t 's G o vernor, "The
e d u c a tio n or form o f b rin g in g up o f th e c h ild o f a gentlem an,
which i s to have a u t h o r i t y in a p u b lic w e a l," H ex ter n o te s t h a t
Thomas S ta rk e y and Roger Ascham echo th e same id e a .
S ir Humphrey G i l b e r t has a scheme whereby g e n tle m e n 's
sons w i l l be crammed l i k e S tra s b o u rg g e ese w ith
knowledge and s k i l l , th e b e t t e r to s e rv e 'i n
113
p a rlia m e n t, in c o u n c il- in commission and o th e r o f f i c e s
o f th e com m onw ealth.'
U ltim a te ly , both th e I t a l i a n and E n g lish v e r s io n s o f th e
c i t i z e n - o r a t o r come from th e R en aissan ce hum anists* r e a d in g o f
c l a s s i c a l w orks, p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e o f Q u in tilia n and C icero .
Hanna Gray l i s t s th e h u m a n is ts ' f a v o r i t e p a ssa g e s from Q u in tilia n
and C icero on th e i d e a l o r a t o r , b u t a s in g le p a ssa g e from th e
I n s t i t u t i o O ra to ria ( 1 .9 - 1 0 ) w i l l be i l l u s t r a t i v e . "The f i r s t
e s s e n t i a l " f o r th e p e r f e c t o r a t o r , w rote Q u i n t i l i a n ,
i s t h a t he should be a good man, and c o n se q u e n tly we
demand o f him n o t m erely th e p o s se ss io n o f e x c e p tio n a l
g i f t s o f sp eech , b u t o f a l l th e e x c e lle n c e s o f
c h a r a c te r as w e l l . . . . The man who can r e a l l y p la y
h i s p a r t as a c i t i z e n i s c ap ab le o f m eetin g th e demands
both o f p u b lic and p r i v a t e b u s in e s s ; th e man who can
g u id e a s t a t e by h i s c o u n s e ls , g iv e i t a fir m b a s is by
h is l e g i s l a t i o n and purge i t s v ic e s by h i s d e c is io n s as
a judge# i s a s s u r e d ly no o th e r th an th e o r a t o r o f our
q u e s t.
T his d e s c r ip ti o n from Q u i n t i l i a n s e rv e s as w e ll to d e s c r ib e most
h u m a n is ts' i d e a l o b j e c t o f e d u c a tio n . The E n g lis h , how ever,
em phasized th e g e n tle m an ’s a b i l i t y to "guide a s t a t e by h is
c o u n s e ls , g iv e i t a firm b a s i s by h i s l e g i s l a t i o n and purge i t s
v ic e s by h i s d e c is io n s as a ju d g e ." The s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
E n g lish hum anists would have t h e i r s tu d e n ts i m i t a t e t h i s id e a l
c i t i z e n - o r a t o r , as b e s t e x e m p lifie d in th e works o f C ic e ro , and
by i m i t a t i n g h is w ords, come to i m i t a t e him in c h a r a c te r and in
a c t i o n s .
114
I t i s im p o rta n t n o t to view to o narrow ly E n g lish hum anist
e d u c a t o r s ’ o b je c t iv e s f o r r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n . To be s u r e ,
th e s e e d u c a to rs used i m i t a t i o n pedagogy to f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r
p u p i l s ’ language l e a r n i n g and to form t h e i r p u p i l s ' s t y l e in
acco rd an ce w ith a norm o f L a tin s t y l e r e p r e s e n te d by th e
l i t e r a t u r e o f th e l a t e Roman R ep u b lic. Yet E n g lish hum anist
e d u c a to r s ' i n s i s t e n c e on a p r e s c rib e d L a tin s t y l e was n o t
a r b i t r a r y ; nor was i t a m a tte r of what th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry
c a ll e d " t a s t e , " b u t was inform ed by t h e i r e q u a tio n o f s t y l e w ith
e t h i c a l and m oral o r d e r . As was m entioned e a r l i e r , E n g lish
hu m an ists in h e r i t e d th e m ed iev al b e l i e f in d i d a c t i c p u rp o ses f o r
l i t e r a t u r e , and th e y w ished to pass on th e p r a c t i c a l sy stem o f
e t h i c s th e y found in c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s . When one combines t h i s
e t h i c a l o b je c t iv e w ith th e h u m a n is ts' tendency to view s t y l e and
c o n te n t as w orking in u n iso n tow ard p e rs u a s iv e e f f e c t , one sees
th e lo g ic o f t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t th e s tu d e n t m ight i m i t a t e much
more th an w ords.
In h i s e ssa y "The R ev iv al o f C la s s ic a l A n tiq u ity ," W allace
F erguson e x p la in s t h a t th e h u m anists d e s ir e d to i m i t a t e th e
c l a s s i c s sim ply because " th e y w anted to w r ite w e l l , and th e y
could th in k o f no b e t t e r way o f doing so th an to w r ite as much
l i k e th e a n c ie n t m a ste rs as p o s s i b l e ." Ferguson c a l l s th e
h u m a n is ts' own w r i t i n g , which c o n ta in e d so many o f th e s e n te n tia e
th e y c u lle d from c l a s s i c a l so u rc e s and s to re d in memory or j o t t e d
115
in notebooks “l i t t l e more th a n a m osaic o f borrowed p h ra s e s ,
o v erlo ad ed w ith an u n n e c e ssa ry burden o f c l a s s i c a l a l l u s i o n . ”
But i f by " w r itin g w e ll" one means sim ply acc o m p lish in g a s t y l e
which a cc o rd s w ith some s t y l i s t i c norm, one o p e r a te s by a
d e f i n i t i o n d i f f e r e n t from t h a t in which many o f th e h u m anists
b e lie v e d . The q u e s tio n o f a s e p a r a tio n o f 'f o r m ’ from 'c o n t e n t '
i s ou r own co n cern : t h i s q u e s tio n o f th e p h ilo so p h y o f language
so u rg e n t to u s was o f l i t t l e concern to th e E n g lish
37
h u m a n ists. R a th e r, th e y b e lie v e d t h a t t r u l y e lo q u e n t d is c o u r s e
i s t h a t which th ro u g h e f f e c t i v e u se o f language p e rsu ad e s one to
goodness. To be s t y l i s t i c a l l y f a c i l e b u t m o ra lly q u e s tio n a b le
was to th e s e C h r is tia n h u m an ists to be d e g e n e ra te . To be m o ra lly
u p r i g h t , b u t u n p e rs u a s iv e , though n o t o u t r i g h t h a rm fu l, was
n o n e th e le s s s o c i a l l y u s e l e s s .
For Erasmus and Ascham, to be e lo q u e n t was to be c l e a r ,
p e r s u a s iv e , and m o ra lly and e t h i c a l l y r ig h t e o u s . In h i s
c o l l e c t i o n o f s e n t e n t i a e , Erasmus e x p la in s t h a t apophthegms
p ersu ad e th e young to v i r t u e because o f t h e i r e lo q u e n c e . The
Et h i c s and P o l i t i c s o f A r i s t o t l e do n o t move th e young,
"foreasm oche as he v s e th no soche maner o f R h e t o r i c a l l s t i l e o f
w r i t i n g , as maie moue th e a f f e c t e s and p a s s i o n s ." But
apophthegms do p ersu ad e th e young to v i r t u e , fo r
th e most w ise and a u n c ie n t f a t h e r s . . . th o u g h t i t
c o n u e n ie n te , w ith c e r t a i n e knackes o f p le a s a u n te
d e le c ta c i o n , to l u r e th e te n d e r n e s s e o f ftyo u n g th , vnto
th e lo u e o f sage L ad ie S a p ie n ce . . . .
116
E rasm u s's method and p u rp o ses o f re a d in g w i l l be d is c u s s e d more
f u l l y in a l a t e r c h a p te r , b u t i t i s w orthw hile t o n o te in th e
p r e s e n t c o n te x t t h a t h i s recom m endations f o r re a d in g and h is
exam ples a re alw ays c o n sid e re d as much f o r t h e i r e t h i c a l im port
39
as t h e i r " p u r ity " o f L a tin .
In th e s e c tio n o f The S choolm aster on i m i t a t i o , Ascham
d e f in e s " p e r f e c t e lo q u en c e " as t h a t which combines l i n g u i s t i c
f a c i l i t y and wisdom. Ascham recommends i m i t a t i o n o f Greek and
L a tin because in th o s e lan g u ag es "we fin d alw ays wisdom and
e lo q u e n c e , never o r seldom asu n d er" (1 1 4 -1 5 ). In t h a t same
s e c tio n Ascham o b je c t s to th o s e who "c a re n o t f o r words b u t fo r
m a tte r and so make a d iv o rc e b e tw ix t th e tongue and th e h e a r t . "
Ascham co n ten d s t h a t "p ro p e r words be fo r good m a tte r s and a ls o
p la in and s e n s ib le u t t e r a n c e f o r th e b e s t and d e e p e s t r e a s o n s , in
which two p o in ts s ta n d e th p e r f e c t e lo q u e n c e ." (1 1 5 ). In d e e d ,
Ascham e q u a te s s t y l i s t i c v i r t u o s i t y w ith g o o d n ess, " f o r a l l such
a u th o rs as be f u l l e s t o f good m a tte r and r i g h t judgem ent in
d o c tr in e be lik e w is e alw ays most p ro p er in w ords, most a p t in
s e n te n c e , most p la in and pure in u t t e r i n g th e sam e." So, to o ,
Ascham b e lie v e s th o s e he f in d s m o ra lly q u e s tio n a b le a ls o to be
i n e lo q u e n t:
And c o n tr a r iw is e . . . whosoever be found fond in
judgem ent o f m a tte r , be commonly found ru d e in u t t e r i n g
t h e i r mind. For S t o i c s , A n a b a p tis ts , and f r i a r s , w ith
E p ic u re s , l i b e r t i n e s , and monks, being most l i k e in
le a r n in g and l i f e , a re no fo n d er and p e r n ic io u s in
117
t h e i r o p in io n s th a n th e y be ru d e and b a rb a ro u s in t h e i r
w r i t i n g s . ( S ch o o lm aster 115)
Gray arg u es t h a t th e h u m an ists b e lie v e d t h a t men’s c h a r a c te r
c o u ld b e s t be ed u cated ’’th ro u g h th e a r t o f e lo q u e n c e , which
endowed th e p re c e p t w ith l i f e , immediacy, p e rs u a s iv e e f f e c t , and
40
w hich s tim u la te d men’ s w i l l as w e ll as in fo rm in g h i s r e a s o n ."
Gray goes on to e x p la in t h a t th e h u m anists d is p a ra g e d th e
s c h o l a s t i c s in p a r t because th e y b e lie v e d th e s c h o l a s t i c s t o have
f a i l e d p e r s u a s iv e ly to communicate im p o rta n t t r u t h s . The
h u m anists p r e f e r r e d th e elo q u en ce o f th e c l a s s i c a l a u th o r to th e
w r i t i n g o f th e s c h o l a s t i c p h ilo s o p h e r , "because th e f i r s t not
o n ly makes one see what v i r t u e i s , b u t makes one f e e l and w ill to
p r a c t i c e i t . " Erasmus e x p re s s e s t h i s se n tim e n t e x a c tly in th e
c o llo q u y "The Godly F e a s t ." One o f th e i n t e r l o c u t o r s a t th e
d in n e r h e s i t a t e s to i n t e r j e c t i n t o a d is c u s s io n o f S t. P a u l's
f i r s t l e t t e r to th e C o rin th ia n s a comment from a c l a s s i c a l
a u th o r , a p o lo g iz in g t h a t i t may be in a p p r o p r ia te to " in tro d u c e
a n y th in g from p ro fan e w r i t e r s i n t o such r e l i g i o u s c o n v e r s a tio n ."
One o f h i s fe llo w s welcomes th e i n t e r j e c t i o n , e x p la in in g t h a t he
"would r a t h e r l e t a l l o f S co tu s and o th e r s o f h i s s o r t p e r is h
th a n th e books o f a s in g le C icero o r P l u t a r c h ," f o r he i s "helped
by re a d in g th e l a t t e r " b u t upon re a d in g th e form er he f i n i s h e s
th e re a d in g "somehow l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c about t r u e v i r t u e , b u t
more c o n te n tio u s " ( c i t e d in G ray, "R enaissance Humanism" 501,
503).
j
118
Not o n ly d id th e h u m an ists d e fin e elo q u en ce in term s o f both
s t y l e and m a tte r , th e y o f te n d is c u s s e d l i t e r a r y and e t h i c a l
m odels a t th e same tim e and in th e same te rm s. Gray w r ite s th a t
th e hu m an ists a p p lie d th e term s o f r h e t o r i c to e t h i c s as w e ll.
The term s "decorum 1 1 and " i m i t a t i o , " f o r exam ple, a re
c e n t r a l to both r h e t o r i c and m oral p h ilo so p h y , and th e
h u m an ists o f te n ap p ear to fu s e t h e i r m eanings w hatever
th e c o n te x t. Thus, th e im i t a t i o n o f s t y l i s t i c and o f
e t h i c a l models a re spoken o f in i d e n t i c a l te rm s; o r th e
id e a o f alw ays sp ea k in g a p p r o p r ia te ly , o f s u i t i n g s t y l e
and manner to s u b j e c t , aim , and au d ien ce i s t r e a t e d as
th e e x a c t an alo g u e o f behaving w ith decorum , o f
ch o o sin g a c tio n s and re s p o n se s which a re b e s t in
harmony w ith and most a p p r o p r ia te t o in d iv id u a l
c h a r a c te r and p r i n c i p l e s on th e one hand, th e n a tu re o f
c irc u m sta n c e s on th e o t h e r . ("R en aissan ce Humanism"
5 0 6 )
I t i s t h i s h a b it o f e q u a tin g s t y l e and e t h i c s which made hum anist
e d u c a to rs b e lie v e t h a t by i m i t a t i n g C ic e ro ’s language th e s tu d e n t
a ls o a s s i m i l a t e s C ic e r o 's e t h i c s . I f C icero (o r whomever th e
s tu d e n t i m i t a t e s ) n o t o n ly d e m o n strates v i r t u e in h i s w r i t i n g ,
b u t p e rsu ad e s one to be v i r t u o u s , th e i m i t a t o r would h im s e lf be
p e rsu a d e d . The boy could be assumed n o t o n ly to i m i t a t e a
s t y l i s t i c m odel, b u t an e t h i c a l m odel. So, to o , th e p u p il would
be le a r n in g to use lan g u ag e to p ersu ad e o th e r s to v i r t u e . In th e
h u m a n is ts ’ co n ce p tio n o f th e te rm , th e i m i t a t o r , th ro u g h h is
e x e r c i s e , m ight t r u l y be a c q u ir in g " e lo q u e n c e ."
E a r l i e r I d e fin e d th e co n cep t z e l o s i s . O ften t r a n s l a t e d as
" z e a lo u s i m i t a t i o n , " z e l o s i s sto o d f o r th e s p e c ia l kind o f
i m ita tio n whereby th e l e a r n e r so u g h t to i m i t a t e n o t j u s t th e
119
w ords, b u t th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h a b i t o f th in k in g and a c t i n g — in
e f f e c t , much o f th e c h a r a c te r o f th e o r a to r a f t e r whom he chose
to p a t t e r n h im s e lf . Because E n g lish hum anist e d u c a to rs lin k e d
s t y l e and c o n te n t, words and e t h i c s , and because th e y assumed
t h a t p u p ils would i m i t a t e n o t j u s t th e w ords, b u t a ls o th e
m odel’s e t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r , th e s e e d u c a to rs gave new meaning to
i m i t a t i o n , ak in to th e c l a s s i c a l id e a o f z e l o s i s , b u t w ith a
s tr o n g b ia s tow ard th e m oral and e t h i c a l . In The A rte o f
R h eto riq u e (1553) W ilson echoes th e c l a s s i c a l adm onition to
z e l o s i s :
b e fo re we vse e i t h e r to w r i t e , or speake e lo q u e n tly ,
wee must d e d ic a te ou r myndes wholy, to fo llo w e th e most
w ise and le a r n e d men, and seeke to fa s h io n as wel t h e i r
speache and g e s tu r in g , as t h e i r w i t t e or e n d y tin g . The
which when we e a r n e s t l y mynd to doe, we can n o t b u t in
tim e ap p ere somewhat l i k e them. . . . F o r i f th e y t h a t
w alke much in th e Sunne, and th in k e n o t o f i t , a re y e t
f o r th e most p a r t Sunne b u r n t, i t can n o t be b u t t h a t
th e y which w i t t i n g l y and w i l l i n g l y tr a u a y le to
c o u n te r f e c t o t h e r , m ust needes ta k e some c o lo u r o f
them , and be l i k e v n to them in some one t h i n g o r o th e r ,
a c c o rd in g to th e P ro u e rb e , ^ companying w ith th e w ise ,
a man s h a l l l e a r n wisedome.
W ilso n ’s p r o v e r b ia l com parison h e re shows t h a t he assumed th e
l e a r n e r would i m i t a t e both th e s t y l e and th e e t h i c a l c h a r a c te r o f
h i s m odel. W ilson b e g in s by u n i t i n g s t y l e and d e liv e r y ("sp each e
and g e s t u r i n g " ) . The s t r u c t u r e o f W ilso n ’s s e n te n c e su g g e sts
t h a t he opposes "speache and g e s t u r i n g ," m a tte r s o f form , to
" w itte o r e n d y tin g ," m a tte r s o f c o n te n t. By h i s use o f th e
p ro v erb W ilson shows t h a t im i t a t i n g " w itte or e n d y tin g " w ill form
120
th e p u p i l ’s e t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r , le a d in g him, as i f w ith o u t
in te n d in g , to " le a rn e w isedom e." To see t h a t , in d e e d , W ilson i s
assum ing t h a t th e i m i t a t o r w i l l a c q u ire th e c h a r a c te r o f h i s
m odel, i t i s im p o rta n t to know th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f W ilso n ’s use
o f " w it" in th e p assag e j u s t c i t e d . The d e f i n i t i o n o f "w it"
s h i f t s w ith tim e and i s vague a t any given tim e d u rin g th e
R e n a issa n c e, v a ry in g in m eaning from th e b ro a d e s t se n se o f
"m ental acumen" to th e se n se o f "w it" as a f a c i l i t y fo r j e s t .
W illiam G. Crane c laim s t h a t o rn am en tatio n i s th e m ost
s i g n i f i c a n t elem ent o f R en aissan ce r h e t o r i c , and t h a t "w it" in
t h i s c o n te x t i s b e s t summarized as ’a f a c i l i t y fo r
42
o r n a m e n ta tio n .’ However, th e e a r l i e r d is c u s s io n o f th e
h u m a n is ts ’ d e f i n i t i o n o f elo q u en ce su g g e sts t h a t Crane u n ju s tly
red u ces r h e t o r i c (an d , h en ce, " w it" ) to s t y l i s t i c c o n c e rn s. In
th e c o n te x t o f t h i s p a ssa g e from W ilson we m ight b e t t e r d e fin e
"w it" as " r h e t o r i c a l in v e n t i o n ," w ith th e u n d e rs ta n d in g t h a t
s t y l e may w e ll have h e u r i s t i c v a lu e — t h a t d e v e lo p in g a l i n g u i s t i c
s t r u c t u r e or a tr o p e may w e ll le a d th e w r i t e r t o new i n s i g h t .
