00001.tif

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content VIRGINIA WOOLF'S THREE GUINEAS: A RHETORICAL STUDY by S is t e r Nancy Janet Hynes A D is s e r ta tio n Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t o f the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (E n glish ) Ju ly 1983 UMI Number: DP23091 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI DP23091 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Dissertation ruciisrung Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CA LIFO RN IA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL. UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by S is t e r Nancy Janet Hynes ............ under the direction of h.sx... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean DISSERTATION COMMITTEE yv, ,i~x £ O ii Acknowledgements jMany thanks are due, and I now g r a t e f u lly o f f e r them: to B etty P y tlik whose phone c a l l s and encouragement su sta in e d me; to the seven women at Caedmon House for t h e ir lo v in g support a t every sta g e o f t h is study; to .my e d it o r S is t e r Linnea W elter and my t y p is t S is t e r Romaine Theisen whose sharp eyes and e x c e lle n t advice shaped t h is p r o je c t; to my r e l ig io u s community fo r i t s f in a n c ia l and s p i r i t u a l support; to good fr ie n d s and c o lle a g u e s fo r t h e ir enthusiasm and w ise a d v ic e , w ith s p e c ia l thanks to S is t e r Mara Faulkner, S is t e r Maranatha Renner, B etty C ain, Miriam Hof, S a lly and John M elton, O zzie Mayers, Charles tThornbury, Judy Parham, and H ild e Robinson; to M arjorie P e r lo f f , A llan Casson, and W alter F ish er fo r t h e ir v a lu a b le d ir e c t io n . iii Table o f Contents Page L is t o f C h a r t s ...................................................................................................................... iv (Chapter I . Review o f C r i t i c i s m .......................................................................... 1 A. E arly R eview s, 1938............................................................................ 2 B. From 1940 to 1970 6 C. From 1970 to the P r e s e n t ............................................................. 9 D. R evaluation o f Three Guineas ...................................................... 16 I I . Ethos and Pathos: The O u tsider and the Chameleon "We" . 30 I I I . Irony: The R hetoric o f Subversion and A ffirm a tio n . . . 56 A. R hetoric o f S u b v e r s io n ................................................................ 56 Appeal to A u t h o r i t y ............................................................... 60 N o t e s ................................................................................................... 64 J u x ta p o sitio n ............................................................................... 68 D im in u t io n ......................................................................................... 69 In te r r o g a tio n ............................................................................... 71 Refinement o f the T o p i c ....................................................... 73 E p is to la r y Form and C la s s ic a l O ration .................... 77 B. R hetoric o f A f f i r m a t i o n ........................................................... 83 Refinement o f the T o p i c ...................................................... 85 N o t e s ................................................................................................... 85 IV. Three Guineas and A Room o f One's O w n ......................................... 92 A. Personae: The F a l l i b l e "I" and the F ic t io n a l "I" 93 B. J u x ta p o sitio n o f Fact and F i c t i o n ................................... 96 C. C la s s ic a l S tru ctu re . .................................................... 104 V. P oin t o f View and S ty le in To the Lighthouse and ' Three Guineas ................................................................................................... 120 B ib l io g r a p h y ......................................................................... 158 iv L is t o f Charts Page The O u tsid e r 's V oices ................................................................................................... 42 C la s s ic a l S tru ctu re o f Three Guineas ........................................................... 80 F a c t-F ic tio n P a ttern in A Room o f One's O w n ............................................ 103 C la s s ic a l S tru ctu re o f A Room o f One's O w n ............................................ 110 P a r a l le l s Between A Room o f One' s Own and Three Guineas . . . . Ill Chapter I Review o f C r itic is m i i I I W oolf's f i c t i o n has rec eiv ed e x te n s iv e commentary in recen t y e a r s , 1 i ! but her n o n f ic t io n , e s p e c ia l ly Three G uineas, has n o t. When Three | Guineas f i r s t came out in 1938, on the eve o f World War I I , i t so ld I i ! w e l l , but i r r i t a t e d many. I t was r a r e ly p ra ised as a work o f a rt u n t i l ; th e 1970’s and th en , more by women than by men. C r it ic s have e ith e r taken Three Guineas l i t e r a l l y as a p olem ic, th e r e fo r e m issin g the i a r t i s t r y o f her s a t i r e , or they have p ra ised W oolf's a r t i s t r y , w h ile l I • ig n o rin g or t r i v i a l i z i n g her message. The purpose o f t h i s f i r s t chapter- i s to summarize the flu c tu a tio n s o f th ese c r i t i c a l a t t it u d e s toward » I | Three Guineas and to la y out my own argument on why i t should be j d ev a lu a ted . | I ‘ ! | The flu c tu a tio n s in c r i t i c a l a t t it u d e s over f o r t y - f i v e years toward; I I Three Guineas can be summarized as fo llo w s . When i t f i r s t appeared in 1 I 1938, Three Guineas was g e n e r a lly p raised by re v ie w e r s, but i t a ls o | I aroused some str o n g , n e g a tiv e resp o n ses. Reviewers were torn between I * * t h e ir r e sp e c t fo r Woolf and t h e ir m istru st o f what they p erceived to be ! a " s h r ill" fe m in is t argument. An e d i t o r i a l comment in Time and Tide sums up t h is am bivalence: Mrs. W oolf's b e s t - s e l l e r , Three G uineas, descending on the p e a c e fu l fo ld o f rev iew ers, has thrown them in to th a t dreadful kind o f in te r n a l c o n f l i c t th at lea d s to nervous breakdown. On the one hand th ere i s Mrs. W oolf's p o s it io n in l i t e r a t u r e ; not to p r a ise her work would be a s o le c is m no review er could p o s s ib ly a ffo r d to make. On the oth er hand th ere i s her theme, which i s not m erely d istu r b in g to n in e out o f ten review ers but r e v o ltin g . I From 1940 to 1970 o n ly ten c r i t i c s mention Three G uineas. view ing jit as "cantankerous," savage, r h e t o r ic a lly e x c e s s iv e , the w orst o f which I I ( W oolf was cap ab le, or " s h r i l l and angry." The o n ly p o s it iv e th in g to { say about i t in th e s i x t i e s was th a t i t proved W oolf's involvem ent in | [ I ^social is s u e s . | ! ! j From 1970 to the p r e se n t, however, a s h i f t occurs because o f the j ! . i . ; 'growing in t e r e s t in W oolf's work, the in t e r e s t in the Bloomsbury group, I i | and the women's movement. Yet the m ajority o f sc h o la r s who do r e fe r to I Three Guineas do so o n ly in p a s sin g , e v id e n tly regarding i t w ith a j l * i n e g a tiv e b ia s; however, some do see Three Guineas as a v a lu a b le j : i c o n tr ib u tio n to women's r ig h ts and a c l a s s i c o f the e p is t o la r y form. j ! < f A. E arly R eview s, 1938 I j j For the e a r l i e s t op in io n on Three G uineas, one must, o f co u rse, !go back to 1938. S in ce f iv e to p ic s recur fr e q u e n tly and s in c e th ese ;to p ics are c e n tr a l elem ents in t h is stud y, the summaries o f th ese I review s are arranged according to th ese to p ic s : W o o lf's m essage, her d e s ig n a tio n o f the "daughters o f educated men" as " o u ts id e r s," her arguments, and her s a t i r i c ton e. The c r i t i c s in 1938 recogn ize a t l e a s t one o f th ree b a sic messages in Three G uineas: women's o p p ressio n in a male-dominated s o c ie t y ; 2) r e c o g n itio n o f the human d e s ir e to dominate as the root o f both p a tr ia r c h y and fascism ; 3) the in t e r - r e la t io n s h ip o f the is s u e s o f world peace and women's r ig h ts .^ Four review ers mention the d i f f i c u l t y of review in g Three Guineas because o f i t s m ixing p o l i t i c a l arguments w ith O * an in t r i c a t e s t y l e . One o f the most h o tly debated is s u e s i s W oolf's d e s ig n a tio n o f the ("daughters o f educated men" as " o u tsid e r s." Of e le v e n review ers who j ! d is c u s s W oolf's use o f th ese term s, s i x claim th a t the terms are 1 7 t i 1 I , 'e x c lu siv e and sn obb ish , dangerous to the fe m in is t ca u se, or s p e c io u s .^ ! i i [The o th er f iv e see W oolf's use o f th e se same terms in a p o s it iv e l i g h t , | I I e it h e r as a c h a lle n g e to a l l women to d is c o v e r th e ir p o te n tia l and to j work to g e th e r w ith men to bring about changes in the system or as a ^dramatic image o f the r e a l i t y o f male dom ination of women. | I Other debated to p ic s r e l a t e e it h e r to W oolf's argum ents--m en's ! I i p u g n a c ity , women's n o n -co o p era tio n , the ju x ta p o s itio n o f photographs o f ’ t I (Englishmen's s a r t o r ia l splendor w ith W oolf's s a t i r i c q u o ta tio n s and I (n o te s--o r to h er s a t i r i c ton e. Seven review ers say th at men's pugnacity' ! * i £. » i s a weak argument; o n ly th ree defend i t in some way. ] i i Three c r i t i c s , a l l women, see W oolf's s u g g e stio n o f women's ; i j jnon-cooperation as im p r a c tic a l.^ Three c r i t i c s a ls o complain th a t Woolfj | i lu n fa ir ly ju xtap oses the E nglishm en's photographs w ith q u o ta tio n s from - I 8 ;th e ir p u b lic a d d r e sse s, but two review ers p r a ise the s a t i r e . S ix ! c r i t i c s p r a is e her c le v e r use o f q u o ta tio n s and fo o tn o te s .^ D esp ite some o b je c tio n to W oolf's argument o f male p u gn acity, s i x c r i t i c s p r a is e 1 10 .her lo g i c ; three d e s p is e her s a t i r i c to n e, w h ile ten o th ers admire i t . I i 'I m ention t h is a tte n tio n to W oolf's s a t i r i c tone and lo g i c because i t i s I Iclear th a t a t the b egin n in g, Three Guineas was ap p reciated by f i f t e e n of] the e ig h te e n review ers both fo r i t s message and, g e n e r a lly , fo r i t s j s a t i r e . Yet fo r the n ext t h ir t y years Three Guineas earned a h o s t i l e a u d ien ce. L ater review ers attack ed W oolf's l o g i c , d is li k e d the s a t i r e , lignored the fo o tn o te s and q u o ta tio n s, and, o f n e c e s s it y , s in c e the ! t 1 1 „ ■ photographs were n ot rep rin te d in subsequent e d it i o n s , om itted the 1 ! ! s a t i r e o f the photographs. I j This l a t e r la ck o f understanding can be a t t r ib u t e d , in p a r t, to ! j i in f l u e n t i a l c r i t i c s , such as Queenie L eavis in S c r u tin y , an a n ti- Bloomsbury b ia s on the part o f both M arxist c r i t i c s and the S c r u tin e e r s,; | and the even t o f World War I I . L eavis d e sc r ib e s Three Guineas as a ! I : :"form o f s e lf - in d u lg e n c e . . . s i l l y and ill-fo r m e d " c o n ta in in g "some i 'dangerous assum ption s, some prep osterou s claim s and some n asty I a t t it u d e s ." Her b a s ic o b je c tio n s can be narrowed to f iv e : 1) the book was w r itte n fo r a s p e c i a l , p r iv ile g e d c la s s o f women; 2) W oolf's method f I •is a d e lib e r a te avoidance o f argument; 3) W oolf's argument i s sp e c io u s , j fo r i t i s hard to a ccep t the c o n ten tio n th a t d e f e c t s e x i s t o n ly in i ' j m ales; 4) the " o u ts id e r 's " su g g e stio n o f n on -coop eration i s a n e g a tiv e I ! i s o lu t io n , m il it a t in g a g a in s t a sound u n iv e r s it y ed u cation ; 5) the | i d if f e r e n c e s between men and women are not so much s e x u a lly lin k ed as j • i ‘ s o c i a l l y determ ined. L e a v is' f i r s t o b je c tio n r e v e a ls th a t she does not accep t W oolf's persona o f the o u ts id e r ; her second and th ird o b je c tio n s c o n tr a d ic t each i o th e r ( e it h e r one does have an argument, or one does not have an I 'argument); her fou rth o b je c tio n shows th at she does not understand I W oolf's s a t i r i c tone; and her f i f t h o b je c tio n i s no o b je c tio n at a l l . 1 I Woolf would agree w ith L e a v is. In f a c t , Three Guineas goes to g rea t le n g th s to dem onstrate th a t sex u a l r o le s and s o c i e t a l r o le s are i n t r i c a t e l y con nected. When L eavis o b je c ts to W oolf's em otional b ia s , one must wonder about L e a v is 1 own em otional b ia s . Her f i r s t sen ten ce pronounces: j j This book i s not r e a l ly review able in th ese pages because Mrs.J ; Woolf im p lies throughout th at i t i s a co n v ersa tio n between h er and h er fr ie n d s , addressed as she c o n s ta n tly says to j 'women o f our c l a s s , ' though b i t s o f i t are d ir e c t ly and j in d i r e c t l y aimed at th ose women's mankind. (409) [Leavis says the book i s not review ab le; y e t she w r ite s an elev en -p a g e review , th ree to four tim es lon ger than any o th e r , to conclude th a t ! i Three Guineas i s "bad-tempered, p e e v ish ly s a r c a s t ic and in coherent" and i "a let-dow n fo r our se x ." L eavis argues th at women must prove them- is e lv e s capable o f em ancipation, a p oint which cau ses James Naremore to ' i < !comment fo r ty years la t e r : "In l i g h t o f today, L eavis i s the one who i ■ seems in s u la te d by class. Phyllis Rose a ls o says th at L eavis ' i a tta c k s Woolf on c la s s l i n e s w ith ou t r e a liz in g W oolf's " im p lic it I argu m en t--that women c o n s t it u t e a c la s s in th em selves, c u ttin g across j th e c la s s li n e s in which S cru tin y was i n t e r e s t e d . I | The ta sk h e r e , however, i s not to answer L e a v is' o b j e c t io n s , but j ! ! I to a s s e s s the e f f e c t s o f h er review . Woolf h e r s e l f , u su a lly hyper s e n s i t i v e to c r i t i c a l rev iew s, was not bothered by i t : "I read enough I jo f i t to see th a t i t was a l l p erso n a l--a b o u t Q ueenie's own g riev a n ces !and r e t o r ts to my snubs," she w r i t e s . 13 Yet L ea v is' in flu e n c e was c o n sid e r a b le . Together w ith h er husband, F. R. L e a v is, she e d ite d S c r u tin y , which sought to e s t a b lis h li t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m as an i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and c u lt u r a lly s i g n if ic a n t p u r su it and which con sid ered i t s e l f , according to V ic to r ia B r it t a in , as "a kind o f . — 6 - a lt e r n a t iv e to Bloomsbury w ith i n t e l l e c t u a l but no s o c i a l l i n k s . ”14 Woolf became the focus o f S c r u tin y 's pre-war a tta c k on Bloomsbury and i t s "highbrow" i n d i r e c t i o n . 15 the t h i r t i e s the M arxists a lso c r i t i c i z e d Woolf because she d id not d eal w ith the "real" w orld, and the L ea v ises attack ed h er fo r h er la ck o f concern w ith moral is s u e s and 'her p urely a e s t h e t ic s e n s i b i l i t y . As Robin Majumdar n o te s , both groups charged her w ith " a e s th e tic d i l e t t a n t i s m . Add to t h is the event o f World War I I , c r e a tin g an atmosphere o f u n c e r ta in ty and fe a r which e f f e c t i v e l y sto p s p eop le from p h ilo so p h iz in g on the p reven tion o f war through n o n -co o p era tio n , and i t i s l i t t l e [wonder th a t o n ly ten c r i t i c s mention Three Guineas from 1940 to the 1 9 7 0 's. B. From 1940 to 1970 In a Rede le c t u r e a t Cambridge, E. M. F o r ste r d e sc r ib e s Three ‘ Guineas as "cantankerous" and "the w orst o f h er b o o k s."1? David D aiches 1 r i s su rp rised a t W oolf's "savagery"-*-^ and Joan B en n ett, Bernard B la c k sto n e, and E liz a b e th Bowen a l l q u estio n W oolf's " obsession" w ith lin k in g p a tria rc h y and fa s c is m . ^ James H a fle y 's stu d y in 1954 m entions Three Guineas o n ly in a fo o tn o te as ev id en ce o f W oolf's i n t e r e s t in women's r i g h t s . F in a lly , J. B. B a tc h e lo r 's a r t i c l e r e fu te s F o r s te r 's charge th at W oolf's feminism im pairs h er w r itin g and th at her concern fo r women's r ig h ts i s a n a c h r o n istic . B atch elor argues th a t the p r o te s ts o f Three Guineas are le g itim a te in the c o n te x t o f the t h i r t i e s and that what i s c o n s ta n tly on W oolf's mind i s not "feminism proper" but a jpassionate concern w ith the nature o f womanhood. B a tch elo r an alyzes s e v e r a l n o v e ls , spending l i t t l e time on Three Guineas ex cep t to c a l l i t j a " s h r i ll and angry" work however p a c i f i s t in i t s a i m s . 21- Two c r i t i c s d eserv in g s p e c ia l a t t e n t io n , because th ey are sc h o la r ly jand thorough, are Jean Guiget and H erbert M a r d e r . 22 G uiget, one o f the I j f i r s t c r i t i c s to do an ex h a u stiv e study o f W oolf's n o n fic tio n as w e ll as * i o f her f i c t i o n , looks at Three Guineas as proof th a t Woolf i s not j ; j [divorced from p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l problems (JG, 1 9 2 ). W oolf's dominantl | | p reo ccu p a tio n s and gu id in g id ea s in t h is work, however, are fu sed "by a ' 1 i I ( surge o f eloquence ra th er than by any r e a l lo g ic " (JG, 1 7 9 ). The work c o n ta in s a " m u lt ip lic it y o f in te n tio n s awkwardly sy n th esized " and i s weakened by in c e ss a n t return to argument, j u x ta p o s itio n o f h i s t o r i c a l l ; I | p e r io d s , and " o b sessiv e" c r i t ic i s m o f the a n t i- f e m in is t a t t it u d e s o f I Church and U n iv e r s ity (JG, 189). D esp ite th e se w eaknesses in Three j G uineas, however, G uiget i s the f i r s t c r i t i c to commend W oolf's r e fe r e n c e to the Spanish war photographs to h elp readers "see" j p s y c h o lo g ic a lly (JG, 1 8 9 -9 1 ). He a ls o n o tes the broader im p lic a tio n o f I ! iThree Guineas- - t h a t feminism i s a "point o f view , a method o f a n a ly s is , j f ( ! ' inot an end in i t s e l f " - - a n d th at in c o n tr a st to the lim ite d p erson al and ! a e s t h e t ic aims o f A Room o f One's Own, Three Guineas " a tta in s a gen eral j f 'c h a r a c te r is tic which e n t i t l e s Woolf to be in clu d ed w ith the great l i n e j t o f hum anists and committed w r ite r s (JG, 186). Marder s tu d ie s the r e la tio n s h ip between W oolf's fem inism and her •art: "Her d e s ir e to p la y m o r a list was in c o n f l i c t w ith her a r t i s t i c c o n s c ie n c e , and the c o n f l i c t can be d e te c te d in alm ost ev er y th in g she w rote" (HM, 2 ). Like B a tch elo r, Marder d e fin e s W oolf's feminism in i t s t b road est s e n s e , not j u s t as women's r i g h t s , but as W oolf's in te n s e jawareness o f h er id e n t it y as woman and h er i n t e r e s t in fem inine i s I problem s. Comparing The Years and Three G uineas. Marder says the two i books encompass "the b est and w orst o f which she was ca p a b le." The Years i s a "tour de fo rce o f o b j e c t iv it y " and Three Guineas "an e x e r c is e in s p e c ia l p lead in g" (HM, 157). Three Guineas i s "a ra th er p a lli d i _ \ |book," the tone o f which i s " su b tly wrong." In i t Marder hears two v o ic e s : Woolf the c o n t r o v e r s i a lis t and W oolf the a r t i s t . She t r i e s to • ;p la y the game o f p o l i t i c s and a t the same time remain d etached. The I j i r e s u lt i s " aggressiven ess" (HM, 1 5 5 -1 5 6 ). ■ I ! Marder does p r a ise the " outsid er" term as a dram atic reminder th at | ; j 'women have no s ta tu s or power; y e t by narrowing h er audience to "a hard ‘ ;core o f th e f i n a n c ia l ly and m orally independent," Woolf ends by speaking! to h e r s e l f (HM, 1 5 7 ). Her " d ir e c t a tta c k on s o c i a l e v i l i s too s h r i l l ! and s e lf - in d u lg e n t to su cceed , even as propaganda" (HM, 1 7 5 ). Yet i f I ' W o o lf's a tta c k i s so d ir e c t , one wonders why Marder d e s c r ib e s both ! 1 i A Room o f One's Own and Three Guineas as " serio u s p a r o d ie s, statem en ts j [of a h ig h ly p erson al v i s i o n parading as im personal t r e a t i s e s " (HM, p. 2, I ; hmphasis ad d ed ). A parody tr e a ts a s e r io u s su b je c t i n d i r e c t l y , in a | I ' ■ n o n se n sic a l or r id ic u lo u s manner. Marder, on the o th er hand, reads too j l i t e r a l l y W oolf's "superfluous s t a t i s t i c s " and her exaggerated preoccup ation w ith "measuring." A ccusing her o f tak in g her f a c t s too t s e r io u s ly , he o f f e r s a p a r t ia l e x p la n a tio n ; perhaps Woolf was caught i I between h er r e sp e c t fo r s c ie n c e and h er in n ate d is t r u s t o f f a c t - f in d in g I t and s t a t i s t i c s (HM, 7 6 ). M arder's l i t e r a l reading o f what he h im se lf [ I c a l l s a parody seems in c o n s is t e n t h e r e . Ralph Samuelson a ls o reads too j l i t e r a l l y W oolf's terms o f "daughters o f educated men" and " in d ir e c t" in flu e n c e o f women, and h er r e fe r e n c e to S k i t t l e s , a famous n in eteen th j cen tu ry horsewoman.23 For t h ir t y y e a r s , th en , Three Guineas was v i r t u a l l y fo r g o tte n or jsummarily d ism isse d . Only ten c r i t i c s , two o f them women, mention i t land then in a n e g a tiv e way. Only Guiget and Marder attem pt to analyze I |the work thorou gh ly. C e r ta in ly the New C r i t i c s ' emphasis on te x tu a l j I ia n a ly sis o f sym bols, im ages, p lo t s tr u c tu r e , and c h a r a c te r iz a tio n did j ! i 'lead them to examine W oolf's n o v e ls . But they ignored Three Guineas as | i ■ d is ta ste fu l propaganda. j A Room o f One's Own was v i r t u a l l y fo r g o tte n or d ism issed as w e ll. ; ] I •For example, Majumdar and McLaurin p o in t out th a t the s o c i a l i s t c r i t i c i s m o f the 1 930's used A Room o f One's Own to prove W oolf's rem oteness from s o c i e t y . "Five hundred pounds" and "a room o f o n e 's own" were - sym bolic o f the in ad eq u acies o f a s o c i a l c la s s she was j ; | b e lie v e d to r e p r e s e n t . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , in the 1960's Guiget uses i i t '• A Room o f One's Own to prove W oolf's involvem ent in s o c i a l i s s u e s , j 1 I {though he c r i t i c i z e s the " d isp ro p o rtio n a te" v io le n c e o f W oolf's polem ic j t(JG, 172). ! | ! j C. From 1970 to the P resen t j I l j Susan Gorsky n otes the sudden in c r e a se o f i n t e r e s t in Woolf t h ir t y I jyears a f t e r her d ea th . Between 1965 and 1969 j u s t over f i f t y s c h o la r ly .books and a r t i c l e s about Woolf were p u b lish ed , and in the next three I lyears, more than one hundred books and a r t i c l e s appeared. Quentin 10 ^ B ell's biography, p u blish ed in 1972, was a b est s e l l e r , and b ookstores [reported freq u en t s e l l o u t s o f W oolf's works, e s p e c i a l l y A Room o f One's i ’Own, A W rite r's D iary, and some o f the n o v e l s . 25 L i l l i a n Bloom n o tes I i (th at between 1942 and 1969 o n ly ten b ook -len gth s tu d ie s were p u b lish ed , jw hile in the f i r s t th ree years o f the 1970's th ere were alrea d y e i g h t . 26 | With the p u b lic a tio n o f W oolf's d ia r ie s and l e t t e r s and B e l l ' s biography, the Woolf in d u str y has grown enorm ously. T h erefo re, a larger, i ! number o f d is c u s s io n s o f Three Guineas i s found. Yet o f th e tw e n ty -s ix I ; c r i t i c s I have found, f i f t e e n b arely mention i t and s t i l l regard i t with' ! t ■the n e g a tiv e b ia s o f p reviou s y e a r s. ; i j | Quentin B e l l, a s i g n i f i c a n t in flu e n c e on Woolfean s c h o la r s h ip , | ! * i ! [sees Three Guineas as the "product o f a very odd mind" w r itte n in a i I ! " far le s s p e r su a siv e , a fa r l e s s p la y fu l mood" than A Room o f One's Own.' i : . i He o b je c ts most to W oolf's attem pt to in v o lv e women's r ig h ts w ith the s i " far more a g o n izin g q u estio n " o f how to meet the menace o f fa scism and j w a r . 27 jn a la t e r a r t i c l e B e ll does commend W oolf's " fin e h on esty" and [ ) h er "good use o f photographs," but r e i t e r a t e s h i s o b je c tio n to lin k in g i [war w ith women's r i g h t s . ^ I J 1 Two in tro d u cto ry gu id es to Woolf s work f o s t e r s im ila r view s. | .Susan Gorsky s e e s Three Guineas as "a c a l l to women" in a " s h r i l l , i [fem inine to n e," the arguments o f which cannot a t tim es be s u s ta in e d , ( ! [ e s p e c ia l ly W oolf's lin k in g o f p a tria rc h y w ith fa s c is m . ^ Manly Johnson ! ( a s s e s s e s Three Guineas as a book o f " s o c ia l p r o te st" in which the I uncompromising p u rsu it o f tru th becomes " f a n a t ic a l. T. E. A pter, I John Lehman, and A lle n McLaurin a ls o agree that Three Guineas i s e ith e r i f a n a t i c a l , p oorly argued, or s t r id e n t . 11 Another s i x c r i t i c s s e e Three Guineas on ly in r e la t io n to i t s (companion n o v e l, The Y e a r s . 32 Two c r i t i c s fin d p a r a ll e ls between Mrs. Dalloway and Three G uineas. 33 W hile many c r i t i c s e i t h e r ign ore or make sh ort s h r i f t o f Three I G uineas, one would ex p ect fe m in is ts to champion the work, and g e n e r a lly j t th ey do, ex cep t fo r E la in e Show alter. She d ism isse s Three Guineas fo r I jthe same reason L eavis did : i t ad d resses an is o la t e d a u d ien ce, | '"daughters o f educated men." D esp ite the r a d ic a l z e a l , c a r e fu l 1 ; ^research, and courage o f Three G uineas. Show alter thinks i t rin g s f a l s e . j 1 1 I t s "empty slo g a n e e r in g and c lic h d , the s t y l i s t i c tr ic k s o f r e p e t i t io n , t ex a g g er a tio n and r h e t o r ic a l question" r e s u lt in a tone which i s j i r r i t a t i n g and h y s t e r i c a l . 3^ Showalter o b je c ts to W oolf’s o u ts id e r as ; an accu rate p ic tu r e o f W oolf's own w orld, i s o l a t e d from the fem inine ! m ainstream and from p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s . 35 Showalter tra ce s t h is \ I is o la t io n is m to A Room o f One1s Own where W oolf advocates a f l i g h t in to 1 'androgyny and a p r iv a te room, both o f which im prison because they i I s u g g e st r e t r e a t and a d e n ia l o f f e e l i n g , a kind o f "psychic j . I , w ith d ra w a l. i I Carolyn H eilb ru n , on the o th e r hand, p r a is e s A Room o f One's Own j ♦ 'as a c l a s s i c in the sex u a l r e v o lu tio n , but a p o lo g iz e s fo r the " strid en cy " o f Three G uineas.37 in an a r t i c l e sev en teen years l a t e r , H eilbrun a p o lo g iz e s fo r having p referred the "nicer" Room to the "angry" Three G uineas.38 i h e r e v e r s a l o f H e ilb ru n ’s th in k in g in d ic a te s her own ! tra n sfo rm a tio n from Toward a R ecogn ition o f Androgyny where she argues f o r the lib e r a t in g fo r c e o f androgyny, to R ein ven tin g Womanhood where J l she argues th a t women have too long accepted dependence and p a s s i v i t y in a manmade s o c ie t y . H eilbrun f i n a l l y sees the power o f the o u tsid e r im age, e n t i t l i n g one o f h er ch a p te r s, "Woman as O utsider" and u sin g Three Guineas to prove th a t "Woolf never advised w i t h d r a w a l . "39 The ] ^ co n flict between S h o w a lter's view and H eilbrun*s view in d ic a te s the .d iv e r s it y of o p in ion among f e m in is t s . Show alter s e e s W oolfcas an I ! .is o la te d o u tsid e r : H eilbrun se e s her as a woman transform ed, fr e e to ' i i l ex p ress her anger o p e n l y . ^ ! Margaret Blanchard tr a c e s t h is e v o lu tio n o f W oolf from her ! i : in h e r ite d c la s s complacency to a fe m in ist p o s it io n which attem pts to | ; l b rid g e the gap between working and middle c la s s women. She p r a ise s W oolf fo r being one o f the f i r s t fe m in ists to use h er own ex p erien ce to ’ ! a tta c k the fam ily as a cause o f women's o p p ressio n , and fo r arguing in ■ l Three Guineas fo r two o f the c e n tr a l is s u e s o f the woman's movement: ------------------------ I I i th a t women are a sep a ra te c la s s and th a t the p u b lic l i f e and the p r iv a te j l i f e are one. Blanchard concludes th a t "nowhere in her [W o o lf's] i i I w r itin g i s her s t y l e more lu c id and stra ig h tfo rw a rd than in Three j G uineas, the s tr o n g e s t e x p r e s sio n o f her f e m i n i s m . ; The most s u b s t a n t ia l fe m in is t c r i t i c i s m o f Three Guineas comes from. f e s s a y s by Jane Marcus, M adeline Hummel, B everly S ch lack , Josephine j i I S ch a e fe r , B erenice C a r r o ll, and P h y llis Rose. They are concerned in g e n e r a l w ith W oolf's c r i t i c i s m o f p a tr ia r c h y , her fem inism , and her I I s a t i r i c te c h n iq u e s, e s p e c i a l l y the use o f e p is t o la r y form. I i A s p e c ia l is s u e o f the B u lle t in o f the New York P u b lic Library J to c u sin g on a r e v a lu a tio n o f The Years marks the tu rn in g p o in t in regard .to Three G uineas.^2 Marcus says W oolf's th em e--th at the bonds between p a tr ia r c h y and p r iv a te p rop erty must be b r o k e n --is "suggested" in 13 Ixhe Years but "shouted" in Three G uineas. While the n ovel champions th e I jcauses o f f e m in is t s , s o c i a l i s t s , p a c i f i s t s , Jews, I r is h r e b e l s , and • a n t i - f a s c i s t s , the e ssa y a r t ic u l a t e s a u n ifie d i n t e l l e c t u a l p o s it io n which attem pts to connect them a l l . ^ Marcus a ls o p o in ts to Jane I I H a rriso n , c l a s s i c a l sc h o la r o f the m atriarch al o r ig in o f p r e - c l a s s i c a l I Greek thought, as an im portant source fo r W oolf's " t r ip le - p ly " imagery I i !in Three G uin eas.^4 I .........■ ■ ' " I : i i In -Women s S t u d ie s , p u blish ed in the same y e a r , Marcus an a ly zes j f Three Guineas as r a d ic a l in form as w e ll as c o n te n t, comparing W oolf's ] s a t i r i c mode to M ilto n 's and S w i f t ' s . She p r a is e s W oolf's s a t i r i c 1 S tr a te g y o f l e t t e r w r itin g — the "approved" a c t i v i t y fo r women--and her i ' iSatiric juxtaposition of actual photographs of bemedalled patriarchs ■ i w ith her v erb a l d e s c r ip tio n s o f "dead b od ies and ruined houses" in j Spanish war photographs. Although Woolf says that a rt and propaganda I t I sh ould not be mixed, she does mix them s u c c e s s f u lly in A Room o f One's I i i Own and Three G uineas, one as propaganda o f hope, the o th er o f d e sp a ir. ; In F em in ist S tu d ies the fo llo w in g y ea r, Marcus compares Three Guineas to E liz a b e th Robins' A n c ill a 's Share (1924) and e x p lo r e s W o o lf's ( i I - p s sa y as an example o f anger used as a primary source o f c r e a t iv e energyj I ! ■in a r t . Marcus draws p a r a ll e ls between the two w r it e r s ' address to J ! i women as t h e ir au d ien ce, t h e ir view o f women as o u t s id e r s , t h e ir concern! f o r the p overty o f women's c o l l e g e s , and t h e ir r i d i c u le o f men's ‘ o f f i c i a l d r e s s . ^ Marcus' n ext stud y throws l i g h t on the o u ts id e r theme and W oolf's s tr a te g y in u sin g q u o ta tio n s from h is t o r y . W oolf's ^friendship w ith the u n in h ib ite d E th el Smyth gave her courage to say "we" Jas women and to become a s e l f - s t y l e d o u ts id e r . Marcus compares W alter Benjam in, a Jew ish o u t s id e r , and W oolf, both o f whom use s c h o la r ly I jfootnotes as a way to "rob h is t o r y o f i t s power" over o u t s i d e r s . ^ j In her most rec en t a r t i c l e (1 9 8 3 ), Marcus in t e g r a t e s the p o l i t i c a l and sex u a l reading o f W oolf's p olem ical e s s a y s and Between the A c ts , I d e s c r ib in g Three Guineas as a " c la s s ic in the form o f e p is t o la r y I polem ic" in the s t y l e o f " lit e r a t u r e o f the oppressed" and comparing i t | to B rec h t's Threepenny Opera in t i t l e and th e m e .^ I In the same 1977 is s u e o f the B u lle t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib ra r y , two o th e r s i g n i f i c a n t resp on ses to Three Guineas are made. B everly S ch lack , one o f the f i r s t to focus on W o o lf's s tr a te g y o f sco rn ,j ' i d e fin e s i t as d e li b e r a t e ly o f f e n s iv e . Examples o f W oolf's scorn are j 4 I d iv e r s e " scen ts" o f sexism ; d is r e s p e c t f u l r h e t o r ic a l q u e stio n s; j redundancy th at d e li b e r a t e ly "nags" the s u b je c t in to i n f e r i o r i t y ; d is s e r t a t io n e s e fo o tn o tin g ; and t r a v e s t ie s o f A r is t o t e li a n s y llo g is m s . i M adeline Hummel fo c u se s on three advantages o f the e p is t o la r y j method in Three G u in eas: i t prom ises to be r e v e la to r y ; the e p is t o la r y i lin k to biography c r e a te s a dram atic e f f e c t o f r e s id in g between p a st | 1 i j ev en ts and p resen t f e e l in g ; and the n a rra to r has the d e li g h t f u l li c e n s e |to c a l l upon her own l i t e r a r y p rocess as she c r e a te s her correspondent |"warm and breath in g" on the o th er s id e o f the page. Hummel a ls o d is c u s s e s "I" and "you" as forming the most b a s ic r h e t o r ic a l u n it o f p a r le y s , forming a h i s t o r i c a l chorus o f co m p la in ts. She mentions i l Woolf s s t y l i s t i c d e v ic e s fo r a n g e r --th e s a t i r i c use o f numbers and I ;"universals o f n e g a tio n " --b u t b e lie v e s th a t one o f W oolf's most j e f f e c t iv e ir o n ic d e v ic e s i s h er " contin uing dependence on the p ed an tic (arb iters o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l o p in io n . Three fe m in is t c r i t i c s address the is s u e o f W oolf's au d ien ce. In c o n tr a s t to S h o w a lter's o b je c tio n s to W oolf's in s u la te d au d ien ce, \ ^Josephine Schaefer sees W oolf's e s s a y as addressed to both men and i | women, demanding an end to male g l o r i f i c a t i o n . Three Guineas c a l l s fo r i i ! jthe li b e r a t io n o f both women and men, fo r male ty ra n ts are more J p s y c h o lo g ic a lly damaged than su b se r v ie n t f e m a l e s . I n a l a t e r a r t i c l e [ I 1 S ch a efer a ls o compares Three Guineas to Leonard W oolf's Quack.' QuackI, r s e e in g p a r a ll e ls in t h e ir ir o n ic use o f p ic t u r e s , e x p lo r a tio n o f j i | ifascism , and concern fo r c i v i l i z a t i o n . $2 ‘ , \ \ ’ B eren ice C a rro ll th in k s th at the p o l i t i c a l program in Three Guineas: ~ I i s n e ith e r a p le a fo r "androgynous v is io n " nor a " s e lf-in d u lg e n t" o u tb u r st, but a peace pamphlet s u g g e stin g a lt e r n a t iv e modes o f p o l i t i c a l s tr u g g le : tru th t e l l i n g , d if f e r e n t l i f e s t y l e s , and commitment to the d u t ie s o f the o u ts id e r . C a rro ll a ls o makes a stron g case fo r W oolf's complex a t t it u d e toward c l a s s . Woolf was fa r from h a tin g , d e s p is in g , j i i i i o r ig n o r in g working women; y e t she r e a liz e d the danger o f speakin g fo r j i a c l a s s o th er than her own, and she did f e e l a sen se o f i s o l a t i o n as an ; I i"educated man's daughter. "53 I ! ! ; P h y ll is Rose c o n sid ers Three Guineas W oolf's most " e n e r g e tic and ' j j p ro v o ca tiv e " as w e ll as "most p ersonal" work o f th e 1 9 3 0 's. Rose takes ; ; I i s s u e w ith L e a v is' charge o f W oolf's u p p e r -c la ss e l i t i s m , a s s e r t in g that! L ea v is did n ot reco g n ize W oolf's im p lic it argu m en t--that women jc o n s titu te a c la s s in th em selv es. Rose s e l e c t s two str e n g th s o f Three G u ineas: "Rarely s in c e Matthew Arnold has q u o ta tio n been used to such (d evastating e f f e c t " and "In Three Guineas . . . we fin d her [W o o lf's] i . powers o f nurturance m o b iliz e d --b y a fem ale au d ience. I Among male c r i t i c s who accep t some o f the arguments in Three | [Guineas, we may c i t e Roger P o o le , James Naremore, and M ichael R osenthal.j i i jTaking the o p p o site view o f B e l l , Poole and Naremore commend W oolf's j (lin k in g o f pompous m ilit a r y d ress and m asculine p u gn acity, p a tr ia r c h a l ' I jforce and w a r .55 R o se n th a l's r e a c tio n i s mixed. Judging the male j ' I jpugnacity argument as "too s i m p l i s t i c to be t o t a l l y co n v in c in g ," he 1 [ s t i l l p r a is e s i t fo r c r e a tin g irony and p erm ittin g Woolf to develop her [ I ["moral v is io n " f o r c e f u l l y . In f a c t , he concludes th a t Three Guineas i s | [not a narrow fe m in ist p r o t e s t at a l l , but the " p r o te st o f an e x tr a - [ o r d in a r ily c i v i l i z e d s e n s i b i l i t y a g a in s t assum ptions o f a s o c ie t y ruled by base im pulses and u n real l o y a l t i e s ."55 i D. R evalu ation o f Three Guineas : 1 1 The c r i t i c i s m o f Three G uineas, at b e s t, has been mixed. Some 1 c r i t i c s read i t too l i t e r a l l y , r e fu s in g to study i t as r h e t o r ic , a work ; | ' o f a r t , a s a t i r e in i t s e l f . N o n fic tio n has o fte n been taken as d ir e c t . I I [truth when i t may r e a l ly be another kind o f f i c t i o n . Three G uineas. in I i p a r t ic u la r , has been c r i t i c i z e d as s h r i l l , ex a g g er a ted , and uneven when ] ! * i t is a c t u a lly a s i g n i f i c a n t and r e v o lu tio n a r y new form, what I c a l l thei I ! f i c t i o n a l - f a c t u a l e s s a y . Many c r i t i c s have m issed the s k i l l f u l blending Jof f i c t i o n and f a c t which c r e a te s part o f the iron y o f W oolf's e s s a y . 'It i s my c o n te n tio n th a t Woolf a ch ie v es what W alter F ish e r has c a lle d ! " r e a l- f i c t io n " : I [A] r h e t o r ic a l com p osition may be j u s t l y c h a r a c te r iz e d as producing a r e a l - f i c t i o n . R h e to r ic a l communication r e la t e s to r e a l i t y in both s u b je c t m atter and purpose. I t concerns 17 the a c tu a l world o f everyday e x p e r ie n c e . Although i t s aim i s to ex p ress a r e l i a b l e guide to b e l i e f and a c tio n fo r o n e ’s i d a ily d eed s, i t u lt im a t e ly i s a f i c t i o n s in c e i t s ad v ice i s n o t, in the f i n a l a n a ly s is , s u s c e p t ib le o f em p irica l v e r i f i c a t i o n . The f i c t i o n i s n ot h y p o th e tic a l; i t s author ; wants and in ten d s th a t i t be accepted as the true and r ig h t I ! way o f c o n c e iv in g o f a m atter; and, i f he i s s u c c e s s f u l , h is j f i c t i o n becomes one o f th ose by which men l i v e . 5 7 i Woolf s essa y produces a r e a l - f i c t i o n in t h is s e n se . I t r e l a t e s to ; < W oolf's r e a l i t y as a woman in both su b je c t and p urpose, and i t concerns j I j h er a c tu a l world o f everyday e x p e r ie n c e . The e s sa y does exp ress a j i ! r e l i a b l e guide to human a c t i o n - - l e t us sto p w arring on each o th er--a n d 1 the author does want and in ten d th a t the f i c t i o n be accepted as the true; i i ; i and r ig h t way o f c o n c e iv in g the lin k between p a tr ia r c h a l fo r c e and l fa sc ism . I j In a la t e r a r t i c l e , F ish e r d is t in g u is h e s r h e t o r ic a l f i c t i o n from : o th e r f i c t i o n s . He g iv e s , a t one extrem e, examples o f p o e tic f i c t i o n s (u n ic o r n s, dancing d a f f o d i l s , and road runner ca rto o n s) and, at the I o th e r extrem e, d i a l e c t i c a l f i c t i o n s (g r a v ity , id s , e g o s , r a t i o n a l i t y ) . j i Between th ese two extrem es i s r h e t o r ic a l f i c t i o n (ir o n c u r ta in , New j i i F r o n tie r , the P r e s i d e n c y ) .58 jn Three Guineas Woolf combines p o e tic i f i c t i o n s (tom cats, e g g s , margarine ads) w ith d i a l e c t i c a l f i c t i o n s , : I ( s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e , in d iv id u a l freedom, psychology) to produce r e a l- j I f i c t i o n s (the o u t s id e r , th e ty r a n t, the atmosphere)*. However f i c t i o n a l | th e s e term s, th ey do r e l a t e to W oolf's econom ic, p s y c h o lo g ic a l, and i c u lt u r a l r e a l i t y as a woman, and they dram atize what she wants to recommend. Although her recommendations fo r a c tio n cannot them selves be documented, she documents s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e toward women and the seeds o f fo r c e in the p a tria rc h y w ith 123 fo o tn o te s . This p a r t ic u la r m ixture i o f f a c t and f i c t ion produces s a t i r e . __ _ I While Marcus, Hummel, and Schlack have all touched on Woolf's use I o f the e p is t o la r y form as s a t i r e , no one has done a r h e t o r ic a l a n a ly s is I I o f Three G uineas. Such an a n a ly s is r eq u ir es f i r s t an adequate con cep tion o f the persona*, o f the s i l e n t a d d resse e, and o f the i circu m stan ces which evoke the argument. In Three Guineas th e persona i s J a fem ale o u ts id e r , the s i l e n t ad d ressee i s a male law yer, and the circu m stan ces are th a t the male law yer has w r itte n to th is woman to ask h er a d v ice on how to p revent war. This f i c t i o n a l r h e t o r ic a l s it u a t io n i s e t s up ir o n y and the complex v o ic e s o f the o u ts id e r . Few c r i t i c s have I even r e fe r r e d to t h is a sp ect o f Three G uineas. Hummel does n ote th at W oolf' s / ' i n t e r c e p t i o n o f v o ic e s " in Three Guineas i s s im ila r to her " m u ltip erso n a l p o in t o f view" in her n o v e ls , but she fo c u se s m ainly on th e r h e t o r ic a l advantages o f the e p is t o la r y form which i s i t s e l f a v o i c e . 59 And Marder, w h ile r e c o g n iz in g two c o n tr a d ic to r y v o ic e s in Three G uineas, f e e l s th a t they are unresolved.^® ! I t i s my c o n te n tio n th a t W oolf's Three Guineas i s g rea t s a t i r e ! which depends on the persona o f the o u ts id e r who speaks in not two but th ree v o ic e s : o u t s id e r , mock man, and humane. I c a l l th ese v o ic e s the ] i t {chameleon "we" because j u s t as a chameleon changes i t s c o lo r s to match i t s environm ent fo r p r o te c tio n , so a ls o , th e o u ts id e r changes h er c o lo r s Jto p r o te c t h e r s e l f as her au d iences and s it u a t io n s change. Through the I lo u ts id e r 's chameleon "we," Woolf accom p lishes what W alter : Ohg~says every I w r ite r does: she has f i c t i o n a l i z e d h er au d ien ce. ) : What do we mean by sayin g the audience i s a f ic t i o n ? Two th in g s at l e a s t . F i r s t , the w r ite r must c o n str u c t in h is im a g in a tio n , c l e a r ly or v a g u e ly , an audience c a s t in some s o r t o f r o le . . . . Second, we mean th a t the audience must c o rr esp o n d in g ly f i c t i o n a l i z e i t s e l f . A reader has to p la y th e r o le in which the author has c a s t him. . . . ^ Ong's theory a p p lied to Three Guineas means th a t W oolf's o u ts id e r persona c r e a te s h er f i c t i o n a l a u d ie n c e --th e male correspondent and ■female co rr esp o n d en ts--w h ich , in tu rn , c r e a te s h er r e a l audience--women and men. W oolf's r e a d e r s, th en , must p lay th e v a rio u s r o le s in which ( th e o u ts id e r c a s ts them. The o u t s id e r 's aims a r e , in F is h e r 's term s, , l 1 i both su b v e rsiv e and r e a ffir m a tiv e : the su b v e r siv e r h e to r ic attem p ting i p j !to undermine an i n s t i t u t i o n (in t h is c a s e , p a tr ia r c h y ) and the j i 1 t r e a f f ir m a t iv e r h e to r ic attem pting to r e v i t a l i z e a f a it h alread y h eld by J j ' ;the audience (a b e l i e f in humane v a lu e s , the l i b e r a l a r t s , tru th ! I i * ; t e l l i n g ) . T h r o u g h su b version and r e a ffir m a tio n , Woolf a ffirm s a new j image o f the s o r o r it y o f women and i t s str e n g th to change a c o m p etitiv e system in to a c o o p e r a tiv e one. i I ' The persona o f the o u ts id e r and h er f i c t i o n a l male audience c r e a te ; an i r o n i c a l , r h e t o r ic a l s it u a t io n . The o u t s id e r 's chameleon "we" c r e a te s th ree com m unities, two, .which* are p o la r iz e d and s a t ir i z e d i I j(su b versive) and one which i s u n ited ( r e a f f i r m a t iv e ) . The r h e to r ic a l | ' i ! I d i f f i c u l t y o f the o u ts id e r i s how to keep th e se communities w ith her j ! | as she argu es. A r i s t o t l e in h is R hetoric says th a t alth ou gh speakers j may come b efore an audience w ith a c e r ta in r e p u ta tio n , t h e ir e t h i c a l j I 'appeal i s ex er ted m ainly by what they say in th a t p a r tic u la r speech | b e fo r e th a t p a r tic u la r a u d ien ce . ^ Sometimes the o u ts id e r fa c e s a | problem in c r e d i b i l i t y as she p o la r iz e s and s a t i r i z e s p a tr ia r c h a l i i n s t i t u t i o n s because h er r h e to r ic i s an a n t i- e t h o s r h e to r ic ; i t seek s Jto undermine. ^ Yet a t oth er tim es t h is same o u ts id e r p resen ts an I t jethos o f s i n c e r i t y and com petence, r e a ffir m in g the same humane valu es jshe assumes the male correspondent h a s, r e c a lli n g the horror o f war through her d e s c r ip tio n o f the Spanish war photographs. R h e to r ic a l c r i t i c i s m seek s "to a s c e r ta in a p a r tic u la r p ostu re or Jimage th at the author i s e s t a b lis h in g in t h is p a r t ic u la r work in order jto produce a p a r tic u la r e f f e c t on a p a r tic u la r audience."