W ilson a ls o u ses " e n d y tin g " in th e passage c i t e d h e r e , a
s u b s ta n tiv e formed from " i n d i t e " which in c lu d e d th e meanings "to
p u t i n t o w ords, compose (a poem, t a l e , sp eech , e t c . ) ; to g iv e
l i t e r a r y or r h e t o r i c a l form to (w ords, and a d d r e s s ) ; t o e x p re ss
o r d e s c r ib e in a l i t e r a r y c o m p o sitio n ." A gain, " r h e t o r i c a l
in v e n tio n " m ight be a s u i t a b l e modern e q u iv a l e n t. A lso , th e
121
h u m a n is ts ’ d e f i n i t i o n o f elo q u en ce as t h a t which i s both
s t y l i s t i c a l l y f a c i l e and p e r s u a s iv e tow ard m oral and e t h i c a l good
may ap p ly h e re . "W it” (o r " e n d y tin g ," which W ilson c o r r e l a t e s to
" w it" ) m ight th en s u g g e s t a c a p a c ity f o r composing " e lo q u e n t"
d is c o u r s e . So when W ilson a s s e r t s t h a t th e i m i t a t o r "must needes
ta k e some c o lo u r" o f h is m odel, he r e f e r s m e ta p h o r ic a lly to th e
z e a lo u s i m i t a t o r ’s a s s i m i l a t i n g both th e o r i g i n a l 's s t y l e and
h a b i t o f th in k in g and a rg u in g . R h e to ric a l im ita tio n i s t r u l y a
means to "companying w ith th e w is e ."
A Summary and a Caveat
The p r e s e n t and p re v io u s c h a p te r s e x p la in how s ix te e n th
c e n tu ry p o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s and h u m a n ists' assu m p tio n s about
language and e d u ca tio n p ro v id ed th e c o n te x t in which r h e t o r i c a l
i m i t a t i o n pedagogy emerged as a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f th e program
o f " c l a s s i c a l " e d u c a tio n . The pedagogy and o b je c t iv e s o f such
" c l a s s i c a l " e d u c a tio n rem ained in e f f e c t f o r over th r e e
4 3
c e n t u r i e s , s u r v iv in g even lo n g e r in J e s u i t s c h o o ls . The r e c e n t
work o f Anthony G ra fto n and L is a J a r d in e c h a lle n g e s h i s t o r i a n s of
hum anist e d u c a tio n to " g e t to g r ip s w ith hum anist p r a c t i c e r a th e r
th a n i t s t h e o r e t i c a l and i d e a l i s t i c p ro m ise s." G ra fto n and
J a r d in e b e lie v e hum anist e d u c a tio n to have produced "grow ing
122
numbers o f p eo p le f l u e n t in th e a n c ie n t languages'* r a t h e r th an
"any p e r c e p tib l e r e s u l t s o f th e ’m oral tr a in in g * o r ’p re p a r a tio n
f o r l i f e , * supposed to be p ro v id e d by hum anism ." In
c o n s id e rin g th e form s and e v a lu a tin g th e p o t e n t i a l s tr e n g th s and
w eaknesses o f r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n pedagogy, I s h a l l in th e
e p ilo g u e a d d re ss G rafto n and J a r d in e * s c h a lle n g e . However, a
b r i e f summary w i l l f i r s t be h e l p f u l .
The p re v io u s c h a p te r e x p la in e d t h a t th e Tudor monarchs and
t h e i r a d m in is tr a to r s were th e g r e a t e s t p a tro n s o f th e E n g lish
h u m a n is ts' schemes o f e d u c a tio n . To c o n s o lid a te t h e i r power and
e s t a b l i s h a c e n t r a l i z e d b u re a u c ra c y w ith which to ru n a l l o f
E ngland, th e Tudors p ro v id e d a number o f h u m an ists w ith high
governm ent p o s i t i o n s and som etim es d i r e c t l y p a tr o n iz e d t h e i r
work. In exchange, th e s e E n g lish h u m a n ists, w ith t h e i r language
s k i l l s and le a r n in g , p ro v id e d c ap ab le governm ent s e r v ic e and some
o f th e argument and d o c t r i n a l a p p a ra tu s which l e g itim iz e d th e
E n g lish ch u rch . To prom ote r e l i g i o u s c o n fo rm ity and p ro v id e a
g e n try w ith th e s k i l l s needed fo r t h e i r governm ents, th e Tudors
a ls o d i r e c t l y fa v o re d th e i n s t i t u t i o n o f hum anist e d u c a tio n a l
c u r r i c u l a . W hile ro y a l v i s i t o r s encouraged h u m an ist s t u d i e s a t
Oxford and Cambridge, th e Tudors founded and refo u n d ed
r e lig io u s ly - c o n f o r m in g grammar s c h o o ls w ith h u m an ist e d u c a tio n a l
c u r r i c u l a and o f f i c i a l h u m a n is t-w ritte n t e x t s . At th e same tim e
f r e s h c o lle g e fo u n d a tio n s a t Oxford and Cambridge melded hum anist
123
c u r r i c u l a w ith t r a d i t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l a by ta k in g over
much o f th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s c h o l a r s ' e d u c a tio n . The c o lle g e s
p ro v id e d l e c t u r e r s , t u t o r s f o r u n d e rg ra d u a te s , and s p e c i f i c
d egree re q u ire m e n ts in a d d itio n to th o s e o f th e u n i v e r s i t y .
W hile a l l th e s e changes in c u r r i c u l a were ta k in g p la c e , sons o f
th e g e n try and a r i s t o c r a c y tu rn e d to h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in
u n p re c ed e n te d num bers. The h u m a n is ts' d i r e c t advocacy o f t h e i r
ty p e o f e d u c a tio n , th e hope o f s e c u rin g fo r t h e i r sons a p o s itio n
in a b u re a u cra c y in c r e a s i n g l y dependent upon l e a r n i n g , and th e
hopes f o r th e c o n n e c tio n s and th e s o c i a l p r i v i l e g e s an e d u c a tio n
could p ro v id e encouraged a f f l u e n t , s o c i a l l y p r i v i l e g e d p a r e n ts to
send t h e i r sons to u n i v e r s i t y . At th e same tim e , th e d e v elo p in g
t u t o r i a l system a t th e u n i v e r s i t i e s a t t r a c t e d th e sons o f th o se
would could a f f o r d b o th th e e d u c a tio n and th e c lo s e e d u c a tio n a l
and m oral s u p e rv is io n o f a c o lle g e t u t o r .
The p r e s e n t c h a p te r h as shown t h a t E n g lish hu m an ists b e lie v e d
n o t o n ly t h a t L a tin was more s t y l i s t i c a l l y f l e x i b l e th an th e
v e r n a c u la r , b u t a ls o t h a t th e c l a s s i c a l lan g u ag es were th e on ly
l a s t i n g r e p o s ito r y o f p r a c t i c a l , c l a s s i c a l wisdom on th e a f f a i r s
o f everyday p u b lic and p r i v a t e l i f e . These men made a
s e lf - c o n s c io u s e f f o r t to u se th e p r a c t i c a l wisdom found in th e
c l a s s i c a l canon to c r e a t e anew in England th e ty p e o f o rd e re d ,
h i e r a r c h i c s o c ie ty which th e y saw modeled in G od's u n iv e r s a l
o r d e r . Such an end was to be e f f e c t e d by an e d u c a tio n which h e ld
i . vat o r 124
up to th e sons o f th e g o v ern in g c l a s s e s th e i d e a l o f th e e lo q u e n t
c i t i z e n - o r a t o r . B e lie v in g t h a t t r u e elo quence was n o t o n ly a
m a tte r o f f a c i l i t y w ith la n g u a g e , b u t a l s o o f e t h i c a l and m oral
r ig h te o u s n e s s , th e E n g lish hum anists a tte m p ted to develop such
elo q u en ce through i m i t a t i o n pedagogy, f o r th e boy could be
assumed in h i s re a d in g and im ita tio n to a s s i m i l a t e n o t o n ly a
s t y l i s t i c m odel, b u t an e t h i c a l model as w e ll.
125
Notes
1
H e rb e rt W e isin g e r, "Who Began th e R ev iv al o f L earn in g ?"
P apers o f th e M ichigan Academy o f S c ie n c e s , A rts and L e t t e r s 30
(1 9 4 4 ): 633. S ince Jacob B u rc k h a r d t’s 1860 Die K u ltu r d er
R en aissan ce in I t a l i e n was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g lish in 1890, th e r e
have been volumes o f modern s c h o l a r l y d e b ate over th e q u e s tio n o f
w hether th e R en aissan ce can r i g h t l y be c o n sid e re d an e ra s e p a r a te
from th e th e Middle Ages and w hether i t s in c e p tio n i s in
f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y I t a l y o r much e a r l i e r ; see W e isin g e r, "The
S elf-A w areness o f th e R en aissan ce as a C r ite r io n o f th e
R e n a is sa n c e ," M ichigan Academy o f S c ie n c e , A rts and L e t t e r s 29
(1 9 4 3 ): 561-62 and n o te 1. Douglas Bush s u p p o rts th e view t h a t
"ex ten d s th e Middle Ages forw ard to in c lu d e th e R e n a issa n c e " ; The
R en aissan ce and E n g lish Humanism (T o ro n to : U n iv e r s ity o f T oronto
P r e s s , 1956), 29. Paul Oskar K r i s t e l l e r d efen d s " th e e x is te n c e
and im p o rtan ce o f th e R e n a issa n c e " as a co n cep t which e n a b le s
s c h o la r s " to re c o g n iz e th e s i g n i f i c a n t changes b ro u g h t about by
th e R en aissan ce w ith o u t [m in im izin g ] th e d e b t o f th e R en aissan ce
to th e m edieval t r a d i t i o n . " The p o in t h ere i s t h a t men o f th e
R en aissan ce b e lie v e d th e m selv e s to be a c t i v e l y c r e a tin g an e ra
s e t a p a r t from p re c e d in g c e n t u r i e s . Even i f th e c o n cep t o f th e
R en aissan ce i s an i l l u s i o n " th e i l l u s i o n i t s e l f was
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h a t p e r io d " ; R enaissance T hought: The C la s s ic ,
S c h o la s t ic and H um anistic S t r a i n s (New York: H arper and Row,
1961), 93.
2
H e rb e rt W eisin g e r, "R en aissan ce Accounts o f th e R ev iv al o f
L e a rn in g ," S tu d ie s in P h ilo lo g y 45 (A p ril 1948): 118.
3
W allace K. F erg u so n , "Humanist Views o f th e R e n a is sa n c e ,"
American H i s t o r i c a l Review 45 (1 9 3 9 -4 0 ): 5 -8 , 28.
4
S ir Thomas E ly o t, The Book Named The G overnor (New York:
D u tto n , Everyman’s L ib r a r y , 1 962), 1 .1 . H e r e a f te r r e f e r e n c e s to
The Governor w i l l be c i t e d w ith in th e t e x t by book and c h a p te r
number.
5
D e s id e riu s Erasm us, The Apophthegms o f Erasm us, t r a n s l a t e d
by N ic o las U dall (1564, r e p r i n t e d B oston, 1877), 10-11.
1 2 6
^ D e sid e riu s Erasm us, The E ducation o f a C h r is tia n P r in c e ,
t r a n s l a t e d by L e s te r K. Born (New York: Octagon Books, 1973),
135.
7
W alter J . Ong, S . J . R h e to ric , Romance and T echnology:
S tu d ie s in th e I n t e r a c t i o n o f E x p ressio n and C u ltu re ( I th a c a , New
York: C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1971), 114.
g
W alter J . Ong, S .J . Ramus, Method, and th e Decay o f
D ialo g u e: Form th e A rt o f D isco u rse to th e A rt o f Reason
(Cam bridge, M a ssa c h u se tts: H arvard U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1958), 13
and 137.
g
E ly o t i m p l i c i t l y d e f in e s " le a rn in g " as L a tin language
l e a r n in g . In G overnor 1 .7 -8 E ly o t d is c u s s e s m u sic, p a in tin g and
c a r v in g , b u t he does n o t c o n s id e r th e s e to be m a tte rs o f
" l e a r n i n g ." At th e op en in g o f 1.10 E ly o t p rom ises to " r e tu r n to
th e o rd e r o f le a r n in g a p t fo r a g en tlem an ," and im m ediately
d is c u s s i n s t r u c t i o n in re a d in g and w r iti n g L a tin and G reek.
^ °D e sid e riu s Erasm us, De c o n s c rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s in C o lle c te d
Works o f Erasm us, Vol. 25: L i t e r a r y and E d u c a tio n a l W ritin g s 3 ,
t r a n s l a t e d by C h arles F a n ta z z i (T o ro n to : U n iv e r s ity o f T oronto
P r e s s , 1985), 17.
l1 D e sid e riu s Erasm us, De r a t i o n e s t u d i i in C o lle c te d Works o f
Erasm us, V o l.24: L i t e r a r y and E d u c a tio n a l W ritin g s 2 , t r a n s l a t e d
by B rian McGregor (T o ro n to : U n iv e r s ity o f T oronto P r e s s , 1978),
667 (em phasis m ine).
12
C C harles] S [ e a r s ] B aldw in, R enaissance L i t e r a r y Theory and
P r a c t i c e : C la ss ic ism in th e R h e to ric and P o e tic o f I t a l y , F ran c e ,
and England 1400-1600 ( G lo u c e s te r, M a ssa c h u se tts: P e te r Sm ith,
1959), 26-27.
13
Quoted in B aldw in, R en aissan ce L i t e r a r y Theory and
P r a c t i c e , 18.
14
D e sid e riu s Erasm us, De r e c t e p r o n u n tia tio n e in C o lle c te d
Works o f Erasm us, V ol.2 6 : L i t e r a r y and E d u c a tio n a l W ritin g s 4 ,
t r a n s l a t e d by M aurice Pope (T o ro n to : U n iv e r s ity o f T oronto P r e s s ,
1985), 390.
15
Roger Ascham, T o x o p h ilu s in The Whole Works o f Roger Ascham
V ol. 2 (London, 1864; r e p r i n t e d New York: AM S P r e s s , 1965), 6.
127
1 f\
M aurice A. H atch , "The L a tin L e t t e r s o f Roger Ascham and
John Sturm: A T r a n s la tio n " (M.A. T h e s is : U n iv e r s ity o f K ansas,
1940), 124-25.
17
F o s te r W atson, The B eginnings o f th e T eaching o f Modern
S u b je c ts in England (London: S ir Is a a c Pitman and Sons, 1909), 4.
18
R ichard F o s te r Jo n e s , The Triumph o f th e E n g lish L anguage:
A Survey o f O pinions C oncerning th e V ern acu lar from th e
I n tr o d u c tio n o f P r in tin g to th e R eform ation ( S ta n f o r d : S ta n fo rd
U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , [ 1 9 5 2 ] ), 18, 51-52.
19
Such e x e r c is e s a ls o p re p a red s tu d e n ts to a d a p t L a tin
f i g u r e s and schemes to E n g lis h . In h i s T r e a tis e o f Schemes and
T ropes (1 5 5 0 ), S h erry showed t h a t he b e lie v e d one way to make th e
v e rn a c u la r more e lo q u e n t was to make E n g lish use o f some o f th e
schemes and tr o p e s o f L a tin . S h e rry approved o f Gower, C haucer,
and Lydgate fo r e lo q u e n c e , and he p r a is e d E ly o t f o r " se a rc h in g e
o u te th e copy [c o p io u s n e s s ] o f our language" in h i s d i c t i o n a r y .
S h erry co n ten d s t h a t th e v e r n a c u l a r 's r e p u ta tio n f o r
b a rb a ro u sn e ss i s n o t " f o r anye d e fa u t in th e toungue i t s e l f e ,
b u t r a t h e r f o r s la k n e s o f ou r co u n trim en , which have alw ayes s e t
l y g h t by s e a rc h in g o u t th e e le g a n c e and p ro p e r sp each es t h a t be
f u l many in i t . " S h e rry o f f e r s h is book f o r th e e n r ic h in g o f
E n g lis h , f o r "no le rn e d n acio n h a th th e r e bene b u t ye le a rn e d in
i t have w r itt e n o f schemes & f i g u r e s , which th e i wold n o t have
don, e x ce p t t h e i had perceyved th e v alew e"; see R ich ard S h e rry , A
T r e a t i s e o f Schemes and Tropes [1550] ( G a in e s v ill e , F l o r i d a :
S c h o la rs F a c s im ile s and R e p r in ts , 1961), 3-11.
20
A rth u r 0. L ovejoy, The G reat Chain o f B ein g , Cam bridge,
M a ssa c h u se tts: H arvard U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1966), 59.
21
Paul N. S ie g e l, " E n g lish Humanism and th e New Tudor
A r is to c r a c y ," J o u rn a l o f th e H is to ry o f Id e a s 13 (1 9 5 2 ):4 5 7 -6 0 .
22
S ie g e l, "E n g lish Humanism and th e New Tudor A r is to c r a c y ,"
462. S ie g e l i s c i t i n g E ly o t, Governor 1 .2 .
23
B a ld a ssa re C a s tig lio n e , The Book o f th e C o u rtie r t r a n s l a t e d
by S ir Thomas Hoby (New Y ork: E. P. D utton, 1975), 276-77.
24
Erasm us, The E d u cation o f a C h r is tia n P r in c e , 159.
25
Erasm us, The E d u catio n o f a C h r is tia n P r in c e , 175-76.
26
Jacq u es B arzun, Rom anticism and th e Modern Ego (B oston:
L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1943), 52-53.
128
27
W illiam J . Bouwsma, "Changing A ssum ptions in L a te r
R en aissan ce C u l t u r e ,” V ia to r 7 (1975): 422-40.
28
W illiam H a rriso n Woodward, D e sid e riu s Erasmus Concerning
th e Aim and Method o f E d u catio n (New York: T each ers C o lle g e,
Columbia U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1964), 37.
29
The recom m endations c i t e d h ere a re s p e c i f i c a l l y from E ly o t,
The G overnor. On Homer and tr a g e d ie s f o r th e m ature r e a d e r , see
1 .1 0 ; on Demosthenes and C ic e ro , 1 .1 1 . S im ila r recom m endations
o f a n c ie n t w r i t e r s abound in Erasm us. See e . g . De r a t i o n e
s t u d i i , 669 on th e a n c ie n t w r i t e r s as " th e v e ry fo u n ta in h e a d " o f
p r a c t i c a l wisdom and th e re a d in g recom m endation a t 672-75 and
6 8 2 f f .
30
Douglas Bush, The R en aissan ce and E n g lish Humanism, 46-47,
78.
31
M orris W. C r o l l , " A ttic " and Baroque P rose S ty l e : The
A n ti-C ic e ro n ea n Movement, J . Max P a tr ic k and R o b ert 0. Evans,
e d i t o r s (P rin c e to n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1969), 117-18.
See th e d is c u s s io n b e g in n in g page 116.
32
C h a rlto n , E d u catio n in R en aissan ce E n g lan d , 34.
33
Hugh K earney, S c h o la rs and G entlem en: U n i v e r s i t i e s and
S o c ie ty in P r e - I n d u s t r i a l B r i t a i n 1500-1700 ( I t h a c a , New York:
C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1970), 35-36.
34
J [a c k ] H. H e x te r, R e a p p ra is a ls in H is to r y : New Views on
H is to ry and S o c ie ty in E a rly Modern Europe (C hicago: U n iv e rs ity
o f Chicago P r e s s , 1979), 64-65.
35
Hanna H. Gray, "R en aissan ce Humanism: The P u r s u it o f
E lo q u en c e," J o u rn a l o f th e H is to ry o f Id e a s 24 (1 9 6 3 ): 504. Gray
c i t e s th e I n s t i t u t i o O r a to r ia 1 2 .1 .2 and C ic e ro , De o r a to r e
1 .6 .3 0 , 45-78, 202; 2 .5 - 6 , 33-38; 3 .2 3 , 53, 76, 122-25; B rutus
187-88; O ra to r 69-70, 100-101; and De in v e n tio n e 1 .1 -6 .
<3 £
W allace K. F erg u so n , "The R evival o f C l a s s i c a l A n tiq u ity ,
o r th e F i r s t C entury o f Humanism: A R e a p p ra is a l" in R enaissance
S tu d ie s by W allace K. F e rg u so n , U n iv e rs ity o f W estern O n ta rio
S tu d ie s in th e H um anities No. 2 (1963): 99-100.
37
Gray c h a lle n g e s th e modern e f f o r t t o " d i s t i n g u i s h between
'fo rm 1 and ’s u b s ta n c e 1 in th e c o n s id e r a tio n o f hum anist
l i t e r a t u r e " ; see "R en aissan ce Humanism" 497.
129
O g
D e sid e riu s Erasm us, The Apophthegms o f Erasm us, t r a n s l a t e d
by N ico las U dall (1564 e d i t i o n , r e p r in te d B o ston, 1877), x, x v ii
(d e d ic a to r y p r e f a c e ) .
39
See as examples De r a t i o n e s t u d i i 676-77, 682 on th e method
o f th e i n s t r u c t o r s re a d in g p r e l a e c t i o ; and De c o n s c rib e n d is
e p i s t o l i s 26 on how s t u d e n t s 1 p r a c t i c e o f w r i t i n g l e t t e r s g iv in g
a d v ice a p p r o p r ia te to s i t u a t i o n s from a n c ie n t h i s t o r i e s im p a rts
m oral le s s o n s t h e i r own tim e .
40
Gray, "R en aissan ce Humanism," 501. F u r th e r c i t a t i o n s to
G ra y 's a r t i c l e w i l l be g iv en w ith in th e t e x t .
41
Thomas W ilson, A rte o f R h eto riq u e [1553] e d ite d by G. H.
Mair (O xford: C larendon P r e s s , 1909), 5.
42
Crane see s a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p in th e l a t t e r h a l f o f th e
s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry between w it and r h e t o r i c , both o f which
"depended h e a v ily upon c e r t a i n means o f developm ent and
o rn a m e n ta tio n ; see W it and R h e to ric in th e R e n a issa n c e : The
Formal B a sis o f E liz a b e th a n P ro se S ty le (G lo u c e s te r,
M a ssa c h u se tts: P e te r S m ith, 1964), 1. Crane e q u a te s r h e t o r i c
w ith " a l l th e tro p e s and f i g u r e s named in r h e t o r i c a l t r e a t i s e s o f
th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry " and any d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f th e s e he
r e j e c t s as o f " d o u b tfu l" v a lu e (5 9 ). B rian V ick ers c h a lle n g e s
C ra n e 's a t t i t u d e tow ard r h e t o r i c as a modern c r i t i c a l p r e ju d ic e ;
see C la s s ic a l R h e to ric and E n g lish P o e try (London: S t. M a r tin 's
P r e s s , 1970) 90. Both V ic k e r s ' work and Rosemond T u v e 's
E liz a b e th a n and M etap h y sical Im agery: R en aissan ce P o e tic and
T w e n tie th -C e n tu ry C r i t i c s (C hicago: U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago P r e s s ,
1947) begin to c o r r e c t t h i s r e d u c tio n o f r h e t o r i c t o s t y l i s t i c s .
43
Inform ed by th e 1599 R atio a tq u e i n s t i t u t i o stu d io ru m and
su b seq u en t r e v i s i o n s , th e J e s u i t s c h o o ls r e t a i n e d w e ll i n t o th e
p r e s e n t c e n tu ry th e g e n e ra l o u t l i n e o f th e s o r t o f h u m a n istic
e d u ca tio n formed in th e R en a issa n c e; see TChomas] C o rco ran , S . J . ,
S tu d ie s in th e H is to ry o f C la s s ic a l T eaching, I r i s h and
C o n tin e n ta l, 1500-1700 (New York: B enzinger B r o th e r s , [1 9 1 1 ]) and
A lla n P. F a r r e l l , S . J . , The J e s u i t Code o f L ib e r a l E d u c a tio n :
Development and Scope o f th e R a tio Studiorum (M ilwaukee,
W isco n sin : Bruce P u b lis h in g C o., 1938).
44
Anthony G rafto n and L is a J a r d in e , From Humanism to th e
H u m an ities: E d u catio n and th e L ib e r a l A rts in F i f t e e n t h - and
S ix te e n th -C e n tu ry Europe (Cam bridge, M a ssa c h u se tts: H arvard
U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1986) 161, 122.
130
IV
Imitation Pedagogy and Ethical Indoctrination
The E n g lish hum anist e d u c a to rs whose works have been
c o n sid e re d in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n claim ed t h a t t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l
program s p re p a red s tu d e n ts f o r c iv ic l i f e by p ro v id in g n o t j u s t
t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g in lan g u ag e u s e , b u t a more im p o rta n t e t h i c a l
and m oral t r a i n i n g . The p r e s e n t c h a p te r w i l l examine t h i s claim
as i t a p p lie s to r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n , and c o n sid e r what m ight
have been th e r o l e o f im ita tio n e x e r c is e s in form ing s t u d e n t s '
e t h i c a l c h a r a c te r . When one c o n s id e rs i m i t a t i o n pedagogy in th e
g e n e ra l c o n te x t o f hum anist e d u c a tio n and in th e p a r t i c u l a r
c o n te x t o f th e re a d in g method p r e s c r ib e d by Erasm us, one f in d s
t h a t such e x e r c is e s serv ed n o t o n ly to dev elo p s t u d e n t s '
a b i l i t i e s w ith L a tin s t y l e , b u t were t o o ls f o r s t u d e n t s ' e t h i c a l
in d o c t r i n a t i o n . Yet when one c o n s id e rs th e a d v ice co n ce rn in g
r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n which Erasmus ad d re ssed to m ature w r i t e r s ,
one f in d s th e p r a c t i c e to be a means by which w r i t e r s may
a s s i m i l a t e and im prove upon th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y l e and h a b its
o f th in k in g o f th e models th e y choose.
Anthony G ra fto n and L isa J a r d in e q u e s tio n w hether hum anist
e d u c a tio n could have p ro v id e d th e s o r t o f m oral t r a i n i n g o r
p r e p a r a tio n f o r l i f e which th e R en aissan ce a d v o c a te s o f hum anist
—' ■ 131
1
e d u c a tio n claim ed i t was to b e. G rafto n and J a r d in e examine th e
e v id en c e a v a i l a b l e f o r th e p r a c t i c e o f hum anist te a c h e r s , and
th e y conclude t h a t h um anist e d u c a tio n a t i t s b e s t was l i t t l e more
th a n t r a i n i n g in L a tin lan g u ag e s k i l l s . In su p p o rt o f t h e i r
c o n te n tio n , G rafto n and J a r d in e d is c u s s th e e a r l y f i f t e e n t h -
c e n tu ry te a c h in g p r a c t i c e s o f G uarino G u a rin i o f Verona, in whose
sch o o l boys were d r i l l e d in L a tin p r o n u n c ia tio n , th e r u l e s o f
L a tin grammar and s y n ta x , and h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s o f geography and
m ythology— " a l l th e f a c t s needed to w r ite c l a s s i c a l L a tin in an
inform ed way" (1 0 ). They a ls o show t h a t l a t e r Roman and
F lo r e n t in e r h e t o r i c i a n s , such as Buonaccorso M assari (who
l e c t u r e d on C ic e r o 's l e t t e r s to L e n tu lu s in 1465-66), developed a
program o f rig o r o u s p h i l o l o g i c a l s tu d ie s by which th e y m ight
compete a g a in s t s c h o l a s t i c p h ilo s o p h e rs and among o n e -a n o th e r f o r
academ ic r e s p e c t a b i l i t y and u n i v e r s i t y p o s i t i o n s . Examining
s t u d e n t s ' n o te s from such l e c t u r e s , th e y co n clu d e t h a t th e
approach o f th e se h u m an ists to th e c l a s s i c a l t e x t s was so
u n s tr u c tu r e d and f r a u g h t w ith p h i l o l o g i c a l d e t a i l t h a t s tu d e n ts
could n o t have been p re p a re d by such e d u c a tio n t o "c o n fro n t
l a r g e r q u e s tio n s c o n ce rn in g th e a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s [which
in fo rm an e n t i r e t e x t ] e i t h e r to endorse them , o r to c h a lle n g e
them" (5 8 -6 7 ).
I approve o f th e method by which G rafto n and J a r d in e approach
th e q u e s tio n o f th e adequacy o f hum anist e d u c a tio n as p re p a r a tio n
132
f o r a c ti v e c iv ic l i f e : th e y examine what e v id e n c e i s a v a i l a b l e o f
classro o m p r a c t i c e s o f hum anist e d u c a to r s . In f a c t , in th e
e a r l i e r c h a p te r on th e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s under
which hum anist e d u c a tio n f lo u r is h e d in Tudor grammar sc h o o ls and
u n i v e r s i t i e s , I have p re s e n te d an argum ent w hich p re c lu d e s any
s e r io u s c o n c lu s io n s ab o u t th e q u e stio n based on what m ight be
c a ll e d 'e x t e r n a l ' e v id e n c e : th e r o l l c a l l o f in d iv id u a ls
connected w ith humanism who were fav o red w ith Tudor p a tro n a g e .
Such 'e x t e r n a l ' ev id en c e can n o t firm ly e s t a b l i s h t h a t th o se w ith
hum anist e d u c a tio n won p a tro n a g e and c i v i l p o s i t i o n s s o l e l y on
th e b a s is o f t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l p r e p a r a t io n . To be s u r e , th e r e
a re a l l th e exam ples which were c i t e d e a r l i e r . There a re th e
co m p lain ts o f Henry V I I 's c o u n c ilo r , Baron Edmund Dudley, and o f
Henry V I I I , both o f whom a t l e a s t claim ed to r e g r e t hav in g to
e le v a te to government p o s i t i o n s th e educated sons o f l e s s e r
g e n try f o r la c k o f ed u cated men among th e n o b i l i t y . Then, to o ,
th e r e i s th e example o f John P a ls g ra v e , who in 1512-13 tu to r e d
P rin c e s s Mary and in 1525 ed u cated Henry F i t z r o y , one o f Henry
V I I I 's c h ild r e n . There a re a ls o th e n o ta b le exam ples o f John
C o le t, Thomas More, and Thomas E ly o t, a l l o f whom were g ra n te d
p o l i t i c a l fa v o r under Henry V III . F i n a l l y th e r e i s th e t r a d i t i o n
o f a r i s t o c r a t i c p a tro n a g e o f hum anist s c h o la r s and e d u c a to rs ,
b e g in n in g w ith W illiam B lo u n t, Lord M ountjoy, who bro u g h t Erasmus
t o England in 1496, c o n tin u in g th ro u g h Henry V III h im s e lf and h is
133
q u een s, and c a r ry in g on w ith E l i z a b e t h ’s p a tro n a g e o f hum anist
s c h o l a r s . Yet th e s e exam ples in them selv es do n o t p rove t h a t
th o se who re c e iv e d such p a tro n a g e were fav o red sim ply because o f
t h e i r e d u c a tio n — as opposed, s a y , to t h e i r p o l i t i c a l l o y a l t y ,
c o n n e c tio n s to power, o r r e l i g i o u s co n fo rm ity . Much l e s s would
such exam ples prove t h a t some s p e c i f i c a s p e c t o f such
i n d i v i d u a l s ’ e d u ca tio n ( i . e . e t h i c a l p r e p a r a tio n o r L a tin
language s k i l l s ) was even a c o n tr ib u tin g cause o f t h e i r r e c e iv in g
such fa v o r. One m ight even c i t e th e example o f Roger Ascham, th e
man who championed i m i t a t i o and ach iev ed f i r s t th e p o s itio n o f
t u t o r to P r in c e s s E liz a b e th and l a t e r serv ed as Mary’ s and
E l i z a b e t h ’s L a tin S e c r e ta r y . S t i l l , Ascham i s b u t one exam ple,
and c o u n ter-ex am p les abound. In f a c t , p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l fav o r
may w e ll be th e r e s u l t o f f a c t o r s o th e r th an th e s k i l l s p ro v id ed
2
by— o r claim ed by— an e d u c a tio n a l scheme.
In t h i s c h a p te r , I w i l l examine th e id e a s o f Erasmus on
e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e , f o r w h ile Erasmus was n o t an e d u c a to r, h is
th in k in g on r h e t o r i c a l i m ita tio n does o f f e r us some id e a o f th e
n a tu re o f E n g lish e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e . E rasm us’s works
in flu e n c e d E n g lish h um anist e d u c a to rs in th e f i r s t t h i r d o f th e
s ix te e n th c e n tu ry , a tim e when hum anist e d u c a tio n was g a in in g
p o l i t i c a l fa v o r and b e in g i n s t i t u t e d in E n g lish grammar sc h o o ls
and u n i v e r s i t i e s . E rasm us’s id e a s on th e o b j e c t i v e s and method
o f e d u c a tio n h elp ed in fo rm th e p la n o f S t. P a u l’ s S ch o o l, and
134
3
o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n s copied much o f h is p la n . In d eed , G rafto n and
J a r d in e acknowledge E rasm u s's " e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y f a r - r e a c h in g
'i n f l u e n c e '" on most o f n o rth e rn Europe, and th e y a t t r i b u t e to
Erasmus (among o th e r s ) th e f i r s t t r a n s l a t i o n o f " A g r ic o la 's
r e p u ta tio n in to a c o n c re te body o f te a c h in g t e x t s " which w ere to
e x p la in "how a t r a i n i n g in r h e t o r i c on th e a n c ie n t model i s
e le v a te d in to a s p i r i t u a l l y e n lig h te n in g e d u c a tio " (1 3 4 ).
Yet as much as I welcome G rafto n and J a r d i n e 's c h a lle n g e to
th e assum ption t h a t R en aissan ce hum anist e d u c a tio n p ro v id ed a
p a r t i c u l a r l y ad eq u ate e t h i c a l t r a i n i n g f o r th o s e who were to
e n te r p u b lic s e r v i c e , I fin d I must d is a g r e e w ith them on two
p o i n t s . F i r s t , I must p o in t o u t t h e i r a p p a re n t d e n ig r a tio n o f
" r h e t o r i c a l , " " l i t e r a r y , " o r " t o p i c a l , " a n a ly s is or argum ent.
G ra fto n and J a r d in e a llo w r h e t o r i c a l a n a ly s is th e s t a t u s o f "an
in g e n io u s s e t o f r e a d i l y tr a n s m itte d r o u ti n e s f o r c l a s s i f y i n g th e
accu m u latio n o f m a tte r f o r d e b a tin g o r d eclaim in g (o r composing
p o e try or f i c t i o n ) " (1 3 6 ). They seem u n w illin g to allo w to
r h e t o r i c a l in v e n tio n th e s t a t u s o f " r ig o u r and s trin g e n c y " which
th e y a t t r i b u t e to l a t e - s c h o l a s t i c lo g ic (6 2 ). They seem to want
to deny t o p i c a l in v e n tio n th e power to make " s i g n i f i c a n t
in te r v e n tio n in th e most c h a lle n g in g i n t e l l e c t u a l is s u e s o f th e
day, both tem poral and s p i r i t u a l " (1 3 7 ). In s te a d G ra fto n and
J a r d in e view a r h e t o r i c a l method o f in v e n tio n as a "co n v e n ie n t
c o n fu sio n " between t h a t which was "m eth o d ical" and t h a t which i s
135
’’m o ra lly sound" (1 4 9 ). I t seems t h a t G ra fto n and J a r d in e a re
u n w illin g to a c c e p t t h a t th ro u g h r h e t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s one may as
c e r t a i n l y — -or u n c e r t a i n l y — -d isc o v e r answ ers to p r e s s in g e t h i c a l
problem s as th ro u g h a r a t i o n a l i s t i c m ethod. I f such i s G rafton
and J a r d i n e 's b e l i e f , th en t h e i r v ery r e j e c t i o n o f th e in v e n tiv e
power o f r h e t o r i c p re c lu d e s t h e i r acknow ledging t h a t a
r h e t o r i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d e d u c a tio n such th e h u m an ists advocated can
5
dev elo p s t u d e n t s ’ power to i n v e s t i g a t e e t h i c a l q u e s tio n s .
W hile I do n o t wish h e re to engage in a le n g th y ex cu rsu s
c o n cern in g th e prim acy o f p h ilo so p h y over r h e t o r i c or th e
c o n tr a r y , I should l i k e to p o in t o u t t h a t w h ile u n w illin g n e s s to
acknowledge th e power o f r h e t o r i c as a to o l f o r e t h i c a l th in k in g
i s common, such th in k in g has been s e r i o u s l y c h a lle n g e d . I should
l i k e h e re b r i e f l y to summarize th e argument o f E rn esto G r a s s i,
who d e m o n stra te s t h a t "ev ery o r i g i n a l p h ilo so p h y i s r h e t o r i c and
ev ery t r u e and n o t e x t e r i o r r h e t o r i c i s p h ilo s o p h y ." ^ In
R h e to ric as P hilo so p h y G ra ss i p a ra p h ra s e s G ia m b a ttis ta V ico, who
in 1709 argued t h a t i n s i g h t i n t o th e " r e l a t i o n s h i p between what
th e se n se s r e v e a l to us and our needs" i s im p o s sib le through
r a t i o n a l i s t i c p ro c e ss e s o f in f e r e n c e , b u t "o n ly th ro u g h an
o r i g i n a l i n - s i g h t as in v e n tio n and d is c o v e ry [ in v e n t i o ] ." The
form o f such i n s i g h t i s p ro fo u n d ly r h e t o r i c a l : i t i s m etaphor
( 7 ) . In r a t i o n a l i s t i c p r o c e s s e s , G ra ssi e x p l a i n s , m etaphor i s
p rim ary , f o r i t i s th e o n ly means by which human kin d may
136
comprehend a r c h a i , f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s — th e p rem ises from which
d ed u ctio n must proceed and upon th e t r u t h o f w hich d ed u ctio n
depends (2 5 ). M oreover, as A r i s t o t l e e x p la i n s ,
s in c e th e c o n c lu s io n o b ta in s i t s tr u e v a l i d i t y from th e
f a c t t h a t th e re a so n on which i t i s based i s e v id e n t ,
i t n e c e s s a r ily fo llo w s t h a t w ith each p r o o f , th e f i r s t
p r i n c i p l e s in which i t has o r i g i n must n o t o n ly be
known c o m p letely o r p a r t i a l l y p r io r to th e p ro o f , th ey
must a ls o be known to a h ig h e r d egree th a n t h a t which
i s deduced from them. ( P o s te r io r A n a ly tic s 7 2 a .77,
c i t e d in G ra ss i 25)
T h is b ein g s o , th e p rim ary knowledge which human kin d comes to
know most f o r c e f u l l y —which human k in d comes to b e lie v e — th e
prim ary knowledge from which o th e r knowledge p ro c e ed s by r a t i o n a l
p r o c e s s e s , ijs r h e t o r i c a l . In d eed , G ra ssi e x p la in s t h a t m etaphor
"makes a fundam ental c o n tr ib u tio n to th e s t r u c t u r e o f our w o rld ":
E m p iric al o b s e r v a tio n i t s e l f ta k e s p la c e th ro u g h th e
" re d u c tio n " o f s e n s o ry phenomena to ty p e s o f m eanings
e x i s t i n g in th e l i v i n g b e in g ; and t h i s " r e d u c tio n "
c o n s is ts o f th e " t r a n s f e r r i n g " o f a m eaning to s e n so ry
phenomena. (33)
Hence th e r e i s no r a t i o n a l i s t i c method— n e i t h e r d ed u ctio n nor
in d u c tio n —w ith o u t m etap h o r, w ith o u t r h e t o r i c a l lan g u ag e.