^-* I propose i |to stud y Three Guineas as a r h e t o r ic a l f i c t i o n — a r e a l - f i c t i o n - - t o I jdemonstrate th a t W oolf's s k i l l f u l l y o r c h e str a te d r e la t io n s h ip between | jthe o u ts id e r and her au d iences i s d e li b e r a t e ly d esign ed to i r r i t a t e and ito engage. Chapter One has surveyed the c r i t i c i s m o f Three G uineas. j h ig h li g h t i n g i t s n e g le c t and la c k o f a p p r e c ia tio n u n t i l the l a t e 1970's [when c r i t i c s were w i l l i n g to c o n sid e r i t s p o l i t i c a l id e o lo g y and i t s E p is t o la r y form. Chapter Two d e s c r ib e s W oolf's c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e ! i o u ts id e r persona w ith i t s chameleon "we" th a t speaks in th ree v o ic e s : o u t s id e r , mock man and humane. Both the o u ts id e r and mock man are , su b v e r siv e v o ic e s , w h ile the humane v o ic e i s r e a ffir m a tiv e . Together \ th e se v o ic e s a ffir m a new image o f woman. They are in tim a te ly connected i w ith the co n stru cted f i c t i o n a l au d ien ces: th a t i s , the male . I I correspondent and the fem ale co rresp o n d en ts. As the au d ien ces change, j f so does the o u t s id e r 's v o ic e . ! j i The j u x ta p o s itio n o f fa c t and f i c t i o n ( r e a l - f i c t i o n ) , ach ieved by ! i (th e chameleon "we," i s the s u b je c t o f the th ird ch a p ter. This [ju x ta p o s itio n r e s u lt s in an ir o n ic mode which i s supported by the i i [r h e to r ic a l tech n iq u es o f appeal to a u th o r ity , j u x t a p o s itio n , d im in u tion , I iin te r r o g a tio n , refinem en t o f the t o p ic , and the u se o f e p is t o la r y :form j ;to mask a c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n . Chapter Four compares A Room o f One's Own to Three Guineas in i t s use o f f i c t i o n a l v o ic e s , ju x ta p o s itio n o f fa c t ;and f i c t i o n , and i t s use o f s t o r i e s to mask a c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n . I F i n a l ly , Chapter Five compares the s t y l e o f To the L ighthouse w ith j i [ t h r e e G uineas. The p o in t o f view o f Three Guineas and To the Lighthousel ‘c o n tr a s ts sh a rp ly in th a t the in t e r i o r monologue o f the n o v el s l i p s in i Jand out o f v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t ch a ra cters w ith an a u th o r ia l presence I ihovering n ear, whereas the e s sa y i s w r itte n from one p o in t o f v ie w -- I ; ' i th a t o f the o u t s id e r . N e v e r th e le ss , Three Guineas a ch ie v es d if f e r e n t j I I Ip ersp ectiv es through the chameleon "we" and the j u x ta p o s itio n o f fa c t ! | ! 'and f i c t i o n . The two works are a ls o lin k e d in s t y l e ( r e p e t i t io n o f ; jr h e to r ic a l schem es, sen ten ce le n g th , d i c t i o n , mock e p ic tone) and m otifs' : ! I (m ascu lin e and fem in ine ways o f " se e in g ," c o n f l i c t s w ith in m arriage and ' i ; ^fam ily, the primacy o f a r t ) . i t I The aim o f my study i s to dem onstrate th at Three Guineas i s a ; i • i s u c c e s s f u l r h e t o r ic a l f i c t i o n , c o n s tr u c tin g an a r t f u l persona and a f i c t i o n a l a u d ien ce, a ch ie v in g iro n y by th e j u x t a p o s itio n o f fa c t and i f i c t i o n , and em ploying c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r ic , a l l the more s i g n i f i c a n t ! i i because Woolf learn ed i t on h er own, as an o u t s id e r . j 22 I N otes E d it o r i a l, Time and Tide [London], 25 June 1938, General Research and Hum anities D iv is io n , p. 887, c o l . 2. i j ^ S ee, fo r exam ple, Graham Greene, S p e c ta to r , 17 June 1938, pp. 1110-12; r p t. in V ir g in ia Woolf; The C r i t i c a l H e r ita g e , ed. Robin Majumdar and A lle n McLaurin (Boston: R outledge and Kegan P au l, 1975), p. 407; Mary Colum, "Are Women O utsiders?" Forum, 100, No. 5 (1 9 3 8 ), 222; K. John, "The New L y s i s t r a t a , " The New Statesman and N a tio n , 11 j June 1938, p. 995; Agnes A lle n , " S t i l l a Man's W orld," Saturday Review t o f L ite r a tu r e [New Y ork], 27 August 1938, p. 6; Mary E lle n Chase, "A I Modern S o c r a tic D ia lo g u e," The Y ale R eview , 28 (1 9 3 8 ), 403; and E. H. W.j Q ueen's Q uarterly [K in gston , O n ta r io ], Autumn 1938, p. 418, a l l o f whom > d is c u s s Three Guineas as an eloq u en t p le a fo r women's r i g h t s . I See a ls o Queenie L e a v is, " C a te r p illa r s o f th e World, U n ite ," S c r u tin y , 7 (September^ 1 9 3 8 ), pp. 203-14; (j:‘ p t. in V ir g in ia Woolf: The C r i t i c a l H e r ita g e , pp. 413-14; Theodora Bosanquet, Time and T ide j [London], 4 June 1938, pp. 788-90; r p t. in V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r i t i c a l ) H e r ita g e , pp. 402-03; S e lin c o u r t , B a s il de, " V irgin ia W oolf: An i A p p r e c ia tio n ," The Observer [London], 5 June 1938, p. 5; r p t. in V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r i t i c a l H e r ita g e , pp. 403-04; and G. M. Young, "Women in the Modern W orld," The Sunday Times [London], 19 June 1938, p. 7. K atherine Woods, " V irg in ia W oolf's Parable o f Three Modern • C a u ses," The New York Tim es, 28 August 1938, p. 5; L ouise Bogan, "The i L adies and Gentlemen," New R e p u b lic , 14 September 1938, pp. 16 4 -6 5 , who j s e e the work not o n ly as an argument fo r women's r ig h t s but a ls o as ! l i n k i n g fa sc ism w ith p a tr ia r c h y . Woods does argue, however, th a t a i ;third broader is s u e i s im p lied : "human c i v i l i z a t i o n i t s e l f i s a t stake."j ’ The Times [London], "A Woman's Views on P eace," 3 June 1938, p. 20, and , The Saturday Review [London], "Women and War," 11 June 1938, p. 374, \ p r a is e the lin k in g o f the is s u e s o f world peace and women's r i g h t s . The! Times L ite r a r y Supplem ent, "Women in a World o f War: A S o c ie ty o f ' O u ts id e r s ," 4 June 1938, p. 379; h e r e a f t e r c ite d as TLS, h a i l s W oolf as ; jthe "new L y s is t r a t a ." Mary S to c k s, "Reply to a Q u estio n ," M anchester ! Guardian, 10 June 1938, p. 7, d e s c r ib e s W oolf's work as f ig h t in g the ." etern a l s p i r i t " o f war rooted in s e x -o p p r e s sio n , p r i v i l e g e , and c o m p e titio n . H e r e a fte r , page numbers o f review s are in d ic a te d on ly fo r th o se w ith more than one page: Bosanquet, Chase, Colum, Greene, John, and L e a v is. j ^ S ee, fo r example, John, Woods, Bogan, and th e TLS. John, p. 405, lasks: "Can one d is c u s s i t s [ Three G uin eas'] id e a s , as though th ey were inot in v o lv e d w ith th a t en ch an tin g presentm ent?" The TLS recommends more than one read ing to a p p r e c ia te the a r t i s t r y and ap p raise th e argument, 23 and Woods concedes th a t "the cou rse i s not always easy to fo llo w " 'between the two stream s o f thought: women and war. Bogan d e s c r ib e s jW oolf's s t y l e as so " elegan t" and " c ir c u ito u s " th a t the reader i s jhalfway through b efo re c a tc h in g on. i | ^ L e a v is , p. 409, s tr o n g ly o b je c ts to W oolf's "daughters o f leducated men" as " in su la te d by c la s s " ; the TLS and Bogan comment th a t W oolf cannot s o lv e the problem i f she s t a t e s i t o n ly fo r educated women o f a c i v i l i z e d b o u r g e o is ie . Both John, p. 995, and A lle n warn th a t [fe m in ists w i l l not l i k e the o u t s i d e r 's id e a s s in c e she r e j e c t s the very ith in gs f e m in is ts work f o r - - c i t i z e n s h i p , u n iv e r s it y , work, pomp and jcircum stance o f o f f i c i a l d r e s s . Young w ish es th a t W oolf would admit ithat she r e a l l y i s an in s id e r . i I 1 ^ gee Bosanquet, Woods, C hase, Colum, and the Queen's Q u arterly | rev iew er. Bosanquet, p. 403, se e s the "daughters o f educated men" n ot j [as Amazons (women who a c t l i k e men) but as A ntigones w ith new wisdom to ■ io f f e r p a tr ia r c h a l s o c ie t y . Woods and Chase, p. 404, say th a t alth ough j ^American women w i l l not i d e n t i f y w ith E n g lish pomp and ceremony, they ex p e r ie n c e a s im ila r male dom ination. Both Colum and the Queen' s < Q u arterly review er see tremendous p o s s i b i l i t i e s -for the " o u tsid er" as an instrum ent o f p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l change. j » 6 L eavis says the male pugnacity argument c r e a te s se x h o s t i l i t y , ! ;Young p r o te s ts W oolf's myth o f Man as B luebeard, and S e lin c o u r t , John, | ip. 995, and the review ers from the London Times and The Saturday Review ' a l l su g g e st th a t women are not e x a c t ly unpugnacious. However, Colum, j p. 222, says th a t W oolf's e s s a y does not g e t back a t men, but responds | in ste a d to the dangerous form th a t m asculin e dominance was tak in g in j 1938. Bosanquet, p. 402, defen ds W oolf's b ia s by sa y in g th a t as a woman op p ressed by male dom ination, Woolf "does not pretend to be im p a rtia l" I and the TLS sa y s: " N everth eless she [W oolf] li m it s her s c r u tin y w ith ! !her eyes open, and i t would be the g r o s s e s t m isunderstanding which j 'accu ses h er o f in te n d in g to ex a cerb a te the antagonism and mutual ] ; in d if f e r e n c e o f the s e x e s . . . . " I • ^ L e a v is, p. 414, condemns W o o lf's " fe m in ist h e r o ic s" as | ." ir r e s p o n s ib le " ; Colum, p. 224, says n o n -co o p era tio n i s a "psychological; [im p o s s ib ility " during war; and Chase, p. 405, s t a t e s th a t fe m in is ts l jwould have to be "superwomen" to fo llo w W oolf's s t r i c t u r e s o f I ;i n d i f f e r e n c e . | t | I i 8 L e a v is, p. 411, c a l l s them " m aliciou s" ; Greene, p. 407, says 1 ■Woolf i s " tin k lin g w ith tr in k e ts " ; and the TLS concedes th a t the |photographs are "far le s s p reju d iced than the t e x t ." The London Times j land the Queen's Q u arterly review ers d e li g h t , however, in the s a t i r i c a l j [ e f f e c t s o f the photographs. t I The f a il u r e to rec o g n ize the p e r su a siv e n e ss o f t h is technique !p e r s i s t s today. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich r e fu s e s to p r in t the [p ictu res d e s p ite Jaie; M arcus' p le a to r e i n s t a t e W oolf's o r i g in a l d e sig n . j 9 ch a se, p. 403, A lle n , Greene, p. 407, and the review ers from TLS and Queen's Q u arterly commend W oolf's n o te s , and Colum, p. 225, a n alyzes them as a h is t o r y o f women's s tr u g g le fo r econom ic, c u lt u r a l, and p sy c h o lo g ic a l freedom: "More than any d e lib e r a t e s a t i r e , t h is appendix shows the fa tu o u sn ess o f the h ig h ly placed personages who out o f one s t u p id it y or another opposed t h is movement toward human freedom" '(emphasis added). i j 10 London Times c a l l s the e ssa y " p ersu a siv e d ia le c t ic " ; A lle n p r a is e s W o o lf's " rem orseless lo g ic " ; S e lin c o u r t compares W oolf's irony to A rnold's tone in L ite r a tu r e and Dogma; Chase, p. 403, and the Q u ee n 's[ Q u arterly review er c a l l W oolf's lo g ic a S o c r a tic d ia lo g u e , and the TLS d e s c r ib e s W oolf's g i f t as " p r ecisio n i t s e l f , consequence, l o g i c , d ir e c te d by an iro n y 'that i s sharp but never inhuman.," I On the o th er hand, G. M. Young h im s e lf mocks W o o lf's iron y by j w r itin g a S o c r a tic d ia lo g u e w ith a fo r e ig n e r , S op hie, who has j u s t read I Three Guineas l i t e r a l l y , not understanding the sarcasm which "aims a t , but f a l l s sh o rt o f ir o n y ." Two jo in Young in h is scorn : L e a v is, p. 410, d e sc r ib e s W o o lf's tone as "a form o f s e lf - in d u lg e n c e ," and Greene, , p. 407, c a l l s i t " o ld -fa sh io n ed " and " s h r i l l . " : S e lin c o u r t, A lle n , Chase, p. 404, and the rev iew ers from the TLS, th e London Saturday R eview , and the London Times a l l p r a is e W oolf's " ir o n ic w it" and " se r io u s humor." Four o th ers--Y o u n g , Bosanquet, p. 402, Woods, and Colum, p. 2 2 5 --s e e the s a t i r i c tone b elon gin g to one who c o n s c io u s ly or u n c o n sc io u sly m is le a d s . Woods b e st d e sc r ib e s t h is d e c e p tio n as " searin g through i t s i l l u s i v e g e n tle n e s s in t o deadly 1 ir o n y ." This m isle a d in g tone has plagued the in t e r p r e t a t io n o f Three Guineas from i t s f i r s t p u b lic a tio n to the p r esen t tim e. ; H James Naremore, "Nature and H isto r y in The Y e a r s," in V ir g in ia , W oolf: R evalu ation and C o n tin u ity , ed. Ralph Freedman (Los A ngeles: j U niv. o f C a lifo r n ia P r e s s , 1 9 8 0 ), p. 245. 1 I I j 12 P h y llis Rose, Woman o f L e tte r s : A L ife o f V ir g in ia Woolf (New J York: Oxford Univ. P r e ss, 1 9 7 8 ), p. 219. ! i 13 V ir g in ia W oolf, A W r ite r 's D ia ry , ed. Leonard Woolf (New York: 1 Harcourt Brace Jovan ovich, 1 9 5 4 ), p. 290; h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as W D. ■ i | j 14 F ran cis Mulhern, The Moment o f 'S c r u tin y ' (London: NLB, 1979), pp. 32 and 3 4 . Mulhern q u otes B r it t a in . ! ; I j 13 Mulhern, pp. 173-74. j 1® Robin Majumdar, " In tro d u ctio n ," V ir g in ia W oolf: An Annotated 'B ibliography o f C r itic is m , 1915-1974 (New York: Garland P u b lish in g , I n c . , 1 9 7 6 ), x v i - x v i i . I 1^ E. M. F o r s te r , " V irg in ia W oolf," 1941; r p t. in V ir g in ia W oolf: A C o lle c tio n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , ed. C la ir e Sprague (Englewood C l i f f s , N .J .: P r e n t ic e - H a ll, 1 971), p. 23. 25 IS David D aich es, V ir g in ia Woolf (London: E d it io n 's P o etry , 1 9 4 5 ), p. 47. But D aich es, p. 151, a ls o says th a t the "force and c l a r it y " o f W oolf's p rose might have made h er a " b r i l l i a n t p o l i t i c a l pam phleteer." 1 i Joan B en n ett, V ir g in ia W oolf: Her Art as a N o v e l i s t , 2nd ed. I ;(1945; r p t. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. P r e ss , 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 76 and 169, i jsays th a t W oolf's feminism led h er to " r h e to r ic a l e x c e s s e s ." Bernard i (B lackstone, V ir g in ia W oolf, 2nd ed. (1952; New York: Longmans, Green C o., 1 9 5 6 ), p. 32, e x p la in s W o o lf's " ex p lo sio n s o f spleen" in Three j iGuineas as W oolf's unbearable i r r i t a t i o n under the burden o f the Spanishj War and the growing shadow o f fa scism . In a review o f B la c k s to n e 's jbook V ir g in ia W oolf:. A Commentary. E liz a b e th Bowen, "The Achievement o f |V irg in ia W oolf," New York Times Book Review, 25 June 1949, p. 21, asks , where W oolf's o b s e ss io n w ith women's m a r ty r iz a tio n comes from. j l ' I 20 James H a fley , The G lass R oof, 2nd ed. (1954; r p t. New York: I R u s s e ll and R u s s e ll, I n c ., 1 9 6 3 ), p. 178. i ' I ! 21 b . B a tch elo r, "Feminism in V ir g in ia W oolf," E n glish [London],! jl7 (1 9 6 8 ), 7 and 3. ! 22 j ean G u iget, V ir g in ia Woolf and Her Works, t r a n s . Jean Stew art j (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1965) and H erbert Marder, Feminism and A r t: A Study o f V ir g in ia Woolf (C hicago: Univ. o f C hicago, 1968); h e r e a fte r c i t e d as JQ and HM. I ' * i 23 Ralph Samuelson, "More Than One Room o f Her Own: V ir g in ia W oolf's C r i t i c a l Dilemmas," The Western Hum anities R eview, 19 (1 9 6 5 ), } 2 5 1 -5 2 . • i ' j < ^ V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r it ic a l H e r ita g e , p. 23. j ' i ; 25 s Usan Rubinow Gorsky, V ir g in ia W oolf, Twayne's E n g lish Author 1 S e r i e s , ed. K in ley E. Roby (B oston: Twayne Pub., 1978), p. 139. i I 26 L i l l i a n Bloom, "They A ll Cried W oolf," N ovel: A Forum on (F iction 7 (1 9 7 4 ), 256. i j I ; 27 Q uentin B e l l , V ir g in ia W oolf: A B iography, I I (New York: ! Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1 9 7 2 ), 204-05. In h is p refa ce B e ll makes i t i ( c le a r th a t he does not claim to be a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , ra th er an o b j e c t iv e biographer who l e t s the f a c t s speak. Yet Bloom, p. 256, s u g g e s ts th a t B e l l ' s emphasis on f a c t s sometimes p reven ts him from Iperceiving h is a u n t's ir o n y . Jane Marcus in '"No More H o r ses': Art and P ropaganda," Women's S t u d ie s , 4 (1 9 7 7 ), 272, a ls o q u e stio n s w hether t h is nephew r e a l l y understood h is a u n t's p a c i f i s t , f e m in is t , s o c i a l i s t v iew s. I 28 Quentin B e l l , "Bloomsbury and the Vulgar P a ss io n s," C r it ic a l .'inquiry. 6 (1 9 7 9 ), 252. i I 29 Gorsky, pp. 146-47. f _ . _ _ 2- 6 j I Manly Johnson, V ir g in ia Woolf (New York: F red erick Unger Pub. ‘ C o., 1 9 7 3 ), p. 20. | i 31 T. E. A pter, V ir g in ia Woolf: A Study o f Her N ovels (New York: New York Univ. P r e ss , 1 9 7 9 ), p. 102, says Three Guineas i s "too p oorly argued" to be o f any v a lu e to women's r i g h t s . John Lehmann, V ir g in ia i Woolf and Her World (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1975), p. | |98, however, th in k s i t i s " fo r c e fu lly argued" but " str id e n t" and marred | ;by " in ap p rop riate p la y f u ln e s s ." A lle n McLaurin, V ir g in ia Woolf: The ! Echoes Enslaved (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ), p. 124, ] jthinks the " o b sessiv e" r e p e t i t io n in Three Guineas g iv e s i t a " high ly- ; jStrung, h y s t e r ic a l f e e l i n g . ” j ! 32 Avrom F leishm an, V ir g in ia Woolf: A C r it ic a l Reading (Baltim ore:' Johns Hopkins Univ. P r e s s , 1 975), p. 173, compares W oolf's a n tip a th y jtoward male i n s t i t u t i o n s in The Years and Three G uineas; Nancy B azin, ! V ir g in ia Woolf and the Androgynous V isio n (New Brunswick, N .J .: Rutgers! lUniv. P r e ss, 1 973), pp. 166 and 169, u ses Three Guineas to support her ; theory o f androgyny in The Years and Between the A c t s ; Jean A lexander, The Venture o f Form in the N ovels o f V ir g in ia W oolf (P ort W ashington, N .J .: Kennikat P r e ss , 1 974), p. 183, m entions Three Guineas as a ! r e a l i s t i c mode fo r propaganda in c o n tr a st to the f i c t i o n a l mode o f ’ The Years as a r t; Hermione Lee, The N ovels o f V ir g in ia Woolf (New York: ' Holmes and M eier P ub., 1 977), pp. 181-83, says Three Guineas r e f l e c t s "more e x p l i c i t l y " than The Years the p a r a ll e ls among V ic to r ia n I 'p atern alism , m asculine m ilita r is m , and the eg o tism o f tw e n tie th century ; : l i f e ; M itc h e ll Leaska, The N ovels o f V ir g in ia Woolf (New York: John Jayj P r e ss , 1 977), p. 230, compares the Crosby-Rover (serv a n t-d o g ) r e fe r e n c e ■ in Three Guineas to i t s use in The Y ears; L o u ise Poresky, The E lu s iv e ; 'S e lf (Newark: Univ. o f Delaware P r e ss, 1 981), pp. 2 2 6 -4 3 , se e s Three ; (Guineas in a more p o s it iv e l i g h t than th ese c r i t i c s , but she on ly tr a c e s the A ntigone-C reon p a r a l l e l s between the n ovel and the e s s a y , se e in g th e ’ fem inine fo r c e as the " p riv a te world" o f A n tig o n e's lo v e and the : m a scu lin e fo rce as the "public world" o f C reon's tyranny. | i * i 33 S u z e tte Henke, "Mrs. D allow ay: The Communion o f S a in ts ," in j ,New F em inist E ssays on V ir g in ia W oolf, e d . Jane Marcus (L in coln: Univ. ' lof N ebraska, 1981), pp. 128-29, s e e s the d i a l e c t i c a l movement in Mrs. j iDalloway c e n te r in g around the two g rea t fo r c e s o f a r t and war in Three [Guineas; Lucio R uotolo, "Mrs. D allow ay: The Journey Out o f S u b je c tiv i t y , " Women's S t u d ie s , 4 (1 9 7 7 ), 173, se e s Mrs. Dalloway as a ch a llen g e to b ou rgeois c u lt u r e , e s p e c i a l l y in Bradshaw's law o f "Proportion and C on version," and as an e x p lo r a tio n o f the s o c i a l v a lu e s ex p ressed more j d ir e c t ly in A Room o f One's Own and Three G uineas. j 34 E la in e Show alter, A L ite r a tu r e o f T heir Own (P rin ceton : iP rin ceton Univ. P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ), pp. 294-95. I | 35 S h ow alter, pp. 294, 296. j 36 Show alter, pp. 285-86. 27 37 Carolyn H eilb ru n , Toward a R eco g n itio n o f Androgyny (1964; r p t. New York: A lfred A. Knopf, 1 9 7 3 ), pp. 153, 156-65. I | I 38 Carolyn H eilb ru n , " V irg in ia W oolf in Her F i f t i e s , " T w entieth icentury L it e r a t u r e . 27 (Spring 1981), 16, 21. I 39 Carolyn H eilb ru n , R ein ven tin g Womanhood (New York: W . W . Norton1 and C o., 1 9 7 9 ), p. 179. J l , 40 " V irg in ia Woolf in Her F i f t i e s , " p. 22. i 4 ^ Margaret Blanchard, " S o c ia liz a t io n in Mrs. D allow ay." C o lle g e [E n glish . 34 (1 9 7 2 ), 288-94. ; | j ' 4^ Joanna L ip k in g, "Looking at the Monuments: W oolf's S a t i r i c t Eye," B u lle t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib r a r y . 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 142, emphasis j added, p r a is e s W oolf's " s a t i r i c eye" in The Y e a r s. a s e r ie s o f r e v e r sa lsj o f e x p e c ta tio n s . A psley House, home o f the duke o f W ellin g to n , w ith j "God i s Love" w r itte n on i t by a v a g ra n t, becomes a symbol o f th e " sp lit: :o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l and s p i r i t u a l th a t i s the u n d erlyin g s a t i r i c o p p o s itio n : in Three G uineas." L ipking fo cu ses on The Y ea rs. but the s e r ie s o f j .r e v e r s a ls can be a p p lied to the s t r a t e g i e s in Three G uineas. J S a l l i e S ea rs, "Notes on S e x u a lity : The Years and Three G u in eas." j iB u lle tin o f the New York P u b lic L ib ra r y . 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 2 1 1 -2 0 , says th a t ! 'both The Years and Three Guineas ex p lo re s e x u a lit y in terms o f i t s [r e la tio n sh ip to power. W ithout p reach in g, The Years ex p lo r es what Three1 Guineas op en ly a tta c k s : m ascu lin e p r e r o g a tiv e and fem ale su b o r d in a tio n ,' " v i r i l i t y " as in com p atib le w ith " v ir tu e ," manhood's fin d in g i t s most com p ellin g embodiment in w ar--"dead b od ies and ruined houses" (p. 2 1 1 ). ! ;The w it and l u c i d i t y o f Three Guineas c o n tr a s ts sh a rp ly w ith the i c o n fu sio n and s c a tte r e d a t t e n t io n o f the ch a ra cte rs in The Y ears. The - i i ;Strategy o f Three Guineas i s d ir e c te d toward change, says S ea rs, but the* u n d erly in g communication i s th a t change i s u n lik e ly or at b e s t an t arduous p r o c e s s. "The more im peccably the speaker documents her case i a g a in s t p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y the more t e r r i b l e i t s f a c t s appear" (p. 214, emphasis added). Chapter Two o f t h is d i s s e r t a t i o n shows th a t although Three Guineas may seem more op en ly a tta c k in g when compared to the s u b tle [su ggestion s o f The Y ea rs, i t , to o , has i t s own su b te r fu g e . i t ! ^3 jan e Marcus, "The Years as Greek Drama, Domestic N o v el, and |Gotterdammerung," B u lle t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib ra ry , 80 (1 9 7 7 ), *301, 300. j 44 Marcus, "The Y e a r s." p. 277, n. 5. j 4 3 Marcus, "No More H o rses," pp. 273-77. ! /A f Jane Marcus, "Art and Anger," F em in ist S t u d ie s . 4 (1 9 7 8 ), 69— 7 8 .J j 4 7 Jane Marcus, "Thinking Back Through Our M others," in New [Feminist E s s a y s , pp. 1 -3 0 . See a ls o E lle n Hawkes, "W oolf's M agical jGarden o f Women," in New F em in ist E s s a y s , pp. 3 1 -6 0 , who g iv e s ev id e n c e ( th a t W oolf's i n t e r e s t in women's r ig h ts developed e a r ly . Hawkes analyzes " F riend sh ip s G allery" (1 9 0 7 ), W oolf's tr ib u te to V io le t D ick in son , in which both change the s o c ie t y in which th ey l i v e : D ickinson by u n con ven tion al b eh aviou r, W oolf, by h er w r itin g (p. 4 1 ). Hawkes argues th a t W oolf's women f r ie n d s , ra th er than the men o f Bloomsbury, crea ted th e support Woolf needed to be h e r s e l f . Hawkes a ls o n o tes th at Woolf preten d s to address a man in Three G uineas, but in f a c t , she i s bidd in g j women to b e lie v e in th em selv es, and to say "we" are " in leagu e to g e th e r | 'against the world" (p. 5 7 ). j | I ! 48 Jane Marcus, " L ib erty , S o r o r ity , M isogyny," in The R ep resen ts- ! tio n o f Women in F i c t i o n , ed. Carolyn H eilbrun and M argaret H igonnet, j S e le c te d Papers from the E n g lish I n s t i t u t e , New S e r i e s , No. 7 ; |(B altim ore: Johns Hopkins Univ. P r e ss , 1 983), p. 65. Marcus a ls o n o t e s 1 'that she has been unable to convin ce the p u b lis h e r s to r e p r in t the 1 photographs, an im portant propaganda e f f e c t , in Three G uineas. | | 49 B everly S ch la ck , " V irg in ia W oolf's S tr a te g y o f Scorn in The ; Years and Three G u in eas," B u lle t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib ra r y , 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 146-48. ; ! 50 M adeline Hummel, "From the Common Reader to th e Uncommon C r itic :' Three Guineas and th e E p is to la r y Form," B u lle t in o f th e New York P u b lic L ib ra r y , 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 153-56. j j 51 Josep h in e O'Brien S ch a e fe r , " Y esterday's Feminism," New R ep u b lic, 5 January 1974, p. 22. ; , 52 Josephin e O'Brien S ch a e fe r , "Three Guineas and Quack.' Quacki | Read T ogeth er," V ir g in ia Woolf M isc e lla n y , 7 (1 9 7 7 ), 2 -3 . ' ! ; ‘ 53 B eren ice C a r r o ll, "To Crush Him in Our Own Country: The j P o l i t i c a l Thought o f V ir g in ia W oolf," F em in ist S tu d ies, 4 (1 9 7 8 ), 123-25. Marcus, "No More H orses," p. 279, d en ies th a t W oolf i s an e l i t i s t snob. , "What h er [W o o lf's] enemies have in common i s th a t th ey are l i b e r a l s , | Ithat they m istake W o o lf's h o n esty about the w orking c l a s s fo r snobbery";j B e l l , I I , p. 205, m entions an unemployed woman, Agnes Sm ith, who w rote j 'to W oolf o b je c tin g th at she had sa id n oth in g about working women. I t is ! [clear from Sm ith 's n ext l e t t e r th a t Woolf answered h e r , e x p la in in g th a t j Three Guineas had been addressed to women in a more fo r tu n a te , s o c i a l ; p o s it io n , but th a t d id not mean th a t working women th em selves could not o r g a n iz e . Woolf and Smith continued to w r ite to each o th er at in te r v a ls . 54 Rose, pp. 220, 222. ^5 Roger P o o le , The Unknown V ir g in ia Woolf (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. P r e ss , 1 9 7 8 ), p. 221; Naremore, "Nature and H is to r y ," pp. 244-45. I 56 M ichael R o sen th a l, V ir g in ia Woolf (New York: Columbia Univ. P r e ss, 1 9 7 9 ), pp. 230, 242-43. ! 67 W alter F ish e r , "A M otive View o f Communication," Q u arterly ^Journal o f S p eech. 56 (1 9 7 0 ), 132. 58 W alter F ish e r , " R h eto rica l F ic t io n and the P r e s id e n c y ,1 1 sQuarterly Journal o f Speech, 66 (1 9 8 0 ), 120. 59 Hummel, pp. 154-55. t J 60 Marder, p. 155. I 61 W alter Ong, "The W r ite r 's Audience i s Always a F ic t io n ," PMLA, |90 (1 9 7 5 ), 12. t I 62 F i s her> "Motive View," pp. 138, 134. I 63 A r i s t o t l e , The "Art" o f R h e to r ic , tra n s. J. H. F r e e se , Loeb C la s s i c a l L ibrary (1926; r p t. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 ), I .1 3 5 6 a .3. ( j 64 " R h eto rica l F ic t io n and the P re sid en cy ," p. 138. I 65 Edward C o rb ett, e d . , R h e to r ic a l A n a ly sis o f L ite r a r y Works (New York: Oxford Univ. P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 ), x v i i i . Chapter II i I j Ethos and Pathos: The O u tsid er j and the Chameleon "We" j i I ! I • | When the London Times L ite r a r y Supplement (1938) c a lle d Three j Guineas a s e r io u s c h a lle n g e th a t must be answered by a l l th in k e r s , WoolfJ was p lea sed because she was "taken s e r i o u s l y ," not d ism issed as a i 1 "charming p r a ttle r " as she had feared (WD, 2 8 5 ). At the same time she j I ■ reco g n ized th a t her s u b je c t was r is k y . In a . l e t t e r o f May 24, 1938, to ! ; i V isco u n te ss Rhondda she w r it e s : "Your l e t t e r has g iv e n me g r e a t ! I jpleasure a l l day. I admit I am nervous about 3 G uineas— not about 1 1 making a f o o l o f m y s e lf, but about being a m isch ievou s f o o l , fo r th e j s u b je c t i s a r is k y one . . ." (em phasis added).^ C le a r ly , Woolf d id not ’ I want Three Guineas to be taken l i g h t l y , as "m ischievous" p r a t t l e . On I i i th e o th er hand, she could not keep s i l e n t on an is s u e about which she j ' ! f e l t s tr o n g ly . She w r ite s to Margaret L lew elyn Davies on J u ly 4 , 1938: j I j I f e l t i t g r e a t im p ertin en ce to come out w ith my view s on such a s u b je c t; but to s i t s i l e n t and a c q u ie s c e in a l l t h is i d i o t i c ; l e t t e r s ig n in g and v o c a l p a c ifism when t h e r e 's such an ob vious j h orror in our m id st— such tyran n y, such P e c k s n if f i s m - - f in a ll y made my blood b o il in to the usu al in k -s p r a y . ( L e t t e r s , VI, 250; emphasis added) Both W o o lf's f e e l i n g im p ertin en t and h er anger are im portant h e r e . R e a liz in g th a t she i s c h a lle n g in g the whole system o f s o c i a l democracy i i n B r ita in and r e c o g n iz in g th at her own p erso n a l anger could lead h er 31 In to e g o t i s t i c a l e x c e s s e s , sh e sought a way to d is ta n c e h e r s e l f from the ( ,work. I D ista n c in g was not new to h e r . She experim ented w ith d i f f e r e n t jkinds o f ap p rop riate forms o f d is ta n c in g in each o f her n o v e ls . In 1933 I sh e had w r itte n to E th el Smyth about h er need to d is ta n c e h e r s e l f in 1 A Room o f One's Own: : I d id n 't w r ite 'A Room' w ith o u t c o n sid e r a b le f e e l i n g even you j w i l l admit; I'm n ot c o o l on the s u b je c t. And I fo rced m yself j ' to keep my own f ig u r e f i c t i t i o u s , le g en d a r y . I f I had s a id , j 1 'Look h e r e , I am uneducated because my b ro th ers used a l l the | ; fa m ily fu n d s'--w h ich i s the f a c t - - ' W e l l , ' th ey 'd have s a id , ; 'sh e has an axe to g r in d '; and no one would have taken me s e r i o u s l y , though I agree I should have had many more o f the j wrong kind o f rea d er , who w i l l read you + go away + r e j o i c e j in the p e r s o n a l i t i e s , not because they are l i v e l y and easy i | read in g; but b ecau se they prove once more how v a in , how ! | p e r so n a l, so th ey w i l l s a y , rubbing t h e ir hands w ith g l e e , ! women always are; I can hear them as I w r ite .^ (em phasis ‘ added) j ! ;This passage t e l l s why W oolf c re a ted a " f i c t i t i o u s , legendary" f ig u r e - - j I |"Mary B eton, Mary S eto n , c a l l her what you w i l l " - - i n A Room o f One's : ! ’ Own. She wanted to be taken s e r io u s ly and she needed a f i c t i o n to ; ! I d is ta n c e h e r s e l f so th a t she would n o t be speaking in h er own v o ic e with; i | "an axe to g rin d ." The passage a ls o dem onstrates the s p e c tr e image o f ! I 1 \ ,the "vain" and "personal" woman w r ite r which haunted Woolf every time j i I !she took up her pen. W oolf h e r s e l f has analyzed h er c o n sc io u sn e ss o f male d e r i s i o n , e s p e c i a l l y h er need to k i l l the "angel in th e h ou se." I t | jis not my in te n tio n to go in t o W oolf's e s s a y , " P ro fessio n s fo r Women," Jat le n g th h ere, but i t does i l l u s t r a t e h er unconscious need to "conceal" 1 3 ^ h at she i s r e a l l y doing in h er n o v e ls and h er e s s a y s . | B eren ice C a r r o ll's stud y shows th a t Woolf had a lon g h is t o r y o f I i 'concealin g h er p e r so n a l, p o l i t i c a l v ie w s. In a l e t t e r in 1903, Woolf 32 commented on h er review o f W illiam H a le 's A Week in the White House w ith Theodore R o o s e v e lt: "the s u b t le t y [ s i c ] o f the in s in u a tio n s i s so i I se r p e n tin e th a t no Smith in Europe w i l l se e how I j e e r the P r e sid e n t to I ;d erisio n , seem ing to approve the w h ile " ( L e t t e r s , I , 337; emphasis jadded).^ Woolf i s r e fe r r in g to R eginald Sm ith, e d it o r o f C o r n h ill l M agazine, on which Woolf depended fo r money. This " serp en tin e" q u a lit y , w hich d e r id e s w h ile seem ing <t'o approve, runs through W oolf's n o v els and j ! J e s s a y s , and although Three Guineas i s h er attem pt to come in to th e open t ;to say what she r e a l l y th in k s, i t i s s t i l l f u l l o f su b ter fu g e and nuances. Woolf d e s c r ib e s the n e c e s s it y o f s e c r e c y fo r her s o c ie t y o f o u t s id e r s : "Secrecy i s e s s e n t i a l . We must s t i l l h id e what we are doing I ■ and th in k in g even though what we are doing and th in k in g i s fo r our common c a u s e . W o o l f says t h is s e r io u s ly and wants i t to be taken s e r io u s ly . Y et h er c o n s p ir a t o r ia l tone s e t s up irony as w e ll . V ita S a c k v ille -W e st i d e n t i f i e d t h is s t r a t e g y in a l e t t e r to Woolf j i ;a fter she had read Three G u ineas: j | You are a t a n t a liz in g w r ite r because a t one moment you enchant! one w ith your lo v e ly prose and n e x t moment ex a sp era te one with; | your m isle a d in g argum ents. . . . And fa r be i t from me to ( j c r o ss swords w ith you p u b lic ly , fo r I should always lo s e on p o in ts in fe n c in g , though i f i t comes to f i s t i c u f f s I might | knock you down. So long as you p la y the gentlem an's game, I w ith the gen tlem an 's tech n iq u e, you w in . ( L e t t e r s , VI, 257, 1 em phasis added)^ T his comment i r r i t a t e d Woolf because i t im plied th a t she was d ish o n e st j Jin u sin g the "gentlem an's tech n iq u e." She w rote to S a c k v ille -W e st th at !she had n o t ex p ecte d h er to agree w ith even f i f t y per c en t o f Three I [Guineas, but she q u e stio n s what S a c k v ille -W e st means by " m isleading i [arguments." I f she means th a t Woolf has "cooked the fa c ts " in a r ^dishone s t way in o rder to produce an e f f e c t she knows to be u n tru e, they w i l l have to "have the m atter o u t." W oolf w r ite s to S a c k v ille -W e st: I t may be a s i l l y book, and I dont agree th a t i t s a w e ll - w r itte n book, but i t s c e r t a in ly an h on est book: and I took more pains to g e t up the f a c t s and s t a t e them p la in ly than I e v e r took w ith any th in g in my l i f e . However, I d aresay I'm read ing more in to 'm isle a d in g ' th a n 's th e r e . But oh Lord, how s ic k I g e t o f a l l the ta lk about ' l o v e ly p ro se' and charm , when a l l I wanted was to s t a t e a very i n t r i c a t e c a se as p l a i n l y and as read ab le as I c o u ld . ( L e t t e r s , VI, 243, emphasis added; usage and p u n ctuation as p rin ted in o r ig in a l) jWoolf i s d e fe n s iv e and t e n t a t iv e ("may be a s i l l y book," perhaps not i i :"well w r itte n " ), but she i s su re th a t her book i s h o n e st, s t a t i n g h er I 'case as p la in ly as she co u ld . Yet i t i s c le a r from the mixed c r i t i c a l ! resp o n se s review ed in Chapter One and from her own fr ie n d , who might .have been exp ected to understand W oolf's o b j e c t iv e b e t t e r than m ost, th a t W o o lf's "m isleading" s tr a te g y was m oted by o th e r s . As e a r ly as ) 1934, Ruth Gruber d escrib ed Orlando as e x p r e ss in g the s tr u g g le o f the p o e t ic a l versu s the c r i t i c a l , "under cover o f mock b i o g r a p h y . J a n e Marcus has r e c e n tly argued th a t Woolf was a "sniper" in the ranks o f women w r ite r s.® I th in k th a t V ir g in ia Woolf was always w r itin g under ! ( icover, always s n ip in g a t the i n s t i t u t i o n a l - s o c i e t a l v io le n c e which she ' 1 I observed around h er. Jane Marcus' g lo s s on W oolf's P a r g ite r fa m ily in ! I The Years i l l u s t r a t e s one o f W o o lf's " co v ers." "Parget" can mean j ' * • I (" p la ste rin g " and "patching up"— the p rovin ce o f the women in the n o v e l--j I I o r i t can mean co v erin g the tru th and " w hitew ash in g" --th e p ro v in ce of ( i |th e men in the n o v e l. In Three G uineas, Woolf c r e a te s the persona o f the o u t s id e r , the iwoman to whom a male law yer has w r itte n to ask her a d v ice on how to I iprevent war. This o u ts id e r persona does n o t, a t f i r s t , seem to be a "cover" a t a l l . Woolf i d e n t i f i e s c l o s e l y w ith the "we" o f the l e t t e r , t sp eak in g str a ig h tfo r w a r d ly fo r the "daughters o f educated men," w ith no I jpower, no money, and th e r e fo r e , l i t t l e in flu e n c e . T heir " b ir d 's -e y e I .view o f the o u ts id e o f th in g s" (TG, 22) i s d isco u ra g in g because i t t e l l s | ! them t h e ir in flu e n c e as " o u ts id e r s" can o n ly be o f the most in d ir e c t j ! I 'so r t (TG, 3 6 ). Woolf w r it e s in h er d ia ry : "I'm fundam en tally, I th in k , 1 i t fan o u ts id e r . I do my b e s t work and f e e l most braced w ith my back ; ! | jagain st the w a ll. I t ' s an odd f e e l in g though, w r itin g a g a in s t the 1 ! ! Icurrent: d i f f i c u l t to d isreg a rd the current" (WD, 2 9 7 ). W oolf's ! t ! problem i s e th o s . She r e a l iz e s th a t her fo r t h r ig h t o u t s id e r , c r i t i c a l j ,of men fo r t h e ir p u g n a city , greed and dom ination, w i l l n ot be w e ll i ' I R ec e iv e d by at l e a s t h a l f o f s o c ie t y ; she i s n ot even to o c e r ta in about I \ th e o th er h a lf . I f she w ish es to reach s o c i e t y and change i t s i a t t i t u d e s , eth o s becomes a c e n tr a l i s s u e - - a c e n t r a l i t y ex p ressed by A r i s t o t l e : ! , 1 But s in c e the o b je c t o f R hetoric i s ju d g m en t--fo r judgments are pronounced in d e lib e r a t iv e r h e to r ic and j u d i c i a l ! i p roceedin gs are a ju d g m e n t--it i s n ot o n ly n e c e ssa r y to | ! c o n sid e r how to make^the speech i t s e l f d em on strative and j I c o n v in c in g , but a ls o th a t the speaker should show h im s e lf to ' I be o f a c e r ta in c h a ra cte r and should know how to put the judge! I in to a c e r ta in frame o f mind.-^ -Q (em phasis added) j I j F o r A r i s t o t l e , e th o s , th e way speakers c o n str u c t t h e ir own c h a r a c te r s , j < < ; i ,e s p e c ia ll y at the b egin n in g o f t h e ir sp eech , i s a form al d o c tr in e based i I , Ion the p s y c h o lo g ic a l in t e r a c t io n between speaker and a u d ien ce. The ,speaker must p o s se ss good s e n se , v ir t u e , and good w i l l , and th ese J q u a l i t i e s o f eth o s w i l l be r e f l e c t e d by the s e l e c t i o n o f arguments p resen ted in the sp eech . | The ta sk and c h a lle n g e o f W oolf, then, i s to c o n str u c t a b e lie v a b le person a. Part o f her s t r a t e g y i s to in v en t the to u g h est kind o f audience to c o n v in c e --a male law yer, presumably th e l a s t person who m ight agree w ith her about the e v i l s o f a p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y . She w r it e s in h er d ia ry : ! I had an id ea . . . how to make my war book [Three Guineas ' to pretend i t ' s a l l th e a r t i c l e s e d it o r s have asked me to j w r it e during the p a st few y e a r s --o n a l l s o r t s o f s u b j e c t s - - Should women smoke: Short s k i r t s : War, e t c . This would g iv e me the r ig h t to wander; a ls o put me in the p o s it io n o f th e o n e j i a sk ed . And excuse the method: w h ile g iv in g c o n t in u it y . And ! i th ere might be a p re fa c e sa y in g t h i s , to g iv e the r ig h t t o n e , j : (WD. 253, emphasis added) j I T his e n tr y , made e a r ly in the co n cep tio n o f Three Guineas (Dec. 30, | ! 1935; Three Guineas came out in sp r in g , 1 938), r e v e a ls W o o lf's concern ; fo r ''being in the p o s it io n o f the one asked" and the " rig h t to n e," both ; o f which e s t a b lis h iro n y . L a te r , she dropped the n o tio n o f a p re fa c e ! ' i and a r t i c l e s fo r many e d it o r s about d i f f e r e n t t o p ic s . I n s te a d , she ; i ad d resses one male law yer who has su pp osed ly asked h er h e lp on how to p reven t war. In v en tin g fo r h er audience the very r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e ; i c l a s s she wants to c r i t i c i z e most i s a m aster s tr o k e . I f she can ; I convin ce him, then she can con vin ce o th e r s . The whole o f Three Guineas | t i s an answer to t h is male law yer (whose l e t t e r i s n ever seen ) and in i t , i i are o th e r imagined l e t t e r s from and to fem ale tr e a s u r e r s o f a woman's [ : i c o l le g e and a woman's p r o f e s s io n a l s o c i e t y . These imagined l e t t e r s - ! j J w it h in - t h e - m a j o r - le t t e r allo w th e o u ts id e r to s l i p in and out o f s e v e r a l j v ie w p o in ts , a c h ie v in g iron y o f manner in the d i a l e c t i c a l method o f S o c r a te s . ^ I W o o lf's r h e to r ic e s t a b lis h e s the e t h i c a l appeal o f the o u ts id e r . The d e t a i l s by which Woolf b u ild s the e t h i c a l proof f a l l in to four j c a t e g o r ie s : the o u t s i d e r 's e a r n e s t s i n c e r i t y , h er hum anity, h er 1 o b j e c t i v i t y , and her competence in m eeting the mind o f h er f i c t i o n a l male correspondent. i The o u t s id e r 's s i n c e r i t y and w illin g n e s s to h e lp are im m ediately em phasized. She admits th a t to answer h is req u est i s d i f f i c u l t , but jconcedes, " le t us make the attem pt" (TG, 3 ) . She q u e stio n s him: "How i • jthen are we to understand your problem and i f we can n ot, how can we lanswer your q u e s tio n , how to prevent war?" (TG, 6) She r e c o g n izes th at I he i s a busy person and perhaps cannot co n sid e r e d u c a tio n a l problem s, j i . i !"But we have sworn th a t we w i l l do a l l we can to h e lp you to p reven t war 'by u sin g pur in flu e n c e --o u r earned money in flu e n c e . And ed u ca tio n i s ! 'the obvious way" (TG, 31) . ! j i Her humanity is dem onstrated by her b e l i e f in the independence o f Imen and women: ". . . men and women, h ere and now, are ab le to e x e r t i t h e ir own w i l l s ; th ey are n ot pawns and puppets dancing on a s t r in g by ! ^ in v is ib le hands. They can a c t , and th in k fo r them selves" (TG, 6 ) . She j ’ i ,is g en u in ely h o r r i f i e d at the war photographs from Spain. "You, S ir , j c a l l them 'horror and d i s g u s t . ' We a ls o c a l l them horror and d is g u s t" J , (TG, 1 1 ). She plead s fo r i n t e l l e c t u a l h o n e sty , in t e g r i t y o f the human j in d i v i d u a l , and the l i b e r a l a r t s . "The poor c o l le g e must teach o n ly the* . I i :arts th a t can be taught ch eap ly and p r a c tis e d by poor p eo p le; such as ' ^medicine, m athem atics, m usic, p a in tin g , and l i t e r a t u r e . I t sh ould teachl th e a r ts o f human in te r c o u r s e . . . . The aim . . . should be not to se g r e g a te and s p e c i a l i z e , but to combine" (TG, 3 4 ). These humane v a lu e s , which the o u ts id e r assumes th a t h er male correspondent a ls o |upholds, form th e common ground on which both can a g ree. i I To e s t a b lis h o b j e c t i v i t y fo r the o u ts id e r i s not an easy ta sk . I 'From th e b egin n in g she acknowledges the "abyss" between h e r s e l f and her male correspondent--a gulf created by Arthur's Education Fund (money to i jeducate th e young men, but not the young women), men's d e s ir e to f i g h t , I land a p a tr ia r c h a l system which p la c e s money and power in to the hands o f ! |men. The o u ts id e r c l e a r ly has "an axe to g r in d ." But Woolf su cceed s j jin e s t a b lis h in g d is ta n c e and o b j e c t i v i t y by endowing the o u ts id e r w ith |a humble d efere n c e to her male correspon d en t: "Reasons make us ; I .h e s i t a t e " (TG, 1 1 ). " It i s d i f f i c u l t to judge what we do not share" I I (TG, 6 ) . "Our a n a ly s is cannot be profound . . . s t i l l l e t us attem pt j I ;it" (TG, 1 3 ). She c o n s ta n tly c a l l s a t t e n t io n to her d is t r u s t o f h er owni » I .p e r c e p tio n s . "Let us then ask someone e l s e - - i t i s Mary K in g sle y , to ! I 1 !speak fo r us . . ." (TG, 4 ) . I f i t i s n ' t Mary K in g sley the o u ts id e r ; c a l l s upon, i t i s the Lord C hief J u s t ic e o f England, S ir E rn est W ild, j W h itak er's Almanack, new spapers, b io g r a p h ie s, and p u b lic records o f j jev er y s o r t . And th e s e p u b lic records g iv e her f a c t s : the fa c t th a t ! !A rth u r's E ducation Fund paid fo r th e e d u ca tio n o f the brothers but n ot j I th e s i s t e r s o f England; the f a c t th at women have l i t t l e in flu e n c e | * 1 ex cep t fo r the "pigmy" in d ir e c t in flu e n c e d e sc r ib e d by E rnest W ild; the j i ! ifact th a t ed u ca ted , com petent women are paid l e s s than 250 pounds a j i t y ea r. j I Through the o u t s i d e r 's s k i l l at m eeting the mind o f her male * | correspon d en t and a n t ic ip a t in g h is argum ents, she c r e a te s him in her own id e a l image. She assumes th a t he b e li e v e s in human in d iv i d u a l it y and freedom. "Had you not b e lie v e d th a t human n a tu r e , the re a so n s, the em otions o f the ordin ary man and woman, lead to war, you would not have w r itte n ask in g fo r our h e lp . You must have argued, men and women, h ere and now, are a b le to e x e r t t h e ir w ill s " (TG, 6 ) . She assumes th a t he - - . . . - _ . 