G r a s s i ’s argum ent b e a rs upon th e p r e s e n t d is c u s s io n o n ly
in s o f a r as i t d e m o n stra te s t h a t an o p p o s itio n between th e
p h ilo s o p h ic a l and th e r h e t o r i c a l may be a f i c t i o n more c o n v en ien t
to p ro p o n en ts o f e i t h e r d i s c i p l i n e th an to an advancem ent o f our
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e n a tu re and powers o f human lan g u ag e. In
s h o r t , G r a s s i ’s argum ent c h a lle n g e s G rafto n and J a r d i n e ’s
c a t e g o r i c a l r e j e c t i o n o f th e power o f r h e t o r i c a l language as a
137
t o o l f o r e t h i c a l d is c o v e ry . L a te r in t h i s c h a p te r , I s h a l l argue
f o r a much more p e d e s tr ia n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e means by which
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y hum anist e d u c a tio n i n s t i l l e d in s tu d e n ts an
e t h i c a l p e r s p e c tiv e .
The second p o in t on which I must d is a g re e w ith G rafto n and
J a r d in e r e s t s in t h e i r d e c is io n to c o n sid e r E rasm u s's Methodus
(p u b lish e d in 1516 w ith th e Novum instrum entum ) as a p ed ag o g ical
work. S in ce th e q u e s tio n p e r t a i n s to pedagogy, n o t e x e g e s is , in
t h i s c h a p te r I s h a l l c o n s id e r in s te a d th e re a d in g method o u tlin e d
in E rasm u s's De r a t i o n e s t u d i i and De c o n s c rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s . I
b e lie v e i t i s im p o rta n t to d i s t i n g u i s h betw een, on one hand, the
p u rp o ses o f e x e g e sis and, on th e o th e r , th o se o f e d u c a tio n or
i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . The form er i s th e purpose f o r th e re a d in g method
o u tlin e d in E rasm u s's M ethodus. The l a t t e r i s th e pu rp o se f o r
th e re a d in g method p re s e n te d in th e two e d u c a tio n a l t r e a t i s e s .
I f one c o n s id e rs th e two m ethods in i s o l a t i o n , th e y seem to be
th e same. E s s e n t i a l s o f th e e x e g e tic a l method Erasmus p re s e n ts
in th e Methodus in c lu d e th e C h r is tia n s c h o l a r 's need to c o n sid e r
th e work in i t s o r i g i n a l c o n te x t:
L et him n o t c o n s id e r i t a d eq u ate to p u ll o u t fo u r or
f i v e l i t t l e w ords; l e t him c o n sid e r th e o r i g i n o f what
i s s a i d , by whom i t i s s a i d , to whom i t i s s a i d , when,
on what o c c a s io n , in what w ords, what p re c e d e s i t , what
fo llo w s . For i t i s from a com prehensive ex am in atio n of
th e s e t h i n | s t h a t one le a r n s th e meaning o f a given
u tt e r a n c e .
As we s h a l l see s h o r t l y , Erasmus recommends in De r a t i o n e s t u d i i
138
and De c o n s c rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s t h a t as a f i r s t s te p in th e
p ro c e ss o f re a d in g th e s tu d e n t o r h is te a c h e r ta k e c are to s e t
th e work in i t s c o n te x t. And, j u s t as he does in th e p ed ag o g ical
w orks, s o , to o , in th e Methodus Erasmus u rg e s th e s c h o la r to
g a th e r under " th e o lo g ic a l l o c i " a su p p ly o f m a te r ia l on v a rio u s
th e o lo g ic a l commonplaces upon which he may l a t e r draw f o r
com parisons and e l u c i d a t i o n s .
Yet alth o u g h th e re a d in g method which Erasmus recommends in
th e Methodus seems to be th e same as t h a t which he p r e s c r ib e s in
h is p e d ag o g ic a l w orks, one must d i s t i n g u i s h between th e c o n te x ts
in which and th e p u rp o ses f o r which th e two m ethods were u sed .
In th e c o n te x t o f e x e g e tic a l work, th e re a d in g i s b ein g c a r r ie d
o u t by a m ature s c h o la r , one who, presum ably, has re c e iv e d th e
s o r t o f e d u c a tio n Erasmus a d v o ca te d . G rafto n and J a r d in e ask
"how th e young th e o lo g ia n can be su re t h a t sim p le ,
s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d re a d in g w i l l produce g u aran teed r i g h t d o c tr in e "
(148)? One m ight answer t h a t he w i l l produce r i g h t d o c trin e
i n s o f a r as he i s a lr e a d y in d o c t r i n a t e d . I s h a l l d em o n strate t h a t
by hum anist e d u c a tio n th e s tu d e n t was, in d e e d , s u b je c te d to a
th o ro u g h g o in g i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . In f a c t , th e method o f re a d in g
Erasmus o u t l i n e s in h i s p e d ag o g ic a l works i s in te n d e d n o t fo r th e
m ature s c h o la r , b u t f o r young p u p i l s . As s u c h , E rasm u s's method
i s a means to p u p i l s ' e t h i c a l i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . And in t h i s same
c o n te x t , in d e e d , v i r t u a l l y as a p a r t o f th e method o f r e a d in g ,
139
s tu d e n ts p r a c tic e d r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n e x e r c i s e s . Hence
im ita tio n e x e r c is e s were th em selv es t o o l s o f s t u d e n t s ' e t h i c a l
i n d o c t r i n a t i o n .
I m ita tio n Pedagogy as a Means o f E th ic a l I n d o c tr in a tio n
I have c a lle d th e s o r t o f e d u ca tio n ad v o cated by Erasmus and
p r a c tic e d in Tudor England " i n d o c t r i n a t i o n ." I m ig h t, th e n , seem
t o r e j e c t hum anist e d u c a to r s ' c laim s in term s more c y n ic a l th an
th o s e which G ra fto n and J a r d in e use when th ey s u g g e s t t h a t
Erasmus in d u lg ed in "a c e r t a i n amount o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
s l e i g h t- o f - h a n d " in h i s "w elding o f p ro fan e le a r n in g to la y
p i e t y " (144) and t h a t he engaged in a "c o n v e n ie n t c o n fu sio n "
between th e method o f r h e t o r i c a l a n a ly s is and one which i s
m o ra lly sound (1 4 9 ). But th e r e i s no cynicism in acknow ledging
t h a t hum anist e d u c a to rs ta u g h t s tu d e n ts to a c c e p t u n c r i t i c a l l y
th e h u m a n istic system o f combined f a i t h in c l a s s i c a l wisdom and
C h r is tia n d o c tr in e . I can n o t th in k o f any system o f e d u c a tio n
which i s n o t an i n d o c t r i n a t i o n — l e a s t o f a l l th e p r e s e n t system ,
w hich convinces s tu d e n ts t h a t knowledge i s advanced
s c i e n t i s t i c a l l y , t h a t i s , by " a c c u ra te d e s c r ip ti o n and
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e o b j e c t s o f n a tu re in d ep en d en t o f s o c ia l
c o n se n s u s," w hile le a v in g them unp rep ared to " w rite en g ag in g ly
140
and f e c k f u l l y on m a tte rs o f im p o r ta n c e ," so t h a t th e y may use
7
language to ad v o cate s o c i a l a c t i o n . But my p r e s e n t purpose i s
to e x p la in how th e s o r t o f hum anist ed u ca tio n ad v o cated by
Erasmus and developed in Tudor E n g lish grammar s c h o o ls and
u n i v e r s i t i e s w as, in f a c t , an in d o c tr in a tio n and how r h e t o r i c a l
im i t a t i o n pedagogy was in t h a t c o n te x t a means o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n .
P o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s i n d o c tr in a tio n became im p o rta n t to
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y E n g lish hum anist e d u c a tio n even w h ile i t
r e ta in e d th e concern f o r r h e t o r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e a r l i e r
R en aissan ce hum anist e d u c a tio n . To u n d e rstan d t h i s developm ent
i t w i l l h e lp to re c o n s id e r b r i e f l y th e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
c o n d itio n s o f e a r ly s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y England. A ccording to
W illiam Bouwsma, e a r l y R en aissan ce I t a l i a n humanism was
c h a r a c te r iz e d by an em phasis on r h e t o r i c , a c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m ,
and an i n t e l l e c t u a l r e j e c t i o n o f o ld e r c o n c e p tio n s o f o r d e r , or
"cosm os." But th e n o rth e rn European R en aissan ce c u l t u r e o f 1450
onwards was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y in c lin e d to r e a s s e r t i n t e l l e c t u a l
o rd e r and a u th o r ity as p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , and c u l t u r a l fo r c e s
o f o r d e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e m onarchies and th e papacy r e a s s e r te d
8
t h e i r power. In E ngland, as was n oted in th e e a r l i e r c h a p te r on
s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s , th e Tudor monarchy began to
a s s e r t f i r s t i t s p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y and, w ith Henry V I I I ’s break
w ith Rome, i t s r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t y . G rafto n and J a r d in e e x p la in
t h a t a t th e same tim e i t was l e f t f o r n o rth e rn European hum anist
141
e d u c a to r s — Erasmus in p a r t i c u l a r — to make humanism p r a c t i c a b l e in
th e c lassro o m , to change p h i l o l o g i c a l method i n t o p ed ag o g ical
m ethod. F if t e e n t h - c e n t u r y I t a l i a n h u m an ists a t Rome and F lo ren c e
had le c tu r e d b r i l l i a n t l y , e l u c i d a t i n g by p h i l o l o g i c a l method
o b scu re c l a s s i c a l t e x t s which re v e a le d n o v e l t i e s about c l a s s i c a l
Roman l i f e and c u l t u r e . S ix te e n th - c e n tu r y e d u c a to rs developed
" th e classro o m a id s (te x tb o o k s , manuals and te a c h in g d r i l l s )
which would co m p artm e n talise th e bonae l i t t e r a e and reduce them
t o system " (61, 123-24). Thus p o l i t i c a l c o n se rv a tism combined
w ith a need f o r pedagogy; p a r t i c u l a r l y in E ngland, The P rin ce
became The E d u cation o f th e C h r is tia n P r in c e .
The s o r t o f e d u c a tio n which developed in England from t h i s
com bination o f c o n s e r v a tiv e and p r a c t i c a l p r e s s u r e s seems to have
been a r a t h e r sim ple method o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . As was th e case
w ith c l a s s i c a l and m edieval s c h o o lin g , p u p ils were under th e
c o n tr o l o f t h e i r s c h o o lm a ste rs f o r long h o u rs . For exam ple, a t
S t. P a u l 's School i n s t r u c t i o n was c a r r ie d on s i x days a week
b eg in n in g w ith r e l i g i o u s o b serv an ce a t seven in th e morning and
c o n tin u in g u n t i l f i v e in th e evening w ith a tw o-hour break a t
9
m id-day. In f a c t , as Erasmus ad v o cated , th e m a ster was to " la y
down some g u id e lin e s f o r boys as to th e s o r t o f speech th e y
sh ould employ a t p la y , in company, and a t meal tim e s" (De r a tio n e
s t u d i i 6 7 5 -7 6 ). P a r t i c u l a r l y i f one compares w ith such r ig o r o u s
sc h o o lin g th e s h o r t e r h o u rs o f modern sc h o o lin g and th e abundance
142
o f in f lu e n c e s com peting f o r modern s t u d e n t s ’ a t t e n t i o n , one
b eg in s to u n d e rstan d th e p e rv a s iv e n e s s o f t e a c h e r s ' c o n tr o l over
t h e i r c h a r g e s ' b e h av io r and th in k in g .
W ithin th e c la ssro o m , th e R enaissance te a c h e r e x e r c is e d a
most pow erful c o n tr o l o v er what a u th o rs h i s p u p ils re a d , a t what
age th e y were in tro d u c e d to th e v a rio u s c l a s s i c a l and C h r is tia n
a u th o r s , and what m eaning th e y u n d ersto o d from th e t e x t s . A ll
th e m a te r ia l which th e m a ster p re s e n te d to h i s p u p ils was
in te n d e d to im p a rt le s s o n s in e t h i c s and m o r a lity . Even th e
schoolroom w a lls and th e f i x t u r e s a l l around th e p u p ils o f f e r e d
le s s o n s about how one sh o u ld th in k and behave.
i t i s n o t enough j u s t to hand o u t p re c e p ts to r e s t r a i n
th e p rin c e from v ic e s or to i n c i t e him to a b e t t e r
c o u rse — th e y m ust be im p re sse d , crammed i n , in c u lc a te d ,
and in one way and a n o th e r k e p t b e fo re him , now by a
s u g g e s tiv e th o u g h t, now by a f a b le , now by an alo g y , now
by exam ple, now by maxims, now by a p ro v e rb . They
should be engraved on r i n g s , p a in te d in p i c t u r e s ,
appended to th e w re a th s o f h o n o r, and, by u s in g any
o th e r means by which t h a t age can be i n t e r e s t e d , k e p t
alw ays b e fo re him. (E ducation o f a C h r is tia n P rin c e
144-45)
From th e v ery y o u n g e st, s tu d e n ts were d r i l l e d in m oral and
e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s . "When th e l i t t l e fe llo w h as l i s t e n e d w ith
p le a s u re to A eso p 's f a b le o f th e lio n and th e mouse or o f th e
dove and th e a n t" Erasmus w r i t e s , "th en th e te a c h e r should p o in t
o u t th e new m o ra l." "When he has had h i s fun o u t o f th e e a g le ,
queen o f b i r d s , t h a t was alm o st co m p letely done f o r by th e
b e e t l e , th e te a c h e r should a g a in p o in t o u t th e m eaning" (1 4 6 -4 7 ).
A ccording to E rasm us' p la n f o r s t u d e n t s ' re a d in g , th e
sch o o lm aste r was to e x e r c is e th e same s o r t o f c o n tr o l over
s t u d e n t s ' u n d e rs ta n d in g as he d id when he p re s e n te d to h i s p u p ils
th e m orals o f Aesop. T his re a d in g method was in i t s e l f an
im p o rta n t p a r t o f s t u d e n t s ' i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . But i t was a ls o
because o f t h i s re a d in g method t h a t r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n h elp ed
to i n s t i l l e t h i c a l and m oral le s s o n s . L et us c o n sid e r n ex t th e
method o f re a d in g Erasmus recommends. Erasmus i s n o t in c lin e d to
o u t l i n e s p e c i f i c , o r d e r ly , p r a c t i c a l p e d ag o g ic a l m ethods: h is
s o r t o f e d u ca tio n m ight b e s t be d e sc rib e d as an 'im m e rsio n ' in
c l a s s i c a l and p a t r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e . N o n eth eless Erasmus does
o f f e r a p ed ag o g ical method f o r r e a d in g , o u tlin e d f o r th e s tu d e n t
in De c o n s c rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s , and f o r th e te a c h e r in De r a tio n e
s t u d i i .
The method o f re a d in g which Erasmus o f f e r s in De
c o n s c rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s i s ad d re ssed to s tu d e n ts who wish to
im i t a t e th e th in k in g and s t y l e o f th e a u th o rs th e y r e a d . The
p la n in v o lv e s fo u r s t e p s . F i r s t th e le a r n e r i s im m ediately to
review what he has j u s t h eard or read to " f ix th e g e n e ra l meaning
a l i t t l e more d eep ly in [ h i s ] m ind." Erasmus makes i t c le a r t h a t
t h i s i n i t i a l review i s in te n d e d to f i x in th e l e a r n e r th e
" g e n e ra l meaning" o f th e work he i s re a d in g ; i t i s n o t to be a
l i t e r a l m em orization. To review th e g e n e ra l meaning o f th e t e x t
i s to commit to memory i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e ; hence, th e s tu d e n t i s
144
exposed t o th e m oral le s s o n th e t e x t conveys. Yet Erasmus
o b je c ts to th o se who would ’’r e p e a t p a r r o t- f a s h io n words t h a t are
n o t u n d e r s to o d .” * G enuine u n d e rs ta n d in g , and n o t mere p a r r o tin g ,
would be im p o rta n t to th e s tu d e n t who l a t e r m ight be ex p ected to
i m i t a t e th e argument o f th e t e x t he has re a d . R e p e titio n w i l l
n o t s u f f i c e : th e s tu d e n t must be a b le to make th e argum ent in
language a p p r o p r ia te to new c o n t e x t s . ^
Given t h a t R en aissan ce schoolboys were to become f l u e n t in
L a tin , th e second s te p i s p r a c t i c a l . The s tu d e n t i s to review
th e t e x t backwards to c o n sid e r p o in ts o f L a tin d i c t i o n and
grammar w ith which he i s u n f a m ilia r . E rasm u s's a d v ic e to th e
s tu d e n t to rev iew th e t e x t backwards makes good s e n s e , fo r
re v iew in g a t e x t backw ards f o r c e s one to a tte n d t o d e t a i l s o f th e
t e x t and draws o n e 's a t t e n t i o n away from th e g e n e ra l meaning.
Hence, th e f i r s t two s te p s complement o n e -a n o th e r.
As a t h i r d s te p th e s tu d e n t i s ag ain to re v ie w th e p assag e
p ay in g p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to ''in c is iv e n e s s o f th e la n g u a g e ,"
r h e t o r i c a l e m b e llis h m e n t,” and "harm onious arran g em en t" o f th e
argum ent. The s tu d e n t i s n o t only to mark th e s t r i k i n g
f e a t u r e s , b ut he i s to " a n a ly se th e a u t h o r 's p u rp o s e , why he
p h rased th in g s in a c e r t a i n w ay." E rasm u s's a d v ic e h e re to
c o n sid e r th e a u t h o r 's pu rp o se i s s i g n i f i c a n t . For to view a
r h e t o r i c a l tro p e or scheme j u s t as a d ev ice or s t r u c t u r e p er s e ,
i s to make o f o n e 's e f f o r t s a r a t h e r p o i n t l e s s l i s t i n g and
*1
naming. But Erasmus would have th e s tu d e n t c o n s id e r a r h e t o r i c a l
d e v ice as in te n d e d to accom plish some p u rp o se ; t h a t i s , he would
have th e s tu d e n t u n d e rsta n d how th e d e v ice in some way, however
m inor, a f f e c t s th e r e a d e r , h e lp in g t o accom plish th e w r i t e r ’s
o v e r a l l o b je c t iv e in com m unicating. I f we r e c a l l t h a t th e f i r s t
s te p o f th e re a d in g p ro c e ss was to f i x in th e s t u d e n t ’s mind th e
g e n e ra l meaning o f th e t e x t and t h i s t h i r d s te p i s to im p ress
upon th e s tu d e n t th e r h e t o r i c a l means by which such meaning can
e f f e c t i v e l y be communicated, we see t h a t th e re a d in g method i s
in te n d e d to g iv e s tu d e n ts both m a tte r and means by which th e y may
c o n s tr u c t t h e i r own argum ents.