3 - g jis as shocked by the war photographs as sh e i s . When she p o in ts to f a c t s which keep women out o f p o l i t i c s , r e l i g i o n , and law , she a n t ic ip a t e s h is argument th a t women's in flu e n c e i s " in d ir e c t ." She ip e r s is t e n t ly c h a lle n g e s him to im agine, from a woman's p o in t o f view , | •how i t must have f e l t when women earned t h e ir f i r s t "sacred s ix p e n c e ." i i !"Recall the jo y w ith which you rec e iv e d your f i r s t gu in ea fo r your f i r s t i i Ib rief, and the deep breath o f freedom th a t you drew when you r e a liz e d ithat your days o f dependence on A rth ur's E ducation Fund were over" J j I ‘ i(TG, 1 6 ). She a ls o shows concern fo r h is o b j e c t i v i t y : j \ j B ut, you w i l l in t e r p o s e , what are th ese f a c t s ? th ese j h i s t o r i c a l but d ep lo r a b le f a c t s ? T herefore l e t us p la c e them j ; b efo re you, warning you th at they are taken o n ly from such i J record s as are a v a ila b le to an o u ts id e r and from th e annals ' ■ o f the u n iv e r s it y which is not your own--Cambridge. Your ; judgment, th e r e fo r e , w i l l be u n d isto r te d by l o y a l t y to o ld ! J t i e s , or g r a titu d e fo r b e n e f it s r e c e iv e d , but i t w i l l be j im p a r tia l and d i s in t e r e s t e d . (TG, 27) i , i And when she c i t e s Cambridge's r e fu s a l to grant women a B.A. a f t e r th eirj , I name, she e x c la im s, "And in h ea v en 's name we may both ask . . . why j , ♦ not?" (TG. 29, emphasis added). I t i s c le a r from th e s e examples th a t j I as she b u ild s her c a s e , the o u ts id e r takes the male correspon dent w ith j ! ! h e r , ste p by s te p . j In a d d itio n to a l l th e se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the o u ts id e r i s { i n t e l l i g e n t , s e lf - e d u c a t e d , in d ep en d en tly w ea lth y , and b elon gs to the I same c la s s as h er male correspon d en t. In o th e r words, she can t a lk h is i lan gu age and has enough independence to t a lk back, and she d o es. This I -is , perhaps, what V ita S a c k v ille -W e st meant when she r e fe r r e d to W oolf's i fplaying "the gen tlem an 's game." i j Woolf i s sep a ra ted from t h is persona on ly through the f i c t i o n o f i l e t t e r w r itin g ; y e t t h is o u t s id e r has rev ea led more complex and i ' " " ~~ 39 m isle a d in g a t t it u d e s than are e v id e n t in a cu rsory rea d in g . She i s d e fe r e n tia l--" w e must attem pt to d ea l w ith the q u e s tio n o f ed u ca tio n , low ever im p e r fe c tly " (TG, 2 4 ) - - y e t im pertinent--"W hat then, we must ask n e x t , i s t h is 'p a t r io t is m 1 which le a d s you to go to war?" (TG, 6 ) . She i > la c k s c o n f id e n c e - - " le t us make the attem pt; even i f i t i s doomed to I f a i l u r e ," (TG, 3 ) - - b u t she argues com p eten tly: " S ca rcely a human being in the course o f h is t o r y has f a l l e n to a woman's r i f l e ; th e v a st ; ‘ ! m a jo rity o f b ird s and b e a s ts have been k i l l e d by you, not by us" i : I i(TG, 6 ) . She i s above board: "And the r e s u lt i s th at though we look at! f j i the same th in g s , we se e them d if f e r e n t l y " (TG, 5 ). At the same tim e, j f she i s under cover. In h er e a r n e s t attem pt to understand men's d e s ir e to go to war, she q u otes from a s o l d i e r ' s biography: "I have had the ' i t i h a p p ie st p o s s ib le l i f e and have always been working fo r war, and have I ; ■ I now got in to the b ig g e s t in the prime o f l i f e fo r a s o ld ie r " (TG, 7 ) . j Y et those w ords, quoted by the o u t s id e r , e x p la in l i t t l e about the d esire! I |to go to war; th ey do much to i l l u s t r a t e h er f i r s t p o in t: men's lo v e ofj f ig h t in g . So, w h ile th e educated man's daughter seems to be e a r n e s t ly j I I •attem pting to understand her male corresp on d en t, she i s u n d ercu ttin g himj I ! as w e ll . ! I ! ; How does Woolf m aintain the o u t s i d e r 's c r e d i b i l i t y in the fa c e o f |th ese c o n tr a d ic tio n s? And how does she e s t a b l i s h ir o n ic d is ta n c e when she h e r s e lf i s so c l o s e l y a l l i e d w ith the o u t s i d e r 's views? Both I f C r e d ib il it y and ir o n ic d is ta n c e are e s t a b lis h e d through what I c a l l the chameleon "we." J u s t as a chameleon changes c o lo r s to p r o te c t i t s e l f jfrom i t s en em ies, so a ls o the o u ts id e r changes h er c o lo r s to d is g u is e h e r s e l f from her enem ies. She c r e a te s d i f f e r e n t f i c t i o n a l s it u a t io n s and au d ien ces t h a t , in tu rn , c r e a te d i f f e r e n t kinds o f communities o f b e li e v e r s . The f i r s t community o f "we" i s e s t a b lis h e d w ith her opening w ords: I Three y ea rs i s a lon g time to le a v e a l e t t e r unanswered, and t your l e t t e r has been ly in g w ith o u t an answer even lo n g er than i t h a t . I had hoped th a t i t would answer i t s e l f , or th a t o th er i p eop le would answer i t fo r me. But th ere i t i s w ith i t s j | q u e s tio n —How in your o p in io n are we to prevent w a r ? - - s t i l l j [ unanswered. (TG, 3, em phasis added) ' i The statem en t appears to be h o n est and s tr a ig h tfo r w a r d , e x p r e s sin g ! I I f lextreme r e lu c ta n c e to answer a d i f f i c u l t r eq u est: how are "we" to | iprevent war? "We" r e f e r s , s p e c i f i c a l l y , to the o u ts id e r and h er male j ! ! 'correspondent o r , g e n e r a lly , to men and women o f England. She continues: ; I l | I t i s tru e th a t many answers have su g g ested th e m se lv e s, but ! none th at would not need e x p la n a tio n , and e x p la n a tio n s take ; ; tim e. In t h is c a s e , to o , th e r e are reasons why i t i s ; p a r t ic u l a r ly d i f f i c u l t to avoid m isu n derstanding. A whole ! page could be f i l l e d w ith ex cu ses and a p o lo g ie s ; d e c la r a tio n s ! o f u n f it n e s s , incom petence, la c k o f knowledge, and ex p erien ce:; 1 and th ey would be tr u e . But even when they were sa id th ere j would s t i l l remain some d i f f i c u l t i e s so fundamental th a t i t , may w e ll prove im p o ssib le f o r you to understand or fo r jas to e x p la in . But one does not l i k e to le a v e so remarkable a ' l e t t e r as y o u r s --a l e t t e r perhaps unique in the h is t o r y o f • ! human correspon d en ce, s in c e when b efo re has an educated man ' , asked a woman how in her o p in io n war can be p r e v e n te d ? -- I . unanswered. T herefore l e t _us make the attem pt; even i f i t i s | i doomed to f a i l u r e . (TG, 3, emphasis added) ^The o u ts id e r e s t a b l i s h e s c r e d i b i l i t y ("many answers have su g g ested , i ^ them selves" ), s p e c ia l d i f f i c u l t i e s (" to a void m isunderstanding") and h er i |own ex cu ses (" u n f it n e s s , incom petence, la ck o f knowledge") sim p ly by I j s ta tin g th a t she does not want to t a lk about them. She i s r e lu c ta n t Ibecause even i f th e se th in g s were s a id , th e r e would s t i l l be I i insurm ountable d i f f i c u l t i e s . These d i f f i c u l t i e s d iv id e the male correspondent and the o u ts id e r in to two camps: "you" and " us." 1 Then, su d d en ly, th e s e p erso n a l pronouns s h i f t in to an o b j e c t iv e , 41 im personal "one” to s t a t e why the o u ts id e r w i l l attem pt to answer | ! d e s p it e the d i f f i c u l t i e s . A fte r a ll , t h is man's req u est i s unique in the " h isto r y o f human correspondence, s in c e when b efo re has an educated ,man asked a woman how in her op in io n war can be prevented?" These wordsi i : jset up an ir o n ic to n e. Woolf has l i f t e d the im portance o f the l e t t e r tol a u n iv e r s a l l e v e l , and the correspon den t has become "everyman." The J i lo u tsid e r has lo c a te d the l i n e o f b a t t le between men and women; y e t she j J I ;has a ls o e s t a b lis h e d an e a r n e st d e s ir e to h e lp t h i s man who has asked { i i i iher fo r h e lp , so she c l o s e s w ith " le t _us make the attem p t; even i f i t is' i doomed to f a ilu r e " (em phasis added). The "us" can r e f e r to h e r s e l f and ! I ;her male correspond en t as they ponder the q u e stio n to g e th e r --a n d the J ^outsider c l e a r l y wants to keep him w ith her in h er argum ents--or i t can r e f e r to h e r s e l f sp eak in g fo r a l l daughters o f educated men. What has happened in two paragraphs i s th a t the "we" s h i f t s to s i g n i f y two ' I ; d if f e r e n t r e a l i t i e s : 1) the o u ts id e r and h er male correspondent--"W e" ] i ; j men and women--and 2) the o u ts id e r and o th er daughters o f educated ; , I men--"We" w om en.^ [ : t ' A th ir d "we" occu rs when the o u ts id e r answers the fem ale ! I ' I ' [ tr e a s u r e r s , u sin g male arguments a g a in s t them. For exam ple, she ! I i 'wonders why women need money fo r t h e ir c o l le g e s and then pronounces: i j"Let us then inform you: we are spending th ree hundred m illio n f |a n n u a lly upon the army and th e navy" (TG, 32, emphasis added), im plying J ith a t she and h er male correspondent th in k the army and navy more I 'im portant than ed u ca tio n o f women. I c a l l t h i s the mock man v o ic e 'because the o u ts id e r u ses the male argument as i f she were s e r io u s , but jin f a c t , she i s mocking p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y ' s sta n d a rd s. The chameleon "we" a llo w s the o u ts id e r to move w ith lig h t n in g s k i l l from u n a n im ity -- j'we" who a g r e e - -t o open attack --" w e" who d i f f e r from y o u --to c o v e r t a ttack --" w e" who appear to agree w ith male arguments o n ly to d is c o v e r S -I o j th o se arguments do not h old up under s c r u tin y . ° With the chameleon i i I i "we," the o u ts id e r p o la r i z e s , s a t i r i z e s , and u n i f i e s v a rio u s p a rts o f I h er audience at v a rio u s tim es. When she p o la r iz e s and s a t i r i z e s , she I su b v e rts the p a tr ia r c h a l system ; when she u n i f i e s , she r e a ffir m s humane ; jvalues alrea d y h eld by her a u d ien ce. ! I I : The fo llo w in g ch art summarizes the r e la t io n s h ip s I have j u s t j d is c u s s e d : i i CHAM ELEON "WE" EXAMPLE EFFECT 0 u T O u tsid er = o u ts id e r + "daughters o f educated men" "We" women " 'w e1--m eaning by 'we' a whole made up o f body, brain and s p i r i t , in flu e n c e d by memory and tr a d itio n --m u s t s t i l l d i f f e r in some e s s e n t i a l r e s p e c ts from 'y o u '." (TG. 18) P o la r iz e s (S u b verts) 5 D r— Mock Man* = o u ts id e r + male correspondent "We" men (in undercover v o ic e ) "Let _us then inform you: we are spending th ree hundred m il lio n s an n u ally upon the army and navy . . . " (TG, 32) S a t ir i z e s (S u b verts) E R Humane = o u ts id e r + male correspon dent "We" men and women "When we look a t th o se photo graphs some fu sio n takes p la c e w ith in u s." (TG, 11) U n ifie s (R eaffirm s) * T h ir ty -th r e e pages o f mock man v o ic e (TG, 3 1 -3 5 , 4 1 -4 4 , 59-83) are addressed to the fem ale correspon d en ts in th e p resen ce o f the male correspon d en t. The o th e r 111 pages are addressed to the male correspon d en t. The O u tsid e r 's V oices The ch art i s m isle a d in g because i t looks as i f th ere are th ree d i s t i n c t l y sep a ra te v o ic e s . There i s on ly one v o ic e , th a t o f the o u t s id e r , speaking fo r a l l o u t s id e r s . Yet the r h e t o r ic a l s i t u a t i o n s , shared v a lu e s , or a u d ien ces change, so th a t "we" takes on d if f e r e n t j ! m eanings. J u st when the o u ts id e r r is k s lo s in g the sympathy o f her male lawyer^ot; fo r th a t matter, the daughters o f educated men, she c a l l s them ! j back by r e fe r r in g to humane v a lu es or p r e se n tin g more ir r e f u t a b le facts.; j | J W o o lf's c o n s tr u c tio n o f the o u tsid e r i s c l o s e l y lin k ed to h er | ' I I 'con stru ction o f h er a u d ien ce. And h ere we must d is t in g u is h between her j I f i c t i o n a l a u d ie n c e --th e male correspondent and two fem ale tr e a s u r e r s -- I and her a c tu a l read ing audience--m en and women o f Great B r ita in in ' 1938.14 in the case o f the male correspon d en t, the o u ts id e r draws "what i a l l l e t t e r w r ite r s i n s t i n c t i v e l y draw," a sk etch o f the "you" to whom ' , i th e l e t t e r i s ad dressed: j j I You, th en , who ask th e q u e s tio n , are a l i t t l e grey on the I tem p les; the h a ir i s no lo n g er th ic k on th e top o f your head, j You have reached the m iddle years o f l i f e not w ith ou t e f f o r t , | a t the Bar; but on the whole your journey has been prosperous.j ; There i s n o th in g parched, mean or d i s s a t i s f i e d in your j I e x p r e s s io n . And w ith o u t w ish in g to f l a t t e r you, your j ; p r o s p e r it y - - w if e , c h ild r e n , h o u se --h a s been d eserv ed . You : have never sunk in to th e con ten ted apathy o f m iddle l i f e , fo r , I as your l e t t e r from an o f f i c e in the h e a r t o f London shows, ! in s te a d o f tu rn in g on your p illo w and prodding your p ig s , pruning your pear tr e e s - - y o u have a few acres in N o rfo lk --y o u i are w r itin g l e t t e r s , a tte n d in g m eetin g s, p r e s id in g over t h is ) and th a t, a sk in g q u e s tio n s , w ith the sound o f guns in your ! e a r s . For the r e s t , you began your ed u ca tio n a t th e g rea t j p u b lic s c h o o ls and f in is h e d i t at the u n iv e r s it y . (TG, 3 -4 ) The o u t s id e r 's v o ic e i s com plim entary--"not w ith ou t e f f o r t , " " prosperous," "nothing parched, mean or d i s s a t i s f i e d , " " p r o sp e r ity . . . d eserved" --and o b je c tiv e --" w ith o u t w ish in g to f l a t t e r you." Her rea so n a b le tone approves t h is l i b e r a l lawyer who i s not a p a th e tic , but a c t i v e l y in v o lv ed in " w ritin g l e t t e r s , a tte n d in g m eetings . . . w ith the1 sound o f guns" in h i s e a r s , t h is man e n lig h te n e d enough to ask a woman fo r h e lp . W oolf, the au th or, needs t h is one l i b e r a l male as audience so th a t the o u ts id e r can s e t up ir o n ic s i t u a t i o n s . She a ls o needs a law yer because the o u ts id e r w i l l u se la w y er's argum ents, o n ly to knock I ; i them down. F i n a l ly , i f the o u ts id e r can keep the male correspond en t j w ith her throughout her argum ents, she may be a b le to con vin ce o th er men' [and women o f th e worth o f her r a d ic a l s u g g e s tio n s . J , i ( Woolf a ls o needs the f i c t i o n a l fem ale tr e a s u r e r s . They a llo w the 1 ) , io u ts id e r to use h er mock man v o ic e to p la y th e "gentlem an's game." I ! [A fter the o u ts id e r has lam basted one fem ale tr e a su r e r fo r a sk in g fo r ! i ; money fo r c o l le g e when th a t c o l le g e has not done a th in g to c o n tr ib u te | i ,to war, she d is c u s s e s what kind o f id e a l ed u ca tio n would teach th e young' i :to h ate the use o f fo r c e . Her humane v o ic e d e s c r ib e s t h is id e a l school:; | | Let us then found t h is new c o l le g e ; t h is poor c o l le g e ; in 1 which le a r n in g i s sought fo r i t s e l f ; where a d v ertisem en t i s 1 a b o lis h e d ; and th ere are no d eg ree s; and le c t u r e s are n o t j g iv e n , and sermons are n ot preached, and the o ld poison ed j 1 v a n i t i e s and parades which breed co m p etitio n and I je a lo u s y . . . . (TG, 35) ! ! 1 !The l e t t e r breaks o f f th e r e , not fo r la c k o f th in g s to sa y , th e j j I io u ts id e r p r o t e s t s , but fo r th e "melancholy" fa ce o f the fem ale tr e a s u r e r which seems to sa y , "Dream your dreams, f i r e o f f your r h e t o r i c , but we have to fa c e r e a l i t i e s , " namely, th a t w ith ou t degrees a f t e r t h e ir names, stu d e n ts a t Newnham and Giirton have d i f f i c u l t i e s i I 'fin d in g jo b s . The o u ts id e r can then p o in t s c o r n f u lly a t Oxford and jcam bridge, sc h o o ls which r e fu se to gran t le t t e r e d d eg rees to women. ! The fem ale tr e a su r e r fo r the p r o fe s s io n a l s o c ie t y fo r women i s even i [more ir o n i c , s i nce she i s w i l l i n g to a ccep t anything as a c o n tr ib u tio n to her s o c ie t y : "a book, f r u i t or c a s t - o f f c lo th in g th a t can, be s o ld a t a bazaar" (TG, 4 1 ). Her r e q u e st, o f c o u r se , o f f e r s the o u ts id e r the » * jopportunity to ask why women who earn money are so poor and to ex p lo re !the i n e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e ir employment and pay. | | None o f th e se f i c t i o n a l c h a ra cte rs i s g iv e n a proper name. They ! j 'are known sim ply as the o u t s id e r , a fem ale tr e a s u r e r , o r , in th e ca se of: ! i !the male law yer, S ir . By the end o f Three Guineas they have become j everyman and everywoman o f the educated c l a s s . j ! Woolf c r e a te s th e se f i c t i o n a l c h a ra cte rs f o r her readers to w itness; (th e d ia lo g u e s between the o u ts id e r and h er male and fem ale i i co rr esp o n d en ts. W o o lf's r e a d e r s, men and women, are re a d in g ^ th is le tt e r j over W o o lf's sh o u ld e r , c a tc h in g the o u t s i d e r 's im p lic a tio n s and | i ; I 1 assu m p tion s. Some women i d e n t i f y w ith the o u t s i d e r 's e x p e r ie n c e s; i _ j o th e r s deny them. Some men f lin c h a t the hard r e a l i t i e s ; o th ers scoff, j d is m is s in g the l i n k between p a tr ia r c h y and fa sc is m as s i l l y . When the j i ■ I I [o u tsid er s a y s , "As a woman I have no co u n try ," she lo s e s the p a t r i o t s . \ I j When she ad vocates n o n -co o p era tio n , she l o s e s th e f e m i n i s t - a c t i v i s t s . . I When she argues a g a in s t greed and c o m p e titio n , she lo s e s the ; I J \ c a p i t a l i s t s . She w r ite s a n e c e s s a r il y com plex, r a d ic a l v is io n o f 1 \ I f e m i n i s t - s o c i a l i s t - p a c i f i s t id ea s which req u ir e a n e c e s s a r il y com plex, j ,'tr ip le -p ly v o ic e to keep her audience w ith h e r. - 3 I j One might w e ll ask , as numerous c r i t i c s have asked, why, i f Woolf Iwants to keep h er audience w ith h e r , does she speak as an o u ts id e r on ly i jfor the daughters o f educated men? Why, fo r exam ple, exclu d e working women? A s t r a ig h t answer to t h is l i e s in W o o lf's own d iscom fort in jspeaking fo r any c l a s s o th e r than h er own. The o u t s id e r 's n ote exp lains! 46 fu r th e r : In the n in e te e n th ceh tu ry much v a lu a b le work was done fo r the working c la s s by educated men's daughters in the o n ly way th a t was then open to them. But now th a t some o f them a t l e a s t 1 have r e c e iv e d an ex p e n siv e e d u c a tio n , i t i s argu ab le th a t they | can work much more e f f e c t i v e l y by rem aining in t h e ir own c la s s and u sin g the methods o f that c la s s to improve a c l a s s which sta n d s much in need o f improvement. (TG, 177) I Other c r i t i c s have c it e d W o o lf's r e lu c ta n c e to speak fo r anyone e l s e ! i i i i {other than h er own c l a s s as an example o f h er h o n e s ty. ^ | However, a second reason fo r r e fe r r in g o n ly to d aughters o f I i ^educated men i s developed in another o f th e o u t s i d e r 's n o te s : ; Our id e o lo g y i s s t i l l so in v e t e r a t e ly a n th r o p o c e n tr ic th a t i t j has been n e c e ssa r y to co in t h is clumsy term --ed u cated man's j ; d a u g h te r --to d e s c r ib e th e c la s s whose fa th e r s have been i educated a t p u b lic sc h o o ls and u n i v e r s i t i e s . O b v io u sly , i f j th e term 'b o u r g e o is' f i t s h er b ro th er, i t i s g r o s s ly in c o r r e c t ' to use i t o f one who d i f f e r s so profoundly in th e two prime j c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e b o u r g e o is ie - - c a p it a l and environm ent. < (TG, 146) j i f t ,The very term --"educated man's d a u g h te r " --is u n f la t t e r in g and i i p a t e r n a l i s t i c , im plying th a t th e se women have no o th e r i d e n t i t y ex ce p t j j j ithat o f b ein g r e la te d to a man. Then, to o , th e statem en t c l e a r l y s e t s | i ; up the two major d if f e r e n c e s between men and women o f the educated j I i J [c la s s : c a p it a l and environm ent. W oolf wants to r e in fo r c e the r e a l i t y i jth a t, in a p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y , women have n e ith e r power nor s t a t u s . t •Therefore, she tak es what one would th in k to be the most pow erful group ! i jof wom en--daughters o f educated men--and dem onstrates how p ow erless they Jreally a re. C o n scio u sly or u n c o n sc io u sly , Woolf a c h ie v e s irony when the I jou tsid er narrows down the number o f women fo r whom she sp e a k s. ^ Rather jthan weakening h er argument, as Harder s u g g e s ts , th e o u ts id e r strengthens h er ca se by narrowing down the educated women even fu r th e r to th o se who jare in d ep en d en tly w ea lth y (HM, 157). She even p o in ts to working women 47 ’ as h aving more in flu e n c e because a t l e a s t th ey can sto p working in the f a c t o r i e s to p r o t e s t the war. The o u ts id e r appeals to a l l women and men i t o change a s o c ie t y which renders i n e f f e c t i v e even the educated women I jwho earn money, th ose whom one would th in k to be the most p ow erful. ! The th ir d and most im portant reason fo r c h a r a c te r iz in g j u s t the j daughters o f educated men as o u ts id e r s i s th a t the o n e -sid e d n e ss o f th a t * view d e li b e r a t e ly i r r i t a t e s and j o l t s the educated male audience in to ■experiencing how i t f e e l s to be exclu d ed . Marcus says th a t Woolf speaks e s s e n t i a l l y to women, "a tech n iq u e th a t has in f u r ia t e d male readers and : I ' 1 has reminded women o f the p sy ch ic d isp la cem en t n e c e ssa r y fo r them to j read most o f l i t e r a t u r e ."1® Yet the o u t s i d e r 's f i c t i o n a l au d ien ce, a | i ! male co rresp o n d en t, r e p r e se n ts everyman. T h erefo r e, h er audience i s notj e x c l u s i v e ly male or fem ale; i t i s both. I would say th a t Woolf does not i speak e s s e n t i a l l y jto women, but fo r them as the daughter o f an educated j i man. E s s e n t i a l l y and i r o n i c a l l y , t h is daughter i s an o u ts id e r . When I t h is o u ts id e r c o n tr a s ts men's "paid for" ed u c a tio n w ith Mary K in g s le y 's meager German le s s o n s , a g u lf se p a r a te s her from h er male correspon d en t. ! [She comments: "And the r e s u lt i s th a t though we lo o k a t th e same ^things, we see them d if f e r e n t l y " (TG, 5 ). I To "see" d i f f e r e n t l y i s im portant fo r th e o u t s id e r , because she i s i |bent on r e c r e a tin g a new way o f lo o k in g at the world fo r her male i [corresp on d en t, and by e x te n s io n , fo r h er r e a d e r s . 19 a p a tr ia r c h a l world I ;im poses a male view o f r e a l i t y on s o c i e t y , one w hich c o n s ta n tly says to l [women, "You s h a l l n o t, s h a l l n o t, s h a l l not . . ." (TG, 1 2 9 ). The J i [chameleon "we" dram atizes the d iv is i o n between the p r iv a te home, where I Ibrothers and s i s t e r s tr e a t each o th e r w ith mutual r e s p e c t , and p u b lic . . . . ' 48 jlife, where the same b ro th ers deny e d u c a tio n a l, econom ic, and p r o f e s s io n a l o p p o r tu n itie s to t h e ir s i s t e r s . Through su b v ersio n and r e a ffir m a tio n , the o u ts id e r a ffir m s a new image o f the s is te r h o o d o f I jwomen and the p o s s i b i l i t y o f f r e e in g in d iv id u a ls , men and women, from Jthe o p p ressio n o f a p a tr ia r c h a l o rd er. I j The chameleon "we" a ls o c r e a te s in tim acy between the o u t s id e r and h er male co rresp o n d en t, and by e x te n s io n , W oolf's r e a d e r s. Male readers may i d e n t i f y w ith many o f the male co rr esp o n d en t's q u a lit ie s - - p r o s p e r it y ; ; I I .r e s p e c t, s u c c e s s , and enough openmindedness to ask a woman fo r h e lp . ' ;Female read ers may i d e n t i f y w ith the e d u c a tio n a l, p r o f e s s io n a l, and ! * i Economic i n j u s t i c e s which the o u ts id e r d e s c r ib e s . On the o th e r hand, | i i |ju s t as many men w i l l o b je c t to the o u t s i d e r 's b ia s in blam ing war | : I : i w h o lly on men and an equal number o f women w i l l p r o te s t th a t th e | 1 » i i o u t s i d e r 's d e s c r ip t io n o f t h e ir own p lig h t i s ex a g g er a ted . How does ; 1 i W oolf brin g th e se readers to g e th e r , e s p e c i a l l y when th e o u t s id e r I i ! o u t lin e s t h e ir d if f e r e n c e s ? W oolf does i t d i a l e c t i c a l l y , by moving [ f * i ! 'the o u ts id e r forward and back. At one moment the o u ts id e r enum erates i ' s i m i l a r i t i e s between h er male correspondent and h e r s e l f ; in th e n e x t, j ! ' I jshe s e e s another d if f e r e n c e . She c o n s c io u s ly p ic tu r e s h e r s e l f and the 1 I imale correspondent as s e e in g "eye to eye"; th en , she d e li b e r a t e ly j ! I (d e liv e r s a r a p ie r th r u st which d iv id e s them. 1 C onsider the o u t s i d e r 's d is c u s s io n o f the cau ses fo r war. She i says th a t the male correspon d en t must have b e lie v e d th a t human I [in d iv id u a ls can e x e r t t h e ir own w i l l s "to th in k and a c t fo r th em selv es." I Jsome such rea so n in g must have le d him to ask women fo r h e lp in I [p reven tin g war, and r i g h t l y s o , because th ere i s one branch o f "unpaid 491 for" ed u ca tio n a t which women are s k i l l e d , the p sych ology they le a r n in i the on ly p r o fe s s io n open to them: m arriage. T h erefo r e, men and women to g e th e r can tap t h e ir knowledge o f human n atu re to prevent war. The r a p ie r th r u st comes in her p e r c e p tio n o f the d if f e r e n c e s in | a t t it u d e s o f men and women toward f ig h t in g . i | For though many i n s t i n c t s are h e ld more o r l e s s in common by ! both s e x e s , to f ig h t has always been the man's h a b it , not the I | woman's. Law and p r a c tic e have developed th a t d i f f e r e n c e , ' | w hether in n a te or a c c id e n ta l. S c a r c e ly a human being in the I | co u rse o f h is t o r y has f a ll e n to a woman's r i f l e ; the v a s t I m a jo r ity o f b ird s and b e a sts have been k i l l e d by you, not by | u s; i t i s d i f f i c u l t to judge what we do n o t sh a re. (TG, 6) ! The o u ts id e r "we" p o la r iz e s men and women in to th o se who f i g h t and those! i ■ ! who do n o t. "Indeed, i t i s d i f f i c u l t to judge what we do not sh a r e ," i i sa y s the o u ts id e r . On one l e v e l the o u ts id e r means t h is l i t e r a l l y and ! ! ■ straigh tforw ard ly. On another l e v e l i t i s ir o n i c . W oolf, th e p a c ifis t-^ i I ( t [o u tsid e r , fin d s i t q u ite ea sy to judge war-making, w hether she sh ares i t or n o t. ! i i I One o f the most s t r ik in g ways in which the o u t s i d e r 's humane v o ic e j t v j lu n ites men and women i s her use o f the Spanish war photographs. These • r (photographs, she s a y s , are not "arguments addressed to the reason" but j j"simply sta tem en ts o f f a c t addressed to th e e y e ." i I i They are n o t p le a s a n t photographs to look upon. They are j photographs o f dead b od ies fo r the most p a r t. This m orning's i ! c o l l e c t i o n c o n ta in s the photograph o f what might be a man's i j body, or a woman's; i t i s so m u tila te d th a t i t m ight, on the I o th e r hand, be the body o f a p ig . But th o se c e r t a in ly are dead c h ild r e n , and th a t undoubtedly i s the s e c t io n o f a h ou se. A bomb has torn open the s id e ; th ere i s s t i l l a b ird -ca g e I hanging in what was presumably the s ittin g -r o o m , but the r e s t j o f the house look s l i k e n oth in g so much as a bunch o f | s p i l i k i n s suspended in m id -a ir . (TG, 10-11) jLike Mark Antony who aroused the sympathy o f the crowd by p o in tin g to |the bloody h o le s in J u liu s C a esa r's c lo a k , th e o u ts id e r arouses h orror 50 and d is g u s t at w ar's dehum anization. Human bodies are so m u tila te d th a t th ey cannot be r e c o g n iz e d , and dead c h ild r e n sprawl b e sid e bombed jh ou ses. | A r i s t o t l e d e s c r ib e s pathos as engaging the em otions o f an a u d ien ce. '"The em otions are a l l th o se a f f e c t i o n s which cause men to change t h e ir ! I i i o p in io n in regard to t h e ir judgm ents, and are accompanied by p le a su r e | and p ain ; such are anger, p i t y , f e a r , and a l l s im ila r em otions and th eir, • - i I | ^ c o n t r a r i e s . The o u t s i d e r 's grap h ic d e s c r ip t io n o f the Spanish war j I I i I ^photographs e s t a b lis h e s u n ity w ith her male correspond en t by engaging j 1 h i s em otion s: i When we lo o k a t th o se photographs some fu sio n tak es p la c e i w ith in u s; however d i f f e r e n t the e d u c a tio n , th e t r a d it io n s ■ behind u s , our s e n s a tio n s are the same; and they are v i o l e n t , j You, S ir , c a l l them 'h orror and d i s g u s t . ' W e a ls o c a l l them ; h orror and d is g u s t . (TG, 11) j i ,Here i s som ething on which th e o u ts id e r and her male co rresp o n d en t, and ! : ' i by e x te n s io n , a l l men and women, can a g ree . The photographs d e fy l o g i c ! I t • I and a n a ly s is , a ll e g e d ly so t y p ic a l o f male rea so n in g , and "fuse" th e j • I em otions o f both men and women. The o u ts id e r c a l l s upon t h is em otion j ir e p e a te d ly to bring women and men back to a u n ifie d "we." She a ls o usesj i 1 j it as a good excu se to r e j e c t h er male co rr e sp o n d e n t's su g g e stio n s fo r j I i ia c tio n : w r it in g a l e t t e r , j o in in g a s o c i e t y , su b s c r ib in g to i t s fun ds. j j j jThese a c tio n s are too sim p le , too s u p e r f i c i a l . "That very p o s i t i v e j l * jemotion" caused by the photographs demands som ething more than a name iw r itte n on a sh e e t o f paper, an hour l i s t e n i n g to sp e e c h e s, a cheque j w r itte n f o r , sa y , one g u in ea. I r o n i c a l l y , th e s e are the very a c t i v i t i e s ! \ w hich she a t tr ib u te d to her male correspond ent a t th e b egin n in g o f h er j I l e t t e r . She has succeeded in r e j e c t in g h i s p ro p o sa ls w ith o u t r e j e c t in g 51 him. The photographs help the male correspondent "see" psychologically what he would not be a b le to see w ith l o g i c . T h e p ic tu r e s d efy l o g i c , I 'g en era lly co n sid ered a m ascu lin e t r a i t , and th ey produce a " p o s itiv e ! em otion," g e n e r a lly co n sid ered a fem in ine t r a i t . Y et c l e a r l y , i f they are to be in t e g r a t e d , human b ein g s must respond in both ways. i i j The o u ts id e r e x e r t s , th en , a kind o f e t h i c a l a p p e a l- - s in c e r e ly | humble, im p e r tin e n tly com petent, reason ab le and hum ane--so th a t h er m ale1 | co rresp o n d en t, and by e x te n s io n , h er r e a d e r s, must go alon g w ith her i f ithey a ls o want to c o n sid e r th em selves rea so n a b le and humane. When the ! I o u t s id e r says she does not want to sto p "at the su rfa ce" o f her to p ic , I h er male correspon d en t must be w i l l i n g to " p en etra te more d eeply" the j I I q u e s tio n s the o u ts id e r r a i s e s , l e s t she judge him a s u p e r f ic i a l th in k er.j When she d e s c r ib e s h i s recommendation to s ig n a p e t i t i o n , to donate i 'money, or w r ite a l e t t e r as "cheap" and "easy" ways to s a lv e o n e 's I i c o n s c ie n c e , he must agree or she w i l l th in k he i s w i l l i n g to s e t t l e fo r 1 I cheap and easy s o l u t i o n s . S in ce she se e s him as an im p a r tia l, ! I i Ireasonable man and s in c e she quotes f a c t s and argues co m p eten tly , he must agree w ith her c o n c lu s io n s . This "mirror" r e la t io n s h ip o f rea so n a b len ess and humanity between the o u ts id e r and h er male correspon d en t i s e s s e n t i a l , e s p e c i a l l y a t the b eg in n in g , in order to {engage h i s s e r io u s a t t e n t io n . ; The o u t s i d e r 's v o ic e , th en , i s immensely com plex, c r e a tin g ^ rh etorical s it u a t io n s and a llo w in g f u l l p la y o f r h e t o r ic a l d e v ic e s . ^Credible, a u t h o r it a t iv e , c o n s is t e n t in her i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , the o u ts id e r ( sneaks up on her male corresp on d en t, and by e x t e n s io n , h er re a d e r s, [ lu lls them in t o e x p e c tin g a p r a c t ic a l s o lu t io n to the war is s u e , and m ain tain s h er c o n tr a d ic to r y poses as w e ll as p o is e even w h ile sh e drops h er b o m b s h e l l s .22 Marcus says th a t W oolf won her p la ce in modern European l e t t e r s n ext to the g ia n ts o f her age through d e fia n c e , I r e b e l l i o n , and d e lib e r a t e s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s as an o u t s i d e r . ^3 The chameleon "we" o f the o u ts id e r i s d e li b e r a t e ly d esign ed to engage and ■to i r r i t a t e ; to j o l t the men and women o f England in t o awareness th a t l jth eir a ll e g e d ly s o c i a l democracy has bred a p a tr ia r c h a l world which i i im p riso n s and su p p resses o u ts id e r s as b r u t a lly as does fa sc ism . 53 N otes 1 I V ir g in ia W oolf, The L e tte r s o f V ir g in ia W oolf, VI, ed. N ig e l N ic o lso n and Jeanne Trautmann, 6 v o l s . (New York: H arcourt Brace b ovan ovich , 1 9 8 0 ), 229; h e r e a f t e r c ite d as L e tte r s w ith th e a p p ro p ria te j ‘ volume number. ' t , ! I ^ C hristop h er S t. John, E th e l Smyth (London: Longmans, Green, i 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 2 2 9 - 3 0 .\ ; ! , I ; J V ir g in ia W oolf, " P r o fe ssio n s fo r Women," in The Death o f the ] Moth and Other E ssays (New York: H arcourt, Brace and C o ., 1 9 4 2 ), p. j 237; Marcus, '" P argetin g* the P a r g it e r s ," B u ll e t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib r a r y . 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 416; Marcus, "Thinking Back Through Our j M others," pp. 1 -2 , 7 -8 , 18. : ^ W o o lf's " serp en tin e" concealm ent i s la c ed w ith charm in A Room o f One1s Own (1929; r p t. New York: H arcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1957); h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as R00. She s u g g e sts th a t h is t o r y be r e w r itte n so th a t , 'Aphra B eh n --th e f i r s t woman to earn money through h er w r i t i n g - - i s more im portant than the Crusades or the War o f R oses. W oolf p la y f u ll y s u g g e s ts th ree s tu d ie s fo r Newnham women: the e f f e c t on e d u ca tio n o f m en's em phasis on women's c h a s t i t y (R00, 6 7 ), a supplem ent to h is t o r y on E liza b eth a n women (R00, 4 7 ) , a stud y o f men's o p p o s itio n to women's j em ancipation (R00, 5 7 ). I ; I 5 V ir g in ia W oolf, Three G uineas, F i r s t H arbinger Books, ed . (1938; ' r p t . New York: H arcourt, Brace & World, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 120; h e r e a f t e r c it e d j as TG. I . i I 8 Woolf quotes S a c k v ille -W e s t' s own words in an e a r l i e r l e t t e r . ! ! 7 Ruth Gruber, V ir g in ia W oolf: A Study (L e ip z ig : V erlag von | Bernhard T a u ch n itz, 1934; r p t. New York: Johnson R eprint C orp oration , j 1 9 6 6 ), p . 20. i I i 8 Marcus, "Thinking Back Through Our M others," p. 27. j 9 Marcus, "The Years as Greek Drama," pp. 280-81, N ; j ^-0 A r i s t o t l e , R h e to r ic , I I . 1 3 7 8 a . 2. W oolf's knowledge o f c l a s s i c a l Irh etoric and h er a p p r e c ia tio n o f Greek and Roman li t e r a t u r e are1 w e ll documented in h er e s s a y s and read in g n o te s as w e ll as in h er stu d y o f [Greek w ith Jan et Case. W o o lf's e s s a y "On Not Knowing Greek" r e v e a ls h er knowledge o f Homer, S o p h o c les, P la to , S o c r a te s so th a t even i f she d id n ot a c t u a lly read A r i s t o t l e , she would have known A r i s t o t e l i a n r h e t o r ic jfrom th e speech makers in Greek and Roman l i t e r a t u r e . At any r a te I see h er in terw ea v in g e th o s , p a th o s, lo g o s in the manner d e sc r ib e d by A r i s t o t l e . H David W orcester, The Art o f S a t ir e (1940; r p t. New York: R u s s e ll & R u s s e ll, 1 9 6 0 ), p. 93. W orcester c i t e s S o c r a te s as the f i r s t m aster o f ir o n y o f manner, e l e v a t in g ir o n y in to a method o f d i a l e c t i c , jln Greek comedy th ere are the buffoon ( f o o l ) , the a la zo n (th e im poster jwho o v e r s t a t e s , s t r u t s about in f a l s e s e c u r it y , and v e n ts heavy w it and b ra g g a d o c io ), and the e ir o n (th e i r o n i c a l person , a s e lf-m o c k in g , c r a f t y ^ s p e c ia lis t in u n d ersta tem en t). W orcester does not app ly any o f t h is to W oolf; however, the o u ts id e r i s s im ila r , in some r e s p e c t s , to the e i r o n . j I I 12 Marcus, "Thinking Back Through Our M others," p. 11, says th a t j jWoolf f i r s t learn ed to say "we" as a woman. She expanded "we" in a j w orld o f women w r ite r s p a st and fu tu r e and spoke fo r a l l a lie n a t e d and o p p ressed . ! What I c a l l mock man v o ic e must have been what V ita S a c k v ill e - ■ ' W est perhaps meant by "m isleading" argum ents. , ; 14 Marder, p. 29, n o te s th a t Three Guineas was w r itte n when the j ardor o f fe m in is ts was waning and p u b lic i n t e r e s t was down. He q u otes j one o f W o o lf's f a v o r it e so u r c e s , Ray S tra ch ey , in Our Freedom and I t s i [R e s u lts : "Modern young women know am azingly l i t t l e o f what l i f e was l i k e b efo re the war, and show a str o n g h o s t i l i t y to the word 'fem inism ' I and a l l th ey im agine i t to co n n o te," sa id one fe m in is t le a d e r in 1936. ( B a tc h e lo r , p. 3 , comments on th e c o n te x t o f Three G u in eas, th a t i t I (i s n ot an outd ated echo o f th e s u ffr a g e movement o f 1918, but draws j jin stea d on a resentm ent p e c u lia r to the t h i r t i e s and i n t e n s i f i e d by the j R e p r e s s io n , fa sc ism , and the popular m isuse o f sex u a l p sy ch o lo g y . He ! !q u o tes Ruth G ruber's stu d y o f Woolf (1934) which p r a is e s Three Guineas | as a p le a fo r i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom and W in ifr id H o ltb y 's stu d y in the t |same y e a r , o f women's r ig h t to earn more than 250 pounds a y e a r , th e i ■modest sum the o u ts id e r h e r s e l f q u otes in Three G uineas. A c tu a lly , j jW oolf's resen tm ent does not have to be j u s t i f i e d ; she a c c u r a te ly j (d e sc r ib e s what many women in the 1 9 8 0 's are s t i l l e x p e r ie n c in g : i (d is c r im in a tio n . R o se n th a l, p. 229, p la c e s Three Guineas in the c o n te x t o f the jSpanish C i v il War and the darkening p ic tu r e o f H i t l e r ' s r i s e to power. He p o in ts out th a t w h ile the o s t e n s i b le s u b je c t i s war and how women can preven t i t , i t r e a l l y i s a f i e r c e polem ic a g a in s t m ascu lin e assu m p tion s, v a lu e s , and i n s t i t u t i o n s w hich make war in e v i t a b l e . P o o le , p. 217, p o in ts out th a t i t has lon g been fa s h io n a b le to d e r id e Three G uineas, but the e s s a y c o g e n tly d ev elo p s a theme most germane to th e r i s e o f the Third R e ic h --th e r e la t io n s h ip o f m a g n ific en t (m ilita r y uniform to sh eer p u g n a city . I i 3 Marcus, "Thinking Back Through Our M others," p. 8 , p o in ts out jth at Woolf h e r s e l f r e fe r r e d to "the t r i p l e p ly" in h er th in k in g s in c e I h e r r o le s as a r t i s t , f e m in is t , and s o c i a l i s t were s u b t ly in te r tw in e d.____ 55 16 Lehmann, pp. 4 4 -4 6 ; C a r r o ll, p. 123; B e l l , I I , 205. f 17 I t i s c o n s c io u s , I th in k . When W oolf d e s c r ib e s h er rage over F o r s t e r 's e x c lu d in g h er from the lib r a r y com m ittee and o th er s l i g h t s , •she w r ite s in h er d ia r y : "I can s e e how I can transm ute them [ s l i g h t s ] in t o b e a u t if u l c l e a r ir o n i c a l prose" (WD, 235, em phasis added). 1® Marcus, "Art and Anger," p. 76. { j ! 1® To see r e a l i t y as s h i f t i n g i s a b a s ic theme in W oolf’ s f i c t i o n j jand n o n f ic t io n . I ! 20 A r i s t o t l e , R h e to r ic , I I .1 3 7 8 a .8. I 21 Woolf makes a s im ila r p s y c h o lo g ic a l appeal in A Room o f One's j 'Own when she c o n tr a s ts "drawing a p ic t u r e ," i l l u s t r a t i n g fem ale j |i n t u i t i o n o f th e u n co n sc io u s, and " w ritin g a c o n c lu s io n ," the l o g i c a l male law stu d en t tak in g f a c tu a l n o tes in th e B r i t is h Museum (R00, 3 1 ). i She draws a p ic tu r e o f P r o fe sso r von X, ja b b in g h is pen on paper as he J w r it e s h is opus, The M ental, Moral and P h y s ic a l I n f e r i o r i t y o f the J Female S ex , and she con clud es th a t books on women were w r itte n by men i jin the "red l i g h t o f emotion" r a th e r than th e "w hite l i g h t o f tru th " ; (R00, 3 3 ). Men's em otion i s a f a c t j u s t as E n g lish p a tr ia r c h y i s a ' f a c t . I 22 Edward P. J. C o rb ett, "A Method o f A nalyzin g Prose S ty le w ith a, •Dem onstration A n a ly sis o f S w if t 's 'A Modest P r o p o s a l,'" in R e fle c tio n s ; on High School E n g lis h , ed. Gary Tate (T u lsa: U niv. o f T u lsa , 1 9 6 6 ), ! 'p. 113. C o r b e tt's a n a ly s is o f the persona in S w i f t 's "A Modest j ‘P roposal" i s u s e fu l as I an a ly ze W oolf's o u t s id e r . ' 1 Marcus, " Introd u ction " to New F em in ist E s s a y s , x iv . i E t i Chapter I I I i I l Iron y: The R h eto ric o f Subversion 1 and A ffirm a tio n » I i | Two o f th e advantages o f the chameleon "we" have a lrea d y been d is c u s se d in Chapter Two: the o u ts id e r can argue both s id e s o f h er I le a se , u n ify in g , p o la r iz in g , and s a t i r i z i n g p a tr ia r c h a l s o c ie t y ; and she J I | ■can make men e x p e r ie n c e what i t f e e l s l i k e to be exclu ded and j o l t women' l in t o new aw areness. Another advantage i s the o u t s i d e r 's a b i l i t y to b lu r ithe l i n e between f i c t i o n and f a c t to a ch ie v e ir o n y . I j ( I A . R h eto ric o f S u b version i : | i Iro n y , o f c o u r se , i s a su b v e r siv e mode. Woolf seek s to undermine | i p a tr ia r c h a l myths: th a t p a tr ia r c h y a ssu r e s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l ! I i le q u a lit y , th a t males know and understand e v e r y th in g , and th a t men can be ! i [r a tio n a l and o b j e c t iv e at a l l tim e s. The o u t s i d e r 's r h e t o r ic a l | I I ' •tech n iq u es o f appeal to a u th o r ity , j u x t a p o s it io n , d im in u tio n , j in t e r r o g a t io n , refin em en t o f the t o p ic , and th e use o f e p is t o la r y form j to mask a c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n expand t h is ir o n ic mode. * j O r d in a r ily , authors e s t a b l i s h d is ta n c e between t h e ir personae and !th em selv es fo r the purpose o f ir o n y . The persona w i l l say one th in g anc th e author w i l l mean an oth er. This cannot happen in the same way w ith \ I Woolf and th e o u t s id e r . As we have s e e n , she i d e n t i f i e s v ery c l o s e l y w ith e v e r y th in g the o u ts id e r stan d s f o r . W oolf a ch ie v es h er ir o n i c mode n o t by se p a r a tin g h e r s e l f from th e o u t s id e r p erson a, but by ju x ta p o s in g f i c t i o n a l r h e t o r ic a l s it u a t io n s w ith an accum ulation o f hard f a c t s . In o th e r w ords, i t i s the blend o f f i c t i o n and fact,-*- th e in t e r p la y between ■these s h i f t i n g r e a l i t i e s , which communicates W o o lf's c r i t i c i s m o f the j I Isou rces, u s e s , and means o f s o c i a l and econom ic power w ith in p a tria rc h a l! | j js o c ie t y . The ir o n ic in te r p la y o f th e se s h i f t i n g r e a l i t i e s r e s u l t s in : i jparadox: male in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f f a c t become f i c t i o n (som ething n o t ! \ j tr u e ) and an other f i c t i o n (som ething Woolf makes up to communicate j r e a l i t y ) becomes th e way to tr u th , F i s h e r 's r e a l - f i c t i o n . 2 in both j 'c a se s , she u ses the same f a c t s . These f a c t s caused Woolf some tr o u b le l 'because she was in t e n s e ly aware o f h er common rea d er . She w rote to |Lady Shena Simon on June 15, 1938: I Much r e lie v e d th a t you lik e d 3 Gs. I t g o t on my n e r v e s, th a t ! i t would make everyone f u r io u s , and no good would come o f i t . ; . . . I t was such a g r in d , c o l l e c t i n g and com pressing th e | ' n o t e s , s lip p in g in the f a c t s and keep in g up enough o f a dance ' ^ to le a d th e read er on so th a t I c o u ld n 't keep my eye on the | j g e n e r a l a s p e c t, and was much in the dark as to the w hole. ; I ( L e t t e r s , VI, 239, emphasis added) j ! I i | jWoolf was c l e a r l y aware o f a p o s s ib ly h o s t i l e audience and o f the I I ' n e c e s s i t y o f k eep in g up the dance "to le a d the reader on." On J u ly 4 i {of th at same year she w rote to Margaret L lew elyn D avies about the d i f f i c u l t y o f q u o ta tio n : . . . I had to choose a t random from such a mass o f m a te r ia l th a t I knew I could have quoted b e t t e r and more to the p o in t, j T h a t's always th e d i f f i c u l t y - - q u o t i n g r i g h t l y . And i t was p a r t ly t h is th a t le d to v e r b o s it y . One has to s e c r e t e a j e l l y ' in w hich to s l i p q u o ta tio n s down p e o p le 's th r o a ts --a n d one 1 alw ays s e c r e t e s too much j e l l y . But then I was w r itin g fo r th e very common, very r e lu c t a n t , e a s i l y bored rea d er- - n o t fo r ____________ you. ( L e t t e r s , VI, 251, e m p h a sis_ a d d e d )_ _______________ jit i s d i f f i c u l t to imagine th a t Woolf su cceed ed in reach in g h er "common" I r e a d e r s through t h i s r e a l - f i c t i o n o f th e o u ts id e r and l e t t e r w r it in g , ibut she a c h ie v e s enough o f a dance between the f i c t i o n and the f a c t s so th a t her "uncommon" readers are ch a llen g ed to understand h er m essage. : I ;It i s my argument th a t Three Guineas i s a c a r e f u l ly documented e s s a y j j j which r e v o lu t io n iz e s the e s s a y form by in c lu d in g f i c t i o n a l ele m e n ts. j ! I Three Guineas c o n ta in s f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s - - t h e o u t s id e r , the male 'correspondent, fem ale tr e a s u r e r s : i t i s d iv id e d in t o th ree ch ap ters like i i a n o v el; i t i s w r itte n in a dram atic sp eak in g v o ic e in th e f i c t i o n a l j form o f a s e r io u s l e t t e r . These f i c t i o n a l elem en ts a llo w Woolf to s a t i r i z e the paradox o f a s o c i e t y w hich, even as i t proclaim s i t s e l f a I ! s o c i a l democracy, r e s t r i c t s women. The f i c t i o n o f w r itin g a l e t t e r r i I i t s e l f i s s a t i r i c because t h is i s the "approved" a c t i v i t y fo r women; \ I Q th e r e fo r e , i t i s lim ite d and li m it in g . The f i c t i o n o f the male ’ co r r e sp o n d e n t’s a sk in g a mere woman fo r ad v ice on war s e t s an ir o n ic : ! to n e . The f i c t i o n o f the mock man v o ic e c r e a te s con volu ted iro n y ' because the o u ts id e r u ses male arguments to c r i t i c i z e women and l a t e r , ; I j e x o n era te s women o f th e s e a c c u s a tio n s by q u o tin g o th e r e q u a lly I i I co m p ellin g f a c t s from o th er men. The f i c t i o n o f the o u ts id e r s p e l l s I ! ! out c l e a r l y th a t th e "daughters o f educated men" are in a se p a r a te c l a s s | from educated men. The paradox occu rs when the o u ts id e r has f in is h e d i l I h e r arguments; by th en , i t i s abundantly c le a r th a t h er view o f woman asj | ! o u t s id e r i s not a f i c t i o n . Three G u ineas, th en , i s a s e r i e s o f ir o n ic j r e v e r s a ls : a f a c t u a l e ssa y w ith f i c t i o n a l e le m e n ts, an inform al l e t t e r | i documented w ith 124 form al y e t ir o n ic f o o t n o t e s , a remarkable document w r it t e n by an o u t s id e r whose im peccable arguments sound l i k e th o se o f an i n s i d e r . ^ This l a s t p o in t i s a key ir o n y . The l e t t e r w r it e r , l o s t e n s i b ly an o u ts id e r in the male w orld , i s r e a l l y an in s id e r , one who r e a l l y knows th e tru th about women's i n j u s t i c e and i t i s the male lawyerj j who i s the o u t s id e r , the one who does not know the tru th and [p a r tic ip a te s in the sham o f a s o c i a l democracy which employs f a s c i s t I I s t r a t e g ie s . Another iro n y o f Three Guineas i s th a t although Woolf has i | ! 'created an e la b o r a te f i c t i o n , h er f a c t s prove h er f i c t i o n tr u e . T his ! i I i'made some o f h er read ers fu r io u s . They could c a l l W o o lf's book s i l l y , I i ! il l- in f o r m e d , i l l o g i c a l , i f th ey lik e d , but the f a c t s were ir r e f u t a b l e , i I i [Woolf w rote to E th el Smyth on February 24, 1938, about the e x c lu s io n o f : women m u sician s a t Bournemouth: "Cold f a c t s are the o n ly weapon; and i ■ i ! i I i f I'm a ju d ge, i t ' s a m onstrous s to r y ; and the h id in g o f i t b la ta n t i ' ■ H itle r ism " ( L e t t e r s , VT, 234, em phasis added). I t i s not o n ly the o u t s i d e r 's to n e , th en , which in f u r i a t e s her j a u d ie n c e , but a ls o h er f a c t s . The o u ts id e r g iv e s h er " bird seye view " ' i 1 o f men's a c t i v i t i e s , and men e x p e r ie n c e d isco m fo rt a t b ein g c a lle d to j » t accoun t fo r t h e ir e x c lu s io n o f women. I t i s doubly uncom fortable ! ! ! 'b ecau se the o u ts id e r does not use p r iv a te sou rces fo r h er e v id e n c e . She ! ! 'c o n s u lt s p u b lic r e c o r d s--b io g r a p h y , h i s t o r y , new spapers, male | 1 I i ;a u t h o r i t i e s - - a l l o f w hich s u b s t a n t ia t e the i n j u s t i c e s she d e s c r ib e s , jHer very competence in argu in g may a ls o i n f u r i a t e male r e a d e r s. Women j" are n o t supposed" to argue w ith l o g i c or dem onstrate w ith f a c t s . "You | c a n ' t s i t on com m ittees i f you a ls o pour out tea" was W o o lf's c r y p tic I remark in h er d ia r y (WD, 2 3 5 ). The o u t s i d e r 's s k i l l f u l u se o f what I ! V ita S a c k v ilie -W e st c a l l s "the gen tlem an 's argument" probably g a l l s m ale re a d e r s. j "60 Appeal to A u th o rity I The o u t s id e r , th en , i s a complex p e r s o n a lit y who preten ds to know l e s s than she does and shows th a t she knows more than anyone e l s e . Her jappeal to a u th o r ity i s one o f her s t r o n g e s t r h e t o r ic a l tech n iq u es to I undermine male a u t h o r i t i e s . She e i t h e r qu otes them in agreem ent, and i I th en , s te p by s t e p , r e v e r s e s t h e ir d e c i s i o n s ; or she quotes them to j j I support h er own c a s e . E ith e r way, th e male f i c t i o n (som ething n ot true)I i j • ’ i s s tr u c k down.^ j ! One o f the b e s t examples o f the o u t s i d e r 's r e v e r s a l o f male fictio n ^ o ccu rs in the second p a rt o f Three G uineas. In h er mock man v o ic e , she ( pursues the q u e s tio n o f why women are so p oor, warning the fem ale 1 I jtreasu rer who has asked h er fo r money: "You are drawing upon y o u r se lv e s, [the censure and contempt o f men o f e s t a b lis h e d r e p u ta tio n , th e j p h ilo so p h e r s and n o v e l i s t s - - o f men l i k e Mr. Joad and Mr. W ells" (TG, 42,1 i I jemphasis added). L ike Mark Antony, who i r o n i c a l l y rep ea ts th a t Brutus j !is an honourable man, th e o u ts id e r c o n s ta n tly r e fe r s to Joad and W ells i i jas "men o f e s t a b lis h e d r e p u ta tio n ," w h ile sh e s y s t e m a t ic a lly d i s c r e d i t s i [that r e p u ta tio n . She draws a t t e n t io n to Joad 's sta tem en t about women: j ! j He sa y s: 'I doubt w hether a t any tim e during the l a s t f i f t y y e a r s young women have been more p o l i t i c a l l y a p a t h e t ic , more s o c i a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t than a t th e p r e se n t t i m e . ' That i s how ' h e b e g in s. And he goes on to s a y , v ery r i g h t l y , th a t i t i s • n o t h i s b u sin e ss to t e l l you what you ought to do; but he adds, ! v e r y k in d ly , th a t he w i l l g iv e you an example o f what you I m ight do. (TG, 4 2 , em phasis added) iThe v o ic e o f the o u ts id e r as mock man i s com plex. On one l e v e l , she ( I jean be taken s e r io u s ly when sh e a grees w ith Joad th a t i t i s not h i s 4 [business to t e l l women what they ought to do. On another l e v e l , she i s L ir o n ic when she appears to a ccep t h i s judgment about women's apathy and ' when she d e s c r ib e s h i s a d v ic e as " k in d ly." K indly p a te r n a lism i s j u s t what angers the o u ts id e r m ost. The o u ts id e r keeps up h er mock d efere n c e when sh e q u otes E n g lish I In o v e lis t H. G. W ells: "There has been no p e r c e p tib le woman's movement t ;to r e s i s t the p r a c t ic a l o b l i t e r a t i o n o f t h e ir freedom by F a s c i s t s or i jNazis" (TG. 4 3 ). The o u t s i d e r 's n ote to th a t statem en t p o in ts ou t th a t | {although the men's movement a g a in s t fa sc ism may be more p e r c e p tib le thanf ) * : jthe women's movement, i t has n ot been s u c c e s s f u l . Although the o u t s i d e r ' s n o te t e l l s h er read ers th a t she d isc o u n ts W e lls 's sta te m e n t, I i h e r mock man v o ic e sounds as i f she a grees w ith both Joad and W e lls. i ! She accu ses women o f b ein g r ic h , i d l e , greedy and l e t h a r g i c , and ; i i ’th rea ten s to send a g u in e a , n ot to b u ild a women's p r o f e s s io n a l b u ild in g b u t to burn i t , and send the women back to t h e ir homes. N o n e th e le s s, * sh e uncovers f a c t s which in d ic a t e th a t women are n ot a p a th e tic or la z y --; 1 I and th a t Joad and W ells are f o o l s . I She a ls o p i t s one male a u th o r ity a g a in s t an o th er. W hitaker's Almanack says th a t 250 pounds a year fo r a woman i s " q u ite an achievem ent"; the o u t s id e r i r o n i c a l l y n o te s th a t the average male salary. iranges from 277 to 2 ,2 0 0 pounds. P la y in g " d e v il's advocate" she i jconcludes th a t th e women must be d e f i c i e n t and u n tru stw orth y. However, (Prime M in iste r Baldwin s t a t e s the o p p o s ite . In a fu n d -r a is in g speech i ifo r Newnham C o lle g e in 1936, he a s s e r t s th a t women in C iv il S e r v ic e keep s e c r e t in fo rm a tio n b e t t e r than some o f the men and work to t h e ir em p loyers' com plete s a t i s f a c t i o n (TG, 4 9 ). Now, sa y s the o u t s id e r , i f janyone i s in a p o s it io n to know th e f a c t s , i t i s the Prime M in is te r . Yet he c o n tr a d ic ts W hitaker's f a c t s . Baldwin sa y s women are f i r s t - c l a s s se r v a n ts; W hitaker says they are t h i r d - c l a s s . Baldwin versu s W hitaker, the o u ts id e r e x c la im s. She has s e t up a t r i a l in which she can dem onstrate her f o r e n s ic s k i l l , a l l the w h ile p r o t e s t in g th a t she has o n ly " in d ir e c t knowledge" o f such th in g s , bein g o n ly an o u ts id e r to i 'th ese a f f a i r s . I She can a ls o i r o n i c a l l y compliment her male law yer: "You, S ir , ■ I l (have d e f i n i t e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ; as a b a r r is t e r you have fir s t-h a n d ‘knowledge o f one p r o f e s s io n , and as an educated man second-hand knowledge o f many more." T h erefo re, she c o n c lu d e s, i f she can pool her l i i ^ indirect knowledge w ith h is d ir e c t knowledge, th ey w i l l agree th a t i jp r o fe ssio n s are very queer th in g s . " It by no means fo llo w s th a t a c le v e r man g e t s to the top or th a t a stu p id man s ta y s at the bottom. ! ( T his r i s i n g and f a l l i n g i s by no means a c u t-a n d -d r ie d , c l e a r - c u t J ! I jr a tio n a l p r o c e s s , we s h a l l both a g r e e " (TG, 4 9 , em phasis added). j The o u ts id e r has j u s t fin is h e d d em onstrating th a t le a d in g male I a u t h o r i t i e s , Joad and W e lls, do not have t h e ir f a c t s s t r a ig h t and th at I ■ j 'Baldwin and W hitaker c o n tr a d ic t each o th er on women in p r o fe s s io n s ; she i ! lhas a ls o not o n ly c re a ted an image o f h e r s e l f as o b j e c t iv e by i n s i s t i n g j ' | Ion the male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's " d irect" knowledge but e s t a b lis h e d as w e ll a j i |b a s is o f agreement between h e r s e l f and her male law yer th at p ro fessio n a l- J in flu en ce i s n ot a lt o g e t h e r a r a t io n a l p r o c e s s . This is a s i g n i f i c a n t (s te p because men p rid e th em selves on t h e ir r a t i o n a l i t y and o b j e c t i v i t y , I land the o u ts id e r has j u s t a s s e r te d th a t t h e ir s e l e c t i o n p ro cess i s ib ia se d . "What i s more n a tu r a l than th a t a nephew should be a marshal^ ! or the s o n ' o f an o ld sc h o o l fr ie n d a p r iv a te s e c r e ta r y ? " (TG. 4 9 ). 63 The o u ts id e r has succeeded in su b v e rtin g the myth o f male im p a r t ia lit y . She then u ses imagery to dram atize the male b ia s she has j u s t uncovered. L ab elin g i t an "odour" and a "Tom," she says the consequences o f t h i s "scent" are sm a lle r s a l a r i e s and few er job jo p p o r tu n itie s fo r women (TG, 5 2 ). Upon t h i s im palpable "atmosphere" ;hangs the o u t s i d e r 's f i n a l argument in h er mock t r i a l o f W hitaker and I ( Baldw in. I t a llo w s h er to d e c id e th a t both are t e l l i n g th e tr u th : " It i s tru e th a t women c i v i l se r v a n ts d eserv e to be paid as much as men; but ; j | i t i s a ls o tru e th a t th ey are not paid as much as men. The d iscrep a n cy t j i s due to atmosphere" (TG, 5 2 ). The o u ts id e r has combined the p o e t ic j f f i c t i o n o f "Tomcat" w ith the d i a l e c t i c a l f i c t i o n o f p a tr ia r c h a l j i ; i d is c r im in a tio n a g a in s t women in order to produce a r e a l - f i c t i o n - - i i | i '"atm osphere." Today we would c a l l i t sex ism . That r e a l - f i c t i o n I I i r o n i c a l l y e x p la in s the d iscrep a n cy between Baldwin and W hitaker. ; I Throughout t h i s s e c t io n the o u ts id e r has played " d e v il' s ad vocate,'' I ^arguing a g a in s t women and f o r t i f y i n g h er ca se w ith p u b lic , and thereforej ■male, f a c t s . Then she dem onstrates w ith th e se f a c t s th a t men’s hold on th e tr u th i s p r e c a r io u s, th a t they th em selves have b ia sed o p in io n s , and ith a t th ese o p in io n s are o f t e n based on u n co n sc io u s, em otion al d r iv e s . I I By combining the f i c t i o n o f l e t t e r w r itin g and the male correspond ent I jw ith the o u ts id e r and the p u b lic f a c t s , Woolf accom p lish es the ir o n ic I jmode, and the r e s u lt i s paradox: male in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f f a c t s become I ] f i c t i o n , som ething not tru e; W o o lf's f i c t i o n becomes th e way to r e a l i ! tr u th . U sing f a c t s open to the p u b lic , the o u ts id e r can w r ite a second j l e t t e r to the fem ale tr e a s u r e r , a p o lo g iz in g fo r the t e r r i b l e charges made a g a in s t her: 1 ! W e have a c q u itte d you, Madam, you w i l l be r e lie v e d to le a r n , o f t e l l i n g l i e s . I t would seem to be tru e th a t you are poor. W e have a c q u itte d you fu r th e r , o f i d l e n e s s , apathy and greed. The number o f cau ses you are cham pioning, however s e c r e t l y and ! i n e f f e c t i v e l y , i s in your favou r. I f you p r e fe r i c e cream and j peanuts to r o a s t b eef and beer th e reason would seem to be I j econom ic ra th e r than g u sta to r y . (TG. 59) j ?The paradox i s th a t "we" in c lu d e s the male corresp on d en t as w e ll as the j | ! io u ts id e r . Both have r e fu te d the charges o f the male a u t h o r i t i e s , Joad ! fand W e lls. Both have agreed th a t W hitaker and Baldwin were t e l l i n g the f ' tru th about the h ig h q u a lit y o f s e r v ic e from women accompanied by j ;ex trem ely low s a l a r i e s , "atmosphere" having accounted fo r th e j d isc r e p a n c y . Both have w itn e sse d th e c o n tr a d ic tio n s in male ! • i [ a u t h o r it ie s . N otes j i j ! These c o n tr a d ic tio n s are very c le a r in the n o te s . The 124 n o te s | documenting the o u t s i d e r 's f a c t s se r v e a t l e a s t two fu n c tio n s : 1) they j i len d a u th o r ity to h er sta tem en ts a t the same time th a t they mock the i I I I sc h o la r ly d i s s e r t a t io n s o f academia; 2) they o f f e r o p p o r tu n itie s fo r the. i I io u ts id e r to p o in t ou t more paradoxes. F orty-tw o n o te s are tr a d itio n a lly j ! • 1 I fa c tu a l; th ey sim ply c i t e sou rce and page number. E ig h ty -tw o o f them I p o in t out p aradoxes. For exam ple, th e o u ts id e r quotes J u s t i c e McCardle |on women's d r e s s : "Dress i s one o f women's c h ie f means o f e x p r e s s io n . I j . . . I n m atters o f d r e ss women o fte n remain c h ild r e n to the end. The p sy ch o lo g y o f the m atter must n ot be overlooked" (TG, 1 5 0 ). The judge jh im s e lf, the o u ts id e r p o in ts o u t, was w earing a s c a r l e t robe; an ermine cap e, and a v a s t w ig o f a r t i f i c i a l c u r l s , and was o b liv io u s o f h i s own t (remarkable d r e s s . W alter Bagehot, in a l e t t e r to Emily D avies who had asked h i s h e lp in founding G irton , s a y s: "I a ssu r e you, I am not an ; enemy o f women. I am v ery favou rab le to t h e ir employment as lab ou rers or in o th e r m enial c a p a city " (TG, 153, em phasis added). Bagehot i s 1 { a p p a r e n tly unaware o f h i s condescen ding a t t i t u d e . The Commission o f ! l I A rchbishops g iv e s the fo llo w in g r a t io n a le fo r b a rrin g women from th e ! J ! i p u lp it : C h r is tia n women can keep t h e ir minds on God when a male i : i jm in ister le a d s w o rsh ip , but i t would be im p o ssib le fo r the average male ! I I t to be p r esen t a t a s e r v ic e a t which a woman m in iste r e d w ith ou t becoming , ,unduly c o n scio u s o f h er se x . The o u t s i d e r 's ir o n ic understatem ent i s : ! 1 j ;"In the o p in io n o f th e C om m issioners, th e r e f o r e , C h r istia n women are j i - 1 Imore s p i r i t u a l l y minded than C h r is tia n m en--a rem arkable, but no doubt ‘adequate, reason fo r e x c lu d in g them from the p riesth o o d " (TG, 1 6 1 ). :Women were n ot o n ly exclu ded from m in istr y fo r the wrong rea so n s; they (were a ls o r id ic u le d fo r attem p tin g to e n te r s o l i t a r y p r o f e s s io n s . The J io u ts id e r q u otes G. L. D ick in son on s p in s t e r s : "What th ey want i s a j 'husband.'" A c tu a lly , th e o u ts id e r e x c la im s: "'What th ey wanted' might , i ; have been th e Bar, th e Stock Exchange o r rooms in G ibb s's B u ild in g s , ] ’ I ■had the c h o ic e been open to them" (TG, 1 5 7 ). These c o n tr a d ic to r y ! o p in io n s from b iograp h y, h i s t o r y , n e w sp a p e r s --a ll e f f o r t s to be I ( o b j e c t iv e - - f o r c e the o u ts id e r to conclude th a t th e r e i s no "absolu te" I tr u th . I I ; O c c a s io n a lly , h er n o te s c o n tr a d ic t h er argument w ith ir o n ic e f f e c t . |When she argues th a t daughters o f educated men have no weapon to e n fo r c e < | j t h e ir w i l l s , h er n o te read s: "There i s o f cou rse one e s s e n t i a l th a t th e 66 educated woman can su pply: c h ild r e n . And one method by which she can l e l p to p reven t war i s to r e fu s e to bear c h ild r e n . . th e same cou rse was su g g este d by L y s is t r a t a two thousand years ago (TG, 1 4 7 ). ■A nd when th e o u ts id e r argues th a t women's r ig h t to v o te has not had much (e ffe c t on s o c i e t y , she can q u a lif y th a t id e a w ith a n o te , a s s e r t in g th a t I j women's r ig h t to v o te has n ot proved e n t i r e l y n e g l i g i b l e . A fte r a l l , in l [ s lig h t ly l e s s than ten y e a r s , th e l e a f l e t , What the Vote Has Done, has j • i | I Igrown from one page to s i x p ages. \ i I The m a jo rity o f n o t e s , how ever, support the t e x t e i t h e r w ith f a c t s Jor the la c k o f them, fo llo w e d by ir o n ic a s id e s . In one in s ta n c e the \ [ou tsid er s u g g e s ts th a t i t i s e a s i e r fo r women than fo r men to d isco u ra g e \ c o m p etitio n and h o n o rs, thus p rev e n tin g the p o s s e s s iv e n e s s and fo r c e w hich le a d to war. Her d e l i g h t f u l l y s a t i r i c n ote to t h i s sta tem en t combines f a c t s w ith h er p s y c h o lo g ic a l in t e r p r e t a t io n o f th o se f a c t s : 1 In the New Y ea r's Honours L i s t fo r 1937, 147 men accep ted \ honours as a g a in s t seven women. For obviou s reason s t h is ; cannot be taken as a measure o f t h e ir com parative d e s ir e fo r such a d v ertisem e n t. But th a t i t should be e a s i e r , p s y c h o lo g ic a lly , fo r a woman to r e j e c t honours than fo r a man j seems to be in d is p u ta b le . For th e f a c t th a t i n t e l l e c t I (rou gh ly sp eak in g) i s man's c h ie f p r o fe s s io n a l a s s e t , and that( I s t a r s and ribbons are h i s c h i e f means o f a d v e r t is in g I ; i n t e l l e c t , s u g g e sts th a t s t a r s and ribbons are id e n t i c a l w ith | j powder and p a in t, a woman's c h ie f method o f a d v e r tis in g h er j c h ie f p r o f e s s io n a l a s s e t : beau ty. I t would th e r e fo r e be as | unreason able to ask him to r e fu s e a Knighthood as to ask h er J I to r e fu s e a d r e s s . (TG, 150-151) ! jAnd, she adds, th e 2 5 ,0 0 0 pounds which come w ith Knighthood would be a i !s a t i s f a c t o r y d ress allow an ce fo r any woman. I I | I f the w ea lth o f f a c t s i s s i g n i f i c a n t , the la c k o f f a c t s i s a ls o I t e l l i n g . For exam ple, th e o u t s i d e r 's f i r s t n ote s t a t e s th e d i f f i c u l t y o f g e t t in g " exact fig u r e s " o f sums sp en t on women's e d u c a tio n , p o s s ib ly itwenty to t h i r t y pounds fo r Mary K in g s le y , whereas th ere i s l i t t l e i [ d if f i c u l t y in g e t t in g the same fig u r e s fo r men. I t i s a ls o h ard, at l e a s t fo r an o u t s id e r , to g e t " p r e c is e fig u r e s " to compare d o n a tio n s to Oxford and Cambridge w ith d on ation s to women's c o l le g e s (TG, 1 5 1 ). | M oreover, i t i s d i f f i c u l t to g e t " exact fig u r e s " o f sums allow ed 'daughters b efo re m arriage (TG. 1 5 6 ). T his la c k o f in form ation about .women's ed u ca tio n and t h e ir dependence upon men fo r money, in c o n tr a s t I I (to the w ea lth o f in fo rm a tio n on m en 's, communicates women's j ' 4 unim portan ce. j i I t i s c le a r from W o o lf's d i a r i e s , l e t t e r s , and n o v e ls th a t she ' [ Idisdained q u a n t it a t iv e measurement when i t pretended to e v a lu a te ; i ! i n t r i n s i c w orth. W h itak er's Almanack, fo r exam ple, i s W o o lf's rec u r rin g i ; symbol o f th e m ascu lin e p r o p e n sity fo r ranking and m easuring w ith ( a r b itr a r y ch alk marks, the e f f e c t o f w hich i s to i n h i b i t or p e r v e r t J n a tu r a l growth. H erbert Marder se e s the o u t s i d e r 's p reoccu p ation w ith i i i I ' ■ [ela b o ra te and su p e rflu o u s s t a t i s t i c s as e x c e s s iv e . For exam ple, she [ ( i measures men's s c h o la r s h ip s a t Cambridge, 31 in c h e s , compared to women's^ s c h o la r s h ip s , 5 in ch es (HM, 76, 8 2 ).^ This p reoccu p ation i s one o f the i j o u t s id e r 's most in g en io u s paradoxes: she mocks th ese methods o f | \ (measurement and y e t u ses them to prove h er c a se . Sin ce her au dience i s . I J ja male law yer, the f a c t s speak to him. Yet they a ls o speak to h er | | < jfem ale a u d ien ce, co n v in cin g th o se who need co n v in cin g th a t in e q u a lit y '68 J u x ta p o sitio n Another ir o n ic s t r a t e g y i s the o u t s i d e r 's j u x t a p o s itio n o f ■photographs to show the co n n ectio n between p a tr ia r c h y and fa sc ism . j Three kinds o f photographs are used in Three G u in eas; the a c tu a l iphotographs o f Englishm en in t h e ir s a r t o r i a l sp len d or; the o u t s i d e r 's J Iverbal d e s c r ip t io n o f the Spanish war photographs; and the o u t s id e r 's [verbal p ic tu r e s o f p u b lic l i f e in England. The a c tu a l photographs were I 'published in the f i r s t e d it i o n o f Three Guineas w ith no comment, th e ; C onn ection assumed to be c le a r a f t e r one read th e t e x t . But readers | i I ! i ’ must have been pu zzled to fin d p ic tu r e s o f E n glish m en 's pomp and j ! : ceremony ra th e r than p ic tu r e s o f war in t h is "war" book. Marcus < I ► I comments on the s a t i r i c j u x t a p o s itio n o f the a c tu a l photographs o f :Englishmen w ith the Spanish war p ic t u r e s . This j u x t a p o s itio n s u g g e sts j . i a stro n g co n n ectio n between p a tr ia r c h y and fa s c is m .^ By o m ittin g th e se l * iphotographs in l a t e r e d i t i o n s , th e p u b lis h e r has d estro y ed one o f j i i iW oolf's f i n e s t i r o n i e s . ( i i : ! The o u t s i d e r 's d e s c r ip t io n s o f the war photographs and the p ic tu r e s jOf E n g lish s o c i e t y , how ever, form another im portant j u x t a p o s itio n . j jchapter Two has a lr ea d y d is c u s s e d how the o u ts id e r u ses th e war J ! j iphotographs, not as "arguments addressed to th e reason" but " statem ents I ! i jof fa c t addressed to the e y e ." When her male correspon d en t and she look a t th e se p ic t u r e s , "some fu sio n " ta k es p la c e w ith in each o f them, and, in words th a t bear r e p e t i t i o n , she assumes th a t th e y both respond w ith i ith e same h orror and d is g u s t : i l They are n o t p le a s a n t photographs to lo o k upon. They are i I photographs o f dead b o d ies fo r the most p a r t. This m orning's j 69 c o l l e c t i o n c o n ta in s the photograph o f what m ight be a man's body, or a woman's; i t i s so m u tila te d th a t i t m ight, on the o th e r hand, be th e body o f a p ig . But th o se c e r t a in ly are dead c h ild r e n , and th a t undoubtedly i s the s e c t io n o f a h ou se. A bomb has torn open the s id e ; th ere i s s t i l l a b ir d -c a g e hanging in what was presum ably the s ittin g -r o o m , but th e r e s t j o f the house look s l i k e n o th in g so much as a bunch o f j s p i l i k i n s suspended in m id -a ir . (TG, 11) I |The o u t s i d e r 's grap h ic d e s c r ip t io n r e v e a ls the dehum anization o f war. j it f i t s what the author o f Ad Herrenium c a l l s " ocu lar d em on stration ." ^ I I iThese war photographs are the li n k to which the o u ts id e r w i l l con n ect | j I jher th ree v erb a l p ic tu r e s o f th e p r o f e s s io n a l, p u b lic w orld: p ic tu r e s j o f d om ination, p o s s e s s iv e n e s s , and i n t e l l e c t u a l d is h o n e s ty . j I For exam ple, the o u t s i d e r ' s f i r s t p ic tu r e o f S t. P a u l's , th e Bank jof England, the Mansion H ouse, th e Law C ou rts, W estm inster Abbey, and ; th e Houses o f Parliam ent i s im p r e ss iv e . However, when she opens the j ^door o f one o f th e se " tem p les," she i s a sto n ish e d a t the c l o t h e s , the ■ ( d e c o r a tio n s , and the r i t u a l s o f th e educated man in h i s p u b lic cap acity:! j i Now you d ress in v i o l e t . . . . Now you wear w igs on your j | h ea d s. . . . Some tim es gowns cover your le g s ; som etim es j g a i t e r s . . . . Some have the r ig h t to wear p la in b u tton s ! o n ly ; o th e r s r o s e t t e s . . . . h ere you k n e e l, th ere you bow; j h ere you advance in p r o c e s s io n . (TG, 19-20) j I D im inution ' As the o u ts id e r d e s c r ib e s o f f i c i a l male d ress and r i t u a l , sh e j I u t i l i z e s the p r in c ip le o f d im in u tio n , u sin g the l e s s e r word to d e s c r ib e l som ething. She d im in ish es men f i r s t by comparing them to women, already, I I !seen to be o f l i t t l e in flu e n c e in s o c i e t y . She t e l l s h er male j j I c o r r e sp o n d e n t: '7 O' S in ce m arriage u n t i l th e yea r 1 9 1 9 - - le s s than twenty yea rs ago— was the o n ly p r o fe s s io n open to u s, th e enormous im portance o f d r e ss to a woman can h a rd ly be ex a g g er a ted . I t was to h er what! c l i e n t s are to y o u --d r e s s was h er c h i e f , perhaps h er o n ly , j method o f becoming Lord C h a n ce llo r . But your d ress in i t s j immense e la b o r a tio n has o b v io u sly another fu n c tio n . I t n ot o n ly co v ers n ak ed ness, g r a t i f i e s v a n it y , and c r e a te s p lea su re f o r the e y e , but i t se r v e s to a d v e r t is e the s o c i a l , p r o f e s s io n a l, o r i n t e l l e c t u a l sta n d in g o f the w earer. (TG, 20) T h is a d v e r tis in g fu n c tio n o f men’ s cerem onial c lo th in g i s the most s in g u la r fe a tu r e to the ob servan t o u ts id e r : I I f you w i l l excu se the humble i l l u s t r a t i o n your d ress f u l f i l s I th e same fu n c tio n as th e t i c k e t s in th e g r o c e r 's shop. But, j h e r e , in s te a d o f s a y in g , 'T his i s m argarine; t h is pure b u tte r ; : | t h i s i s the f i n e s t b u tte r in the m a rk et,' i t s a y s , 'T his man j i s a c le v e r man—he i s M aster o f A rts; t h i s man i s a v ery i 1 c le v e r man--he i s D octor o f L e t t e r s ; t h is man i s a most c le v e r ! m an--he i s a Member o f the Order o f M e r i t . ' (TG, 20) ! i 'The o u ts id e r has now dim in ish ed men to o b j e c t s : e la b o r a te ly a d v e r tise d i ;chunks o f b u tte r . She adds w ryly: "In the o p in io n of S t. P a u l, such j a d v e r tise m e n t, at any r a te fo r our s e x , was unbecoming and immodest; u n t i l a few y ea rs ago, we [women] were den ied the u se o f it " (TG, 2 0 ). jShe then comments on the paradox in men's e la b o r a te d r e s s: And s t i l l th e t r a d it i o n , or b e l i e f , lin g e r s among us th a t to e x p ress worth o f any k in d , w hether i n t e l l e c t u a l or m oral, by w earin g p ie c e s o f m eta l, or rib b on , colou red hoods or gowns, i s a b a r b a r ity which d e se r v e s th e r i d i c u l e which we bestow ! upon the r i t e s o f s a v a g e s. A woman who a d v e r tis e d her I motherhood by a t u f t o f h o r se h a ir on the l e f t sh oulder would | s c a r c e ly , you w i l l a g r e e , be a v en era b le o b j e c t . (TG, 20-21) ! The o u t s id e r has d im in ish ed men by a s s o c ia t in g t h e ir e la b o r a te r i t u a l s i |in v o lv in g m edals, r ib b o n s, and gowns w ith the " r it e s o f sa v a g e s." What I | i s more, she has appealed to h er male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's se n se o f I i" tr a d itio n " to g e t him to agree w ith h e r . T his d ir e c t appeal to j t r a d it io n masks an enthymeme. The o u ts id e r assumes th a t th ey both |a g r e e th a t h o n o rs, r ib b o n s, and medals should be r id ic u le d as savage r i t e s . P a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y , how ever, v e n e r a te s ribbons and m edals. jT herefore, p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y engages in savage r i t e s . I The o u t s i d e r 's d e s c r ip t io n o f men's r i t u a l s has been a stea d y jdim inishm ent, comparing male a t t i r e f i r s t to women's p reoccu p ation w ith i jd ress, then a d v e r tise d chunks o f b u t te r , and f i n a l l y , savage r i t u a l s . |Her l a s t comment mocks the thought o f women's a d v e r t is in g t h e ir motherhood by a t u f t o f h o r se h a ir on the l e f t sh o u ld e r. By assuming jthat her male correspondent a grees th a t a t u f t o f h o r s e h a ir a d v e r tis in g [motherhood would be s i l l y , she a ls o g e ts him to agree th a t male ^ sa r to r ia l show i s s i l l y . The a d d itio n a l im p lic a tio n i s th a t in j ^ p atriarch al s o c i e t y , motherhood i s not ven erated as an ach ievem en t. j |Both c o n c lu sio n s im ply th a t s a r t o r i a l sp len d ors i n f l a t e the male ego j ! | !to dom ination and delu d e i t in t o ig n o r in g o th er human v a lu e s . J i i | ; ( I n te r r o g a tio n I f \ i ! j The o u ts id e r now s h i f t s from d im in u tion to in t e r r o g a t io n , th e J i ! a sk in g o f a q u e s tio n which she h e r s e l f in te n d s to answer im m ed iately. "What co n n e c tio n i s th ere between th e s a r t o r i a l splen d ours o f th e [educated man and th e photographs o f ruined houses and dead bod ies?" t ! (TG, 2 1 ). She li n e s up the f a c t s about men's e x c lu s iv e dom ination o f 'e d u ca tio n and asks a r h e t o r ic a l q u e s tio n , one she does not e x p e c t to j 1 ,have answered s in c e the answer i s im p lied in the q u e s tio n . Do n ot th ese j f a c t s prove th a t the " f in e s t ed u c a tio n in th e w orld does not teach |p e o p le to h a te f o r c e , but to use i t ? . . . And are n ot fo r c e and j p o s s e s s iv e n e s s c l o s e l y r e la te d to war?" (TG, 2 9 -3 0 ). The o u t s id e r has made a c le a r " con nection" between the war photographs and educated men in t h e ir o f f i c i a l d r e s s . The o u t s i d e r 's second p ic tu r e in P art Two d e s c r ib e s a solemn I f ip r o c e ssio n o f educated men to p r o f e s s io n a l l i f e : the p u l p i t , th e bar, jthe fo r e ig n s e r v i c e , and the u n iv e r s it y . At the t a i l end o f t h is i p r o c e s s io n come the daughters o f educated men. The o u ts id e r asks where t h i s p r o c e ss io n o f educated men i s le a d in g women. I t lea d s them to i incom es, the v ic io u s c y c le o f money making and p rop erty h o ld in g (TG, j |7 4 ). She then asks ". . . how can we [d au ghters o f educated men] e n te r ! i i i l the p r o fe s s io n and y e t remain c i v i l i z e d human b e in g s , human b e in g s , th a t j i s , who w ish to p reven t war?" (TG, 7 5 ). These r h e t o r ic a l q u e stio n s j c o n tin u e throughout Three G uineas, se r v in g to u n derscore the ! ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ < " con n ection s" w ith fa s c is m and p a tr ia r c h y . What kind o f ed u ca tio n w i l l J 'teach the young to p reven t war? How can women j o in th e p r o f e s s io n a l j world? Once th e r e , how can they remain c i v i l i z e d human b ein gs? What j jkind o f s o c ie t y w i l l encourage the i n t e l l e c t u a l and em otion al l i b e r t y J i jof a l l in d iv id u a ls? H i s t o r ic a l f a c t s w i l l not answer th ese q u e s tio n s. I Biography, " th at m arvelous p e r p e tu a lly renewed, and as y e t la r g e ly I j ,untapped a id to the und erstan d in g o f human m o tiv es" (TG, 7 ) , and ; ! ) I I ipsych ology m ight p o in t to some answ ers. The o u ts id e r uses the { r h e to r ic a l tech n iq u e o f r e f in in g to e x p lo r e the psych ology o f a ‘p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y . R efinem ent o f th e Topic i | R e fin in g means " d w ellin g on the same to p ic and y e t seem ing to say ! som ething ev er new."y But Woolf puts t h is d ev ic e to s u b t le r u se than th e author o f Ad Herrenium had in mind. She v a r ie s th e to p ic u n t i l the } iWord or phrase a c t u a lly tak es on a new meaning. One o f th e se words i s i i" force," f i r s t used to examine th e ca u ses o f war. The o u ts id e r says to i i h e r male correspon d en t: "War, as the r e s u l t o f im personal f o r c e s , i s , 1 I you w i l l a g r e e , beyond the grasp o f the u n train ed mind. But war as the ' » ! ,r e s u l t o f human natu re i s another th in g" (TG, 6 , em phasis add ed ). She | c a r e f u l ly s e t s up h er correspon d en t and h e r s e l f to d is c u s s not J » "im personal fo r c e s" but human natu re which causes war. She em phasizes | I } the freedom o f human b ein gs to choose and assumes th a t h er male t .correspondent a g r e e s: "You must have argued, men and women . . . can /j a c t and th in k fo r th em selv es. Perhaps even they can in flu e n c e o th er I | I p e o p le 's thoughts and a c tio n s " (TG, 6 ) . j T h is word " in flu en ce" becomes c e n tr a l to th e o u t s id e r 's ; d is c u s s io n .I i ! I , f jThe educated man has many ch an n els o f in f lu e n c e - - t h e armed s e r v i c e s , thel s to c k exchange, the church, th e p r e s s , c i v i l s e r v ic e , and the b a r - - a l l t o f w hich are v i r t u a l l y c lo se d to the daughters o f educated men. For the i Inext s ix t e e n pages the o u t s id e r e x p lo r e s the in flu e n c e o f th e daughters I jof educated men in p u b lic l i f e , c o n tr a s tin g the in e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f 1 I women s in d ir e c t in flu e n c e and women s v o te w ith the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f women's "earned money in f lu e n c e ," the weapon o f the "new sixp en n y I owners" (TG, 1 3 -2 4 ). Even h e r e , how ever, men have the power, th e r e a l in f lu e n c e , fo r they are r ep re se n ted by a guinea; women, by a six p e n c e . 74 C oncluding th a t women's in flu e n c e in p u b lic l i f e i s , a t b e s t, in c o n s e q u e n tia l, the o u t s id e r exam ines e d u ca tio n and fin d s women e q u a lly J w ith o u t in f lu e n c e . Mary A s t e l l ' s s t r u g g le to s t a r t a woman's c o l l e g e , I blocked by Bishop Burnet in 1688, and the s tr u g g le a t Newnham to r e c e iv e l e t t e r e d d e g r e e s, fou gh t by Cambridge men in 1939, are ample proof th a t th e f i n e s t ed u ca tio n in the world does not teach p eop le to h a te f o r c e , but to use i t (TG, 29) . I The o u t s id e r has now lin k ed in flu e n c e w ith fo r c e and then a sk s, j I 'And are n o t fo r c e and p o s s e s s iv e n e s s very c l o s e l y connected w ith war? I I Of what use then i s a u n iv e r s it y ed u ca tio n in in f lu e n c in g p eo p le to j p reven t war?" (TG. 3 0 ) . C le a r ly , th e o u ts id e r has s e r io u s c r i t i c i s m o f ' i ! a system o f e d u ca tio n which ex c lu d e s h a l f the human race and f o s t e r s fo r c e and p o s s e s s iv e n e s s in the o th e r h a l f . She d e s c r ib e s the kind o f e d u c a tio n she would l i k e to se e when she w r ite s to the fem ale tr ea su rer:; ; N ext, what sh ould be taught in the new c o l l e g e , th e poor ■ ! c o lle g e ? Not th e a r ts o f dom inating o th e r p eop le; not the j ; a r t s o f r u lin g , o f k i l l i n g , o f a c q u ir in g land and c a p i t a l . : . . . L et us then found t h is new c o l l e g e ; t h i s poor c o lle g e ; [ in which le a r n in g i s sought fo r i t s e l f ; where a d v ertisem en t i s | a b o lis h e d ; and th ere are no d eg ree s; and le c t u r e s are n ot i j g iv e n , and sermons are not preached, and th e o ld p oison ed 1 I v a n i t i e s and parades which breed c o m p e titio n and j e a lo u s y . | j . . . (TG, 3 4 -3 5 ) j i 'Force and in flu e n c e have now taken on th e s e m eanings: dom inating \ o t h e r s , r u lin g , k i l l i n g , a c q u ir in g land and c a p i t a l , c o m p e titio n , and t Ijea lo u sy . j This p a tr ia r c h a l fo r c e i s lin k e d to "atm osphere," th e most pow erful I ■force a g a in s t th e d au ghters o f educated men because i t i s im palpable, f t accou n ts fo r the d is c r im in a tio n a g a in s t women in job o p p o r tu n itie s and s a l a r i e s in the p u b lic w orld. A s o c i e t y in f e c t e d w ith t h is atmosphere turns th e r e sp e c te d b roth ers o f the d aughters o f educated men in t o m on sters, "loud o f v o ic e , hard o f f i s t , c h i l d i s h l y in t e n t upon sc o r in g th e f lo o r o f the ea rth w ith ch alk marks" (TG, 1 0 5 ). This lou d , [ lh a r d fis te d male i s r e s p o n s ib le fo r the use o f fo r c e and in flu e n c e to 1 jcrea te "atm osphere." He makes a r b itr a r y ch a lk marks to sep a ra te men jand women. Male p s y c h o lo g is t P r o fe ss o r G renstead, who stu d ie d I j ;churchmen’s r e s is t a n c e to women in church m in is tr y , d ia g n o ses the ;d isea se as " i n f a n t i l e f ix a t io n " (TG, 1 2 6 ). I j T his f i x a t i o n r e s u l t s in th e p u ttin g down o f women: "Homes are the i 1 jreal p la c e s fo r women . . . th ere are two w o r ld s, one fo r women and one I fo r men . . . women have f a i l e d . . . they have f a i l e d . . . th ey have fa ile d " (TG, 1 4 1 ). The o u t s id e r in t e r p r e t s th e se m essages not as new ! I 'but as o ld , h ark in g back to Creon, the d ic t a t o r : j | I i Whomsoever the c i t y may a p p o in t, th a t man must be obeyed, in * ; l i t t l e th in g s and g r e a t , in j u s t th in g s and u n ju st . . . j : d is o b e d ie n c e i s the w orst o f e v i l s . . . . W e must support the ! cause o f o r d e r , and in no w ise s u f f e r a woman to w o rst u s . j (TG, 141) I 1 i i jWith c a p it a l and fo r c e behind him, Creon shut A ntigone not in H olloway I I . . . . j fprispn nor in a c o n c e n tr a tio n camp, but in a tomb. But such a c tio n j \ I 'brought ru in to h is house and covered h is land w ith th e s c a tte r e d dead, j ! I ;The v o ic e s o f the p a st sound l i k e the v o ic e s o f the p r e s e n t, says the j ! J ^ outsider. The b od ies o f the dead in C reon's land con n ect w ith the j photographs o f ruined hou ses and dead bod ies coming from contemporary j I Spain . I Force has undergone a metamorphosis s in c e the o u t s id e r f i r s t j jsta r te d r e f i n i n g i t . F i r s t , she r e je c te d im personal fo r c e s which cause j w a r and fo cu sed on human n atu re which i s fr e e to choose and to 76 .in flu e n c e . But then she proved th a t women have l i t t l e in f lu e n c e and ; th e r e fo r e l i t t l e c h o ic e . Next she i d e n t i f i e d in flu e n c e w ith f o r c e , and both words took on meanings o f d om inating, r u lin g , k i l l i n g , and com peting. She a ls o lin k ed them to atmosphere (sexism ) and i n f a n t i l e j f ix a t io n . The fa th e r s in a p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y did t h e ir b e s t to ( r e s t r i c t t h e ir d a u g h ters, j u s t as f a s c i s t s in Europe r e s t r i c t e d o t h e r s , I j iand the whole s tr u g g le r e p e a ts the ru in Creon brought upon h i s land by j i | d e s tr o y in g A ntigon e. j i , The o u ts id e r r e f i n e s , or " r e d e fin e s" in M artin P r i c e ' s s e n s e , other' 4 1 1 i ito p ic s which p o in t to a s im ila r r i g id dichotom y between educated men and! ! ! ’ d au ghters o f educated men: men's pow erful in flu e n c e versu s women's j n e g l i g i b l e in f lu e n c e ; the d a u g h te rs' p r iv a te home l i f e v e r su s t h e ir b r o th e r s ' p u b lic l i f e ; Mary K in g s le y 's " u n p aid -for ed u ca tio n " v e r su s j * I ."A rthur's E ducation Fund"; the paid versu s u n p a id -fo r p r o fe s s io n s ; th e j I d a u g h te rs' tea ch er s in the p r iv a te h om e--p overty, c h a s t i t y , d e r i s i o n , j | 1 and freedom from u n real l o y a l t i e s - - v e r s u s the tea ch er s o f t h e ir brothers! ! I i in p u b lic l i f e - - p o s s e s s i v e n e s s , j e a lo u s y , p u gn acity and greed; th e 1 I i 'l it e r a t u r e o f f a c t and th e l i t e r a t u r e o f f i c t i o n . I ! | 1 Through the r h e t o r ic a l tech n iq u es o f appeal to a u th o r ity , ! i I , ( (ju x ta p o s itio n , d im in u tio n , in t e r r o g a t io n and refinem en t o f the t o p ic , ! |the o u t s id e r has c re a ted a p r o g r e s s iv e accum ulation o f i r o n i e s , i .dependent upon th e r h e t o r ic a l s it u a t i o n o f a male law yer ask in g a woman ! |fo r h er a d v ic e on how to preven t war. T his ir o n ic s it u a t i o n d ic t a t e s [what appears to be a sim p le s tr u c tu r e : th ree p a r ts , th ree g u in e a s , and jthree c a u s e s . The o u t s id e r g iv e s a gu in ea to a woman's c o l l e g e , one to a woman's p r o f e s s io n a l s o c i e t y , and one to the male c o r r esp o n d en t's peace s o c i e t y , but she r e fu s e s to j o in th a t s o c i e t y . When th e se th ree jcauses are o u t lin e d sim p ly and s t a r k ly , they lo o k l i k e a s y llo g is m ; y e t th e f i r s t two cau ses seem unconnected to the f i n a l d e c is io n to r e fu s e to jo in th e male c o r r e sp o n d e n t’s peace s o c i e t y . The o u ts id e r must make the l o g i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n n e c tio n s, and th a t c a l l s fo r complex |s t r a t e g i e s . As K atherine Woods’s e a r ly review p o in ts o u t, readers do i i !not at f i r s t se e th a t the broader is s u e o f human c i v i l i z a t i o n i s a t I I s ta k e . They fo llo w two stream s o f thought: women's independence and jthe p rev en tio n o f war. Sometimes th ese stream s touch and m ingle; j j i som etim es they are se p a r a te . The cou rse i s not alw ays ea sy to f o l l o w . ^ The o u ts id e r makes i t d i f f i c u l t to fo llo w because she must lea d her correspon d en t g r a d u a lly , s te p by s t e p , to h e r c o n c lu s io n s . She would |l o s e him im m ediately i f she began by s a y in g , "We w i l l s ig n your I p e t i t i o n ; we w i l l donate to your peace s o c i e t y , S i r , but we w i l l not j o i n your s o c i e t y b ecause i t o p p resses women." The o u ts id e r lea d s her !correspon d en t in apparent d ig r e s s io n s w h ile she s k i l l f u l l y draws the c o n n ectio n s between them and war. The complex is s u e s she r a is e s are so in t e r r e la t e d th a t sh e cannot d is c u s s on e, the war, w ith o u t r a is in g the I !o th e r , th e tyranny o f a p a tr ia r c h a l system . S * iE p is to la r y Form and C la s s i c a l O ration The s tr u c tu r e o f Three G u ineas. th en , i s a ls o com plex. I t b egin s ‘as a p erso n a l l e t t e r to an in d iv id u a l and tu rns in t o a form al o r a tio n jin which p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y i s on t r i a l . L e t t e r s , as Jane Marcus jn o te s , were "the approved and o f t e n the o n ly means o f e x p r e ssio n fo r 1 r\ m iddle c l a s s women.' Marcus s e e s W o o lf's c h o ic e o f the e p is t o la r y form, n e a r ly two c e n tu r ie s a f t e r C l a r i s s a , as a d e lib e r a t e t a c t i c . \ \ W o o lf's anger a t the se p a r a te n e ss o f p a tr ia r c h y i s a l l the more | i ;e f f e c t i v e because i t i s " cab in 'd and c r ib b 'd " in lim ite d and lim it in g I [ l e t t e r s . Some c r i t i c s o b j e c t to d e s c r ib in g gen res as h av in g g en d ers. i [Can the l y r i c or the romance be c l a s s i f i e d as m ascu lin e or fem in ine? |Perhaps genres in th em selves have no gender; y e t when th ey become ;p u b lic , they a cq u ire one. In the s o c i a l - p o l i t i c a l c o n te x t o f Three i G u in eas, the form o f the c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n i s co n fin ed alm ost s o l e l y to ! jsp h eres o f d ir e c t in flu e n c e such as th e law , the Church, or th e I p r o f e s s io n a l w orld. These d ir e c t sp h eres o f in f lu e n c e , as the o u ts id e r p o in ts o u t, are n ot open to women (TG. 1 2 ). T h erefo r e, th e c l a s s i c a l i 'o r a tio n becomes, in the s o c i a l - p o l i t i c a l s e n s e , m a scu lin e. And, as the jo u ts id e r a g a in n o t e s , w h ile women can c e r t a in ly w r ite l e t t e r s or i a r t i c l e s and send them to the^ p r e s s , th e d e c is io n on what to p r in t i s I j i !in male hands (TG, 1 2 ). I t i s thus th a t even th e l e t t e r form, w hich i s ‘ [ ! open to women, becomes a lim ite d and li m it in g method o f in f lu e n c e . The; ! I o u t s id e r may v ery w e ll ask: "But r h e to r ic a p a rt, what a c t iv e method i s j (open to us [women]?" (TG, 1 2 ). She u ses r h e to r ic to transform th e ; I ! j lim it e d and li m it in g method o f a l e t t e r in t o a c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n in I •which she argues th a t th e seed s o f a f a s c i s t regim e l i e in p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y . To my knowledge, no c r i t i c has n o tic e d the s tr u c tu r e o f the c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n u n d e rly in g W o o lf's Three G uineas. The o u t s i d e r 's jsp e ech f a l l s rou gh ly in t o the s i x p a r ts o f C ic e r o 's c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n : 1 13 exordium , n a r r a t iv e , p a r t i t i o n , c o n fir m a tio n , r e f u t a t io n , p e r o r a tio n . * 79 The exordium , o r in tr o d u c tio n , i s the o u t s i d e r 's e f f o r t to make h er i aud ien ce w e ll d isp o se d toward h e r , to ca tch a t t e n t io n , and to awaken s u f f i c i e n t t r u s t to make the audien ce w i l l i n g to l i s t e n to h e r . This I i s , un m istakab ly, th e s t r a t e g y o f th e f i r s t few pages o f Three G uineas: The o u ts id e r s t a t e s th e male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's q u e s tio n , d e s c r ib e s him, and p r e s e n ts h e r s e l f as s in c e r e , humane, o b j e c t i v e , and com petent. The n a r r a tiv e i s g iv e n to background: P arts One and Two g iv e the 'n ecessary d ata on the la c k o f women's e d u c a tio n a l and p r o f e s s io n a l j « I [o p p o r tu n itie s . The p a r t i t i o n , sometimes combined w ith n a r r a tiv e , i (fo r e c a s ts the s t a g e s o f the o r a tio n to fo llo w . The o u ts id e r does j i • l * io u tlin e the th ree s t e p s w hich h er male corresp on d en t urges h er to ta k e , ; ! i f i but d e fe r s d is c u s s in g them u n t i l Part Three. The c o n fir m a tio n , th e j jburden o f the d is c u s s io n and th e proof o f the argument, comes n e x t. j iThe o u ts id e r r e l i e s on s e v e r a l modes o f c o n fir m a tio n : e th o s * I 4 ( ( e s t a b lis h in g h er own c h a r a c te r as s u f f i c i e n t l y tru stw o rth y to g iv e h er I j [words a u t h o r it y ) , path os (a ro u sin g f e e l i n g s o f h orror in h er a u d ien ce, [ p a r tic u la r ly through r e p e t i t i o n o f the war photographs and im ages) and j ;logos (u sin g male f a c t s and sta tem en ts to prove h e r c a s e ) . ^ She lo o k s j I I jfor proof o u ts id e h er r h e t o r ic (b iograp h y, h i s t o r y , p sy ch o lo g y ) and j l | w ith in the v ery n a tu re o f h er p r e s e n ta tio n (enthymemes and j i l l u s t r a t i o n s ) . F o llo w in g the co n firm a tio n i s the r e f u t a t io n o f i jopposing v ie w s. As the o u ts id e r d e v e lo p s h er c a s e , she a n t ic ip a t e s jopposing arguments through h er mock man and o u t s id e r v o ic e s . The jr e fu ta tio n i s fo llo w e d by a p e r o r a tio n , a c o n c lu s io n , an o p p o rtu n ity |f o r r e c a p i t u l a t io n , or a m p lific a tio n or fo r a l a s t appeal to f e e l i n g . A genuine p e r o r a tio n o ccu rs at the end o f each s e c t i o n o f Three G uineas. 