Erasmus u rg e s th e s tu d e n t who has com pleted th e s e f i r s t th r e e
s te p s ag ain to r e tu r n t o th e t e x t to re c o n s id e r what he m ight
le a r n from i t . The s tu d e n t i s to re a d ,
f o r th e f o u r th tim e , s e e k in g o u t what seems to r e l a t e
to p h ilo so p h y , e s p e c i a l l y e t h i c s , to d is c o v e r any
example t h a t may be a p p lic a b le to m o ra ls. What i s
th e r e from which e i t h e r a model o f l i f e , or some
i l l u s t r a t i o n o r ad v an tag e cannot be drawn? (194-95)
T his f o u r th s te p seems c l e a r l y in te n d e d to r e i n f o r c e th ro u g h
r e p e t i t i o n th e e t h i c a l le s s o n th e s tu d e n t i s to a c q u ir e from th e
t e x t .
A s im ila r f o u r - p a r t method o f re a d in g ap p ears in De r a t i o n e
s t u d i i , b u t in t h i s c ase as i n s t r u c t i o n fo r th e s c h o o lm a s te r 's
11
p r a e l e c t i o . As th e m aster in tr o d u c e s th e t e x t to be c o n sid e re d
in h i s l e c t u r e , he i s f i r s t to comment on th e a u th o r and h is
1H6
c irc u m sta n c e s , as w e ll as th e p a r t i c u l a r s t y l i s t i c t a l e n t s fo r
which h i s work i s known. Second th e m aster i s to p o in t o u t "how
much enjoym ent and i n s t r u c t i o n " comes from th e s e l e c t i o n . From
th e s e two s te p s o f th e p r a e l e c t i o th e s tu d e n ts a re given both an
e x p la n a tio n o f th e c o n te x t f o r th e work and th e le ss o n th e y are
to ta k e from th e r e a d in g . The t h i r d s te p o f th e l e c t u r e i s
com plex, encom passing many p o s s ib le d e t a i l s w ith which s tu d e n ts
le a r n in g L a tin need be co n cern ed . The m a ste r f i r s t i s to
summarize th e "argum ent" ( th e term co u ld r e f e r to th e arrangem ent
o f p o in ts in an o r a tio n or th e p l o t o f a p la y ) , and then to tu rn
to d e t a i l s , "any ob scu re or v erb o se e x p re s s io n , any a b ru p t or
confused o rd e r, any etym ology, d e r iv a tio n , or co m position w orth
knowing . . . any p u rp le p a s s a g e s , a rch aism , neo lo g ism ,
G raecism . . . f ig u r e o f sp eech , or r h e t o r i c a l p a ss a g e s , or
em bellishm ent or c o r r u p tio n ." And once a g a in , as a f o u r th s te p ,
th e le s s o n o f th e t e x t i s r e in f o r c e d ; th e m a ster "sh o u ld tu rn to
p h ilo so p h y [ to ] b r in g o u t th e m oral im p lic a tio n " o f th e work ( De
r a t i o n e s t u d i i 6 8 2 -8 3 ).
D e sp ite s u p e r f i c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s , th e method o f re a d in g
o u tlin e d in t h i s c ase i s s im ila r in p la n and pu rp o ses to th e
method p r e s c rib e d in De c o n s c rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s . The methods
Erasmus d e s c r ib e s in both a re th e same in p u rp o se: to encourage
s tu d e n ts t o ab so rb e t h i c a l le s s o n s w h ile d e v e lo p in g th e s k i l l to
u se language to ad v o cate a c t i o n s . In both c a s e s , Erasmus
i n s t r u c t s s tu d e n ts to b eg in w ith o v e r a l l c o n s id e r a tio n s so as to
a id t h e i r u n d e rs ta n d in g . And in both cases Erasmus t e l l s
s tu d e n ts to c o n sid e r n ex t d e t a i l s o f s t y l e and th o s e m a tte rs
n e c e s sa ry to h e lp them m a ste r L a tin . F i n a l l y in b o th c ase s
Erasmus would have s tu d e n ts r e p e a t th e m oral s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e
i t e x t .
I
I t i s u n f o r tu n a te t h a t Ascham does n o t p ro v id e in h is
S choolm aster sam ples o f im i t a t i o n e x e r c is e s com pleted by h is own
c h a rg e s — p a r t i c u l a r l y th e young P r in c e s s E liz a b e th . Nor does
Erasmus o f f e r in h i s p e d ag o g ic a l works exam ples o f s t u d e n t s '
im ita tio n e x e r c i s e s , e x ce p t i n s o f a r as th e whole o f De copia
e x e m p lif ie s , among o th e r th i n g s , th e s o r t s o f e lem en ta ry
e x e r c is e s which were c a ll e d "v ary in g th e p h r a s e ." I s h a l l have
to r e l y upon W illiam Kempe's 1588 The E ducation o f C h ild re n in
12
L earn in g f o r exam ples o f s t u d e n t s ' im ita tio n e x e r c i s e s . I
should l i k e to ta k e from Kempe's book a few exam ples o f im ita tio n
e x e r c is e s which Ascham would have c a lle d d i s s i m i l i s m a te re i,
s i m i l i s t r a c t a t i o . Kempe does n ot make i t c l e a r w hether th e
f i r s t o f th e s e e x e r c i s e s , in te n d e d fo r p u p ils in th e t h i r d form ,
i s th e work o f a form er p u p il or o f h is own m aking. The sample
sh o u ld , however, s u i t th e p r e s e n t p u rp o se s, as i t i s a t l e a s t
c r e d ib le as th e work o f a boy who has had a t l e a s t two y e a r s '
work in L a tin . The e x e r c is e was a common one: th e boy was given
th e t e x t o f one o f C ic e r o 's l e t t e r s , in t h i s c ase one from
148
47 B.C. o f C icero to h i s f i r s t w ife T e r e n tia , whom he i s soon to
d iv o r c e . The l e t t e r i s b r i e f , in d eed , t e r s e ; no doubt t h a t very
q u a l i t y make i t a c c e s s ib le to an in e x p e rie n c e d s tu d e n t f o r
i m i t a t i o n .
Marcus T u l liu s C icero T e re n tia e Uxori s a lu te m .
[M. T. C. S. P. D. TERENTIAE SUAE]
[ B r u n d is i, A.U.C. 7 0 7 ,]
Si v a le s bene e s t , ego v a le o . Nos q u o tid ie t a b e l l a r i o s
v e s tr o s expectam us, qui s i v e n e r in t, f o r t a s s e erim us
c e r t i o r e s quid n o b is faciendum s i t , faciem usq t e s ta tim
c e r tio re m . V aletudinem tuam c u ra d i l i g e n t e r . V ale.
C alen d is S e p te m b ris. (Kemp 229)
Kempe recommends t h a t a f t e r th e p u p il has s tu d ie d C ic e r o 's
l e t t e r , he i s to be given an E n g lish l e t t e r "o f l i k e s e n te n c e ,
which he s h a l l e x p re ss e in L a tin w ith C ic ero e s p h ra se [and] w ith
l i k e r e a s o n s .” Here i s f i r s t Kempe’s E n g lish , which th e s tu d e n t
was to t r a n s l a t e i n t o C iceronean L a tin , and th e n th e s t u d e n t ’s
L a tin i m i t a t i o n .
P e te r Cole to John and C h arles h is so n n es,
se n d e th g r e e t i n g .
I f ye be in good h e a l t h , i t i s w e ll. I my s e l f e am in
good h e a lt h . O fte n tim e s I fin d la ck o f your l e t t e r s ,
th e which b ein g b ro u g h t, v e re ly I s h a l l be more
c e r ta y n e what I am to lo o k e f o r , and w i l l c e r t i f i e you
t h e r e o f fo o r th w ith . Apply your Study d i l i g e n t l y .
F a re w e ll. The Id e s o f December.
P e tru s Colus Io a n n i & C atolo f i l i i s s a lu te m .
Si v a l e t i s bene e s t , ego v a le o . Ego saep e l i t e r a s
v e s t r a s d e s id e ro , qua s i a l l a t a e r u n t, p r o f e c to ero
c e r t i o r , quid m ihi expectandum s i t , faciam Cque] vos
s t a t i m c e r t i o r e s , s t u d i a v e s tr a c o le te d i l i g e n t e r .
V a le te . Id ib u s D ecem bris.
T his s o r t o f im ita tio n i s o b v io u sly r a t h e r d i r e c t e d . One n o tic e s
149
im m ediately how c lo s e i s th e i m ita tio n t o th e model in i t s
p h ra s in g . The i m ita tio n r e p la c e s th e r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t h i r d
p e rso n , p l u r a l , f u tu r e p e r f e c t , s u b ju n c tiv e v e rb o f th e t h i r d
sen te n c e o f th e model ( q u i s i v e n e r i n t ) w ith a s i m i l a r l y
d i f f i c u l t t h i r d p e rs o n , p l u r a l , f u tu r e p e r f e c t , p a s s iv e (qua s i
a l l a t a e r u n t ). Where th e im i t a t i o n v a r i e s from th e model, i t
does so because o f need to change number ( th e im i t a t i o n i s
ad d re ssed to two p e rso n s) o r w ith r e l a t i v e l y sim p le l e x i c a l
s u b s t i t u t i o n s ( a s , e . g . th e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f th e second p e rso n ,
p l u r a l im p e ra tiv e , c o l e t e , f o r th e o r i g i n a l 's second s in g u la r
im p e ra tiv e , c u r a ) . Of c o u rs e , th e im ita tio n i s s l a v i s h : th e
e x e r c is e i s in te n d e d f o r a s tu d e n t h av in g a l im it e d v o cab u lary
and la c k in g e x p e rie n c e w ith L a tin s y n ta x . But w hat i s more
s i g n i f i c a n t fo r th e p r e s e n t concern i s th e d ir e c te d n e s s o f th e
e x e r c i s e . What l i t t l e se n tim e n t i s e x p re sse d in th e l e t t e r
r e i n f o r c e s a le ss o n any sch o o lm aste r would have h i s p u p ils h ear
a g a in and a g a in : stu d y h a rd . T here i s n o th in g e n t e r t a i n i n g about
th e e x e r c is e : i t c h a lle n g e s th e p u p i l 's L a tin s k i l l s and hammers
home a l i t t l e le s s o n ab o u t d ilig e n c e .
In a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d sample o f im ita tio n from Kempe's
book, we w i l l see th e s t u d e n t ’s d e v elo p in g s k i l l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
in th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f an argum ent, b ut w ith th e same
re in fo rc e m e n t o f an e t h i c a l le s s o n . The model i s from C ic e r o 's
De a m i c i t i a :
150
Haec i g i t u r prim a le x in a m i c i t i a s a n e i a t u r , u t neq
rogemus re s t u r p i s , nec faciam us r o g a t i . T u rp is enim
e x c u s a tio e s t e t minime a c c ip ie n d a , cum in c e t e r i s
p e c c a t i s , turn s i q u is c o n tra rempub. se am ici causa
f e c i s s e f a t e a t u r . Etenim eo lo c o , Fanni e t S cau o la,
l o c a t i sumus, u t nos longe p ro s p ic e r e o p o r te a t f u tu r o s
casu s resp u b . D e f le x it enim iam aliq u an tu m de s p a tio
c u r r ic u lo q consuetudo maiorum. T ib e riu s G racchus
regnum occupare c o n atu s e s t , v e l re g n a u it i s quidem
paucos m enses. Num quid s im ile populus Romanus
a u d ie r a t a u t v i d e r a t ? Hunc etiam p o s t mortem s e c u ti
am ici e t p ro p in q u i q u id in Publium Scipionem Nasieam
e f f e c e r i n t , s in e la ch ry m is non queo d i c e r e . Nam
Carbonem quoqcumque modo p otuim us, p r o p te r recentem
poenam T ib . G racch i su stin u im u s. De C. G racchi
t r i b u n a t u , quid e x [s ]p e c te m non l i b e t a u g u r a r i.
Kempe e x p la in s t h a t in t h i s in s ta n c e th e s tu d e n t i s given th e
L a tin p assag e from De a m i c i t i a , which he has been re a d in g d u rin g
th e co u rse o f th e y e a r . The s tu d e n t i s i n s t r u c t e d to "speake
co n ce rn in g r e l i g i o n , and p ro s e c u te [ th e ] m a tte r w ith th e same
argum ents d isp o sed a f t e r th e same f a s h io n , t h a t th e same sy n tax e s
may s e rv e to e x p re ss e th e m .” Kempe g iv e s f i r s t t h i s E n g lish
v e rs io n o f th e i m i t a t i o n .
T his law in r e l i g i o n ought f i r s t to be e s t a b l i s h e d ,
t h a t thou i n t i c e no man to f a l s e d o c tr in e , nor embrace
i t when thou a re i n t i c e d o f o th e r . For th e excuse i s
sh am e fu ll and in no w ise to be allo w ed , n e i t h e r in
o th e r f a u l t s , nor in t h i s , i f we co n fe sse t h a t we haue
vsed any d o c tr in e a g a y n st th e Church o f God, f o r mans
a u t h o r i t i e sa k e . For thou a r t p la c e d , d e a re b r o th e r ,
in t h a t p la c e , t h a t thou o u g h te th to see long b e fo re ,
th e chaunces t h a t may b e f a l l th e Church o f God. For
th e custome o f th e P a t r i a r k e s , P ro p h e ts , A p o s tle s , and
godly men i s a l r e a d i e f a r r e d e c lin e d from h i s tr a d e and
c o u rs e . The Bishop o f Rome h a th gone about to o ccu p ie
th e th ro n e o f C h r i s t , o r r a t h e r he h a th o ccupied i t now
many y e e r e s . Did th e p eople o f God euer h e a re o f see
th e l i k e b e fo re ? Yea th e Kings and P rin c e s fo llo w in g
h i s c o u n s e ll, what th e y haue done a g au n st th e
p r o f e s s o r s o f th e t r u e t h , I can n o t th in k w ith o u t g r e a t
151
g r i e f e . For th e t r u e C h r is tia n s haue su ste y n e d most
b i t t e r to rm en ts f o r th e t e s t i f y i n g o f a good
c o n sc ie n c e . And to u c h in g th e is s u e o f th e s e p r e s e n t
t r o u b l e s , I l i k e n o t to d iu in e what i s to bee looked
f o r .
and th e n he p r e s e n ts th e L a tin im ita tio n "which w o rd s," he
c la im s , "a s c h o l l e r o f t h i s [ f i f t h ] fourme by i m i t a t i o n , th u s
tu rn e d i n t o L a tin e ."
Haec prim a le x in r e l i g i o n e s a n c i a t u r , u t nemintem
s o l i c i t e s ad falsam d o c trin a m , nec a m p le c ta r is
s o l i c i t a t u s . T u rp is enim e x c u s a tio e s t e t minime
accp ien d a cum in c a e t e r i s p e c c a tis , turn s i c o n tra
e c c le sia m d e i humana a u t h o r i t a t i s causa nos u l l a
d o c tr in a u so s e s s e s a te a m u r. Etenim eo lo c o ,
c h a r e f r a t e r , lo c a t u s e s , u t t e longe p ro sp u e re o p e r te a t
fu tu r o s c asu s e c c l e s i a d e i . D e f le x it enim earn multam
de s p a ti o c u rric u lo q u e consuetudo P a tria rc h a ru m ,
Prophetarum , A postolorum , e t piorum hominum. P o n tife x
Romanus C h r i s t i thronum o ccupare c o n atu s e s t , v e l
o c c u p a u it i s quidem m u lto s iam an n o s. Num quid s im ile
populus dei a u d ie r a t a u t v id e r a t? E iu s e tia m c o n siliu m
re g e s e t p r in c ip e s qu id in p r o f e s s o r e s v e r i t a t i s
e f f e c e r u n t , s in e magno d o lo re non queo c o g i t a r e . Nam
v e r i C h r is ti a c e rb issim o s c r u c ia tu s p r o p te r bona
c o n s c ie n tia t e s t i f i c a t i o n e m s u s t i n u e r u n t . De
p ra e se n tiu m v ero maiorum e x itu quid expectem , non l i b e t
a u g u r a r i.
Again th e im ita tio n i s d i r e c t e d , as c lo s e to th e o r i g i n a l as
Kempe d e s ig n s , from th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e argum ent to th e sy n tax .
As an im ita tio n i t amounts to l i t t l e more th a n a s u b s t i t u t i o n o f
w ords. (One must be c a r e f u l to a p p r e c ia te th e com plexity o f th e
s t u d e n t ’s t a s k . For exam ple, th e ju s s iv e s u b ju n c tiv e o f th e
second c la u s e : u t neque rogemus re s t u r p i s , nec faciam us r o g a ti
becomes in th e s t u d e n t ’s i m ita tio n th e deponent c o n s tr u c ti o n , u t
neminem s o l i c i t e s ad fa lsam d o ctrin am , nec a m p le c ta r is
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s o l i o i t a t u s . ) Yet a g a in in t h i s example we see t h a t th e
s la v is h n e s s o f th e im ita tio n i s n ot j u s t in th e s t u d e n t 's mere
s u b s t i t u t i o n o f p h ra s e s : i t i s in th e argument o f th e p a ssa g e .
The s tu d e n t i s i n s t r u c t e d to w rite h i s im ita tio n ab o u t r e l i g i o n ,
and th e argument he makes— i f i t i s n o t in f a c t d i c t a t e d by h i s
t e a c h e r — seems to conform w ith th e a n t i - p a p i s t se n tim e n t o f
England a t th e m iddle o f th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry .
W hile we can n o t know w ith c e r t a i n t y t h a t what t r a n s p i r e d in
Kempe's classro o m i s as Erasmus p r e s c r ib e d , I b e lie v e i t
re a s o n a b le to assume t h a t som ething l i k e a com bination o f th e
s o r t o f re a d in g method Erasmus p r e s c r i b e s preced ed and
accompanied th e s o r t o f i m ita tio n e x e r c is e which Erasmus
recommended, Ascham cham pioned, and Kempe h e re i l l u s t r a t e s . We
m ight c o n sid e r th e e f f e c t s o f th e com bination o f such re a d in g and
im i t a t i o n e x e r c is e . From th e o n s e t o f h is s c h o o lin g th e boy was
given re a d in g s in te n d e d n o t o n ly to develop h is L a tin language
s k i l l s , b u t to in c u lc a te a system o f m o ra lity and e t h i c s . The
boy was to ld o f th e c o n te x t o f th e work he re a d ; he was t o l d o f
th e m oral and e t h i c a l im p o rt of th e work; he copied from th e work
s e n t e n t i a e o f such im p o rt. Then in classroom i m ita tio n e x e r c is e s
th e boy was made to e x p re s s h im s e lf in ways conform ing to th e
t e a c h e r 's d e s i r e s . The boy was made t o read and to r e p e a t a
p r e s c r ib e d d o c tr in e . Through i m ita tio n e x e r c is e he was made to
th in k — to in v e n t argum ents in p r e s c r ib e d s t r u c t u r e s — and to
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e x p re ss t h a t d o c tr in e . P a r t i c u l a r l y when one c o n s id e rs th e youth
o f th e p u p ils and th e d u ra tio n and freq u e n cy o f t h e i r exposure to
c o n fo rm ist th in k in g , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to im agine a more
th o ro u g h g o in g i n d o c t r i n a t i o n .