80 (Part I I I O u tlin ed w ith the s ix - p a r t c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n in mind, Three Guineas lo o k s l i k e t h i s : Exordium: E a r n e st, s in c e r e , and o b j e c t iv e , th e daughter o f an educated man responds to male law yer who r e q u e sts h er h e lp in p rev en tin g war P a rt I D elay o f male co rr esp o n d en t's th r e e r e q u e sts ( p a r t it io n ) N a r r a tiv e : Women's unpaid f o r ed u ca tio n versu s men's paid- fo r ed u ca tio n ; women's la c k o f in f lu e n c e ; need fo r women's e d u ca tio n ( p a r t i t i o n , c o n fir m a tio n , r e f u t a t io n , peroration) The o u t s id e r g iv e s a gu in ea to a woman's c o l le g J = i Fewer p r o f e s s io n a l o p p o r tu n itie s and low er pay ; f o r women because o f "atmosphere" ; P art I I ( p a r t i t i o n , c o n fir m a tio n , r e fu ta tio n , p eroration). The1 " o u t s id e r g iv e s a gu in ea to a woman's p r o f e s s io n a l s o c i e t y Return to male co rr e sp o n d e n t's th ree r e q u e sts 1. O u tsid er s ig n s th e p e t i t i o n f o r peace 2. O u tsid er g iv e s a gu in ea to male co r r e sp o n d e n t's peace s o c i e t y 3. O u tsid er r e fu s e s to j o in male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's peace s o c i e t y a. O u ts id e r 's S o c ie ty - "new model o f b eing" b. P a tr ia r c h a l S o c ie ty - o ld model w hich j p r o t e c t s male dom ination o f women | P r iv a te and p u b lic w orlds are in se p a r a b ly | conn ected { 1. "C onnections" made between the fe a r fo r b id - I d in g freedom in the p r iv a te home (women's I o p p r e ssio n ) and the fe a r fo r b id d in g freedom in p u b lic w orld (war) 2. War photographs which move men and women ! to h o rro r and d is g u s t are transform ed to " p ic tu r e s" o f th e ty ra n t 3. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f in d iv id u a ls w ith th a t p ic t u r e o f th e ty ra n t C la s s i c a l S tr u c tu r e o f Three Guineas The s tr u c tu r e j u s t o u tlin e d i s c e r t a in ly not ob viou s to th e c a su a l r ea d er . I do n o t s u g g e st th a t W oolf ex p ected h er readers to se e t h is e l ab orate q u t l i n e . _ I do su g g e st th a t sh e e x pecte d th em to p ic k up th e P a r t i t io n : C o n fim a tio n : and R e fu ta tio n : P er o r a tio n : 81 ' tone o f a form al sp eech , a sharp c o n tr a s t w ith readers* e x p e c ta tio n s o f a f r ie n d ly l e t t e r or an in form al e s s a y . P art o f the o u t s i d e r 's argument i s th a t, g iv e n the o p p o r tu n itie s o f e d u c a tio n and p r o f e s s io n , women are cap ab le o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e q u a lit y w ith mem The o u ts id e r dem onstrates jher i n t e l l e c t u a l s k i l l w ith both forms: th e l e t t e r and the o r a tio n . She p la y s "the g en tlem a n 's game." The t e x t r e v e a ls h er f a m i l i a r i t y w ith 1 th e c l a s s i c a l form o f o r a t io n . The l e t t e r s to each o f her corresp on d en ts b eg in w ith an exordium, they o u t lin e arguments fo r and a g a in s t h er p r e m ise s, and they conclud e w ith what sh e e x p r e s s ly j I d e s c r ib e s as a p e r o r a tio n (" the p e r o r a tio n indeed was o n ly j u s t | I I beginn ing" TG, 39; "Here, r i g h t l y , you w i l l check what has a l l th e { j symptoms o f becoming a p e r o r a tio n . . ." .TG, 54; "And by c u t t in g sh o rt j t th e p e r o r a tio n l e t us hope . . . " TG, 8 3 ) . These d ir e c t r e fe r e n c e s | I I i iaccom plish two g o a ls : th ey dem onstrate th e o u t s i d e r 's s k i l l in h er ! • i knowledge o f the c l a s s i c a l form and th ey s a t i r i z e th e male tendency to j : longw indedness by sometimes c u t t in g sh o rt longwinded p e r o r a tio n s and a t J j o th e r tim es im it a tin g them. j The whole o f Three Guineas i s a major l e t t e r or speech to the male .co rresp o n d en t form ing a s ix - p a r t o r a tio n . W ithin th a t major speech are i ; ! s h o r te r sp eech es a ls o fo llo w in g th e s ix - p a r t s t r u c t u r e , proving th a t j ] ■women have been d isc r im in a te d a g a in s t in ed u c a tio n and p r o f e s s io n s . The j J j p resen ce o f th e se sh o r t sp eech es accou n ts f o r the p resen ce o f s e v e r a l i |in t r o d u c t io n s . < ! The major in tr o d u c tio n to Three G u ineas, e s t a b l i s h i n g the o u t s i d e r ' s d e f e r e n t i a l , o b j e c t iv e tone and drawing a p ic tu r e o f her male co rresp o n d en t, has a lr ea d y been an a ly zed . W ithin the la r g e r l e t t e r 82 or sp eech , th ere are a t l e a s t fou r o th er in tr o d u c tio n s to sm a lle r l e t t e r s or sp e e c h e s. The f i r s t o n e, to the fem ale tr e a s u r e r o f a Jwoman's c o l l e g e , e x p r e sse s doubts about h er r e q u e st fo r 1 00,000 pounds |to b u ild a c o l le g e : how can she be so f o o l i s h as to r e q u e st th a t amount when th ree hundred m illio n pounds have a lrea d y been a llo c a t e d fo r war? I (TG. 3 1 ). The second one, to the fem ale tr e a s u r e r o f a woman's p r o f e s s io n a l s o c i e t y , e x p lo r e s the c o n tr a d ic tio n s o f th e p overty o f women and men's cen su re o f them as r ic h , i d l e and a p a th e tic (TG, 4 1 ). I i iThe th ir d one i s another l e t t e r to the same fem ale tr e a s u r e r a c q u it t in g \ ; x t h er o f th o se charges (TG, 5 9 ). The fou rth one o ccu rs when th e o u t s id e r | t i retu rn s to h er male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's th ree r e q u e s ts: to s ig n a m anifesto- p ,p le d g in g h e r s e l f to p r o te c t c u ltu r e and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i b e r t y , to j o in a j I I p eace s o c i e t y , and to donate funds to th a t s o c i e t y (TG, 8 5 ). I I Each o f th e s e in tr o d u c tio n s a ls o s u g g e sts p a r t i t i o n , th e d i v i s i o n ! o f th e l e t t e r s o r sp eech es in to p a r ts . C onfirm ation and r e f u t a t io n ! I f o llo w each p a r t it i o n . For exam ple, from biography and h i s t o r y , th e j I io u tsid e r i l l u s t r a t e s th ree d if f e r e n c e s between h e r s e l f and h er { corresp on d en t: e d u c a tio n , p a tr io tis m , and a t t it u d e s toward war. With ! : I I W h ita k er's f a c t s and q u o ta tio n s from male a u t h o r i t i e s , she r e f u t e s male ja ccu sa tio n s a g a in s t women. By tr a c in g the h is t o r y o f n in e te e n th cen tu ry ^middle c l a s s women im prisoned in t h e ir homes, she co n clu d es th a t i f women are to have in f lu e n c e , th ey must be ed u cated , p r o f e s s io n a l, and in d ep en d en tly w ea lth y . F i n a l l y , th e p e r o r a tio n o f each s e c t io n o f Three Guineas c a l l s fo r a r i t u a l f i r e alon g w ith the o u t s i d e r 's d o n a tio n o f a ! jguinea w hich w i l l e i t h e r d e s tr o y the o ld system or c e le b r a t e the new t r a d it i o n o f the c o o p e r a tio n o f men and women. The s tr u c tu r e o f the su p p osed ly m ascu lin e c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n behind the su p p osed ly fem in ine e p i s t o l a r y form r e s u l t s in an ir o n i c joke on men and e s t a b lis h e s the atm osphere o f a t r i a l where the r h e t o r ic o f the co u rt can come in to p la y . Part o f th a t r h e to r ic i s r e p e t i t i o n . W o o lf's t r i a d i c r e p e t i t io n s have been n oted in Jane ^Marcus' i (a n a ly s is o f The Y ea rs. Marcus tr a c e s the in f lu e n c e on Woolf o f Jane g a r r i s o n ' s stu d y o f p r e - c l a s s i c a l Greece which showed woman to be a [ s p i r i t u a l so u rce o f s o c i e t y ' s r i t u a l s o f ren ew al. H arrison dem onstrated ! | [th a t the Mother Goddess was d e p ic te d as a d u a lit y or t r i n i t y , and even i claim ed th a t th e con cep t o f t r i n i t y was e x c l u s i v e l y tr a c e a b le to w orship | ! Iof th e god d ess. W oolf, who knew and p u b lish ed Jane H a r r iso n 's work, i used t h is t r i n i t y and the "rhythm ic, r e p e t i t i v e th ree" as an e x c i t i n g metaphor fo r h er a r t . ^ I ? B. R h eto ric o f A ffir m a tio n \ i \ ; W o o lf's hope in women's power to renew s o c i e t y i s communicated in ; ! th r e e p e r o r a tio n s in which the o u t s id e r s u g g e s ts r i t u a l f i r e s to !c e le b r a t e women's d e s tr u c tio n o f o ld system s and c o n s tr u c tio n o f new [ i • i | j o n e s . In Part One the o u t s id e r wants to d e s tr o y th e o ld plan o f j 'e d u c a tio n based on c o m p e titio n , d om in ation , and i n t e l l e c t u a l d is h o n e s ty ] I She in v e n ts a n o te w hich r e a d s : Take t h is gu in ea and w ith i t burn th e c o l l e g e to the ground. S e t f i r e to the o ld h y p o c r is ie s . Let the l i g h t o f th e burning b u ild in g sc a r e the n ig h t in g a le s and in ca r n a d in e the w illo w s . And l e t the daughters o f educated men dance around th e f i r e and heap arm ful upon armful o f dead le a v e s upon th e fla m es. And l e t t h e ir mothers le a n from th e upper windows and c r y , 'L et i t b la z e ! L et i t b la z e ! For we have done w ith t h is " e d u c a tio n " !' (TG, 36) 84 In P art Two, th e o u t s id e r encourages women to j o in p r o fe s s io n s in ord er to have a mind and w i l l o f t h e ir own w ith w hich to f i g h t d om in ation , p o s s e s s iv e n e s s , and greed: Take t h is gu in ea then and use i t , not to burn th e house down, but to make i t s windows b la z e . And l e t the daughters o f uneducated women dance around the new h o u se , th e poor h ou se, th e house th a t stan d s in a narrow s t r e e t where om nibuses pass and the s t r e e t hawkers cry t h e ir w ares, and l e t them s in g , 'We have done w ith war.1 W e have done w ith tyranny.' ' (TG, 83) { The o u ts id e r c e le b r a t e s h er own freedom in P art T hree, h er freedom I ! !to g iv e a gu in ea to th e male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's peace s o c i e t y , su g g e stin g ‘ th a t the word " fe m in ist" be burned: ; i S in ce the o n ly r i g h t , th e r ig h t to earn a l i v i n g , has been | won, the word [ f e m in is t ] no lo n g er has a meaning. . . . Let us t h e r e fo r e c e le b r a t e th e o c c a s io n by crem ating the co rp se. . . . Look, how i t burns.' What a l i g h t danced o v er the world.'1 . . . The word 'f e m i n is t ' i s d e str o y e d , th e a ir i s c le a r e d ; and in th a t c le a r e r a i r what do we see? Men and women w orking to g e th e r fo r the same ca u se. (TG, 1G1-102) This c le a r v i s i o n o f men and women working to g e th e r ca p tu res the hope j I [which the o u ts id e r tucks away in a n o te on A n tig o n e 's sea rch fo r the , [law: the hope th a t men and women w i l l be ab le to work to g e th e r , d ev elo p ‘f u l l y , and improve in q u a lit y w ith o u t su rren d erin g t h e ir s p e c ia l J ! I [ c h a r a c t e r is t ic s (TG. 1 8 4 -1 8 5 , n . 4 2 ) . The v i s i o n in s p ir e s h er to say to[ i Iher male corresp on d en t: "Put t h is penny can d le in the window o f your t inew s o c i e t y , and may we l i v e to see the day when in the b la z e o f our common freedom the words ty r a n t and d ic t a t o r s h a l l be burnt to a sh e s, [because th e words ty ra n t and d i c t a t o r s h a l l be o b s o le te " (TG, 1 0 3 ). [These th ree p e r o r a tio n s , coming a t the end o f each o f th e th r e e s e c t io n s o f Three G uin eas, dem onstrate the o u t s i d e r 's d e s ir e not o n ly to su b vert th e p a tr ia r c h a l system , but a ls o to a ffir m a new one in w hich men and [women w ould be work in g to g e th e r . As F ish er p o in ts o u t, "to su b v ert an o ld image i s , in e f f e c t , to a ffir m a new o n e . "16 One may then wonder why, i f th e o u t s i d e r ’s u ltim a te g o a l i s to s e e men and women w orking i lto g e th e r , she i n s i s t s on a se p a r a te s o c i e t y fo r women. She does so becau se women th em selves must f i r s t le a r n to work w ith each o th e r , to r e a l i z e t h e ir s is t e r h o o d , to b u ild up t h e ir own i d e n t i t y , and to i r e in fo r c e t h e ir own s tr e n g th and g i f t s . She argues what Brenda Hancock c a l l s th e "pro woman" l i n e which promotes s is te r h o o d among women to i r e s tr u c tu r e s o c i e t y , so th a t power r e la t io n s h ip s w i l l be minimal or in o n - e x is t e n t , and so th a t women can r e a l i z e t h e ir own w orth . U j i ! 1 R efinem ent o f th e Topic \ A , I « t i i ! i ! Another example o f the o u t s i d e r 's pro woman l i n e i s h er attem pt to; d e f in e the new "force" which met the male dom inating fo r c e in the ' i i jn in e te e n th c e n tu r y . The o u ts id e r a ffir m s by n e g a tio n s in c e she says j j | th a t t h is new fo r c e i s n ot the fo llo w in g : " fem inism ," "em ancipation o f | ; women," " a n t i - F a s c is t ," o r " L ib erty , e q u a lit y and f r a t e r n i t y ." Y et I i i | when the o u t s id e r m entions th e se term s, the word " fo rce" takes on a j l i t t l e o f a l l th e s e m eanings. Not even "freedom" s e r v e s , fo r i t was j I I j "not freedom in th e se n s e o f li c e n s e th ey [dau ghters o f educated men] 'w an ted ; they w anted, l i k e A n tigon e, not to break the la w s, but to fin d ! th e law" (TG, 1 3 8 ). i N otes | Tucked away in a le n g th y n o te i s the o u t s i d e r ’s e x p la n a tio n o f A n tig o n e 's search fo r law , perhaps the most a f f ir m a t iv e statem en t about j i human n atu re in Three G u in eas. For A n tigon e, th e r e were two k in d s o f law : w r it t e n and u n w r itte n . The daughters o f educated men o f the n in e te e n th cen tu ry did n o t want to break th e w r it t e n law s; th ey wanted t o d is c o v e r what th e u n w ritten laws w ere, the p r iv a te laws th a t r e g u la tJ [c e r ta in i n s t i n c t s , p a s s io n s , m ental and p h y sic a l d e s ir e s o f human ! jnature. These laws have to be d isc o v e r e d a fr e sh by s u c c e s s iv e I i Jgenerations by t h e ir own reason and im a g in a tio n . However, s in c e reason j and im agin ation e x i s t in b od ies and th o se b o d ies are male and fem ale j I and th e s e b o d ies d i f f e r fu n d am en tally, i t i s c le a r th a t th e laws th ey I l ip e r c e iv e have been d i f f e r e n t l y in te r p r e te d . D e sp ite th e f a c t th a t , ; I ! .accord ing to J u lia n H uxley, "the su p e r str u c tu r e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l and ! i j ip r a c tic a l l i f e i s p o t e n t i a l l y the same in both s e x e s ," i t i s c l e a r th a t > I th e sex es d i f f e r and w i l l always d i f f e r . The o u t s id e r h o ld s o u t hope, j i ihowever: I I 1 I f i t were p o s s ib le not o n ly fo r each sex to a s c e r t a in what 1 law s h o ld good in i t s own c a s e , and to r e s p e c t each o t h e r 's law s; but a ls o to sh are the r e s u l t s o f th e se d i s c o v e r i e s , [ i t might be p o s s i b l e fo r each se x to d ev elo p f u l l y and | improve in q u a lit y w ith o u t su rren d erin g i t s s p e c i a l ! c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . (TG, 185) l ; I f t h is could happen, then,; the o ld co n cep tio n th a t one s e x must dom inate the o th er would become o b s o le t e and o d io u s, th e o u ts id e r i I jc o n c lu d e s. i j I t i s ob viou s th a t th e o u t s id e r le a n s more h e a v ily on su b v e r siv e r h e t o r ic to undermine th e p a tr ia r c h a l sy stem , but the above examples I i l l u s t r a t e h e r attem pt to b u ild a new image o f the r e l a t i o n betw een men i and women, one o f c o o p e r a tio n , to r e p la c e the one o f male d om ination. I 1 _ The ou t s id e r a ls o u ses r e a f f i r mat i v e r h e t o r ic to g e t h er f i c t i o n a l male correspon d en t to agree w ith h e r . She draws upon v a lu e s w hich she can assume th ey both h o ld s in c e he did ask h er how th e y , t o g e th e r , could p reven t war. They both a g r e e , fo r exam ple, on at l e a s t th e s e : the i abom ination o f war, th e power o f the human in d iv id u a l, ed u ca tio n which Sseeks i n t e l l e c t u a l and em otion al tru th fo r i t s own sa k e , and the Jimportance to human c i v i l i z a t i o n o f p r e se r v in g c u ltu r e and i n t e l l e c t u a l 18 i l ib e r t y . The r e a ffir m a tio n o f th e s e v a lu e s r e s u lt s in a s e r i e s o f (p ro g ressiv e i r o n i e s . The ir o n y o f b e li e v in g th a t th e se v a lu e s are upheld in a I I Ip a tr ia rch a l s o c i e t y in c r e a s e s w ith ev ery f a c t the o u t s id e r ex p o se s. •Each tim e she s u g g e s ts one o f th e s e v a lu e s , she dem onstrates how ' I I ( ' [p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y has f a i l e d th a t v a lu e . F i r s t , th e male law yer and ! I 1 sh e agree th a t human b ein g s are n ot pawns or puppets; y e t n e a r ly ev e r y , i 'male a u th o r ity which the o u t s id e r c i t e s d e s c r ib e s women as pawns or •puppets. N ex t, the f i n e s t e d u ca tio n in the w orld , in s te a d o f tea c h in g j 'men to h a te f o r c e , has tau gh t them to use i t ; fo r the o u t s id e r 's f a c t s | i show th a t the le a d e r s o f England, men educated in th e f i n e s t u n i v e r s i t i e s and presumably taught the v a lu e s o f c u ltu r e and in t e l l e c t u a l l i b e r t y , have den ied to women equal e d u c a tio n a l, p r o f e s s io n a l, and j (economic o p p o r t u n it ie s . T h erefo r e, the o u ts id e r con clud es th a t the f o r c e behind the c o m p e titiv e and dom inating p a t r ia r c h a l system o f England, w hich d e s c r ib e s i t s e l f as a s o c i a l democracy, i s n e a r ly as bad as th e system o f a Creon or a H i t l e r . ) These ir o n i e s su b v e rt p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y and a ffir m the in d iv id u a l man o r woman. Through the r h e to r ic o f r e a ffir m a tio n and su b v e r sio n , th en , the o u t s id e r undermines p a tr ia r c h y , but sh e a ls o a ffir m s a new 88 image o f c o o p e r a tio n , econom ic and e d u c a tio n a l e q u a lit y , and tru th t e l l i n g . I The answers to the o u t s i d e r 's q u e stio n s on e d u c a tio n , c i v i l i z a t i o n , I i n t e l l e c t u a l and em otion al l i b e r t y do n ot l i e o n ly in the l i t e r a t u r e o f f a c t s . They l i e a ls o in th e l i t e r a t u r e o f f ic t i o n - - A n t ig o n e , fo r i [example. The e f f e c t o f power and w ea lth upon C reon's s o u l i s profoundly. I . , lanalyzed , says the o u t s id e r , and i t i s a fa r more i n s t r u c t i v e a n a ly s is ' I I ,of tyranny than any p o l i t i c i a n cou ld o f f e r . And A n tig o n e 's d i s t i n c t i o n | . ! ;between the w r itte n laws and u n w ritten Law i s a fa r more profound ; I i sta tem en t o f the d u t ie s o f th e in d iv id u a l to s o c i e t y than any j s o c i o l o g i s t could o f f e r . 1 i i . S in ce f a c t s do not t e l l the w hole s t o r y , i t i s n e c e ss a r y fo r Woolf j .1 jto c r e a te a f i c t i o n to g e t a t the tr u th . The o u t s id e r , the male ' j ! c o r r e s p o n d e n t, the fem ale t r e a s u r e r s , the l e t t e r , the q u e s tio n from a : :man to a woman (how do we p reven t war?) are a l l f i c t i o n s . Paradox- j : i \ i l i c a l l y , the f a c t s d is c u s s e d by th e s e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c te r s a c t u a ll y j I [ e x i s t . Those f a c t s come from the men whom the o u t s id e r e i t h e r proves to j i 'be f o o ls (Joad and W ells) or whose in s ig h t s support h er own c o n c lu s io n s j i I I(Baldw in and G ren stead ). I n ! e it h e r ca se she l e t s them hang th em selves i jw ith t h e ir own w ords. By ju x ta p o sin g f a c t s w ith f i c t i o n W oolf a ch ie v es an ir o n ic mode w hich i s supported by the r h e t o r i c a l tech n iq u es o f appeal, to a u th o r ity , j u x t a p o s i t i o n , d im in u tio n , in t e r r o g a t io n , refin em en t o f th e t o p ic , and th e u se o f e p i s t o l a r y form to mask a c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n . Male in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f f a c t become f i c t i o n (som ething n o t t r u e ) , and an oth er f i c t i o n (som ething Woolf makes up to communicate r e a l i t y ) becomes the way to tru th (a r e a l - f i c t i o n ) . Marcus says th a t through . t q u o ta tio n W oolf sought to rob h is t o r y o f i t s power over women. The sh e e r w eig h t o f f a c t s in th e form o f a s c h o la r ly n o te i s a form o f the p o s s e s s io n o f th e tr u th , the i n t e l l e c t u a l p a c i f i s t o u t s i d e r 's o n ly 19 weapon. i 90 N otes In "The New Biography" in C o lle c te d E s s a y s , IV (New York: H arcourt, Brace & World, 1 9 6 7 ), 229, Woolf says th a t the tru th o f fa c t and the tru th o f f i c t i o n are in c o m p a tib le . Yet in h er n o v e ls and c e r t a i n l y in A Room o f One1s Own and Three G uineas, she b len d s them s u c c e s s f u l l y ; Marder, p. 20, n o te s th a t because Woolf could n ever r e s t r i c t h e r s e l f to one genre a t a tim e, "Three Guineas has som ething in common w ith h er n o v e ls ." 2 F is h e r , "A M otive View," p. 132. 3 Marcus, "No More H o r ses," pp. 2 7 2 -7 3 . 4 Hummel, p. 154, th in k s th a t Woolf has to use the male form o f argument. I th in k W oolf ch ooses to use i t , both fo r c r e d i b i l i t y (p roof th a t she can argue as w e ll as men can) and fo r s a t i r e (her mock man v o ic e r i d i c u l e s male arguments w h ile seem ing to a g r e e ) . 5 S ea rs, p. 214, s a y s: "The more im peccably the Speaker documents h e r ca se a g a in s t p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y the more t e r r i b l e i t s f a c t s appear." R ose, p. 220, sa y s: "R arely s in c e Matthew Arnold has q u o ta tio n been used to such d e v a s ta tin g e f f e c t . " ^ One may w e ll ask " e x c e ssiv e " fo r whom? For the men who do not want to h ear any more e v id e n c e o f a p a tr ia r c h a l s o c ie ty ? Marder a ls o s e e s W o o lf's p reo ccu p a tio n w ith measurement as "sour grapes" b ecau se sh e was angry a t the e x c lu s io n o f women and coveted the e d u c a tio n a l ad vantages o f men. Marder does n o te , how ever, th a t Woolf favored the kind o f e d u ca tio n which would do away w ith co m p etitio n and s p e c i a l i z a t io n w h ile p r e se r v in g the advantages o f academic tr a in in g . 7 Marcus, "No More H o rses," p. 275. 8 (M. T u lliu s C ic e r o ), R h eto rica ad Herennium, tr a n s . Harry Caplan, Loeb C la s s i c a l L ibrary (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. P r e ss , 1 9 5 4 ), I V .lv . 6 8 . See a ls o C harles A lle n Beaumont, S w i f t 's C la s s i c a l R h eto ric (A thens: U niv. o f G eorgia P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 2 9 -3 0 , who a p p lie s t h is same con cept to S w ift. 9 R h eto rica ad Herennium. I V . x l i i . 5 4 . 10 M artin P r ic e , S w i f t 's R h e to r ic a l A rt: A Study in S tr u c tu r e and Meaning (New Haven: Y ale Univ. P r e s s , 1953)V PP* 2 7 -3 1 . P r ic e 's a n a ly s is o f " r e d e fin itio n " in S w ift i s u s e f u l in my a n a ly s is o f W oolf. H Woods, p. 5. 12 Marcus, "No More H o r ses," p. 274. 12 M. T u lliu s C ic e r o , De I n v e n tio n e , tr a n s . H. M. H u b b ell, Loeb C la s s i c a l L ibrary (1949; r p t. Cambridge: Harvard U niv. P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 ), I . x i i i . 1 9 - l v i . 109. 1^ A r i s t o t l e , R h e to r ic . I . 1354a-1356a. i i 12 Marcus, "The Years as Greek Drama," pp. 277 and 279. I 1® F ish e r , "A M otive View," p. 138. 1 i • 17 Brenda Robinson Hancock, " A ffirm ation by N egation in th e j [Woman's L ib e r a tio n Movement," Q u a rterly Jou rn al o f S p eech , 58 (October ' [1972), 268. I I | ; 12 A r i s t o t l e , R h e to r ic , I I .1 3 9 8 b .12. This i s the in d ir e c t appeal i to the a u th o r ity o f s o c i e t y as a w h o le, th e appeal to " previou s ! judgm ent," to a " n e cessa r y tr u th ." See a ls o M. Fabius Q u in t ilia n , The ! I n s t i t u t i o O r a to ria o f Q u in t i lia n , tr a n s. H. E. B u t le r , Loeb C la s s i c a l 'Library (1921; r p t. Cambridge: Harvard U niv. P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ), V . x i . 3 6 -3 7 . ' I : 1 19 Marcus, "Thinking Back Through Our M oth ers," p . 3. i I Chapter IV Three Guineas and A Room o f One's Own j The purpose o f t h i s ch ap ter i s to r e l a t e th e themes and method o f I I Three Guineas to W o o lf's e a r l i e r and b e t t e r known e s s a y , A Room o f One's j iOwn (1 9 2 8 ). We have a lr e a d y seen how W oolf, a t h in ly d is g u is e d outsider, jescapes in t o o th e r v o ic e s through th e chameleon "we," the ir o n ic I ‘j u x t a p o s it io n o f f i c t i o n and f a c t , and a c l a s s i c a l s tr u c tu r e which draws I Ion lo g i c and o b j e c t iv e argument d is g u is e d by an in fo rm a l l e t t e r . In A Room o f One's Own, W oolf e sca p es in t o th e person ae o f what I c a l l the l f a l l i b l e "I" and the f i c t i o n a l " I," th e ir o n ic j u x t a p o s itio n o f f i c t i o n I and f a c t , and a c l a s s i c a l s t r u c tu r e d is g u is e d by a charming s t o r y . ' - ■ * ’ " ' In A Room o f One's Own"< WooIf p arod ies h e r s e l f as a w r ite r who i s e c o n o m ic a lly in d ep en d en t, has t r a v e l l e d , and need n o tfra M ,J a g a in § t men. |"Fear and h a tred were alm ost gone, or tr a c e s o f them showed o n ly in a [ S lig h t e x a g g e r a tio n o f th e jo y o f freedom , a tendency to th e c a u s t ic land the s a t i r i c a l , r a th e r than the rom antic, in h er treatm ent o f the 1 I ! jo th e r sex" (R00, 9 6 ). W o o lf's "tendency to the c a u s t ic and the ! s a t i r i c a l " i s i l l u s t r a t e d in A Room o f One's Own where sh e c r e a te s a \ ------------------------------------- m a ste r p ie c e o f " concealm ent," th e v ery a t t r ib u t e o f the "angel o f the h ouse" w hich W oolf wanted to k i l l . W oolf d e s c r ib e s t h i s Angel in ; i" P r o fe s s io n s fo r Women": 93 D ir e c t ly , th a t i s to sa y , I took my pen in hand to review th a t n o v e l by a famous man, she [th e A ngel] slip p e d behind me and w hisp ered : 'My d ea r, you are a young woman. You are w r itin g about a book th a t has been w r it t e n by a man. Be sy m p a th etic; j be ten d er; f l a t t e r , d e c e iv e ; u se a l l th e a r ts and w ile s o f our s e x . Never l e t anybody gu ess th a t you have a mind o f your own. Above a l l , be pure.-*- I The w hole th r u st o f A Room o f O ne's Own i s a g a in s t t h i s " a n g e lic" i 1 i jd o ctrin e; th e e s s a y champions tr u th , e q u a lit y , c r e a t i v i t y , and the [independence o f the " in ca n d escen t m ind," free d o f the impediments o f I jfe a r , an ger, and economic dependence. Yet t h is championing i s a c h ie v ed , ^ ir o n ic a lly , th r o u g h (r h e to r ic a lY 'c o n c e a ltn e n t." W oolf c r e a te s two . ^ — ------- I p erso n a e, th e f a l l i b l e "I" and th e f i c t i o n a l " I," who s e t up s i t u a t i o n s j ♦ ,in which " [ f ] i c t i o n . . . i s l i k e l y to c o n ta in more tru th than fa c t" j ! (R00, 4 ) . The ir o n y i s th a t s in c e th e r e are few f a c t s about women and ; i. : I f i c t i o n , the o n ly way to g e t a t th e tru th i s through fa n ta s y . The—■ ! ; ~ T o s - ^ lycs- c j s y isecond^-ch; anteTi of-=this--study._showed~tlva?t- W oolf forced h e r s e l f to keep i l h e r own f ig u r e f i c t i t i o u s and leg en d a ry in A Room o f One's Own fo r fe a r I I 1 9 ’ th a t c r i t i c s would sa y , "She has an axe to g r in d . * So W oolf cre a ted (the f a l l i b l e " I." i i i , j ■A.- - P e r s o n a e The F a l l i b l e "I"~ and the" F ic tio n a l-" .!" | I The f a l l i b l e "I" o c c u p ie s the f i r s t two pages and the l a s t ten jpages o f the^/essay. She i s W oolf, th e w r it e r who has been asked to !speak to c o l l e g e women a t G irton and Newnham on th e to p ic o f women and | f i c t i o n . But she does n o t a c t l i k e an e x p e r t who has a l l th e answers f jand who s e t s h e r s e l f above h er a u d ien ce. R ather, she e s t a b l i s h e s a ton e o f intim acy, and c r e a te s between h e r s e l f and h er au d ien ce a i ) 941 community o f be 1 ievers^ w h o,--t ogether., w i l l l i s t e n to a " story" about women and f i c t i o n in th e hope o f d is c o v e r in g th e tr u th . W oolf a r t i c u l a t e s two shared assum ptions a lr e a d y e x i s t i n g between h er fem ale au d ien ce and h e r s e l f : f i r s t , she has a u th o r ity as a rec o g n ized n o v e l i s t and c r i t i c ; seco n d , the women l i s t e n i n g to h er are in t e r e s t e d in th e to p ic o f women and f i c t i o n . She a ls o c r e a te s some assu m p tio n s. The s u b je c t i S C t - c o m p l e * and c o n t r o v e r s ia l because se * alw ays i s . L ectu res can o n ly g iv e in s ig h t s in t o com plex tr u th s ; they cannot c la im to have ready answ ers, p la in n u g g ets o f tru th to wrap u p .iri a notebook and d is p la y on a m a n telp ie ce (R00, 3 ) . S in ce i t i s not p o s s i b l e to t e l l the tru th about c o n t r o v e r s ia l and complex t o p ic s , she jven-fceres on ly a b ia se d " o p in io n ," prom ises to t e l l a " story" on how she a r r iv e d at th a t o p in io n and l e t s h er au dience ju d ge f o r i t s e l f . One advantage o f t h i s — p ose i s th a t a com plim entary view o f her audiencer-is- c o n s tr u c te d : i n t e l l i g e n t , fem a le, in t e r e s t e d in th e to p ic o f women and f i c t i o n , f u l l o f common se n se and a b le to scCEf out th e tr u th from a b ia se d p r e s e n ta tio n . Woolf accom p lish es what Ong s a y s ( 'T ) ev e r y w r it e r a cco m p lish e s: sh e f i c t i o n a l i z e s h er a u d ien ce.^ She r e p e a te d ly a d d resses h er aud ien ce d i r e c t l y , a t one p o in t a sk in g the b a n terin g q u e s tio n : "Are th e r e no men p resen t? Do you prom ise me th a t behind th a t red c u r ta in ov er th ere the f ig u r e o f S ir C hartres Biron i s n o t con cealed ? We are a l l Women, you assu re me?" (R 00, 8 5 ). W oolf w r it e s in h er d ia r y th a t C liv e B e l l o b je c te d to t h i s tone b ecause i t was too much l i k e " G ir ls , come round me"; o th e r s a ls o o b je c te d .^ W o o lf's p lo y , how ever, a llo w s h er a second advantage; she can speak n o t o n ly d i r e c t l y to th e women but a ls o i n d i r e c t l y to th o se men 95 who are o n ly overh earin g or read in g over W oolf's sh o u ld e r. She i s in a f p e r fe c t p o s it io n to pose as notj knowing much in the ey es o f her male audience and, at the same tim e, to s a t i r i z e th e ir e d u c a tio n , p o l i t i c s , and r e l i g i o n - - t h e p a tr ia r c h a l system o f England. Her language can be in te r p r e te d as s e lf - d e p r e c a t i n g by the m ales in h er read ing au d ien ce: "I should never be ab le . . . A ll I could do. . . . 1 have sh irk ed the d u ty. . . . one can on ly show . . . l i m i t a t i o n s , p r e ju d ic e s , th e— t en t a t ivenes-s--o~fMTe-r remarks w ith "perhaps" and "might luccu. - ^ f i c t i o n i s d e l i b e r a t e l y b lu r r e d , and f i c t i o n becomes the way to t e l l the tr u th about women and f i c t i o n . one cannot r e a l l y sep a r a te them. Yet th e f a l l i b l e "I" i n s i s t s on s e l f - I i j d e fin itio n and se p a r a tio n : " ( c a l l me Mary Beton, Mary S eto n , Mary Carmichael or by any name you p l e a s e - - i t i s not a m atter o f any ^importance) " (R00, 5 ) . These c h a ra cte rs r e p r e se n t the cum ulative ^experience o f a l l women, e s p e c i a l l y o f women w r it e r s . Mary Beton i s Jboth the n a rra to r and th e aunt who l e f t a le g a c y to her n a m e s a k e ^ Mary Seton i s a ls o two p e o p le , th e head o f a woman's c o l l e g e and th e mother of t h ir t e e n c h ild r e n . Mary Carm ichael i s a m yth ica l n o v e l i s t . The names are in te r c h a n g e a b le , c o v e r in g the range o f fem ale e x p e r ie n c e and W o o lf's p erso n a l e x p e r ie n c e s as w e ll . The f i c t i o n a l " I," th en , i s everywoman. Woolf counts on her fem ale audience to i d e n t i f y w ith th ese nam eless Marys. She em phasizes t h e ir nam elessn ess by p la c in g th e ir names in p a r e n th e se s , t r e a t in g them in a s id e s , and s a y in g , " it i s not id io s y n c r a s ie s " (R00, 3 - 4 ) . She c o n c e a ls h er r e a l purpose th ir d advantage o f t h i s -poae. i s th a t the d i s t i n c t i o n between f a c t and B ecause the f a l l i b l e "I" t e l l s th e s to r y about t h e ^ f i c t i o n a l " I," 96 a m atter o f any im portan ce," cou n tin g on h er fem ale audience to r e c o g n iz e the oppcTsTfce o f what she s a y s . / J , 1 ) . . . Both th e ^ fa llib le ^ 'r -* " who in tro d u ces the story,-;, and th e f i c t i o n a l " I," who t e l l s th e s t o r y , convey double m essa g es.^ For exam ple, h er <fpose' fo r men i s m ock(d.eferencej^/"But th e se 'exh o rta tio n s’}can s a f e l y , I th in k , b e ^ le f t to th e o th er s e x , who w i l l put them, and indeed have put / them, w ith fa r g r e a te r eloq u en ce than I can compass" (R00, 1 1 4 ). Woolf cou n ts on h er fem ale audience to re c o g n iz e th e ir o n y . A second example i s her comment regard in g research on women: That p rofou n dly i n t e r e s t i n g s u b j e c t , the v a lu e th a t men s e t upon women's c h a s t i t y and i t s e f f e c t on t h e ir e d u c a tio n , here s u g g e s ts i t s e l f fo r d is c u s s i o n , and m ight provide an i n t e r e s t i n g book i f any stu d en t a t G irton or Newnham cared to go in t o the m atter. (R00, 67) / W oolf counts on h er fem ale audience to r e c o g n iz e the iro n y and on th e men to cap tu re h e r v ^ t e n t a t iv ^ p la y fu ln e s s : i t "might" be an in t e r e s t i n g stu d y " if" any stu d en t "cared" to go in to the m atter. B. J u x ta p o s itio n o f Fact and F ic t io n In a d d itio n to e s t a b l i s h i n g the ir o n y o f double m essages, th e f a l l i b l e and f i c t i o n a l "I" a ls o s e t up the dichotom y between f a c t and f i c t i o n . The f a l l i b l e "I" s a y s , "Lies w i l l flo w from my l i p s , but th ere may be some tr u th mixed up w ith them; i t i s fo r you to seek out t h is tr u th and to d e c id e w hether any p art o f i t i s worth keeping" (R00, 4 ) . The f i c t i o n a l "I" a ls o sp o o fs the n e c e s s i t y o f s t i c k i n g to f a c t s as a measure o f th e tru th : As I have sa id a lr e a d y th a t i t was an O ctober day, I dare not f o r f e i t your r e s p e c t and im p e r il th e f a i r name o f f i c t i o n by 97 ch anging the sea so n and d e s c r ib in g l i l a c s hanging over garden w a l l s , c r o c u s e s , t u l i p s and o th e r flo w ers o f s p r in g . F ic t io n must s t i c k to f a c t s , and the tru e r the f a c t s the b e t t e r th e f i c t i o n - - s o we are t o l d . (R00, 16, emphasis added) Her ex aggerated language ("dare not f o r f e i t your r e sp e c t and im p e r il the f a i r name o f f ic t i o n " ) and h er a s id e ("so we are to ld " ) im ply th a t both f a c t and f i c t i o n are o n ly " in te r p r e ta tio n s " o f tr u th . D e sp ite t h is c h a lle n g in g o f the tr u th o f f a c t s , th e f i c t i o n a l "I" u ses them to e s t a b l i s h c r e d i b i l i t y . The f i c t i o n a l Mary S e to n 's d e s c r ip t io n o f the d i f f i c u l t y o f c o l l e c t i n g t h i r t y thousand pounds fo r ja women's c o l l e g e i s documented w ith f a c t s from Lady S tep h en s' L if e o f M iss Emily D a v ie s , a b iograph y, and R. S tr a c h e y 's The C ause, a h is t o r y . These n o tes str e n g th e n th e f i c t i v e Mary's s to r y . The f i c t i o n a l "I" goes to the B r i t is h Museum to d is c o v e r the tru th about why women are p oor, fo r " i f tru th i s not to be found on th e 'sh elv es o f the B r i t is h Museum, where . . . i s truth?" (R00, 2 5 -2 6 ). tYet th e f a c t s she fin d s th ere about women and p overty are in a d eq u a te. 'F ir s t, th ey are b ia s e d , a l l w r itte n by m e n --d o c to r s, b i o l o g i s t s , " agreeab le e s s a y i s t s , l i g h t - f i n g e r e d n o v e l i s t s , young men who have taken th e M.A. d egree; men who have taken no d egree; men who have no apparent q u a l i f i c a t i o n s save th a t th ey are not women" (R00, 2 7 ). Second, her l i s t o f t w e n ty -fiv e h ead in gs t r e a t s women as i f th ey were o n ly b i o l o g i c a l specim ens ("Sm all s i z e o f b rain of" . . . "G reater le n g th o f l i f e of" ) , id e a l g od d esses ("Worshipped as god d esses by" . . . ."Idealism o f " ) , or i n f e r i o r b ein gs ("M ental, moral and p h y sic a l i n f e r i o r i t y o f " ). Her l i s t ends w ith c o n f l i c t i n g o p in io n s o f famous men. Hope, for exam ple, sa y s: "most women have no ch a r a c te r a t a ll" (R00, 2 8 -2 9 ). The f i c t i o n a l "I" i r o n i c a l l y con clu d es : _____ ____________ __________________________ 98 I could not p o s s ib ly go home, I r e f l e c t e d , and add as a serious c o n tr ib u tio n to th e stu d y o f women and f i c t i o n th a t women have l e s s h a ir on t h e i r b od ies than men, or th a t the age of puberty among South Sea I sla n d e r s i s n in e - - o r i s i t n in ety ? (R00, 30) W o o lf's fem ale audience w i l l c l e a r l y re c o g n iz e the i m p l i c i t ir o n y in h er pose as an in n o cen t q u e s te r o f tru th in the m y s tify in g maze o f b iased f a c t s in a p a tr ia r c h a l w orld. At the end o f h er sp eech i t w i l l be c le a r th a t she i s not so in n o cen t a f t e r a l l , fo r at the b eg in n in g she d e l i b e r a t e l y s e t up h e r s e l f to be the b ia se d f a l l i b l e sp eak er on ly to r e v e a l a t the end th e b ia se d f a l l i b i l i t y o f men in a p a tr ia r c h a l ^ society. R e je c tin g h er m orning's work in the B r i t is h Museum as a w aste o f tim e , she draws a p ic tu r e o f P r o fe ss o r von X, author o f The M en ta l, Moral and P h y s ic a l I n f e r i o r i t y o f Women: He was h e a v ily b u i l t ; he had a g r e a t jow l; to b alance th a t he had v ery sm a ll e y e s ; he was very red in th e f a c e . His e x p r e s s io n su g g este d th a t he was la b o u rin g under some em otion th a t made him jab h is pen on the paper as i f he were k i l l i n g I some noxiou s in s e c t as he w ro te, but even when he had k i l l e d i t th a t did not s a t i s f y him; he must go on k i l l i n g i t ; and even s o , some cau se f o r anger and i r r i t a t i o n rem ained. (R00, 31) The f i c t i o n she in v e n ts about P r o fe ss o r von X 's anger has more p s y c h o lo g ic a l tr u th than a l l the f a c t s she has gath ered in the B r it is h ! Museum. The p s y c h o lo g ic a l tr u th o f her own anger i s a ls o apparent. H ating P r o fe s s o r von X 's t h e s is th a t women are i n f e r i o r , she draws c i r c l e s over th e angry p r o f e s s o r 's fa c e u n t i l i t i s no lo n g er human. Having vented h er an ger, she con clu d es th a t a l l th e books she c o n su lte d th a t morning on the h a b its o f th e F i j i I sla n d e r s are u s e le s s because th ey were w r itte n in th e "red l i g h t o f emotion" and not in the "white l i g h t o f 99 tr u th . . . . A ll th a t I had r e t r ie v e d from th a t m orning's work had been the one f a c t o f anger" CROP, 33, em phasis added). The j u x t a p o s itio n o f th e in a d eq u a te, b ia sed f a c t s gath ered in th e B r i t i s h Museum about women w ith the one f a c t o f anger d eriv ed from the f i c t i v e P r o fe s s o r von X ex p o ses a t l e a s t one o f the male m yths, th a t i s , th a t men are o b j e c t iv e , f a c t u a l , and un em otion al. One o f the b e s t exam ples o f s a t i r i z i n g p a tr ia r c h a l a u th o r ity occu rs in th e d e s c r ip t io n o f Mr. Oscar Browning, a Cambridge exam iner o f the s tu d e n ts a t G irton and Newnham: Mr. Oscar Browning was wont to d e c la r e 't h a t th e im p ressio n l e f t on h i s mind, a f t e r lo o k in g over any s e t o f exam ination p a p ers, was t h a t , ir r e s p e c t i v e o f the marks he m ight g iv e , the b e s t woman was i n t e l l e c t u a l l y th e i n f e r i o r o f the w orst m an.' A fte r sa y in g th a t Mr. Browning went back to h i s room s--and i t i s t h i s s e q u e l th a t endears him and makes him a human fig u r e o f some bulk and m a je s ty --h e went back to h i s rooms and found a s t a b le -b o y ly in g on the s o f a - - ' a mere s k e le t o n , h is cheeks were cavernous and s a llo w , h i s t e e th were b la c k , and he did not appear to have the f u l l use o f h is lim b s. . . . 'T h a t's A rthur' [ s a id Mr. Brow ning]. 'H e's a dear boy r e a l l y and most h ig h -m in d e d .' The two p ic tu r e s alw ays seem to me to com plete each o th e r . And h a p p ily in t h is age o f biography the( two p ic tu r e s o f t e n do com plete each o th e r , so th a t we are able to in t e r p r e t the o p in io n s o f g r e a t men not o n ly by what they s a y , but by what th ey do. (R00, 55) B row ning's la c k o f l o g i c - - t h a t any woman i s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n f e r i o r and any s t a b le boy s u p e r i o r - - i s c l e a r l y dem onstrated. Y et the f i c t i o n a l "I' n ever says t h is d i r e c t l y . She counts on her i n t e l l i g e n t fem ale audience to r e c o g n iz e the ir o n y o f h er sta tem en t th a t the se q u e l "endears him anc makes him a human fig u r e o f some bulk and m a jesty ." Another example o f w it t y ir o n y o ccu rs when the f i c t i o n a l "I" muses on the la c k o f women w r it e r s in the s ix t e e n t h cen tu ry . I t would have been ex trem ely odd, even upon t h is show ing, had one o f them suddenly w r it t e n th e p la y s o f Shakespeare, I co n clu d ed , and I thought o f th a t o ld gen tlem an, who i s dead 100 now, but was a b ish o p , I th in k , who d e c la red th a t i t was im p o ssib le fo r any woman, p a s t, p r e s e n t, or to come, to have the gen iu s o f Shakespeare. He w rote to the paper about i t . He a ls o t o ld a lad y who a p p lied to him fo r in fo rm a tio n th a t c a t s do not as a m atter o f f a c t go to h eaven, though they h a v e, he added, s o u ls o f a s o r t . How much th in k in g th o se o ld gentlem en used to save one! How the borders o f ignoran ce shrank back at t h e ir approach! Cats do not go to heaven. Women cannot w r ite the p la y s o f Shakespeare. (R00, 48) The p r e te n se o f a g r e e in g w ith the bishop r e s u lt s in ir o n y . " P a st, p r e s e n t, or to come" makes the b is h o p 's pronouncement sound l i k e God. He even w r ite s to the newspaper about the im p o s s ib ili t y o f women's g e n iu s , as i f newspapers always p r in ted the tr u th . He then d e c la r e s "as a m atter o f fa c t" th a t c a ts do not go to h eaven, but they may have s o u ls o f a s o r t . Then comes the sta tem en t o f mock g r a t e f u ln e s s : "How much th in k in g th o se o ld gentlem en used to save one! Cats do not go to h eaven . Women cannot w r ite the p la y s o f Shakespeare." The j u x t a p o s it io n o f th e s e two i l l o g i c a l pronouncements makes the bish op lo o k l i k e a f o o l . The s to r y a ls o prepares W o o lf's readers fo r the .wonderful in v e n tio n o f S h a k esp ea re's s i s t e r , Judith, as a w r it e r . That f i c t i o n d em onstrates more tru th about women's s i t u a t i o n than a l l the good b ish o p 's " f a c t s ." A lthough the f i c t i o n a l "I" q u e s tio n s f a c t s , she a ls o u ses them in n o te s e i t h e r to support her f i c t i o n or to provid e ir o n ic c o u n te r p o in t. In Chapter One, the f i c t i o n a l Mary i s supported w ith f a c t s in two n o te s ; ■in Chapter Two the f a c t s gath ered in the B r it is h Museum are r e j e c t e d as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y about women in fa v o r o f th e one f a c t o f men's anger I i dem onstrated by a c tio n s o f P r o fe s s o r von X. I r o n i c a l l y , th e two n o te s in Chapter Two document men's fe a r or awe o f women. T r e v e ly a n 's H isto r y i s p it t e d a g a in s t S h ak esp eare's f i c t i o n in Chapter Three to uncover a 101 "very queer thing" about the image o f woman: " Im a g in a tiv e ly she i s o f th e h ig h e s t im portance; p r a c t i c a l l y she i s co m p le te ly i n s ig n if i c a n t " (R00, 4 5 ). I f women had no e x is t e n c e save in f i c t i o n w r itte n by men, women would be co n sid ered o f the utm ost im portance, but as T r e v e ly a n 's f a c t s p o in t o u t, women were "locked up, b ea ten , and flu n g about the room." Three n o te s document t h is id e a . One p o in ts out the " strange and in e x p lic a b le fa c t" th a t in r e a l l i f e A thenian women were kept in O r ie n ta l su p p r e ss io n , but on th e s t a g e , th ey e q u a lle d or su rp assed men.8 The o th e r two n o tes document F lo ren ce N ig h t in g a le 's agony over male su p p r e ssio n o f women and Dr. John son 's famous dictum con cernin g a woman p reach er, tran sposed in t o terms o f m u s ic --" S ir , a woman's composing i s l i k e a d o g 's w alk in g on h i s hind l e g s . I t i s n ot done w e l l , but you are su r p r ise d to fin d i t done a t a ll" (R0O, 5 6 ). Chapter Four makes up fo r the la c k o f f a c t s on women in the B r i t is h f Museum by tr a c in g the h is t o r y o f women in l i t e r a t u r e from the se v e n te e n th to the n in e te e n th c e n t u r ie s . The th r e e n o te s in t h i s ch ap ter are e s p e c i a l l y ir o n i c s in c e they r e f e r to the s u c c e s s f u l woman w r it e r , Jane A usten. One n o te documents A u sten 's o b s e r v a tio n th a t "women never have a h a l f hour . . . th a t they can c a l l t h e ir own"; th e o th e r two d e s c r ib e male c r i t i c s ' resp o n ses to A u sten 's n o v els (R00, 70, 7 8 ). One c r i t i c i z e s h er m eta p h y sica l purpose as a dangerous o b s e ss io n fo r a woman because women r a r e ly p o s se s s men's h e a lth y lo v e o f r h e to r ic ; the o th er com plim ents h e r f o r a s p ir in g to e x c e lle n c e by cou rageou sly acknow ledging the l i m it a t io n s o f h er s e x . A ll th r e e n o te s h ig h lig h t the d i f f i c u l t i e s o f a woman's attem pt to w r ite in a d isc o u r a g in g and cond escending atm osphere. D esp ite th e se d i f f i c u l t i e s , Austen was 102 ■ su ccessfu l. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t th a t Chapter Four i s the o n ly ch ap ter in A Room o f One's Own w ith o u t a f i c t i v e c h a r a c te r , o th e r than the f i c t i v e jstory t e l l e r , o f co u r se . I t i s a s u b tle u n d erscorin g o f th e s o l i d f a c t s o f t h i s ch a p ter: new in form ation about women w r ite r s to be c o n tr ib u te d to the B r i t is h Museum. In c o n t r a s t , Chapter F iv e i s the o n ly one to c o n ta in no r e fe r e n c e s to h is t o r y or biography. This i s s i g n i f i c a n t because in Chapter F ive th e f i c t i v e Mary Carm ichael ap p ears, the exp erim en tal woman n o v e l i s t who does not s u f f e r the econom ic d isa d v a n ta g e s o f women in the p a st and i s a s e lf - p a r o d y o f W oolf. T his ch a p ter i s n o t documented because i t i s f t h i s t o r y in the making. Chapter S ix in tr o d u c e s the model o f C o le r id g e ’s androgynous mind, |the "mind f u l l y f e r t i l i z e d and u sin g a l l i t s f a c u l t i e s , " c r e a t i v e , in c a n d e s c e n t, u n d iv id ed , l i k e th a t o f Shakespeare. U nlik e Shakespeare, j low ever, the f i c t i v e Mr. A, a modern w r it e r , i s f u l l o f the p erp en d icu la r "I" and borin g in d ecen cy . Shakespeare d e sc r ib e d in d ecen cy Lor p le a s u r e , but Mr. A does i t to p r o t e s t a g a in st the e q u a lit y o f the o th e r sex by a s s e r t in g h i s own s u p e r io r i t y . T h e r e fo r e , h is w r it in g i s im peded, in h ib it e d , and s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . This s to r y i s a w arning th a t men as w e ll as women run the danger o f becoming in h ib it e d in a p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y . " It i s f a t a l fo r anyone who w r it e s to th in k o f t h e ir sex" (R00. 1 0 8 ). The n o te s in t h is ch ap ter quote two male ^ a u th o r itie s, S ir Arthur Q u iller-C o u ch on the need fo r money in order to w r ite and John D avies on the u s e le s s n e s s o f women ex c e p t to bear c h ild r e n (R00, 111, 1 1 6 ). The former su pp orts the n a r r a to r 's b a s ic argument on the need fo r econom ic independence i f one i s to w r it e , and 103 the l a t t e r i l l u s t r a t e s the n e g a tiv e atmosphere a g a in s t which women w r ite r s s t r u g g le . Diagrammed accord in g to f a c t u a l n o te s and f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c te r s , A Room o f O ne's Own looks l i k e t h is : Ch. 1 - - f i c t i v e Mary Seton (fem ale stu d en t a t Fernham), giv en c r e d i b i l i t y by n o te s documenting th e s tr u g g le to b u ild a woman' s c o 11e g e . Ch. 2 - - f i c t i v e Mary Beton (aunt who l e f t the f i c t i o n a l "I" a le g a c y w hich g iv e s h er economic freedom to w r i t e ) ; f i c t i v e P r o fe sso r von X (male author o f The M ental, Moral and P h y s ic a l I n f e r i o r i t y o f Women) w ith n o tes documenting men's fe a r and awe o f women. Ch. 3 - - f i c t i v e J u d ith (S h ak esp eare's s i s t e r ) documented w ith th ree n o te s on the c o n tr a s t between r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f women in f i c t i o n and in r e a l l i f e (Shakespeare v e r su s T r e v e ly a n ), men's disparagem ent o f women (S. Johnson) and women's s u f f e r in g (F. N ig h t in g a le ) J . Ch. 4 - - no f i c t i v e c h a r a c te r A h i s t o r y o f a c tu a l women w r ite r s from the se v e n te e n th to the n in e te e n th c e n t u r ie s documented w ith ir o n i c n o te s to male c r i t i c s who damn A usten w ith f a in t p r a is e . Ch. 5 - - f i c t i v e Mary Carm ichael (exp erim en tal woman n o v e l i s t w ith ou t th e econom ic d isa d v a n ta g e s o f women in the p a s t ) . No r e fe r e n c e s because t h is i s h is t o r y in th e making, V ir g in ia W oolf h e r s e l f . Ch. 6 - - f i c t i v e Mr. A (modern male n o v e l i s t impeded by sex c o n s c io u s n e s s ); a n o te to Arthur Q u iller-C o u ch on the n e c e s s i t y o f economic s e c u r it y fo r the making o f a w r it e r and John D a v ie s' remark: "When c h ild r e n c e a s e to be d e s ir a b le , women c e a s e to be a lt o g e t h e r n e c e s sa r y ." F a c t - F ic t io n P a tter n in A Room o f One's Own The ch a rt makes i t e a sy to s e e th e s a t i r i c m ixture o f f a c t and f i c t i o n in A Room o f One's Own. The f a c t - f i c t i o n dichotom y sp o o fs the predom inantly male n o tio n th a t one can pin down a n ugget o f tru th w ith f a c t s and s e t s th e s ta g e fo r the s p e a k e r 's argum en tative s y n th e s is a t th e end. 104 C. C la s s i c a l S tru c tu r e The s tr u c tu r e o f the c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n u n d erly in g th e charming e s s a y A Room o f One's Own has been as u n n o ticed as i t has been in Three G u in eas. The f i r s t two pages form the exordium , p rep arin g th e audience to r e c e iv e the speaker and making each l i s t e n e r a t t e n t i v e and w e ll - d isp o se d to th e sp eak er. C au tion in g h er au dien ce th a t the s u b je c t i s overw helm ingly com plex, Woolf c r e a te s the f a l l i b l e " I," c la im in g th a t a l l she can do i s o f f e r a c o n c lu s io n on a minor p o in t, the p r o cess by jwhich she a r r iv e d a t i t , and l e t h er audien ce s i f t out the tr u th behind h e r s t o r y . L ike the o u ts id e r in Three G u in eas, the f a l l i b l e "I" in L Room o f One1s Own com plim ents the good se n se o f h er aud ien ce and c r e a te s them in her own im age. However, th e r e i s a d if f e r e n c e in p r e s e n t a t io n . U n lik e Three Guineas where the o u ts id e r le a d s h er corresp on d en t g r a d u a lly to th e f i n a l c o n c lu s io n , the n a r r a to r in A Room o f One's Own s t a t e s h er c o n c lu sio n f i r s t and then d e s c r ib e s the p ro cess by which she a r riv ed a t i t . Having warned h er aud ien ce th a t " f i c t i o n h ere i s l i k e l y to c o n ta in more tru th than f a c t , " the f a l l i b l e "I" i s fr e e to t e l l h er 'Story about th e f i c t i o n a l "I:" The c l a s s i c a l n a r r a tio n e i t h e r s e t s fo r th th e whole c a se or d ig r e s s e s to a tta c k someone. In t h is e s s a y th e n a r r a tio n s e t s f o r th the w hole c a s e , subsuming both the p a r t i t i o n , which l i s t s the jpoints to be proven, and the con firm ation, which makes i t s c a se through argum ent. The n a r r a tio n , r e f u t a t io n , and p e r o r a tio n are c l e a r l y marked w ith t r a n s i t i o n s : "Here then was I ( c a l l me Mary B eton, Mary S eto n , Mary C arm ichael)" (5) . . . "Here, then Mary Beton c e a se s to speak" 105 (109) . . . "Here I would s to p ." (114) One s to r y d e s c r ib e s a v i s i t to O xbridge, the man's c o l l e g e , and Fernham, the woman's c o l l e g e , c o n tr a s tin g t h e ir b u ild in g s , t h e ir food , t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s . Another s t o r y d e s c r ib e s th e t r ip to the B r i t is h Museum to resea r ch "Women and P o v er ty ," and th e r e s u lt i n g disap poin tm ent in i t s la c k o f in fo rm a tio n . A th ir d c o n tr a s ts S h a k esp ea re's f i c t i o n a l view o f women w ith T r e v e ly a n 's h i s t o r i c a l v iew . I t soon becomes c le a r th a t the s t o r i e s p r esen t a s t r a t e g y o f what •Edwin B lack c a l l s "argum entative s y n th e s is ." ^ The f i c t i o n a l "i" in v e n ts P r o fe ss o r von X, author o f The M ental, M oral, and P h y s ic a l I n f e r i o r i t y o f the Female S e x , to rep re se n t one t h e s i s : in the p a s t , women have not w r itte n f i c t i o n because they are i n f e r i o r to men. The s t o r i e s p r e se n t the a n t it h e s e s : women have f a i l e d to w r it e f i c t i o n in th e p a s t, n ot because th ey were i n f e r i o r , but b ecause th ey lack ed e d u c a tio n a l and f i n a n c i a l independence. The f i c t i o n a l "I" s k i l l f u l l y in terw eaves f ic t i o n - - S h a k e s p e a r e 1s s i s t e r , J u d ith , whose g en iu s was w asted , And Mary C arm ichael, th e ex p erim en ta l fem ale n o v e l i s t who may prove h e r s e l f - - w i t h f a c t , th e B ro n tes, Austen and E l i o t , women who w rote s i g n i f i c a n t f i c t i o n d e s p it e the o b s t a c le s . Von X 's t h e s is and the n a r r a to r 's a n t i t h e s i s are both subsumed, how ever, in t o a s y n th e s is : the androgynous mind, the mind " f u l ly f e r t i l i z e d " and u s in g a l l i t s f a c u l t i e s , the mind c o o p e r a tin g f u l l y w ith the manly and womanly s id e s o f i t s e l f (R00, 1 0 2 ) . 10 Having f in is h e d the s t o r i e s which form th e argument fo r t h is new s y n t h e s i s , th e f i c t i o n a l "I" l e t s the f a l l i b l e " I” take o v er. This i s th e r e f u t a t io n which shows th e op p on en t's arguments to be e i t h e r in v a lid 106 or weaker than the s p e a k e r 's argum ents. The f a l l i b l e "I" chooses the l a t t e r s t r a t e g y , s e t t i n g up th ree p o s s ib le o b je c tio n s o f the au d ien ce to h e r p o s it io n o n ly to knock them down w ith p e r su a siv e e v id e n c e . These straw arguments are s im ila r to th e o u t s i d e r 's p la y in g " d e v il' s advocate" in Three G u in eas. They a ls o i l l u s t r a t e th e c a r e f u l a t t e n t io n o f the f a l l i b l e "I" to her fem ale a u d ien ce; she must now dem onstrate her c r e d i b i l i t y . The f i r s t o b je c tio n the au d ien ce m ight have i s th a t she has not compared the m erits o f men and women w r it e r s . That was done p u rp o se ly , 1 sa y s th e f a l l i b l e " I," because she does n o t b e lie v e th a t " g i f t s , w hether o f mind or c h a r a c te r , can be w eighed l i k e sugar or b u tte r , n ot even in Cambridge, where they are so adept a t p u ttin g p eop le in to c l a s s e s and f i x i n g caps on t h e ir heads and l e t t e r s a f t e r t h e ir names" (ROO. 1 0 9 ). Anyway, the p i t t i n g o f one sex a g a in s t th e o th er o n ly ends in " taking I s id e s " and "measuring" which i s i m p o s s i b l e . ^ The second o b je c tio n the au d ien ce might have i s th a t she may have ex a g g er a ted the im portance o f m a te r ia l th in g s : Even a llo w in g a generous margin fo r sym bolism , th a t f i v e hundred a year stan d s fo r the power to co n tem p la te, th a t a lo c k on th e door means th e power to th in k fo r o n e s e l f , s t i l l you may sa y th a t th e mind should r i s e above such th in g s ; and t h a t g r e a t p o ets have o f t e n been poor men. (R00, 110) To answer t h is ch arge, she q u o tes " dreadful f a c ts " from S ir Arthur Q u iller -C o u ch : o f the tw elve g r e a t p o ets in the l a s t 100 y e a r s , a l l but th r e e were U n iv e r s ity men and o n ly one was not f a i r l y w e ll - t o - d o . The tr u th o f the m a tter, says the f a l l i b l e " I," i s th a t a poor poet h a s n 't a "dog's chance" o f w r itin g p o etry (ROO, 1 1 1 ). The poor p o et in England has l i t t l e more chance to w r ite than A thenian s la v e s cou ld have 107 had. The argument o f the f i c t i o n a l "I" becomes a s y llo g is m : I n t e l l e c t u a l freedom depends on m a te r ia l th in g s . P oetry depends on i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom. And women have always been poor . . . have had l e s s i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom than th e sons o f A thenian s l a v e s . Women, th en , have n ot had a d o g 's chance o f w r it in g p o e tr y . (ROO, 112) The th ir d and l a s t o b j e c t io n asks why the f i c t i o n a l "I" a tta c h e s so much im portance to th e w r it in g o f books) by women i f i t ca u ses so much h a rd sh ip . F i r s t , she sa y s: "Like most uneducated Englishwomen, I l i k e |read in g. . . . L a te ly my d i e t has become a t r i f l e monotonous. . . . T h erefore I would ask you to w r ite a l l kinds o f books" (ROO, 11 3 ). ■Books have a way o f in f lu e n c in g each o th er so th at a t r a d it i o n o f women I jw riters can be b u i l t . Second, good books w r itte n by good w r ite r s a llo w 'readers to glim pse r e a l i t y more c l e a r l y . C le a r ly , the f a l l i b l e " I 1 1 has accum ulated co n v in c in g e v id e n c e th a t sh e i s n o t so f a l l i b l e , a f t e r a l l . The f a c t s she has m arsh alled and the s t o r i e s she has t o ld do e s t a b l i s h h er a u th o r ity and con n ect w ith the r e a l i t y o f h er fem ale a u d ien ce. She i s now ready fo r the p e r o r a tio n , which can sum up, i n c i t e in d ig n a tio n a t th e opp onent, o r arouse p it y fo r the sp ea k er. She does n o t arouse p it y fo r h e r s e l f , but she does sum up and she does con tin u e le r ir o n i c a tta c k on th e o p p o s ite s e x . She a c t u a ll y in c lu d e s th ree p ero ra tio n s: a c o n v e n tio n a l one she ought to g iv e , but does not; a n oth er c o n v e n tio n a l one w hich she fla u n ts ; and f i n a l l y , h er r e a l c o n c lu s io n , an e lo q u en t m essage to women on i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom and c r e a t i v i t y . i At f i r s t she preten d s th a t she would end h er sp eech r ig h t th ere w ith her answers to h er a u d ie n c e 's p o s s ib le o b j e c t io n s , but "convention 108 d ecre es th a t ev e r y speech must end w ith a p ero ra tio n " : I sh ou ld im plore you to remember your r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , to be h ig h e r , more s p i r i t u a l . . . . But th o se e x h o r ta tio n s can s a f e l y , I th in k , be l e f t to the o th e r s e x , who w i l l put them and indeed have put them, w ith fa r g r e a te r eloq u en ce than I can compass. (ROO, 114-115) N ex t, she breaks the con ven tion which t e l l s her th a t a woman should sa y som ething d is a g r e e a b le to w'dmen. The tru th o f th e m atter i s th a t she l i k e s women, t h e i r " u n c o n v e n tio n a lity ," t h e ir " s u b t le t y ," t h e ir i 'feiionymity" (ROO, 1 1 5 ). But she sto p s h e r s e l f , l e s t she be accused o f p r a is in g h er own se x too h ig h ly . She c h id e s h e r s e l f to become s te r n w ith h er a u d ien ce, summing up the w arnings o f mankind--O scar Browning, P r o fe ss o r von X, Napoleon and M u sso lin i--a n d adding th a t warning from John L. D a v ies: ". . . when c h ild r e n c e a se to be d e s ir a b le , women < c e a s e to be a lt o g e t h e r n ecessa ry " (ROO. 1 1 6 ). These exam ples o f male d is c r im in a tio n prepare h e r audience fo r her r e a l p e r o r a tio n : "Young women, I would sa y , and p le a s e a tte n d , fo r the p e r o r a tio n i s b e g in n in g , you a r e , in my o p in io n , d i s g r a c e f u l ly ignorant" (ROO, 1 1 6 ). She demands to know why they have n ot made h is t o r y or w r itte n a g r e a t work. This d ir e c t i n s u l t could a l i e n a t e them, but she a n t ic i p a t e s t h e ir answer, and s l i p s in t o the in tim a te "we": . . . we have had o th e r work on our hands. W ithout our d oin g , th o se s e a s would be u n sa ile d and th o se f e r t i l e lands a d e s e r t . We have borne and bred and washed and ta u g h t, perhaps to the age o f s i x or seven y e a r s , the one thousand s i x hundred and tw e n ty -th r e e m illio n human b ein gs who a r e , accord in g to s t a t i s t i c s , a t p r e se n t in e x i s t e n c e , and t h a t , a llo w in g th a t some had h e lp , ta k es tim e. (ROO, 116, em phasis added) That f a c t l e t s h er au d ien ce o f f the hook m om entarily. However, women's I ex cu se o f la ck o f o p p o rtu n ity and tr a in in g no lo n g e r h o ld s good, and she accum ulates f a c t s to support th a t judgment. S in c e 1866 a t l e a s t two 109 c o l l e g e s fo r women have been e s t a b lis h e d in England; s in c e 1880 married women have been allow ed by law to p o s se s s p rop erty; in 1919 women were g iv e n th e v o te ; w ith in the p a st ten years most p r o fe s s io n s have been opened to women.12 These f a c t s are ju x ta p o sed w ith h er f i n a l s u g g e s tio n w hich becomes an elo q u e n t p le a fo r i n t e l l e c t u a l freedom and the im a g in a tio n o f th e in c a n d e sc e n t mind. The f a l l i b l e "I" and the f i c t i o n a l "I" d isa p p ea r in t o an in tim a te "we." Woolf t e l l s h er audience th a t S h ak esp eare's s i s t e r who n ever wrote a word and was b uried a t the cro ssro a d s l i v e s in you and in me. . . . For my b e l i e f i s th a t i f we l i v e another cen tu ry or s o - - I am ta lk in g o f th e common l i f e w hich i s the r e a l l i f e , and not o f the l i t t l e se p a r a te l i v e s w hich we l i v e as in d iv id u a ls --a n d have f i v e hundred a year each o f us and rooms o f our own; i f we have the h a b it o f freedom and th e courage to w r it e e x a c t l y what we th in k i f we esca p e a l i t t l e from th e common s ittin g -r o o m and s e e human b ein gs not alw aysffin t h e i r r e l a t io n to each o th e r but in r e l a t io n to r e a l i t y ; and the sk y , to o , and the t r e e s or w hatever i t may be in th em selv es; i f we lo o k p ast M ilto n 's bogey, fo r no human b ein g should shut ou t the view ; i f we fa c e th e f a c t , f o r i t i s a f a c t , th a t th ere i s no arm to c l in g to , but th a t we go a lo n e and th a t our r e l a t i o n i s to the w orld o f r e a l i t y and n ot o n ly to the w orld o f men and women, then the o p p o r tu n ity w i l l come and the dead p oet who was S h a k esp ea re's s i s t e r w i l l put on the body she has so o f t e n la i d down. (ROO, 1 1 7 -1 1 8 , em phasis added) The hope o f a s is te r h o o d o f w r it e r s i s a r t ic u la t e d h er e : to be ec o n o m ic a lly and p s y c h o lo g ic a lly in d ep en d en t, to w r ite h o n e s t ly , to p o rtra y a broad p ic tu r e o f r e a l i t y (th e r e la t io n s h ip o f human b ein g s n ot o n ly to each o th e r but to a l l o f r e a l i t y ) and above a l l , to have the courage to go a lo n e w ith "no arm to c l in g t o ." Women bonding to g e th e r , form ing a t r a d it i o n , and h av in g the courage to sa y what th ey th in k h o n e s tly i s dram atized by th e in tim a te "we." T his in tim a te "we" must f a c e hard f a c t s — not the m is e r a b le , b ia se d f a c t s found in the B r it is h n o Museum--but th e tru th co n ta in ed in the f i c t i o n o f A Room o f One's Own; women need to be e c o n o m ic a lly independ ent w ith rooms o f t h e ir own in ord er to f o s t e r th e c r e a t iv e t a le n t o f th e buried J u d ith . Below i s a diagram o f th e c l a s s i c a l s tr u c tu r e o f A Room o f O ne's Own: Space and ^ Time Time and Space Order o f S t o r ie s Ch. 1 - Oxbridge (a .m .) Fernham (p .m .) f i c t i v e Mary Seton P a s t < C l a s s i c a l O ration Exordium: N arration : Ch. 2 B r i t i s h Museum (a .m .) R estau rant (p .m .) f i c t i v e Mary Beton and P r o f. von X Ch. 3 T r e v e ly a n 's f a c t s v e r su s S h a k esp ea re's f i c t i o n f i c t i v e J u d ith , S h a k esp ea re's s i s t e r Ch. 4 Women w r it e r s from 17th c. to 19th c . No f i c t i v e c h a r a c te r s Economic s u c c e s s o f Aphra Behn to g r e a t "four": A usten , two Brontes _ E l i o t Ch. 5 Books o f th e l i v i n g f i c t i v e Mary Carmichael P r e se n t No r e fe r e n c e s h ere Ch. 6 Need fo r androgynous mind f i c t i v e Mr. A Woolf c r e a te s h e r s e l f and audience (3 -5 ) Subsumes p a r t it i o n and co n firm a tio n (5-109) The " s t o r ie s " become arguments R e fu ta tio n : th ree arguments (109 tH 4 ) P e r o r a tio n : th ree c o n c lu s io n s C l a s s i c a l S tr u c tu r e o f A Room o f One's Own Ill The p a r a l l e l s between A Room o f One's Own and Three Guineas are e v id e n t . Both adopt p a r t ic u la r personae d ir e c te d a t a p a r t ic u la r au d ien ce in the s tr u c tu r e o f a d is g u is e d c l a s s i c a l o r a t io n , ju x ta p o sin g f a c t and f i c t i o n w ith ir o n ic e f f e c t . In A Room o f One's Own the p erson ae are the f a l l i b l e and f i c t i o n a l "I" fu s in g in t o th e in tim a te we" a t the end, w h ile the persona in Three Guineas i s the o u ts id e r whose chameleon "we" c r e a te s th r e e v o i c e s . In A Room o f One' s Own the au d ien ce i s s p e c i f i c a l l y fem ale w ith men rea d in g over W o o lf’s sh o u ld e r, jw hile in Three Guineas the au d ien ce i s the f i c t i o n a l male and fem ale co rresp o n d en ts w ith both men and women read ing over W o o lf's sh o u ld e r. The d is g u is e o f the c l a s s i c a l o r a tio n in A Room o f One's Own i s s t o r i e s , w hereas in Three Guineas i t i s l e t t e r s . Below i s a ch a r t o f th e se p a r a l l e l s betw een the two works: Room o f One' s Own F i c t i o n a l 'Personae iAudience f a l l i b l e "I" = Woolf f i c t i o n a l "I" = everywoman In tim a te "we" Female au d ien ce w ith men o v erh ea r in g o r read in g over W o o lf's sh o u ld e r S tr u c tu r e C la s s i c a l o r a tio n d i s g u ised by s t o r i e s Iro n y J u x ta p o s itio n o f fa c t and f i c t i o n Three Guineas Chameleon "we": o u t s id e r mock man humane F i c t io n a l male correspon d en t and f i c t i o n a l fem ale c o r r e s pondents w ith both men and women read in g over W o o lf's sh o u ld e r C la s s i c a l o r a tio n d is g u is e d by l e t t e r s J u x ta p o s itio n o f fa c t and f i c t i o n S tr a te g y Twelve n o te s from biography One hundred and tw en ty -fo u r and h i s t o r y to co rro b o ra te n o te s from b iography and the f i c t i o n and c r e a te h is t o r y to co rro b o ra te the ir o n y f i c t i o n and c r e a te ir o n y P r o c e ss: she s t a t e s con- S o c r a tic monologue: s e r i e s e lu s io n f i r s t and then o f arguments le a d in g s te p -b y - e x p la in s how she a r r iv e s s te p to an in e v i t a b l e con- a t th a t c o n c lu s io n e lu s io n P a r a l l e l s Between A Room o f One' s Own and Three Guineas 112 Yet the two works were r e c e iv e d and s t i l l are b ein g r e c e iv e d very d i f f e r e n t l y . G e n e r a lly , A Room o f One1s Own has en joyed some p o p u la r ity ; Three Guineas has n o t. Even in 1982, th e year o f W o o lf's c e n te n a r y , when n e a r ly a l l h er works were re-exam in ed , Three Guineas was l a r g e ly ig n o re d . The in d o m ita b le e x c e p tio n i s Jane Marcus, who argues most r e c e n t ly th a t Three Guineas i s W o o lf's P r in c ip ia E th ic a Femina.l^ How does one account fo r th e d if f e r e n c e in the r e c e p tio n o f th e se two works? F i r s t , i t i s f a i r to say th a t th e ir o n i c tone o f A Room o f One' s Own i s lig h te n e d by comic la u g h te r , whereas the b i t t e r , s a t i r i c t ton e o f Three Guineas i s punctuated w ith s c o r n . ^ Even the tw elv e n o te s in c o r p o r a te d in to the te x t o f A Room o f One' s Own c o n tr a ste d w ith the one hundred tw en ty -fo u r n o te s l i s t e d a t the end o f Three Guineas are i e v id e n c e o f t h a t . Y et the v o ic e o f A Room o f One's Own i s o n ly s l i g h t l y l e s s h e s it a n t and angry than the v o ic e in Three G u i n e a s . 15 The d if f e r e n c e , I th in k , has more to do w ith W o o lf's r h e t o r ic a l "we." To se e t h i s more c l e a r l y , i t i s n e c e ss a r y to re-exam ine h er d e f i n i t i o n o f th e common read er. W oolf c o n s tr u c ts the read er as a p erson o f " in te n se c u r i o s i t y ; o f id e a s ; open minded and communica t i v e . . . ."16 Her epigraph fo r The Common Reader q u o tes Samuel Johnson on the u n p reju d iced rea d er. Woolf sa y s th a t t h i s read er d i f f e r s from th e c r i t i c or sc h o la r because he or she i s l e s s ed u ca ted , l e s s g i f t e d and reads fo r h i s or h er own p le a su r e ra th er than to im part knowledge o r c o r r e c t the o p in io n o f o th e r s . "Above a l l , he i s guided by an i n s t i n c t to c r e a te f o r h i m s e l f , out o f w hatever odds and ends he can jcome by, some kind o f w hole— a p o r t r a it o f a man, a s k e tc h fo f an a g e, a [th eo ry o f th e a r t o f w r itin g " (em phasis a d d e d ).1^ T his g iv e s the image 113 o f th e read er as "open minded" and fr e e to " crea te fo r h im s e lf . . . some kind o f w hole." In "The Patron and the C rocus," how ever, Woolf d e fin e s th e id e a l read ing p u b lic d i f f e r e n t l y : A reader must make us [ w r it e r s ] f e e l th a t a s in g le c r o c u s , i f i t be a r e a l c r o c u s, i s enough fo r him, th a t he does n o t want to be le c t u r e d , e le v a t e d , in s t r u c t e d or improved . . . th a t he i s ready to e f f a c e or a s s e r t h im s e lf as h is w r ite r s r e q u ir e . . . th a t th ey [w r ite r s and rea d er s] are tw ins i n d e e d . ^ (em phasis added) The id e a l reader here i s one who w i l l go along w ith th e w r i t e r ' s world and i d e n t i f y w ith i t ; the id e a l reader i s "ready to e f f a c e or a s s e r t h im s e lf as h is w r ite r s r e q u ir e ." T h is same c o n tr a d ic to r y p ic tu r e o f o n e 's read ers as f r e e to ch o o se, y e t ready to e f f a c e or a s s e r t th em selves as t h e ir w r ite r s r e q u ir e , i s g iv e n in A Room o f One's Own. W o o lf's f a l l i b l e "I" p r o je c ts an opentninded, i n t e l l i g e n t a u d ien ce. ". . . i t i s fo r you to se e k out t h is tr u th and to d e c id e w hether any p art o f i t i s worth k eep in g . I f n o t, you w i l l o f cou rse throw the whole o f i t in to th e w astepaper b ask et and f o r g e t a l l about i t " (ROO, 4 ) . She appears to l e t her l i s t e n e r s d ecid e fo r th em selv es. Yet her s t o r i e s and f a c t s are indeed so p e r s u a s iv e , e s p e c i a l l y to a fem ale a u d ien ce, th a t in the end th ere i s l i t t l e r e a l c h o ic e . She c r e a te s h er au d ien ce in h er own im age, so th a t when she drops th e pose o f the f a l l i b l e and f i c t i o n a l "I" in fa v o r o f th e in tim a te "we" in h er f i n a l p e r o r a tio n , women do respond to h er c a l l to e x c e l l e n c e , t r a d i t i o n , h o n e s ty , and courage. "But I m ain ta in th a t she [S h a k e sp ea re 's s i s t e r J u d ith ] would come i f we worked fo r h e r , and th a t so to work, even in p o v erty and o b s c u r it y , i s worth w h ile" (ROO, 118, em phasis added). The in tim a te "we" c a l l s upon women to bond to g e th e r in s o r o r i t y . ^9 Women are w i l l i n g to respond because W oolf has made i t 114 c le a r th a t th e s e are her id ea s ( ”J C m aintain") and her audience i s f r e e to j o in h er ( " i f we work to g eth er" ) i f th ey w ish . T heir freedom to choose i s r e s p e c te d . Three G u in eas, however, c a l l s upon every in d iv id u a l, male or fem a le, to assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r the e v i l o f tyranny. In a s e n s e , the a u d ien ce, e s p e c i a l l y the f i c t i o n a l male co rresp o n d en t, i s not fr e e t o ch o o se. The chameleon "we," as I have traced i t through Three G uineas, stan d s fo r th ree v o ic e s : the o u t s id e r , th a t i s , th e "daughters o f educated men"; mock man, the s e r p e n tin e v o ic e which appears to agree w ith men w h ile mocking them; and th e humane v o ic e , both the educated male correspondent and the daughter o f an educated man, or by e x te n s io n , men and women to g e th e r . C r e d ib le , a u t h o r it a t iv e , c o n s is t e n t in h er i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , the O u tsid e r d e l i b e r a t e l y engages and i r r i t a t e s men and women a l i k e . On the s u r fa c e she appears d e f e r e n t i a l and r e s p e c t f u l . Underneath she i s a s e l f - s t y l e d , d e f ia n t o u t s id e r , a sk in g h a r d - h it t in g q u e s tio n s about the i n j u s t i c e s o f a s o c i a l democracy. She s e t s h e r s e l f up as s u p e r io r to men. This image o f woman, d e f i n i t e l y n ot an "angel" in the h ou se, th r e a te n s the c o n v e n tio n a l view . Yet i f W o o lf's read ers fo llo w the o u t s i d e r ' s humane a ssu m p tio n 's--th a t "we" can a g ree on the inhum anity o f war, r e s p e c t fo r th e in d iv id u a l, and eq u al o p p o r tu n itie s in ed u ca tio n and p r o f e s s io n - - t h e n th ey must agree w ith h er c o n c lu s io n s . W o o lf's audience i s in a C atch-22 s i t u a t i o n . That i s what angers them. They want to see th em selves as humane, d ecen t in d iv id u a ls who work fo r p ea ce, r e s p e c t the r ig h t s o f o t h e r s , and p r o te c t i n t e l l e c t u a l and c u lt u r a l l i b e r t y . But in the way the o u t s id e r has c o n stru cted them. 115 th e y are not allow ed to s e e th em selves as humane, u n le s s th ey agree w ith le r c o n c lu s io n s - - t h a t tyranny in the home i s connected to tyranny a t la r g e ; th a t th ey are a l l r e s p o n s ib le fo r war; th a t o u t s id e r s to the p r e s e n t system must remain o u ts id e i f th ey want to o f f e r a new model o f Jcooperation and h o n esty to r e p la c e th e p r esen t model o f c o m p e titiv e fo r c e and i n t e l l e c t u a l d is h o n e s ty . Many in her audien ce cannot a ccep t th e s e c o n c lu s io n s ; y e t th ey want to see th em selv es as humane. T herefore, th e y are s p l i t , u n com fortab le, a n g r y .^0 T his i s j u s t what Woolf w a n ts-- to u p se t h er a u d ien ce, to i r r i t a t e them, to j o l t them in t o a c t io n . For o n c e , she does not l e t h er common read ers make up t h e ir own minds. Furtherm ore, the read ers o f Three Guineas are not a l l th a t common. W oolf has d e li b e r a t e ly narrowed h er audience to the men and women o f the edu cated c l a s s ; the e l i t e , who i r o n i c a l l y , d is p la y th e r i t e s o f sa v a g es. jThe o u ts id e r "we" probes the p sy ch o lo g y o f the s e x e s - - " . . . what p o s s i b l e s a t i s f a c t i o n can dominance g iv e the dominator?" (TG, 1 2 9 )--an d c r i t i c i z e s a s o c i e t y which p r o t e c t s the i n f a n t i l e f i x a t i o n o f fo r c e (TG, 1 3 5 ). The humane "we" assumes th a t the aim o f both o u t s id e r and le r male correspon d en t i s the same: " It i s to a s s e r t 'th e r ig h t s o f a l l - - a l l men and wom en--to the r e s p e c t in t h e ir persons o f the g r e a t p r in c i p l e s o f J u s tic e and E q u a lity and L i b e r t y . 1 To e la b o r a te fu r th e r I i s u n n e cessa r y , fo r we have ev ery c o n fid e n c e th a t you in t e r p r e t th o se words as we do" (TG, 1 4 4 ). The o u t s i d e r 's assum ption th a t h er aud ien ce in t e r p r e t s th e s e is s u e s as sh e does i s in f u r ia t i n g and sh o ck in g , j u s t the e f f e c t Woolf wanted. In c o n c lu s io n , th e humane "we" o f Three Guineas i s broader in scope than the in tim a te "we" o f A Room o f One's Own. W oolf h e r s e l f saw Three 116 Guineas as l e s s e g o t i s t i c a l (WD, 2 7 9 ). Marcus s e e s the d if f e r e n c e between the two works as th e d if f e r e n c e betw een the propaganda o f hope and the propaganda o f d e s p a ir . In f a c t , says Marcus: I t may w e ll be argued th a t A Room o f One’ s Own and Three Guineas are in th e f i r s t rank o f E n g lish l i t e r a t u r e in th e ir mode. The M ilto n o f A r e o p a g itic a and th e S w ift o f A Modest P ro p o sa l were h er m odels, and her e s s a y s rank w ith t h e ir s as p a s s io n a te polem ic enhanced by in n o v a tiv e te c h n ic a l g e n iu s .21 C e r ta in ly , W oolf's in v e n tio n o f the o u t s i d e r 's chameleon "we" forms a la r g e p art o f th a t t e c h n ic a l g e n iu s. 117 N otes 1 W oolf, " P r o fe ss io n s fo r Women," in Death o f the Moth, and Other 'E ssays, p. 237. ^ S t. John, pp. 22 9 -3 0 . 3 Ong, p. 12. I | 4 V ir g in ia W oolf, The D iary o f V ir g in ia W oolf, ed . Anne O liv e r 'B e ll, I I I (New York: H arcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1 9 7 7 ), p. 275. i 3 I t i s n ot d i f f i c u l t to se e why Woolf f e l t she needed to put on [th is p o se. Her s o c i a l c o n te x t was ind eed a "man's w orld ." Arnold B en n e tt, "Queen o f the H ighbrow s," Evening Standard, 28 November 1929, ip. 9, i d e n t i f i e s "m asculine" w ith l o g i c a l , c o n c is e , and d ir e c t [ q u a lit ie s , w h ile "fem inine" means f a n c i f u l , v e r b o se , and in d i r e c t . Even 'the women c r i t i c s a ccep ted t h i s p o in t o f v iew . V ita S a c k v ille -W e s t, 'L is te n e r , 6 November 1929, p. 629; r p t. in V ir g in ia W oolf:' The C r i t i c a l H e r it a g e , 258, emphasis added, w r it e s a glow in g review o f the "common [sense" o f A Room o f One1 s Own w ith i t s fo cu s on the androgynous mind: j"She [W oolf] en jo y s the fem in ine q u a l i t i e s o f , l e t us sa y , fa n ta s y and l i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a l l i e d to a l l the m ascu lin e q u a l i t i e s th a t go w ith a [stron g, a u t h o r it a t iv e b r a in ." A nother fem ale re v ie w e r , M. E. K e lse y , ["V irginia Woolf and th e ' S h e' - C o n d itio n ," Sewanee R eview , 39 (1 9 3 1 ), 427 and 4 2 9 , com plim ents the fem in in e p r in c i p l e more than S a c k v ille -W e s t d o e s, but again the ste r e o ty p e d id e a s o f m ascu lin e and fem in in e are app aren t. W oolf h e r s e l f saw th e fem in in e view o f l i f e as complex and s h i f t i n g , n o t s im p le , l o g i c a l and f ix e d at one p o in t as she co n sid e r e d th e m ascu lin e p o in t o f view to be. S in ce W oolf s e e s both p o in ts o f view as n e c e s s a r y fo r th e c r e a t iv e p r o c e s s , she r e s o r ts to both modes o f [exp ression in A Room o f One's Own, com bining t i g h t , l o g i c a l a n a ly s is w ith f i c t i o n and im agery. S in ce th e s u b je c t i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l, she ch o o ses to speak o n ly to women and l e t s the men read o v er h er sh o u ld e r fo r th e purpose o f s a t i r e . j 6 Marcus, " L ib erty , S o r o r ity , M isogyny," p. 93; M arilyn F a r w e ll, "A Room o f One's Own: F act o r F ic tio n ? " Unpub. e s s a y , U niv. o f Oregon, n . d . , p. 7. 7 Hummel, p. 153, d ev o tes one paragraph to A Room o f One's Own, d e s c r ib in g the two " I's" as b ia sed and h i s t o r i c a l . "The f i c t i o n a l 'dialogu e between th e b ia se d 'T ' and th e h i s t o r i c a l ' i ' evokes a co n sta n t c y c le in which i t becomes c le a r th a t the n o tio n o f o b j e c t iv e h is t o r y i s im p o s s ib le ." C e r ta in ly Three Guineas u n derscores th a t same id e a . 118 8 W oolf was c e r t a in ly aware o f the iron y in t h a t , alth ou gh women e q u a lle d or su rpassed men in p la y s , women were n ot allow ed to a c t on s t a g e . In Greek th e a te r men p layed the women's p a r ts . ^ Edwin B lack , R h e to r ic a l C r itic is m : A Study in Method (New York: M acm illan, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 173, c a l l s t h is argum entative s y n t h e s is the p ro cess by which the o r i g in a l t h e s i s and i t s a n t i t h e s i s are absorbed. I am in d eb ted to G lo ria W eintraub 's stu d y o f W oolf's A Room o f O ne's Own fo r th e f i r s t a p p lic a t io n o f B la c k 's id e a ; G lo ria W eintraub, "A Room o f One' s Own and th e R h eto ric o f Androgyny," Unpub. e s s a y , Univ. o f Southern C a lif o r n ia , 1980, p. 3. For a f a s c in a t in g a n a ly s is o f A Room o f One's Own as an involuted f i c t i o n in which the c o n str u c t o f the n a rra to r i s a p a r t i a l l y in t e n t io n a l s t r a t e g y o f d e c e p tio n by which Woolf o f f e r s a c r i t iq u e o f androgyny as an id e a l fo r women w r it e r s , see M arilyn F a r w e ll's "Androgyny D isp r a ise d : The F i c t i v e Nature o f A Room o f One's Own," V ir g in ia Woolf and th e L if e o f a Woman C onference, S t . P a u l, 23 October 1982. 11 R e c a ll W o o lf's h a tred o f e x te r n a l "measurement" in Three G uineas. A rnold B ennett d ism isse d A Room o f One's Own b eca u se, he s a id , the men-women is s u e could n ever be r e s o lv e d . By o b scu rin g the is s u e , he cou ld avoid d e a lin g w ith W o o lf's main id e a h ere: th a t e x te r n a l "measurement" o f the v a lu e o f any human b ein g , man or woman, i s im p o s s ib le . 12 These f a c t s make i t c le a r th a t the author o f A Room o f One's Own had more hope fo r women's o p p o r tu n itie s in a p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y than th e author o f Three Guineas had. 13 Jane Marcus, "Storming the T oolsh ed ," S ign s 7 (1 9 8 2 ), 638. There i s more e v id e n c e o f the ig n o r in g o f Three G u ineas. Jay Cocks and o t h e r s , "How Long T i l l E q u a lity ," Time, 12 J u ly 1982, pp. 2 0 -2 9 , quote A Room o f One's Own and W o o lf's d ia r y , but do not m ention Three G uineas. The V ir g in ia Woolf c a le n d a r -d ia r y (New York: H arcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1982) q u otes e x t e n s iv e l y from the same two w orks, but r a r e ly from Three G u in eas. 14 S ch la ck , " S tr a te g y o f Scorn," pp. 149-50. 15 F a r w e ll, "A Room o f One's Own: Fact or F i c t io n ," p. 7, on the non-androgynous v o ic e o f A Room o f One's Own. See a ls o F a r w e ll's " V ir g in ia Woolf and Androgyny," Contemporary L it e r a t u r e , 16 (1 9 7 4 ), 451. 1^ V ir g in ia W oolf, "Hours in a L ib ra ry ," in C o lle c te d E s s a y s , I I , 34. See a ls o Barbara C u rrier B e ll and Carol Ohmann, " V ir g in ia W oolf's C r itic is m : A P o lem ica l P r e fa c e ," C r i t i c a l I n q u ir y , 1 (1 9 7 4 ), 364. They show how W oolf b rid g es the g u l f w ith th e readers o f h e r e s s a y s by in v e n tin g the "common r ea d er ." When Woolf says "we," sh e means w e. r h e t o r i c a l l y a s s e r t in g the e x is t e n c e o f a community, b u t, in f a c t , "by th a t r h e to r ic . . . w orking to c r e a te community." 17 V ir g in ia W oolf, The Common Reader (H arcourt, B race, 1 9 2 5 ), p. 11. I f Woolf were w r it in g tod ay, I am c e r t a in th a t she would use i n c l u s i v e lan gu age. 1® The Common R eader, p. 292. 19 Marcus, "No More H o rses," p. 274, sa y s th a t th e f i c t i o n a l n a r r a tiv e tech n iq u e d em onstrates "open s is t e r h o o d ." 20 T h eir d isc o m fo r t i s s im ila r to th e au d ien ce in W oolf's n o v el 'Between the A cts, when M iss LaTrobe turns th e m irrors on them. 21 "No More H o rses," pp. 277, 273. 120 Chapter V P o in t o f View and S t y le in To th e L igh th ou se and Three Guineas When one lo o k s a t Three G u ineas, W o o lf's most s a t i r i c p o lem ic, and a t To the L ig h th o u se , one o f h er most c e le b r a te d n o v e ls , one e x p e c ts to I s e e ob viou s d if f e r e n c e s in n a r r a t iv e , tim e seq u en ce, c h a r a c te r s , d ia lo g u e , theme, and p o in t o f view . The g en res o f e a c h , a f t e r a l l , are very d i f f e r e n t . The former engages th e mind; the l a t t e r engages mind and h e a r t. To th e L igh th ou se i s n a r r a tiv e , an im a g in a tiv e c o n s tr u c t in w hich r e a l i t y i s transform ed and hence d is ta n c e d . W o o lf's f i c t i o n can j jbe more e q u iv o c a l than h er e s s a y s ; she i s a b le to p o rtra y many p o in ts o f view through h er c h a r a c te r s . S a t i r e , on the o th e r hand, i s l e s s e q u iv o c a l; i t tak es one p o in t o f view and c r i t i c i z e s or mocks o th e r s . I jThe ir o n ic o u t s id e r o f Three G u ineas. th en , c o n s i s t e n t l y su b verts p a t r ia r c h a l d om in ation , a tta c k in g the p a tr ia r c h a l fa m ily as a cause o f i ^women's o p p r e ssio n , w hereas what Auerbach c a l l s th e ''m ultip erson al r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f c o n s c io u sn e s s" in To the L igh th ou se p o rtra y s not on ly th e dom inating egos o f Mr. Ramsay and C harles T a n sle y , but a ls o t h e ir fe a r s and sym path ies; n o t o n ly Mrs. Ramsay's beau ty and s e l f l e s s n e s s , but a ls o her su b se r v ie n c e to the male i n t e l l e c t and h er dom ination o f o t h e r s . An illu m in a t in g example o f t h i s d if f e r e n c e in the p o in t o f view 121 o f th e se two works i s W o o lf's d e s c r ip t io n o f a ty r a n t in th e f i r s t few pages o f To the L igh th ou se and the l a s t few pages o f Three G uineas. The sc en e in To the L ighth ou se fo c u se s on s ix - y e a r - o l d James Ramsay's w eather "won't be f i n e ," th ereb y d ash ing young Jam es's hopes to go to the lig h th o u s e the n ext day w ith h i s mother: Had th e r e been an axe handy, or a p oker, any weapon th a t would have gashed a h o le in h i s f a t h e r 's b r e a st and k i l l e d him, th e r e and th en , James would have s e iz e d i t . Such were the extrem es o f em otion th a t Mr. Ramsay e x c it e d in h i s c h ild r e n 's b r e a s ts by h i s mere p resen ce; s ta n d in g , as now, le a n as a k n i f e , narrow as th e b lad e o f on e, g r in n in g s a r c a s t i c a l l y , not o n ly w ith the p le a su r e o f d i s i l l u s i o n i n g h i s son and c a s tin g r i d i c u l e on h i s w if e , who was ten thousand tim es b e t t e r in e v e r y way than he was (James th o u g h t), but a ls o w ith some s e c r e t c o n c e it a t h i s own accuracy o f judgem ent. What he s a id was tr u e . I t was alw ays tr u e . He was incapable:, o f untruth; I n ever tampered w ith a f a c t ; never a lt e r e d a d is a g r e e a b le word j t o s u i t the p le a s u r e or con ven ience o f any m ortal b e in g , l e a s t I o f a l l o f h i s own c h ild r e n , who, sprung from h is l o i n s , should j be aware from ch ild h o o d th a t l i f e i s d i f f i c u l t ; f a c t s uncompromising; and th e p assage to th a t fa b le d land where our b r ig h t e s t hopes are e x tin g u is h e d , our f r a i l barks founder in darkness (here Mr. Ramsay would s t r a ig h t e n h i s back and narrow h i s l i t t l e b lu e ey es on the h o r iz o n ), one th a t n e e d s, above a l l , co u ra g e, t r u t h , and the power to e n d u r e .^ ^ c d^-^TTU \CHS) The p o in t o f view o f t h i s o fte n -q u o te d p assage has been in te r p r e te d oy c r i t i c s in s u r p r is in g ly d i f f e r e n t ways. M itc h e ll L easka, fo r example, reads i t from Mrs. Ramsay's p o in t o f v iew , th a t Mr. Ramsay's s a r c a s t i c g r in and d is illu s io n m e n t o f h i s son i s seen from h er mind. a r ia | D iB a t t is t a reads i t from Jam es's p o in t o f view , s e e in g Jam es's v io l e n t r e a c tio n to h i s fa th e r as sym bolic o f "m asculine w i l l s com peting fo r £iv) a u th o r ity ." • Hermione Lee comments on the m ock-heroic language in w hich Mr. Ramsay p a r t i c i p a t e s , c r e a tin g both an o u ts id e and in s id e view v i o l e n t r e a c tio n to h i s fa th e r whcC^dogmatically) pronounces th a t the □ f him.-5^ I f i r s t read i t from Jam es's p o in t o f view b ecau se o f the ! p a r e n t h e t ic a l " (James though t ) . " Yet the s h i f t from th ir d person ' 122 s in g u la r ("he") to f i r s t person p lu r a l ("our") i s p u z z lin g . Who i s sp ea k in g h ere? Mrs. Ramsay? James? Mr. Ramsay? A n arrator? Suzanne Ferguson s u g g e s ts a p o s s ib le s o lu t io n to s im ila r q u e s tio n s . N oting th a t one o f the s t r a t e g i e s o f im p ression ism in f i c t i o n i s b a n ish in g the a u th o r, she c h a lle n g e s t h is s t r a t e g y and dem onstrates th a t famous b a n is h e r s --F la u b e r t, James, J o y c e , and W o o lf - - a ll in tr u d e , as a u th o r s, in t h e ir n o v e ls , and t h e ir in t r u s io n s , f a r from " lim itin g " t h e ir p e r s p e c t iv e , add an "other" p e r s p e c tiv e t o th e m u lt i- p e r s p e c t iv e s o f t h e i r c h a r a c te r s. Ferguson tr a c e s both a u th o r ia l n a r r a tio n and f r e e in d ir e c t s t y l e in W o o lf's To the L igh th ou se to show th a t through th e se means W oolf a c h ie v e s a c o n s i s t e n t l y ambiguous p o in t o f v iew , b len d in g the mock h e r o ic w ith the s e r io u s.® By a u th o r ia l n a r r a tio n Ferguson means such th in g s as d ir e c t a p p ea ls to the read er; r h e t o r ic a l q u e stio n s a p p a ren tly addressed to the rea d er , y e t c l o s e l y a l l i e d w ith a c h a r a c te r as w e ll; d ir e c t r e fe r e n c e s to "we" and "our"; and even the a u th o r 's p resen ce by h er very s t y l e , fo r exam ple, W o o lf's lon g cu m ulative se n te n c e s combined w ith sh o r t j ^ e r n e j t - s e n t e n c e s , h er use o f im agery, p r e se n t (pa r t i c i p le s,)andC^quinting m o d ifie r s ^ SF^, 239, 247, 2 4 9 ). By f r e e in d ir e c t s t y l e Ferguson means an a u th o r 's f r e e , in d ir e c t r e p o r tin g o f c h a r a c te r s ' sp eech and thought w ith o u t the use o f d ir e c t sp e e c h , the d is t a n c e o f w hich i s o f t e n a ch ie v ed by th ir d -p e r s o n pronouns and p a st te n s e verb s (SF, 2 4 7 ). From th e p o in t o f view o f F erg u so n 's a u th o r ia l n a r r a tio n and f r e e in d i r e c t s t y l e , the passage from To the L igh th ou se can be examined more 'c lo s e ly . The f i r s t sen te n c e c l e a r l y fo c u s e s on Jam es's d isap p oin tm en t a t h i s f a t h e r ' s dashing h i s hopes to go to the lig h t h o u s e . But whose 123 im ages o f the " kn ife" and the "poker" are th ose? Jam es's? The author's? And what about the second sen ten ce? Does James th in k o f h i s fa th e r g r in n in g s a r c a s t i c a l l y and d i s i l l u s i o n i n g him? Is t h is even the langu age o f a s ix - y e a r - o ld ? S u rely th e se are a u th o r ia l o b s e r v a tio n s , though they e x p ress the c o lo r a t io n o f Jam es's angry f e e l i n g s . The a u th o r ia l p resen ce not o n ly p ick s up Jam es's angry f e e l i n g s , but a ls o fo c u s e s on Mr. Rams ay's, d e lig h t;, in d i s i l l u s i o n i n g h i s son , r i d i c u l i n g h i s w i f e , and b ein g a ccu ra te about w eather p r e d ic t io n s . Who s e e s Mr. Ramsay t h is way? Mr. Ramsay h im s e lf? James? The author? I t i s o b v io u sly not Mr. Ramsay, fo r he would n ot want t o s e e h im s e lf in the u n f la t t e r in g l i g h t o f " grin n in g s a r c a s t i c a l l y " and " c a s tin g r i d i c u l e ." I f i t i s Jam es's v iew , and c e r t a i n l y the c o n te x t g iv e s reason fo r t h a t , then why i s th ere a p a r e n t h e t ic a l a u th o r ia l in t r u s io n o f "(James | !thought)" a f t e r the sta tem en t th a t Jam es's mother i s ten thousand tim es i b e t t e r than h i s fa th e r ? I f p a ren th eses are needed to se p a r a te Jam es's thought from a n o t h e r 's , who i s th a t "other" i f n o t an a u th o r ia l p resen ce se p a r a te from James? The n ext th ree s e n t e n c e s , how ever, fo cu s on Ramsay as h e i s seen by someone who knows him in tim a te ly --M r s . Ramsay, and behind h e r , the n a r r a to r . "What he s a id was tr u e . I t was always tr u e . He was in c a p a b le o f u n tru th ; . . . " [and on fo r 80 words in one s e n te n c e ]. I f t h is l a s t , lon g s e n te n c e i s a u t h o r ia l, i t would seem to be mock- h e r o i c . C e r ta in ly the r h e t o r ic a l p a tte r n s ("never tampered" and "never a lte r e d " ; " courage, tr u th , and the power to en d u re" ), th e V ic to r ia n c l i c h e s (" b r ig h te s t hopes" and " f r a i l b a rk s" ), and th e a u th o r ia l in t r u s io n s d e s c r ib in g the s tr a ig h te n e d back and " l i t t l e " blue ey es o f Ramsay s u g g e st t h i s . But th e se are a ls o Mrs. Ramsay's own th ou ghts about h er husband rendered in fr e e in d ir e c t s t y l e , b le n d in g w ith th ir d - person r e p o r tin g o f Ramsay's p h y s ic a l a c t io n . In one s e n s e , he lo o k s r id ic u lo u s as he s t r a ig h t e n s h is back and narrows h i s " l i t t l e " e y es to sta n d co u ra g eo u sly and uncom prom isingly fo r th e tru th o f h is w eather p r e d ic t io n , r e j o i c in g s e c r e t l y over h i s accu racy. In an oth er s e n s e , to stand fo r tru th i s indeed adm irable. And why does W oolf s h i f t to "our" a t th e l a s t p a rt o f t h is s e n te n c e i f not to engage r e a d e r s' sympathy fo r Mr. Ramsay, to i d e n t i f y read ers w ith h i s adherence to tru th and the need fo r courage and endurance, to push p a st t h is s p e c i f i c e v e n t to the g e n e r a l e x p e r ie n c e o f ev e r y human being? Through t h is m in g lin g o f fr e e in d i r e c t s t y l e and a u th o r ia l n a r r a tio n W oolf c r e a te s a d is ta n c e between Mrs. Ramsay's c o n sc io u s n e s s and an "other" c o n s c io u s n e s s through which we h ear th e words and judge them. T h e r e fo r e , the e f f e c t i s th e fu sio n o f two v o ic e s in a dual v o i c e , both c h a r a c te r and n a r r a to r — one s e e in g w ith h i s v i s i o n and the o th e r s e e in g beyond. This d e li b e r a t e am bigu ity f i t s th e im p r e s s io n is t n o v e l, the r e a l i t y o f which i s s u b j e c t iv e and r e l a t i v e , not o b j e c t iv e and a b s o lu te (SF, 2 3 0 ). Mr. Ramsay i s both hon orab le and f o o l i s h , u p rig h t and ‘ v , c o n c e it e d . In t h is one p assage the fo cu s s h i f t s from James to Mrs. Ramsay to th e "other" c o n sc io u s n e ss o f the au th or. Sometimes the a u th o r ia l p resen ce cannot be d is t in g u is h e d from th e c h a r a c te r . For exam ple, Mr. Ramsay's s t r a ig h t e n in g and s t a r in g a t the h o riz o n i s th e way Mrs. Ramsay, and the au th or, se e him. This in d ir e c t mode, the c o n s ta n t p o s s i b i l i t y o f a u th o r ia l m a n ip u la tio n , s u p p lie s the d is ta n c e e n a b lin g read ers not o n ly to re c o g n iz e Mr. Ramsay's c o n c e i t , but a ls o 125 to sym pathize w ith him. T h erefo r e, in Jam es's e y e s , Ramsay i s a ty r a n t, but in Mrs. Ramsay's e y es and o c c a s io n a lly in th e e y e s o f th e a u th o r ia l p r e se n c e , he i s u p r ig h t and h o n e s t as w e ll as f o o l i s h . For "nothing was sim p ly one th in g ," r e f l e c t s grown-up James a t th e end o f the n o v e l, as accu ra te a summary o f i t s many im p ressio n s o f shapes and human r e l a t io n s h i p s as any (TTL, 2 7 7 ). Now c o n tr a s t Ramsay, a ty r a n t in Jam es's e y e s , w ith the one d esc r ib e d by the o u t s id e r in the l a s t pages o f Three G u in eas: For as t h i s l e t t e r has gone on , adding f a c t a f t e r f a c t , an oth er p ic tu r e has imposed i t s e l f upon the foreground. I t i s the f ig u r e o f a man; some s a y , o th e r s deny, th a t he i s Man h im se lf,^ ® th e q u in te s se n c e o f v i r i l i t y , th e p e r f e c t typ e o f w hich a l l th e o th e r s are im p e r fe c t adum brations. He i s a man c e r t a i n l y . His ey es are g la z e d ; h i s e y e s g la r e . His body, w hich i s braced in an u nnatu ral p o s i t i o n , i s t i g h t l y ca sed in a uniform . Upon the b r e a st o f th a t uniform are sewn s e v e r a l m edals and o th e r m y stic sym bols. H is hand i s upon a sword. He i s c a l le d in German and I t a l i a n Fiihrer or Duce; in our own language Tyrant or D ic ta to r . And behind him l i e j ru in ed h ou ses and dead b o d ies--m en , women and c h ild r e n . But j we have not la i d th a t p ic t u r e b e fo r e you in ord er to e x c i t e ( once more the s t e r i l e em otion o f h a te . On the co n tra ry i t i s in ord er to r e le a s e o th e r em otions such as the human f ig u r e , even thus c r u d ely in a colou red photograph, a ro u ses in us who a re human b e in g s. For i t s u g g e sts a c o n n e c tio n and fo r us a v e r y im portant c o n n e c tio n . I t s u g g e s ts th a t th e p u b lic and th e p r iv a te w orld s are in se p a r a b ly con n ected ; th a t the ty r a n n ie s and s e r v i l i t i e s o f the one are the ty r a n n ie s and s e r v i l i t i e s o f th e o th e r . (TG, 142) The p o in t o f view o f t h i s p assage and most o f Three Guineas has o fte n been in te r p r e te d by e a r ly c r i t i c s as V ir g in ia W oolf h e r s e l f w r it in g to th e "daughters o f educated men." Yet t h i s stu d y has dem onstrated th a t W oolf c r e a te s a r e a l - f i c t i o n in the o u t s id e r who, in tu rn , a d d resses h er male correspon d en t to answer h i s r e q u est fo r h e lp on a v o id in g war. This o u t s i d e r , th en , speaks fo r women as an op p ressed c l a s s in th em selv es. She d e s c r ib e s the male ty r a n t w ith " f a c t s ." H is e y es g la z e and 126 g la r e ; h i s body i s braced and t i g h t l y cased in a uniform bedecked w ith m edals; he c a r r ie s a sword and i s c a l le d Fuhrer o r Duce, le a v in g no doubt about the r e fe r e n c e s to H i t le r and M u s so lin i. They are r e s p o n s ib le fo r the h orror o f war: dead men, women, and c h ild r e n . The v o ic e h ere b elon gs to th e o u ts id e r "we" who se p a r a te s h e r s e l f from "you," the male co rresp o n d en t. I t i s a p o la r iz in g v o ic e . Yet the n ex t two se n te n c e s s t r a t e g i c a l l y s e t th e s ta g e fo r the o u ts id e r and h er corresp on d en t to s e e the s it u a t i o n n ot from p o la r iz e d v ie w p o in ts , but from the same v ie w p o in t. "But we have not l a i d th a t p ic tu r e b efo r e you in order to e x c i t e once more the s t e r i l e em otion o f h a te . On the c o n tr a r y i t i s in ord er to r e le a s e o th e r em otions such as th e human f ig u r e , even thus c r u d e ly in a coloured photograph, arouses in iis who are human b ein gs" (em phasis added)’. As soon as she says "in us who are j human b e in g s ," the male correspondent who h a s , a f t e r a l l , asked h er help* in p rev e n tin g war, must swing to h er s id e i f he wants to see h im s e lf as t I a human b ein g . The o u t s id e r con clu d es th a t the ty r a n t, then, s u g g e s ts an in s e p a r a b le " con n ection " fo r "us" (meaning both her correspon d en t and1 h e r s e l f ) between the p u b lic and p r iv a te w o r ld s, between the " ty ra n n ies and s e r v i l i t i e s " o f one and the " ty ra n n ies and s e r v i l i t i e s o f the other.' Now t h i s l a s t c o n c lu s io n i s d i f f i c u l t fo r the male correspondent b ecause he must admit th a t he i s p art o f the tyranny o f th a t p a tr ia r c h a l " p u b lic w orld" w hich d e n ie s women e d u c a tio n and employment. Yet i f he h as a ccep ted the o u t s i d e r ' s arguments a l l th e way alon g (and he must do th a t i f he i s to s e e h im s e lf as humane), he must a ls o admit th a t the p r iv a te w orlds and th e p u b lic w orlds are co n n ected . What i s im portant to see h ere i s th a t the o u t s i d e r 's p o in t o f view never changes (tyranny 127 i s tyranny in p u b lic and in p r iv a te ) and th a t h er f i c t i o n a l corresp on d en t must agree w ith h er even though the tr u th may be p a in fu l to him. In o th e r w ords, th ere i s l i t t l e am b igu ity. The o u ts id e r view s p a tr ia r c h a l s o c ie t y as d om in atin g, d e s t r u c t iv e , and d ish o n e st;; she lin k s i t w ith the tyranny o f H i t l e r . A lthough the chameleon o u ts id e r v o ic e s h i f t s am biguously from th e p o la r iz in g "we" to the u n ify in g "us," the r e s u lt i s not ambiguous. The o u ts id e r su b v erts p a t r ia r c h a l, ty r a n n ic a l v a lu e s and a ffir m s humane o n es. In the Three G uineas p a ssa g e , the o u t s id e r i s the s o le r e f l e c t o r o f her e x p e r ie n c e , w hereas in the L igh th ou se p a ssa g e , th ere are s e v e r a l r e f l e c t o r s o f e x p e r ie n c e , the " s e lf " c o n sc io u sn e ss o f Mr. Ramsay and James and th e "other" c o n sc io u sn e s s o f th e auth or. In a d d itio n to the dram atic d if f e r e n c e s in p o in t o f view i l l u s t r a t e d in th e s e two p a s s a g e s , they a ls o r e v e a l d if f e r e n c e s in W o o lf's u se o f im agery. In the L ighthouse p assage Jam es's v io l e n t f e e l i n g s a g a in s t h i s f a th e r are communicated through th e images o f the "axe" or "poker." Ramsay's u p rig h tn ess i s "lean as a k n ife " and "narrow as the blade o f one." Ramsay's uncompromising adherence to tru th reminds jhis c h ild r e n th a t they must dem onstrate courage when t h e ir " b r ig h te s t h o p es are e x tin g u ish e d " and " f r a i l barks fou n der." The a x e, poker, and k n if e images communicate Ramsay's d e s t r u c t iv e e f f e c t on h i s c h ild r e n , whereas the l i g h t o f " b r ig h te s t hopes" and the " f r a i l bark" on the jou rn ey o f l i f e are V ic to r ia n c lic h d s m irrorin g Ramsay's s e lf-im p o r ta n c e and o v e r -d r a m a tiz a tio n . These images r e f l e c t the minds and im p ression s o f W o o lf's c h a r a c te r s , but th ey a ls o b eg in a cu m u lative p a tte r n o f im agery which i s c a r r ie d throughout the n o v e l: the " knife" o f c o n f l i c t , 128 the lig h t h o u s e , the s e a , the jo u rn ey , the p o s s i b i l i t y o f sh ip w reck . As th ey m irror the c o n sc io u sn e ss o f the c h a r a c te r s , th e se images g r a d u a lly acq u ire sym bolic w e ig h t.^ One o f the o u t s i d e r 's major images in Three G u in eas, on th e o th er land, i s th a t o f the Spanish war p ic t u r e s , a s tr o n g , em otion al argument jto persuade men and women to agree th a t war i s h o r r ib le . On th e se p ic t u r e s the o u ts id e r superim poses a second " p ic tu r e ," th a t o f the i ty r a n t. She says th a t she does not want to s t i r up h a te by p a in tin g th a t p ic tu r e o f the ty r a n t; r a th e r , she wants human b ein g s to s e e the " con nection " between p r iv a te and p u b lic tyranny. She u ses im agery h e r e , th en , to persuade the reader to se e th e se c o n n e c tio n s and to support h er jargument. Granted, h er r e p e t i t io n o f the Spanish war p ic t u r e s a ls o 'acquires sym bolic w e ig h t, but not in th e ambiguous way o f th e n o v e l. Not o n ly are th ere d if f e r e n c e s in p o in t o f view and im agery; th ere are a ls o d if f e r e n c e s in sen te n c e le n g th and s t r u c t u r e . The two p assages have a s im ila r number o f words (TTL, 210; TG, 2 1 5 ). Yet the L igh th ou se p a ssa g e c o n s is t s o f f iv e s e n te n c e s , th r e e o f which are w e ll over t h i r t y words lo n g , whereas the Three Guineas passage c o n s i s t s o f th ir t e e n s e n t e n c e s , none o f which i s over t h i r t y words. The lo n g , cu m u lative s e n te n c e s combined w ith sh o rt k e r n e l s e n te n c e s , the im agery, the p r e se n t p a r t i c i p l e s and sq u in tin g m o d ifie r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f W o o lf's ambiguous s t y l e in h er n o v el are c l e a r l y e v id e n t. The s h o r te r , more d ir e c t s e n t e n c e s , l e s s im agery, one p r esen t p a r t i c i p l e and no s q u in tin g m o d ifie r s are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the l e s s ambiguous s t y l e o f W oolf in ! Three G u ineas. D esp ite th e se d if f e r e n c e s in sen te n c e s t r u c t u r e , the two p assages 129 Jare s u r p r is in g ly a li k e in t h e ir use o f r e p e t i t io n and r h e t o r ic a l p a tte r n s . The o u t s id e r employs r e p e t i t io n to d e fin e the ty r a n t, t h is I " fig u r e o f a man." F i r s t , he may be "Man h im s e lf^ 0 ." To in d ic a t e the im portance o f the term, she c a p i t a l i z e s and n o te s i t . Yet she a ls o p o in ts ou t th a t "some s a y , o th e r s deny" th a t he i s Man. Her len g th y jnote e x p la in s th a t I t a l i a n and German d ic t a t o r s may i n s i s t th a t man's j'nature" i s to f i g h t , but the growth o f male p a c ifis m g iv e s stro n g hope th a t m anliness and f i g h t i n g need not be synonymous. She then c a l l s him the " q u in tessen ce o f v i r i l i t y " and " p e r fe c t," a g a in s t whom a l l o th e r s are " im p erfect adum brations." C e r ta in ly , her d e s c r ip t io n s i d e a l i z e t h is man. But her r e fe r e n c e a ls o s u g g e sts i Hamlet s speech on man as the q u in te sse n c e o f d u s t. She sa y s t h is ty r a n t i s the q u in te s s e n c e o f v i r i l i t y when she i r o n i c a l l y means the o p p o s ite ; i t i s " d u s t.” Then, she tak es him down an oth er peg. "He i s L man c e r t a in ly ," as i f th a t i s about a l l one cou ld sa y . Here the term i s n ot c a p i t a l i z e d , nor i s i t g iv e n any o th e r d i s t i n c t i o n . Her d e s c r ip t io n now becomes n e g a tiv e . "His e y es are g la z ed ; h is e y e s g la r e . His body, which i s braced in an u nnatural p o s i t i o n , i s t i g h t l y cased in a uniform . Upon the b r e a st o f th a t uniform are sewn s e v e r a l medals and o th e r m y stic sym bols. His hand i s upon a sword." These s h o r t, abrupt s e n te n c e s b u ild on each o th e r , c r e a tin g an abrupt, s t a c c a t o e f f e c t n ot u n lik e the r ig id march o f m il it a r y le a d e r s . R e p e titio n in s h o r t, abrupt s e n te n c e s a ls o communicates Mr. Ramsay's r i g id adherence to accu racy. "What he sa id was tr u e ; i t was alw ays tr u e ." Then, th e gram m atical s tr u c tu r e o f t h i s thought i s rev e r se d fo r resta te m e n t in n e g a tiv e term s: he was "jLncapable o f 130' iuntruth," n ever tam pering w ith a f a c t and n ever a l t e r i n g "a d is a g r e e a b le jword to s u i t the p le a su r e or con ven ience" o f anyone (em phasis ad d ed ). The fou r n e g a tiv e s make Mr. Ramsay's i n f l e x i b i l i t y q u ite c l e a r , but the extreme example o f h i s r i g i d i t y comes when he does not even s u i t the p le a su r e o f h i s own c h ild r e n . They, above a l l , must le a r n th a t " l i f e i s d i f f i c u l t " and " fa c ts uncom prom ising." The r e p e t i t i o n employed h ere to d e s c r ib e the ty r a n t o f Three Guineas and Mr. Ramsay in To the L ighthouse I b rin g th e se two fig u r e s c l o s e r to g e th e r than one would th in k a t f i r s t . ^et the o u t s i d e r 's d i s t r u s t o f p a tr ia r c h a l " fa c ts" i s not ambiguous, jwhile Mrs. Ramsay's p o in t o f v ie w , m in glin g w ith th e "other" ‘ c o n sc io u sn e s s o f th e au th or, i s both s e r io u s and m ock -h eroic. B esid es r e p e t i t i o n , the two p a ssa g es employ balanced r h e t o r ic a l p a tte r n s : "some sa y , o th e r s d en y," " p u b lic and p r iv a te w o r ld s," I " ty ra n n ies and s e r v i l i t i e s " o f one are th e " ty ra n n ies and s e r v i l i t i e s " i o f the o th e r in Three G u in eas; " lean as a k n if e , narrow as the blade o f o n e ," "never tampered, n ever a lt e r e d ," "our b r ig h t e s t hopes" and " f r a i l e s t barks" in To the L ig h th o u se . Yet a g a in , the o u ts id e r speaks from one p o in t o f v ie w , whereas James, Mr. Ramsay and the a u th o r ia l p resen ce m ingle th r e e p o in ts o f view . W o o lf's d e s c r ip t io n s o f a ty ra n t in h er e s s a y and h er n ovel have been c o n tr a ste d in t h e ir p o in t o f view and t h e i r s t y l e ; now i t may be u s e f u l to examine two lo n g er p assages to s e e i f the same d if f e r e n c e s h o ld tr u e . I have chosen p a ssa g es from both works d e s c r ib in g v i o l e n t em otions o f th o se op p ressed by tyranny: the o u t s i d e r ' s resentm ent o f what she c a l l s th e "monstrous male" in Three Guineas (105) and four p a ssa g e s from the l a s t s e c t io n o f To the L igh th ou se fo c u s in g on the 131 c h il d r e n 's resentm ent o f Ramsay's tyranny in fo r c in g them to go on the b oat t r ip (2 4 3 -2 5 3 , 2 7 2 -2 7 9 , 2 8 0 -2 8 4 , 3 0 1 -3 0 8 ). The Three Guineas passage p i t s s o c i e t y , a group o f p e o p le , a g a in s t th e in d iv id u a l, the male corresp on d en t fo r whom th e o u ts id e r has some r e s p e c t . The p a ssa g e , spoken in the o u t s i d e r ' s most p o la r iz in g v o ic e , i s a tir a d e a g a in s t p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y ' s tyranny over women. I t em ploys rep etitio n --" Y & u s h a l l n o t, you s h a l P n o t , you s h a ll^ n o t," d e s c r ib in g s o c i e t y as a gramophone whose n e e d le has s tu c k , g r in d in g out a g a in and again "Three hundred m il lio n s sp en t upon arms." S o c ie t y ' s m essage to women i s a "dism al b e ll" r in g in g ou t harsh music o f " sh all) n o t," and s o c i e t y i t s e l f i s a " con sp iracy" to s in k the p r iv a te b roth er and to i n f l a t e the "monstrous male" who employs power and dominion o v er women "locked in the p r iv a te house" (TG, 1 0 5 ). The o u t s id e r a d d resse s the male corresp on d en t d i r e c t l y and reminds him o f what s o c i e t y ' s p u b lic law has done to women: 1 And h e r e , s in c e you are a law yer, w ith a la w y e r 's memory, i t i s not n e c e ss a r y to remind you o f c e r t a in d e c r e e s o f E n g lish law from i t s f i r s t record s to the year 1919 by way o f proving th a t the p u b lic , the s o c i e t y r e l a t io n s h i p o f b ro th er and s i s t e r has been d i f f e r e n t from the p r iv a t e . 2 The v ery word ' s o c i e t y ' s e t s t o l l i n g in memory the dism al b e l l s o f a harsh m usic: s h a l l n o t, s h a l l n o t, s h a l l n o t. 3 You s h a l l not le a r n ; you s h a l l not earn; you s h a l l not own; you s h a l l n o t--s u c h was the s o c i e t y r e l a t io n s h i p o f 4 b ro th er to s i s t e r fo r many c e n t u r ie s . And though i t i s p o s s i b l e , and to th e o p t i m i s t i c c r e d i b le , th a t in tim e a new s o c i e t y may r in g a c a r i l l o n o f sp le n d id harmony, and your l e t t e r h e r a ld s i t , th a t day i s fa r d is t a n t . 5 I n e v it a b ly we ask o u r s e lv e s , i s th e r e n ot som ething in the con glom eration o f p eop le in t o s o c i e t i e s th a t r e le a s e s what i s most s e l f i s h and v i o l e n t , l e a s t r a t io n a l and humane in 6 th e in d iv id u a ls th em selv es? I n e v it a b ly we look upon s o c i e t y , so kind to you, so harsh to u s , as an i l l - f i t t i n g form th a t d i s t o r t s the tr u th ; deforms the mind; f e t t e r s 7 th e w i l l . I n e v it a b ly we lo o k upon s o c i e t i e s as c o n s p ir a c ie s th a t s in k th e p r iv a te b r o th e r , whom many o f ________________us have reason to r e s p e c t , and i n f l a t e in h i s s te a d a______ 132 m onstrous m ale, loud o f v o i c e , hard o f f i s t , c h i l d i s h l y i n t e n t upon sc o r in g the f lo o r o f th e e a r th w ith ch alk marks, w ith in whose m y stic boundaries human b ein g s are penned, r i g i d l y , s e p a r a t e ly , a r t i f i c i a l l y ; w here, daubed red and g o ld , d eco ra ted l i k e a savage w ith fe a th e r s he goes through m y stic r i t e s and en jo y s the dubious p le a su r e s o f power and dom inion w h ile we, ' h i s ' women, are locked in the p r iv a t e house w ith o u t share in the many s o c i e t i e s o f which 8 h i s s o c i e t y i s composed. For such reason s compact as they are o f many memories and e m o tio n s --fo r who s h a l l a n a ly se th e co m p lex ity o f a mind th a t h o ld s so deep a r e s e r v o ir o f tim e p a st w ith in i t ? — i t seems both wrong fo r us r a t i o n a l l y and im p o s s ib le fo r us e m o tio n a lly to f i l l up your form and 9 j o in your s o c i e t y . For by so d oin g we should merge our i d e n t i t y in you rs; fo llo w and rep e a t and sc o r e s t i l l deeper the o ld worn r u ts in which s o c i e t y , l i k e a gramophone whose n e e d le has s tu c k , i s g r in d in g ou t w ith in t o le r a b le unanimity 'Three hundred m il lio n s sp en t upon arm s.' (TG, 105) Every r h e t o r ic a l tech n iq u e i s employed to c r e a te t h is c l e a r l y n e g a tiv e to n e: the o u t s id e r v o i c e , paragraph s t r u c t u r e , p a r a l l e l s e n te n c e s , in t e n s iv e ad verb s, r e p e t i t i o n , imagery and d i c t i o n . F i r s t , c o n sid e r the o u t s id e r v o ic e . Her p o la r iz in g v o ic e c l e a r l y s e t s th e male jcorrespondent apart from h er w ith a tir a d e o f "Look at what you have done to u s." Yet she does n ot blame th e corresp on d en t p e r s o n a lly ; she blames s o c i e t y and counts on the male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's knowledge o f the p u b lic law to lea d him to agree w ith h e r . N ex t, c o n s id e r the s tr u c tu r e o f the paragraph i t s e l f . I t c o n s is t s o f n in e s e n t e n c e s , s y s t e m a t ic a lly and l o g i c a l l y o r g a n iz e d , moving from g e n e r a liz a t io n s about s o c i e t y to i n e v i t a b l e c o n c lu s io n s about th a t s o c i e t y . S en ten ce one tr a c e s E n g lish laws from the b eg in n in g to 1919 (when women won th e v o te ) to s u b s t a n t ia t e i t s a s s e r t io n th a t th e " s o c ie ty r e la t io n s h ip " o f brother and s i s t e r i s v ery d i f f e r e n t from the " p riv a te" one. S en ten ces two and th ree " t o ll" s o c i e t y ' s "dism al" b e l l o f " s h a ll n o t, s h a ll' n o t, s h a l l n o t" and "You s h a l l not le a r n , you s h a ll not e a r n , you s h a l l not own, .you s h a l l n o t," ech o in g sev en n e g a tiv e s in two se n te n c e s and s e t t i n g up , - 1 3 -3 an i n s i s t e n t t r i p l e rhythm. The fou rth se n te n c e o f f e r s a glimmer o f hope fo r a new s o c i e t y o f " sp le n d id harmony," o n ly to dash th a t hope by s t a t i n g th a t the new day i s "far d i s t a n t ." The n ext th r e e s e n t e n c e s - - f i v e , s i x , and sev en --fo rm a t r ia d , each b egin n in g w ith the in t e n s iv e adverb, " in e v it a b ly ." Of t h is t r ia d , the f i r s t two se n te n c e s make g e n e r a liz a t io n s about s o c i e t y , one q u e s tio n in g w hether s o c i e t y does not b rin g out what i s most " s e l f i s h and v io l e n t " and l e a s t " r a tio n a l and humane" in in d iv id u a ls ; th e second aim ing a t r i p l e s t a c c a t o a t s o c i e t y , t h i s " i l l - f i t t i n g form th a t d i s t o r t s the tr u th ; deforms the mind; f e t t e r s the w ill " (em phasis ( added) . Both se n te n c e s are co m p a ra tiv ely b r i e f , about t h i r t y words a p ie c e , and b alan ced . They b u ild to the l a s t pow erful s e n te n c e , th r e e tim es as lon g (one hundred words) and em ploying th e extended image o f m ales as c h il d i s h sa v a g e s. " I n e v ita b ly ," the o u ts id e r and h er s i s t e r s tlook upon s o c i e t i e s as " c o n sp ir a c ie s" th a t " sink" the p r iv a te b ro th ers whom th ey r e s p e c t and " in f la t e " the "monstrous m ale, loud o f v o ic e , ( hard o f f i s t , c h i l d i s h l y in t e n t upon s c o r in g the f lo o r o f the ea r th w ith L halk marks. . . ." Im m ediately f o llo w in g t h i s "monstrous male" s c o r in g h i s ch a lk marks come th ree a d v e r b ia l c la u s e s d e s c r ib in g the meaning and e f f e c t s o f th o se marks. They s i g n i f y a p la c e where human b ein g s are im prisoned ("penned, r i g i d l y , s e p a r a t e ly , a r t i f i c i a l l y " ) , where the male wears a sp le n d id uniform ("daubed red and g o ld , d eco ra te d l i k e a savage w ith fe a th e r s " ) and e n jo y s "power and dom inion," w h ile "his" women are "locked in the p r iv a te h o u se ." T his lon g s e n te n c e moves from th e Image o f "monstrous male" to a g e n e r a l sta tem en t about the imprisonment o f human b e in g s; 134 then i t s h i f t s back to the image o f the male sa v a g e, and f i n a l l y to a s p e c i f i c , ra th er than g e n e r a l, statem en t about im prisoned women. The s tr u c tu r e o f t h i s se n ten ce c l e a r ly and l o g i c a l l y su b v erts p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y . The d ic t i o n o f . t h i s le n g th y se n ten ce a ls o s t r i k e s h a r s h ly . W hile th e whole paragraph c o n ta in s th ir ty -tw o n e g a tiv e words or p h ra ses, se v e n te e n o f t h e s e , o v er h a l f , are lo c a te d in se n te n c e seven.® Of the f i v e n e g a tiv e images in the p a ra g ra p h --’’fu n e r a l b e l l , " " savage," " p r iso n ," " r u t," and "broken gramophone"--two are found in sen ten ce sev en . The e n t ir e paragraph i s s tr u c tu r e d as an argument w ith t h is most pow erful sen te n c e p laced toward the end. Sentence e ig h t c o n c lu d e s , in balanced p h r a se s, th a t fo r th ese r e a so n s, i t seems both r a t i o n a l l y wrong and e m o tio n a lly im p o ssib le fo r Women to jo in the male c o r r esp o n d en t's s o c i e t y . S entence n in e e x p la in s J |the r a t io n a le fo r t h i s c o n c lu s io n . C le a r ly , the o u ts id e r p o in t o f view , t I paragraph s t r u c t u r e , i t s p a r a l l e l s e n te n c e s , in t e n s iv e adverb s, j r e p e titio n , d ic t io n and imagery a l l work to g e th e r to c a s t ig a t e p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y . The harsh tone o f t h is passage i s m itig a te d by the r e sp e c t the o u t s id e r pays to h er male corresp on d en t. When she e x p r e s s e s the hope jfor a new s o c i e t y , she g iv e s him c r e d i t fo r th a t hope ("Your l e t t e r h e r a ld s i t " ) , and when she e x p r e ss e s h er h atred fo r the p resen t s o c i e t y , she says i t i s b ecause i t "sink s the p r iv a te b ro th er whom many o f us la v e reason to r e s p e c t ." C le a r ly , the o u ts id e r c o n s id e r s th e male correspondent one o f th o se " p r iv a te b r o th e r s ." The o b je c t o f her tir a d e sere i s s o c i e t y , not her male corresp on d en t. H ence, she saves h e r s e l f 135 from t o t a l d ia t r i b e . And h er chameleon "we" a llo w s h er to s h i f t from one p e r s p e c tiv e to another w ith e a s e . N o n e th e le s s , her p o in t o f view h ere i s unambiguous: p a tr ia r c h a l s o c i e t y o p p resse s women and, t h e r e f o r e , by j o in in g i t , women would o n ly c o n tr ib u te to more o p p r e ssio n . The unambiguous v ie w p o in t o f t h is "monstrous male" passage c o n t r a s t s sh a rp ly w ith the ambiguous v ie w p o in ts o f the fou r p assages from To the L igh thou se which focu s on the boat t r ip in th e l a s t s e c t io n o f the n o v e l. The f i r s t p assage fo c u se s on the c h ild r e n 's resen tm en t o f Ramsay; the second fo c u se s on Jam es's h a t e - lo v e fo r h i s fa th e r ; the th ir d on Cam; and the fo u rth on Ramsay h im s e lf. To c a te g o r iz e the p o in t s o f view in t h is manner i s an o v e r s im p l if ic a t i o n because i t has a lr e a d y been seen how the p o in t o f view s h i f t s in one paragraph from the c o n s c io u s n e s s o f each c h a r a c te r to the "other" c o n sc io u s n e ss o f th e i au th o r. N o n e th e le s s , th e major fo cu s i s th e r e . S in ce a l l fou r p a ssa g es d e a l in some way w ith tyranny in human r e l a t io n s h i p s , I have a r b i t r a r i l y chosen the f i r s t p a ssa g e to an a ly ze (TTL, 2 4 2 -2 5 3 ). The f i v e c h a r a c te r s in th e boat are fisherm an M a c a lis te r and h i s son; Mr. Ramsay, e m o tio n a lly needy and determ ined to make the t r i p , and two o f h is c h ild r e n , James and Cam. S u r p r isin g p a r a l l e l s e x i s t betw een t h is passage and the Three Guineas p a ssa g e. J u st as the passage from Three Guineas e x p r e s s e s the " force" o f a p a tr ia r c h a l fa m ily and s o c i e t y which o p p resse s women, so t h i s p a ssa g e from the n o v el dram atizes the " force" o f the p a tr ia r c h Ramsay who o p p resse s h i s c h ild r e n (in t h e ir e s tim a tio n , at any r a t e ) . Both p a ssa g es make t h e ir lo n g e s t se n te n c e t h e ir most i r o n i c , and both employ r e p e t i t io n as a r h e t o r ic a l d e v ic e . 136 Y et obviou s c o n tr a s ts between the two p a ssa g es a ls o e x i s t . The p assage from the e s s a y i s one page; the passage from the n o v el i s tw elve p ages. The e s sa y i s an unambiguous condemnation o f the d e s tr u c tiv e n e s s o f p a tr ia r c h a l s o c ie t y ; th e n ovel i s ambiguous in d e s c r ib in g human r e l a t io n s h i p s . The e s s a y p r e s e n ts a l o g i c a l argument from a s in g le p o in t o f view ; the n o v e l t e l l s a s to r y from many p o in ts o f view . T his " m u ltip erson al r e p r e se n ta tio n o f co n sc io u sn e ss" c r e a te s am bigu ity in the n o v e l's p o r tr a y a l o f fa m ily r e l a t io n s h i p s . I t i s not j a n argument a g a in s t a m ale-dom inated fa m ily and s o c i e t y , as Three 'Guineas i s ; r a th e r , i t i s a s to r y p o rtra y in g the c o m p le x itie s o f human 'r e la tio n s h ip s and the s u b j e c t iv e tru th th a t "nothing [ i s ] sim p ly one th in g " (TTL, 2 7 7 ). T h is f i r s t passage from To the L ighthouse fo c u se s on the c h ild r e n 's resentm ent o f t h e ir fa th e r who has forced them to come on a boat t r i p . Much o f what happens i s seen through t h e ir minds. Yet W oolf's m a n ip u la tio n o f the a u th o r ia l v o ic e and fr e e in d ir e c t sp eech to s h i f t ifrom the c h ild r e n to g e th e r , to James and Cam, s e p a r a t e ly , to Mr. Ramsay l i m s e l f , c r e a te s a s e r io u s , y e t m ock-heroic ton e. For exam ple, at the b egin n in g W oolf's focu s on the co n sc io u sn e ss o f th e c h ild r e n and the "other" c o n sc io u sn e ss o f th e author c r e a te s a p e t u la n t , overdram atic tone c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c h ild r e n who have been fo r c e d to do som ething they do not want to do. A fte r four l i n e s o f s e t t i n g the scen e (th e s a i l s fla p and o c c a s io n a l ly r ip p le ; the w ater c h u ck les and s la p s ; the boat i s m o tio n le s s ; and Ramsay s i t s in the m iddle o f the b o a t), the fo llo w in g passage o ccu rs: He would be im p a tie n t in a moment, .James th o u g h t, and Cam _______ th o u g h t, lo o k in g a t h er f a t h e r , who s a t in the m iddle o f the 137 b oat betw een them (James s te e r e d ; Cam s a t a lo n e in the bow) w ith h is le g s t i g h t l y c u r le d . He h ated hanging about. Sure enough, a f t e r f id g e t i n g a second o r two, he s a id som ething sharp to M a c a lis t e r 's boy, who g o t out h is oars and began to row. But t h e ir fa th e r , th ey knew, would never be c o n ten t u n t i l th ey were f l y i n g a lo n g . (TTL, 242) The f i r s t se n te n c e p ic tu r e s Ramsay through the c h ild r e n 's m inds, c l e a r l y in d ic a te d by "James thought" and "Cam th o u g h t." But even h e r e , au thorial p a r e n t h e t ic a l n a r r a tio n in te r r u p ts to g iv e p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip t io n o f I Ramsay s i t t i n g in the m iddle o f the boat betw een h i s two c h ild r e n . The n ex t s e n te n c e r e f e r s to Ramsay: "He hated hanging a b o u t." But who th in k s i t ? The ch ild r en ? Ramsay h im se lf? The a u th o r ia l presence? I I t cou ld be a l l th r e e . Then fo llo w s , "Sure enough," but again ; who says t h is ? I f i t i s the c h ild r e n , i t i s meant s e r i o u s l y as an e x p r e s s io n o f t h e i r resentm ent; i f i t i s the a u th o r ia l p r e se n c e , i t cap tu res the m elodram atic p e tu la n c e o f c h ild r e n who r e s e n t p a ren ta l a u th o r ity . Once a g a in , i t i s both m elodram atic from the a u th o r 's (and r e a d e r 's ) p o in t o f v ie w and s e r io u s from the c h ild r e n 's p o in t o f view . The p e tu la n t tone o f "Sure enough" i s echoed in th e l a s t se n te n c e by "they knew" th a t t h e i r fa th e r would not be happy u n t i l the boat was moving f a s t . R e p e titio n adds to the m ock-heroic tone o f t h i s paragraph. James and Cam, fo rce d to go on a se n tim e n ta l jou rn ey w ith t h e ir s e l f - p i t y i n g , sympathy-demanding f a t h e r , make a " s i l e n t pact" to " r e s i s t tyranny to th e death" (TTL. 2 4 3 ). This phrase i s rep eated s i x tim es in tw elv e p a g e s. Yet the e f f e c t h ere i s n o t a s e r io u s c a l l to s o c ie t y to r e s i s t tyran n y, as i t i s in Three G u in eas; in s te a d , th e e f f e c t i s to dram atize i th e c h ild r e n 's f e e l i n g s when they are forced to do som ething a g a in s t t h e ir w i l l s . The f i r s t two in s ta n c e s r e f e r to James and Cam to ge th e r . Angry_____ 138 b ecause Ramsay fo r c e s them, they vow s i l e n t l y "to stan d by each o th er and carry out the g r e a t co m p a ct--to r e s i s t tyranny to th e death" (TTL, 2 4 3 ). L a te r , when M a c a lis te r and Ramsay d is c u s s storm s and sh ip w reck s, th e two c h ild r e n do n ot l i s t e n - - " ( b u t in t h e ir anger and t h e ir s i l e n c e th ey on ly caught a word h ere and th e r e , s i t t i n g a t o p p o site ends o f the b o a t, u n ited by t h e ir compact to f ig h t tyranny to the d ea th )" (TTL, 245). The th ird time Cam, in s te a d o f r e s e n tin g h er f a t h e r , f e e l s proud o f him , th in k in g him brave and adventu rous. However, she sq u e lc h e s th ose f e e l i n g s as she remembers "the compact; to r e s i s t tyranny to the death" (TTL, 2 4 6 ). The fo u rth tim e, James s e e s Cam's am bivalence as Ramsay attem p ts to engage h er in c o n v e r sa tio n : i Y es, thought James p i t i l e s s l y , s e e in g h i s s i s t e r ' s head a g a in s t the s a i l , now she w i l l g iv e way. I s h a l l be l e f t to f i g h t the ty ra n t a lo n e . The compact would be l e f t to him to carry o u t. Cam would n ever r e s i s t tyranny to the d e a th , he thought g r im ly , w atching h er f a c e , sad , s u lk y , y ie ld in g . (TTL, 250) From the c h ild r e n 's p o in t o f v ie w , the s i t u a t io n may be s e r io u s ; from the r e a d e r 's p o in t o f v ie w , th e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h is s e lf-im p o r ta n t language o f r e s i s t i n g "tyranny to the death" becomes in c r e a s in g ly mock- h e r o ic and m elodram atic. R h e to r ic a l p a tte r n s a ls o r e in fo r c e the c h il d r e n 's resen tm en t: "He had made them come. He had forced them to come. In t h e i r anger they hoped th a t the b reeze would n ever r i s e , th a t he m ight be thwarted in ev e r y p o s s ib le way, s in c e he had fo rce d them to come a g a in s t t h e ir w i l l s " (TTL, 243, emphasis added). A m ock-epic s t y l e fu r th e r adds to the melodrama. Cam's r e a c tio n to Ramsay's s e l f - p i t y i n g o u tb u r sts enrage h e r . Yet when h er fa th e r t r i e s to g e t her to s m ile , she i s caught betw een h er compact w ith James and lo v e -h a te fo r h er fa th e r : 139 And as sometimes happens when a cloud f a l l s on a green h i l l s id e and g r a v ity descen d s and th e r e among a l l the surrounding h i l l s i s gloom and sorrow , and i t seems as i f the h i l l s th em selves must ponder the f a t e o f the clo u d ed , the darkened, e i t h e r in p i t y , or m a lic io u s ly r e j o i c in g in h er dism ay: so Cam now f e l t h e r s e l f o v e r c a s t , as she s a t th ere among calm , r e s o lu t e p eop le and wondered how to answer h er fa th e r about th e puppy; how to r e s i s t h i s e n t r e a t y - - f o r g i v e me, ca re fo r me; w h ile James the la w g iv e r , w ith th e t a b le t s o f e te r n a l wisdom l a i d open on h i s knee ( h is hand on the t i l l e r had become sy m b o lica l to h e r ) , s a i d , R e s is t him. F ig h t him. (TTL. 250-251) The a u th o r ia l "other" c o n sc io u sn e s s i s c l e a r in t h is parody o f an e p ic s i m i l e , c r e a tin g a comic e f f e c t ; a t the same tim e the passage i s s e r io u s as i t fo c u s e s on Cam's " overcast" f e e l i n g s . The d i c t i o n a ls o s u g g e s ts Cam's o p p r e ssio n and r e s is t a n c e , w ith th ir t e e n n e g a tiv e words (" clo u d ," " g r a v ity ," "gloom," "sorrow ," " f a te ," " clou d ed ," "darkened," " p ity ," " m a lic io u s ly r e j o i c in g ," "dism ay," " o v e r c a s t," " r e s i s t ," " fig h t" ) compared to f i v e p o s i t i v e ones ("green h i l l s i d e , " "calm, r e s o lu t e p e o p le " ) . T his s e r io u s , y e t m ock-heroic tone o ccu rs not o n ly in the p o rtra y a l o f the c h ild r e n 's resentm ent o f t h e ir f a t h e r , but in the c o n f l i c t i n g view s o f Ramsay as w e l l . Ramsay may seem l i k e a ty ra n t to h i s c h ild r e n but when he en jo y s th e s a i l i n g , l i s t e n s to M a c a lis t e r 's s t o r i e s , and reads a good book, he i s more l i k e a b l e . When he adm its to h im s e lf th a t he has been harsh w ith Cam and t r i e s to make h er s m ile , the r e a d e r 's view i s s o fte n e d . Cam h e r s e l f , caught betw een h er compact w ith James and a d e s ir e to p le a s e h er f a t h e r , o fte n does not know whether to respond to him w ith lo v e or h a te . But some o f the in s id e view s o f Mr. Ramsay are not adm irable a t a l l . J u st as the c h ild r e n dram atize t h e ir own resen tm en t, so Ramsay c a s t s h im s e lf as a p r o ta g o n is t in a melodrama: . _ _ „ „ r 4 _ S i t t i n g in the b o a t, he bowed, he crouched h im s e lf , a c tin g i n s t a n t l y h i s p a r t - - t h e p art o f a d e s o la t e man, widowed, b e r e f t ; and so c a l le d up b e fo r e him in h o s ts peop le sym p a th isin g w ith him; sta g ed fo r h im s e lf as he s a t in the b o a t, a l i t t l e drama; which req u ired o f him d ecre p itu d e and ex h a u stio n and sorrow (he r a ise d h i s hands and looked at the th in n e s s o f them, to confirm h i s dream) and then th ere was g iv e n him in abundance women's sympathy, and he imagined how th ey would so o th e him and sym pathise w ith him, and so g e t t in g in h i s dream some r e f l e c t i o n o f the e x q u is it e p le a su r e women's sympathy was to him, he sig h ed and s a id g e n t ly and m ou rn fully, But I beneath a rougher s e a , Was whelmed in deeper g u lf s than h e , so th a t the m ournful words were heard q u ite c l e a r l y by them a l l . (TTL, 247-248) One o f the f i r s t th in g s to n o t ic e about t h i s passage i s th a t although th e s e are Ramsay's th o u g h ts, an a u th o r ia l p resen ce g iv e s p a r e n th e tic a l p h y s ic a l d e t a i l s : " (he r a ise d h i s hands and looked a t the th in n e s s , i l to confirm h i s dream )." Second, n o te th a t the e n t ir e p assage i s one s e n te n c e o f one hundred fo r ty w ords, the lo n g e s t se n te n c e o f the tw elv e- page p a ssa g e, s im ila r in le n g th to the long "monstrous male" sen ten ce in Three G uineas. Most o f the se n te n c e s in t h is tw elv e-p a g e s e c t io n o f To the L igh th ou se range from sh o r t ( f i v e to ten words) to medium le n g th ( t h i r t y to f i f t y w ord s). Only e ig h t s e n te n c e s exceed s i x t y w ords, and j u s t two o f th ese e ig h t are o v er one hundred w ords. These two long se n te n c e s are the m ock-heroic ones d e s c r ib in g Cam's " o v erca st" f e e l i n g s and Ramsay's s e lf - d r a m a t iz a t io n . J u st as the lo n g e s t se n te n c e in the Three Guineas p assage b u ild s to i t s most ir o n ic to n e , so a ls o the two lo n g s e n te n c e s in t h is L ighth ou se passage b u ild to t h e ir most mock- h e r o ic to n e . T his p a tte r n may be the lin k between th e se two very d i f f e r e n t w orks. In b o th , c e r t a in elem en ts o f s t y l e crop up to c r e a te the ir o n ic e f f e c t o f an a u th o r ia l p resen ce: r e p e t i t i o n o f r h e t o r ic a l 1 ' 14H schem es, se n te n c e le n g th , d i c t i o n . A f i n a l th in g to n o t ic e i s the d i c t i o n . The n a rra to r i s g e n tly i r o n i c , u sin g a t e a s in g , m aternal view o f the demanding m ale. Fourteen words s u g g e st a s e l f - p i t y i n g s ta n c e ( " s t a g e d ,” "crouched," " d e s o la te ," " b e r e ft," " d e crep itu d e," " ex h a u stio n ," "sorrow ," " th in n e s s ," " sig h ed ," " m ournfu lly," "rougher," "whelmed," "mournful") and even the s i x more p o s i t i v e words (" g e n tly ," " sym p ath isin g," "women's sym pathy," " soothe and sym p ath ise," " e x q u is it e ," " p leasu re o f women's company") are n e g a tiv e s in c e Ramsay craves th e se th in g s . My p o in t i s th a t even i f the a u th o r ia l p resen ce were n ot th e r e in p a r e n t h e t ic a l n a r r a tio n , i t i s th e r e in the d i c t i o n . Ramsay h im s e lf p a r t ic i p a t e s in i t , so th a t th ere i s a s p l i t p e r s p e c t iv e , the c o n sc io u sn e ss o f Ramsay and th e "other" c o n sc io u s n e ss o f th e author. Another major c o n tr a s t between the two p a ssa g es i s the way the imagery f u n c t io n s . In Three Guineas i t su p p orts an argument; in To th e L igh th ou se i t b u ild s to a la r g e r sym bolic m eaning. In Three Guineas the f i v e major im ages are " b e lls ," " savage," " p r iso n ," " r u t," and "broken gramophone." S o c i e t y ' s message to women i s the sound o f "dism al b e l l s o f a harsh m usic: s h a l l n o t, s h a l l n o t, s h a l l n o t." S o c ie ty i s a "conspiracy" which has d estro y ed the p r iv a te b ro th er and i n f la t e d a "monstrous m ale," d eco ra ted l i k e a "savage w ith fe a th e r s " who goes through "m ystic r i t e s " and en jo y s "power and dominion" over o th e r s . He makes "chalkmarks" w ith in whose "m ystic boundaries human b ein gs are penned" and women are "locked in the p r iv a te h o u se ," as in a p r is o n . The passage ends w ith s o c i e t y ' s g r in d in g o u t, l i k e a broken gramophone, th e same o ld m essage in the same o ld r u t: "Three hundred m illio n s sp en t - - _ W 2 upon arm s.” The images begin and end w ith harsh m usic; the f i r s t i s a fu n e r a l b e l l , th e l a s t a m echanical g r in d in g o u t, as i f human in d iv id u a ls had no c h o ic e in the m atter. T hat, in f a c t , i s the whole p o in t: the o u t s id e r can ch oose. The o u t s id e r r e fu s e s to j o in th e male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's s o c i e t y b ecause she would o n ly add to s o c i e t y ' s " in t o le r a b le unanim ity" in i t s n on think ing p u r s u it o f war and the c la s s system . The im ages, th en , s e r v e to persuade the o u t s i d e r 's f i c t i o n a l a u d ien ce, the male co rresp o n d en t, o f the e v i l s o f a s o c i e t y o f p eop le who cannot th in k fo r th em selv es. In To the L ighth ou se th e major image in the tw elv e-p a g e s e c t io n under c o n s id e r a tio n i s the storm , alm ost always r e la te d to the c h il d r e n 's resentm ent o f t h e ir f a t h e r 's tyranny or to Ramsay h i m s e l f . ^ Angry and s i l e n t , the c h ild r e n walk w ith t h e ir heads "pressed down by some rem o r seless g a le" (TTL, 2 4 3 ); Ramsay en jo y s M a c a lis t e r 's t a l e about l a s t w in t e r 's storm (TTL, 2 4 4 -2 4 5 ); Ramsay in h is s e l f - p i t y q u otes again and a g a in , "But I beneath a rougher sea" (TTL, 2 4 7 -2 4 8 ); h i s h a l f t e a s in g anger a t Cam fo r not knowing the p o in ts o f a compass r e s u l t s in Cam's f e e l i n g " overcast" as when a "cloud f a l l s on a green h i l l s i d e " (TTL, 2 4 9 -2 5 0 ); and Cam trem b les w ith rage a t r e c a l l i n g Ramsay's dominance and in s o le n c e which " ra ised b i t t e r storm s" in h er ch ild h ood (TTL, 2 5 3 ). Y e t, as has been se e n , the a u th o r ia l n a r r a tio n and f r e e , in d ir e c t sp e e c h , moving in and out o f v ery d i f f e r e n t c h a ra cte rs and a c h ie v in g the c o n s c io u s n e s s o f the c h a r a c te r and an "other" c o n sc io u sn e ss o f th e a u th o r, c r e a te s a s e r io u s , y e t m ock-heroic to n e. F u rth er, the storm 143 image b u ild s a cu m u lative p a tte r n , sometimes m ock-heroic as in the p assage j u s t exam ined, and som etim es s e r io u s as when Mrs. Ramsay reads th e Fisherm an's T a le about the sea coming in "black waves" to James (TTL. 8 6 -8 8 , 9 3 ). Connected w ith the storm imagery is(j,the e x p e d itio n , th e jo u rn ey , |the sm all boat at s e a , and th e lig h th o u s e i t s e l f - - a l l o f which seem g e n e r a liz e d and u n r e la te d when they f i r s t appear, but which grow w ith r e p e t i t i o n in v a r io u s c o n te x ts to sym bolic m ean in g.10 In the e s s a y the im ages fu n c tio n as argument; in the n o v el th ey form an i n t r i c a t e p a tte r n b u ild in g to a la r g e r meaning. The image o f the d yin g m ackerel i l l u s t r a t e s how d i f f e r e n t l y images fu n c tio n in the e s s a y and the n o v e l. The m ackerel image comes tw ic e . F i r s t , when Cam remains s i l e n t because !of h er "compact" w ith James, y e t p a sses a p r iv a te token to h er fa th e r I becau se o f h er am bivalent lo v e fo r him , she s e e s M a c a lis t e r 's boy catch a m ackerel w hich l i e s " k ick in g on the f l o o r w ith blood on i t s g i l l s " (TTL. 2 5 2 ). The m ackerel o ccu rs a second tim e when Cam th in k s o f