Erasmus on I m i ta ti o n f o r th e M ature S ch o lar
So f a r we have c o n sid e re d r h e t o r i c a l im i t a t i o n as a
p e d ag o g ic a l e x e r c is e . But im i t a t i o n was a ls o an a c t i v i t y o f
m ature w r i t e r s who were a lr e a d y com petent in L a tin and w ell
beyond e lem en tary s c h o o lin g . One must tu rn to th e C iceroneanus
f o r E rasm us’s most d e t a i l e d d is c u s s io n o f i m i t a t i o n fo r th e
m ature w r i t e r . The C iceroneanus i s E rasm u s's c o n tr ib u tio n to th e
lo n g - liv e d c o n tro v e rs y over th e e x c lu s iv e i m i t a t i o n o f C ic e r o 's
L a tin d i c t i o n and s t y l e . Erasmus i s re sp o n d in g p a r t i c u l a r l y to
th e s la v i s h cice ro n e a n ism o f some o f h is I t a l i a n c o n tem p o raries
who had ta k en t h e i r z e a lo u s n e s s to such e x te n t s t h a t th e y would
n o t approve o f d ic tio n n o t found in th e c ic e ro n e a n canon, and who
th u s r u l e o u t any C h r is tia n r e f e r e n c e s in t h e i r own d is c o u r s e .
But th e v a lu e o f th e C iceroneanus to th e p r e s e n t d is c u s s io n does
n o t l i e s t r i c t l y in E rasm u s's argum ents a g a in s t s l a v i s h
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c ic e ro n e a n ism . R a th e r, from th e C iceroneanus may be assem bled
th e b e s t o f E rasm u s's a d v ice on r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n . In t h i s
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work, Erasmus d e m o n strates h i s f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e c l a s s i c a l
w r i t e r s ' recom m endations on r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n , and he
in c o r p o r a te s t h e i r s u g g e s tio n s in to a scheme f o r i m i t a t i o n s u ite d
to h is own tim e and h is own C h r is tia n o b j e c t i v e s .
The s t a r t i n g p o in t o f E rasm us’s p la n f o r e f f e c t i v e r h e t o r i c a l
im ita tio n i s th e i m i t a t o r 's broad le a r n in g and c r i t i c a l
judgem ent, gained from th o ro u g h re a d in g and a t t e n t i o n to more
th a n j u s t one r h e t o r i c a l m odel. F i r s t and fo re m o s t, knowledge
makes f o r eloquences
But l e t your f i r s t and c h ie f c a re be to know th e
s u b je c t which you u n d e rta k e to p r e s e n t. T h is w i l l
f u r n is h you w ealth o f speech and t r u e , n a t u r a l
em o tio n s. Your lan g u ag e w i l l l i v e , b r ^ t h e , p e rsu a d e ,
co n v in ce, and f u l l y e x p re s s your s e l f .
Erasmus u rg e s th o se who th ro u g h im ita tio n would become t r u l y
e lo q u e n t, to " f i r s t re a d th e most n o ted a u th o rs and c u l l from
them what i s b e s t" (1 2 8 ). Erasmus would have th e im i t a t o r
a c h ie v e eloquence by fo llo w in g th e example o f C ic e r o ’s b re a d th o f
l e a r n i n g .
The s a n c tu a ry o f h is h e a r t he f i l l e d to o v e rflo w in g
w ith th e a u th o rs o f a l l th e branches o f knowledge old
and new. He le a r n e d by h e a r t th e f a m ilie s o f th e
s t a t e , th e r i t e s , cu sto m s, law s, e d i c t s , p l e b i s c i t e s .
He n o t o n ly b u sied h im s e lf i n d u s t r i o u s l y a t th e s h r in e s
o f th e p h ilo s o p h e r s , b u t a ls o betook h im s e lf f r e q u e n tly
in to th e r e t r e a t s o f th e Muses . . . .(7 9 )
From such b re a d th o f re a d in g th e im i t a t o r must s e l e c t n o t one
m odel, b ut many "tak C in g ] from each th a t in which each e x c e l l e d ,"
j u s t as C icero had " s if tC e d ] e q u a lly to g e th e r Greek and L a tin
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p h ilo s o p h e rs , h i s t o r i a n s , r h e t o r i c i a n s , com ic, t r a g i c and l y r i c
p o e ts " (3 9 ,4 6 ) .
L ik e th e c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s , Erasm us, to o , i n s i s t s th a t
any models must be s u i t e d to th e i m i t a t o r ’s in d iv id u a l c a p a c itie s
and t a l e n t s or e l s e th e im ita tio n i s bound t o f a i l . "Minds o f
men have in d iv id u a l b e n t," he w r i t e s , "and t h i s has such power
t h a t i f th e y a re a d ap te d to one s t y l e of sp ea k in g by n a tu re th ey
may s t r i v e in v a in f o r a n o th e r ." For an i n d iv id u a l to t r y to
make h i s t a l e n t s ov er in th e image o f th o se o f a n o th e r q u ite
u n lik e h i s own would be to make o f h im s e lf "a m o n s tro s ity who has
l o s t h i s own n a tiv e b e au ty and has n o t g ain ed a n o t h e r ’s " (7 5 -6 ).
Erasmus fa v o rs in s te a d " im i t a t i o n t h a t a id s r a t h e r th an h in d e rs
n a tu r e ; t h a t c o r r e c t s r a t h e r th an d e s tr o y s n a t u r e 's g i f t s " (1 2 3 ).
C o ro lla ry to h is i n s i s t e n c e t h a t th e i m i t a t o r r e s p e c t h i s
in b o rn g i f t s , Erasmus a ls o b e lie v e s th a t th e most s i g n i f i c a n t
q u a l i t i e s o f elo q u en ce can n o t be im ita te d , b u t m ust come from th e
i m i t a t o r h im s e lf. Even i f th e z e a lo u s i m i t a t o r could copy th e
w ording and s t y l e o f h i s model e x a c tly , he w ould n o t accom plish
much, f o r th e s e a re b u t s u p e r f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e
o r a t o r . Erasmus a sk s where in such an i m i t a t i o n would be th e
q u a l i t i e s which "belong to man p e c u l i a r l y —m ind, t a l e n t , memory,
judgem ent?" These would s t i l l be la c k in g . For " j u s t as th e s e ,
th e c h ie f e s s e n t i a l s o f man, cannot be p o rtr a y e d by th e p a i n t e r ;
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so we can n o t a f f e c t th e h ig h e s t v i r t u e s o f th e o r a to r b u t must
g e t them from o u r s e lv e s ” (5 3 ).
Erasmus was a ls o f a m i l i a r w ith th e concept o f z e l o s i s . That
which he has to say o f e m u la tio n in th e C iceroneanus rem inds one
o f th e ad v ice o f a n c ie n t r h e t o r i c i a n s . He a d v is e s th e im i t a t o r
to "em ulate r a t h e r th a n fo llo w ; d e s ir e more t r u l y to r i v a l th an
be e x a c tly a lik e " c o n tin u in g t h a t th e im i t a t o r must n o n e th e le s s
r e s p e c t h is n a tu r a l t a l e n t s and alw ays make h is d is c o u r s e s t y l e
15
a p p r o p r ia te to h is s u b je c t (8 7 ) . Having argued th ro u g h o u t th e
C iceroneanus a g a in s t s l a v i s h c ic e ro n e a n ism , Erasmus concedes th a t
he would make th e works o f C icero " th e f i r s t and fo rem o st p a r t o f
th e c u rric u lu m b u t n o t th e o n ly p a r t" and n o t so t h a t C icero
m ight be m in d le s sly ap ed , b u t t h a t he may be " im ita te d r a t h e r and
e m u la te d ." Erasmus th en goes on to d e fin e th e t r u e i m i t a t o r and
e m u la to r.
An im i t a t o r does n o t d e s i r e to say th e same th in g s so
much as he does to say s im ila r t h in g s , nay sometimes
n o t even s im ila r b u t even e q u a l; an em ulator s t r i v e s
even to speak b e t t e r i f he can , and no one was e v e r so
fin is h e d an a r t i s t t h a t you could n o t fin d in h i s work
som ething which could be done b e t t e r . (127)
One r a t h e r c o n fu sin g p assag e in th e C iceroneanus seems alm ost
t o d is c o u n t e m u la tio n . A lthough le n g th y , i t i s w orth q u o tin g
h ere b e ca u se, when c o n sid e re d in i t s c o n te x t, i t r e v e a ls somewhat
more c l e a r l y th an does th e p assag e above j u s t what id e a l o f
em u latio n Erasmus has in mind.
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You know th e r e a re some c le v e r p eo p le t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h
between im ita tio n and e m u la tio n . They say t h a t
i m i t a t i o n lo o k s tow ard l i k e n e s s , b u t e m u la tio n looks
tow ard s u p e r i o r i t y . And so i f you p u t b e fo re you
C ic ero , e n t i r e and a lo n e , w ith th e view n o t only o f
copying him b u t o f e x c e llin g him , you must n o t m erely
o v e rta k e him b u t you must o u t s t r i p him; o th e rw is e i f
you w ish to add to h i s f u l l n e s s o f e x p r e s s io n , you w i l l
become red u n d a n t; i f to h is freedom you w i l l become
p e r t ; i f t o h i s j e s t s you w i l l become s c u r r i l o u s ; i f to
h i s s t y l e you w i l l become a p o e t in s te a d o f an o r a t o r .
T h e re fo re , i f you should d e s ir e to eq u al C ic e ro , you
would ru n th e r i s k o f sp eak in g worse b ecau se you cannot
a t t a i n , though d o u b tle s s you have a t t a i n e d o th e r
t h in g s , th e d iv in e v i r t u e s o f t h i s man w ith which he
o f f s e t s th o se th in g s which a re e i t h e r f a u l t s or very
nigh to f a u l t s ; and i f you t r y to s u rp a ss him a l s o ,
even i f you eq u al him in th o se th in g s fo r which you
have n a tiv e a b i l i t y , y e t w hatever you add w i l l be
f a u l t y , sin c e i t seems t r u l y to have been d e c la re d t h a t
n o th in g can be added to C ic e ro ’s e lo q u e n c e , as in th e
case o f Demosthenes n o th in g can be s u b t r a c t e d . (58)
The key t o t h i s p assag e i s th e q u a l i f i e r , " i f you put b e fo re you
C icero e n t i r e and a lo n e ." The concept t h a t ev ery e x c e lle n c e in
o r a to r y i s akin to a f a u l t (th e o th e r s id e o f e x c e lle n c e i s
e x c e s s) was p a r t o f th e m o tiv a tio n f o r Q u i n t i l i a n ’s in s is t e n c e
upon c a r e f u l c r i t i c a l judgem ent. Erasmus r e p e a ts i t h e re and
16
e lse w h e re . In t h i s c ase Erasmus i s a tte m p tin g t o d isc o u ra g e
im ita tio n o f C icero so s l a v i s h t h a t no o th e r model w i l l be
c o n s id e re d . The e m u la to r, th e n , ( to ta k e E rasm us’ s exam ple) who
w ishes to be as copious in sp eak in g as was C icero would th en run
th e r i s k o f becoming re d u n d a n t. But th e em u lato r who has formed
c r i t i c a l judgm ent th ro u g h c o n s ta n t and c a r e f u l r e a d in g , and who
i s f a m ilia r w ith many exam ples o f o r a to r s and can compare them
would re c o g n ize C ic e ro ’s c o p io u sn ess as an e x c e lle n c e , b u t one
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e a s i l y ta k en to e x c e s s . In such a case th e e m u la to r m ig h t s t r i v e
to outdo C icero by se e k in g som ething o f C ic e ro ’s c o p io u sn e s s, but
a ls o by s t r i v i n g f o r o th e r e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t i e s — p erh ap s th o s e fo r
which th e em ulator has a n a t u r a l g i f t . Put in f i n e , th e i d e a l
im ita to r /e m u la to r can n o t i m i t a t e one model s l a v i s h l y , f o r to do
so would be to p re v e n t o p p o rtu n ity to develop and e x e r c is e th e
v ery c r i t i c a l judgem ent which would h e lp him a c h ie v e h i s own
e x c e lle n c e and avoid f a u l t s o f e x c e s s.
Such a d v ice on r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n o ccu rs th ro u g h o u t
Erasm us’s C iceroneanus and d e m o n strates h is u n d e rs ta n d in g and
ap p ro v al o f th e c l a s s i c a l p r e c e p ts on th e s u b j e c t . Yet th e most
s e r io u s r e s e r v a tio n Erasmus h e ld co n cern in g th e a rd e n t
c ic e ro n e a n s o f h is tim e stemmed n o t from h i s agreem ent w ith
c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s , b u t from h i s profound C h r i s t i a n i t y .
Because th e s la v i s h c ic e ro n e a n s d e s ir e d to use o n ly th e s t y l e and
v o c ab u la ry o f C ic e ro , th e y could n o t e x p re ss C h r is tia n c o n c e p ts.
To Erasmus t h i s i s an o f f e n s iv e l i m i t a t i o n . Where in t h e i r
l e t t e r s th e a rd e n t c ic e ro n e a n s would w r ite v a l e , Erasmus would
have them use th e C h r is tia n g r a t i a , p a x , or A Deo P a tr e e t Domino
n o s tr o Je su C h r is to . ’’And how much more th e s e modern p h ra s e s
s u i t th e C h r i s t i a n , ” he e x c la im s , ’’th an th e salu tem d i c i t and
c u ra u t v a le a s o f th e Romans!” (5 0 -5 1 ). E rasm u s's to n e becomes
s t r i d e n t as he com plains o f th e " e f f r o n t e r y ” o f th o se who " i n s i s t
t h a t we sp eak , on a l l o c c a s io n s , as C icero d i d ." Such language
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i s n o t a p p r o p r ia te to C h r is tia n tim e s.
Wherever I tu r n I see th in g s changed, I s ta n d on
a n o th e r s ta g e , I see a n o th e r t h e a t e r , y e s , a n o th er
w o rld . What s h a l l I do? I , a C h r i s t i a n , m ust speak to
C h r is tia n s ab o u t th e C h r is tia n r e l i g i o n . (61-62)
To p ut th e m a tte r in term s f a m i l i a r to r h e t o r i c i a n s , Erasmus
o b je c t s to th e way th e s l a v i s h c ic e ro n e a n s e r r e d a g a in s t th e
r h e t o r i c a l t e n e t t h a t th e d is c o u r s e be a p p r o p r ia te in form and
c o n te n t to i t s c irc u m sta n c e s . And th e anger o f Erasm us’s
re sp o n se p roves th e r u l e : th e c ic e r o n e a n s ’ f a i l u r e to c o n sid e r
th e in a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f t h e i r ’’pagan" language to C h r is tia n
tim es and re a d e rs makes t h e i r w r i t i n g , r e g a r d le s s o f i t s
c ic e ro n e a n ism , f a i l to win acc e p tan c e and a p p ro v a l.
But E rasm u s's s e r io u s o b je c tio n to th e c ic e ro n e a n ism o f some
o f h i s I t a l i a n c o n tem p o raries stem s n o t j u s t from h i s b e l i e f t h a t
th e y p r a c tic e d im ita tio n and em u latio n to o s l a v i s h l y and
u n c r i t i c a l l y , so t h a t th e y m ight n o t even use C h r is tia n p h ra s e s .
R a th e r, he b e lie v e d th e y had gone to o f a r in e m u la tin g C ic ero .
Where th e y would form t h e i r ev ery word and a c tio n on C ic ero ,
Erasmus would have them a tte n d more t o C h r is t as t h e i r model fo r
l i f e . Having seen in th e l i b r a r i e s o f I t a l i a n c ic e ro n e a n s pagan
im ages, e p ita p h s , and monuments, b u t none to C h r is t or th e
s a i n t s , Erasmus com plains t h a t " i t i s paganism which in flu e n c e s
our e a r s and m inds" (7 3 ). Erasmus f e a r s t h a t "y o u th , in th e
sim ple and u n tu to re d tim e s o f l i f e , [ w ill be] d e ce iv e d by th e
i l l u s i o n o f a C ic ero n ian name and become pagan i n s te a d o f
160
C ic e ro n ia n " (1 2 9 ). In th e d e d ic a to ry l e t t e r p u b lish e d w ith th e
C ic ero n e a n u s, Erasmus acknow ledges t h a t h i s o b j e c t i v e in w r itin g
th e d ia lo g u e i s "to e n su re t h a t good l e t t e r s p ro c la im th e g lo ry
o f C h r is t our Lord and God." and he e x p la in s h i s f e a r t h a t "a
number o f young men r e t u r n i n g to us from I t a l y , e s p e c i a l l y from
17
Rome, have been c o n s id e ra b ly in f e c te d " by pagan a t t i t u d e s .
E n g lish H u m an ists’ C onservatism v s . C re a tiv e I m ita tio n
T h is c h a p te r opened w ith G rafto n and J a r d in e * s q u e s tio n of
w hether or n o t hum anist e d u c a tio n c o u ld , as i t s p ro p o n en ts
c laim ed , p ro v id e e t h i c a l p r e p a r a tio n f o r p u b lic l i f e . We have
seen t h a t because o f th e d e s i r e to r e a s s e r t o rd e r and s t a b i l i t y
and because o f th e need f o r a w orkable program o f ed u ca tio n
s u ite d t o th e needs o f in c r e a s in g numbers o f s t u d e n t s , E n g lish
hum anist ed u ca tio n became a s y s te m a tic i n d o c t r i n a t i o n i n a
combined f a i t h in C h r is tia n v i r t u e and c l a s s i c a l wisdom. In th e
s o r t o f pedagogy Erasmus recommended in De r a t i o n e s t u d i i and De
c o n s c rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s , r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n e x e r c is e became th e
means by which sch o o lb o y s and u n i v e r s i t y s c h o la r s were made
th em selv es to produce in A ugustan, i f n o t C ic ero n ian L a tin
argum ents c o n s is te n t w ith accep ted d o c tr in e .
161
However, as th e im m ed iately p re c e d in g d is c u s s io n o f th e
C iceroneanus has shown, Erasmus had h a rd ly f o r g o tte n c l a s s i c a l
r h e t o r i c i a n s ’ a d v ice t h a t to be e f f e c t i v e , im ita tio n must be a
c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y : t h a t v e ry a d v ice became E rasm u s's argument
a g a in s t s l a v i s h c ic e ro n e a n ism . There a p p e a rs , th e n , to be a
te n s io n between th e p r a c t i c e o f r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n in sc h o o ls
and th e i d e a l espoused by Erasmus. Erasmus u rg e s th e m ature
i m i t a t o r to read much and o fte n so as to develop c r i t i c a l
judgem ent. Yet w h ile Erasmus demands o f s tu d e n ts an im posing
b re a d th o f re a d in g , h i s p e d ag o g ic a l re a d in g method becomes a
means to i n c u lc a tin g p re d e term in ed m oral and e t h i c a l le s s o n s .
And w h ile Erasmus may in th e C iceroneanus u rg e th e im i t a t o r to
choose models s u ite d to h i s in d iv id u a l c a p a c i t i e s , no doubt in
th e grammar sch o o l th e models f o r im ita tio n were chosen by th e
sc h o o lm a ste r. Then, to o , w h ile Erasmus echoes c l a s s i c a l
r h e t o r i c i a n s from I s o c r a t e s to Q u in tilia n in h i s i n s i s t e n c e th a t
th e most s i g n i f i c a n t q u a l i t i e s o f th e i m ita tio n must come from
th e im i t a t o r h im s e lf , and n o t from th e m odel, we see from Kemp's
example t h a t , a t l e a s t f o r grammar sch o o l p u p i l s , th e form and
c o n te n t o f th e im ita tio n was p r e s c rib e d by th e t e a c h e r . In f a c t ,
w h ile Erasmus can u rg e th e m ature im i t a t o r t o em u late h is model,
h is C iceroneanus ends w ith a n o te o f E rasm u s's d is g u s t a t Roman
r h e t o r i c i a n s who p ut em u latio n o f C icero b e fo re im ita tio n of
C h r i s t , th u s c o r r u p tin g th e young.
1 6 2
One i s tem pted to conclude t h a t th e id e a l o f i m ita tio n
s u f f e r e d under th e p r e s s u r e s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d e d u c a tio n , w ith
i t s long h o u rs, i t s busy c la ssro o m s, and i t s o fte n d is c o u ra g e d ,
u s u a ll y u n d e rp a id , and som etim es v ic io u s s c h o o lm a s te rs . W hile
such a co n clu sio n m ight o v e r s t a t e th e case a b i t , I s h a l l make
c le a r in th e e p ilo g u e t h a t th e id e a l o f im ita tio n in d eed may have
been compromised as e d u c a to rs sought to t r a n s l a t e th e hum anist
f a i t h in c l a s s i c a l l e t t e r s and C h r is tia n p r i n c i p l e s i n t o
m e th o d ic al program o f e d u c a tio n . As we have a lr e a d y seen , th e
program o f re a d in g Erasmus p r e s c r ib e d in h is p e d ag o g ic a l
t r e a t i s e s ta k e s a s te p in th e d ir e c t i o n o f t h a t compromise, even
though E rasm u s's sa v in g g ra c e m ight f i n a l l y have been h is
ten d en cy n o t to be m e th o d ic a l, b u t to ad v o cate a s o r t o f
e d u c a tio n by immersion in th e c l a s s i c s and C h r is tia n f a t h e r s .
However, we w i l l see in Roger Ascham, th e champion o f im ita tio n
pedagogy, an even g r e a t e r le a n in g tow ard method and som ething
l e s s o f an in s i s t e n c e on b re a d th o f re a d in g .
163
Notes
^G rafton and J a r d i n e , From Humanism to th e H u m a n itie s, 122.
Subsequent c i t a t i o n s to t h i s work w i l l be made in th e t e x t .
2
On th e q u e stio n o f w hether i t was accom plishm ent in
h u m a n istic le a r n in g or " g e n tle or noble b i r t h " which helped
in d iv id u a ls win fa v o re d p o s itio n in Tudor s o c ie ty , see G rafto n
and J a r d in e , From Humanism to th e H um an ities, 185, 196.
3
McConica, E n g lish Hum anists and R eform ation P o l i t i c s ,
14-53. (T his p o in t i s d e t a i l e d in " S o c ia l and P o l i t i c a l
C o n d itio n s ." )
4
Erasm us, M ethodus, e d ite d and t r a n s l a t e d by G. B. W inkler in
Erasm us, A usgewahlte S c h r i f t e n , e d ite d by W. W elzig, I I I
(D arm stad t, 1967), 64; t r a n s l a t e d in to E n g lish and c i t e d by
G ra fto n and J a r d in e , 146-47.
5
Using th e term " a p p a r e n t," I c a r e f u l l y q u a lif y my a s s e r tio n
t h a t G ra fto n and J a r d in e d e n ig r a te r h e t o r i c a l in v e n tio n . I can
fin d no d i r e c t sta te m e n t in From Humanism to th e H um anities t h a t
G rafto n and J a r d in e w ish to deny r h e t o r i c a l in v e n tio n th e s t a t u s
th e y allo w to r a t i o n a l i s t i c m ethods. But t h e i r lan g u ag e—
exam ples o f which a re c i t e d in th e p re s e n t p a ra g ra p h — su g g e sts
t h a t th e y do n o t b e lie v e r h e t o r i c a l o r t o p i c a l m ethods o f
a n a ly s is to be o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . P erhaps th e most
pow erful ev id en ce t h a t G ra fto n and J a r d in e deny f o r r h e t o r i c th e
ty p e o f s ig n if ic a n c e th e y m ight a t t r i b u t e to f o r m a l i s t i c or
p o s i t i v i s t i c argument i s t h e i r v ery q u e s tio n in g th e hum anists*
a s s e r tio n t h a t ed u ca tio n in r h e t o r i c i s e t h i c a l l y u p l i f t i n g . One
who b e lie v e s in th e power o f th e r h e t o r i c a l h a b it o f mind— th e
h a b it o f fo rm u la tin g argum ents on a l l s id e s o f e t h i c a l
q u e s tio n s — sim ply would a c c e p t th e hum anists* c laim s a t fa c e
v a lu e .
6
E rn esto G r a s s i, R h e to ric as P h ilo so p h y : The Humanist
T r a d itio n ( U n iv e rs ity P ark: The P en nsylvania S ta te U n iv e rs ity
P r e s s , 1980), 34. Subsequent c i t a t i o n s to t h i s work w i l l be
in d ic a te d in th e t e x t .
164
7
G rant M. B osw ell, "The R h e to ric o f Pedagogy: Changing
A ssum ptions in S e v e n tee n th -C e n tu ry E n g lish R h e to r ic a l E d u c a tio n ,"
R h e to ric S o c ie ty Q u a rte rly 16 (1986): 116-17.
O
"Changing A ssum ptions in L a te r R enaissance C u ltu r e ," 422-31.
^C lark , M ilton a t S t. P a u l's S c h o o l, 110-113.
10
D e sid e riu s Erasm us, De c o n sc rib e n d is e p i s t o l i s in C o lle cte d
Works o f Erasmus, V ol. 25: L i t e r a r y and E d u c a tio n a l W ritin g s 3»
De c o n sc rib e n d is e p is to lis /F o rm u la /D e c i v i t a t e , t r a n s l a t e d by
C h arles F a n ta z z i (T o ro n to : U n iv e rs ity o f Toronto P r e s s , 1985),
194. Subsequent c i t a t i o n s to t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n w i l l be made in
th e t e x t .
11
The form o f th e p r a e l e c t i o i s , o f c o u rs e , n o t new to
Erasmus. I t may be fo u n d , fo r exam ple, in Q u i n t i l i a n 's
I n s t i t u t i o o r a t o r i a I I , 5, 6-9 . I t i s n o tew o rth y , how ever, th a t
Erasmus adds to th e p r a e l e c t i o a f i n a l summary o f th e w orks'
m oral and e t h i c a l im p o rt.
12
W illiam Kempe, The E ducation o f C h ild ren in L earn in g (1588)
in Four Tudor Books on E d u c a tio n , in tr o d u c tio n by R obert D.
Pepper ( G a in e s v ille , F l o r i d a : S c h o la r s ’ F a c s im ile s and R e p r in ts ,
1966. The exam ples to be used h e re a re from 229— 37.
13
For a s k e tc h o f th e h i s t o r y o f c ic e ro n e a n ism see Iz o ra
S c o tt, C o n tro v e rs ie s o v er th e I m ita tio n o f C icero as a Model fo r
S ty le and Some Phases o f t h e i r In flu e n c e on th e S chools o f th e
R en aissan ce (C o n trib u tio n s to E d u catio n , No. 85, New York:
T eachers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1910). A
t r a n s l a t i o n o f a s i g n i f i c a n t t e x t on c ic e ro n e a n ism i s a v a ila b le
in G a b rie l Harvey, C ic ero n e a n u s, U n iv e rs ity o f N ebraska S tu d ie s
in th e H u m an ities, No. 4 (November 1945).
14
D e sid e riu s Erasm us, C iceroneanus in S c o tt, 123. A more
r e c e n t t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e C iceroneanus i s t h a t o f B e tty I . Knott
in The C o lle c te d Works o f Erasm us, Vol. 28, L i t e r a r y and
E d u c a tio n a l W ritin g s 6 (T o ro n to : U n iv e rs ity o f T oronto P r e s s ,
1986). I have p r e f e r e d in t h i s case S c o t t 's t r a n s l a t i o n because
i t employs term s on r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n more c o n s i s t e n t w ith
th o se used elsew h ere in t h i s work. Subsequent c i t a t i o n s to
E rasm u s's C iceroneanus w i l l r e f e r to th e p a g in a tio n o f th e S c o tt
t r a n s l a t i o n and w i l l be n oted in th e t e x t .
15
Elsew here in th e C iceroneanus Erasmus demands t h a t th e
i m ita to r make h is d is c o u r s e a p p r o p r ia te to h i s c irc u m sta n c e s :
61-62, 78, and 120.
165
16
Erasmus rem arks a g ain on th e c lo se n e ss o f e v ery v i r t u e o f
o r a to r y to a v ic e o f e x c e ss a t 55-57.
17
C ic ero n e a n u s, U n iv e r s ity o f Toronto e d i t i o n , 337. S c o t t ’s
e d i t i o n does not in c lu d e th e d e d ic a to ry l e t t e r .
166
E pilogue
As I e x p la in e d in th e P r e f a c e , t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s lim ite d
in scope o f tim e to th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry . I t s purpose i s to
t r a c e th e com bination o f s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and i n t e l l e c t u a l
f a c t o r s which made im i t a t i o n pedagogy an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f E n g lish
h u m a n istic e d u c a tio n . I should l i k e to co n clu d e t h i s stu d y w ith
a b r i e f e p ilo g u e which lo o k s forw ard to a to p ic fo r f u r th e r
in v e s t i g a t i o n : th e changes in se v e n te e n th c e n tu r y e d u c a tio n which
came about as r e a c tio n to th e compromises o f th e h u m a n istic
id e a l s o f ed u ca tio n which o c cu rred when t h a t id e a l was t r a n s l a t e d
in t o methods s u i t a b l e to everyday p r a c t i c e . Using th e example o f
Roger Ascham, I s h a l l i l l u s t r a t e th e ten d en cy o f E n g lish hum anist
e d u c a to rs to s a c r i f i c e th e i d e a l b re a d th o f hum anist e d u ca tio n in
th e name o f method. E d u cato rs such as Ascham so u g h t to develop
program m atic e d u c a tio n , n o t so much s t r e s s i n g th e im portance o f
th e in d iv id u a l s t u d e n t ’s t a l e n t s and h is t e a c h e r ’s e x p e r tis e as
see k in g to develop m ethods o f e d u c a tio n which can be r e p lic a t e d
in th e p r a c t i c e o f many e d u c a to rs and t h e i r p u p i l s . Then I s h a ll
tu rn to b r i e f l y n o te th e work o f James A x te ll and G rant Boswell
in e x p la in in g th e s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu ry r e a c tio n t o s ix te e n th -
c e n tu ry h u m an istic e d u c a tio n .
167
Ascham's Method: Compromise o f th e H um anistic I d e a l
In h is study o f R en aissan ce Concepts o f Method, Neal G ilb e r t
d e m o n strates th a t in p e d ag o g ic a l works o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu ry
"words l i k e v i a , r a t i o , o rd o , modus, and, f i n a l l y , m ethodus" come
to sta n d n o t fo r w e ll- d e f in e d c o n c e p ts , b u t "as n e u t r a l names
used both f o r th e c o n te n t o f a d i s c i p l i n e and fo r any manner o f
i n v e s t i g a t i n g o r te a c h in g i t . " With such a c o n f la tio n o f th e
d i s c i p l i n e and p e d ag o g ic a l methods comes a r e d u c tio n , such th a t
d u rin g th e l a t e R en aissan ce m e th o d ical te x tb o o k s "ten d ed to
d e g e n e ra te in to empty fo rm alism and p e d an try . . . f a c i l i t a t i n g a
tre n d toward s u p e r f i c i a l e d u c a tio n .1 1 ^ In th e p re v io u s c h a p te r I
noted t h a t Anthony G rafto n and L isa J a r d in e a t t r i b u t e to Erasmus
and o th e rs th e ta sk o f t r a n s l a t i n g hum anist p h i l o l o g i c a l method
i n t o p e d ag o g ical method (134>, and I have o u tlin e d E rasm u s's
m ethod, n o tin g th e way i t comes in to te n s io n w ith th e i d e a l fo r
im ita tio n Erasmus s e t s o u t in h is C icero n ean u s. But I su g g e st
t h a t th e program o f e d u c a tio n Erasmus s e t s o u t in De r a t i o n e
s t u d i i i s , in f a c t , u n m eth o d ical when compared to A scham 's. I
s h a l l d is c u s s Ascham's somewhat more narrow and m e th o d ic al method
as he o u t l i n e s i t in h i s S choolm aster and d is c u s s e s i t in h is
l e t t e r s w ith th e German e d u c a to r, Johann Sturm.
168
What re a d in g was to E rasm u s's program o f e d u c a tio n ,
im ita tio n was to A scham 's. D e sp ite i t s being an u n fin is h e d and
u n re v ise d t e x t , Ascham's S choolm aster c e r t a i n l y o f f e r s more
m e th o d ic a l, perhaps more p r a c t i c a l a d v ice on r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n
than do Erasm us’ s w orks. Such m ight be e x p e c te d , s in c e Ascham
was an e d u ca to r th ro u g h o u t much o f h i s l i f e , a fe llo w a t
Cam bridge, and f o r two y e a rs a t u t o r to P r in c e s s E liz a b e th . But
f o r i t s p r a c t i c a l i t y , th e scheme fo r L a tin le a r n in g which Ascham
o f f e r s in th e Schoolm aster may s a c r i f i c e some o f th e q u a l i t y and
b re a d th o f re a d in g which Erasmus em phasizes as b e in g e s s e n t i a l to
th e fo rm atio n o f c r i t i c a l judgm ent, a r e q u i s i t e to good
i m i t a t i o n . Whereas Erasmus s t r e s s e s in h is p e d ag o g ic a l works th e
im p o rtan ce o f broad and c a r e f u l re a d in g , in th e S ch o o lm aster, and
in h is co rresp o n d en ce, Ascham em phasizes s t y l e — c o r r e c t ,
c ic e ro n e a n L a tin c o m p o sitio n . In p a r t t h i s em phasis on form may
be th e r e s u l t o f th e i n t e n t and lim ite d scope o f th e
S c h o o lm a ster, w hich, as th e b o o k 's s u b t i t l e a d v e r t i s e s , was to
p ro v id e a " p la in and p e r f e c t way to te a c h in g c h ild r e n to
2
u n d e rs ta n d , w r ite and speak th e L a tin to n g u e ." But such an
em phasis may as w e ll stem from Ascham's assu m p tio n s about
language le a r n in g . For Ascham, double t r a n s l a t i o n and i m i t a t i o
a re th e two most im p o rta n t methods o f language le a r n in g . To
u n d e rstan d Ascham's a d v ice on th e s e m ethods, one must f i r s t
a tte n d to h is b e l i e f s ab o u t th e L a tin lan g u ag e.
1 6 9
Ascham u ses th e term " i m i t a t i o n ” in two s e n s e s : one i s a
s p e c i f i c ty p e o f e x e r c is e which he c a l l s i m i t a t i o ; th e o th e r ,
more g e n e ra l sense o f i m i t a t i o n in d ic a te s th e means by which a l l
3
language i s le a r n e d . "A ll la n g u ag e s, both le a rn e d and m other
to n g u e s, be g o tte n , and g o tte n o n ly by i m i t a t i o n , " Ascham w rite s
in th e S ch o o lm aster. "For as ye use to h e a r , so ye le a r n to
sp eak ; i f ye hear no o t h e r , ye speak n o t y o u r s e lf , and whom ye
o n ly h e a r , o f them ye o n ly le a r n " (1 1 4 ). In d eed , Ascham b e lie v e d
t h a t t h i s s o r t o f im ita tio n i s th e most e f f e c t i v e means o f
le a r n in g in a l l th e a r t s . W ritin g to Sturm in 1568 he a s s e r t s
t h a t "as in th e p h ilo so p h y o f l i f e or o f d a i l y p r a c t i c e , so a lso
in th e ph ilo so p h y o f le a r n in g and e d u c a tio n , exam ples a re f a r
4
more b e n e f i c i a l th an t h e o r i e s . " Ascham r e p e a te d ly i n s i s t s th a t
th e im ita tio n o f exam ples be co n jo in ed to th e le a r n in g o f
p r e c e p ts : in th e S choolm aster he d e c la re s t h a t " p re c e p ts . . .
w ith o u t ap p ly in g un to them th e im ita tio n o f exam ples, be h a rd ,
d ry , and cold and th e r e f o r e b a rre n , u n f r u i t f u l , and u n p le a s a n t"
(1 2 1 ). In a l e t t e r to Sturm he w r ite s t h a t "a new sw eetn ess and
p le a s u r e and a f r u i t to th e p r o f i t o f s tu d ie s blossom s f o r t h from
5
t h i s c o n ju n c tio n o f a r t and im i t a t i o n .
Like Erasmus, Ascham b e lie v e d in th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n n o t o n ly f o r a id in g s tu d e n ts w ith L a tin
c o m p o sitio n , b u t a ls o as a means to t h e i r d e v e lo p in g th e v ery
h a b i t s o f th in k in g o f th e c l a s s i c a l c i t i z e n - o r a t o r s . In th e
170
Schoolm aster Ascham recommends i m ita tio n o f Greek and L a tin
a u th o rs because in th e s e "we fin d alw ays wisdom and elo q u en ce,
never or seldom a s u n d e r," im p ly in g t h a t th e o b je c t iv e o f
r h e t o r i c a l im ita tio n i s fo r s tu d e n ts both t o dev elo p flu e n c y in
L a tin and to a s s im ila te c l a s s i c a l Greek and Roman e t h i c a l and
p r a c t i c a l knowledge. Ascham a ls o c i t e s P lin y th e Younger as
a u th o r ity f o r th e claim t h a t one type o f r h e t o r i c a l i m i t a t i o n ,
double t r a n s l a t i o n , h e lp s s tu d e n ts m aster n o t o n ly " th e hard
c o n g r u itie s o f grammar," ch o ice o f d i c t i o n , and L a tin
co m p o sitio n , "b u t t h a t which i s g r e a te r a ls o . . . l i k e in v e n tio n
o f argum ents, l i k e o rd e r in d i s p o s i t i o n , l i k e u tte r a n c e in
e l o c u t i o n ." Through such e x e r c is e , th e s c h o la r " s h a ll be brought
n o t only to l i k e eloquence b u t a ls o to a l l t r u e u n d e rs ta n d in g and
g
r i g h t judgem ent, both f o r w r iti n g and sp eaking" (8 5 -8 6 ).
Yet Ascham seems o f te n to be more concerned w ith s t y l e th an
w ith m a tte r . He e x p la in s h i s p re fe re n c e f o r th e works o f th e
Greeks and Romans because he f in d s in t h e i r work a u n ity o f
wisdom and elo q u en ce. Yet in th e same c o n te x t Ascham a ls o
d e m o n strates som ething o f a d e fe n siv e n e ss about h is concern fo r
s t y l e . Having a s s e r te d t h a t such " a u th o rs as be f u l l e s t o f good
m a tte r and r i g h t judgem ent in d o c tr in e be lik e w is e always most
p ro p e r in w ords, most a p t in s e n te n c e ," he c o n tin u e s t h a t "th ey
be not w is e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s a y , ’What c a re I fo r a man’s words
and u tte r a n c e i f h is m a tte r and re a so n s be good?” 1 Ascham
171
a t t r i b u t e s such s ta te m e n ts to p r id e or p r e ju d ic e , and c o n tin u e s
t h a t
good and c h o ice m eats be no more r e q u i s i t e f o r h e a lth y
b o d ies than p ro p e r and a p t words be fo r good m a tte rs
and a ls o p la in and s e n s ib le u tte r a n c e f o r th e b e s t and
d e e p e st r e a s o n s , in which two p o in ts s ta n d e th p e r f e c t
elo q u en ce, (114-15)
I t m ight be u n ju s t to make to o much o f Ascham's d e fe n s iv e n e s s : i t
could w e ll be t h a t he would have h is re a d e rs b a la n c e concern fo r
s t y l e w ith concern f o r m a tte r . Yet in Ascham's l e t t e r s and in
th e Schoolm aster one f in d s ev id en ce fo r two assu m p tio n s about
language which s u g g e st a narrow concern fo r u s in g im ita tio n to
form s t u d e n t s ' L a tin s t y l e a f t e r th e language o f th e l a t e
R epublic and p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h a t o f C ic ero .
Ascham b e lie v e s t h a t L a tin was a language p e r f e c te d a t a
given tim e , so he e s p e c i a l l y recommends fo r s tu d e n ts double
t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e o r a t o r s C icero and Caesar and th e comedians
Terence and P la u tu s (th e l a s t w ith some r e s e r v a t i o n s as to h is
d i c t i o n . ) Ascham recommends th e L a tin o f C a e s a r 's Commentaries
as an example o f th e " u n sp o tte d p ro p r ie ty o f th e L a tin tongue
7
even when i t was, as th e G recian s say , in akm ei" (7 8 ) . L a tin
was a t i t s acme, Ascham b e lie v e s , " s c a rc e one hundred y e a rs from
th e tim e o f th e l a s t S c ip io A frican u s and L a e liu s to th e empire
o f A ugustus" (1 4 1 -4 2 ). To p o s i t f o r a language a tim e o f i t s
p e r f e c tio n has im p lic a tio n s f o r one recommending r h e t o r i c a l
i m i t a t i o n : a l l models must be chosen from among th e a u th o rs
172
l i v i n g d u rin g such a tim e . The s o r t o f b re a d th o f le a r n in g which
Erasmus advocated i s th u s je o p a r d iz e d .
Ascham r e s e r v e s th e term i m i t a t i o f o r th e s p e c i f i c e x e r c is e
by which th e s tu d e n t a tte m p ts to e x p re ss th e o r i g i n a l 's m a tte r in
d i f f e r e n t L a tin c o m p o sitio n , form , o r d e r , o r to r e c a p tu r e th e
g
o r i g i n a l 's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y l e in e x p re s s in g d i f f e r e n t m a tte r .
In recommending t h i s e x e r c i s e , Ascham seems to narrow th e choice
o f models f o r im ita tio n to j u s t a few a u th o rs o f th e golden age
o f L a tin , and, in p a r t i c u l a r , to one man, C ic e ro , fo r " p e r fe c tio n
o f eloquence did so rem ain only in him and h i s tim e" (1 4 1 -4 2 ).
To be s u r e , Ascham does n o t recommend e x c lu s iv e and s la v is h
im ita tio n o f C icero . Yet th e r e i s ev id en ce o f Ascham's
c icero n ean ism in both h i s l e t t e r s and in th e S ch o o lm aster.
W ritin g to Sturm in December o f 1568, Ascham o u t l i n e s h is p la n s
f o r th e S c h o o lm a ster, n o tin g t h a t he w ill o f f e r n o t o n ly ad v ice
on what models s tu d e n ts should i m i t a t e , b u t a ls o on whose example
th e y should fo llo w in c a r r y in g o u t such i m i t a t i o n . He allow s
t h a t he w i l l n o t be "b o th e red " i f a sch o o lm aste r o f f e r s examples
o f Roman h i s t o r i a n s ', p o e t s ', and p la y w r ig h ts ' i m ita tio n o f Greek
p re d e c e s s o rs . But f o r t r a i n i n g in eloquence Ascham co n sid e re d
C icero to be " i f n o t th e only one, a t any r a t e th e most to be
9
p r e f e r r e d . "
173
In th e S choolm aster Ascham i n d i r e c t l y r e v e a ls h is decided
p re fe re n c e fo r C ic e ro . C oncerning th e q u e stio n o f w hether to
fo llo w j u s t one or v a rio u s models or o r a to r y , Ascham a tte m p ts
n e u t r a l i t y , b u t h is lan g u ag e b e tr a y s him: "when you be determ ined
w hether ye w i l l fo llo w one o r m ore," he e x p la i n s , you m ust then
know p e r f e c t l y and which way to fo llo w t h a t o ne" (116-17,
10
em phasis m ine). Ascham r a n k le s a t Q u in tilia n who, "h av in g a
l u s t to d is s e n t from T u l ly ," d a re s to d is a g r e e w ith C icero about
th e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f p a r a p h r a s is e x e r c is e , " c r o s s in g s p i t e f u l l y
T u l l y ’s judgement in r e f u s in g th e same" (8 4 ). Ascham a n g r ily
m i s i n t e r p r e t s Q u in tilia n and Erasmus as h aving recommended
a g a in s t th e im ita tio n o f C ic e ro . Q u in t i l i a n , he s a y s , " w rite th
o f [ i m ita t io n ] s h o r t l y and c o ld ly fo r th e m a tte r , h o t l y and
s p i t e f u l l y enough a g a in s t th e im ita tio n o f T u lly ." And,
r e f e r r i n g none too o b liq u e ly to th e C ic ero n e a n u s, he accu ses
Erasmus o f "being more occu p ied in spying o th e r m en's f a u l t s than
11
d e c la r in g h is own a d v ic e " (1 2 2 ). Then, to o , Ascham r e v e a ls h is
c ic e ro n e a n z e a l when he r e j e c t s argum ents a g a in s t a l l im ita tio n
w ith no o th e r argument b u t t h i s ap p eal to C ic e r o 's a u th o r ity :
"ex cep t such men th in k th em selv es w iser th an C icero fo r te a c h in g
12
o f elo q u en ce, th ey must be c o n te n t to tu rn a new le a f " (119).
There a r e , however, re a so n s to b e lie v e t h a t Ascham’s was not
an u n b rid le d c ice ro n e a n ism . For one, th e r e i s th e v ery f a c t th a t
Ascham recommends im ita tio n of C icero s p e c i f i c a l l y fo r th o se
174
le a r n in g o r a to r y . For o th e r g en res he would have s tu d e n ts
im i t a t e o th e r a u th o r s . For a n o th e r , Johann Sturm su g g e s ts in a
l e t t e r t h a t Ascham d isap p ro v ed o f th e s l a v i s h cice ro n e a n ism o f
C ard in al Bembo. But most c o n v in c in g ly , th e r e i s th e lim ite d r o le
i m i t a t i o p la y s in Ascham’s plan o f e d u c a tio n . I t was noted
e a r l i e r t h a t f o r Ascham, ’’im ita tio n " has two s e n s e s . One i s th e
g e n e ra l sen se by which a l l le a r n in g p ro c e e d s. The second i s th e
s p e c i f i c ty p e o f e x e r c is e in which th e s tu d e n t o b serv es th e
te c h n iq u e s by which C icero im ita te d h i s Greek models and a p p lie s
th o s e same te c h n iq u e s to h is own im ita tio n o f C ic e ro ’s w orks. I t
i s fo r i m i t a t i o (Ascham r e s e r v e s th e L a tin f o r th e s p e c i f i c
e x e r c is e ) t h a t Ascham recommends alm ost e x c lu s iv e ly C ic e ro . But
such i m i t a t i o i s "n o t f o r young b e g in n e rs , because th e y s h a l l n o t
;
be a b le to c o n sid e r d u ly th e r e o f " (1 1 8 -1 9 ). Ascham’s plan fo r
L a tin language le a r n in g in c lu d e s s te p s o f e x e r c is e s p r io r to
i m i t a t i o : t r a n s l a t i o n and double t r a n s l a t i o n . For th e s e
p r e p a ra to ry e x e r c is e s , Ascham recommends C ic e ro , b u t o th e r
a u th o rs as w e ll ( S choolm aster 13-19, 87 ).
Perhaps Ascham’s p la n o f e d u ca tio n does s a c r i f i c e some o f
th e b re a d th which Erasmus ad v o cated , fa v o rin g in s te a d a more
p r a c t i c a l method o f g ra d u a te e x e r c is e s , from sim p le t r a n s l a t i o n
to i m i t a t i o . P erh ap s, to o , Ascham i s given to c icero n ean ism and
a concern fo r s t y l e . N o n e th e le ss, h is method ach iev ed some
s u c c e s s , as w ith th e n o ta b le example o f Queen E liz a b e th . And in
175
h i s own te a c h in g Ascham a tte n d e d to much more th a n s t y l e , sh a rin g
w ith o th e r hum anists a concern fo r d ev elo p in g s t u d e n t s ’ e t h i c a l
13
c h a r a c te r . But Ascham may have been f o r tu n a te in th e
c irc u m stan c es under which he was a b le to p r a c t i c e th e methods he
recommended in The S c h o o lm a ste r. He was r e s p o n s ib le f o r only a
few s tu d e n ts a t a tim e , and o fte n th e s e were t a l e n t e d and
p r iv i le g e d i n d iv id u a ls . Such c ircu m stan ces may n o t alw ays have
been th e c a s e . For th e i d e a l s o f h u m a n ists’ schemes o f e d u catio n
may have been compromised under th e p re s s u re o f in c r e a s in g
numbers o f s tu d e n ts , in in s ta n c e s where e d u c a to rs and s tu d e n ts
a l i k e were o f o n ly av erag e a b i l i t y , or in c a se s where s tu d e n t s '
o b je c t iv e s in r e c e iv in g e d u c a tio n d id n o t c o rresp o n d to th o se
o b je c t iv e s which hum anist e d u c a tio n was in te n d e d to a c h ie v e .
Em piricism and Changing A ssum ptions About L earn in g
John L o ck e's w r iti n g s on e d u ca tio n su g g e st t h a t h u m an istic
e d u c a tio n came to a c r i s i s in th e e a r ly s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y
p r e c i s e l y because such e d u c a tio n was reduced to p e d a n try and no
lo n g e r s u ite d th e needs o f E n g lish s o c ie ty . The l a t t e r o f th e se
cau ses seems to have been c r u c i a l . James A x te ll t r a c e s th re e
re a so n s why h u m a n istic e d u c a tio n l o s t ground by th e mid -
se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry . These in c lu d e a growth o f m e rc a n tile
176
economy, w ith an a tte n d a n t em phasis on p r a c t i c a l needs;
in c r e a s in g v e rn a c u la r l i t e r a c y , w ith an a tte n d a n t de-em phasis o f
L a tin l i t e r a c y ; and in c r e a s in g fo re ig n c o n ta c t, w ith an a tte n d a n t
demand f o r in d iv id u a ls w ith s k i l l s in modern European
14
la n g u a g e s. Seeking to make s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu ry ed u ca tio n more
p r a c t i c a l , John Locke com plains o f b o y s1 h aving to t r a n s l a t e
E n g lish i n t o L a tin , fo r " th e le a r n in g o f L a tin [ i s ] n o th in g b u t
th e le a r n in g o f W ords." Locke u rg e s th e te a c h e r in s te a d to
p ro v id e h i s charges as much " r e a l knowledge" as he can,
beg in n in g w ith t h a t which l i e s most obvious to th e
S en ses, such as i s knowledge o f M in e ra ls , P l a n t s , and
A nim als; and p a r t i c u l a r l y Timber and F r u i t T r e e s , t h e i r
p a r t s and p ro p a g a tio n : Where in a g r e a t d e a l may be
ta u g h t th e C h ild , which w i l l n o t be u s e le s s to th e
Man. 5
G rant B o sw e ll's work p o in ts o ut t h a t th e s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu ry
c h a lle n g e s to h u m a n istic e d u c a tio n came not o n ly f o r th e
p r a c t i c a l re a so n s which A x te ll l i s t s , b u t because of a change in
th e u n d e rly in g e p is te m o lo g ic a l assum ptions b ro u g h t about by
em p iric ism . L o c k e 's em phasis on knowledge which " l i e s most
obvious t o th e se n s e s" i s s i g n i f i c a n t in th e c o n te x t o f
s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu ry em p iric ism . Bosw ell rem arks in th e work o f
s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu ry e d u c a tio n a l re fo rm ers th e change from th e
h u m a n istic assum ption t h a t a l l le a r n in g preced es by im ita tio n to
th e e m p i r i c i s t assum ption t h a t "humans le a r n from t h e i r own
" 1 6
e x p e rie n c e through t h e i r s e n s e s ." Such a change o f assum ptions
h elp ed to t i p th e b a lan c e a g a in s t th e h u m a n istic ten d en cy to
177
develop s tu d e n ts d is c u r s iv e s k i l l s — th e v e ry s k i l l s which
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y hum anist e d u c a to rs b e lie v e d t h e i r s tu d e n ts
would u se to govern E n g lish s o c ie ty . Whereas th e s ix te e n th -
c e n tu ry hum anists so u g h t to ed u cate th e " C h r is tia n p r in c e " or th e
"governor" who would use language to a f f e c t h i s fe llo w s , w ith
s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu ry em p iricism came a plan o f e d u c a tio n b u i l t
upon th e assum ption t h a t knowledge was advanced by " a c c u ra te
d e s c r ip ti o n and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e o b je c ts o f n a t u r e ."
Boswell p o in ts o u t t h a t th e v e s tig e s o f such e m p i r i c i s t
assum ptions remain w ith us to d ay as our s tu d e n ts e x p ec t to get
from t h e i r e d u c a tio n "command o f a body o f knowledge r a t h e r
th an . . . an a b i l i t y to th in k m e th o d ic a lly and e x p re ss
17
th em selv es e f f e c t i v e l y about a problem"
I f one c o n sid e rs th e com bination o f A x t e l l 's and B o sw ell’s
comments on what one m ight c a l l " e m p ir ic is t e d u c a tio n ," one sees
a p a r a l l e l to th e p r e s e n t d is c u s s io n o f h u m a n istic e d u c a tio n . I
have tra c e d th e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l changes o f th e e a r ly
s ix te e n th c e n tu ry which h elp ed i n s t i t u t e h u m a n istic ed u ca tio n in
th e grammar sch o o ls and u n i v e r s i t i e s , and i t i s l i k e l y t h a t
su b seq u en t s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s — in c lu d in g th e
developm ent o f m e r c a n tile econom ies—helped g iv e r i s e to
e m p ir ic is t e d u c a tio n . In t h i s stu d y I have tr a c e d th e h u m a n ists’
assum ptions about language and le a r n in g which inform ed t h e i r
e d u c a tio n a l program s and t h e i r f a i t h in im ita tio n pedagogy; th e
178
e p is te m o lo g ic a l assum ptions which inform e m p ir ic is t e d u c a tio n
ch allen g e d t h a t h u m a n istic f a i t h .
179
Notes
1
Neal W . G i l b e r t , R enaissance Concepts o f Method (New York:
Columbia U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1963), 68-69, 73.
2
Roger Ascham, The Schoolm aster (1570), e d ite d by Lawrence
V. Ryan ( C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e , V ir g in ia : U n iv e rs ity P ress o f V irg in ia
f o r th e F o lg e r S hakespeare L ib ra r y , 1967), C1]- H e re a fte r
c i t a t i o n s to th e S choolm aster w i l l be made in th e t e x t .
3
The d i s t i n c t i o n between Ascham's two u s e s o f " i m i t a t i o n ” i s
drawn in W illiam E. M i l l e r , "Double T r a n s la tio n i n E n g lish
H um anistic E d u c a tio n ," S tu d ie s in th e R enaissance 10 (1963): 164.
4
The Whole Works of Roger Ascham, Vol. 2, e d ite d by Reverend
[ J . A .] G ile s (London, 1864, r e p r in te d New York: AM S P r e s s ,
1956), 178. The t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s l e t t e r i s from M aurice A.
H atch, "The L a tin L e t t e r s o f Roger Ascham and John Sturm: A
T r a n s la tio n " (M A t h e s i s , U n iv e rs ity o f K ansas, 1940), 127.
H e re a fte r a l l r e f e r e n c e s to Ascham's l e t t e r s w i l l l i s t sen d er and
r e c i p i e n t , d a te , volume and l e t t e r number in th e G ile s e d i t i o n ,
as in t h i s c a s e , Ascham to Sturm, Dec. 1568, G ile s 2 .9 9 .
^Ascham to Sturm , A p ril 4, 1550, G ile s 1 .9 9 . The
t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s l e t t e r i s from M aurice A. H atch , "The Ascham
L e t t e r s : An A nnotated T r a n s la tio n o f th e L a tin Correspondence
C ontained in th e G ile s E d itio n o f Ascham's Works" (Ph.D. d i s s . ,
C o rn ell U n iv e rs ity , 1948), 328-29.
Ryan e x p la in s in h is e d itio n o f th e S c h o o lm a ste r, n o te 19,
t h a t Ascham i s c i t i n g P lin y , L e t t e r s , Vol. 6. no. 7.
7
See a ls o Ascham to Sturm , Dec. 1568, G ile s 2 .9 9 , in which
Ascham a s s e r t s t h a t C icero brought L a tin to p e r f e c t i o n by
im ita tin g Greek.
8
This d e f i n i t i o n o f i m i t a t i o combines comments found in The
Schoolm aster 89, 114, 117.
q
Ascham to Sturm , Dec. 1568, G ile s 2 .9 9 . T r a n s la te d by
H atch, d i s s e r t a t i o n (se e n o te 15 above).
10
See a ls o Lawrence V. Ryan, Roger Ascham (S ta n f o rd ,
C a l if o r n ia : S ta n fo rd U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1963), 268. At t h i s p o in t
in th e S choolm aster Ascham i s b eg in n in g a d is c u s s io n o f models
180
f o r i m i t a t i o n . C oncerning o r a to r y , he o f f e r s c r i t i c a l comments
on v a rio u s o r a t o r s , b u t th e t e x t i s l e f t u n fin is h e d a t th e p o in t
a t which th e d is c u s s io n o f C icero i s to b eg in . I t seems a p p aren t
t h a t Ascham's c r i t i c a l d is c u s s io n i s in te n d e d to show t h a t C icero
i s th e b e s t model f o r o r a to r y , th e o th e r s b e in g found in some
ways d e f e c tiv e .
11
Of c o u rse , Q u in tilia n h a rd ly recommends a g a in s t im ita tio n
o f C ic ero ; in d eed , he p r e f e r s C icero above a l l o th e r s , b u t
recommends a t t e n t i o n to a v a r i e t y o f m odels; see I n s t i t u t i o
o r a t o r i a 1 0 .2 .2 4 -2 6 . And as th e d is c u s s io n o f th e C iceroneanus
below makes c l e a r , Erasmus, to o , never recommends a g a in s t
im ita tio n o f C icero , o n ly a g a in s t e x c lu s iv e and s la v i s h
i m i t a t i o n .
12
Ascham does l i t t l e b e t t e r w ith h is argum ents on th e same
s u b je c t in a l e t t e r to Sturm , Dec. 1568, G ile s 2 .9 9 .
13
On Ascham's t u t o r i n g th e P rin c e s s E liz a b e th see Ryan,
Roger Ascham 104-106 and 146-48. In h i s work w ith Thomas
C onyers, W illiam I r e l a n d , and Edward Raven, Ascham chose works
in te n d e d to h e lp th e boys develop c o r r e c t L a tin s t y l e and to
a f f e c t t h e i r moral c h a r a c te r ; see Ryan, Roger Ascham, 42-43.
14
James L. A x te ll, The E d u c a tio n a l W ritin g s o f John Locke
(Cambridge: Cambridge U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1968), 59-60.
1^John Locke, On E ducation (1 6 9 3 ), c ite d in A x te ll, 280.
16
G rant M . B osw ell, "The R h e to ric o f Pedagogy: Changing
A ssum ptions in S e v e n tee n th -C e n tu ry E n g lish R h e to ric a l E d u c a tio n ,"
R h e to ric S o c ie ty Q u a rte rly 16 (Summer 1986): 113.
^ B o s w e ll, "The R h e to ric o f Pedagogy," 116-17.
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