what i s " in to le r a b le " about h er fa th e r : But what remained i n t o l e r a b l e , she th o u g h t, s i t t i n g u p r ig h t, and w atch in g M a c a lis t e r 's boy tug th e hook out o f th e g i l l s o f another f i s h , was th a t c r a ss b lin d n e ss and tyranny o f h is w hich had p oison ed h er ch ild h ood and r a is e d b i t t e r storm s, so th a t even now she woke in the n ig h t trem bling w ith rage and remembered some command o f h i s ; some in s o le n c e : 'Do t h i s , ' 'Do t h a t , ' h i s dominance: h i s 'Submit to m e.' (TTL, 253) Once a g a in , why in te r r u p t Cam's thoughts in t h is way i f not to c a l l a t t e n t io n to the image o f the dying f is h ? I t can be e x p la in e d , o f c o u r s e , th a t W o o lf's method i s to combine o u te r e v e n ts (th e c a tc h in g o f th e f i s h ) w ith in n er thoughts (Cam's m em ories). Y et g iv e n the f a c t s th a t th e e x p e d itio n i s a fo rce d one to c e le b r a t e a dom inating f a t h e r 's m y stic " r ite " fo r th e dead, th a t th e themes o f t h is s e a jou rn ey are "W e p e r ish e d each alone" and "I beneath a rougher s e a ," and th a t the f i s h i s d y in g , i t i s c l e a r th a t a co n n e c tio n i s made between the d yin g m ackerel and Cam's exposure to h er " d iv is io n o f f e e lin g " between h er fa th e r and h e r b r o th e r . Leaska comments th a t , seen a lo n e , th e e p iso d e o f M a c a lis t e r 's boy and the f i s h i s o n ly an a d o le s c e n t 's s e n s e l e s s c r u e lt y . Seen in the c o n te x t o f the c h ild r e n 's antagonism , t h e ir f a t h e r ' s tyran ny, and the p ain and i s o l a t i o n r e s u lt i n g from Mrs. Ramsay's d ea th , however, the image accum ulates a " d e n sity o f meaning which p r o je c ts the v ery s t u f f o f l i f e - - t h e nervous ir o n y o f l i v i n g d i r e c t l y b e sid e i r r a t i o n a l h a tr e d , s e n s e l e s s c r u e l t y , p h y sic a l p a in , u n r e lie v e d l o n e l i n e s s , and 11 i r r e t r i e v a b l e l o s s . " W oolf's s t y l e i s a l l th e more remarkable because she does n ot communicate t h is in e x p l i c i t sta te m e n t, but in the j " d i f f i c u l t a r t o f p a tte r n in g ." I have c o n tr a ste d t h is tw elv e-p a g e s e c t io n o f To th e L igh th ou se w ith the one-page passage o f Three Guineas to show th a t d e s p it e t h e ir s i m i l a r i t y in d e a lin g w ith p a tr ia r c h a l tyranny and in em ploying im agery, r h e t o r i c a l p a tte r n s , and d i c t i o n , they are very d i f f e r e n t in t h e ir e f f e c t s . The c o n tr a s t would be in c o m p le te , however, i f I d id not at l e a s t touch on another o f the boat e p is o d e s to dem onstrate th e se d i f f e r e n c e s . In the second e p is o d e , the boat h i t s a calm , Mr. Ramsay r e a d s, and James s u l l e n l y w a its fo r Ramsay to c o r r e c t him. I f he d o e s , James th in k s , "I s h a l l take a k n ife and s t r i k e him to th e h ea rt" (TTL, 2 7 3 ). But as James th in k s about t h i s , he r e c o g n iz e s th a t he d o e s n 't want to 145 k i l l t h i s o ld man read in g; r a th e r , he wants to k i l l th e th in g th a t descended on h im --w ith o u t h i s knowing i t perhaps: th a t f i e r c e sudden b lack-w inged h a rp y , w ith i t s ta lo n s and i t s beak a l l cold and h ard, th a t str u c k and stru ck a t you (he could f e e l the beak on h is bare l e g s , where i t had str u c k when he was a c h ild ) and then made o f f , and th ere he was a g a in , an o ld man, very sad , read ing h i s book. (TTL, 273-74) Ihe fa m ilia r r h e to r ic o f in te n s e f e e l i n g i s h e r e - - a lon g sen te n c e ( n in e ty -n in e w o rd s), the v i o l e n t image o f a " f ie r c e sudden black-w inged h arpy, w ith i t s ta lo n s and i t s beak a l l co ld and hard th a t s tr u c k and s tr u c k at you" and a s h i f t in p o in t o f view from th ir d person to second. James a ls o s e e s , how ever, th a t h is f a t h e r 's ty r a n n ic a l mood may not be i n t e n t i o n a l ; i t may descend on him "without h i s knowing i t p erh aps." In o th er w ords, James s e e s Ramsay more s y m p a th e tic a lly . James co n tin u es to e x p lo r e t h i s thought as he vows to tra ck down and stamp out tyranny, "making p eop le do what th ey did n o t want to do, c u t t in g o f f t h e ir r ig h t to speak" (TTL, 2 7 4 ). R ecogn izin g th a t h is f a t h e r and he are very much a l i k e , he a sk s, "What then was t h is te r r o r , t h i s hatred?" James turns back the "many le a v e s" o f h i s memory and e n v is io n s h im s e lf as a c h ild h e lp le s s in a peram bulator, s e e in g a wagon cru sh som eone's f o o t . "But th e wheel was in n o c e n t." So, to o , when Ramsay fo r c e s James to go to the lig h t h o u s e , "down i t came over h is f o o t " (TTL, 2 7 5 ), but i t i s n ot n e c e s s a r il y Ramsay's f a u l t . James r e f l e c t s th a t th e s e th in g s u s u a lly happen in a garden where th e r e i s no gloom, an " airy sunny garden." In such a w orld , the c h i l d ' s w orld , 'the wheel went over the p e r so n 's f o o t ." James remembers th a t h is f a t h e r ' s sa y in g he cou ld not go to the lig h th o u s e was l i k e a "blade, a s c im ita r ," making a l l th e le a v e s and flo w ers o f th a t garden s h r iv e l 146 and f a l l . At th a t tim e, the lig h th o u s e seemed to James a " s i lv e r y , m is ty -lo o k in g tower w ith a y e llo w e y e ." He look s a t i t now, c l o s e up, and s e e s i t , sta r k and s t r a i g h t , barred w ith b la c k and w h ite . "So th a t was the L ig h th o u se, was i t ? No, th e o th e r was a ls o th e L igh th ou se. For n o th in g was sim p ly one thin g" (TTL, 2 7 7 ). I have quoted a t le n g th from t h is passage because the images s h i f t from sharp v io le n c e to p o e t ic ly r ic is m , i l l u s t r a t i n g a major theme: " nothing i s j u s t one th in g ." One view o f th e lig h th o u s e i s s i l v e r y and m isty w ith a y e llo w ey e ; the o th er view i s s t a r k , s t r a ig h t and barred w ith b la c k and w h ite . Jam es's h e lp le s s rage a t h is fa th e r makes him want to k i l l ; y e t Jam es's analogy o f the wagon cru sh in g the fo o t w ith the w h e e l's in n ocen ce g iv e s him in s ig h t in t o h is f a t h e r ' s in n o c e n c e .12 T h is passage and the o th e r two which fo llo w d e p ic t James and Cam in two w o r ld s --th e o u ts id e and the in s id e ; s e p a r a te ly , th ey e x p lo r e the "sunny :garden" o f jo y and the " oth er world" where the w heel crush es the f o o t . T h eir uneasy compact a g a in s t t h e ir fa th e r s h i f t s to uneasy a cce p ta n ce , and by the time th ey reach th e lig h th o u s e , both c h ild r e n are w i l l i n g to g iv e Ramsay what he w an ts, (Ramsay h avin g g iv e n James h i s approval: "Well d o n e ." ), but by th a t tim e, he does not need them and le a p s l i g h t l y a sh o re. A ll th ree--R am say, James, Cam--must fin d t h e ir way a lo n e; y e t th ey a ls o a r r iv e to g e th e r . And at th a t in s t a n t a l s o , L il y B r isc o e , in s p ir e d by h er memory o f Mrs. Ramsay, f i n i s h e s h er p ic t u r e . A ll o f them journey a lo n e , and to g e th e r , to trium ph, as Lee s a y s , "over the im personal powers o f chaos and death through t h e ir c o n c e n tr a tio n a t the ta s k in hand and through the i n t e n s i t y o f em otion w hich they p o s se ss or in s p ir e . 147 I have b r i e f l y touched on the e f f e c t s o f the im agery and p o in t o f v iew in the four boat e p is o d e s in order to h ig h li g h t once more the d if f e r e n c e s between Three Guineas and To the L ig h th o u se . The former i s a s a t i r i c e s s a y , u t i l i z i n g f i c t i o n a l a s p e c ts to su b v ert th e narrow n e s s and o p p ressio n o f a p a tr ia r c h a l s o c ie t y ; the l a t t e r a n o v e l c r e a tin g i t s own f i c t i o n o f o rd in a ry c h a ra cte rs w ith e x tr a o r d in a r y i n s i g h t s in to "fem ale i n t u i t i o n and male i n t e l l e c t i o n , permanence and change, order and ch aos, th e a r t o f l i v i n g and the l i f e o f a r t . " ^ The p o in t o f view in Three Guineas i s the f i r s t person o f th e o u ts id e r v o ic e whose chameleon "we" manages to s h i f t in to th ree p e r s p e c t iv e s , a l l o f w hich, in the end, merge in to one. The o u t s id e r , and h er male corresp on d en t p e r fo r c e , must agree th a t she cannot j o in h i s s o c i e t y because she would o n ly p erp etu a te male tyranny. The p o in t o f view in (To the L ig h th o u se , acco rd in g to Leaska, i s th ir d person fo c u s in g on n in e {p rin cip a l a n g les o f v i s i o n . He c o n tin u e s : "That V ir g in ia Woolf should I [have chosen to u se m u ltip le p e r s p e c tiv e s i s in d ic a t io n enough th a t no in t e r p r e t a t io n can be made which s e t t l e s on one a sp e c t a t the expense o f th e o t h e r . W o o lf's in t e n t i s to p o rtra y the n atu re o f r e a l i t y as the harmonious e x is t e n c e o f o p p o s ite s in r e l a t io n to each o th e r . In Three Guineas th ere i s a l o g i c a l time seq u en ce. I t i s the eve o f World War I I (w ith "the sound o f guns in our ea rs" ) and th e o u t s id e r , h a v in g d elayed th ree y e a r s , r e l u c t a n t l y tak es up h er pen to answer h er male c o r r e sp o n d e n t's r e q u e s t. She can and d o e s, o f c o u r s e , r e f e r to p a s t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts and b io g ra p h ies and p r e d ic t fu tu r e con seq u en ces, but a l l se r v e to co n v in ce h er audience h ere and now, l o g i c a l l y and e m o tio n a lly , o f her p o in t. 148 In To the L ig h th o u se , the e f f e c t o f the m u ltip le view p o in t on the reader i s to u n d e r lin e the f l u i d i t y o f tim e. W oolf record s the " im p ressions o f the moment" and a t the same time renders the s u b je c tiv e im p ression o f the m u ltip le c o n s c io u s n e s s. Leaska c i t e s the d in n er party as a good example o f e ig h t a n g les o f p e r s p e c t iv e , l i k e a k a le id o s c o p e , r o t a t in g and su p p ortin g a p reca rio u s b alan ce o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s. ^ In Three Guineas the images o fte n fu n c tio n as argument by analogy to persuade read ers o f a p a r tic u la r p o in t o f view . In To the L ighthouse the images s u g g e st a la r g e r meaning when th ey are ju x ta p o sed w ith e v e n t s . I I t i s c l e a r , th en , th a t th e two works are v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t . One i s a s a t i r e ; the o th er a n o v e l. One i s w r itte n from a s in g le p o in t o f v ie w , w ith a l o g i c a l tim e seq u en ce, u t i l i z i n g images as argum ents. The o th e r i s w r itte n from m u ltip le p o in ts o f v ie w , w ith f l u i d i t y o f tim e, } u t i l i z i n g images as p art o f a complex network b u ild in g toward sym bolic m eaning. One may w e ll ask w hether th e se works are r e la t e d at a l l . I s u g g e st th a t d e s p it e the d if f e r e n c e s between Three Guineas and To the L ig h th o u se , the two works are lin k ed in some m atters o f s t y l e ( r e p e t i t i o n o f r h e t o r ic a l schem es, sen ten ce le n g t h , and d ic t i o n ) and in some o f W o o lf's m o tifs (m ascu lin e and fem in in e ways o f ^ se e in g ," c o n f l i c t s w ith in m arriage and fa m ily ; th e primacy o f a r t ) . An example which d em on strates both the use o f d ic t i o n as ir o n ic c o u n te r p o in t and th e m a sc u lin e -fe m in in e m o tif i s the em phasis o f both iworks on t h e ir e f f o r t s to make readers " se e." W oolf w rote in h er d ia r y in 1920: "I s t r i k e the eye and e l d e r ly gentlem en in p a r t ic u la r g e t annoyed" (WD, 2 5 ). In Three Guineas she ju x ta p o se s th e a c tu a l p ic tu r e s 149 o f pompous m il it a r y and j u d i c i a l le a d e r s w ith th e o u t s i d e r 's ir o n ic comments on the " con nection s" between s p le n d id m ilit a r y d ress and war. The o u t s i d e r 's f i r s t q u e stio n i s how to make h er male correspondent "see" the s i t u a t i o n from h er p o in t o f v ie w , fo r t h e ir d if f e r e n c e s are so g r e a t th a t though th ey "look" a t the same th in g s , they "see" them d i f f e r e n t l y . This em phasis on " seein g" i s a major m o tif in the novel as w e ll . One o f th e f i r s t d i r e c t r e fe r e n c e s to s e e in g occu rs when L ily B r isc o e r e f l e c t s on h e r own c r e a t iv e p ro cess and h er s tr u g g le a g a in s t " t e r r i f i c o d d s" --h er own inadequacy, her i n s i g n i f i c a n c e , h er d e s ir e to be w ife and mother l i k e Mrs. Ramsay, and h e r b ein g t ie d down to h er f a t h e r 's c a r e . I n te r p r e te d from the vantage p o in t o f Three G uineas, th e s e " t e r r i f i c odds" are the r e s u l t o f a p a tr ia r c h a l system in which women are tr e a te d as i n f e r i o r , are p ressured to marry, and are h eld r e s p o n s ib le fo r t h e ir agin g p a r e n ts. L i l y , in a very r e a l s e n s e , i s an o u t s id e r as she s t r u g g le s to m aintain h er courage to p a in t what she " sees" : "But t h is i s what I se e ; t h is i s what I see" (TTL, 3 2 ). L ater when L il y c o n tr a s ts Mr. Ramsay's p h ilo s o p h ic a l work w ith her own a r t , t h e ir d if f e r e n c e s in t h e ir " seein g" become more c le a r . Andrew has to ld L il y to th in k o f Mr. Ramsay's work o f " su b je c t and o b je c t and th e nature o f r e a l i t y " as a t a b le . So L i l y , sta n d in g at h er e a s e l , " sees" not the s ilv e r - b o s s e d bark o f th e pear tr e e she i s n ea r, but a "phantom k itc h e n t a b le , one o f th o se scrubbed board t a b le s , grained and k n o tte d , whose v ir t u e seems to have been la i d bare by yea rs o f m uscular i n t e g r i t y , which stu ck th e r e , i t s four le g s in the a ir" (TTL. 3 8 ). L i l y ' s adm iration o f Ramsay le a d s h er to b lo t ou t the n a tu ra l phenomenon 150 o f th e pear tr e e and r e p la c e i t w ith a manmade t a b le , scrubbed, g r a in e d , k n otted and la id b are. N a tu r a lly , i f o n e 's days were passed in t h is red u cin g o f l o v e l y e v e n in g s , w ith t h e ir flam ingo cloud s and b lu e and s i l v e r to a w h ite d e a l fo u r -le g g e d ta b le (and i t was a mark o f the f i n e s t minds so to d o ), n a tu r a lly one could not be judged l i k e an ord in ary p erson . (TTL, 38) L i l y ' s c o n c lu sio n th a t Mr. Ramsay i s no "ordinary" person i l l u s t r a t e s th e "atmosphere" o f the p a tr ia r c h a l world o f Three G u in eas. L ily se e s :Mr. Ramsay's thought (" angular e ss e n c e s " ) as su p e r io r to h er own im a g in a tiv e a rt (" flam ingo clo u d s and blue}and s i l v e r " ) . Here L ily i s " in s id e r ," fo r she embodies two id e a s in Three Guineas a g a in s t which th e o u ts id e r p r o t e s t s : men are accustomed to b ein g tr e a te d w ith . d e fe r e n c e and s u p e r io r it y , and women are accustomed to p ro v id in g the d e fe r e n c e . Two elem en ts c o n tr ib u te to the iron y o f L i l y ' s th o u g h ts. The Ip a r e n th e tic a l comment--"(and i t was a mark o f th e f i n e s t minds to do u L o )" --c a n be in te r p r e te d as L i l y ' s th ou gh t, but i t a ls o s u g g e sts a u t h o r ia l p resen ce and an ir o n ic to n e. The d ic t i o n a ls o d e s c r ib e s Ramsay's ways o f " seeing" as " angu lar," r e d u c tiv e , "grained and jknotted," and " la id b a re." The words s u g g e st a sh a rp n ess, a s tr ip p in g away, and a narrowness o f view . What L ily s e e s , on the o th er hand, i s " lo v e ly e v e n in g s , w ith a l l t h e i r flam ingo clo u d s and b lu e and s i l v e r . " The word " lo v e ly " con n otes warmth and the b r i l l i a n t "flam ingo" and "blue and s i l v e r " fa r o u tsh in e the p a lli d "white" o f the t a b le . The ir o n ic ^authorial p r e se n c e , im plying th a t a woman's in s ig h t i s v a lu a b le , i s h ere t both in p a r e n th e tic a l e x p r e s s io n and in d ic t i o n . L il y then turns to c o n sid e r h er f r ie n d , Mr. Bankes, who sh a res her 151 adm iration fo r Ramsay. Bankes stand s b e sid e the pear t r e e , " w ell brushed, sc r u p u lo u sly e x a c t , e x q u i s i t e l y j u r id ic a l" (TTL. 3 9 ). The words again su g g e st m etic u lo u s a t t e n t io n to e x a c tn e ss and a r e d u c tiv e adherence to tr u th . Suddenly L ily e x p e r ie n c e s a "moment o f being"; a flo o d o f im p ressio n s flows o v er h er "in a ponderous a v a la n ch e." To summarize t h is p assage does i n j u s t i c e to i t becau se L i l y ' s co n cre te shapes and a b s tr a c t id e a s about both men weave such an i n t r i c a t e .p a ttern . B ankes's " s e v e r it y ," " goodness," la c k o f v a n it y , fo r exam ple, c o n tr a s t w ith h is b rin g in g a v a le t w ith him, h i s o b je c tio n to d o g s, h is t sm a ll t a lk about s a l t in v e g e ta b le s and E n g lish co o k s. Ramsay's p e tty eg o tism , v a n ity and tyranny c o n tr a s tp w ith h is " f ie r y u n w o r ld lin e s s," I h i s la c k o f sm all t a lk , h is lo v e o f c h ild r e n and d ogs. These o p p o site jviews dance up and down in L i l y ' s mind l i k e a "company o f gn ats . ■in and about th e pear t r e e , where s t i l l hung in e f f i g y th e scrubbed k itc h e n t a b le , symbol o f h er profound r e s p e c t fo r Mr. Ramsay's mind ^ . . (TTL, 4 1 ). T his passage c l e a r l y d em onstrates a com p lex ity in p r e s e n tin g both Bankes and Ramsay from L i l y ' s p o in t o f view . She se e s b oth t h e ir s tr e n g th s and t h e ir w eak nesses. The a u th o r ia l p resen ce, how ever, i s a ls o e v id e n t in the d ic t i o n . The t a b le , sym bolic o f Mr. Ramsay's mind, i s hung in " e ffig y " (a word which means a crude lik e n e s s o f someone who i s o f t e n h e ld in co n tem p t). Although Three Guineas i s to ld e n t i r e l y from th e o u t s i d e r 's v ie w p o in t, w h ile L i l y ' s i n t e r i o r monologue coupled w ith a u th o r ia l p resen ce g iv e s more than one v iew , the o u ts id e r can dem onstrate jd iffe r e n t ways o f " seein g" through q u o ta tio n s from biography and h i s t o r y . She asks h er male correspondent how women can b egin to 152 understand men's f ig h t in g and k i l l i n g . Women's answer to the problem -- why f i g h t ? - - i s not v a lu a b le becau se men o b v io u s ly f e e l "some g lo r y , some n e c e s s i t y , some s a t i s f a c t i o n in fig h t in g " which women have n ever f e l t (TG, 6 ) . She q u otes from e n l i s t e d men's d ia r i e s and l e t t e r s to i l l u s t r a t e t h e ir lo v e o f f ig h t i n g , but she a ls o q uotes W ilfr id Owen who [hates war. I t becomes obviou s th a t "the same sex h o ld s very d i f f e r e n t o p in io n s about the same th in g" (TG, 8 ) . The d if f e r e n c e s among c l a s s e s a ls o become c le a r : "we th in k d i f f e r e n t l y as we are born d i f f e r e n t l y ; th e r e i s a G r e n fe ll p o in t o f view . . . a W ilfr id Owen p o in t o f view . . . and the p o in t o f view o f an educated man's daughter" (TG, 9 ) . The chameleon "we" co n tin u e s the d ic h o to m ie s. W hitaker says women are t h ir d - c l a s s c i v i l se r v a n ts; Baldwin says th e y 'r e f i r s t - c l a s s (TG, J a9)r * - Joad and W ells say th a t women are a p a th e tic and la z y ; but th e T a c ts prove o th e r w ise (TG, 42; 5 9 ). In each o f th e se in s t a n c e s , the o u t s id e r or mock man v o ic e s a t i r i z e s p a tr ia r c h y . When the o u t s i d e r 's humane v o ic e sp ea k s, how ever, i t i s o fte n in more p o e t ic lan guage. The o u t s id e r e x p la in s why h er O u ts id e r 's S o c ie ty p led g es n ot to f i g h t w ith Lrms, n ot to h e lp the wounded or make m u n itio n s. Her b roth er has to ld i ♦ h e r th a t he i s f ig h t in g fo r "our" cou n try. The th in k in g woman, says jthe o u t s i d e r , w i l l inform h e r s e l f on what "our" cou n try means to an o u t s i d e r . C on sid erin g th a t England has tr e a te d h er as a s l a v e , t h i s woman w i l l say "I have no cou n try. As a woman I want no cou n try. As a jwoman my cou n try i s th e whole world" (TG. 1 0 9 ). Jean G uiget must have 1 been th in k in g o f p a ssa g es such as t h is one when he s a id th a t t h i s e s s a y a t t a in s a g e n e r a l c h a r a c te r which e n t i t l e s Woolf to be in clu d ed w ith the g r e a t l i n e o f hum anists and committed w r it e r s (JG, 1 8 6 ). 153 The o u t s i d e r 's f a c t s have alrea d y dem onstrated th a t her d e s c r ip tio n o f women as s la v e s in England i s not an ex a g g er a tio n ; y e t she does not r e j e c t England t o t a l l y and e x p r e s se s h er lo v e fo r England p o e t i c a l l y : And i f , when reason has s a id i t s sa y , s t i l l some, o b s tin a te em otion rem ains, some lo v e o f England dropped in t o a c h i l d ' s e a r by th e sawing o f rooks in an elm t r e e , by the s p la s h o f waves on a beach, or by E n g lish v o ic e s murmuring n ursery rhymes, t h is drop o f pure, i f i r r a t i o n a l , em otion she w i l l make serv e h er to g iv e to England f i r s t what she d e s ir e s o f peace and freedom fo r the whole w orld. (TG. 109) T h is l y r i c a l in s e r t d e s c r ib in g h er i r r a t io n a l lo v e o f England w ith i t s appeal to sound ("nursery rhymes") and natu re ("rooks" and "waves") m ight have been taken from To th e L ig h th o u se . I t i s , how ever, one o f th e few p o e t ic in s e r t s in Three G u ineas. The o u t s i d e r 's r h e to r ic a ls o becomes p o e t i c a l l y elo q u en t when she ju x ta p o ses the sounds o f war w ith th e sounds o f u n ity ex p ressed by p o e ts: Even h e r e , even now your l e t t e r tempts us to sh ut our ea rs to th e s e l i t t l e f a c t s , th e s e t r i v i a l d e t a i l s , to l i s t e n not to th e bark o f the guns and the bray o f th e gramophones but to th e v o ic e s o f the p o e t s , answ ering each o th e r , a s su r in g us o f a u n ity th a t rubs out d iv is i o n s as i f th ey were ch a lk marks o n ly ; to d is c u s s w ith you the c a p a c ity o f the human s p i r i t to o v e r flo w boundaries and make u n ity out o f m u l t i p l i c i t y . But th a t would be to d ream --to dream the r e c u r r in g dream th a t has haunted the human mind s in c e the b eg in n in g o f tim e, the dream o f p ea ce, the dream o f freedom. (TG, 143) I t i s ob viou s th a t th e o u ts id e r th in k s th a t a r t , e s p e c i a l l y p o e tr y , w i l l Lddress the is s u e s o f the u n ity o f human b ein g s more cap ab ly than th ose o f war. Like L ily B r is c o e , she dreams h er dreams and f i g h t s fo r h er b e l i e f s . Other m ale-fem ale m o tifs in both e s s a y and n o v el are the c h a lle n g e jto th e male assum ption th a t i t i s "natural" fo r m ales to shoot guns. Mrs. Ramsay does not want Jasp er to shoot s t a r l i n g s , whereas Mr. Ramsay sa y s i t i s " natural" fo r him to do s o . L ik e w is e , pa r t o f th e o u t s i d e r 's 154 iro n y a r i s e s from h er c h a lle n g in g t h is b a s ic assum ption and a s s e r t in g th a t "the v a s t m a jo r ity o f b ird s and b e a s ts have been k i l l e d by you [m en], not by us [women]" (TG, 6 ) . L ily f e e l s torn between h er d e s ir e fo r m arriage and d e d ic a tio n to h er a r t , c o n s ta n tly f ig h t in g T a n s le y 's remark "women c a n 't w r it e , c a n 't p a in t . . (TTL, 75, 130, 2 3 8 ). The o u t s id e r a ls o h ears s o c i e t y ' s message to women: "You s h a l l not le a r n ; you s h a l l not earn , you s h a l l not own" (TG. 1 0 5 ). Mr. Ramsay i s enraged b y" h is w i f e ' s " i r r a t i o n a l i t y , " w h ile Mrs. Ramsay i s outraged at h is la c k o f f e e l i n g (TTL, 5 1 -5 2 ). A fte r o u t lin in g women's la c k o f o p p o rtu n ity fo r ed u ca tio n and equal pay, the o u ts id e r i r o n i c a l l y s u g g e s ts th a t s in c e m arriage i s the o n ly f i e l d o f "unpaid-for" ed u ca tio n open to women, one f i e l d women do know i s p sy ch o lo g y . Mr. Ramsay's tran sform ation in th o se rare moments when he and Mrs. Ramsay are u n ite d and T a n sle y 's i n s i g h t s in to h i s own shortcom ings in Mrs. Ramsay's p resen ce are p a r a l l e l to the o u t s i d e r 's d e s ir e fo r men and women to work to g e th e r , s e p a r a t e ly , sh a rin g t h e ir d if f e r i n g s tr e n g th s w ith each o th e r (TG, 129; 185, n. 4 2 ). I t i s c l e a r , th e n , th a t some g e n e r a lly a ccep ted m ale-fem ale c o n f l i c t s are portrayed in both the n ovel and the e s s a y , and th a t d i f f e r e n t p o in ts o f view are r e p r e se n te d . The o u ts id e r a sk s, "But i s th e r e no a b s o lu te p o in t o f view?" (TG, 9 ) . She alm ost ech oes L ily B r is c o e 's q u e stio n : "How did i t a l l work o u t, a l l t h is ? H ow* did one ju d ge p e o p le , th in k o f them?" (TTL, 4 0 ). Both c h a r a c te r s e s t a b l i s h the d i f f i c u l t y o f d is c o v e r in g the tru th about human b e in g s and human v a lu e s . L i l y ' s q u e s tio n , however, i s about human r e l a t io n s among fr ie n d s and fa m ily , whereas the o u t s i d e r ' s q u e s tio n concerns the moral is s u e o f 155 war. The n o v el su g g e sts how d i f f i c u l t i t i s to "see" ("alm ost too dark" sa y s Andrew, TTL, 1 8 9 ), how d i f f i c u l t i t i s to in fu s e shapes w ith s e n s e. ^ The e s s a y p o in ts out t h is d i f f i c u l t y o n ly to mock th e p a tr ia r c h a l assum ption th a t th e r e i s o n ly one way— the male w a y --to " se e ." I s u g g e st th a t t h is b ig g e s t d if f e r e n c e between the two w ork s-- p o in t o f v i e w - - i s a ls o the a sp e c t which draws them to g e th e r , fo r j u s t as To the L igh th ou se i s rep orted from m u ltip le p o in ts o f v ie w , so th e cham eleon "we" a llo w s readers to s e e the one p o in t o f view in Three Guineas from d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t iv e s . The n o v e l, th en , i s what F ish e r c a l l s p o e t ic f i c t i o n , and the e s s a y i s r e a l - f i c t i o n , a com bination o f p o e t ic f i c t i o n and d i a l e c t i c a l f i c t i o n . The achievem ent o f Three Guineas i s th a t although W oolf w r it e s i t e n t i r e l y from the p o in t o f view o f the o u ts id e r (her c e n tr a l argument i s th a t women are tr e a te d as o u t s i d e r s ) , she m anipulates both s i t u a t io n l t land audience* to a ch ie v e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t iv e s ; the o u ts id e r and mock man v o ic e s su b v ert p a tr ia r c h y and the humane v o ic e r e a ffir m s tr u th , p e a c e , and s o c i a l j u s t i c e . T ogeth er, the su b v e r siv e and r e a f f ir m a t iv e r h e t o r ic a ffir m a new image o f the s o r o r it y o f women. Woolf a ls o a c h ie v e s d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c tiv e s through the com bination o f fa c t ( s t a t i s t i c s , quotes from male and fem ale a u t h o r i t i e s , h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts ) w ith f i c t i o n (a male la w y e r 's l e t t e r to a woman a sk in g h e lp to p reven t w ar). T h erefo r e, w h ile the m ixture o f am biguity and iro n y in To th e L igh th ou se i s more s u b tle and com plex, th e s a t i r e o f Three Guineas su cceed s in c r e a tin g i t s own c o m p le x ity , co n n e c tin g p a tr ia r c h a l fo r c e w ith f a s c i s t f o r c e , championing a r t over war, encou raging human b e in g s , as in d iv i d u a l s , to speak out h o n e s tly and c l e a r l y w ith th e moral fo r c e o f i n t e gr i t y ._________________________________________________________ 156 N otes 1 E rich Auerbach, "The Brown S to c k in g ," M im esis: The R epresenta t io n o f R e a lity in W estern L it e r a t u r e , tr a n s. W illa rd Trask (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & C o ., 1 9 5 7 ), p. 474. Auerbach sa y s th a t th e r e may be no o b j e c t iv e v ie w p o in t at a l l s in c e the th ir d -p e r s o n n a rra to r i s p ic tu r e d as someone who d o u b ts, h e s i t a t e s and wonders about her c h a r a c te r s as much as read ers do, r e f l e c t i n g W oolf's a t t it u d e toward the r e a l i t y o f h er w orld. 2 V ir g in ia W oolf, To the L igh thou se (1927; r p t. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1 9 5 5 ), pp. 10-11; h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as TTL. ^ Leaska, p. 120. ^ Maria D iB a t t is t a , V ir g in ia W oolf's Major N o v els: The F ables o f Anon (New Haven: Y ale Univ. P r e ss , 1 9 8 0 ), p. 70. I 5 L ee, p. 119. 6 Suzanne Ferguson, "The Face in the M irror: A u th o ria l Presence in the M u ltip le V is io n o f T hird-P erson I m p r e s sio n is t N a r r a tiv e ," C r it ic is m . 21 (1 9 7 9 ), 233 and 247; h e r e a fte r c i t e d as SF. Ferguson b ases h er d is c u s s io n on Roy P a s c a l's The Dual V o ic e . 2 L easka, pp. 150-56; L ee, pp. 126-33. ® The n e g a tiv e words and phrases are the fo llo w in g : " dism al," "harsh," " s e l f i s h ," " v io le n t ," " far d is t a n t ," " le a s t r a t io n a l and humane," " i l l - f i t t i n g form," " d i s t o r t s ," "deform s," " f e t t e r s ," j"c o n s p ir a c i e s ." " sin k ," " i n f l a t e ." "monstrous m a le," "loud o f v o i c e ." "hard o f f i s t ," " c h ild is h ly i n t e n t ," " sc o rin g ch a lk marks, ” "penned," "r i g i d l y , " " s e p a r a te ly , " " a r t i f i c i a l l y , " "daubed red and g o ld ," "decorated l i k e s a v a g e s ," "dubious p le a su r e s o f power and dom inion," "lo c k e d ," "w ithout s h a r e ," " ru t," " g rin d s," " in t o le r a b le u n anim ity." (The u n d erlin ed words are in sen ten ce s e v e n .) The p o s i t i v e words and phrases are the fo llo w in g : " p o s s ib le ," " o p t im is t ic ," " c r e d ib le ," " c a r il lo n o f sp le n d id harmony," "your l e t t e r h e r a ld s ," "reason to r e s p e c t ." 9 F leishm an, pp. 107-08, d is c u s s e s the storm s as th r e a ts not on ly to fish erm en , but to a l l th o se who are castaw ays and " p erish a lo n e ." Leaska, pp. 1 5 2 -5 3 , d is c u s s e s how images become sym bols. M 157 H Leaska, p. 144. 12 D iB a t t is t a , pp. 71 and 98, d is c u s s e s the O edipal r e fe r e n c e s (Oedipus means " sw ollen fo o t" ) and the theme o f the ruined garden; L ee, p. 127y and L easka, p. 154, argue c o n v in c in g ly th a t th e view s o f th e lig h th o u s e are n o t to be a s s o c ia te d too c l o s e l y w ith fix e d id e a s or c h a r a c te r s because i t s s u g g e s tiv e n e s s as an u n fix ed symbol in c r e a s e s as th e n o v el u n fo ld s; Fleishm an, pp. I l l and 118, d is c u s s e s th e myth o f Persephone and Demeter and "Luriana L u rilee" as i t r e l a t e s to the garden o f Eden im agery. 13 L ee, p. 136; L easka, p. 149, s e e s the s tr u g g le in th e boat among Ramsay, James and Cam as human r e l a t io n s ( l i f e ) and the s tr u g g le on sh ore w ith L i l y and h er p ic t u r e , form al r e l a t io n s ( l i f e and a r t ) . Only jwhen L il y p e r c e iv e s the r e a l Mrs. Ramsay does she b egin to sym pathize .with Mr. Ramsay; she has a c le a r e r grasp o f human r e l a t io n s and, [th e r e fo r e , can com plete h er a r t i s t i c v i s i o n . As L ily has th e se "moments ]of illu m in a tio n " on sh o r e , i n t e g r i t y in the fa m ily i s r e sto r e d a t th e lig h th o u s e . 14 L easka, p. 147. 1^ Leaska, pp. 141 and 147; L eask a's " m u ltip le p e r s p e c tiv e s " i s s im ila r to A uerbach's " m u ltip erso n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ." 16 L easka, pp. 142-43. 17 L ee, p p . -123-24. 158 Bibliography A lexan d er, Jean. The Venture o f Form in the N ovels o f V ir g in ia W oolf. P ort W ashington, N .J .: Kennikat P r e s s , 1974. A lle n , Agnes. " S t i l l a Man's World." Rev. o f Three G uineas. Saturday Review o f L ite r a tu r e [New Y ork], 27 August 1938, p. 6. A p ter, T. E. V ir g in ia W oolf: A Study o f Her N o v e ls . New York: New York U niv. P r e s s , 1979. 'A r is t o t le . The "Art" o f R h e to r ic . Trans. J. H. F r e e se . Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib ra ry , 1926; r p t. Cambridge: Harvard U niv. P r e s s , 1959. Auerbach, E rich . "The Brown S to c k in g ." In M im esis: The R ep resen ta tio n o f R e a lity in W estern L it e r a t u r e . Trans. W illard Trask. Garden C ity , N .Y .: Doubleday, 1957, pp. 463-88. B a tc h e lo r , J. B. "Feminism in V ir g in ia W oolf." E n g lish [London], 17 (1 9 6 8 ), 1 -7 . 'Bazin, Nancy. V ir g in ia Woolf and the Androgynous V is io n . New Brunswick, N .J .: R utgers Univ. P r e s s , 1973. Beaumont, C harles A lle n . S w i f t 's C la s s ic a l R h e to r ic . A thens: Univ. o f Georgia P r e s s , 1961. © e l l , Barbara C u r rier , and C arol Ohmann. " V ir g in ia W o o lf's C r itic is m : A P olem ical P r e fa c e ." C r i t i c a l In q u ir y . 1 (1 9 7 4 ), 36 1 -7 1 . © e l l , Q uentin. "Bloomsbury and the Vulgar P a s s io n s ." C r i t i c a l In q u ir y . 6 (1979)', 239-56. V ir g in ia W oolf: A B iography. 2 v o l s . New York: | H arcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1972. B e n n e tt, A rnold. "Queen o f th e H ighbrows." Rev. o f A Room o f One's Own. Evening S tandard , 28 November 1929, p. 9. B en n ett, Joan. V ir g in ia W oolf: Her Art as a N o v e l i s t . 2nd ed. 1945; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. P r e ss , 1964. B la ck , Edwin. R h e to r ic a l C r itic is m : A Study in Method. New York: M acm illan, 1965. 159 B la c k sto n e , Bernard. V ir g in ia W oolf. 2nd ed . 1952; New York: Longmans, Green, 1956. Blanchard, M argaret. " S o c ia liz a t io n in Mrs. D allow ay." C o lle g e E n g lis h . 34 (1 9 7 2 ), 2 8 8 -9 4 . Bloom, L i l l i a n . "They A ll C ried W oolf." N ovel: A Forum on F i c t i o n , 7 (1 9 7 4 ), 2 5 5 -6 6 . Bogan, L o u ise. "The L adies and the Gentlem en." Rev. o f Three G u ineas. New R e p u b lic , 14 September 1938, pp. 164-65. B osanquet, Theodora. Rev. o f Three G u in eas. Time and Tide [London], 4 June 1938, pp. 788-90. Rpt. in V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r i t i c a l H e r ita g e . Ed. Majumdar and McLaurin, pp. 4 0 2 -0 3 . Bowen, E liz a b e th . Rev. o f V ir g in ia W oolf: A Commentary by Bernard B la c k sto n e. "The Achievem ent o f V ir g in ia W oolf." New York Times Book R eview . 26 June 1949, pp. 1, 21. C a r r o ll, B e r e n ic e , "To Crush Him in Our Own Country: The P o l i t i c a l Thought o f V ir g in ia W oolf." F em in ist S t u d i e s , 4 (1 9 7 8 ), 99-131. Chase, Mary E lle n . "A Modern S o c r a tic D ia lo g u e ." Rev. o f Three G uineas. The Y ale R eview , 28 (1 9 3 8 ), 4 0 3 -0 5 . C ic e r o , M. T u ll iu s . De I n v e n tio n e . T rans. H. M. H ubbell. Loeb C la s s i c a l L ib rary. 1949; r p t. Cambridge: Harvard U niv. P r e ss , 1960. (C icer o , M. T u l l i u s ) . R h etorica ad Herennium. Trans. Harry Caplan. | Loeb C la s s i c a l L ib ra ry . Cambridge: Harvard Univ. P r e ss , 1954. Cocks, Jay and o t h e r s . "How Long T i l l E q u ality?" Time. 12 J u ly 1982, pp. 2 0 -2 9 . Colum, Mary. "Are Women O u tsid ers?" Rev. o f Three G uineas. Forum, 100 (1 9 3 8 ), 22 2 -2 6 . C o rb ett, Edward. "A Method o f A nalyzin g Prose S t y le w ith a Demonstratidn? A n a ly s is o f S w i f t 's 'A Modest P r o p o s a l." ' In R e fle c tio n s on High School E n g lis h . Ed. Gary T ate. T u lsa: Univ. o f T ulsa Press', 1966. 106-24. — ---------------, ed. R h e to r ic a l A n a ly sis o f L ite r a r y Works. New York: Oxford U niv. P r e ss , 1969. D a ich es, David. V ir g in ia W oolf. London: E d it io n 's P o e tr y , 1945.. D iB a t t is t a , M aria. V ir g in ia W o o lf's Major N o v els: The F ables o f Anon. New Haven: Y ale Univ. P r e s s , 1980. _ - - 1 6 -0 E. H, W . Rev. o f Three G u in eas. Queen's Q u arterly [K in g sto n , O n ta r io ], Autumn 1938, pp. 4 1 8 -1 9 . E d it o r i a l. Time and Tide [London], 25 June 1938, General R esearch and H um anities D iv is io n , pp. 8 8 7 -8 8 , c o l . 2 -1 . F a r w e ll, M arilyn. "Androgyny D isp r a ise d : The F i c t iv e N ature o f A Room o f One's Own." V ir g in ia Woolf and the L ife o f a Woman C onference, S t . P a u l, 23 O ctober 1982. ---------- . "A Room o f One's Own: Fact or F ic tio n ? " Unpub. essa y . U niv. o f Oregon, n .d . " V ir g in ia W oolf and Androgyny." Contemporary L it e r a t u r e . 16 (1 9 7 4 ), 4 3 4 -5 1 . 'Ferguson, Suzanne. "The Face in the M irror: A u th o ria l P resence in M u ltip le V isio n o f T hird-P erson Im p r e s s io n is t N a r r a tiv e ." C r it ic is m . 21 (1 9 7 9 ), 2 3 0 -5 0 . F is h e r , W alter. "A M otive View o f Communication." Q u arterly Journal o f ! S p eech . 56 (1 9 7 0 ), 131-39. " R h eto rica l F ic t io n and the P re sid e n c y ." Q u arterly Journal o f S p eech . 66 (1 9 8 0 ), 1 1 9 -2 6 . F leish m an, Avrom. V ir g in ia W oolf: A C r i t i c a l R eading. B altim ore: Johns Hopkins Univ. P r e s s , 1975. * F o r s t e r , E. M. " V irg in ia W oolf." Rede L ectu re , Cambridge, 1941. In V ir g in ia W oolf: A C o lle c t io n o f C r it ic a l E s s a y s . Ed. C la ir e Sprague. Englewood C l i f f s , N .J .: P r e n t ic e - H a ll, 1971, pp. 14-25. Gorsky, Susan Rubinow. V ir g in ia W oolf. Twayne's E n g lish Author S e r ie s . Ed. K in ley E. Roby. B oston: Twayne P ub., 1978. Greene, Graham. Rev. o f Three G uineas. S p e c ta to r , 17 June 1938, pp. 1010-12; r p t. in V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r i t i c a l H e r it a g e . Ed. Majumdar and McLaurin, pp. 40 6 -0 8 . Gruber, Ruth. V ir g in ia W oolf: A S tu d y. L e ip z ig : V erlag von Bernhard T a u ch n itz, 1934; r p t. New York: Johnson R eprint C orp oration , 1966. G u ig et, Jean. V ir g in ia Woolf and Her Works. Trans. Jean Stew art. New York: Harcourt B race, 1965. H a fle y , James. The G lass R oof. 2nd ed . 1954; r p t. New York: R u s s e ll & R u s s e ll, 1963. Hancock, Brenda. " A ffirm ation by N egation in the Women's L ib e r a tio n Movement," Q u arterly Journal o f Speech, 58 (1 9 7 2 ), 26 4 -7 1 . 161 Hawkes, E lle n . "W oolf's M agical Garden o f Women." In New F em in ist E s s a y s . Ed. Jane Marcus, pp. 31-6 0 . H eilb ru n , C arolyn. R ein ven tin g Womanhood. New York: W. W . Norton and C o ., 1979. ---------- } an(j Margaret H iggon et, ed s. The R ep resen ta tio n o f Women in F i c t i o n . S e le c te d Papers from the E n g lish I n s t i t u t e , New S e r i e s , No. 7. B a ltim o re: Johns Hopkins Univ. P r e s s , 1983. Toward a R eco g n itio n o f Androgyny. 1964: r p t. New York: A lfred A. Knopf, 1973. " V ir g in ia Woolf in Her F i f t i e s . " T w en tieth Century L it e r a t u r e , 27 (Spring 1 9 8 1 ), 16-23. ;Henke, S u z e tte . "Mrs. D allow ay: The Communion o f S a in ts ." In New F em in ist E s s a y s . Ed. Jane' Marcus, pp.’ 127-47. Hummel, M adeline. "From the Common Reader to th e Uncommon C r it ic : Three Guineas and the E p is to la r y Form." B u ll e t in o f th e New York P u b lic L ib r a r y . 80 (1977)£ 151-59. John, K. "The New L y s is t r a t a ." Rev. o f Three G u in eas. The New Statesm an and N a tio n , 11 June 1938, pp. 995-96. ijohnson, Manly. V ir g in ia W oolf. New York: F re d e rick Unger, 1973. K e lse y , Mary E. " V ir g in ia Woolf and the 1 S h e' -C o n d itio n ." Sewanee R eview . 39 (1 9 3 1 ), 4 2 5 -4 4 . L easka, M itc h e ll. The N ovels o f V ir g in ia W oolf. New York: John Jay P r e ss , 1977. L e a v is, Q. D. " C a te r p illa r s of the World, U n ite ." Rev. o f Three G u ineas. S c r u tin y . 7 (1 9 3 8 ), 203-14; r p t. in V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r i t i c a l H e r it a g e . Ed. Majumdar and McLaurin, pp. 409-19. iLee, Hermione. The N ovels o f V ir g in ia W oolf. New York: Holmes & M eier P u b ., 1977. Lehmann, John. V ir g in ia Woolf and Her W orld. New York: Harcourt Brace J ovan ovich , 1975. L ip k in g, Joanna. "Looking a t the Monuments: W oolf's S a t i r i c Eye." B u ll e t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib r a r y , 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 141-45. McLaurin, A lle n . V ir g in ia W oolf: The Echoes E n sla v e d . Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. P r e ss, 1973. 162 Majumdar, Robin. V ir g in ia W oolf; An Annotated B ib lio g ra p h y o f C r it ic is m . 19 1 5 -1 9 7 4 . New York: Garland, 1976. -------------------, and A lle n McLaurin, ed s. V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r it ic a l H e r ita g e . Boston: R outledge & Kegan P au l, 1975. Marcus, Jane. "Art and A nger." F em in ist S t u d ie s , 4 (1 9 7 8 ), 6 9 -9 8 . " L ib erty , S o r o r ity , M isogyny." In R e p r e se n ta tio n s o f Women in F i c t i o n . Ed. Carolyn H eilbrun and Margaret H ig g o n et, pp. 6 0 -9 7 . -------------------, ed. New F em in ist E ssays on V ir g in ia W oolf. L in co ln : Univ. o f Nebraska P r e s s , 1981. "'No More H o r se s': V ir g in ia W oolf on Art and Propaganda." Women's S t u d i e s . 4 (1 9 7 7 ), 265-90. " 'P a r g e tin g ' the P a r g ite r s ." B u lle t in o f th e New York P u b lic L ib ra r y , 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 416-35. "Storming the T oolsh ed ." S ig n s , 7 (1 9 8 2 ), 6 2 2 -4 0 . i --------- # "Thinking Back Through Our M others." In New F em in ist E s s a y s . Ed. Jane Marcus, pp. 1 -3 0 . "The Years as Greek Drama, Domestic N o v el, and G otter- dammerung." B u lle t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib r a r y , 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 276-301. Marder, H erb ert. Feminism and A rt: Study o f V ir g in ia W oolf. Chicago: Univ. o f Chicago P r e s s , 1968. Mulhern, F r a n c is. The Moment o f 'S c r u tin y . ' London: NLB, 1979. Naremore, James. "Nature and H isto r y in The Y e a r s." In V ir g in ia W oolf: R evalu ation and C o n tin u ity . Ed. Ralph Freedman. Los A n geles: U niv. o f C a lifo r n ia P r e ss , 1980, pp. 241-62. Ong, W alter J. "The W r ite r 's Audience i s Always a F i c t io n ." PMLA, 90 (1 9 7 5 ), 9 -2 2 . P o o le , Roger. The Unknown V ir g in ia W oolf. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. P r e ss , 1978. P oresky, L o u ise. The E lu s iv e S e l f . Newark: Univ. o f Delaware P r e ss , 1981. P r ic e , M artin. S w i f t 's R h e to r ic a l A rt: A Study in S tr u c tu r e and M eaning. New Haven: Y ale Univ. P r e ss, 1953. 1631 Q u in t ilia n , M . F a b iu s . The I n s t i t u t i o O ratoria o f Q u in t i lia n . Trans. H. E. B u tle r . Loeb C la s s i c a l L ibrary. 1921; r p t. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. P r e s s , 1953. Rose, P h y l l i s . Woman o f L e tte r s : A L ife o f V ir g in ia W oolf. New York: Oxford Univ. P r e s s , 1978. R o sen th a l, M ich ael. V ir g in ia W oolf. New York: Columbia Univ. P r e ss, 1979. R uotolo, L ucio. "Mrs. D allow ay: The Journey Out o f S u b j e c t iv it y ." Women's S t u d i e s , 4 (1 9 7 7 ), 173-78. S a c k v ille -W e s t, V ita . Rev. o f A Room o f One's Own. L is te n e r , 6 November 1929, p. 629; r p t. in V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r it ic a l H e r ita g e . pp. 257-58. S t. John, C h risto p h er. E th el Smyth. London: Longmans, Green, 1959. Samuelson, Ralph. "More Than One Room o f Her Own: V ir g in ia W oolf's C r i t i c a l Dilemmas." The W estern H um anities R eview , 19 (1 9 6 5 ), 249-56. t S ch a efer, Josep h in e O 'B rien. "Three Guineas and Quack.1 Quack. 1 Read T o g eth er." V ir g in ia Woolf M is c e lla n y , 7 (1 9 7 7 ), 2 -3 . " Y esterd ay's Feminism." New R e p u b lic , 5 January 1974, pp. 2 1-24. S ch la ck , B ev er ly . " V irg in ia W o o lf's S tr a te g y o f Scorn in The Years and Three G u ineas." B u lle t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib r a r y , 80 (1977) 1 4 6 -5 0 . | S ea rs, S a l l i e . "Notes on S e x u a lity : The Years and Three G uineas." B u lle t in o f the New York P u b lic L ib r a r y , 80 (1 9 7 7 ), 211-20. S e lin c o u r t , B a s il de. " V ir g in ia W oolf: An A p p r e c ia tio n ." Rev. o f Three G u ineas. The Observer [London], 5 June 1938, p. 5; r p t. in V ir g in ia W oolf: The C r i t i c a l H e r ita g e . Ed. Majumdar and McLaurin, pp. 4 0 3 -0 4 . S h ow alter, E la in e . A L ite r a tu r e o f T h eir Own. P r in ceto n : P rin ceton U niv. P r e ss , 1977. S to c k s, Mary. "Reply to a Q u estio n ." Rev. o f Three G uineas. M anchester G uardian. 10 June 1938, p. 7. W eintraub, G lo r ia . "A Room o f One's Own and th e R h eto ric o f Androgyny." Unpub. e s s a y , Univ. o f Southern C a lif o r n ia , 1980. Woods, K ath erin e. " V ir g in ia W oolf's Parable o f Three Modern C auses." Rev. o f Three G uineas. New York Tim es« 28 August 1938, p. 5. 164 "A Woman's Views on P eace." Rev. o f Three G uineas. Times [London], 3 June 1938, p. 20. "Women and War." Rev. o f Three G u ineas. The Saturday Review [London], 11 June 1938, p. 374. "Women in a World o f War: A S o c ie ty o f O u tsid e r s." Rev. o f Three G u in eas. The Times L ite r a r y Supplem ent, 4 June 1938, p. 379. W oolf, V ir g in ia . The C a p ta in 's Death Bed and Other E s s a y s . New York: H arcourt, Brace & World, 1950. C o lle c te d E s s a y s . 4 v o l s . New York: H arcourt, Brace & World, 1967. The Common R eader. New York: H arcourt, B race, 1925. The Death o f the Moth and Other E s s a y s . H arcourt, Brace, 1942.. The Diary o f V ir g in ia W oolf. 4 v o l s . Ed. Anne O liv e r B e l l . New York: H arcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1977. j The L e tte r s o f V ir g in ia W oolf. 6 v o l s . Ed. N ig e l N ic o lso n and Joanne Trautmann. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1975. A Room o f One's Own. 1929; r p t. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1957. Three G uineas. F i r s t H arbinger Books Ed. 1938; r p t. New York: H arcourt, Brace & World, 1963. To the L ig h th o u se . 1927; r p t. New York: H arcourt Brace - Jovan ovich , 1955. A W r ite r 's D ia r y . Ed. Leonard W oolf. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovan ovich , 1954. W orcester, D avid. The Art o f S a t i r e . 1940; r p t. New York: R u s s e ll & R u s s e ll, 1960. Young, G. M. "Women in the Modern World." Rev. o f Three G u ineas. The Sunday Times [London], 19 June 1938, p. 7.

Asset Metadata

Core Title 00001.tif

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11257778

Unique identifier UC11257778

Legacy Identifier DP23091

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses