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Content A COM PUTER ASSISTED ANALYSIS OF STEPHEN CRANE'S GRAM M ATICAL STYLE by Dorothy M argaret Guinn A D is s e r ta tio n P resen ted to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f the Requirements f o r th e Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (E nglish) JANUARY 1978 Copyright by Dorothy Margaret Guinn 1978 UMI Number: DP23060 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMT Dissertation Publishing UMI DP23060 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 U N IV E R SITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA THE GRADUATE SC H O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS A N G ELES. C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Dorothy__Margaret__Guinn under the direction of h.ex... Dissertation C om mittee, and appror>ed by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairman EL '18 G 'ltH TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I . INTRODUCTION 1 Purpose Procedure Choice o f Texts Choice o f Works Choice o f Grammatical Theory I I . ASSESSMENTS OF CRANE’S STYLE IN THE CRITICAL TRADITION 17 E arly S tu d ies The 1920's The 1950's to th e P resent The E x tra - L in g u is tic Dimension o f S ty le The Q u a si-L in g u istic Dimension o f S ty le The L in g u is tic Dimension o f S ty le Summary I I I . SYNTAX AS A N EXPRESSIVE INSTRUMENT 46 S tru c tu re s and S tr a te g ie s Base Sentences Sentence Expansion S u b s titu tio n C oordination M o d ificatio n P a re n th e tic a l I n s e r tio n R ig h t-, Mid-, and L eft-B ranching Coherence An Overview o f C ra n e's S y n ta c tic S ty le IV. STAGE ONE: PROVENIENCE A N D EARLY MATURITY 90 The "S u lliv a n County Sketches" Maggie: A G irl o f th e S tr e e ts The Red Badge o f Courage i i i V. STAGE TW O: TRANSITION A N D LATE MATURITY 144 "The Wise Men," "The Five White M ice," and "A Man and Some O thers" "The Open B oat," "The M onster," "The Blue H o te l," "The P rice o f th e H arn ess," and "The Clan o f No-Name" Summary VI. STAGE THREE: N EW HORIZONS 193 The 0 1 Ruddy Summary. CONCLUSION 216 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 227 APPENDIX A 233 APPENDIX B 240 APPENDIX C 242 APPENDIX D 266 APPENDIX E 278 APPENDIX F 284 APPENDIX G 299 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Purpose When Stephen Crane p rem atu rely died a t th e age o f tw e n ty -e ig h t, h is l i t e r a r y bequest was a rem arkably fin e body o f n o v e ls, short s t o r i e s , and poems. I n f l u e n t i a l in h is own decade, th e 1 8 9 0 's, and beyond in to th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y - - e s p e c ia lly because o f h is su p e r l a t i v e s ty le --C ra n e has secured h is p la ce as a m ajor American w r ite r .^ From th e f i r s t , c r i t i c s o f C ran e's work have g e n e r a lly agreed upon th e s tr i k i n g n a tu re o f i t s s ty le and i t s key r o le in h is a r t i s t i c su ccess. However, a t t e n t i o n to what c o n s ti tu te s i t s uniqueness was minimal u n t i l the 1 9 5 0 's. And sin ce th e n , to borrow Seymour Chatman's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 2 o f approaches to s t y l e , most s tu d ie s o f C ra n e 's s t y l e have been e x tr a - l i n g u i s t i c , c o n c e n tra tin g on h is favored ch o ices o f theme, genre, ty p es o f c h a r a c te r s , and th e l i k e . Next most freq u en t are q u a s i - l i n g u i s t i c s tu d ie s , th o se o f C ra n e's favored imagery and word ch o ice. The l i n g u i s t i c a sp e c t o f C ra n e's s ty le has g e n e ra lly rem ained n e g lec te d . Only one study fo cu ses e x c lu s iv e ly and e x te n s iv e ly on C ra n e 's grammatical c h o ices: E leanor S to p p e 's unpublished d i s s e r t a t i o n , "A Transform a- 3 t io n a l A nalysis o f Stephen C ra n e's N ovels." Her in -d e p th study o f C ra n e's g e n e ra tiv e and tra n s fo rm a tio n a l ch o ices in 150 sen ten ces from th re e o f C ra n e's prose f i c t i o n works a ffirm s t h e i r belonging to th e p a r t i c u l a r genres to which c r i t i c s o fte n a ssig n them: n a t u r a l i s t i c (Maggie: A G irl o f th e S t r e e t s ) , im p r e s s io n is tic (The Red Badge o f C ourage), and rom antic (A ctive S e r v ic e ) ; and s p e c if ie s th e u n ifie d i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p o f manner and m a tte r as re s p o n sib le f o r th e s tre n g th o f Maggie and The Red Badge and a d if f u s e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p as re s p o n sib le f o r th e weakness o f A ctive S e rv ic e . This study d i f f e r s from S to p p e 's in aim, method, and scope. I t s aim i s to determ ine th e r o le sy n tax p la y s in th e development o f C rane’s s t y l i s t i c a r t i s t r y throughout h is c a re e r and i t s consequences f o r Crane as a w r ite r . The d a ta fo r t h i s stu d y a re n a r r a tiv e - d e s c r ip t i v e samples drawn from th e e n t i r e spectrum o r C ra n e 's prose f i c t i o n . The s a l i e n t f e a tu r e s o f C ra n e 's grammatical ch o ices in th e se samples t h a t are amenable to computer a n a ly s is are examined w ith computer a s s is ta n c e , a r e q u i s i t e a id f o r such an ex ten siv e study. Hence, a l though t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n too i s c h a ra c te riz e d by c lo se grammatical a n a ly s is , i t s focus i s p r im a r ily on su rfa ce s t r u c t u r e s , and i t s scope i s broad r a t h e r th an deep. In th e rem ainder o f C hapter I , I w ill d isc u ss my choice o f e d i t i o n s , ty p e s o f p assag es, works in clu d ed in th e stu d y , and grammatical th e o ry . C hapter I I review s p a s t c r i t i c a l assessm ents o f C ra n e's s t y l e . Chapter I I I o u tlin e s a grammar o f l i n g u i s t i c f e a tu r e s th a t c r i t i c s o f s ty le agree c o n trib u te to s y n ta c tic v e r s a t i l i t y , and p r e s e n ts an overview o f C ra n e 's changing gram m atical s ty le based on two r e p r e s e n ta tiv e p a ssa g es, one from th e e a r ly S u lliv a n County t a l e s and th e o th e r from a l a t e war s to r y , "The Clan o f No-Name." C hapters IV, V, and VI argue f o r th re e s ta g e s in C ra n e's s y n ta c tic development. 3 C hapter IV,; p re s e n ts in d e t a i l f e a tu r e s o f C ra n e 's e a r ly s ty le based on s e le c tio n s from th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s," Maggie, and The Red Badge. C hapter V e s ta b lis h e s C ra n e 's Mexican and Western adventure t a l e s as a t r a n s i t i o n between h is e a r ly work and l a t e r work, r e p r e sen ted by "The Open B oat," "The M onster," "The Blue H o te l," and th e l a t e war t a l e s . C hapter'V I argues t h a t Crane moves on to new h o rizo n s w ith h is l a s t n o v e l, The O'Ruddy, l e f t uncompleted a t h is u n tim ely death. C hapter VII summarizes th e fin d in g s o f th e study. Procedure Choice o f E d itio n s . Any l i t e r a r y stu d y demands th e b e st and most r e li a b l e e d itio n s o f an a u th o r 's work. I d e a lly one s t r i v e s t o 'g e t as c lo se as p o s s ib le to an a u th o r 's own words, u n ta in te d by n o n -a u th o ria l em endations, w hether in te n tio n a l ones by p u b lis h e rs , c a r e le s s ones by c o p y ists and com positors, o r a u th o r ia l ones forced by p u b lis h e r s ' p re s s u re s . C ra n e's work p re s e n ts many problem s in t h i s re g a rd . Much o f h is work was p u b lish ed in new spapers, an o u tle t n o to rio u s f o r ty p o g ra p h ic a l e r r o r s and a r b i t r a r y e d i t o r i a l c u ts in th e name o f p re d ic te d re a d e r w rath o r th e ex ig en c ie s o f space. In a d d itio n , Crane o fte n was unable to p ro o fread h is work b e fo re p u b lic a tio n , and when he d id was o fte n c a r e le s s in c o rre c tin g m istak es. For many o f h is works manu s c r i p t s are n o n e x is te n t; ty p e s c r ip t s a re o fte n n o n e x iste n t to o . The V irg in ia E d itio n o f The Works o f Stephen Crane i s in ten d ed to remedy such te x tu a l problems in C ra n e's work and stan d as an a c c u ra te c r i t i c a l e d itio n , one s c h o la rs can use w ith a ssu ran ce. This d i s s e r t a 4 t i o n m ainly r e l i e s upon th e V irg in ia E d itio n b u t n ot e x c lu s iv e ly fo r reaso n s th a t w ill be p o in te d out below. The V irg in ia E d itio n serv es as te x t f o r a l l s e le c tio n s from th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s," "The Wise Men," "The Five White M ice," "A Man and Some O th e rs ," "The Open B o at," "The M o n ster," "The Blue H o te l," 4 "The P rice o f th e H arn ess," and The 0 * Ruddy. For th e most p a r t e d i t o r Bowers' d e c is io n s about s u b s ta n tiv e and a c c id e n ta ls em endations, s p e ll in g , and so f o r th a re a ccep ted . O c ca sio n ally , however, a l t e r n a t e re a d in g s have been chosen, m ostly re v e r tin g to C ra n e's m anuscript wording where a v a ila b le . For example, in The O'Ruddy Bowers o p ts fo r p a st te n se "chose" r a t h e r th an t h i s s tu d y 's choice o f th e m a n u sc rip t's p re se n t te n s e "choose": "The in n -k eep er had t o l d me t h a t Kensington Gardens was th e p la c e where th e grand people m ostly choose to walk and f l i r t and show t h e i r c lo th e s on a c l e a r Sunday." At o th e r tim e s, l a t e a u th o r ia l changes chosen by Bowers have been emended so th a t what Crane w rote a t th e p a r t i c u l a r tim e p e rio d being examined i s r e s to r e d . For example, Crane l a t e r re v is e d h is o r ig in a l freq u e n t use o f "m ystic" in "A Man and Some O th e rs ," fin d in g s u b s tit u te s such as "m y sterio u s," " s tr a n g e ," and "uncanny," s u b s tit u tio n s th a t a re d e le te d in fav o r o f "m ystic" h e re . A ll em endations a re l i s t e d in Appendix G. The V irg in ia E d itio n does not serve as te x t fo r Maggie and The Red Badge s in c e , as p o in te d out by a number o f s c h o la rs , though un doubtedly on th e whole th e b e s t a v a ila b le , The Works in c lu d e s f a r from id e a l c r i t i c a l e d itio n s o f Maggie in Bowery T a le s , Volume I , and The Red Badge, Volume I I I . ^ Nor a re th e e d itio n s o f each novel long con- 5 sid e re d stan d a rd any more id e a l. Up u n t i l th e mid and l a t e 1950’s , when th e 1895 Maggie’s s i g n i f i cance as an im portant work in i t s own r i g h t was p e rc e iv e d , th e 1896 A ppleton v e rsio n was g e n e r a lly con sid ered stan d ard d e s p ite d e le tio n s o f in d iv id u a l "profane and o b je c tio n a b le " words and even whole s e c t i o n s , such as M aggie's encounter w ith th e f a t man in C hapter XVII; d e le tio n s a p p a re n tly produced by th e Appleton e d ito r o r under h is p r e s su re in o rd e r to s a t i s f y th e req u irem en ts o f th e g en teel read in g pub l i c . C ra n e 's l e t t e r s to H itchcock t e s t i f y th a t Crane did not i n i t i a t e red u cin g o r s u b tra c tin g "th e words th a t h u r t." ^ "Jaded" though he was w ith r e v is in g Maggie, Crane s t i l l a c c u ra te ly p e rc eiv e d th a t th e new Maggie was in s p i r i t as w ell as l e t t e r n ot lik e th e o ld : "Seems to me 7 th e book wears q u ite a new a sp ect from v ery s l i g h t o m issio n ." Under Bowers' e d i t o r i a l hand, th e V irg in ia E d itio n o f Maggie d is p la y s s t i l l an o th er a sp e c t. I t i s an e d i t o r i a l com posite o f th e 1893 and 1896 e d i t io n s o f Maggie th a t i s even f u r th e r removed from C ran e's words th a n th e 1896 e d itio n . Hence C ra n e's 1893 v e rs io n o f Maggie, a v a ila b le in fa c - 8 s im ile , was chosen fo r th e Maggie t e x t . The V irg in ia E d itio n o f The Red Badge p re s e n ts problems s im ila r to th o se o f Maggie. As te x tu a l sc h o la rs have rem arked, Bowers has emended th e novel e x c e s siv e ly , imposing a complex "system " on th e nov e l , a system t h a t he re a d s in to C ra n e's in te n tio n s , u n f u l f i l l e d but n e v e rth e le s s ev id en t to Bowers. A lthough Bowers' system has m ainly to do w ith th e re n d e rin g o f d i a l e c t , th e problems o f emendation c a rry over elsew here. Bowers, adhering to th e 1895 e d itio n o f The Red Badge, ex cises e x ten siv e m anuscript p assag es, p assages unmarked f o r e x c isio n 6 and f o r which no c le a r p ro o f e x i s t s o f C ra n e 's a u th o riz in g t h e i r e x c i s io n . Furtherm ore, th e c r u c ia l q u e stio n has been r a is e d as to w hether o r n ot th e s e e x c is io n s , i f Crane d id indeed a u th o riz e them, were made under p u b lis h e r p re s s u re , e s p e c ia lly sin c e th o se a t th e n o v e l's end s h i f t meaning: from ir o n ic mockery o f Henry Fleming to acceptance o f 9 h is s e lf - a p p r o v a l. T h erefo re, in o rd e r to h o ld c lo s e ly to C ra n e's own words, and sin c e a fa c s im ile o f The Red Badge holograph m anuscript i s r e a d ily a v a il a b le , C ra n e's m anuscript p ro v id es th e te x t f o r The Red Badge s e le c tio n s . The fa c s im ile o f th e holograph rough d r a f t manu s c r i p t serv es f o r a supplem ental assessm ent o f s t y l i s t i c changes b e tween th e rough d r a f t and f i n a l m anuscript in t h i s key work o f C ra n e 's. Any em endations made in Maggie and The Red Badge, almost e n t i r e l y ty p o g ra p h ic al and s p e llin g c o r r e c tio n s , a re l i s t e d in Appendix G. Choice o f P a ssa g e s. Since i t i s b e st to keep p assages fo r a n a ly s is and comparison as much a lik e as p o s s ib le to reduce th e v a r ia b le s and make s t y l i s t i c stu d y m eaningful, o n ly d e s c r ip ti v e - n a r r a ti v e passages from C ra n e's p ro se f i c t i o n were s e le c te d . D ialogue and in tro d u c to ry o r sub sequent u tte r a n c e s r e l a t e d to d ialo g u e were o m itte d , even i f more th an th e minimal "he s a id " (f o r example, in "'A h, what deh h e l l , ' he s a id , and smote th e deeply-engaged one on th e back o f th e head" from Maggie, n e ith e r d ialo g u e n o r subsequent words would be i n c l u d e d ) . ^ Because t h i s study was meant to c h a r a c te r iz e changes in C ra n e's gram m atical ch o ices as he proceeded through h is c a r e e r , should such changes o c c u r ,^ th e d a ta encompass passages from C ra n e 's p ro se f i c t i o n beginning w ith 7 th e "S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s," w r itte n m ostly in A p ril and May 1892, and ending w ith C ra n e's l a s t work, h is novel The O'Ruddy, completed through C hapter X X V when Crane d ied in June 1900. Q u a n tita tiv e s tu d ie s o f th e k in d attem pted h ere o r d i n a r i l y r e l y on a d a ta base o f 10,000 word samples from ap proxim ately fo u r works by a p a r t i c u l a r a u th o r. However, two f a c to r s argue a g a in s t proceeding in e x a c tly t h i s fa sh io n w ith C ra n e's work. The f i r s t i s , t h a t h is p r e d i le c tio n f o r th e sh o rt s to r y and sh o rt novel forms combined w ith ex te n s iv e use o f dialo g u e (f o r example The T hird V io le t i s a sh o rt novel composed m ainly o f d ia lo g u e) f r u s t r a t e s e x tr a c tio n o f th e d e sire d num b er o f words from s in g le works. The second i s t h a t choosing a sm aller number o f words from more works enhances th e chance o f p e rc e iv in g any s u b tle and gradual changes in C ra n e's s t y l e . Hence, s e le c te d passages in c o rp o ra te le s s th an 10,000 words each, even from th e n o v e ls. Where sh o rt s t o r i e s c o n s ti tu te th e d a ta base fo r a p a r t i c u l a r tim e span in C ran e's c a r e e r , s e v e ra l s t o r i e s w ritte n in c lo se sequence a re grouped to o b ta in a cum ulative word count approxim ating t h a t o f th e n o v els. Choice o f Works. The works chosen f o r stu d y , t h e i r g ro u p in g s, a p p ro x i mate w ritin g d a te , and word count from th e .p a s s a g e s a re : Works and Dates Group No. Words The "S u lliv a n County Sketches" 1 3678 (m ostly A p ril and May 1892) From th o se n a r r a tiv e s as a group which involve th e " l i t t l e man" as c e n tr a l c h a r a c te r: "Four Men in a C ave,” "The O ctopush," "A G houl's A ccountant," "The Black Dog," " K illin g His B ear," The Cry o f a H uckleberry P udding," "The Mesmeric M ountain." Maggie: A G irl o f th e S tr e e ts (f in is h e d January 1893) The Red Badge o f Courage ( d r a f t) (1894)*^ The Red Badge o f Courage (m anuscript) 1894 "The Wise Men," "The Five White M ice," "A Man and Some O th e rs ." ( l a t e sp rin g o r e a r ly summer 1896) "The Open Boat" (February 1897) "The M onster" (September 1897) "The Blue H otel" (December 1897) "T h e P ric e o f th e H arness" (September 1898) "The Clan o f No-Name" (O ctober 1898) The 0 * Ruddy (completed through C hapter X X V when Crane d ied in June 1900) T otal Words 3 9 ,8 0 7 " Although d i f f e r e n t c r i t i c s would d is a g re e on th e q u a l i t a t i v e ra n k ing o f th e s e works, except f o r th e e a r ly "S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s," a l l are g e n e r a lly accepted as being among C ra n e's b e st prose f i c t i o n e f f o r t s . Choice o f Grammatical Theory. Once one d ecid es to stu d y a w r i t e r 's gram m atical c h o ic e s, th e problem a r i s e s about which grammar to apply. The th r e e m ajor competing th e o r ie s are t r a d i t i o n a l , s t r u c t u r a l , and tr a n s f o r m a tio n a l- g e n e r a tiv e . The l a s t , muddy and c o n te n tio u s though th e f i e l d i s to d ay , o f f e r s th e dual advantage o f an aly zin g b o th deep and su rfa c e s tr u c tu r e s and th e tra n s fo rm a tio n s chosen to d e riv e th e l a t t e r from th e form er. For example, th e s u rfa c e s tr u c tu r e The f r i g h t ened sparrow flew away q u ic k ly c o n ta in s th r e e u n d e rly in g p ro p o s itio n s : Something fr ig h te n e d th e sparrow . The sparrow flew away. The sparrow 2 5022 3 1853 4 6780 5 5269 6 5727 7 4862 8 6616 id flew q u ic k ly . R ecovering th e se u n d erly in g p ro p o s itio n s shows among 9 o th e r th in g s th a t th e i n s t i g a t i n g agent has been d e le te d in th e su rfa c e s tr u c tu r e . One can a lso see th a t o th e r tra n s fo rm a tio n s could have been perform ed, r e s u l t i n g in d if f e r e n t s u rfa c e s tr u c t u r e s . To give on ly one p o s s ib le a l t e r n a t i v e d e r iv a tio n , th e sentence might have been w ritte n : When something f r ig h te n e d th e sparrow , i t flew away q u ic k ly . In t h i s d e r iv a tio n , th e o u ts id e fo rc e f r ig h te n in g th e sparrow i s assumed and emphasized. Studying w r i t e r s ' re c u rrin g tra n s fo rm a tio n a l c h o ice s, both o f o p tio n a l tra n s fo rm a tio n s and kinds o f tra n s fo rm a tio n a l o p e ra tio n s , can make e x p l i c i t our i n t u i t i v e re a c tio n s to t h e i r s t y l e , " sim p le ," "com plex," and so f o r t h . ^ However, w hile th e advantages o f tra n s fo rm a tio n a l-g e n e ra tiv e gram mar cannot be d en ied , such a n a ly s is has th e d isad v an tag e o f ta k in g tim e , much tim e; hence, s tu d ie s in t h i s mode depend upon lim ite d amounts o f d a ta . S toppe’ s stu d y o f Stephen C ra n e's s t y l e , m entioned e a r l i e r , depends upon f i f t y sen ten ces (some, v ery s h o rt sen ten ces) each from th r e e o f C ra n e's n o v e ls. C u rtis W . H ayes's comparison o f th e s ty le s o f Edward Gibbon and E rnest Hemingway i s based upon one hundred sentence p ro se samples from each o f th e w r i t e r s . ^ These are le n g th ie r th an most o th e rs in t h i s mode, which are g e n e r a lly lim ite d to a p a r agraph o r two from one work o r from se v e ra l works i f a u th o rs are being c o m p ared .^ Both t r a d i t i o n a l and s t r u c t u r a l grammars lack th e dual advantage o f tra n s fo rm a tio n a l-g e n e ra tiv e grammar; th e y look a t only su rfa c e s tr u c tu r e . Yet each can, in i t s own way, a lso make e x p l i c i t our i n t u i t i v e re a c tio n s to a w r i t e r 's s t y l e . 10 A nalyses conducted w ith in th e t r a d i t i o n a l approach u s u a lly examine p a r t i c u l a r a sp e c ts o f a w r i t e r 's s t y l e t h a t catch th e c r i t i c ' s n o tic e , say a w r i t e r 's use o f f i n i t e v ersu s n o n - f in ite v erb s, o r w hether modi f i c a t i o n i s m ainly a d je c tiv a l o r a d v e r b ia l, u sin g , o f co u rse, th e t r a d it i o n a l p a r ts o f speech c a te g o rie s in th e a n a ly s is . Ian w att employs th e re so u rc e s and term inology o f t r a d i t i o n a l grammar to stu d y Henry 18 Jam es's l a t e p ro se s ty le . Based upon h is exam ination o f th e f i r s t p arag rap h o f The Ambassadors, Watt e s ta b lis h e s a q u a n tita tiv e b a s is f o r i n t u i t i v e c r i t i c a l r e a c tio n s la b e lin g Jam es's l a t e p ro se s t y l e as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y a b s tr a c t (rev e aled in h is p re fe re n c e f o r i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s, many a b s tr a c t nouns, much use o f re p o rte d speech i n t r o duced by " t h a t , " e le g a n t v a r ia tio n to avoid p i l i n g up p erso n al p r o nouns and a d je c tiv e s , and th e p resence o f many n e g a tiv e s and n e a r neg a t i v e s ) . W a tt's s y n ta c tic a n a ly s is le a d s him to see s ty le as psycho lo g ic a l r e v e la tio n : "The most obvious and dem onstrable f e a tu r e o f Jam es’ s p ro se s t y l e , i t s v o cab u lary and sy n tax , are d ir e c t r e f l e c t i o n s 19 o f h is a t t i t u d e to l i f e and h is conception o f th e n o v e l.” Yet, ex em plary as W att's stu d y i s , one q u e stio n s th e v a l i d i t y o f h is e x ten d in g h is co n clu sio n s not o n ly to c h a r a c te r iz e th e s t y l e o f The Ambas sad o rs as a whole but to Jam es's l a t e s t y l e in g e n e ra l, a l l on th e lim ite d b a s is o f one paragraph. S tr u c tu r a l grammar approaches to s t y l e can assume a v a r i e t y o f form s. For example, w ith in t h i s sch o o l, M.A.K. H a llid a y in h is s y s tem ic grammar d is tin g u is h e s th r e e le v e l s o f s y n ta c tic s tr u c tu r e : th a t o f th e sen te n c e, t h a t o f th e sim ple c lau se (which c o n s is ts o f c o n s t i t u 11 e n ts such as s u b je c t, p r e d ic a te , complement, a d ju n c t) , and t h a t o f th e 20 group, nominal or v e rb a l. Using th e se c a te g o rie s as a b a s is , one may examine, fo r example, sentence le n g th as a c r i t e r i o n o f s im p lic ity or com plexity by an aly zin g th e immediate c o n s titu e n ts o f a sen ten ce. That i s , one may a s c e r ta in w hether th e immediate c o n s titu e n ts c o n s is t o f one c la u se o r more th an one, w hether th e c o n s titu e n ts a re p a r a t a c t i c o r h y p o ta c tic , and so f o r th as a b a s is f o r judgm ent, even g ra n tin g th a t m u ltip le f a c to r s make i t d i f f i c u l t to f u l l y determ ine sen ten ce com p le x ity . As p a r t o f h er more comprehensive a n a ly s is o f S h ak esp eare's gram m atical s t y l e , Burton u ses t h i s approach to examine sentence e l e ments in Richard I I and Antony and C le o p a tra , concluding t h a t although th e syntax o f R ichard II i s sim p ler in one way, i t s immediate c o n s ti tu e n ts ten d more o fte n to be s in g le c la u s e s , th e syntax o f Antony and C le o p atra i s sim p ler in o th e r ways such as sen ten ce le n g th , p re fe re n c e f o r p a r a ta x is ov er h y p o ta x is, and a decrease in c la u se s tr u c tu r e s at 21 lower le v e ls o f th e sen te n c e. H a llid a y u ses h is own gram m atical c a te g o rie s to d is c u s s th e s ty le o f Y e a ts 's "Leda and th e Swan" and some sh o rt p ro se p assag es, concen t r a t i n g on nominal group p a tte r n s [(M o d ifier) Head (Q u a lifie r) where th e head may o p tio n a lly be preceded by a m o d ifie r and o p tio n a lly f o l lowed by a q u a l i f i e r ] , le x ic a l s e ts (words grouped according to com mon r e f e r e n c e ) , and cohesion (c re a te d by gram m atical dependence; co o rd in a tio n ; anaphora, as in d e i c t i c s , which r e f e r to elem ents o u tsid e t h e i r s tr u c tu r e ; and le x ic a l r e p e t i t i o n ) to i l l u s t r a t e th e advantages 22 o f ap p ly in g d e s c r ip tiv e grammar to l i t e r a r y s t y l i s t i c a n a ly s is . He 12 fin d s th a t in "L eda," w ith i t s "preponderance o f nominal groups, th e v e rb a l item s are c o n sid e ra b ly d e v e r b a liz e d ," but t h a t th e y "get l e x i - 23 c a ll y more pow erful as th e y g et gram m atically l e s s 'v e r b a l . '" Both th e se c r i t i c s , and o th e rs o p e ra tin g in th e same mode, o f f e r i n t e r e s t i n g o b se rv a tio n s on s t y l e , q u a l i t a t i v e judgments supported by q u a n tita tiv e f a c ts . H a llid a y does n o t use th e computer to a id h is a n a ly s is [although Burton d o e s ), but h is c a te g o rie s o f grammar have proved amenable to computer programming, u n lik e th e c a te g o r ie s and p ro c e sses o f t r a n s fo r m a tio n a l-g e n e ra tiv e grammar, which have n o t. Computer a s s is ta n c e , o f co u rse, s p e ll s th e d iff e r e n c e between a c r i t i c ' s an aly zin g b r i e f s e le c tio n s from an a u th o r 's work and an aly zin g an ex ten siv e corpus such as th a t assem bled f o r t h i s stu d y , w ith i t s approxim ately 40,000 words and 2,400 sen te n c es. In any case , much o f what we observe about s ty le r e s id e s in s u rfa c e s t r u c t u r e s . F urtherm ore, a t e x t f u l l y marked f o r both form and fu n c tio n can be su b m itted to i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by more than one gram m atical approach. That i s , i f a marked t e x t shows, say, a preponderance o f sen ten ces beginning w ith a d v e r b ia ls , one can e a s ily d isc u ss th e s e in term s o f le f t-b r a n c h in g embedding v e rsu s r ig h t- b r a n c h in g . In a d d itio n , e n l i s t i n g th e co m p u ter's su p p o rt, more th an perhaps any o th e r means because o f numerous s te p s r e q u ir in g minute exam ination o f th e d a ta , en fo rces c lo se re a d in g o f th e l i t e r a r y work undergoing study. T h erefo re, because o f th e advantages t h a t s tr u c tu r a l grammar and computer a s s is ta n c e o f f e r , t h e i r combined p o t e n t i a l was c a lle d upon 13 f o r t h i s grammatical a n a ly s is o f Stephen C ra n e's s t y l e . (See Appendix A fo r d is c u s s io n o f th e computer program used and th e computer p ro c e ss. Appendix B c o n tain s th e key to th e computer code f o r forms and fu n c t i o n s , Appendix C r e p r e s e n ta tiv e samples o f th e v a rio u s computer p r in to u ts o b tain ed f o r a n a ly s is .) 14 Notes 1 Numerous c r i t i c s admire th e q u a l i t y o f C ran e's s t y l e . Ford Madox Ford e a r ly acclaim ed him as " th e f i r s t American w r i t e r ," who n e ith e r looked to Europe f o r guidance o r p r o t e s t , in "Stephen C rane," P o r t r a i t s from L ife (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1937), p . 46. R e p rese n tativ e a lso a re John Berryman, who ta k es s p e c ia l p a in s to p r a is e C ra n e's s t y l e , and n o te i t s becoming an id e a l model f o r su b se quent American p ro se (in Stephen Crane CNew York: W illiam S loane, A ss o c ia te s , I n c ., 19503); R. W . S tallm an , who avers t h a t t h a t which i s permanent in C ra n e's work i s h is use o f language (in h is In tro d u c tio n to Stephen C rane: An Omnibus CNew York: A lfre d A. Knopf, 19523); and Maurice Bassan, who re c o g n ize s C ra n e's rem arkable l i t e r a r y achievem ent and th e in flu e n c e o f h is s t y l e on such w r ite r s as E rn est Hemingway (in h is P reface to Stephen C rane' s 'M a g g ie ': Text and C o n tex t, ed. Maurice Bassan CBelmont, C a l i f . : Wadsworth P u b lish in g Company, I n c ., 19663). 2 " S t y l i s t i c s : Q u a n tita tiv e and Q u a lita tiv e ," S ty le (W inter 1967), 29-43. ^ "A T ran sfo rm atio n al A nalysis o f Stephen C ran e's N o v els," S t. Louis U n iv e rs ity 1973. 4 The Works o f Stephen C rane, ed. Fredson Bowers ( C h a r lo tte s v ille : The U n iv e rs ity P ress o f V ir g in ia , 1969- ) . The " S u lliv a n County S ketches" a re in Vol. V III; "The Wise Men," "The Five White M ice," "A Man and Some O th e rs ," "The Open B oat," and "The Blue H otel" a re in Vol. V; "The M onster" i s in Vol. V II; and The O'Ruddy i s in Vol. IV. Sub sequent re fe re n c e s to th e se s t o r i e s and novel appear in th e t e x t . Ref eren ces to o th e r s t o r i e s o r in tr o d u c to r y m a te ria l appear in n o te s w ith t h i s e d itio n h e r e a f t e r c ite d as The Works. 5 See p a r t i c u l a r l y H ershel P arker and B rian Higgins* "The V irg in ia E d itio n o f Stephen C ra n e's Maggie: M irro r fo r T extual S c h o la rs ," P ro o f, 6 (in p r e s s ) ; b u t a ls o Thomas L. McHaney's and Donald P i z e r 's review s o f Bowery T a le s, Vol. I o f The W orks,in American L ite r a r y R ealism , 4 (W inter 1971), 91-97, and Modem P h ilo lo g y , 68 (November 1970), 212-214. 6 Stephen C rane: L e t t e r s , eds. R. W . S tallm an and L i l l i a n G ilkes (New York: New York U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1960), p p . 112-113; h e r e a f t e r c ite d as L e t t e r s . 7 L e t t e r s , pp. 122 and 113. 8 Stephen Crane, Maggie: A G irl o f th e S t r e e t s , ed. Joseph Katz (G a in e s v ille , F l a .: S c h o la rs ' F acsim iles § R e p rin ts, 1966). 9 H ershel P ark er in h is review o f The Red Badge o f C ourage: A F acsim ile E d itio n o f th e M anuscript and The Red Badge o f C ourage: An Episode o f The American C iv il War, Vol. II o f The Works, in N in eteen th C entury F i c t i o n , 30 (March 1976), 558-562, p la u s ib ly argues t h a t th e 15 same c o n v en tio n al r e l i g i o u s s t r i c t u r e s fo rc in g e x c is io n s in Maggie were a ls o re s p o n s ib le fo r th o se in The Red Badge, in th e l a t t e r case d i c t a t i n g an u p b eat, " th e young man i s sav e d ," ending. 10 Stephen Crane, The Red Badge o f C ourage: A F a c sim ile E d itio n o f th e M anuscript, ed. Fredson Bowers (W ashington, D. C. : NCR/Microcard E d itio n s , 1972 and 1973. Subsequent re fe re n c e s to t h i s e d itio n appear in th e t e x t . 11 This i s n o t to say t h a t a stu d y o f C rane’s d ia lo g u e would n ot be i n t e r e s t i n g and v a lu a b le . In f a c t , d ia lo g u e in a sm all segment o f C rane’ s work has been s tu d ie d by Alan Robert S lo tk in in "A Study o f th e Use o f D ia le c t and D ic tio n in S e le c te d Works o f Stephen C rane: The Language o f New York C ity and I t s Rural E n v iro n s," D iss. U n iv e rs ity of South C aro lin a 1970. 12 Bernard O'Donnell in An A nalysis o f Prose S ty le to Determine A uthorship (The Hague: Mouton, 1970), p . 59, s t a t e s t h a t " i t i s g e n er a l l y a ccep ted t h a t a w r i t e r ’s s t y l e may change over a long p e rio d o f tim e [ b u t : in a s h o rt p e rio d Csuch a s , one may assume, C ra n e 's e ig h t y e a r w r itin g c a r e e r ] . . . s t y l e ten d s to remain s t a b l e . " See a lso Fredson Bowers, who a s s e r t s in d i r e c t re fe re n c e to s y n ta c tic o rd e r, idiom , and s u b je c t-v e rb agreem ent t h a t Crane had " r e l a t i v e l y fix e d s t y l i s t i c h a b i t s ." In h is In tro d u c tio n to Bowery T a le s , Vol. I o f The Works, p . I x x i . 13 The d r a f t does n o t f ig u r e in th e m ajor stu d y . However, sin c e The Red Badge i s acclaim ed C ra n e's m ajor work, i t was deemed o f i n t e r e s t to analyze s t y l i s t i c changes between d r a f t and m an u scrip t. Some o f th e se changes e n te r in to th e d is c u s s io n o f C ran e's s t y l e in C hapter IV; Appendix F p re s e n ts a more d e t a i l e d a n a ly s is . The d a ta f o r comparison o f th e d r a f t and m anuscript a re th o se p assag es from th e d r a f t t h a t are c o u n te rp a rts o f th o se from th e m anuscript in clu d ed in th e l a r g e r stu d y . 14 The computer program counts compounds as one word. 15 R ichard Ohmann's a r t i c l e , "G en erativ e Grammars and th e Concept o f L ite r a r y S ty l e ," Word, 20 (1964), 424-439, was one o f th e f i r s t to argue t h a t exam ination o f w r i t e r s ' h a b itu a l tra n s fo rm a tio n a l c h o ice s i s im p o rtan t to l i t e r a r y s t y l i s t i c a n a ly s is . 16 "A Study in Prose S ty le s : Edward Gibbon and E rn est Hemingway," Texas S tu d ie s in L ite r a tu r e and Language, 7 (1966), 371-386. 1^ See, f o r example, Ohmann's "G en erativ e Grammars and L ite r a r y S t y l e ," in which he examines specimen p aragraphs from F au lk n er, Heming way, Jam es, and D. H. Lawrence. 1® "The F i r s t Paragraph o f The Ambassadors: An E x p lic a tio n ," in Essays in C ritic is m (J u ly 1960); r p t . in Contemporary Essays on S t y l e , 16 ed s. Glen A. Love and M ichael Payne (New York: S c o tt, Foresman and Company, 1969), pp. 266-283. 19 W att, p . 282. See "C a te g o rie s o f a Theory o f Grammar," Word, 17 (December 1961), 241-292. 21 D olores M. B urton, S hakespeare’s Grammatical S ty le (A ustin: U n iv e rs ity o f Texas P r e s s , 1973), pp. 102-115. 22 M. A. K. H a llid a y , " D e s c rip tiv e L in g u is tic s in L ite r a r y S tu d ie s ," in E n g lish S tu d ie s Today, ed. G. I . D uthie (Edinburgh: Edinburgh U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1964); r p t . in L in g u is tic s and L ite r a r y S ty le , ed. Donald C. Freeman (New York: H o lt, R in eh art and W inston, I n c ., 1970), pp. 57-72. 2^ H a llid a y , pp. 62-63. 17 CHAPTER I I ASSESSMENTS OF CRANE'S STYLE IN THE CRITICAL TRADITION Stephen C ra n e's s ty le has always a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n . And c r i t ic s o f C ra n e's day and s in c e , whether d isap p ro v in g o f h is s t y l e o r com p lim e n ta ry , have g e n e r a lly not been c o n ten t m erely to no te i t s u n iq u e n e s s , but r a t h e r have in a v a r i e t y o f ways attem pted to an aly ze, c h a r a c t e r i z e , and d e sc rib e i t . The purpose o f th e d is c u s s io n in t h i s c h ap te r i s to t r a c e key r e p r e s e n ta tiv e c r i t i c a l resp o n ses to C ra n e's s t y l e from th o se o f h is contem poraries th ro u g h th o se o f c u rre n t l i t e r a ry s c h o la rs . E arly S tu d ies E arly s tu d ie s , w hether d is c u s s in g th e s t y l e o r co n ten t o f C ra n e's work, are g e n e r a lly n e s c ie n t and c r i t i c a l l y in c o n s e q u e n tia l. In f a c t , most e a r ly c r i t i q u e s o f h is work a re excuses to dwell on th e man, e s p e c i a l l y h is e c c e n tric itie s - -b o h e m ia n r e b e llio n , Bowery f r ie n d s h ip s — r a t h e r th an h is a r t . A lthough some c r i t i c s such as W illiam Dean H ow ells, George Wyndham, Edward G a rn e tt, and H.G. W ells d isc u ss C ran e's themes and te c h n iq u e , even t h e i r s tu d ie s shade more tow ard en t h u s i a s t i c a p p re c ia tio n th an p e n e tr a tin g an aly se s o f h is a r t .* To take W ells as an example, from a b r i e f survey o f much o f th e Crane canon, he concludes th a t C ra n e's re c u rrin g theme i s th e i d e a l i s t hero t e s t e d by danger and d e ath and su g g ests a s i m i l a r i t y between C ra n e's s ty le and W h is tle r 's im p r e s s io n is tic p a in tin g . But in s te a d o f su p p o rtin g a n a ly s i s , Wells t r a i l s a s e r ie s o f adm iring s u p e r la tiv e s : Stephen Crane i s 18 th e "most b r i l l i a n t , most s ig n i f i c a n t and most d i s t i n c t i v e l y American 2 o f a l l E n g lish w r i t e r s ." C e r ta in ly e a r ly s t y l i s t i c s tu d ie s are m ediocre. Most c o n c e n tra te s u p e r f i c i a l l y on C ra n e 's c o lo r imagery. Few d is c u s s h is fav o red themes, ty p e s o f c h a r a c te r s , and o th e r e x t r a - l i n g u i s t i c dim ensions o f s ty le . Some c r i t i c s sensed th e d i s t i n c t i v e q u a l i t y o f C ra n e 's grammatical s t y l e , but r a th e r th an i n t e l l i g e n t l y apply an adequate th e o ry to sup p o rt and develop t h e i r i n t u i t i o n s , th e y examine C ra n e 's grammar in term s o f i t s u n c o n v e n tio n a lity o r s e t t l e f o r parody, u n in te n tio n a lly and p a ra d o x ic a lly conveying a g ra in o f t r u t h about h is s ty le even as t h e i r ex ag g eratio n s l i e . One o f th e most extended e a r ly commentaries on C ra n e 's s t y l e , and ty p ic a l f o r what i t condemns and what i t p r a i s e s , i s Rupert Hughes's 3 a r t i c l e in Godey's Magazine o f September 1896. Speaking from th e view point o f a t r a d i t i o n a l p r e s c r i p tiv e grammarian o f th e Bishop Low- th ia n sch o o l, he lam basts Crane as a " f la g r a n t d e s e c ra to r" o f gram m a tic a l co n v en tio n s, and charges t h a t The Red Badge " b r i s t l e s more w ith 4 f a l s e grammar than w ith b a y o n e ts ," p o in tin g to such so lecism s as C ra n e's m isuse o f th e r e f le x iv e h im s e lf f o r him ["and th e whole mood o f d a rk n e ss, he th o u g h t, was one o f sympathy f o r h im s e lf in h i s d i s t r e s s " (2 6 )], m isuse o f th e in d ic a tiv e mood f o r th e su b ju n c tiv e ["He wished w ithout re s e rv e t h a t he was a t home a g ain , . . . " (2 6 )], f a u l t y sub j e c t -verb agreement ["T here was p e r s p ir a tio n and brum bling" (3 0 )], m u ltip le n e g atio n ["he could n o t f le e no more th an a l i t t l e fin g e r can commit a re v o lu tio n from a hand” (4 5 )], and on and o n .^ I n te r e s t i n g l y , 19 Hughes m isses one gram m atical solecism t h a t p lag u es Crane throughout h is c a r e e r , d an g lin g m o d ifie rs [from The Red Badge: "A dm itting t h a t he might be wrong, a fre n z ie d declam ation o f th e kind would tu rn him in to a worm" (3 6 )]. In h is d is c u s s io n Hughes does concede th a t "th e l a n guage [ o f The Red Badge] i s fr e q u e n tly o f amazing s tr e n g th and sugges tiv e n e s s , but he makes no attem pt to a s s e s s th e form o f t h i s s tre n g th . Bad grammar i s what he t a l k s about. Indeed, because grammar in th e p r e s c r i p t i v e sense i s h is main concern, he r a t e s th e s ty le o f Maggie 7 h ig h e r th an The Red Badge because i t makes "no lunge a t o d d ity ." A nother way o f c h a r a c te r iz in g C ra n e 's s ty le was through parody, u s u a lly , as i l l u s t r a t e d in 1. below, fo cu sin g on h is freq u e n t use o f c o lo r term s, o r, as i l l u s t r a t e d in 2. below, on h is sim ple sen ten ce s t r u c t u r e . 1. Above, th e sun hung l i k e a c u s ta rd p ie in a b u rn t b la n k e t. A Spanish c a v a lie r , m u tte rin g m ild green c u rs e s , stood n e ar. He was stew ing th e l a s t d ish o f le e k s which h is m other had given him b e fo re he l e f t home. From a clump o f so rd id t r e e s two m iles o f f came th e happy c ra c k lin g o f m uskets. "There w ill be d eath to - d a y ," s a id th e youth. "Dark- brown d e a th ." At t h i s p o in t [ s i c ] c a v a l i e r 's chameleon cu rse tu rn e d to a l i g h t y ellow , owing to th e p ro x im ity o f a p o t o f Spanish m u stard .^ 2. N othing i s e a s ie r . The method i s sim ple. I t p re s e n ts no d i f f i c u l t i e s . I t i s d i s t i n c t . I t ap p eals to many. I t i s new. T h erefo re i t p le a s e s . For a tim e. But n o t perm anently. Men o f in t e l l i g e n c e yawn. The t r i c k i s too r e a d ily seen th ro u g h . I t i s lik e an i n f a n t 's re a d e r: My c a t i s c a lle d Tom. Do you lik e c a ts ? No, I lik e dogs. I lik e both c a ts and dogs. Both p a ro d ie s cap tu re some e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C ra n e 's s t y l e even as th e y deny i t s tr u e n a tu re and com plexity by t h e i r o v e r s im p lif ic a tio n coupled w ith ex cess. Crane does fr e q u e n tly use c o lo r, 20 o fte n in odd c o llo c a tio n s , n o t only to p ic tu r e but to c h a r a c te r iz e . For example, in G eorge's Mother Kelcey f a l l s "w ith a yellow c ra sh . And in The Red Badge "th e b a t t a l i o n s , w ith t h e i r commotions, were woven red and s t a r t l i n g in to th e g e n tle f a b r ic " (34). But th e f i r s t parody m isses th e immanent fu n c tio n a l q u a lity o f C ra n e 's c o lo r im agery, a q u a lity e x h a u s tiv e ly analyzed by Tynan in a much more re c e n t study. Looking s p e c i f i c a l l y a t The Red Badge1s c o lo r im agery, Tynan p e rs u a s iv e ly argues th a t such im agery fu n c tio n s c e n t r a l l y in th e fo rm u latio n o f C ra n e's ir o n ic o u tlo o k , p ro v id in g a means fo r th e n o v e l's th em atic d e v e lo p m e n t.^ The second parody c a p tu re s C ra n e's penchant fo r sim ple d e c la r a tiv e se n te n c e s, but c a r e fu l a tt e n t i o n to h is prose f i c t i o n r e v e a ls , to v ary in g d e g re es, f a r more com plexity w ith in th e sim ple fram e work, and, indeed, a r t f u l l y c o n stru c te d rhythms a t tim es t o match a c tio n s , a s , fo r example, in th e f i r s t two sen te n c es o f The Red Badge: "The co ld p assed r e l u c t a n t l y from th e e a r th and th e r e t i r i n g fogs re v e a le d an army s tr e tc h e d out on th e h i l l s , r e s t i n g . As th e landscape changed from brown to green th e army awakened and began to trem b le w ith e ag ern ess a t th e n o is e o f rumors" (3 ). As e a r ly c r i t i q u e s and p a ro d ie s im ply, C ra n e's s t y l e , to borrow C o n rad 's m etaphor, "d eto n ate d " on h is contem poraries w ith th e "impact 12 and fo rc e o f a tw e lv e -in c h s h e ll charged w ith a v ery h ig h e x p lo siv e . While C onrad's assessm ent h y p e rb o liz e s , c e r t a i n l y , a t th e l e a s t , C ra n e's s t y l e p u z zle d h is co n tem p o raries, accustomed as th e y were to co n v en tio n al n in e te e n th c e n tu ry l i t e r a r y p ro se , b o th E n g lish and i t s American m o d ific a tio n , which, even as i t aimed a t re a lis m , clung to 21 t r a d i t i o n a l s t y l i s t i c norms: lo n g e r, more complex se n te n c e s, balanced e q u ilib riu m among elem ents, and a tendency toward th e q u i e t l y emotive r a t h e r th an th e b o ld ly in te n s e , a s t y l e c a lle d "enum erative" by some 13 c r i t i c s . E s p e c ia lly in h i s e a r ly p ro se f i c t i o n Crane s h a rp ly fre e d h im se lf from t h i s t r a d i t i o n as can be seen in a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e passage from C hapter I o f M aggie: Howls o f renewed w rath went up from D e v il's Row t h r o a t s . T a tte re d gamins on th e r ig h t made a fu rio u s a s s a u lt on th e g rav el heap. On t h e i r sm all, convulsed fa c e s th e r e shone th e g rin s o f t r u e a s s a s s in s . As th e y charged, th e y threw sto n es a$id cu rsed in s h r i l l chorus. (4) Hence e a r ly c r i t i c s responded to Crane w ith d is tu rb e d l i t e r a r y s e n s i b i l i t i e s c o n d itio n e d by th e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s o f th e tim e and tended to c r i t i c i z e Crane in th e p e jo r a tiv e sen se, a l b e i t tem pering t h e i r c r i t i c i s m w ith a d m iratio n f o r C ra n e 's f o r c e f u l, v iv id , and e x p re ssiv e use o f language. An anonymous review er i s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e : "The book [The Red Badge] i s w ritte n in t e r s e and v igorous s e n te n c e s , but not w ithout some u n p le asa n t a f f e c t a t i o n s o f s t y l e which th e a u th o r would do 14 w ell to c o r r e c t ." The 1920,'s Soon a f t e r C ran e's d eath b o th he and h is work reced ed in to o b liv ion, u n t i l th e 1 9 2 0 's when Crane was re d isc o v e re d . Then much o f what m ention o c cu rred p e rta in e d to h is re le v a n c y to th en c u rre n t e v e n ts - - in th e p o l i t i c a l w orld, The Red Badge to World War I ; in th e l i t e r a r y w orld, h is p o s itio n as p re c u rs o r o f th e Im agist movement. However, some c r i t i c s attem p ted to e s t a b l i s h Crane as a s e rio u s a r t i s t , p a r t i a l ly because th e y reco g n ized C ra n e 's s t y l e and s u b je c t m a tte r as b ein g 22 f a r in advance o f h is tim e and p a r t i a l l y because th e y admired His . f la u n tin g th e s o c ia l conventions o f h is tim e. In 1921 V incent S t a r r e t t e d ite d a d iv e rs e c o lle c tio n o f C ra n e's work, ra n g in g from some S u lliv a n County Sketches to "The Open Boat" 15 and th e j o u r n a l i s t i c "London Im p re ssio n s." S t a r r e t t 's in tr o d u c tio n c l e a r l y aims at d is s o c ia tin g Crane from th e decadent w rite r s o f th e 1 8 9 0 's and r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g him as a w r ite r o f g r e a t power, w hether d e p ic tin g war and adventure o r s a t i r i z i n g co n v en tio n al sm all-tow n m o ra lity . In 1923 Thomas Beer p u b lish e d h i s biography o f Crane, an e f f o r t in ten d ed more to co u n ter th m ythof Crane as e c c e n tr ic a r t i s t th an p a in t an e x h a u stiv e , a c c u ra te , rounded p o r t r a i t o f him. In th e p ro c e ss Beer fash io n ed new myths: Crane th e m isunderstood a r t i s t , Crane a man dom inated by f e a r - - t h i s l a t t e r myth dom inating th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f C ra n e 's work f o r y e a rs.* ^ Beer undoubtedly based h is f e a r t h e s i s o n .C ra n e 's remark in a . l e t t e r to John N orthern H i l l i a f d ( t e n t a t i v e l y d ated from Ravensbrook, 1897): "th e b ig review s here p ra is e d i t [ The Red Badge] f o r j u s t what I in ten d ed i t to be, a psycho- 17 lo g ic a l p o r tr a y a l o f f e a r . " But c e r t a i n l y C ra n e's work equated w ith Crane th e man and reduced to " th e m a n ife s ta tio n o f f e a r (as L i te r a r y H isto ry o f th e U nited S ta te s fo llo w in g B e e r's le a d , avers a lso o f 18 "The Blue H o tel" among o th e r works) i s an o v e r - s im p lif ic a tio n . En t h u s i a s t i c endorsem ents o f C ra n e 's l i t e r a r y s t a t u r e and rem in isc en ses by such prom inant f ig u r e s as H.L. Mencken and Joseph Conrad ap p eared , some o f them as in tr o d u c tio n s in th e A lfred Knopf p u b lic a tio n o f The Work o f Stephen Crane th a t was p a r t o f th e e f f o r t to arouse and s u s ta in { 23 19 c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t in Crane. Yet d e s p ite th e enthusiasm o f key l i t e r a r y f i g u r e s , l i t t l e o f c r i t i c a l depth and s ig n if ic a n c e emerged to e x p la in C ra n e's a r t and te c h n iq u e , and f o r th e most p a r t Crane was s t i l l u n ifo rm ly deemed an i n f e r i o r w r ite r whose one g re a t work, The Red Badge, was n o t enough to co n fer s ta t u r e o r l a s t i n g im portance. Nothing o f s ig n if ic a n c e was s a id about h is unique s t y l e o th e r th a n p a ssin g remarks th a t i t was, in d eed , u n iq u e, p r im a r ily , acco rd in g to Conrad and B eer, because o f C ra n e's audacious word c h o ice (Conrad fin d s "b a rb a ro u sly a b ru p t" in "The Open Boat" p a r t i c u l a r l y in s p ir e d ; " s n a r lin g sm ell" a p p lie d to an a n c ie n t egg ap p eals to Beer) and " a s to n is h in g ease o f v is u a l d e s c r ip tio n " encoded in d e c e p tiv e ly sim ply sta te m e n ts. Beer speaks f o r many c r i t i c s when he says t h a t "n o th in g could be b e t t e r th a n th e two l i g h t s o f 'The Open B oat' which were th e 'f u r n i t u r e o f th e w orld' to h is 2 0 [C ra n e 's ] racked e y e s ." The 1 9 5 0 's to th e P resen t The Red Badge, l i t e r a t u r e ' s p e re n n ia l S leep in g B eauty, was r e v iv ed again w ith th e o n set o f World War I I , and some c r i t i c i s m con^ tin u e d to appear s p o r a d ic a lly , f o r in s ta n c e a new c r i t i c a l re c o g n itio n o f th e complex e x c e lle n c e o f C ra n e's t r i o o f l a t e s t o r i e s , "The: Open B o a t," "The Blue H o te l," and "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky." But i t was n ot u n t i l th e 1 9 5 0 's, p r e c i p i t a t e d by Robert W . S ta llm a n 's c o n tr o v e r s ia l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e symbolism o f The Red Badge, th a t th e Stephen Crane in d u s try geared up to f u l l p ro d u c tio n . In t h i s l a t e s t s p u rt o f c r i t i c a l in q u ir y , c r i t i c s have d elv ed more in to Crane 24 th e a r t i s t th an Crane th e man. The e n t i r e canon, n o t only th e o ld f a v o r i t e , The Red Badge, has undergone a n a ly s is , r e s u l t i n g in a seem in g ly unending avalanche o f a r t i c l e s and hooks d is c u s s in g n o t only C ra n e's a f f i n i t i e s to c e r t a i n "sch o o ls" b u t h is so u rc e s, in flu e n c e s , 21 them es, te c h n iq u e s, and th e l i k e . In a d d itio n , f o r th e f i r s t tim e, c r i t i c s have attem p ted to come to g r ip s w ith C rane’s s t y l e . The E x tr a - L in g u is tic Dimension o f S t y l e . The problem i s t h a t u n t i l r e c e n tly most c r i t i c s an aly zin g s t y l e have o p e ra ted under th e r u b r ic s o f o r g a n ic is t c r i t i c a l th e o ry , "new c r itic is m " as i t i s c a lle d , r e s u l t ing in a lim ite d approach to s t y l e . O rg a n ic ist th e o ry , th e c r i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n r e a c tin g a g a in s t e a r l i e r re d u c tio n o f l i t e r a t u r e to s o c io lo g ic a l, m oral, o r o th e r k in d s o f documents, s tr e s s e s th e l i t e r a r y o b je c t, e s p e c ia lly th e in t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e th a t communicates a sen se o f i t s u n ity , r a t h e r th an th e r e l a t i o n o f th e p ie c e o f l i t e r a t u r e to n a tu r e , a u th o r, o r re a d e r. In th e p ro c e s s , o r g a n ic is t th e o ry o fte n i n f l i c t s i t s own re d u c tio n o f th e v ia b le grounds f o r l i t e r a r y a n a ly s is and e v a lu a tio n . A llen T a t e 's , C leanth B ro o k s's, and W illiam Empson’s well-known enthusiasm s f o r th e s tr u c tu r e s o f te n s io n , iro n y , and ambi g u ity , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e f i r s t two, u n d e rg ird many c r i t i c a l s tu d ie s o f C ra n e 's work. Undoubtedly c r i t i c s stu d y th e se s t r u c t u r a l components as much because o f t h e i r t r a i n i n g as i n c l i n a t i o n . Hence, alth o u g h th e r e i s n o th in g in h e re n t in o r g a n ic is t th e o ry t h a t p re c lu d e s stu d y in g th e l i n g u i s t i c s tr u c tu r e s th a t c h a r a c te r iz e a w r i t e r 's gram m atical s t y l e , c r i t i c s sim ply do n o t choose to examine t h i s a sp e c t o f s t y l e . In a d d itio n , sin c e more than any o th e r c r i t i c a l th e o ry o b je c tiv e 25 c r i t i c i s m atte m p ts to o b l i t e r a t e th e d i s t i n c t i o n between form and con t e n t , s tr u c tu r e s have been examined la r g e ly in term s o f how th e meaning o f a work i s ex p ressed through them. For th e se c r i t i c s , a t l e a s t in t h e i r p u re s t m a n ife s ta tio n , every statem e n t i s a unique s t y l e ; t h e r e f o r e , any change in a s ta te m e n t, th e conversion o f an a c tiv e c la u se to i t s p a s s iv e c o u n te rp a rt o r even th e s h i f t i n g o f an adverb, changes meaning. As a r e s u l t , meaning, th e c o n ten t o f a l i t e r a r y work i s p rim a rily what i s ta lk e d about. S ty le as a way o r say in g som ething tends to be submerged in fav o r o f d is c u s s io n o f c o n te n t, what i s s a id . That i s , c r i t i c s focus on th e e x t r a - l i n g u i s t i c dim ension o f s t y l e . S tallm an , se a rc h in g f o r meaning in The Red Badge's " t e x t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l te n s i o n s ," e a r ly d e sc rib e d the novel as a sym bolic c o n s tr u c t, 22 lin k in g C ra n e 's s t y l e to symbol. Denying t h a t th e banner o f re a lism le g itim a te ly f lo a te d over The Red Badge as claim ed by numerous e a r l i e r c r i t i c s , he argued th a t w herever d e t a i l s approaching p h o to g rap h ic r e a l ism o c cu r, such as Jim C o n k lin 's s id e wound and to r n , gory body, th e se d e t a i l s a re used n o t f o r r e a lis m 's sake b u t sy m b o lic a lly , in th e i n sta n c e c ite d c o n trib u tin g to The Red Badge1s theme o f redem ption and s a lv a tio n . P r e c i p i t a t i n g a decade long c o n tro v e rsy over p ro p e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f The Red Badge, S tallm an read th e novel as a r e lig io u s a lle g o ry w ith Henry Fleming b ein g saved through th e o f f ic e s o f th e C h r i s t - l i k e Jim C onklin. He d e te c te d an o v e r a ll sym bolic s tr u c tu r e o f c o n tr a s tin g moods o f hope and d e s p a ir c o n tin u a lly r e c a p itu l a te d u n t i l f i n a l l y co alesced in to a u n if ie d e f f e c t . The s tr u c t u r e t h a t S tallm an fin d s c e n tr a l to The Red Badge becomes a model to him f o r e x c e lle n c e in a l l C ra n e 's work. Those works b eg in n in g and ending w ith a c o n tr a s t o f 26 hope and d e s p a ir, a c i r c u l a r s t r u c t u r e w ith ir o n ic im p lic a tio n s , a re p r a is e d . Those th a t do n o t f i t w ell in to th e scheme, such as "The Blue H o te l," a re deemed le s s e f f e c t i v e . Chase, on th e o th e r hand, d e n ies t h a t Crane i s a sy m b o list except in th e sense o f h is symbols b ein g th e type produced by any w r i t e r w ith a p o e tic tu rn o f mind; t h a t i s , h is symbols are imposed more than 23 interw oven and a re n o t c o n s is te n t in t h e i r c o n te x t. For example, although Jim C o n k lin 's d eath agony does echo th e c r u c if ix io n , F lem in g 's r e p o r t o f i t to h i s comrades i s m a tte r - o f - f a c t; m oreover, in F lem in g 's l a s t in t e r n a l d eb ate o f th e book during which h i s manhood i s s t i l l in q u e s t i o n , i t i s th e t a t t e r e d s o ld ie r who f i l l s F lem in g 's th o u g h ts, not C onklin. Chase pegs Crane as an ir o n ic n a t u r a l i s t whose " re c u r rin g , perhaps o b s e s siv e , id ea" i s t h a t "man must b e lie v e what o b v io u sly i s n o t tr u e " : th a t he i s a r a t i o n a l c re a tu r e who can c o n tro l h is d es- 24 t i n y . He argues t h a t as a r e s u l t , Crane s tr u c tu r e s h is works in term s of an ir o n ic c o n tr a s t between m an's id e a l i z a t i o n o f h is s i t u a tio n and i t s a c t u a l i t y circu m scrib ed by o u ts id e fo rc e s and m an's own i n s t i n c t s and i l l u s i o n s . The agonizing predicam ent o f th e men in "The Open B o at," so n e ar sh o re and s a f e ty y e t so much a t th e mercy o f th e sea , i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s c o n tr a s t as does "The Blue H o tel" among o th e r s t o r i e s . At th e end o f "The Blue H otel" th e E a s te r n e r announces t h a t th e murder o f th e Swede, l i k e a l l s in s , was "a r e s u l t o f a c o l la b o r a tio n ," b u t what Crane superim poses on t h i s v e r d ic t i s n o t so much th a t a l l in volved sh are g u i l t f o r th e Swede's d eath as t h a t no body does, t h a t no one involved r e a l l y c o n tr o lle d an ything a t a l l . 27 Numerous c r i t i c s , among them G r i f f i t h and C o lv e rt, p la y v a ria tio n s; on t h i s m o tif o f an e s s e n t i a l l y ir o n i c s tr u c t u r e inform ing C ra n e 's p ro se f i c t i o n . G r i f f i t h ag rees g e n e r a lly w ith C h ase's a n a ly s is when he a s s e r t s t h a t s t r u c t u r a l iro n y and te n s io n occur between C ra n e 's " d e c e p tiv e " s t r u c t u r a l framework, th a t p r o je c tin g a m a tu ra tio n theme, and " a c tu a l" s t r u c t u r a l framework, t h a t p r o je c tin g c h a r a c te r s stan d in g s t i l l o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y d isc o v e rin g new knowledge th a t though f r a u d u le n t becomes, n e v e r th e le s s , th e b a s is upon which p r o ta g o n is ts " p re d ic a te even g ro s s e r e r r o r s , " n o t, however, a t th e expense o f t h e i r being 0 C r i d i c u l e d . R ath er, G r i f f i t h concludes t h a t C ra n e 's ir o n ic v is io n u n d ersco res h is compassion: Henry F le m in g 's f i n a l s e lf - d e c e p tio n s in The Red Badge in d ic a te how l i t t l e he has le arn ed through b a t t l e and h is cow ardly r e t r e a t , b u t he and a l l men need such i l l u s i o n s to p re s e rv e t h e i r s a n ity . To C o lv e rt, in one o f th e most p e rc e p tiv e essays eq u atin g s t r u c t u r e and theme in Crane.'s f i c t i o n , th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r u c t u r e o f C ra n e 's b e s t works ju x ta p o se s two i r o n i c a l l y d iv e rg e n t p o in ts o f view: th e narrow , deluded p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e p r i n c i p l e c h a r a c te rs and th e ex p an siv e, r e a l i s t i c p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e n a r r a t o r . T his ju x ta p o s itio n c re a te s a s t r u c t u r a l te n s io n out o f which a r i s e s C ra n e's most p re v a l e n t theme: th e in e v ita b le d e f la tio n o f m an's p rid e and h i s d e lu sio n under th e s t r e s s o f ex p erien c e . T his theme re c e iv e s i t s f u l l e s t and most b r i l l i a n t e x p re ssio n in C ra n e 's m ature work, a s , fo r example, in "The Open Boat" and "The Blue H o te l." In th e form er th e n a r r a t o r 's view as i f from a balcony su g g ests le s s th an cosmic s ig n if ic a n c e to the 28 p lig h t o f th e men in th e dinghy. What to th e men, whose v is io n i s c i r cum scribed by s lb ty w a lls o f w ater, seems to be n a t u r e 's m alignant power c o n ce n tra te d upon them in th e s n a r lin g c r e s t s ap p ears le s s c a t a s tro p h ic th an "w eird ly p ic tu re s q u e " to th e n a r r a t o r . A s im ila r d i s ta n c in g o f n a r r a t o r and s u b je c t c h a r a c te r iz e s key moments in "The Blue H otel" to o . Following h is winning f i s t fig h t w ith Johnnie S c u lly , th e s t i l l b e llic o s e Swede s tr u g g le s through a b lin d in g snowstorm toward town. W e are allow ed to see him narrow ly as a p o s s ib le r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f "conquering and e l a t e hum anity," but im m ediately ju x ta p o sed in th e n a r r a t o r 's w ider view o f th e Swede and h is w orld as puny and in c o n se q u e n tia l: "One viewed th e e x is te n c e o f man th en as a m arvel, and con ceded a glamour o f wonder to th e se l i c e which were caused to c lin g to a w h irlin g , fir e - s m o te , ic e - lo c k e d , d is e a s e - s tr ic k e n , s p a c e -lo s t bulb" (1 6 5 ).26 The Q u a si-jiin g u is tic Dimension, o f S t y l e . Elsewhere C o lv ert concludes th a t what c o n s ti tu te s C ra n e 's s ty le --im a g e ry , m etaphors, re c u rrin g m o tifs, and c o n tr a s ts in to n e and mood ( th a t i s , q u a s i - l i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r s ) - - c a r r i e s th e burden o f C ra n e 's theme: " I t i s in s ty le th a t 27 . . . meaning e x i s t s , " In "The Open Boat" th e m en's f a u l t y p e r c e p tio n o f r e a l i t y and t h e i r s tru g g le to o rd e r m ean in g fu lly confused and c o n tra d ic to ry e x p e rie n c e s are c a r r ie d by C ra n e 's ir o n i c a l s t y l e , an " in d ir e c t" c o u n te rp o in tin g th a t allow s f o r e r r o r s o f p e rc e p tio n , C ra n e's as w ell as th e m en's. Among th e elem ents o f C ra n e 's s ty le th a t C olvert m entions, l i e t m o t i f s r e f e r to v a rio u s c o n tra d ic to ry a s p e c ts o f n a tu re : sea g u lls a re both a l l i e s o f th e h o s t i l e sea 29 ("uncanny and s i n i s t e r " w ith t h e i r "b lack b e a d lik e eyes") and remote t r a c e r s o f g ra c e fu l p a tte r n s as th e y f l y " s la n tin g . . . up th e wind"; th e m en's c o n f l i c t i n g s p e c u la tio n s about th e imminence o f t h e i r re scu e convey a to n e o f ir o n ic presum ption; jag g ed waves and p o in te d ro c k s, imagery evoking th e h o s t i l i t y o f n a tu re e v id en t to th e men, are coun te r p o in te d by th e view from th e balcony, in tro d u c in g th e c o n tra ry idea o f n a t u r e 's in d if f e r e n c e . O ther c r i t i c s stu d y in g th e q u a s i - l i n g u i s t i c dim ension o f C ra n e 's s t y l e in more d e t a i l th a n C o lv ert have focused p r im a r ily on C ra n e's use o f im agery, e s p e c ia lly h is c o lo r im agery, and e s p e c ia ll y as i t appears in The Red Badge. B esides T ynan's ex h au stiv e study m entioned above, we have Wogan's, l e s s e x te n s iv e b u t d e t a i l e d . She counts and lo c a te s c o lo r words in The Red Badge, fin d in g t h a t : re d , b lu e , and gray predom inate; c o lo r words c l u s t e r in th e f i r s t few and l a s t few c h a p te rs ; c o lo rs fu n c tio n l i t e r a l l y f o r th e most p a r t but o fte n sym b o l i c a l l y o r b o th l i t e r a l l y and sy m b o lic ally a t th e same tim e , and c o n tr ib u te in t h e i r panoramic e f f e c t s to one o f th e u n d e rly in g themes 28 o f th e book, n a t u r e 's in d if f e r e n c e to m an's a f f a i r s . Simoneaux r e p l i c a t e s Wogan's stu d y w ith "G eorge's M other," d is c o v e rin g th r e e o f th e same c o lo rs predom inating (re d , b la c k , b lu e ) . She forms much th e same eq u atio n s o f p a r t i c u l a r c o lo rs to sym bolic m eanings: re d w ith b e s t i a l i t y and ra g e , b lack w ith age and d e a th , and so f o r th ; and is s u e s th e same c av e a t: th e r a t i o o f c o lo r t o meaning i s n o t c o n s is t t e n t l y one to one (crim son can connote d eath and decay as w ell as v io le n c e ). F u rth e r, she argues th a t c o lo rs as Crane u ses them show 30 29 a k in sh ip w ith h is them es. Both o f th e s e s tu d ie s and o th e rs o f C ra n e 's c o lo r imagery a re s y n c h ro n ic a lly o r ie n te d ; th e d ia ch ro n ic 30 a sp e c ts o f C ra n e's use o f c o lo rs s t i l l remain to be ex p lo red . B rie f s tu d ie s e x i s t o f C ra n e 's o th e r favored image ty p e s . Caze- majou d is c u s s e s C ra n e's use o f m ech an istic and animal im agery, n o tin g freq u e n t a s s o c ia tio n s in The Red Badge o f b a t t l e w ith immense and t e r r i b l e m achines, s e r p e n ts , and f i r e - s p i t t i n g d ra g o n -lik e m onsters, 31 and in "The Open Boat" o f d e a th w ith th e om nipresent sh ark . Bassan fin d s m etaphor t i g h t l y p a tte r n e d to cohere to s t r u c t u r e in "E x p eri ment in M isery" in which th e c e n tr a l m etaphor, " im p e rtu rb a b le g ra n ite w h e els," in th e n ig h t scene in th e flophouse and o th e r images i n i t i a t e 32 th e re a d e r in to th e grim ness, th e 'p a th o s ' o f m an's c o n d itio n . Anderson examines th e q u a n tity and h a n d lin g o f C ra n e 's e p i t h e t s , f in d ing numerous p a r a l l e l s between The Red Badge and Homer's I l i a d and Odyssey, one o f th e most s a l i e n t being C ra n e 's employing th e Homeric tech n iq u e o f in c re a s in g th e freq u en cy o f s im ile s as th e f ig h tin g 33 in c re a s e s in savagery in The Red Badge. The L in g u is tic Dimension o f S t y l e . Any number o f o th e r c r i t i c s in th e l a s t tw enty y e ars have c o n trib u te d in t h e i r own way to a m p lific a tio n o f th e e x t r a - l i n g u i s t i c and q u a s i - l i n g u i s t i c dim ensions o f C ra n e's s t y l e . Hence we know much about C ra n e 's r e c u rre n t s e t t i n g s , them es, c h a r a c te r s , p o in ts o f view , im ages, m etaphors, and so f o r t h . But in a l l o f t h i s ex eg e sis th e o v e rrid in g goal has been t o e x p la in what C ra n e's f i c t i o n means. Pronouncements th a t emerge from th e s e s tu d ie s having to do w ith th e l i n g u i s t i c dim ension o f s t y l e a re o fte n sub 31 j e c t i v e , im p r e s s io n is tic , u n h e lp fu l. Summational a d je c tiv e s a re c a s t upon th e winds. C ra n e 's s t y l e i s v a rio u sly , to name o n ly a few: awkward, b r i l l i a n t , c o llo q u ia l, c l e a r , c le v e r , econom ical, f lu e n t, h y p e rb o lic , im p r e s s io n is tic , i r o n i c , n a t u r a l i s t i c , r e a l i s t i c , ro m an tic, t o r t u r e d , s p a re , sym bolic, p ro se p o i n t i l l i s m . I t i s tr u e t h a t some o f th e s e a d je c tiv e s d e sc rib e C ra n e 's s t y l e in one s to r y o r novel as op posed to a n o th e r, alth o u g h th a t seems to imply t h a t s t y l e i s determ ined p r im a r ily by su b je c t m a tte r r a t h e r th a n th e in d iv id u a l w r itin g , but some d is p a r a te a d je c tiv e s d e s c rib e th e same work. W ithout a c r i t i c ' s s u b s ta n tia tin g w ith h ard f a c t s what e x a c tly Crane does th a t makes h is s t y l e d e se rv in g o f one d e s c r ip tiv e a d je c tiv e as opposed to a n o th e r, th e re a d e r cannot a ss e n t to th e s e a d je c tiv e s a lth o u g h th e y may c o n tain elem ents o f t r u t h . Two problem s a r i s e f o r c r i t i c s a tte m p tin g to c h a r a c te r iz e C ran e's s t y l e d ia c h r o n ic a lly . The f i r s t i s w hether C ra n e 's s t y l e re v e a ls con s i s t e n t change o r development a t a l l . Much seems to depend on how one d e fin e s s t y l e . Among th o s e c r i t i c s who do not d e te c t c o n s is te n t d e v e l- 34 opment i s Gibson, who brands Crane th e l e a s t c o n s is te n t o f a u th o rs. Gibson sees Crane a l t e r i n g h is s ty le randomly w ith in p a r t i c u l a r works and th roughout a l l h is works, c r e a tin g a e s t h e t i c problem s as a r e s u l t . S t y l i s t i c flaw s o f e a r ly works crop up l a t e r , a s , f o r example, in A ctive S e rv ic e , which Gibson claim s r e v e r ts to C ra n e 's e a r ly s ty le . Yet any extended re a d in g o f say, Maggie, follow ed by a read in g o f A ctive S e rv ic e , produces an i n t u i t i v e f e e lin g t h a t in many ways t h e i r s t y le s d i f f e r s h a rp ly and in f a i r l y c o n s is te n t fa sh io n . One reaso n 32 t h a t our i n t u i t i v e r e a c tio n to C ra n e 's s t y l e d iv e rg e s from G ib so n 's co n clu sio n s i s th a t what Gibson means by s t y l e , alth o u g h he p o in ts to i n f e l i c i t i e s o f sen ten ce s t r u c t u r e , d i c tio n , and ch o ice o f m etaphors, i s " to n e ," th e a u th o r 's a t t i t u d e tow ard h i s m a te r ia l. Hence he fin d s t h a t s t y l i s t i c a l l y flaw ed works (M aggie, G eorge1s M other, "The Blue H o tel") s u f f e r from c o n f l i c t s in to n e , p rim a rily o ccasio n ed by C ra n e 's m a in ta in in g i n s u f f i c i e n t d is ta n c e between h im se lf and h is m a te r ia ls . Where to n e i s c o n s is te n t, as in "The Open B o at," C ra n e's s t y l e i s " b e t t e r . " Although to n e can c e r t a i n l y be a s t y l i s t i c f e a tu r e , lik e a number o f o th e r a sp e c ts o f s t y l e , i t i s la r g e ly c o n d itio n e d by su b je c t m a tte r. Most c r i t i c s , however, e i t h e r i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y reco g n ize s e v e ra l changes o f s t y l e d u rin g C ra n e 's c a r e e r. But a g ain , as when th e y d e s c rib e C ra n e 's s t y l e in g e n e r a l, t h e i r i n t u i t i v e r e a c tio n s are e n c a p su la te d in sy n o p tic a d je c tiv e s t h a t are a t b e st s u g g e s tiv e , a t w orst co n fu sin g . And, c e r t a i n l y , th e y b e tra y d if f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n . To one c r i t i c C ra n e 's e a r ly s t y l e i s h y p e rb o lic , e la b o r a te ly r h e t o r i c a l , r e f le x iv e ; to an o th er i t i s so m b er-jo c u lar, f a n t a s t i c ; to a n o th er a n g u la r, d i s j o i n t e d . His m iddle s t y l e to one c r i t i c is le a n , open, s a r d o n ic a lly u n d e rs ta te d ; to a n o th er f l e x i b l e , s w if t, a b ru p t, nervous; to a n o th er f l e x i b l e , smooth. H is l a t e s t y l e i s v a r io u s ly c lo se d , c i r - 35 c u m s ta n tia l, norm al, fe e b le . S tallm an , who e m p h atica lly argues t h a t what i s permanent in C ra n e's work i s h is use o f language, was one o f th e f i r s t to d iv id e C ra n e's s t y l e in to th r e e s ta g e s , c o r r e l a t i n g sta g e one w ith th e 33 " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ," sta g e two w ith work im m ediately fo llo w in g th e " S u lliv a n County S ketches" and c o n tin u in g th ro u g h "The Open B o at," 36 and sta g e th r e e w ith "The M o n ster.” He c h a r a c te r iz e s s ta g e one by 37 a t t r i b u t i o n : " K ip lin g e sq u e ." S tallm an b ases h is co n clu sio n p a r t l y on h is d e te c tin g s i m i l a r i t i e s o f s u b je c t and theme in C ra n e 's and K ip lin g 's work and p a r t l y on C ra n e's l e t t e r to L ily Brandon Monroe in which he acknowledges h is p a s t re g a rd f o r th e " c le v e r Rudyard-Kip- 38 lin g s t y l e . ” C ra n e 's renouncing o f t h i s a lle g ia n c e in th e l e t t e r S tallm an sees as marking th e in c e p tio n o f sta g e two, which he c h a ra c t e r i z e s by a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e work: The Red Badge. Stallm an d e s c rib e s th e s t y l e o f The Red Badge as " d e l i b e r a t e l y d isco n n e c ted and a p p a re n tly d is o rd e re d ," even w hile "ev e ry th in g has r e l a t i o n s h i p and i s m anipulated 39 in to c o n tra p u n ta l p a tte r n s o f c o lo r and c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e o f m eaning." Stage th r e e i s sim ply and u n in fo rm a tiv e ly s p e c if ie d by a c o n tr a s t b e tween works. "The B ride Comes to Yellow Sky" f i t s in to t h i s t h i r d stag e in a u g u ra ted by "The M onster," and i t s s t y l e somehow d i f f e r s from "The Open B o at," a ssig n e d to sta g e two because l i k e The Red Badge i t 40 i s "ab ru p t and composed o f 'd i s j o i n t e d s e n t e n c e s .'" But th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s t h i r d sta g e a re n o t even b r i e f l y and g e n e r a lly d e sc rib e d . C o lv ert a lso su g g ests th r e e s ta g e s , but alth o u g h his" d iv is io n s g e n e r a lly c o in c id e w ith S ta llm a n 's , h is assessm ent o f "The Open Boat" d i f f e r s r a d i c a l l y . C o lv ert s e p a ra te s th e e a r ly f i c t i o n in which Crane "experim ents w ith a s t y l e o f com position desig n ed to em p h asize,. . . i n congruous a s p e c ts o f th e h e r o 's mind . * . in sim ple images, o fte n w ith 34 g ro tesq u e e f f e c t , " from The Red Badge, in which th e " r h e t o r i c a l and sym bolic p a tte r n s o f th e e a r ly f i c t i o n a re f u l l y developed" and th e l a t e r work re p re s e n te d by The L i t t l e Regiment and "The Open Boat" where 41 th e p ro se becomes " s p a re , d is c i p lin e d , and e n u m e ra tiv e ." Many c r i t i c s accep t th e s e th r e e g en eral s t y l i s t i c phases, but some { such as Berryman, n o te anom olies. That i s , a f t e r "The Open B oat," Berryman marks 1899 as r e p le te w ith "dow nhill t r a s h " broken o n ly by th e " la c o n ic p e r f e c t io n o f m annerless p h ra sin g " o f "V irtu e in War" 42 and th e in tr o d u c tio n o f a "new syntax" in "The Clan o f No Name." Although o th e r c r i t i c s to o m ention in d iv id u a l works as s t y l i s t i c anom olies, few m ention sy n tax as a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in C ra n e's s ty le and alm ost no one p e rc e iv e s , as Berryman does (w ithout e x p lan a tio n however) t h a t d e s p ite v a rio u s s h i f t s th e r e i s som ething in d e n t i f i a b l e 43 as a "Crane s t y l e . " Yet one would expect c o n s is te n t s t y l i s t i c t r a i t s to mark C ra n e 's p ro se f i c t i o n as b ein g u n m istak ab ly h is d e s p ite v a r i a t i o n s , as much a s , say h is m ajor th e m e --th e p r o t a g o n i s t 's search f o r a tta in m en t o f i d e n t i t y encumbered by an in e v ita b ly f a u l t y p e rc e p t i o n o f r e a lity - - m a r k s him d e s p ite i t s v a rio u s m a n if e s ta tio n s . In f a c t , s in c e o th e r w r ite r s could e a s i l y be c r e d ite d w ith th e same o v e r a l l theme, s u b je c t m a tte r, ty p e s o f c h a r a c te r s , and la r g e r s tr u c t u r a l p a tte r n s th a t Crane fa v o rs , exam ination o f language elem ents more p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f him would seem to be c a lle d f o r so as to more f u l l y c h a r a c te r iz e h is s t y l e . His unique c o lo r imagery i s an im portant f a c t o r in h is s t y l e , b u t even more re v e a lin g would be h is sy n tax sin c e i t , more th an any o th e r language fe a tu re , i s l e s s con- 35 t r o l l e d by s u b je c t m a tte r and conscious m a n ip u la tio n . And, indeed, encouraged by a re s u rg in g i n t e r e s t in grammar p r e c i p i t a t e d by Noam Chomsky’s S y n ta c tic S tr u c tu r e s and A spects o f th e Theory o f Syntax some sc h o la rs have reco g n ized and explored th e l i n g u i s t i c dim ension o f s t y l e , even though n o t a l l employ tra n s fo rm a tio n a l- 44 g e n e ra tiv e m ethodology. In f a c t , two w ell-know n, i n t e l l i g e n t , and p e rc e p tiv e s tu d ie s e x is t in th e t r a d i t i o n a l and s t r u c t u r a l i s t modes. Ian W att, whose study was m entioned in C hapter I, u ses th e term inology o f t r a d i t i o n a l grammar to examine Henry Jam e s's use o f i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s, co p u las, p a s s iv e s , v e r b a ls , and a b s t r a c t nouns in th e f i r s t p a r agraph o f The Ambassadors, concluding t h a t Jam e s's l a t e p ro se s t y l e i s c h a r a c te riz e d by a b s tr a c tio n and f o s t e r s a c lo s e r r e la tio n s h ip between n a r r a t o r and re a d e r th ro u g h re p o rte d speech th an between n a r r a t o r and main c h a r a c te r . Louis M ilic u ses s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c c a te g o r ie s , and th e com puter, to d e sc rib e and d is c u s s Jo n ath an S w if t's p ro se s t y l e , e s p e c ia ll y S w if t's use o f sen ten ce c o n n e c tiv e s, which M ilic argues lead s to r h e t o r i c a l p e rsu a siv e n e ss r a t h e r th a n c l a r i t y in S w if t's p ro se . No s tu d ie s in e i t h e r th e t r a d i t i o n a l o r s t r u c t u r a l mode p a r a l l e l ing th o se o f M ilic and Watt probe C ra n e's gram m atical c h o ic e s. Any number o f c r i t i c s m ention C ra n e 's penchant f o r s h o r t, sim ple se n te n c e s, but go no f u r t h e r . H olton p o in ts o u t a few gram m atical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C ra n e 's s t y l e : a p a rin g away o f a d je c tiv e s , p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se s, p a r t i c i p l e s , and gerunds, and a " le s s a n g u lar and more m atu rely handled p e r io d ic ity " in a l a t e r work, "The Clan o f No-Name";but does n o t ex- 46 amine th e s e gram m atical elem en ts. Support f o r h is c o n clu sio n s i s 36 lim ite d to b r i e f q u o ta tio n s from th e e a r ly "On th e New J e r s e y C oast" and l a t e "The Clan o f No-Name": Asbury Park c re a te s n o th in g . I t does n o t make; i t m erely amuses. There i s a fa c to r y where n i g h t s h i r t s are m an u factu red , b u t i t is some m ile s from town. This i s a r e s o r t o f w ealth and l e i s u r e , o f women and c o n sid e ra b le wine. The th ro n g along th e l i n e o f march was composed o f summer gowns, la c e p a r a s o ls , te n n is t r o u s e r s , straw h a t s , and i n d i f f e r e n t sm ile s. The p ro c e s s io n was composed o f men, bronzed, slo p e -sh o u ld e re d , uncouth and b e grimed w ith d u s t. ("On th e New J e r s e y C oast") But som ething c o n tr o lle d him; som ething moved him in e x o ra b ly in one d i r e c t i o n ; he p e r f e c t l y u n d e rsto o d , b u t he was o n ly sad, sad w ith a seren e d ig n ity , w ith th e countenance o f a m ournful young p r in c e . ("The Clan o f No-Name") H arold M artin probesjm ore d eep ly b u t le s s w idely in to C ra n e's gram m atical s t y l e . He compares th e f i r s t p arag rap h o f "The Open Boat" to a passage from James Fenimore C ooper's The P i l o t w r itt e n sev en ty - fiv e y e a rs e a r l i e r , h is goal b ein g to re v e a l changes in d ic tio n and sy n tax in n in e te e n th c en tu ry American f i c t i o n . In th e p ro c e ss he n o te s C ra n e's s h o r te r sen ten ce le n g th , r e l a t i v e lack o f sen te n c e com plexity, g r e a te r use o f c o o rd in a tio n th an s u b o rd in a tio n , emphasis on a c tio n and th e agent o f th e a c tio n th ro u g h emphasis on verbs and nouns cou p le d w ith a co rresp o n d in g d e crea se o f a d je c tiv e s and ad v erb s, s l i g h t l y more m o n osyllabic th an d i s y l l a b i c o r p o ly s y lla b ic w ords, and a mix tu r e o f co n v en tio n al and u n co n v en tio n al d ic tio n (Crane uses " b a th tu b ;" which would have been c o n sid e re d indecorous in 1 8 9 8 ) . ^ A lthough M a r tin 's a n a ly s is i s c o n c r e te ly su p p o rte d , he i s n o t, o f c o u rse , a tte m p tin g a thoroughgoing exam ination o f C ra n e's s t y l e b u t r a t h e r of o n ly th o se t r a i t s t h a t loom co n sp icu o u sly a g a in s t th e background o f C ra n e's c o n tem p o raries. Hence, th e re a d e r i s l e f t t o s p e c u la te .on./wheth 37 e r Crane.'s e a rly work would be even more s t r i k i n g l y d iv e rg e n t from h is co n tem p o rary 's o r le s s and what c o n sta n t ch o ices lin k C ra n e's e a r ly and l a t e work. Another s y n t a c t i c a l l y based stu d y in a com parative v e in i s by Bernard O'Donnell, who aimed to e s t a b l i s h c o r r e c t a u th o rsh ip o f c h a p te rs and even p arag rap h s in The 0 ' Ruddy,.C rane' s l a s t novel which was f i n - 48 ish ed by Robert B arr a f t e r C ra n e's d e ath . (The m anuscript was su b se q u e n tly found, p roving O 'Donnell wrong by one c h a p te r. He a s s ig n s C hapter X X V to B arr n o t Crane as i t should b e .) O'Donnell s e l e c t s seventeen l e x i c a l , gram m atical, and p u n c tu a tio n v a r ia b le s b e st s u ite d to p r e d ic t a u th o rsh ip based on O 'D o n n e ll's a n a ly s is o f a c c re d ite d samples o f each a u th o r 's work, not n e c e s s a r i l y th o se v a r ia b le s b e st s u ite d to e s t a b l i s h th e b a s ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C ra n e's s t y l e , not 49 even in The O'Ruddy, th e o n ly work s tu d ie d . Nor does O'Donnell e v a lu a te th e impact o f C ra n e 's gram m atical c h o ices on e i t h e r Crane as a w r ite r o r C ra n e 's re a d e rs . In a p a r t i c u l a r way C ra n e 's changing s t y l e i s th e s u b je c t o f a n o th e r stu d y o f C ra n e 's gram m atical c h o ic e s , th e ch o ices b ein g c l e a r ly r e l a t e d to th e d i f f e r i n g genres o f th r e e Crane n o v e ls. In t h i s stu d y , th e most e x te n s iv e in v e s t ig a ti o n o f C ra n e 's sy n tax th u s f a r , E lean o r Stoppe d i s s e c t s C ra n e 's g e n e ra tiv e and tra n s fo rm a tio n a l c h o ices in Maggie, The Red Badge, and A ctive S e rv ic e , u sin g t h a t v e rs io n o f tra n s f o r m a tio n a l- g e n e r a tiv e th e o ry s e t f o r th by Noam Chomsky in S y n ta c tic S tr u c tu r e s and m odified by A spects o f th e Theory o f S y n tax . Stoppe examines th e deep and s u rfa c e s tr u c t u r e s and th e tra n sfo rm a - 38 t io n s co n n ectin g bo th le v e l s in f i f t y randomly s e le c te d se n te n c e s from each o f th e th r e e n o v e ls, and d is c u s s e s h e r fin d in g s in term s o f how C ran e’s ch o ices s u i t th e n o v e ls 1 g enres and p o in ts o f view . Not to o s u r p r is in g ly , sin c e h e r m ethodology moves from e x te r n a l dogma (th e th r e e n o v e ls belong to c e r t a i n g en res) to th e t e x t s r a t h e r th a n th e o th e r way around, she concludes t h a t C ra n e 's gram m atical c h o ice s in each novel a re a p p ro p ria te to p rim ary genre: in Maggie, n a tu ra lis m ; in The Red Badge, im pressionism ; and in A ctive S e rv ic e , rom anticism . Stoppe c h a r a c te r iz e s th e prim ary s t y l e in th e th r e e n o v e ls as fo llo w s: a c tio n verb c o n jo in in g s , f r o n t s h if te d p la c e a d v e r b ia ls , nominal and a d je c tiv a l compounding support a n a t u r a l i s t i c em phasis on a c tio n and environment in M aggie; numerous thought s tr u c t u r e s w ith embedded f a c t i v e s , r e l a t i v e c la u s e and a p p o s itiv e thought s t r u c t u r e s , cause and change a d v e r b ia ls , and a d je c tiv e s m odified by th e p la c e o f appearance a l l support im p r e s s io n is tic r e a l i t y in The Red Badge; con jo in in g s , nominal d ep th , BE e q u iv a le n c e s, BE d e s c r ip tiv e s ta te m e n ts , verb p e r ip h r a s e s , "o f" p e rip h ra s e s summarizing th o u g h ts , and manner adverbs c r e a te a lo n g e r, e v a lu a tiv e s t y l e in A ctive S e rv ic e consonant w ith th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry American ro m a n c e .^ Stoppe a ls o a n aly zes C ra n e 's s y n ta c tic d e v ia tio n s from th e sta n d a rd E n g lish norm, h is " c r e a tiv e " o r " p o e tic " u ses o f language (based on s e le c tio n a l r e s t r i c t io n s as d e sc rib e d by Chomsky t h a t have t o do w ith such sem antic f e a tu r e s as anim ate, c o n c re te , a b s t r a c t , and human), concluding t h a t Maggie i s th e most com pressed, The Red Badge n e x t, and A ctive S erv ice th e most expanded o f th e t h r e e ; t h a t Maggie and e s p e c ia ll y The Red 39 Badge make th e most in te g r a te d use o f " c r e a tiv e " language w hile such language in A ctive S e rv ic e i s ambiguous and n o t uniform ; and th a t w hile m a tte r and manner a re b e s t fu sed in Maggie and The Red Badge, A ctive S erv ice i s d if f u s iv e and has a weak s t y l e . P r e d ic ta b ly , in view o f h e r choice o f n o v e ls, she im p lie s a d e c lin e in C ra n e 's s t y l e in th e l a t e wor^ ‘ A ctive S e rv ic e , a l a t e n o v e l, has re c e iv e d l i t t l e c r i t i c a l a t t e n tio n and even l e s s c r i t i c a l acclaim . W itness, fo r example, G ib so n 's rem arks above. Whether A ctive S erv ice r e tr o g r e s s e s to C ran 'e e a r l i e r s t y l e i s q u e s tio n a b le , e s p e c ia ll y in view o f S to p p e 's fin d in g i t s s ty le more expansive th an th e e a r l i e r work (Gibson, o f c o u rse, i s main ly i n te r e s t e d in to n e , n o t grammar), but th e p e jo r a tiv e a sp e c t o f G ibson's rem arks i s echoed by Stoppe and o th e r c r i t i c s . One wonders i f an exam ination o f a more h ig h ly acclaim ed l a t e r work, one re c e iv in g acco lad es s im ila r to th o se awarded Maggie and The Red Badge, say "The Open Boat" f o r in s ta n c e , would n ot suggest a p o s itiv e development in C ra n e's s t y l e , e s p e c ia ll y in view o f many c r i t i c s p o in tin g i n t u i t i v e l y to C ra n e 's b e st l a t e work as e x h ib itin g a f i n e r , sm oother, more v a r i a b ly d is c rim in a te d s t y l e th a n th e e a r ly work. One might l e g itim a te ly c o n je c tu re th a t th e s e components o f C ra n e's l a t e s t y l e have som ething to do w ith in c re a s e d s y n ta c tic ma t u r i t y , t h a t i s , in c re a s e d a b i l i t y to m an ip u late gram m atical s t r u c t u r e s more e f f e c t i v e l y . I t i s t h i s a sp e c t o f C ra n e 's s t y l e t h a t t h i s stu d y seeks to d e s c rib e : th e gram m atical c h o ice s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e th e " e s s e n t i a l " Crane s t y l e a t a l l s ta g e s and th e changes in h i s han d lin g o f syntax as he moves th ro u g h h is w ritin g c a r e e r . The goal i s to 40 f u r th e r l i f t th e c u r ta in on th e c r u c ia l q u e stio n o f C ra n e's v e rb a l a r t i s t r y . Summary Throughout a l l c r i t i c a l comments on C ra n e 's work we fin d o v e r whelming agreement th a t C ra n e 's su ccess as a w r ite r i s due in no sm all measure to h is s t y l e . However, c r i t i c s d u rin g C ra n e 's lif e t i m e and up to about 1950 t r e a t e d h i s unique s t y l e s u p e r f i c i a l l y , p r e f e r r in g i n stea d to dwell on Crane th e man r a t h e r th a n h i s work, biography r a t h e r th a n a r t i s t r y . Beginning in th e 1 9 5 0 's, re s u rg in g i n t e r e s t in C ra n e 's work coupled w ith th e o b je c tiv e approach to l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m p r o duced c o n c e rte d e f f o r t s to d e sc rib e and d e fin e th e e x t r a - l i n g u i s t i c dim ension o f C ra n e 's s t y l e . R iding th e main c u r r e n ts , c r i t i c s ex p lo red C ra n e 's r e c u r r in g c h o ices o f l a r g e r s t r u c t u r a l elem en ts, fav o red them es, c h a r a c te r s , s e t t i n g s , and so f o r t h as th e y appear in s in g le n o v els and s h o rt s t o r i e s and th e Crane corpus as a whole. Less r e search has aimed a t d e sc rib in g th e q u a s i - l i n g u i s t i c elem ents o f C ra n e's s t y l e beyond The Red Badge and a few o th e r p ie c e s . And even le s s a t t e n t i o n has been accorded th e l i n g u i s t i c dim ension o f C ra n e's s t y l e , t h a t are l e s s c o n sc io u sly c o n tr o lle d by a w r i t e r , hence in many ways more re v e a lin g o f a w r i t e r 's s t y l e . A lthough C ra n e's gram m atical ch o ices have been s tu d ie d in d epth in th r e e n o v e ls, unanswered q u es tio n s c e n te r around what th e b a s ic elem ents o f C ra n e's gram m atical s ty le a re t h a t i d e n t i f y h is work as h i s ( th a t Crane i s pegged as impres s i o n i s t i c does n ot r e a l l y t e l l us v e ry much sin c e Henry James i s a lso pegged as im p r e s s io n is tic and one would never m istake C ra n e 's w ritin g 41 f o r J a m e s 's ), and what changes o ccur in h is s t y l e t h a t cause most c r i t ic s i n t u i t i v e l y to o b serv e a p ro g re s siv e movement from an e a r ly angu l a r and d i s j o i n t e d p ro se s t y l e tow ard a sm oother, more f l e x i b l e , more r e s t r a i n e d , in f a c t , a more m ature p ro se s t y l e . 42 Notes 1 For Howells no p a r t i c u l a r review i s o f s p e c ia l n o t e - - h i s p r a is e was h ig h e s t f o r th e e a r ly Crane o f Maggie, f o r example in th e N orth American Review (December 1902); Wyndham p r a is e s C ra n e 's !'rem arkable book," The Red Badge, in The London New Review (Jan u ary 1896); G arn ett comments on C ra n e's im pressionism in th e London Academy (December 17, 1898); W ells d is c u s s e s Crane from an E n g lish s ta n d p o in t in N orth American Review (August 1900). A ll a re r e p r in te d in Stephen Crane: The C r i t i c a l H e rita g e , ed. R ichard M. W eatherford (Boston: R outledge and Kegan P au l, 1973), pp. 61-62, 106-114, 225-229, 267-274. 2 W eatherford, p . 273. 3 Rpt. in W eatherford, pp. 158-164. 4 W eatherford, p . 159. 3 H ughes's r e fe re n c e s f o r h i s q u o ta tio n s are p r im a r ily to page number only in an u n s p e c ifie d e d itio n . My source o f q u o ta tio n s to su p p o rt H ughes's l i s t o f gram m atical e r r o r s i s th e f a c s im ile o f The Red Badge m a n u sc rip t. In th e case o f th e m isused r e f l e x i v e , "h im self" appears in th e 1895 e d itio n b u t i s c o r r e c te d to "him" in th e m an u scrip t. 3 W eatherford, p . 164. 7 W eatherford, p . 162. ® Paul M. P ain e , "The Blue B lotch o f Cowardice: An In c id e n t o f th e P u r s u it o f th e In s u rg e n ts , With P ro fu se A pologies to Mr. Stephen C rane," L i f e , 23 A p ril 1896, r p t . in W eatherford, p . 152. 9 Jan e H. F in d l a te r , "The New A rt o f D e sc rip tio n in F i c t i o n ," The N a tio n al Review (January 1900); quoted in The L i te r a r y D ig e s t, 20 (F ebruary 10, 1900), p . 182. Bowery T a le s , Vol. I o f The Works, p . 147. 11 D aniel Joseph Tynan, "A Computer Concordance to The Red Badge o f Courage, 1895 E d itio n , w ith an In tro d u c to ry E ssay ," D iss. U n iv e rs ity o f W isconsin 1972. 12 Joseph Conrad, " R e c o lle c tio n s o f Crane and His War Book," Last Essays (1926); r p t . in The Red Badge o f Courage, ed s. S c u lle y B radley, Richmond Croom B e a tty , and E. Hudson Long (New York: W. W. Norton 8 Company, I n c ., 1962), pp. 209-219. 13 James B. C o lv e rt, I n tr o d . to Maggie in Bowery T a le s , Vol. I o f The Works, p . x x x i i i . 14 Review in th e New York Tim es, 19 O ctober 1895; r p t . in W eather- -ford, p 90_.----------------------------------------- 1--------------------------------------------------------------- 43 Men, Women and Boats (New York: Boni and L iv e r ig h t, I n c . , 1921). 16 Stephen Crane: A Study in American L e t t e r s , w ith an In tr o d u c tio n by Joseph Conrad (New York: A lfre d Knopf, I n c ., 1923). l^ L e t t e r s , p. 158. 18 R obert E. S p i l l e r e t a l . , e d s ., LHUS, 3rd ed. re v . (New York: The M acmillan Company, 1963), I , 1024. 1^ In 12 v o l s . , ed. W ilson F o l l e t t ; r p t . in 6 v o ls . (New York: R u sse ll and R u s s e ll, 1963). 26 B eer, pp. 13, 51, 93, 214. 21 The f i r s t extended d is c u s s io n lin k e d Crane w ith th e n a t u r a l i s t sch o o l, th e two most famous s tu d ie s b ein g Lars A h n eb rin k 's The Begin nings o f N atu ralism in American F i c t i o n : A Study o f th e Works o f Hamlin G arland, Stephen Crane, and Frank N o rris (U ppsala, Sweden: A .-B. L undequistka B oklandeln, 1950) and C h arles C. W a lc u tt's American L i t e r ary N a tu ra lism : A D ivided Stream (M inneapolis: U n iv e rs ity o f M innesota P re s s , 1956), both o f which p la c e Crane firm ly in th e n a t u r a l i s t t r a d i tio n a lth o u g h o th e r c r i t i c s d is a g r e e . See, f o r example, R ichard P. Adam’s " N a t u r a l i s t i c F ic tio n : 'The Open B oat, Tulane S tu d ie s in E n g lis h , 4 (1954), 137-146. T his stu d y i s n o t th e p la c e to even sum m arize th e c r i t i c i s m which p la c e s Crane in , o u t, o r somewhat in o r out o t n a tu ra lis m ; b u t, i n e v ita b ly , most n a t u r a l i s t i c c r i t i c i s m c l a s s i f i e s more th a n c r i t i c i z e s , and to f i t C ran e’s work in to th a t p ro c ru s te a n bed n e c e s s i t a t e s ig n o rin g many elem ents in h is f i c t i o n (most n o ta b ly iro n y ) o r e x p la in in g them away. Crane i s a ls o pegged as an im p r e s s io n is t, i r o n i s t ( e s p e c ia lly s in c e C lean th Brooks se n t c r i t i c s iro n y h u n tin g a f t e r h is 1949 a r t i c l e , " Iro n y as a P r in c ip le o f S t r u c t u r e " ) , r e a l i s t , and so f o r t h . 22 Omnibus, p . 189. 23 R ichard Chase, in h is In tr o d u c tio n to The Red Badge o f Courage and O ther W ritin g s (Cambridge, M ass.: The R iv e rsid e P r e s s , 1960). He a s s ig n s Crane " g e n e r a lly sp eak in g " to th e n a t u r a l i s t s c h o o l, and then d is c lo s e s how Crane d e p a r ts from t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . 24 Chase, p . x i i i . 25 C lark G r i f f i t h , "Stephen Crane and th e Ir o n ic L ast Word," P h ilo lo g ic a l Q u a r te r ly , 47 (Jan u ary 1968), 86. 26 James B. C o lv e rt, " S tr u c tu r e and Theme in Stephen C ra n e 's F i c t i o n ," Modem F ic tio n S tu d i e s , 5 (Autumn 1959), 199-208. 27 James B, C o lv e rt, " S ty le and Meaning in Stephen Crane: ’The Open B o a t , " 1 Texas U n iv e rs ity S tu d ie s in E n g lish , 37 (1958), 40. V ' " 44 23 C lau d ia Wogan, "C ran e’s Use o f C olor in The Red Badge o f C ourage," Modern F ic tio n S tu d ie s , 6 (Summer 1960), 168-172. 29 K ath erin e G. Simoneaux, "C olor Imagery in C ra n e 's G eorge’s M other," CLA J o u r n a l, 14 (June 1971), 410-419. 30 C ra n e 's use o f c o lo r im agery i s n o t a p o in t o f t h i s stu d y , b u t a b r i e f g lan ce a t th e d a ta re v e a ls p r o g r e s s iv e ly le s s c o lo r im agery d u rin g th e span o f h i s c a r e e r , alth o u g h red i s s c a tte r e d th ro u g h o u t h is f i c t i o n , and c e r t a i n c o lo rs crop up more fr e q u e n tly in c e r t a i n works: yellow in Maggie and brown in "The Clan o f No-Name," f o r example. 31 Jea n Cazemajou, "The Red Badge o f C ourage: The 'R e lig io n o f P eace' and th e War A rch ety p e," in Stephen Crane in T r a n s itio n : C ente n ary E ssay s, ed. Joseph Katz (DeKalb: N orthern I l l i n o i s U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1972), pp. 54-65. 32 M aurice B assan, "The Design o f Stephen C ra n e 's Bowery 'E x p e ri ment, in Stephen C ran e: A C o lle c tio n o f C r i t i c a l E ssay s, ed. M aurice Bassan (Englewood C l i f f s , N. J . : P r e n tic e H a ll, 1967), pp. 118-122. 7 7 Warren D. Anderson, "Homer and Stephen C ran e," N in e tee n th Century F i c t i o n , 19 (June 1964), 77-86. 34 Donald B. Gibson, The F ic tio n o f Stephen Crane (C arbondale: S outhern I l l i n o i s U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1968), e s p e c i a l l y pp. 141-149. 33 The c r i t i c s a re C o lv e rt, Berryman, LaFrance, b u t o th e r s , w ith o th e r a d je c tiv e s , could e a s i l y be found. 33 in h i s I n tr o d u c tio n to Omnibus, p . x x x ix . However, elsew h ere in th e same I n tr o d u c tio n he i n c o n s i s t e n t l y a s s e r t s t h a t Crane "n ev er d ev elo p ed ," p . x x iv . 32 Omnibus, p . x l i . 70 Quoted in Omnibus, p. xxxix. Omnibus, p . 187. 40 Omnibus, p . x l i v . 41 James B. C o lv e rt, "Stephen Crane: S ty le as In v e n tio n ," in Stephen Crane in T r a n s itio n , ed. Joseph K atz, pp. 134, 139, 143-146. 42 Stephen C rane, pp. 252 and 255. 43 Stephen C rane, p. 284. 44 S y n ta c tic S tr u c tu r e s (The Hague: Mouton 8 C o., 1957); A spects o f th e Theory o f Syntax (Cambridge, M ass.: The M. I . T. P r e s s , 1965). 45 45 Louis Tonko M ilic , A Q u a n tita tiv e Approach to th e S ty le o f Jo n ath an S w ift (The Hague: Mouton § C o., 1967). 46 Milne H olton, C y lin d e r o f V isio n : The F ic tio n and J o u r n a l i s t i c W ritin g o f Stephen Crane (Baton Rouge: L o u isian a S ta te U n iv e rs ity Press, 1972), p p . 77-79. 47 "The Development o f S ty le i n N in eteen th C entury American F i c t i o n ," S ty le in Prose F i c t i o n , ed. H arold C. M artin (New York: Columbia U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1959), pp. 116-131. 48 In An A n aly sis o f Prose S t y l e . 49 The v a r ia b le s a re word, sim ple s e n te n c e , im personal c o n s tru c t i o n s , sem i-co lo n s, i n i t i a l c o n ju n c tio n s, c o lo r r e f e r e n c e s , m etaphors, a d je c tiv e s , a d v erb s, p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s , d ia lo g u e , p a s t p a r t i c i p l e p h ra s e s , mean sen te n c e le n g th , v e r b /a d je c tiv e r a t i o , c lau se /d ep e n d e n t c la u s e r a t i o , and s e n te n c e /v e rb r a t i o . 50 f o r d e t a i l e d e x p la n a tio n o f th e s e term s and a n a ly s is o f th e s t r u c t u r e s , see p e r tin e n t s e c tio n s o f h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n . 46 CHAPTER I I I SYNTAX AS AN EXPRESSIVE INSTRUMENT C ra n e 's s p e c if ic rem arks about grammar always have to do w ith ad m issio n s th a t h is grammar i s " b a d ,” in th e sense o f n o t fo llo w in g c o r r e c t u sag e .^ But a llu s io n s to grammar in i t s b ro ad er sense a ls o s u r fa c e . Im plied in C ra n e 's " c h i e f e s t d e s i r e , " "to w rite p l a i n l y and u n m ista k a b ly " in th e "sim p le st and most co n cise way" so t h a t h is a u d i ence "might re a d and u n d e rs ta n d ," i s h is aw areness t h a t th e r h e t o r i c a l 2 e f f e c t o f h is f i c t i o n depended upon i t s s y n ta c tic u n d e rp in n in g s. Indeed, gram m atical c o n s tr u c tio n s do have r h e t o r i c a l consequences; t h a t i s , th e y have e f f e c t s o th e r th a n sim ply o rg a n iz in g words in to p h ra ses and c la u s e s . While i t might seem t h a t th e id e a ls o f s im p lic ity and c l a r i t y t h a t Crane h e ld f o r h i s f i c t i o n l i e in s h o rt a c ti v e d e c la r a tiv e sen te n c es ju x ta p o sed w ith few c o n n e c tiv e s, t h i s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y so. To be p la in and u n m ista k ab le , to convey what i s needed in th e way i t i s needed, o fte n r e q u ir e s more th a n th e sim p le st se n te n c e s . I t r e q u ir e s a h ig h ly developed and f l e x i b l e s k i l l in m a n ip u la tin g v a rio u s s y n ta c tic s tr u c t u r e s from th e s im p le st to th e most complex in o rd e r to s u c c e s s f u lly communicate. Hence s k i l l f u l w r ite r s i d e a l l y command a l l th e gram m atical p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e i r language, n o t o n ly in term s o f com petence, t h e i r a b i l i t y to u n d e rstan d v a rio u s c o n s tr u c tio n s , but in term s o f perform ance, t h e i r a b i l i t y to use th e s tr u c t u r e s a p p r o p r ia te ly and e f f e c t i v e l y . A w r i t e r 's f a c i l i t y w ith grammar, w hether conscious o r u n co n scio u s, has 47 much to do w ith th e k in d s and numbers o f v o ic e s he can p r o j e c t , th e coherence and a u th o r ity o f h is m essage, h is a b i l i t y to e la b o r a te a d e s c r ip ti o n , in sum how lim ite d or u n lim ite d he i s as a w r i t e r , and how s e r io u s ly o r s u p e r f i c i a l l y he i s re c e iv e d by h is au d ien ce. While no one would ev er claim th a t Crane ev er ach iev ed th e r ic h gram m atical s u b t l e t i e s o f Henry Jam es, based on th e evidence amassed in t h i s stu d y (not a p re lim in a ry h y p o th e sis f o r which s u p p o rtin g d a ta were so u g h t), we can say t h a t C ra n e's s y n ta c tic v e r s a t i l i t y in c re a s e s du rin g th e span o f h is c a r e e r . As one would expect f o r so s h o rt a c a r e e r , th e in c re a s e i s not d r a s t i c ; b u t i t i s n o tic e a b le , and c o n tr ib u te s to many c r i t i c s concluding th a t C ran e’s l a t e r work i s s t y l i s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from and o f g r e a te r s t a t u r e th an h is e a r l i e r w ork.^ His sy n tax becomes a r i c h e r , more f l e x i b l e in stru m e n t fo r communicating h i s id e a s and f o r a f f e c t i n g h is r e a d e r s . The l a s t p a r t o f t h i s c h a p te r w i l l p re s e n t a p re lim in a ry overview o f C ra n e 's changing s t y l i s t i c power by comparing two p assag es from works t h a t a re s h a rp ly s e p a ra te d by tim e ; th e f i r s t i s from a S u lliv a n County t a l e , "The O ctopush," th e second from a l a t e war t a l e , "The P ric e o f th e H a rn e ss." But b e fo re we p roceed w ith t h i s a n a ly s is , i t w ill be h e lp f u l to review some o f th e gram m atical s t r u c tu r e s and s t r a t e g i e s t h a t s t y l i s t i c i a n s ag ree prom ote s y n t a c t i c v e r s a t i l i t y . The review w ill n o t be e x h a u stiv e , b u t w ill in s te a d c o n cen trate on th o se s t y l i s t i c f e a tu r e s t h a t w ill e n te r in to ou r d is c u s s io n o f C ra n e 's s t y l e . ^ In o rd e r f o r p eo p le to ex p ress th em selv es, th e y need to o rd e r t h e i r words, which i s what sy n tax means: to a rra n g e to g e th e r . The E n g lish language has s ix b a s ic ways o f a rra n g in g words to g e th e r , d i s - 5 tin g u is h e d by ty p e s o f p r e d ic a te p a t t e r n s . The review b egins w ith th e s e gram m atically com plete y e t minimal se n te n c e s , th o s e which p r e sen t th e bare e s s e n t i a l s o f p r o p o s itio n a l c o n te n t. The n ex t s te p i s to o u t l i n e ways base se n te n c e s can be a l t e r e d and expanded. Through s u b s t i t u t i o n , c o o rd in a tio n , bound and f r e e m o d if ic a tio n , and p a re n t h e t i c a l i n s e r t i o n , s tr u c t u r e s ran g in g from sim ple one word s tr u c tu r e s to e la b o r a te su b o rd in a te c la u s e s a re commonly g r a f te d onto b ase s e n te n c e s .^ Where th e s e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a l t e r and expand base sen ten ces a re p la c e d and how sen te n c es a re connected one to a n o th e r a re a lso c r u c ia l to a w r i t e r 's optimum e x p re ss iv e power. The second and t h i r d s te p s , t h e r e f o r e , in our s y n ta c tic review a re to d is c u s s placem ent in term s o f ty p e s o f b ran ch in g and methods o f ach ie v in g coherence. Although th e sen te n c e u n it dom inates th e review o f gram m atical forms which fo llo w s, t h i s does n o t mean th a t d is c u s s io n o f C ra n e 's gram m atical s t y l e w ill deal o n ly w ith i s o l a t e d sen te n c es and th e sm a lle r u n i t s o f which se n te n c e s a re composed. That sen te n c es a n t i c i p a te , suspend, co m p licate, and re s o lv e one a n o th e r a c ro ss w ider v erb al spaces i s re co g n ized as i s th e f a c t t h a t th e e f f e c t s o f gram m atical c o n s tr u c tio n s a re u ltim a te ly determ ined in la rg e measure by t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l c o n te x t. The se n te n c e , th e b a s ic gram m atical u n i t o f language, i s sim ply th e b e s t p la c e in th e s t r u c t u r a l h ie ra rc h y to b e g in . S tr u c tu r e s and S tr a t e g ie s Base S e n te n c e s. Base o r k e rn e l se n te n c e s, minimum a c t i v e , d e c la r a tiv e sen te n c es c a s t in any o f th e b a s ic p r e d ic a te p a t t e r n s , a re th e founda t i o n o f e x p re ssiv e sy n tax . The s t y l i s t i c e f f e c t s o f th e s e base se n te n c e s can be both advantageous and d isad v an tag eo u s. 49 One advantage i s t h e i r a b i l i t y when used s e q u e n tia lly to c r e a te th e e f f e c t o f numbness, o f a mind s h a tt e r e d by some overwhelming e x p e r i ence. Crane u ses th e monotony and awkwardness o f d is ju n c tiv e minimal sen te n c es to such e f f e c t in The Red Badge when Flem ing, in f l i g h t from th e b a t t l e f i e l d , en co u n ters th e corpse o f a s o ld ie r : The mouth was opened. I t s re d had changed to an a p a llin g y ello w . Over th e grey s k in o f th e fa c e ran l i t t l e a n ts . One was tr u n d lin g some s o r t o f bundle along th e upper l i p . (62) A nother advantage o f s ta r k sen te n c es i s t h a t s e t o f f w ith in th e c o n tex t o f lo n g e r, more complex s e n te n c e s , th e y c r e a te emphasis through c o n tr a s t, and i f th e l a s t sen te n c e o f a sequence, a sen se o f r e s o lu tio n , or f i n a l i t y as in t h i s p arag rap h from "The Open B oat": Whereupon th e th r e e were s i l e n t , save f o r a t r i f l e o f hemming and hawing. To e x p re ss any p a r t i c u l a r optim ism a t t h i s p o in t th e y f e l t to be c h ild is h and s tu p id , b u t th e y a l l d o u b tle ss p o sse sse d t h i s sense o f th e s i t u a t i o n in t h e i r m inds. A young man th in k s doggedly a t such tim e s. On th e o th e r hand, th e e th ic s o f t h e i r c o n d itio n was d e cid e d ly a g a in s t any open sug g e s tio n o f h o p e le s s n e s s . So th e y were s i l e n t . (71) On th e o th e r hand, base o r n e a r base sen te n c es when used in s e quence can i n e f f e c t i v e l y c r e a te c h ild is h p r o s e , b a rre n n e s s , and c r y s t a l liz e d monotony. The opening sen te n c es o f an e a r ly Crane p ie c e , "Four Men in a C ave," i l l u s t r a t e t h i s d isad v a n ta g e: The moon r e s te d f o r a moment in th e to p o f a t a l l p in e on a h i l l . The l i t t l e man was s ta n d in g in f r o n t o f th e cam p -fire making o r a tio n to h i s companions. They were won. ..The, l i t t l e man was determ ined to e x p lo re a cave, because i t s b la c k mouth had gaped a t him. The fo u r men took lig h te d p in e - k n o ts and clam bered over b o u ld e rs down a h i l l . In a th ic k e t on th e m o u n ta in -sid e la y a l i t t l e t i l t e d h o l e . At i t s s id e th ey h a lte d . (225) 50 I t i s t r u e t h a t t h i s p assag e i s not composed o f o n ly base s e n te n c e s, but th e y a re m inim ally e la b o r a te d and what e la b o r a tio n th e r e i s te n d s to s t r u c t u r a l monotony, c o n s is tin g p r im a r ily o f p r e p o s itio n a l p h a ra se s o f much th e same le n g th . Crane has e re c te d a house w ith fo u n d atio n and w a lls , but no c e i l i n g s , r o o f , windows, o r v a rio u s d e c o ra tiv e e f f e c t s . The rhythm stum bles h a l t i n g l y along as th e r e a d e r 's eye i s je rk e d from one sp o t to a n o th e r, one a c tio n to a n o th e r, a s s im ila tin g a s e r i e s o f d is ju n c tiv e p a r t s t h a t do n ot cohere in to a m eaningful whole. W ithout r h e t o r i c a l advantage in i t s c o n te x t, th e passage s t r i k e s us as a p ie c e o f ju v e n ile p ro se . Only c h ild re n w rite p ro se composed o f sen te n c es such as th e s e , o r a d u lts i f th e y a re w r itin g s t o r i e s f o r c h ild r e n . A dult re a d e rs sim ply do not l i k e s h o rt se n te n c e s one a f t e r a n o th e r. They a re a b ru p t. They a re i n a r t i c u l a t e . J u s t as c h ild re n speaking l i k e a d u lts d isc o m fit o th e r c h ild re n so a d u lts h o ld in g onto c h ild is h mannerisms d isco m fit o th e r a d u lts . T h e re fo re , s k i l l e d w r ite r s use base se n te n c e s n ot as e n t i r e c o n s tr u c tio n s b u t as fo u n d a tio n s to be a l t e r e d and expanded f o r g r e a te r e x p re ssiv e power, re s e r v in g s ta r k k e rn e l se n te n c e s f o r s p e c ia l e f f e c t s , e i t h e r s in g ly o r in groups. Sentence E xpansion. Base o r k e rn e l se n te n c e s can be expanded, in th e p ro c e ss o f which th e y a re , o f c o u rse , a l t e r e d , th ro u g h th e s e c h ie f methods: s u b s t i t u t i o n , c o o rd in a tio n , and bound and f r e e m o d ific a tio n . S u b s t i t u t i o n . The p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f expansion r e f e r r e d to h ere is th a t o f words, p h ra s e s , o r c la u s e s fu n c tio n in g as nouns in noun s l o t s . C ra n e 's s u b s t i t u t i o n s in noun s l o t s re c e iv e o n ly p e r ip h e r a l 51 a t t e n t i o n th roughout subsequent d is c u s s io n o f h i s gram m atical s t y l e , bu t some f a c t s about them emerged in th e p ro c e ss o f an aly z in g o th e r s tr u c t u r e s in th e d a ta t h a t w arrant m ention h e re . Like i n f i n i t i v e and p a r t i c i p i a l m o d ifie rs , geru n d s, gerund p h ra s e s , i n f i n i t i v e s , and i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se s fu n c tio n in g as nouns are a ls o reduced s t r u c t u r e s , t i g h t l y c o ile d s y n ta c tic s t r a t e g i e s f o r con s t r u c t i n g m ature, in fo rm a tiv e , f o r c e f u l se n te n c e s. F u rth e r, th e y draw in to th e noun s l o t th e anim ated q u a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f v e rb a l form s. Both gerunds and i n f i n i t i v e s can occupy su b je c t and o b je c t 7 p o s itio n s ; in f a c t , gerunds can stan d w herever a noun can s ta n d . Yet d e s p ite th e s e v a rie d p o s s i b i l i t i e s , Crane overw helm ingly chooses gerunds as o b je c ts o f p re p o s itio n s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y p la c e s them m id -sen ten ce, th e p o s itio n r e c e iv in g l e a s t em phasis. Only th r e e tim es in th e d a ta does Crane use a gerund as o b je c t o f a v e rb , n ever as a s u b je c t, noun s u b je c tiv e complement, o r a p p o s itiv e . Gerunds can be e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y e f f e c t iv e s t r u c t u r e s . T h e ir own v e rb a l a c t i v i t y o fte n a p tly m atches th e d e sc rib e d ex p erien c e (compare " o f squeezing th e sponge" to i t s noun c o u n te rp a rt " o f a squeeze o f th e g sp o n g e"); th e y save a w r ite r from adding independent c la u s e s o r r e ly in g on more s t a t i c noun s t r u c t u r e s ; th e y convey an a i r o f in f o r m a li t y . Yet Crane does n o t f r e q u e n tly use them. While t h e i r absence may c e r t a i n l y be a m a tte r o f h i s co n scio u s ch o ice, i t may a ls o be a t t r i b u ted to s y n ta c tic m a tu rity s in c e th e y q u a n t i t a t i v e l y in c re a s e in C ra n e 's l a t e r work, e x c e p tin g The O'Ruddy. Gerunds, e s p e c i a l l y gerund s u b je c ts , a r e s o p h is tic a te d s t r u c t u r e s . The command o f them comes l a t e in th e language a c q u is itio n p ro c e ss , o r f o r some p e o p le , n ev er in 52 term s o f perform ance, producing gerund s u b je c ts as opposed to u n d er sta n d in g them. Much th e same i s t r u e o f i n f i n i t i v e s u b je c ts . Hence i t i s i n t e r e s tin g to n o te C ra n e 's use o f i n f i n i t i v e nom inals. Crane fr e q u e n tly u ses i n f i n i t i v e s and i n f i n i t i v e p h ra s e s in noun s l o t s o th e r th a n sub j e c t , g a in in g by t h i s use much th e same e f f e c t as t h a t imposed by gerunds: economy o f e x p re ss io n , f o r c e , l i v e l i n e s s , and, in a d d itio n , a t tim es an a p h o r is tic q u a l i t y . Y et, p a r a l l e l i n g h i s avoidance o f gerunds and gerund p h ra se s in s u b je c t s l o t s , Crane a lso eschews i n f i n i t i v e s and i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se s in t h i s p o s itio n , o n ly n o t as com p l e t e l y . Three i n f i n i t i v e s u b je c ts occu r in th e d a ta , two in C ra n e 's l a s t work, The O' Ruddy, one in th e n ex t e a r l i e r work, "The P ric e o f th e H a rn ess." Sentence i n i t i a l i n f i n i t i v e s u b je c ts , in a d d itio n t o th e g e n eral e f f e c t s c re a te d by v e r b a ls , a ls o sec u re emphasis and a u th o r ity because o f t h e i r b ein g s o p h is ti c a te d s y n ta c tic s t r a t e g i e s . An a u th o r i t a t i v e sta n c e i s im p o rtan t f o r th e n a r r a t o r o f "The P ric e o f th e H ar n e ss " and a ls o f o r form ing a c r u c ia l a sp e c t o f O 'Ruddy's c h a r a c te r . Complete c la u s e s s u b s t i t u t e d in noun s l o t s a lso expand base se n te n c e s by jo in in g r e l a t e d p r o p o s itio n s in to one se n te n c e . A gain, alth o u g h noun c la u s e s can occupy v a rio u s noun s l o t s , Crane p r e f e r s a s i s t y p ic a l o f him, p r e d ic a te e x p an sio n , choosing o f th e v a rio u s p o s s i b l e s u b o rd in a to rs o n ly 'W h at'an d 'W h atev er* ["Whatever he had le a rn e d o f h im s e lf was h e re o f no a v a i l " (The Red Badge, 1 5 )] to in tro d u c e h is in fr e q u e n t s u b je c t noun c la u s e s . Nowhere in th e d a ta does Crane use a noun c la u s e in tro d u c e d by t h a t a s a sen ten ce i n i t i a l s u b je c t. He 53 does fr e q u e n tly w rite t h a t in tro d u c e d noun c la u s e s as postponed sub j e c t s in sen te n c es in tro d u c e d by e x p le tiv e i t . While such use i s n ot p a r t i c u l a r l y s o p h is ti c a te d , i t i s more so th a n sen te n c e in v e rs io n s formed on e x p le t iv e - t h e r e , sin c e it^ in v e rs io n s r e q u ir e an embedded c la u s e . E x p le tiv e -th e r e sen te n c es occur f r e q u e n tly th ro u g h o u t C ra n e 's work, although l e s s so in th e second h a l f o f h i s c a r e e r . C onversely, although he r a r e l y u ses e x p le tiv e - it_ se n te n c e s in h is e a r ly f i c t i o n , he in c re a s e s t h e i r use g r e a t l y in h is l a t e r work. Unmarked s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s (t h a t o m itted ) can s u b s t i t u t e f o r nouns in th e a c c u s a tiv e s l o t , and th e y always occur in c o n ju n ctio n w ith p a r e n th e ti c a l m a trix p r o p o s itio n s . N e ith e r marked n o r unmarked t h a t noun c la u s e s were co u n ted , but th e d a ta convey a c l e a r im p ressio n th a t b o th , along w ith noun c la u s e s in tro d u c e d by o th e r s u b o rd in a to rs , in c re a s e in th e l a t e r work, c o n tr ib u tin g to C ra n e 's s t y l e becoming i n c r e a s in g ly nominal and c o n v e n tio n a lly l i t e r a r y as opposed to co n v ersa- 9 t i o n a l , again ex clu d in g The 0 1 Ruddy. Unmarked su b o rd in a te noun c la u s e s a re l e s s form al th a n marked, e s p e c i a l l y when th e y accompany p a r e n th e ti c a l m a trix e s . Crane p a r t i c u l a r l y uses them t h i s way in The O'Ruddy [ " B r is to l I c o n fe ss , f r i g h t ened me g r e a tly " (4 )] to a s s i s t in le n d in g a c o n v e r s a tio n a l, c o l l o q u ia l immediacy to h i s n o v e l. C o o rd in a tio n . A nother way o f expanding th e b a s ic sentence ty p e s i s th ro u g h c o o rd in a tio n . Simply s t a t e d , c o o rd in a tio n lin k s s t r u c tu r e s o f equal gram m atical ra n k w hether th e y a re s in g le words, p h ra s e s , o r c la u s e s . In i t s most common, u n s o p h is tic a te d form, th e v a rio u s s tr u c - 54 t u r e s ap p ear to be c o lle c te d r a t h e r th a n d e l i b e r a t e l y c o o rd in a te d . The r e s u l t i n g e f f e c t , w hether in te n d e d o r n o t, i s o fte n o f u n tu to re d ex p r e s s io n , an e f f e c t s im ila r to t h a t c re a te d by sim ple se n te n c e s j u x t a posed w ith l i t t l e o r no s y n ta c tic c o n n ec tio n . Although lo o se c o o rd in a - t i o n i s common to much p ro se and h as i t s r h e t o r i c a l ad v an tag es in c e r t a i n c o n te x ts , th e more e f f e c t i v e c o o rd in a tio n p ro c e ss i n t e g r a t e s t h i s d is c u r s iv e ty p e w ith th e more c o n tr o lle d , l i t e r a r y ty p e . I t i s in c o n tr o lle d l i t e r a r y e x p re ssio n t h a t we fin d f u l l p la y o f a s p e c ia l k in d o f c o o rd in a tio n , p a r a lle l is m (in c lu d in g a n t i t h e s i s , and th e s u b tle e f f e c t s o f asy n d eto n , p o ly sy n d eto n , and clim ax fo rm s), in which l i e s th e im portance o f gram m atical c o o rd in a tio n . As R ichard D. A ltic k say s o f p a r a lle l is m , a sen te n c e in which p h ra se s a re matched a g a in s t p h ra s e s , c la u s e s a g a in s t c la u s e s , " l i k e th r e e a rc h e s in th e facade o f a c a th e d r a l" le n d s a d i s t i n c t and p le a s u r a b le eloquence to 10 p ro se . In asyndeton, c o n ju n c tio n s a re o m itte d between p a r a l l e l words, p h ra s e s , o r c la u s e s , c r e a tin g a sense o f economy, a c c e l e r a t i o n , and em phasis. Yet even as asyndeton c l e a r l y illu m in a te s th e p e o p le, th in g s , id e a s , and q u a l i t i e s in th e s e r i e s , i t draws a l l elem ents in to one h u r r ie d im p ressio n . That Crane c o n sc io u sly p e rc e iv e d a sy n d e to n ’ s p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t s i s d em o n strated in "The Five White Mice" when he e n te r s th e mind o f th e New York Kid a t th e moment when th e Kid a n t i c ip a t e s being k n ife d by a Mexican. Crane re v e a ls t h a t th e K id 's "views were p e r f e c t l y s te r e o p tic o n , f la s h in g in and away from h i s th o u g h t w ith an in c o n c e iv a b le r a p i d i t y u n t i l a f t e r a l l th e y were sim ply one quick 55 dism al im p ressio n " (4 9 ). Thus a ttu n e d to i t s e f f e c t s , n o t s u r p r i s i n g ly ,C ra n e u ses asyndeton f r e q u e n tly , undoubtedly in flu e n c in g r e a d e r s ' judgm ents o f h is s t y l e as b ein g f a s t-p a c e d . On th e o th e r hand, p o ly sy n d eto n , p r o l i f e r a t i n g c o n ju n c tio n s b e tween a l l item s in a s e r i e s o f words, p h ra s e s , o r c la u s e s in a sen te n c e , slows th e movement o f a sen ten ce even w hile s im i l a r l y em phasiz ing each s t r u c t u r e when s p o tlig h te d in tu r n . In c in em atic te rm in o lo g y , a c tio n s in th e f i r s t p ro c e ss a re speeded up by f l a s h - c u t t i n g , in th e second r e ta r d e d by slow panning p u n ctu ated by lin g e r in g h o ld s: One viewed th e e x is te n c e o f man th en as a m arv el, and conceded a glamour o f wonder to th e s e l i c e which were caused to c lin g to a w h ir lin g , f ir e - s m o te , ic e - lo c k e d , d i s e a s e - s t r i c k e n , s p a c e - lo s t b u lb . ("The Blue H o te l," 165) A lso, he was d r i l l e d and review ed, and d r i l l e d and d r i l l e d and review ed. (The Red Badge, 13) In th e f i r s t example asyndeton combines w ith clim ax p a t t e r n ( p a r a l l e l words, p h ra s e s , o r c la u s e s o rd e re d so as to mount by d eg rees o f i n c re a s in g w eight and f o r c e , in e v ita b ly confounding sy n tax and sem antics) to em phasize in hammering sequence th e u n leash ed fu ry o f t h e p h y s ic a l fo rc e s o f n a t u r e . I n th e second example p o ly sy n d eto n evokes th e sh ee r e n d le s s monotony o f camp l i f e f o r young Flem ing, th e tim e he has t o dw ell upon each r e p e t i t i o n o f th e same a c t i v i t y as he sim u lta n eo u s l y yearns f o r b a t t l e and f e a r s h is resp o n se to i t . A s p e c ia l form a p a r a lle l is m in which c o n tr a s ti n g id e a s a re con jo in e d in b alan ced o r p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e s i s a n t i t h e s i s . Like th e o th e r forms o f p a r a lle l is m j u s t d is c u s s e d i t can be c r e a te d by a lig n - 56 in g words, p h ra s e s , and c la u s e s . D is tin c t advantages in h e re in use o f a n t i t h e s i s : c l a r i t y th ro u g h im m ediate p ro x im ity o f c o n tr a s ti v e f e a t u r e s , sharpened and em phasized c o n tr a d ic t io n s , d is c r im in a tio n between opposing id e a s ,.c o h e r e n c e th ro u g h e x p l i c i t li n k i n g .- A d d itio n a lly , a n t i t h e s i s conveys an a u ra o f c a r e f u l l y weighed th o u g h t, o f a knowledge a b le w r i t e r d e c id e d ly in c o n tro l o f h is m a te r ia l, e s p e c i a l l y in b a l anced c la u s e s such as t h i s one from "The Clan o f No-Name": "One o f h i s s t a r s was b r i g h t , l i k e h i s hopes; th e o th e r was p a le , l i k e d eath " (123), which em phasizes th e in e v i t a b l e f a t e o f th e brave s o l d i e r , draw ing to g e th e r what he was and what he w ill be. In sum, th e n , c o n tro l o f p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e o f f e r s th e s e im p o rtan t advantages to w r ite r s : th e y can c r e a te g ra c e fu l p ro se rhythm , u n if y e q u iv a le n t id e a s , e s t a b l i s h a c lim a c tic o rd e r o f id e a s , and impose b a l ance, c o n t r a s t , and harmony, a l l in g r e d ie n ts o f m ature, e f f e c t i v e w ritin g . M o d ific a tio n . S k e le to n - lik e k e rn e l sen te n c es become more meaty th ro u g h added m o d if ie r s , which su p p ly f u r t h e r in fo rm a tio n about a word o r word group by lim i t i n g , commenting upon, o r q u a lif y in g th e word o r group to which th e m o d ifie r i s a tta c h e d . O ften , th e noun and verb s t a t e th e known in fo rm a tio n in a se n te n c e , and i t i s th e m o d ifie rs t h a t c a r r y th e "new s." The sim p le st and most common ty p e o f m o d ific a tio n used by w r ite r s i s w ith sim ple adverbs and bound p rep o sed a d je c tiv e s and p a r t i c i p l e s . Moving up th e la d d e r o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , bound p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s , r e l a t i v e and s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s , and i n f i n i t i v e s a ls o add d e t a i l s to 57 s e n te n c e s . A ll th e s e elem ents te n d to d e fin e more th a n comment, and, because o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y fix e d p o s i t i o n , ex cep t th e ex trem ely m obile sim ple a d v erb s, and fu s io n w ith th e r e s t o f th e sen ten ce a re r e l a t i v e l y c lo se d to e x p an sio n , some more th a n o th e r s . I n f i n i t i v e s , f o r example, o ccu r alm ost always in bound form y et can o fte n be expanded g e n ero u sly w ith a d d itio n a l d e t a i l s (" to p a ss in as much o f a ru sh as p o s s ib le between th e s e two w in g s " ). In a d d itio n , i n f i n i t i v e s , reduced s t r u c t u r e s (He saw th e g i r l . The g i r l walked o n . > Seeing th e g i r l walk on, he . . .) l i k e p a r t i c i p l e s (Black clouds sm o ld er.- ) ■ B lack, sm oldering c lo u d s . . . ) , a re e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s f o r m odifying noun, a d je c tiv e , and adverb word and word 12 groups. The g i r l walk on in c o rp o ra te s an unmarked i n f i n i t i v e , r e q u ire d a f t e r c e r t a i n v e rb s such as s e e . ) This i s because i n f i n i t i v e s and i n f i n i t i v e p h ra s e s (an i n f i n i t i v e p lu s i t s m o d ifie rs a n d /o r com p le m e n ts), l i k e p a r t i c i p l e s , c a r r y a c tiv e as w ell as d e s c r ip ti v e fo r c e , and a t th e same tim e economize e x p re ss io n by s u b o rd in a tin g p ro p o s i t i o n s d i r e c t l y and c o n c is e ly . Free m o d if ie r s , f i r s t d e sc rib e d and d is c u s s e d by F ra n c is C h r is te n - 13 sen, a re a s p e c ia l means o f expanding s e n te n c e s . Although f r e e modi f i e r s a re l i k e bound m o d ifie rs in t h a t bo th add d e t a i l s to base se n te n c e s , fr e e m o d ifie rs o f f e r s e v e ra l added ad v antages: (1) th e y te n d much more to comment th a n d e f in e , (2) t h e i r p o s itio n i s r e l a t i v e l y f l e x i b l e compared to th e r e l a t i v e l y fix e d p o s i t i o n o f bound m o d ifie rs , and (3) f r e e m o d if ie r s , s e t o f f as th e y a re from th e r e s t o f th e se n te n c e by p u n c tu a tio n o r te x t u a l c lu e s in d ic a tin g ju n c tu r e a r e , u n lik e 58 bound m o d if ie r s , in h e r e n tly open to ex p an sio n , hence cap ab le o f adding g r e a te r c o n c re te n e ss and p a r t i c u l a r i t y to base c la u s e s . They need not do so , o f c o u rse . " E l e c t r i c l i g h t s , w h irrin g s o f t l y , shed a b lu r r e d ra d ia n c e " (as Crane w rote th e se n te n c e a t th e s t a r t o f C h ap ter XVII o f Maggie) i s no more in fo rm a tiv e o r c o n c re te th a n " S o f tly w h irrin g e l e c t r i c l i g h t s shed a b lu r r e d ra d ia n c e " would have been, b u t th e sen ten ce as w r itte n c o n ta in s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f expansion (" w h irrin g s o f t l y in th e g a th e rin g dusk") n o t p o s s ib le in th e r e c a s t se n te n c e . Furtherm ore, even w ith o u t e x p lo itin g t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t y f o r ex p an sio n , a w r ite r s t i l l g a in s e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from f r e e m o d ifie rs b ein g s e t o f f : i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f and em phasis on d e s c r ip ti v e and n a r r a t i v e d e t a i l s . Sentences w ith f r e e m o d ifie rs move d e d u c tiv e ly . The main id e a , th e most g e n e r a l, a b s t r a c t one, i s p re s e n te d in th e b ase c la u s e w ith more s p e c i f i c , q u a lif y in g id e a s p re s e n te d in a tta c h e d f r e e m o d if ie r s , form in g m u lti- le v e l sen te n c es w ith la y e r s o f s t r u c t u r e t h a t c r e a te a d e n se l y te x tu r e d p ro se . D e n sity o f t e x t u r e depends upon th e number and v a r i e t y o f a d d itio n s to a b ase c la u s e , th o se f r e e m o d ifie rs t h a t " s ta y w ith th e same id e a , p ro b in g i t s b e a rin g s and im p lic a tio n s , exem p lify in g i t o r see k in g an analogy o r m etaphor f o r i t , o r re d u c in g i t to de- 14 t a i l s . " T ex tu re, th e n , i s a q u a l i t a t i v e as w ell as q u a n tita tiv e term . The f r e e m o d ifie r ty p e s t h a t C h riste n se n d e s ig n a te s a re th e sub o r d in a te c la u s e (SC), r e l a t i v e c la u s e (RC), noun c l u s t e r (NC), verb c l u s t e r (VC), a d je c tiv e c l u s t e r (AC), a d je c tiv e s e r i e s (A+A), a b so lu te (A bs), and p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se (P P ). Of th e s e s t r u c t u r e s , C h riste n se n 59 d is tin g u is h e s th e c l u s t e r s and a b s o lu te as th e c h ie f marks o f a m atu re, v e r s a t i l e p ro se s t y l e and sen te n c es w ith more a d d itio n s on se v e ra l le v e ls o f s p e c i f i c i t y as more d e n se ly te x tu r e d th a n th o s e w ith le s s o r none. A ll f r e e m o d ifie rs a re economical s t r u c t u r e s , adding inform a t i v e d e t a i l s w ith o u t re c o u rse to a d d itio n a l c la u s e s , allo w in g id e a s to r i d e p iggy-back on th e base c la u s e . A s e l e c t i o n from "The Wise Men," numbered and in d e n te d to re v e a l i t s l e v e l s , can i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p r o cess and some o f th e f r e e m o d ifie r ty p e s: 1 F re d d ie , 2 d e s p e ra te , (A+A) 3 h i s t e e t h s h in in g , (Abs) 3 h i s fa c e c o n to rte d , (Abs) 2 w h irlin g along in d ead ly e f f o r t , (VC) 1 was tw enty f e e t behind th e t a l l form o f o ld Pop, 2 w ho,/ /g a in e d w ith each s te p . 3 d re s se d o n ly in h i s - - (VC) 3 [d resse d ] o n ly in h is u n d e r c lo th e s - - (VC) (37) I l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e o th e r ty p e s o f f r e e m o d ifie rs a re : The fo u r men clam bered in to th e b e a u ti f u l b o at and th e in d iv id u a l manoeuvered h is c r a f t u n t i l he had d e a l t o u t to fo u r lo w -sp read in g stum ps, fo u r f i s h e r s . (SC) ("The O ctopush," 231) M om entarily, Jimmie was s u lle n w ith th o u g h ts o f a h o p e le ss a l t i t u d e where grew f r u i t . (RC) (M aggie, 32) The w all a t th e l e f t happened to be o f th e common p r i s o n - l i k e c o n s tr u c ti o n - - no door, no window, no opening a t a l 1 . (NC) ("The Five White M ice," 47) T h eir lin e n c lo th in g was n o ta b le from being d i s t i n c t l y w h ite r th a n th o se o f th e men who, one hundred and f i f t y in number, la y on th e ground in a long brown f r i n g e , ra g g e d --in d e e d , b a re in many p la c e s --b u t s in g u la r ly r e s p o s e f u l, unw orried, v e t e r a n - l i k e . (AC) ("The C lan o f No-Name," 122) 60 Suddenly th e panes o f th e re d window t i n k l e d and crash ed to th e ground, and a t o th e r windows th e r e suddenly re a re d o th e r flam es, l i k e bloody s p e c tr e s a t th e a p e r tu r e s o f a h aunted h o u se . (PP) ("The M o n ster," 20) F ree m o d ifie rs o f f e r d i s t i n c t ad v an tag es. A p p o sitiv e a d je c tiv e s ( c lu s te r s and s e r ie s ) l i k e p r e d ic a te a d je c tiv e s can p r e d ic a te something o f th e e n t i r e s u b je c t o r o b je c t, n o t only a p a r t i c u l a r noun, and em p h a siz e d e s c r ip ti v e d e t a i l s . A d je c tiv e c l u s t e r s a re a lso c ap ab le o f in c o rp o ra tin g o th e r gram m atical s tr u c t u r e s b e sid e s sim ple a d je c tiv e s ; a d je c tiv e s e r i e s , on th e o th e r hand, in c lu d e o n ly a d je c tiv e s , r a r e l y more th an th r e e . These a p p o s itiv e s t r u c t u r e s , along w ith th e noun c l u s t e r , a s t r u c t u r e t h a t renames and expands i t s a n te c e d e n t, q u a lif y and c l a r i f y w ith o u t r e q u ir in g a d d itio n a l c la u s e s . P r e p o s itio n a l p h ra ses t y p i c a l l y q u a lif y and c l a r i f y ; in th o s e in tro d u c e d by l i k e , analogy p ro v id e s a means o f p ro b in g th e im p lic a tio n s o f some elem ent in th e base c la u s e . S u b o rd in ate c la u s e s and r e l a t i v e c la u s e s a lso f u r t h e r comment on and d e s c rib e o th e r words o r word groups in a se n te n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y adding in fo rm atio n about accompanying c o n d itio n s o r tim e o r d e rin g o f e v e n ts. In verb c l u s t e r s th e headword, th e p a r t i c i p l e , fu n c tio n s a p p o si- t i v e l y to comment upon a noun o r pronoun in th e c la u s e in which th e verb c l u s t e r i s i n s e r te d . Both p a s t and p re s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s c a r ry v e rb a l f o r c e , b u t whereas a c tiv e fo rc e dom inates in th e p re s e n t p a r t i c i p l e , d e s c r ip ti v e fo rc e dom inates in th e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e . Hence each o f f e r s th e chance to e s t a b l i s h p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t s . Verb c l u s t e r s o f 61 e i t h e r te n s e allow w r ite r s to su g g est two a c tio n s being perform ed s i m u ltan eo u sly , t h a t o f th e v erb c l u s t e r and t h a t o f th e b a se . Such s i m u lta n e ity i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e f f e c t o f a b s o lu te s too a s can be seen in th e sen ten ce above from "The Wise Men." They, l i k e v erb c l u s t e r s , a ls o in c o rp o ra te a p a r t i c i p l e b u t d i f f e r in t h a t th e p a r t i c i p l e in th e a b so lu te has i t s own s u b je c t, i s even more f r e e l y m obile w ith in a sen te n c e , and can m odify an e n t i r e s e n te n c e , n o t o n ly a s u b s ta n tiv e w ith in th e s e n te n c e . A b so lu tes even more f r e q u e n tly th a n verb c l u s t e r s zero in on d e t a i l s a tte n d a n t to a c tio n s o r s i t u a t i o n s in th e same way a cam e r a zooms in from a w id e-an g le to a c lo se -u p s h o t, o r m agnify d e t a i l s o f ap p earan ce, o r p ro v id e e x p la n a to ry d e t a i l s (but t h i s l a s t much more r a r e l y , a t l e a s t f o r C rane). P a r e n th e tic a l I n s e r t i o n . P a r e n th e tic a l i n s e r tio n s a re th o s e syn t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s t h a t in te r r u p t a s e n te n c e 's normal s y n ta c tic flow and a re c u t o f f from th e sy n tax o f th e r e s t o f th e se n te n c e . T echni c a l l y , a b s o lu te s co u ld be so c l a s s i f i e d , b u t what i s being r e f e r r e d to h e re a re a u t h o r s 1 b r i e f a s id e s , t h e i r e d i t o r i a l i z i n g o r i n te r p o la te d comments which s e t o f f th e r e a d e r ’s th o u g h ts on a ta n g e n t as in t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n from The 0 ’Ruddy: N e ith e r my books n o r my f a t h e r 's s t o r i e s —g re a t l i e s , many o f them--God r e s t him—had ta u g h t me t h a t th e d u e llin g g e n try could th in k a t a l l and I was q u ite c e r t a i n t h a t th e y n e v er t r i e d . (8) Such a s id e s r e in f o r c e o r c o u n te rp o in t id e a s in th e m a trix c la u s e and suspend th e movement o f tim e . They, l i k e fr e e m o d ifie rs , a re a syn t a c t i c s tr a te g y to surmount th e in h e re n t l i n e a r i t y o f se n te n c e s . Set o f f as th e y a r e , p a r e n th e ti c a l a s s e r t i o n s re c e iv e s p e c ia l em phasis, 62 e l i c i t i n g h e ig h te n ed em otional re sp o n se s in re a d e r s . B efore p ro ceed in g to a d is c u s s io n o f b ran ch in g and co h eren ce, a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f th e s t r u c t u r e s and s tr a g e g ie s and t h e i r s ig n if ic a n c e to C ra n e 's s t y l e i s in o rd e r. In term s o f base o r n e a r base s e n te n c e s , one o f th e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f C ra n e 's s t y l e illu m in a te d by th e d a ta i s th e number o f th r e a d b are se n te n c e s he w r ite s , se n te n c e s w ith no expansions w hatsoever o r w ith o n ly a sim ple a t t r i b u t i v e a d je c tiv e o r an adverb o r p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se . However, what i s e q u a lly im p o rtan t to C ra n e 's s t y l e i s th e d e c lin e in unadorned sen te n c es t h a t o ccu rs th ro u g h o u t h is c a r e e r up to The O'Ruddy, whose c o n v e r s a tio n a lly c o l l o q u i a l , f i r s t p e rso n mode len d s i t s e l f to sim ple se n te n c e s. Monotonous j u x ta p o s itio n o f sim ple sen te n c es w ith l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n in p a t t e r n marks th e f i r s t phase o f C ra n e 's s t y l e whereas l a t e r , except f o r s ta r k k e rn e l se n te n c e s m o stly re s e rv e d f o r s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s , e i t h e r s in g ly o r grouped, Crane p rim a r i l y w r ite s b ase se n te n c e s n o t as e n t i r e c o n s tr u c tio n s b u t as founda t i o n s to be a l t e r e d and a m p lifie d f o r g r e a te r e x p re ss iv e power. Of th e s t r u c t u r e s a v a ila b le to Crane f o r expanding and a l t e r i n g h i s s e n te n c e s , some, a s re v e a le d w ith in th e p aram eters o f th e m ethod ology employed in t h i s stu d y , more s a l i e n t l y c o n tr ib u te to h i s changing gram m atical s t y l e th an o th e r s . Hence, o f l e s s e r im portance to our d is c u s s io n o f C ra n e 's s t y l e which fo llo w s a re h i s lo o s e , common c o o r d i n a tio n , sim ple a n d /o r bound m o d if ie r s , and s u b s t i t u t i o n s in noun s l o t s w ith th e s e e x c e p tio n s: (1) unmarked su b o rd in a te noun c la u s e s accom panying p a r e n th e ti c a l m a tric e s in The O'Ruddy, w here, in a sudden blossom ing, th e y c o n tr ib u te to th e n o v e l' s in tim a te immediacy, and 63 (2) i n f i n i t i v e s u b je c ts , which do n o t ap p ear u n t i l C ra n e 's l a s t two works. This i s n o t to say t h a t c o o rd in a tio n , sim ple m o d if ie r s , and so f o r th w ill be ig n o re d . In f a c t , one n o ta b le change in C rane’ s s t y l e i s h i s le s s e n in g r e l i a n c e on sim ple m o d if ie r s , e s p e c ia ll y as th e y ap p e a r in b i z a r r e form ("flam es s tr u g g le d c h o le r ic a lly " ) in o r d e r to c r e a te i n t e n s i t y and th e appearance o f d ep th in an e s s e n t i a l l y le v e le d s t y l e . But what we a re p r im a r ily i n t e r e s t e d in are th o se s t r u c t u r e s t h a t Crane in c r e a s in g ly u se s d u rin g th e span o f h i s c a r e e r o r b eg in s to u se f o r th e f i r s t tim e , th o s e marks o f a m ature w r i t e r t h a t s u b s t i t u t e s a p p ro p ria te com plexity and v a r i e t y f o r e a r ly r e lia n c e on sim ple s e n te n c e s , e c c e n tr ic m o d if ic a tio n , and wrenched in v e r s io n s . T h ere f o r e , o f th e s t r u c t u r e s and s t r a t e g i e s d is c u s s e d , our a t t e n t i o n w ill be p r im a r ily focused upon f r e e m o d ifie r ty p e s and th e m u lti- le v e l depth and b re a d th Crane c r e a te s w ith them , and th e more e le g a n t mani f e s t a t i o n s o f c o o rd in a tio n . R ig h t-, M id-, and L e ft-B ra n c h in g . Where a w r i t e r p la c e s s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c ia ll y f r e e m o d if ie r s , which a re r e l a t i v e l y m o b ile, can c o n tr ib u te to o r d e t r a c t from p le a s in g p ro se rhythm , coherence, and optimum ex p re s s io n o f id e a s . I t i s th e placem ent o f m o d if ie r s , to th e l e f t o f th e b a se , in te r r u p t i n g i t , o r to th e r i g h t o f i t , p o in tin g backward o r forw ard to elem ents in th e base s e n te n c e , t h a t shapes th e ebb and flow o f s e n te n c e s , which Ian A. Gordon a s s e r t s forms th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 16 w av e-lik e p a t t e r n o f E n g lish p ro s e . And i t is placem ent t h a t con t r i b u t e s to th e c e n tr if u g a l o r c e n t r i p e t a l fo rc e o f th e se n te n c e , i t s i n te r n a l and e x te r n a l coherency, and to enhancing o r impeding th e r e a d e r 's decoding p ro c e ss . 64 R ig h t-b ran c h in g se n te n c e s begin w ith a g ram m atically com plete base c la u s e w ith i t s bound m o d if ie r s , to which a re added f r e e m o d ifie rs th a t am p lify , expand, l i m i t , and i l l u s t r a t e th e main p o in t. P ro g ress i s l i n e a r , w ith backward p o in tin g m o d ifie rs in forw ard moving expansions as v a rio u s m o d ifie r s t r u c t u r e s narrow down to c o n c re te and p r e c is e de t a i l s . R ig h t-b ran c h in g se n te n c e s p re s e n t few decoding problem s sin ce th e y fo llo w th e n a tu r a l p a t t e r n o f u n r e f le c tiv e th o u g h t. R ig h t-b ran c h ing a b s o lu te s in sen ten ce f i n a l p o s itio n a re o f te n p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t ive as th e y zoom in on a p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l once th e whole s i t u a t i o n has been e s ta b lis h e d , as we can see in t h i s sen te n c e: I t [ th e sound o f th e f i r e w h is tle ] r e le a s e d th e m uscles o f th e company o f young men on th e sid ew alk , who had been l i k e s t a t u e s (RC), posed e a g e r ly , l i t h e l y (VC), t h e i r e a r s tu rn e d (A bs). ("The M o n ste r,"18) M id-branching m o d ifie rs i n t e r r u p t th e main c la u s e and postpone i t s gram m atical c o n c lu s io n .’ The sen te n c e above from "The Wise Men," de l i n e a t i n g F r e d d ie 's d e s p e ra te b u t doomed atte m p t to win th e race w ith Pop, i l l u s t r a t e s e f f e c t i v e u se o f such d e la y . The suspended c o n clu sio n o f th e main c la u s e c r e a te s in re a d e rs a sen se o f expectancy and a c c e l e r a te d m otion as t h e i r e x p e c ta tio n s a re sp u rre d on in a n t i c i p a t i o n o f i t s ending. M id-branching m o d ific a tio n imposes a com pression and den s i t y on th e e n t i r e c la u s e t h a t .is n o t sh ared by l e f t and r ig h t - b r a n c h ing s e n te n c e s , which sp in out t h e i r e la b o r a tio n s from a g ram m atically com plete c e n te r r a t h e r th a n c o n c e n tra te and e n c lo se them. In a d d itio n , alth o u g h m id-branching se n te n c e s avoid th e ten d en cy to to p -h e a v in e s s t h a t sometimes accom panies le f t- b r a n c h in g s e n te n c e s , th e y sh are a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w ith them: t h a t o f ap p earin g more c a lc u la te d ly org an - 65 iz e d th a n l i n e a r l y advancing r ig h t-b ra n c h e d se n te n c e s , a lth o u g h an au th o r may w ell have pondered e q u a lly as long o r lo n g e r th e r i g h t - b r a n c h ing o r cum ulative s e n te n c e . In le f t- b r a n c h in g s e n te n c e s , m o d ifie rs a n t i c i p a t e th e b ase c la u s e , b rin g in g w ith t h e i r placem ent b o th d isad v a n ta g es and a d v an ta g e s. One d isad v a n ta g e i s t h a t decoding problem s can r e s u l t f o r th e r e a d e r i f th e e la b o r a tio n i s to o complex s in c e le f t- b r a n c h in g m o d ific a tio n p reced es i t s r e f e r r e n t . In a d d itio n , as m entioned, le f t- b r a n c h in g se n te n c e s can become to p -h e a v y , r e s u l t i n g in awkward p ro s e . On th e o th e r hand, f r o n t - s h i f t e d a d v e r b ia ls n a t u r a l l y and h e l p f u l ly s e t th e scen e, th e tim e , p la c e , a tte n d a n t c irc u m sta n c e s, and so f o r t h , o f th e s e n te n c e 's main p ro p o s itio n . The fo llo w in g i s t y p i c a l : From t h e i r p o s i t i o n as th e y again faced tow ard th e p la c e o f th e f i g h t i n g , th e y c o u ld , o f c o u rse , comprehend a g r e a te r amount o f th e b a t t l e th a n when t h e i r v is io n had been b lu r r e d by th e h u r lin g smoke o f th e l i n e . (The Red Badge, 133) And, u nder c e r t a i n c irc u m sta n c e s, le f t- b r a n c h in g can engender an ap p ro p r i a t e a u ra o f i r r e s o l u t i o n and su sp en se, as in t h i s s e n te n c e from C hapter XVII o f M aggie: C huckling and l e e r i n g , he fo llow ed th e g i r l o f th e crim son le g io n s . (149) However b r i e f , th e d e lay e d d is c l o s u r e o f what i s b ein g t a l k e d about makes th e main c la u s e emerge a s an alm ost i n e v i t a b l e clim ax , both s h a r p ly to th e p o in t and w ith a sen se o f f i n a l i t y . M oreover, as men tio n e d above, th e appearance o f c a r e f u l l y weighed th o u g h t c lin g s to le f t- b r a n c h in g se n te n c e s. A nother advantage o f 1e f t- b r a n c h in g has to do w ith word o rd e r. An 66 obvious but n o t t r i v i a l o b s e rv a tio n one can make about E n g lish sen te n c e s i s t h e i r overwhelming tendency to b eg in w ith th e s u b je c t ( e s p e c i a l l y noun p h ra se s in tro d u c e d by d e te rm in e r t h e ) . In f a c t , a c c o rd ing to C h r is te n s e n 's count based on 200 se n te n c e s each from s e le c te d works by modem American a u th o rs , o n ly a q u a r te r o f th e sen te n c es w r i t te n (24.47%) s t a r t e d w ith som ething o th e r th a n th e s u b je c t. P r i m a rily t h a t ^som ething" was an a d v e rb ia l (22.98% ), which h a s , as p o in te d o u t, a p r a c t i c a l s c e n e - s e ttin g f u n c tio n . C o o rd in atin g con ju n c tio n s (m ostly and and b u t) opened 6.65% o f th e s e n te n c e s; v e rb a l groups 1.17%; in v e r te d c o n s tr u c tio n s , in c lu d in g a p p o s itiv e nouns o r 17 a d je c tiv e s , in v e rte d complements and verb p h ra s e s , o n ly 0.32%. A ll o f th e s e s t r u c t u r e s a re n o t, o f c o u rse , m o d if ie r s ; n e v e r th e le s s , th e y a r e , s in c e th e y come b e fo re th e s u b je c t, le f t- b r a n c h in g . And d e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t p r o p o r tio n a t e ly few se n te n c e s b eg in w ith som ething o th e r th a n th e s u b je c t, th o s e few in s ta n c e s a re im p o rtan t to a w r i t e r 's o v e r a l l p r o je c tio n o f v a r i e t y and co h eren ce, th e l a t t e r a p a r t i c u l a r p o in t 18 o f th e d is c u s s io n in th e n e x t s e c tio n . The s ig n if ic a n c e o f b ran ch in g to C ra n e 's gram m atical s t y l e l i e s in b o th th e q u a l i t y and q u a n tity o f i t . A lthough th e computer i s n o t programmed to count th e s e v a rio u s s t r u c t u r e s ( f o r example, o n ly th e f a c t t h a t a s t r u c t u r e i s s u b o rd in a te i s marked, n o t w hether a s t r u c t u r e i s , say , a r e l a t i v e o r s u b o rd in a te c la u s e , n o r c e r t a i n l y , w hether a c la u s e fu n c tio n s a d v e r b ia lly and how), in d iv id u a l sp o t co u n ts in d ic a te a number o f i n t e r e s t i n g s t y l i s t i c f a c t s about b ra n c h in g . One i s th a t Crane h a b i t u a l l y p r e f e r s se n te n c e s which s t a r t w ith th e s u b je c t and sp in o ut t h e i r e la b o r a ti o n s , i f any a re spun o u t a t a l l , a f t e r th e 67 e s s e n t i a l gram m atical c o n s tr u c tio n i s com plete. L e ft- and m id -b ran ch in g ap p ear l e s s f r e q u e n tly in th e e a r l y work compared to t h a t a f t e r The Red Badge, and what le f t- b r a n c h in g o c cu rs te n d s to be to p -h eav y . In th e l a t e r work Crane n o t o n ly f r o n t s h i f t s m o d ifie rs and i n t e r r u p t s sen te n c es w ith them, he more o f te n combines two o r th r e e modes in one se n te n c e . In term s o f p la c in g som ething b e fo re th e s u b je c t, Crane f o l lows th e p a t t e r n d isc o v e re d by C h ris te n se n , b u t th e r e i s an i n c r e a s e in sen te n c es opened w ith som ething o th e r th a n th e s u b je c t in th e work a f t e r The Red Badge. Hence th e se n te n c e s o f th e l a t e r work marct| along 19 le s s m onotonously and a ls o , as we s h a ll see n e x t, more c o h e r e n tly . C oherence. S k i l l f u l w r i t e r s u se a number o f s y n ta c tic d e v ic e s t o f o s t e r coherence between p r o p o s itio n s : d em o n strativ e and p e rso n a l p r o nouns, re p e a te d key words and p h ra s e s , p a r a lle l is m , c o n ju n c tio n s , and c o n ju n c tiv e ad v erb s. J u d ic io u s u se o f th e s e d e v ice s a s s i s t s c l a r i t y th ro u g h p o in tin g back to what has been s a id in o rd e r to connect i t to what w ill be s a id o r by draw ing id e a s to g e th e r th ro u g h t h e i r being framed in id e n tic a l s t r u c t u r e s . Indeed, ex p ert w r ite r s may c r e a te a need f o r c o n n e c tiv e d e v ic e s , a s , f o r example, by c r e a tin g ju n c tu r e s in o rd e r to i n s e r t c o o rd in a to rs t h a t w ill h ig h lig h t what p re c e d e s and what fo llo w s. Sentence i n i t i a l c o o r d in a to r s , b e s id e s p ro v id in g an a l t e r n a t i v e to se n te n c e s opened by th e s u b je c t, a lso a .s s is t coherence by e s ta b lis h in g c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s between se n te n c e s (as th e y do a ls o betw een i n dependent c la u s e s o f compound s e n te n c e s ): c o o rd in a te (an d , which b e s id e s g ram m atically in d ic a tin g a d d itio n o f te n r h e t o r i c a l l y su g g ests w eighty a f te r h o u g h t) , o b s g rv a tiv e (b u t) , c a u s a tiv e (f o r ) , c o n c lu siv e 20 -(so) , and a l t e r n a t i v e (or) . C o njunctive adverbs a lso connect p r o p o s itio n s and e x p re ss th e s e same key r e l a t i o n s h i p s , but d i f f e r from c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s in 21 t h e i r m o b ility and power to m odify. The form er i s th e more im por t a n t f u n c tio n . Whereas c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s must sta n d between th e c la u s e s th e y co n n ect, c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs can be s h i f t e d to alm ost any p o s i t i o n w ith in th e sen ten ce o th e r th a n between m o d ifie rs and th e word m o d ified . For example, in "But th en i t i s th e in n o cen t o ld sc a n d al -m ongers, poor o ld p lacid -m in d ed w e ll- p r o te c te d h en s, who a re th e most h arm fu l" (The 0 1 Ruddy, 139), "b u t" must head th e sen ten ce alth o u g h Crane could have s h i f t e d "th e n " to o th e r p o s itio n s except w ith in th e s t r u c t u r e s headed by "sc a n d a l-m o n g e rs," " h e n s ," and "harm ful" to a t t a i n v a r ia b le e f f e c t s . C o n ju n ctiv e adverbs in s tr e s s e d sen te n c e i n i t i a l p o s itio n te n d to im part a form al q u a l i t y to w r itin g and draw fo cu s upon th e co n n ec tiv e i t s e l f ; th o s e moved about w ith in th e sen ten ce s o fte n th e form al e f f e c t and s h i f t s t r e s s to th e words a b u ttin g th e c o n n e c tiv e . (The e f f e c t in th e se n te n c e from The 0 ' Ruddy i s f u r t h e r to emphasize " b u t," a lre a d y s tr e s s e d by b ein g in sen te n c e i n i t i a l p o s itio n , and th e fa c t t h a t th e c o n te n t o f t h i s sen te n c e opposes t h a t o f th e p re c ed in g s e n te n c e ,) As M ilic n o te d in h is stu d y o f Jo n ath an S w if t’ s s t y l e , c o n n ectiv e s ig n p o s ts , e s p e c i a l l y c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs and su b o rd in a tin g co n ju n c t i o n s , fu n c tio n c r u c i a l l y to "p ro v id e th e re a d e r w ith th e a u th o r 's own key to th e r e l a t i o n o f th e m a te r ia ls and throw th e e n t i r e compo s i t i o n in to fo c u s"; t h e r e f o r e , "good w r i t e r s must always be concerned 22 about th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f t h e i r c o n n e c tiv e s ." Such c o n n e c tiv e s 69 a re th e fulcrum o f h y p o ta c tie s t y l e , in which id e a s and a c tio n s a re e x p l i c i t l y ranked and lin k e d to one a n o th e r. P a r a t a c t i c s t y l e , on th e o th e r hand, depends much more upon th e r e a d e r 's d is c e rn in g h ie r a r c h ie s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s s in c e c la u s e s a re ju x ta p o sed w ith no e x p l i c i t a u th o r i a l c o n n e c tio n s. To i l l u s t r a t e th e d if f e r e n c e , l e t us compare a p a ra - t a c t i c a l l y s ty le d p arag rap h from Maggie and i t s p o s s ib le h y p o ta c tie c o u n te r p a r t: On th e ground, c h ild r e n from D e v il's Row c lo se d i n on t h e i r a n ta g o n is t. He crooked h i s l e f t arm d e f e n s iv e ly about h is head and fought w ith c u rs in g fu r y . The l i t t l e boys ra n to and f r o , dodging, h u r lin g sto n e s and sw earing in b a r b a r ic t r e b l e s . (4) At th e i n s t a n t t h e i r a n ta g o n is t tum bled to th e ground, c h ild r e n from D e v il's Row c lo se d in on him. Under t h e i r a tta c k he crooked h is l e f t arm d e fe n s iv e ly about h is head and fou g h t w ith c u rs in g fu r y . The scene was c h a o tic as l i t t l e boys ran to and f r o , dodging, h u r lin g s to n e s and sw earing in b a r b a r ic t r e b l e s . In th e r e c a s t v e rs io n n o t o n ly c o n n e c tiv e s a re added b u t d e t a i l s n e c e s s i t a t e d by th e s h i f t in s t y l e . One c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h y p o ta x is i s th a t i t g e n e ra te s more d e t a i l s , i s more in fo rm a tiv e , th a n p a r a t a x i s . Curme e x p la in s p a r a t a c t i c s t y l e as a p r im itiv e s ta g e from which h y p o ta x is emerged. An e a r ly sta g e o f h y p o ta x is , w ith s u b o rd in a tio n marked in th o u g h t b u t n o t y e t s p e c if ie d , s u rv iv e s to d ay in unmarked r e l a t i v e c la u s e s : "A nother th in g I r e c a l l i s t h a t I had n o t th e s l i g h t e s t doubt o f my a b i l i t y to k i l l F o r is te r " (The O'Ruddy, 6 7 ). An in te rm e d ia te s ta g e co n n ects sen te n c es w ith m u ltif u n c tio n a l and, s t i l l h eard in c o llo q u ia l I r i s h E n g lish and e x em p lifie d a ls o in The 0 ' Ruddy: "By t h i s tim e , th ey were so angry t h a t Mickey, s e e in g how th in g s were 70 going, and I b ein g a mere la d , took me from th e room" (6 4 ). Formal, f u l l h y p o ta x is marks th e l a t e s t s ta g e in th e h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f E n g lish , and allo w s many f in e shades o f meaning to be e x p re sse d . A l though n o t as d i r e c t and l i v e l y as p a r a t a x i s , i t i s more com pact, a c c u r a te , and econom ical th a n th e lo o s e r , c lu m sie r p a r a t a x i s , hence more 23 p re v a le n t xn w r itt e n d is c o u rs e . W rite rs ' f a c i l i t y w ith b o th s t y l e s e n ab le s them to p r o je c t d i f f e r e n t v o ic e s , to be s u b tle o r b o ld , to i n c re a s e lo g ic o r in c re a s e l i v e l i n e s s , to a n t i c i p a t e r e a d e r s ' p u z z le s o r l e t re a d e rs so lv e them th em selv es. The n o tio n o f coherence o r la c k o f i t fu n c tio n s s i g n i f i c a n t l y in d is c u s s io n o f C ra n e 's s t y l e . During th e span o f h is c a r e e r Crane moves from an ex trem ely p a r a t a c t i c s t y l e tow ard f u l l e r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f th e la n g u a g e 's h y p o ta c tie p o s s i b i l i t i e s . He moves from m inim ally g u id in g th e r e a d e r 's ap p reh en sio n o f h i s f i c t i o n s to o v e rt guidance. T e s tif y in g to t h i s change i s h i s e n l i s t i n g th e a id o f such d e v ic e s as c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs (see Appendix E) and th e u n ify in g p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e . Such a d d itio n s to h is r e p e r t o i r e e x ten d h is e a r ly l i m i t a t i o n s , opening up p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r e x p re ss io n o f m ature id e a s . 1 say p o s s i b i l i t y because any gram m atical s t r u c t u r e , even th o se which seem to o f f e r o n ly ad v an tag es to a w r i t e r , must be a p p r o p r ia te ly chosen and p la ce d whenever c h o ice and p la c e a re o p tio n a l. N o n e th ele ss, c o n tro l o f a v a r i e t y o f s t r u c t u r e s i s c r u c ia l i f a w r i t e r i s to make th o s e c h o ic e s . In t h i s r e s p e c t th e n , as Crane g a in s m a n ip u la tiv e power o v er th e s tr u c t u r e s and s t r a t e g i e s d is c u s s e d , he makes o f sy n tax 24 a more e x p re ss iv e in stru m en t f o r h i s f i c t i o n a l m essages. 71 An Overview o f C ra n e 's S y n ta c tic S ty le With th e s e s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e s and s t r a t e g i e s in mind, we can now proceed to an advance overview o f C ra n e 's in c re a s e d n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i v e power a s evidenced in two r e p r e s e n ta tiv e and te m p o ra lly d i s t i n c t p assag es from h is p ro se f i c t i o n . The f i r s t p assag e comes from th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ," th e second from Wounds in th e R ain : 1. (1) A n ig h t wind began to r o a r and clo u d s b e a rin g a lo ad o f r a i n appeared in th e heavens and th r e a te n e d t h e i r p o s itio n . (2) The fo u r men sh iv e re d and tu rn e d up t h e i r c o at c o l l a r s . (3) Suddenly i t s tru c k each t h a t he was a lo n e , s e p a ra te d from hum anity by im passable g u lf s . (4) A ll th o s e th in g s which come f o r t h a t n ig h t began to make n o is e s . (5) Unseen anim als scram bled and flo p p ed among th e weeds and s t i c k s . (6) Weird f e a tu r e s mas queraded a w fu lly in ro b e s o f shadow. (7) Each man f e l t t h a t he was com pelled to s i t on som ething t h a t was damply a l i v e . (8) A le g io n o f fro g s in th e g r a s s by th e shore and a h o st o f to a d s in th e t r e e s ch an ted . (9) The l i t t l e man s t a r t e d up and s h rie k e d t h a t a l l c re e p in g th in g s were in s id e h is stump. (10) Then he t r i e d to s i t fa c in g fo u r ways, because dread o b je c ts were approaching a t h i s back. (11) The in d iv id u a l was d rin k in g and h o a rs e ly s in g in g . (12) At d i f f e r e n t tim es th e y la b o re d w ith him. (13) I t a v a ile d them n o ught. ["G'home, d e m f o o l s . " ] (14) Among th em selv es th e y broached v a rio u s p la n s f o r escap e. (15) Each in v o lv ed a c o n ta c t w ith th e b la c k w a te r, in which were th in g s t h a t w rig g led . (16) They shuddered and s a t s t i l l . ("The O cto p u sh ," 232-233) 2. (1) The b a t t a l i o n moved out in to th e mud and began a l e i s u r e l y march in th e damp shade o f th e t r e e s . (2) The advance o f two b a t t e r i e s had churned th e b lack s o i l in to a fo rm id ab le p a s te . (3) The brown le g g in g s o f th e men, s ta in e d w ith th e mud o f o th e r d ay s, to o k on a deeper c o lo r . (4) P e r s p ir a tio n broke g e n tly out on th e re d d is h fa c e s . (5) With h is heavy r o l l o f b la n k e t and th e h a l f o f a s h e l t e r - t e n t c ro s sin g h i s s h o u ld e r and under h i s l e f t arm, each man p re s e n te d th e appearance o f being c la sp e d from b eh in d , w r e s tle r fa s h io n , by a p a i r o f th i c k w hite arm s. (6) There was som ething d i s t i n c t i v e in t h e way th e y c a r r ie d t h e i r r i f l e s . (7) There was th e grace o f an o ld h u n te r somewhere in i t , th e g race o f a man whose 72 r i f l e has become a b s o lu te ly a p a r t o f h im s e lf. (8) Furtherm ore, alm ost ev ery b lu e s h i r t - s l e e v e was r o l l e d t o th e elbow, d is c l o s in g fo re-arm s o f alm ost i n c r e d ib le brawn. (9) The r i f l e s seemed l i g h t , alm ost f r a g i l e , in th e hands t h a t were a t th e end o f th e s e arm s, n ev er f a t but always w ith r o l l i n g m uscles and v e in s t h a t seemed on t h e p o in t o f b u r s tin g . (10) And a n o th e r th in g was th e s ile n c e and th e m arvelous im pas s i v i t y o f th e fa c e s as th e column made i t s slow way tow ard where th e whole f o r e s t s p l u t t e r e d and f l u t t e r e d w ith b a t t l e . (’’The P ric e o f th e H a rn e s s ,” 100) The p a ssa g e s a re s im ila r in le n g th : p a ra g rap h one t o t a l s 185 words, p arag rap h two, 214 words; s im ila r in ch o ice o f b a s ic sen ten ce p a t t e r n s : S u b ject-V erb , S u b je c t-V e rb -O b je c t, S u b je c t-V e rb -S u b je c t Com plem ent; and s im ila r in t h e i r o v e r a ll s im p lic ity . But th e r e a re no t i c e a b l e d if f e r e n c e s . D e sp ite th e s h o r te r le n g th o f p arag rap h one i t c o n ta in s s ix te e n sen te n c es compared to te n s e n te n c e s in p arag rap h two. The lo n g e st s e n te n c e in p ara g rap h one c o n ta in s tw enty-one words, th e s h o r t e s t fo u r, but most c l u s t e r between tw e lv e to f i f t e e n words. T his compares to p a ra g rap h tw o 's lo n g e st sen te n c e b ein g f o r t y words and th e s h o r te s t e ig h t. That th e in c re a s e d le n g th o f th e sen te n c es in p ara g rap h two does n o t r e s u l t from sim ple compounding i s e v id e n t in th e number o f T - u n its . Paragraph one c o n ta in s tw en ty T - u n its v a ry in g from n in e te e n to th r e e w ords, a v erag in g 9.05 words in le n g th , w hereas p ara g rap h two c o n ta in s alm ost th e same number o f T -u n its as s e n te n c e s , e le v e n , which v a ry in le n g th from f o r t y to seven words and average 19.36 words. Because o f th e more fre q u e n t and ev en ly spaced f u l l s to p s a t sen te n c e and T -u n it end, th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c rhythm o f p ara g rap h one i s choppy, awkward. I f p a ra g rap h one were t o l d from f i r s t p e rso n o r even t h i r d p erso n lim ite d p o in t o f view such a nervous rhythm might 73 be ex p ected s in c e i t would a p p r o p r ia te ly u n d e rsco re a p e r s o n 's t r e p i d a tio n s in th e d a rk , but we do n ot expect i t from an o m n iscien t n a r r a t o r , who, i f he i s to be t r u s t e d as our g u id e , must rem ain a lo o f from th e s e n s e le s s f e a r s o f th e men. In c o n t r a s t , th e v a r i e t y o f sen te n c e le n g th , hence T -u n it le n g th , in p arag rap h two c o n tr ib u te s to a sm oothly flow ing rhythm , a rhythm g e n e ra tin g a sense o f ebb and flow , a p p r o p r ia te to th e l e i s u r e l y march o f th e men th ro u g h th e i n h i b i t i n g mud, by a l t e r n a t i o n o f long and s h o rt se n te n c e s: n in e te e n , f o u r te e n , e ig h te e n , e i g h t , f o r t y , e le v e n , tw en ty - f iv e , s ix te e n , t h i r t y - t h r e e and t h i r t y words. Indeed, w ith in th e sen te n c e s th em selv es t h i s same rhythm i s r e in f o r c e d as m o d ifie rs p o in t backward and forw ard to th e base c la u s e . C re a tio n o f a p p ro p ria te rhythm in language i s fundam ental to th e achievem ent o f e f f e c t i v e communication. T his means, o f c o u rs e , n o t o n ly rhythm a p p ro p ria te t o c o n te n t but to a u d ien c e . The rhythm o f p arag rap h one i s n o t o n ly l e s s s u ita b le to c o n te x t b ut to C ra n e 's re a d e rs and c r i t i c s . I t i s as i f we a re e x p e rie n c in g a dance m arred by o c c a sio n a l m isste p s in p ara g rap h one compared t o o u r e x p e rie n c in g a sm oothly ex ecu ted w altz in p arag rap h two. This i s n o t to say th a t Crane g iv e s up h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c rhythm t h a t i s b u i l t on a fo u n d atio n o f s h o rt sim ple se n te n c e s and dependent upon r e p e t i t i o n and p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e ; b ut l a t e r Crane tu n e s h i s in d iv id u a l rhythm more d is c r im i n a tin g ly in term s o f s u b je c t and au d ien ce. Longer T - u n its and sen te n c es w ith a v a r i e t y o f fr e e and bound m o d ifie rs eq u ate w ith more grace and economy o f e x p re ss io n and a d e n sely te x tu r e d s t y l e . Many k e rn e l o r n e a r - k e r n e l se n te n c e s r e s u l t 74 in th e o p p o s ite . Only one k e rn e l s e n te n c e , t h a t i s , one w ith no modi f i c a t i o n a t a l l , o c cu rs in th e two p a ssa g e s, and i t i s in p ara g rap h one: " I t a v a ile d them n o u g h t." That t h i s b a re bones sen te n c e i s d i r e c t and c o n cise i s t r u e , but i t s p o s s ib le e f f e c t o f em phasis i s u n d e r mined by i t s c o n te x t: n o t much lo n g e r and alm ost no l e s s d i r e c t se n te n c e s . The r e s t o f th e se n te n c e s in p ara g rap h one employ a t l e a s t some expansion th ro u g h m o d if ic a tio n . Simple ty p e s a re p rep o sed a d je c t i v e s : "n ig h t w in d ," " im p assab le g u l f s , " " co at c o l l a r s , " "d read ob- j e c t s , " " d i f f e r e n t tim e s ," "v a rio u s p l a n s ," "b la c k w a ter"; o n ly one p a r t i c i p l e : "c re e p in g th in g s " ; some ad v erb s: " suddenly . . . s tr u c k ," "m asqueraded a w fu lly , " "damply a l i v e ," "h o a rs e ly s in g in g ," " s a t s t i l l ." P r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s a re a m ajor means o f m o d if ic a tio n , among them " o f r a i n , " " in th e h e a v e n s," " a t n i g h t , " "among th e weeds and s t i c k s . " A ll o f th e p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se s a re bound as a re a l l th e r e l a t i v e c la u s e s and a l l but one o f th e s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s , r e s u l t i n g in a t h i n t e x t u r e a cco rd in g to th e C h ris te n se n schema. In f a c t , even o f th e bound v a r i e t y th e r e a re v e ry few s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s : " t h a t he was a lo n e ," " th a t he was com pelled to s i t on so m eth in g ," " t h a t a l l c re e p in g th in g s were in s id e h is stum p," o r r e l a t i v e c la u s e s : "which came f o r th a t n i g h t , " " th a t was damply a l i v e , " "which were t h i n g s , " " th a t w rig g le d ." Only one s u b o rd in a te c la u s e i s f r e e , but p o s itio n e d as i t i s in i t s normal o rd e r seems n o t to be: "because dread th in g s were approach in g h i s b a c k ." There i s o n ly one v erb c l u s t e r : " s e p a ra te d from human i t y , " and none o f th e o th e r ty p e s o f f r e e m o d ifie rs . G e n era lly Crane r e s o r t s to s e p a ra te c la u s e s and bound m o d ifie rs to add in fo rm a tiv e d e t a i l s . 75 In p a ra g rap h two many more preposed a d je c tiv e s o ccur and, as a whole, te n d to be more p r e c i s e l y d e s c r i p t i v e , more c o lo r f u l: " l e i s u r e ly m arch," "damp sh a d e ," "b la ck s o i l , " " fo rm id ab le p a s t e , " "brown l e g g i n g s . " "d eep er c o l o r ," "re d d is h f a c e s ," "heavy r o l l , " "r i g h t sh o u l d e r ," "l e f t arm ," "th i c k w hite arm s," "o ld h u n g e r," "b lu e s h i r t s le e v e ," " in c r e d ib le braw n," "m arvelous i m p a s s iv ity ," " slow way." As in p a ra g rap h one, o n ly one p rep o sed p a r t i c i p l e o c c u rs , b rin g in g w ith i t , as in p a ra g rap h one, v e rb a l power in a d d itio n t o d e s c r ip ti v e power: " r o l l i n g m uscles and v e i n s ," f u r th e r e d by th e subsequent gerund: " th a t seemed on th e p o in t o f b u r s t i n g , " th e gerund and gerund p h ra se b ein g s o p h is ti c a te d s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e s t h a t do n o t appear in p a ra g rap h one. ("Of being c la sp e d " in p a ra g rap h two i s a ls o a g eru n d .) Simple ad v e rb s a r e : "broke g e n tly o u t ," " alm ost in c r e d ib le braw n," "has become a b s o l u t e l y . " As in p arag rap h one, bound p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se s a re a key means o f adding in fo rm a tiv e d e t a i l s , but th e r e a re a lso s e v e ra l f r e e ones: "by a p a i r o f th ic k w hite arm s," " w r e s tle r fa s h io n " (un marked p r e p o s itio n a l p h r a s e ) , and " in th e hands t h a t were a t th e end o f th e s e a im s." S ev eral verb c l u s t e r s ( f o r exam ple, " s ta in e d w ith th e mud o f o th e r d a y s " ), one a b so lu te in tro d u c e d by'W ith' ("w ith h i s heavy r o l l o f b la n k e t and th e h a l f o f a s h e l t e r - t e n t c ro s s in g h i s r i g h t sh o u ld er and u nder h i s l e f t arm "), s e v e ra l a p p o s i t i v e s - - i n C h r is te n s e n ’s te r m i nology noun c l u s t e r s , a d je c tiv e c l u s t e r s , and a d je c tiv e s e r i e s - - ( f o r exam ple, th e a d je c tiv e c l u s t e r "n ev er f a t b u t always w ith r o l l i n g mus c l e s and v e in s t h a t seemed on th e p o in t o f b u r s t i n g " ) , and one su b o r d in a te tim e and a tte n d e n t c ircu m stan ces a d v e rb ia l ("as th e column made i t s slow way tow ard where th e whole f o r e s t s p l u t t e r e d and f l u t 76 te r e d w ith b a t t l e " ) add to th e v a r i e t y o f f r e e m o d ifie rs . O ther r e l a t i v e c la u s e m o d ifie rs and s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s a re bound. Crane a ls o shows more d i v e r s i t y in sen te n c e op en ers in p a ra g rap h two th a n one. Five o ut o f te n sen te n c es begin w ith a s t r u c t u r e o th e r th a n th e s u b je c t w hereas in p a ra g rap h one o n ly fo u r s e n te n c e s out o f s ix te e n begin w ith som ething o th e r th a n th e s u b je c t. One sen te n c e in p ara g rap h one b eg in s w ith th e adverb su d d e n ly , and a d d i t i o n a l l y employs i t - i n v e r s i o n t o postpone th e s e n te n c e 's t r u e sub j e c t , g iv in g us a f o r e t a s t e o f a s t r u c t u r e t h a t w ill become more com mon in h i s l a t e r work. I t - i n v e r s i o n j o i n s v a r i e t y and co m p lex ity as opposed to sim ple e x p le tiv e t h e r e - in v e r s io n , and i s u n o b tru s iv e as opposed to i n t r u s i v e s u b je c t- v e r b in v e rs io n (an example in p arag rap h one i s " in which were th in g s t h a t w ig g le d "), a p r e te n tio u s s t r u c t u r e , 25 th e u se o f which demands j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e em phasis i t c r e a te s . A nother sen te n c e b e g in s w ith th e common c o n ju n c tiv e adverb th e n showing a tim e r e l a t i o n s h i p ; two b eg in w ith p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s . The im petus f o r th e s e a l t e r n a t e sen te n c e openers seems to be more C ra n e 's w ish f o r d i v e r s i t y th a n e s t a b l i s h i n g coherence. Indeed, a s c e r t a i n i n g c o n n ec tio n s between th e p ro p o s itio n s l a r g e l y depends upon th e r e a d e r: because a n ig h t wind began to r o a r and r a i n th r e a te n e d , th e men tu r n up t h e i r co at c o l l a r s ; a ^ th e y do so, th e men r e a l i z e th e y a re a lo n e ; b u t i t tu r n s out t h a t th e y a re n o t q u ite alone s in c e th e y a re soon jo in e d by th e fauna t h a t emerge a f t e r d a rk , and so f o r t h . Sen te n c e o rd e r o f te n seems a r b i t r a r y r a t h e r th a n o rg a n ic : f o r exam ple, sen te n c e e ig h t more l o g i c a l l y fo llo w s s i x (o r i t could p reced e s ix o r even f iv e ) and sen te n c e n in e more l o g i c a l l y fo llo w s seven th a n e ig h t. 77 Syntax te n d s to be f r a c tu r e d w ith r e p e t i t i o n o f a key word o r i t s v a r i a n ts o r pronoun r e f e r e n c e u n ify in g a few s e n te n c e s , th en a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h i s p ro c e ss f o r a n o th e r few s e n te n c e s , on th ro u g h th e p arag rap h . P a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e , a gram m atical d ev ice f o r , among o th e r th in g s , u n i fy in g b alan ced o r com plem entary id e a s o r se n te n c e s does n o t so fu n c tio n h ere (w itn ess th e p a r a l l e l s u b je c t form s: "a n ig h t w in d ," " th e fo u r m en," " a l l th o s e t h i n g s , " and so f o r t h ) . The end r e s u l t i s a p arag rap h whose sy n tax and sen se do n o t q u ite march to th e b e a t o f th e same drummer. P aragraph two, on th e o th e r hand, u ses a v a r i e t y o f sen ten ce openers o th e r th a n s u b je c t: th e ex tended a b s o lu te in tro d u c e d by "w ith ,1 th e c o n ju n c tiv e adverb e x p re ss in g em phatic a d d itio n , " fu rth e rm o re ," two in v e rs io n s w ith e x p le tiv e " t h e r e , " and one i n i t i a l c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n " a n d ," t h i s l a t t e r a d e v ice f o r s u g g e s tin g w eighty, impor t a n t a f te r th o u g h t, and in i t s re la x e d q u a l i t y , a k in d o f r e s o l u t i o n en t i r e l y f i t t i n g f o r a l a s t sen te n c e o f a p arag rap h in g e n eral and th e c o n te n t o f t h i s p ara g rap h in p a r t i c u l a r . The p ara g rap h i s u n if i e d by i t s c i r c u l a r o r g a n iz a tio n , s t a r t i n g and ending w ith th e b a t t a l i o n en m asse, and th e f i r s t s e n te n c e , which s e t s up th e c o n ten t f o r th e rem ainder o f th e p a ra g rap h : th e s o l d i e r s ' l e i s u r e l y march in th e mud. W ithin t h i s s t r u c t u r e t h e d e s c r ip tio n i s d e t a i l e d , i t s o rd e r s p a t i a l and a s s o c ia ti v e . Crane g uides ou r eyes from th e b a t t a l i o n as a whole to t h e mud th ro u g h which th e y s lo g , to th e m en's b o o ts s ta i n e d w ith t h a t mud, th e n to th e m en's p e r s p i r a t i o n s ta in e d fa c e s , to th e equipment th e y b e a r, which, along w ith th e mud, causes t h e i r p e r s p i r a t i o n , th e n to th e r i f l e s a ls o c a r r i e d by th e men, 78 which draws th e eye n ex t to th e arms and hands c a r ry in g th o s e r i f l e s , m uscles b u r s tin g w ith a tu r b u le n t s tr e n g th t h a t c o n tr a s ts s h a r p ly w ith th e im passive fa c e s o f th e men as th e y march tow ard th e b a t t l e f i e l d . W ithout Grane t e l l i n g us what th e s e men th in k o r f e e l , h is d e s c r ip tio n shows what th e y th in k and f e e l . These men and t h e i r p l i g h t become f a r more r e a l and m eaningful to us th a n th e fo u r men and t h e i r problem s in th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ," due in no sm all m easure to C ra n e 's syn t a c t i c m a n ip u la tio n , a n o th e r evidence o f which i s h i s h a n d lin g o f th e two e x p le tiv e t h e r e - in v e r s io n s , s t i l l a n o th e r th e i n t r i c a t e v e rb a l rhythm c re a te d in sen te n c e f i v e . The opening o f th e second t h e r e - in v e rs io n p a r a l l e l s , echoes (th e r e - V - NP (Det - N) - P P ), and more s p e c i f i c a l l y d e fin e s th e "som ething d i s t i n c t i v e " o f th e f i r s t sen te n c e as " th e g race o f an o ld h u n te r" in th e second se n te n c e . Then, m odulating to a clim ax , u n d e rsco re d by " a b s o lu te ly ," th e d e f i n i t i o n i s expanded even f u r t h e r and a t th e same tim e re -e c h o e s e a r l i e r words: "g ra c e " and " r i f l e s . " I f se n te n c e f o u r 's rhythm i s c li m a t i c , s e n te n c e f i v e 's i s i n t r i c a t e , w ith i t s base submerged in i t s c e n te r . The i n t r i c a c y o f th e sen ten ce e f f e c t i v e l y su p p o rts th e i n t r i c a t e mounting o f th e s o l d i e r s ' equipment on t h e i r backs. I t s balan ced d e t a i l s m ight be marked o f f t h i s way: With h is heavy r o l l o f b la n k e t and th e h a l f o f a s h e l t e r - t e n t c ro s s in g h is r i g h t s h o u ld e r and u n d er h i s l e f t arm, each man p re s e n te d th e appearance (base) o f being c la s p e d , w r e s t le r fa s h io n , by a p a i r o f th i c k w hite arm s. In f a c t , th e heaping up o f d e t a i l s d e s c rib in g th e men th ro u g h o u t th e 79 p arag rap h g e n e ra te s rem arkable fo r c e , a fo rc e enhanced by s t r u c tu r e m atching sen se. C ran e’s employing more o f th e o p tio n s allow ed by th e E n g lish la n guage and employing them w ith more s k i l l th a n in th e e a r l i e r passage allow s him n o t o n ly to e la b o r a te h is d e s c r i p t i v e - n a r r a t i v e p ro se but a lso to p r o je c t th e v o ic e o f a m ature n a r r a t o r , one who speaks w ith knowledge and a u t h o r i t y and th e r e f o r e commands th e r e a d e r 's re s p e c t and t r u s t . However, one m ight argue t h a t th e s e p a ssa g es j u s t d isc u sse d d i f f e r in s u b je c t m a tte r hence would n a t u r a l l y e x h ib it d i f f e r e n t s t y l i s t i c q u a l i t i e s . To some e x te n t such an argument i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e . To ta k e an extrem e example, even i n t u i t i v e l y a re a d e r can d e te c t s t y l i s t i c d i f fe re n c e s in C ra n e 's The 0 ' Ruddy from h is o th e r work, s t y l i s t i c d i f f e r ences e n t a i l e d by The 0 ' Ruddy' s b e in g a romance s e t in e a r ly Georgian England and in v o lv in g a young I r i s h a d v e n tu re r as i t s hero and n a r r a t o r . There i s , as some c r i t i c s have rem arked, an I r i s h l i l t to i t . Yet d e s p ite changes in s u b je c t m a tte r and n a r r a t i v e v ie w p o in t, Crane does re v e a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s y n t a c t i c c h o ice s a t c e r t a i n tim es in h is w r itin g c a r e e r t h a t , ta k in g th e b road view o f p a r t i c u l a r w orks, mark th o s e works as b e in g e a r ly o r l a t e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f changes in s u b je c t m a tte r. To i l l u s t r a t e , we can examine a p assag e from The Red Badge. This p a ssa g e, l i k e t h a t from "The P ric e o f th e H a rn e s s ," i s a d e s c r ip tio n o f a m i l i t a r y u n i t , a ls o an i n f a n t r y column heading in to b a t t l e . Un lik e p a ra g rap h two, however, t h i s p assag e c o n ta in s two p arag rap h s and l e s s words (169); b u t no one p a ra g rap h t h i s c lo se in s u b je c t m a tte r 80 o ccu rs in The Red Badge, whose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p arag rap h le n g th is f a i r l y s h o r t. 3. (1) P r e s e n tly , th e calm head o f a fo rw ard-going column o f i n f a n t r y appeared in th e ro ad . (2) I t came s w i f t l y on. (3) Avoiding th e o b s tr u c tio n s gave i t th e sin u o u s movement o f a s e r p e n t. (4) The men a t th e head b u tte d mules w ith t h e i r m u sk e t-sto c k s. (5) They prodded te a m s te r s , i n d i f f e r e n t to a l l how ls. (6) The men fo rce d t h e i r way th ro u g h p a r t s o f th e dense mass by s tr e n g th . (7) The b lu n t head o f th e column pushed. (8) The ra v in g te a m s te rs swore many o a t h s . (9) The commands to make way had th e r in g o f a g re a t im portance in them. (10) The men were going forw ard to th e h e a r t o f th e d in . (11) They were to c o n fro n t th e e ag e r ru s h o f th e enemy. (12) They f e l t th e p r id e o f t h e i r onward movement when th e rem ainder o f th e army seemed t r y i n g to d r ib b le down t h i s ro a d . (13) They tum bled team s about w ith a f in e f e e lin g t h a t i t was no m a tte r so long as t h e i r column got to th e f r o n t in tim e . (14) This im portance made t h e i r fa c e s grave and s t e m . (15) And th e backs o f th e o f f i c e r s were v e ry r i g i d . (83-84) What we see when we a n aly ze passage th r e e i s t h a t s t y l i s t i c a l l y in some ways i t f a l l s between p a ra g rap h one from "The O ctopush” and p a r a graph two from "The P ric e o f th e H a rn e ss," b u t o v e r a ll i s c lo s e r to p arag rap h one. Sim ple sen te n c e m o d if ic a tio n fo llo w s much th e same p a t t e r n as p a r agraphs one and two in th a t a l l se n te n c e s except one c o n ta in expansions beyond t h e i r base s t r u c t u r e (th e e x ce p tio n b ein g sen te n c e f o u r te e n , b u t as a p a t t e r n s ix sen te n c e w ith a compound o b je c t complement, i t s e f f e c t i s n o t t h a t o f a b a re bones s e n te n c e ). In q u a n tity o f proposed a d j e c t i v e s , p assag e th r e e compares most c lo s e ly w ith p a r a tr a p h one: "calm h e a d ," "forw ard-going colum n," "sin u o u s movement," "dense m ass," "b lu n t h e a d ," " g re a t im p o rta n c e ," "eag er r u s h ," "onward movement," " f in e f e e l i n g . " But in d e s c r ip ti v e q u a l i t y , i t s sim ple m o d if ic a tio n 81 f a l l s c lo s e r to t h a t o f p arag rap h two, b e in g more p r e c is e f o r th e most p a r t and more e v o c a tiv e th a n p arag rap h o n e 's (compare, f o r example, "sin u o u s movement" to "co a t c o l l a r s " ) . As in p arag rap h s one and two, Crane u ses o n ly one proposed p a r t i c i p i a l m o d if ie r , "ra v in g te m s te r s " - - t e c h n i c a l l y , t h a t i s , s in c e "fo rw ard -g o in g " though counted as an a d je c t i v e c a r r i e s w ith i t th e same v e rb a l p lu s d e s c r ip ti v e fo rc e o f " ra v - 26 in g ." In s te a d , he depends upon a c tiv e v erb s ( " b u tte d ," "pushed") and i n f i n i t i v e s (" to c o n f r o n t," " to d r ib b le " ) t o convey th e sense o f a c tio n in th e p assag e. That sen se o f a c tio n i s n o ta b ly c h a o tic . Passage th r e e i s s h o r te r th a n p a ra g rap h one y et c o n ta in s alm ost as many se n te n c e s ( f i f t e e n ) and o n ly s l i g h t l y lo n g e r T - u n its (1 1 .2 6 ), c r e a tin g a s im i l a r l y choppy rhythm. As in p ara g rap h one sen te n c e le n g th s c l u s t e r , h ere around e lev e n words. Also c o n tr ib u tin g to th e d i s j u n c t i v e rhythm i s th e num b e r o f se n te n c e s b e g in n in g not o n ly w ith th e s u b je c t b ut i d e n t i c a l o r s i m i l a r s u b je c t s t r u c t u r e forms and l e x i c a l item s (" th e men" o ccu rs th r e e tim e s , "th e y " fo u r tim e s) p a ra d in g w ith monotonous r e g u l a r i t y down th e page. In f a c t , w hereas Crane employs th e s l i g h t l y more s o p h i s t i c a t e d d e v ic e o f compounding in p a ra g rap h one ("The fo u r men s h iv ered and tu rn e d up t h e i r co at c o l l a r s " ) , he ig n o re s t h a t o p tio n in p assag e th r e e ("The men a t th e head b u tte d mules w ith t h e i r m usket- s to c k s . They prodded te a m s te r s , i n d i f f e r e n t to a l l h o w ls.") A lso, l i k e p ara g rap h one, p assag e th r e e r e v e a ls l i t t l e e f f o r t to connect p ro p o s itio n s e x p l i c i t l y . One s o p h is ti c a te d gerund p h rase sub j e c t (se n ten c e two) and a s u b o rd in a te a d v e rb ia l c la u s e (sen ten ce tw elv e) a re th e o n ly two a tte m p ts t o show tim e and circu m stan ce r e l a 82 tio n s h ip s among th e d e s c r i p t i v e and n a r r a t i v e d e t a i l s p re s e n te d . Sen te n c e s g ram m atically cohere th ro u g h pronoun r e fe re n c e and some r e p e t i t i o n o f key words o r t h e i r v a r i a n t s ( " column," "men"; "o a th s , " "com mands") , but t h i s gram m atical coherence i s a t odds w ith sen se . I t i s as i f Crane re c o rd ed numerous, i s o l a t e d images on film , each o f much th e same d u ra tio n and from much th e same an g le and d is ta n c e , alth o u g h accompanied by a change in camera p o s i t i o n , th en s p lic e d th e sh o ts to g e th e r c a r e f u l l y , in s u rin g s i m i l a r i t y between each sh o t b u t w ithout re g a rd f o r i n t e l l i g i b l e sequences o r d is s o lv e s . When we re a d th e p a s sage and th e n p u t i t a s id e , no c l e a r , co h eren t p i c t u r e o f th e moving mass o f men can be r e c a l l e d as i t can a f t e r re a d in g p a ra g rap h two. No le n s zooms in lin g e r i n g l y t o show th e d e t a i l s su g g ested by th e w ide- an g le s h o t. W e see th e scene from The Red Badge in a piecem eal b l u r , n ot o n ly h e re but th ro u g h o u t th e n o v e l, as d e t a i l s in s h o r t, t e r s e sen te n c e s bombard us li k e a h a i l o f b u l l e t s . As c r i t i c s have rem arked from th e e a r l i e s t review s o f The Red Badge, i t s power i s n o t d e s c r ip ti v e b ut s u b je c tiv e . S ig h ts and sce n e s, th e d e t a i l s o f men caught in th e drama o f b a t t l e , do n o t come a liv e so much as th e fe v e r and c o n fu sio n o f th e mind t h a t a tte m p ts to see them does. What d e s c r ip ti o n th e r e i s i s k a le id o s c o p ic . A lthough, s in c e we a re immersed in th e b a t t l e scene w ith Flem ing, n o t sta n d in g o f f a t a d is ta n c e as w ith th e n a r r a t o r o f "The P ric e o f th e H a rn ess," we would expect to see more c l e a r l y , p a r a d o x ic a lly our v is io n i s b lin d e d . W e r a t h e r f e e l th e c o n fu sio n and vagueness o f th e b a t t l e f i e l d , th e t e r r o r and bew ilderm ent o f Flem ing. 83 P o in t o f view has much to do w ith t h i s ap p re h en sio n . The Red Badge i s t o l d from t h i r d p erso n p o in t o f view , b u t f o r th e most p a r t n a r r a t o r and Fleming a re in d is tin g u is h a b l e . Even though th e n a r r a t o r does in te rv e n e from tim e to tim e somewhat o b tr u s iv e ly to e v a lu a te f o r th e re a d e r F le m in g 's conduct and a t t i t u d e , v ie w p o in ts a re o f te n a s sig n a b le to e i t h e r , sometimes w ith in a p a ra g ra p h , sometimes even w ith in a se n te n c e . T his l a t t e r f in e shading i s i l l u s t r a t e d in th e sen ten ce s t a r t i n g C hapter V II when Fleming ex claim s: "By heavens, th e y had won a f t e r a l l " (59). "By heavens" i s F lem in g 's d i r e c t speech; "th e y had won a f t e r a l l " th e i n d i r e c t speech o f th e n a r r a t o r . B lending w ith in a p a ra g rap h i s i l l u s t r a t e d in th e second p arag rap h o f p assag e th r e e . Fleming cannot know what th e men in th e in f a n t r y column f e e l ; o n ly th e n a r r a t o r can. Yet we f e e l t h a t th e e n t i r e d e s c r ip ti o n i s re p o rte d from F le m in g 's v an tag e p o in t, which i s e s ta b lis h e d i n th e p arag rap h p re c e d in g th e quoted o n e s. In i t Fleming s e a ts h im s e lf to watch th e b e h in d - th e - lin e s a c t i v i t y su rg in g about him, an a c t i v i t y t h a t in c lu d e s th e column th re a d in g i t s way tow ard th e b a t t l e f i e l d th ro u g h th e r e t r e a t i n g mass o f men and equipm ent. What Fleming r e p o r ts o f th e ad- 27 v ancing column he^ might deem e v e ry th in g , but he r e v e a ls l e s s o f th e column o f men th a n o f h is b e w ild ered m ental p ro c e s s e s , a p t l y encap s u la te d in th e r a p id h a i l o f ab ru p t s e n te n c e s . In e f f e c t , w ith th e s h o r t, s t r u c t u r a l l y u n v a rie d s e n te n c e s , th e broken sequences o f d e t a i l s , th e la ck o f c l e a r d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e scen e, th e n a r r a t o r o f The Red Badge, w hether o m n iscien t o r Fleming, l a r g e l y comes a c ro ss to th e re a d e r as much th e same p e rso n as th e n a r r a t o r o f "The O cto p u sh ." The c r u c ia l d if f e r e n c e i s , however, t h a t th e 84 e f f e c t i s e n t i r e l y s u i t a b l e to n a iv e , confused Fleming b u t e n t i r e l y u n s u ita b le to th e n a r r a t o r o f "The O ctopush," who i s n o t th e " l i t t l e man" y e t speaks as we might expect th e f e a r f u l l i t t l e man to speak. I t would appear t h a t C ra n e 's e a r l y s t y l i s t i c power o p tim a lly f i t te d b o th s u b je c t, a p sy c h o lo g ic a l p o r tr a y a l o f th e f e a r f u l mind o f a young s o l d i e r fa c in g b a t t l e , and p o in t o f view , t h a t o f th e young s o l d i e r in The Red Badge. C ra n e 's i n a b i l i t y to s e p a ra te h i s n a r r a t i v e v o ic e from h is p r o t a g o n i s t 's v o ic e , a l i a b i l i t y in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s , became an a s s e t in The Red Badge. By w r itin g in a way t h a t he ap p ears to have been lim ite d to a t t h i s p o in t in h is c a r e e r , Crane made th e most o f th e s e l i m i t a t i o n s to w rite h is war s to r y m a s te r f u lly , r e n d e rin g th e e x p erien ce o f war as i t had n ev er been re n d e red b e fo re . (One i s rem inded o f Hemingway's rem ark about th e "unavoidable awkward- 28 n e s s " o f h i s s t y l e o f which he to o made th e b e s t . ) I t i s n o t u n t i l th e l a t e r work t h a t Crane can b eg in to p r o je c t a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f v o ic e s , fre e d in p a r t by h is in c r e a s in g c o n tro l o f language. 85 Notes 1 See, f o r exam ple, a l e t t e r to R ip ley H itchcock CApril 2, 1896U> in which Crane asks t h a t somebody review M aggie, w atching f o r bad gram m a tic a l form and bad s p e l l i n g , in L e t t e r s , p . 122. 2 See two l e t t e r s a d d re ssed t o John N o rth ern H i l l i a r d (CJanuary, 1896?] and Cl897?H) in which Crane s t a t e s what to him i s "good w r itin g ," in L e t t e r s , pp. 109 and 158. A lso, as re p o rte d by R obert S tallm an , Vosburgh, an a r t i s t w ith whom Crane liv e d w h ile composing The Red Badge, a t t e s t e d to C ra n e 's stu d y in g and r e f in in g h i s p h ra s e s , and th en r e c i t i n g them alo u d to h i s f r ie n d s to a s s e s s t h e i r e f f e c t . In Stephen Crane: A Biography (New York: George B r a z i l l e r , 1968), p. 169. ^ T his i s s a id w ith th e f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t The Red Badge, C ra n e 's m ajor work, was w r itt e n e a r ly , n o t l a t e . But a lth o u g h The Red Badge would th u s ap p ear to be an anomaly, as we examine C ra n e 's gram m a tic a l c h o ice s s y n o p tic a lly in t h i s c h a p te r and in more d e t a i l in subsequent c h a p te r s , we w ill see why in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case le s s s y n t a c t i c m a tu r ity h e lp s th e n o v e l's e f f e c t r a t h e r th a n h in d e rs i t . 4 Not e n t i r e l y though. Some p o t e n t i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g f e a tu r e s o f C ra n e 's s t y l e emerged from th e d a ta d u rin g th e p ro c e ss o f c o n c e n tra tin g on o th e r f e a t u r e s . These "m inor" s t y l i s t i c f e a tu r e s were n o t s tu d ie d in d e t a i l and a re m entioned only in p a s s in g in th e overview and in th e c h a p te rs which fo llo w . However, s in c e th e y e i t h e r mark c h a r a c t e r i s t i c gram m atical c h o ice s o f C ra n e 's a n d /o r p o in t to a re a s t h a t m ight be w e ll- serv ed by f u r t h e r stu d y , i t was d ecid ed t o m ention them b r i e f l y d u rin g t h i s review o f s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e s . 5 The number v a r ie s s l i g h t l y depending upon w hether grammarians focus on th e ty p e o f verb p h ra se o r e n t i r e p r e d ic a te p a t t e r n . Hence, th e lin k in g v erb fo llo w ed by e i t h e r a p r e d ic a te a d je c tiv e o r p r e d ic a te noun may be c o n sid e re d one sen te n c e ty p e . A s i m i l a r c o lla p s in g o f th e p r e d ic a te p a t t e r n s v erb - d i r e c t o b je c t and verb - i n d i r e c t o b je c t - d i r e c t o b je c t in to one ty p e may a ls o be accom plished. A common grouping in to s i x ty p e s (u sin g se n te n c e s from th e Crane d a ta to i l l u s t r a t e ) i s : 1. S u b je c t - Verb^n ^-r a n s ^t ^ve They ag reed . 2. S u b je c t - Verbi-r a n s £t ^ve - D ire c t O b ject A v e n t r i l o q u i s t fo llo w ed th e d a n ce r. 3. S u b je c t - Ve r b t r a n s i t i v e - I n d i r e c t O b ject - D ire c t O bject T his lan d scap e gave him a ss u ra n c e . 4. S u b je c t - V e r b ^ ^ i ^ g “ P r e d ic a te Noun These two were p a l s . 86 5. S u b je c t - Verb1;£n]c^ng - P r e d ic a te A d je c tiv e The bundles were s t o l i d . 6. S u b je c t - Verbt r a n s ^t jLV e - D ire c t O b ject - O b je ct Complement S c u lly . . . made them p r is o n e r s . The d if f e r e n c e i n number o f b a s ic sen te n c e ty p e s depending upon a n a ly t i c a l method i s o f no s ig n if ic a n c e to our d is c u s s io n . Nor, in d e ed , a re th e p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s . I t i s th e strip p ed -d o w n a sp e c t o f th e s e base se n te n c e s t h a t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to ou r d is c u s s io n o f C ra n e 's s t y l e . 6 That th e s e c a te g o r ie s a re n o t n e a tl y p a r a l l e l i s u n a v o id a b le . Both m o d if ic a tio n and s u b s t i t u t i o n in c lu d e s u b o rd in a tio n so i t does n o t form a s e p a ra te c a te g o ry b a la n c in g c o o rd in a tio n . F ree m o d ifie rs con s t i t u t e a s p e c ia l ty p e o f m o d if ic a tio n , e n jo y in g r e l a t i v e freedom o f placem ent in a c la u s e n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f bound m o d if ie r s . P a re n t h e t i c a l i n s e r t i o n s a re s i m i l a r to one p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f f r e e m o d ifie r, th e a b s o lu te , in gram m atical independence, b u t fu n c tio n d i f f e r e n t l y . In a d d itio n , d is c u s s io n o f th e b a s ic methods e n t a i l s d is c u s s io n o f p a r a l l e l i s m , a n t i t h e s i s , a sy n d eto n , and so f o r th along th e way, and p o in ts to grammar n o t b ein g as n e a tl y s e p a ra b le from r h e t o r i c as sug g e ste d by th e use o f th e term "gram m atical s t y l e , " s in c e some o f th e term s a re q u ite fr a n k ly borrowed from r h e t o r i c . That grammar and r h e t o r i c march hand in hand a t tim e s , how ever, i s no new d is c o v e ry and sh o u ld cause no co n fu sio n . R h e to ric a l ch o ice p la y s i t s p a r t in th e w r itin g p ro c e ss whenever two o r more gram m atical o p tio n s a r e p o s s ib le , in o th e r w ords, v i r t u a l l y as soon as expansion o f b ase se n te n c e s b e g in s. 7 In s t r u c t u r a l grammar gerunds a re d is tin g u is h e d fo rm a lly from nouns o f a c tio n by th e form er n o t b ein g p receded by a d e te rm in e r. S te a lin g i s a noun o f a c tio n in The s t e a l i n g o f th e h o rse s b ro u g h t a j a i l s e n te n c e , a gerund in S te a lin g h o rs e s bro u g h t a j a i l s e n te n c e . The d if f e r e n c e in meaning between th e two forms i s a sen se o f d e f i n i t e n e ss and p a r t i c u l a r i t y ad h erin g t o nouns o f a c tio n as opposed to th e f e a tu r e o f i n f i n i t e n e s s co n nected w ith gerunds. However, b o th v e rb a ls a re dynamic r a t h e r th a n s t a t i c in e f f e c t . Only gerunds conform ing to th e s t r u c t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n a re counted in t h i s stu d y . (See Appendix E .) The form er i s C ra n e 's c h o ic e : "Won by t h i s a t t i t u d e , Henry would sometimes allow th e c h ild to en jo y th e f e l i c i t y o f sq u eezin g th e sponge o v er a buggy-w heel, even when Jimmie was s t i l l gory from unsp eak ab le deeds" ("The M o n ster," 11). ® W hile nom inal s t y l e i s o fte n judged i n f e r i o r to v e rb a l s t y l e (see Rulon W ells, "Nominal and V erbal S t y l e ," in S ty le in Language, ed. Thomas A. Sebeok [[Cambridge, M ass.: The M. I . T. P r e s s , 1960j7 p p . 213- 220), such judgment r e f e r s to e x c e ssiv e n o m in a liz in g . C ra n e 's nom inal- iz a t i o n s n e v er become e x c e s siv e ; r a t h e r th an c r e a tin g monotony th ey fu n c tio n in th e l a t e r work to c r e a te v a r i e t y and g ra c e . 87 10 pr e £aCe to C r i t i c a l Reading (New York: H o lt, R in e h art and W inston, I n c ., 1963), p . 210. H A nother clim ax p a t t e r n o ccurs in "The Open B o at," b u ild in g up to th e w o rst k in d o f c a ta s tro p h y f o r th e c a p ta in o f a sh ip : "The in ju r e d c a p ta in , ly in g i n th e bow, was a t t h i s tim e b u rie d in t h a t profound d e je c tio n and in d if f e r e n c e which comes, te m p o ra rily a t l e a s t , to even th e b r a v e s t and most enduring when, w illy n i l l y , th e firm f a i l s , th e army l o s e s , th e sh ip goes down" (6 8 ). No thorough a n a ly s is was made, b u t from a c u rs o ry survey i t appears t h a t , as th e examples c i t e d sug- g e s t , Crane o n ly u ses th e clim ax p a t t e r n to i n t e n s i f y doom alth o u g h he could as e a s i l y use i t to i n t e n s i f y h a p p ie r e v e n ts . But he does n o t, and we a re rem inded t h a t even s t o r i e s t h a t end h a p p ily c a r r y an u n d er ly in g n o te o f imminent sorrow . That th e w o rld , no m a tte r how b e n e f i c e n t i t seems to d a y , may tu r n on one tomorrow i s a fre q u e n t message in C ra n e 's f i c t i o n . I 2 "■ ----- ” i s a sym bolic con v en tio n being used to mean "is t r a n s formed in to " o r " i s r e w r itte n a s ." I-5 Beginning w ith " In Defense o f th e A b so lu te" in C o lleg e E n g lis h , May 1950, th ro u g h "A G e n era tiv e R h e to ric o f th e P aragraph" in C ollege Com position and Communication, O ctober 1965, f o r a t o t a l o f s ix e s s a y s , a l l r e p r in te d w ith an in tr o d u c to r y P re fa c e in N otes Toward a New R h e to ric (New York: H arper § Row, P u b lis h e r s , 1967. *4 N o te s, p . 6. Sometimes a b s o lu te s a re marked by what seems to be th e p r e p o s i t i o n w ith : "Then i f th e r e be no ta n g ib le th in g to h o o t he f e e l s , p e r h a p s, th e d e s ir e to c o n fro n t a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n and in d u lg e in p le a s , bowed to one knee, and w ith hands s u p p lic a n t" ("The Open B o a t," 8 5 ). But t h i s w ith i s an "empty" gram m atical m arker o f th e a b s o lu te c o n s tru c t i o n ; i t can be o m itte d , u n lik e th e p r e p o s itio n w ith , which cannot be: " N e v e rth e le ss , i t i s t r u e t h a t he d id n o t w ish to be alo n e w ith th e th in g " ("The Open B o at," 8 4). 16 The Movement of E n g lish P rose (London: Longmans, Green § C o., L td ., 1966), pp. 19-21. I 2 N o te s, pp. 43-47. IS These s t r a t e g i e s have developed in re sp o n se to p a r t i a l l y l o s t se n te n c e dynamics as E n g lish has come to depend upon word o rd e r r a t h e r th an i n f l e c t i o n s . 19 P a r t o f C ra n e 's tre n d to in c r e a s in g ly opening se n te n c e s w ith som ething o th e r th a n th e s u b je c t i s h i s in c r e a s in g use o f sen te n c e i n i t i a l c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s . (See Appendix E .) S im u latio n o f c o n v e r s a tio n a l speech may w ell have been h i s conscious aim, e s p e c ia ll y i n view o f t h e i r in c re a s e d use in The O'Ruddy, b u t th ro u g h o u t h i s work 88 Crane g a in s coherence and co h esio n by t h e i r u s e . An i n t e r e s t i n g phenomenon t h a t emerged in re g a rd to sen te n c e i n i t i a l c o o r d in a to r s i s t h a t even though "and" i s h i s most fr e q u e n tly chosen c o o rd in a to r in th e work as a whole, i t does n o t predom inate in sen te n c e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n , where " b u t" (seconded by i t s c lo s e v a r ia n ts " y e t" and " n o r") becomes h i s fa v o re d c o o rd in a to r. In th e d a ta "b u t" o ccu rs f i f t y tim e s as sen te n c e o p en er, "and" tw e n ty -s ix tim es (in c lu d in g one o c c u rre n c e o f "and y e t" and two o f "and s o " ) , "so " n in e tim e s , "n o r" th r e e tim e s , and " y e t ," " f o r , " "o r" each once. Such use may, o f c o u rs e , sim ply be a c c i d e n ta l , b u t i t seems more l i k e l y a r e f l e c t i o n o f h i s d e s i r e t o s t r e s s o p p o s ite s . Many c r i t i c s have rem arked C ra n e 's f i c t i o n as b e in g d e fin e d by te n s io n s betw een two d iv e rg in g p o in ts o f view: th e delu d ed view of h i s f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c te r s opposed to th e know ledgeable, unsw ervingly r e a l i s t i c view o f h is n a r r a t o r - o b s e r v e r s . The s y n t a c t i c c h o ice o f th e c o o rd in a to r "b u t" p la c e d in th e em phasized se n te n c e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n i s a u s e f u l s y n t a c t i c r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e s e d iv e rg in g p o in ts o f view . 20 I borrow th e s e term s from W. Ross W interowd, "The Grammar o f C o h eren ce," C ollege E n g lis h , 31 (May 1970), 828-835. 21 Some p r i n c i p a l c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs a re n e v e r t h e l e s s , how ever, m eanw hile, th e n , t h e r e f o r e . Some p r e p o s i t i o n a l u n i t s f u n c tio n in g th e same way a re on th e o th e r han d , on th e c o n tr a r y , in th e m eantim e. 22 a Q u a n tita tiv e A pproach, p. 123. 23 George 0 . Curme, S y n ta x , V ol. I l l o f A Grammar o f th e E n g lish Language (B oston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1931), p p . 172-173. ^ A m easure o f h i s grow ing s y n t a c t i c m a tu r ity , and one t h a t w ill f ig u r e in d is c u s s io n o f C ra n e 's s t y l e , i s T - u n it le n g th . The T - u n it i s a s y n t a c t i c e n t i t y c o n s is tin g o f a main c la u s e and any s u b o rd in a te c la u s e o r p h ra se a tta c h e d to i t . Number o f words p e r T - u n it has proved t o be th e m ost r e l i a b l e s in g le i n d i c a t o r o f p ro se t h a t i s judged m ature. For a f u l l e r e x p la n a tio n o f th e T - u n it as a m easure o f s y n ta c tic matu r i t y and th e in c r e a s in g le n g th o f C ra n e 's T - u n its , see Appendix D. 25 There a r e , o f c o u rse , o th e r ty p es o f in v e rs io n ( f o r exam ple, d is p la c e d o b je c ts and complements) which Crane a ls o u s e s . 26 computer program marks a l l words fu n c tio n in g in an a d je c tiv e s l o t ADJ. S ince i t co u n ts compounds as one word, th e y a re marked fo r t h e i r o v e r a ll form and f u n c tio n . Hence, " fo rw a rd -g o in g ," composed o f an a d je c tiv e and a p a r t i c i p l e , i s marked ADJ. 27 in d eed , elsew here (C hapter XIV) Fleming i n s i s t s t h a t he see s e v e ry th in g "b o ld and c l e a r " — a t t h i s p o in t b la d e s o f g reen g r a s s , changes in th e s u rfa c e roughness o f th e brown o r grey t r e e tr u n k s , th e men o f th e regim ent w ith t h e i r " s t a r t i n g eyes and sw eating fa c e s " (138), b u t he does n o t see c l e a r l y , o f c o u rs e , as th e n a r r a t o r l e t s th e re a d e r know by u n d e rc u ttin g F lem in g 's f a u l t y s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n . 89 George P lim pton, "An In te rv ie w w ith Hemingway," in Hemingway and His C r i t i c s , ed. C arlo s Baker (N e w York: H ill and Wang, 1961), p . 3CL 90 CHAPTER IV STAGE ONE: PROVENIENCE AND EARLY MATURITY None o f C ran e’ s works i s e x a c tly l i k e any o th e r , no more in syn t a c t i c f e a tu r e s th a n in p l o t , o r them e, o r c h a r a c te r s . Y et, j u s t as some o f h is f i c t i o n s w arran t grouping on th e b a s is o f c e r t a i n s i m i l a r i t i e s o f p l o t , o r them e, o r c h a r a c te r s (Maggie and "The M onster" as s o c ia l commentary, f o r example) so some w arran t grouping on th e b a s is o f s t y l e . Because o f th e gram m atical c h o ic e s t h a t Crane makes in th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ," M aggie: A G irl o f th e S t r e e t s , and The Red Badge o f Courage as re v e a le d in th e d a ta , we can c l u s t e r th e s e works as r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f h i s e a r l y s t y l e , a s t y l e t h a t i n v i t e s th e e p ith e t " a b r u p t." A lthough n o t a lik e in s u b je c t m a tte r, n a r r a t i v e p o in t o f view , o r a r t i s t i c m e r it, th e y n o n e th e le s s a l l re v e a l c e r t a i n g e n eral c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t su p p o rt t h i s l a b e l : fragm ented sy n tax composed o f sh o rt sen te n c es and T - u n its ju x ta p o se d w ith few c o n n e c tiv e s , r e l i a n c e on e c c e n tr ic word ch o ice r a t h e r th a n s y n ta c tic v a r i e t y and com plexity to o b ta in i n t e n s i t y and n a r r a t i v e t e x t u r e , and a m p lif ic a tio n o f base s e n te n c e s p r im a r i ly th ro u g h lim it e d bound m o d if ie r s . D iscu ssio n o f th e s e works in t u r n , r e s p e c tiv e ly Groups 1, 2, and 4 in th e d a ta , w ill expand on th e s e g en eral f e a tu r e s and th e ways in which th e works con form to them (and, on o c c a s io n , d e p a rt from th e m ). I t w ill a ls o com ment on th e im p lic a tio n s o f C rane’ s c h o ice s f o r th e a r t i s t i c su ccess o f th e works. 91 The " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s'1 The " S u lliv a n County S k etch es" re v e a l Crane t e s t i n g h i s wings as a c r e a tiv e a r t i s t , e s t a b l i s h i n g themes and s t r u c t u r e s t h a t he would s u s ta in w ith v a r i a t i o n s th ro u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r . Hence, even though th e " S u lliv a n County S k etch es" in no way approach th e a r t i s t i c merit o f C ra n e 's works t h a t make up th e bulk o f th e s e le c tio n s f o r t h i s stu d y , th e y a re im p o rtan t f o r what th e y re v e a l o f th e p ro v en ien ce o f C ra n e 's work. In keeping w ith C ra n e 's c a r e e r a t th e tim e , some o f th e p ie c e s belo n g in g to th e " S u lliv a n County S k etch es" a re j o u r n a l i s t i c r e p o r ts r e l a t i n g lo c a l h i s t o r y and fo llo w ways in an a tte m p t to d e fin e th e S u lliv a n County lo c a le and am biance. But C ra n e 's camping t r i p s w ith f r ie n d s t h a t formed th e b a s is f o r th e s e r e p o r t s a ls o c a ta ly z e d C ra n e 's f i c t i o n a l im pulse, r e s u l t i n g in th e s e r i e s o f t a l e s t h a t fo llo w th e t r a i l o f th e " l i t t l e man" and h is fe llo w a d v e n tu re rs in th e S u lliv a n County " w ild e r n e s s ." I t i s p a ssa g es from th e s e e a r ly f i c t i o n a l e f f o r t s , n ot samples from th e j o u r n a l i s t i c p ie c e s , t h a t a re in c lu d e d in t h i s stu d y . The nam eless p r o ta g o n is t, " th e l i t t l e m an," given to v a in g lo r io u s , pseudo-courageous braggadocio to mask h i s u n d e rly in g d read o f what he b e lie v e s to be a d a rk , demonic, s u p e m a tu r a lly pow erful la n d scap e, wanders th ro u g h th e woods th r e a te n in g o r b e lie v in g h im s e lf to be th r e a te n e d by b e a r s , m ountains, c av es, weed-choked ponds, g h o u ls, and mad h e rm its . To c r e a te t h e i r e f f e c t s th e t a l e s r e l y on a s in g le r e c u r r in g form ula summed up by Cady: "th e e x ag g e ra te d egotism o f 'a l i t t l e man* i s t e s t e d by h i s companions o r by c irc u m sta n c e s, o r b o th ; th e l i t t l e one wins o r lo s e s ; b u t in e i t h e r c ase th e end i s b a t h e t i c , 92 and th e b a th o s i l l u s t r a t e s th e f o l l y o f m ankind,"^ and a s t y l e h e a v ily dependent upon s t a r t l i n g word c h o ice and em brangled sy n tax . There i s a c e r t a i n raw c ru d en ess in th e s e t a l e s , even a f t e r C ra n e 's rew orking them. That Crane was c a r e f u l l y r e v is in g from th e s t a r t o f h is c a r e e r i s a p p aren t from an o r i g i n a l l y u n t i t l e d d r a f t (en t i t l e d "The Fisherm en" in The Works) t h a t became "The O cto p u sh ." P ar- 2 a l l e l p assag es re v e a l him n o t o n ly p o lis h in g b u t adding d e t a i l s . Yet d e s p it e h is s y n t a c t i c and l e x i c a l changes t h a t h elp to i n t e n s i f y , en liv e n , and smooth h is n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i o n , th e o v e r a ll e f f e c t o f th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s i s o f i n a r t i c u l a t e , d i s ju n c tiv e p ro s e , o f Crane s tr u g g lin g to m an ip u late lan g u ag e, which he c a s tig a te d as "as i n f e r n a l l y bad v e h ic le f o r th o u g h ts ," in an atte m p t to ach iev e h i s aim o f 3 ap p roaching in h i s f i c t i o n " th e n e a r e s t to n a tu re and t r u t h . " I r o n i c a l l y , d e s p ite o r because o f h is e f f o r t s he c re a te d a s t y l e g e n e r a lly l a b e l le d c o n triv e d and u n n a tu r a l. C o n trib u tin g to C ra n e 's ab ru p t s t y l e i s th e le n g th o f th e s t o r i e s th em selv es: s t o r i e s a re p re s e n te d , b a r e ly developed, q u ic k ly ended] on th e n ex t l e v e l , p a ra g rap h s o fte n a re s i m i l a r l y tr u n c a te d . S entences (average le n g th : 13.42) and T - u n its (mean le n g th : 9.64) fo llo w th e same p a t t e r n , b ein g th e s h o r te s t o f each in a l l th e works sam pled. S e n s a tio n s, sce n e s, a c tio n s a re u n re e le d in r a p id m ontage. The opening o f "Four Men in a Cave" i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s montage e f f e c t as th e n a r r a t o r moves s w i f t l y , in s h o rt se n te n c e s and alm ost as s h o rt p a ra g ra p h s , from th e moon to th e l i t t l e man o r a tin g to h i s d e te rm in a tio n to e x p lo re a 4 cave to th e fo u r men clam bering down a h i l l w ith t h a t i n t e n t i o n . A nother o f many examples t h a t could be c i t e d o c cu rs in "A G h o u l's 93 A ccountant" (241) a t th e p o in t where th e l i t t l e man fa c e s h is c a p to r s . The r e a d e r 's daze e q u als th e l i t t l e m an's as a b ru p t se n te n c e s vaguely d e s c rib e th e room 's c h a o tic appearance and th e l i t t l e m an's t e r r o r . F a llin g in dead c e n te r o f th e p arag rap h between th e s e two d e s c r ip tio n s th e sen te n c e "There were moments o f s ile n c e " sh ould in i t s b r e v ity and q u ie tn e s s p ro v id e needed r e s p i t e from th e f r e n e t i c a c t i v i t y . I t does to some e x te n t, y e t much o f i t s p o t e n t i a l impact i s l o s t in th e m idst o f e q u a lly s h o rt se n te n c e s and T - u n its . Not o n ly a re re a d e rs fo rc e d to a s s im ila te r a p i d - f i r e v is u a l and em otional sequences, b u t, a s th e s e two p assag es show, th e y must do so w ith o u t c o n n ec tio n s b ein g made f o r them. T r a n s itio n s and co n n ec tiv e d e v ic e s a re conspicuous by t h e i r absence. * * In t h i s e x c e s s iv e ly p a ra - t a c t i c s t y l e , re a d e rs must impose t h e i r own c o n n e c tio n s and h i e r a r c h i c a l ra n k in g o f p r o p o s itio n s ( r i g h t l y o r wrongly) on th e b a s is o f sim ple j u x t apo s i t i o n . At t h i s s ta g e , and to some e x te n t o v er th e e n t i r e span o f h is c a r e e r , C ra n e 's c h ie f methods f o r c o n n ectin g h i s fragm ented p ro s e a re a s s o c ia ti o n , e q u iv alen c e c h a in s , and exact r e p e t i t i o n . A ll can o p e ra te w ith in one p a ra g rap h as th e y do in t h i s one from "The O ctopush":^ A g h o s t- lik e m ist came and hung upon th e w a te rs. The pond became a g ra v e -y a rd . The grey t r e e - t r u n k s and d ark lo g s tu rn e d to monuments and c r y p ts . F i r e - f l i e s were w is p -1 ig h ts dancing ov er g ra v e s, and th e n , ta k in g r e g u la r sh ap es, appeared l i k e b ra s s n a i l s in crude c a s k e ts . The in d iv id u a l began to g ib b e r. A g ib b e r in a b ass v o ice a p p a lls th e s t o u t e s t h e a r t . I t i s th e d e c la r a tio n o f a g e n ie . The l i t t l e man began to sob; a n o th er groaned and th e two rem aining, b e in g tim id by n a tu r e , swore g re a t l u r i d o a th s which b la ze d a g a in s t th e sky. (233) E quivalency c h ain s a re "w ate rs" and "pond"; and " g ib b e r ," " i t , " " d e c la - 94 r a t i o n . ” A s s o c ia tio n co n n ects "monuments and c r y p t s ," " g ra v e s ," " c a s k e ts " ; and " s o b ," " g ro a n ed ," "sw o re." R e p e titio n o ccu rs w ith " g ib b e r ." However, th e s e d e v ice s e s t a b l i s h minimal s in c e th e y c o n tin u e f o r a t th e most th r e e sen te n c es as Crane d a r t s from one fo c a l p o in t to a n o th e r. The r e s u l t i s n o t o n ly la c k o f c o h esio n b u t t h i n l y developed n a r r a t i o n and d e s c r ip ti o n . Such anemia i s r e f l e c t e d in a n o th e r a sp e c t o f C rane’ s e a r ly s t y l e : a tendency to re p e a t h im s e lf, n o t f o r s tu d ie d e f f e c t as he w ill l a t e r , f o r example th e "No one s a id t h a t i t was s o ," "No one m entioned i t " o f 7 . . "The Open B o a t," b ut from la c k o f c r e a t i v e im pulse. Some r e p e t i t i o n s from th e " S u lliv a n County S k etch es" d a ta a re : The music o f th e wind in th e t r e e s i s songs o f lo n e l i n e s s , hymns o f abandonment, and la y s o f th e absence o f th in g s c o n g en ia l and a l i v e . . . . The moon was lo o k in g th ro u g h th e lo ck ed branches a t fo u r im p e rtu rb a b le b u n d les o f b la n k e ts which la y n e a r th e agonized c a m p fire . ("A G h o u l's A c co u n ta n t," 240) Alone, th e c am p -fire s p l u t t e r e d v a l i a n t l y f o r a tim e , opposing i t s music to th e dism al cro o n in g o f th e t r e e s t h a t a cc e n te d th e absence o f th in g s co n g en ial and a l i v e . A c u rio u s moon p eered th ro u g h locked b ran ch es a t im p e rtu rb a b le bundles o f b la n k e ts which la y in th e shadows o f th e t e n t . ("The Cry o f H u ck leb erry P u d d in g ," 255) One i s rem inded o f C ra n e 's rem ark to h i s f r i e n d Corwin Linson in 1894 8 t h a t when he f i r s t began to w rite he h a r d ly knew what to w rite ab o u t. S t i l l a n o th e r a sp e c t o f C ra n e 's s t y l e (which u se s sem an tic, pho n o lo g ic a l, and s y n t a c t i c elem ents a v a il a b le to a l l w r ite r s o n ly more so and ig n o re s o r r a r e l y u ses o th e r s t h a t a re a ls o a v a ila b le ) i s i t s i n t e n s i t y , c r e a te d n o t o n ly by s h o r t, d i r e c t sen te n c es but by sem antic and p h o n o lo g ic a l c h o ic e s . S c h o la rly and m elodram atic d i c t i o n (" o ra - t i o n . " " c r y p t s . " " l u r i d . " " d is h e v e lle d ," " a p p a l l s ," " th ro e " ) i s im- 95 posed upon ju v e n ile sy n tax ("The moon r e s t e d . . . "The l i t t l e man was s ta n d in g . . . , " "They were won," "The l i t t l e man was determ ined . . . and "The fo u r men took . . ." ) • Crane a ls o rhymes words [" ta n g le d men and s tr a n g le d c r i e s " "Four Men in a Cave" (2 2 7 )], and f r e q u e n tly a l l i t e r a t e s ["The p a n tin g p ro c e ss io n h a lte d u n d er some d r i p p in g , drooping hem locks. . . (242)] to g a in v iv id n e s s and a sense o f d e n s ity t h a t he does n o t g a in through s y n ta c tic v a r i e t y and com plexity. C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c m a n ip u la tio n s c e n te r around th e d e v ic e o f i n v e r s io n , whose c h ie f u se s a re to ach iev e th e r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c t o f em p h a s is and to escape th e s u b je c t- v e r b word o rd e r cage o f E n g lish . The l e a s t o b tr u s iv e , hence th e l e a s t em phatic, ty p e s o f in v e rs io n a re th o se t h a t a re preced ed by e x p le tiv e th e r e o r i t . A lthough a l l C ra n e 's w r itin g i s l i b e r a l l y s p rin k le d w ith th e r e in v e r te d se n te n c e s, i t i s in th e e a r ly p ro se w ith i t s s h o r te r se n te n c e s and T - u n its and l i t t l e v a r i e t y in s e n te n c e le n g th and p a t t e r n s t h a t t h e i r q u a n tity i s most n o tic e a b le . And an abundance o f e x p le t iv e - t h e r e se n te n c e s can weaken p ro se s t y l e . F re q u e n tly Crane u ses th e r e -in v e rs io n s sim ply out o f h a b it o r to v a ry h is sen te n c e opening. "T here were moments o f s i le n ce " in th e p assag e from "A G h o u l's A ccountant" (241) m entioned above i s an example o f an u n o b tru s iv e , non-em phatic t h e r e - in v e r s io n , used f o r se n te n c e opening v a r i e t y . O c c a sio n a lly , t h e r e - in v e r s io n c r e a te s an emphasis t h a t does n o t com pensate f o r i t s awkwardness: " In co n se quence, th e fo u r men c o n fro n te d a s h e e t o f w a ter from which th e r e up- re a re d c o u n tle s s g re y , haggard t r e e - t r u n k s " (230). The e q u a lly in o b tr u s iv e in v e rs io n w ith it_ p o stp o n in g th e s u b je c t occurs only once in th e " S u lliv a n County S k etch es" d a ta . I t i s not 96 u n t i l th e l a t e r f i c t i o n ( p a r t i c u l a r l y in The 0 ' Ruddy) t h a t Crane u ses w ith any freq u en cy t h i s more s o p h is ti c a te d s y n t a c t i c s t r a t e g y f o r c r e a tin g em phasis o f an e n t i r e c la u s e . Crane o f te n sim ply i n v e r t s s u b je c t and v e rb , n o t always j u s t i f i a b l y : He in v e s t ig a te d and d isc o v e re d t h a t th e l i t t l e c o r r id o r to o k a sudden d ip down a h i l l . At th e bottom shone a y ellow l i g h t . „ The l i t t l e m an^wriggled p a i n f u l l y about and descended f e e t i n advance. ("Four Men in a C ave," 226) That i s , f o r th e n ex t p a ra g rap h s i t i s th e downward plunge in th e cave t h a t in v o lv e s th e fo u r men, n o t th e l i g h t . In a n o th e r in s ta n c e o f h y p erb ato n Crane i n e f f e c t u a l l y em phasizes a s e n te n c e ’s w eakest c o n te n t word, " th in g s " ( in i t s f o u r th appearance in th e p a r a g r a p h ) : Each in v o lv ed a c o n ta c t w ith th e b la c k w a te r , in which were th in g s t h a t w rig g le d . J ("The O cto p u sh ," 233) A nother in v e r s io n , t h i s one s h i f t i n g th e d i r e c t o b je c t o u t o f i t s n a tu r a l o rd e r, i s a ls o more c o n triv e d th a n reaso n ed : The fo u r men clam bered in to th e b e a u t i f u l b o at and th e in d iv id u a l manoeuvered h i s c r a f t u n t i l he d e a l t o u t to fo u r lo w -sp read in g stum ps, fo u r f i s h e r s . ("The O ctopush," 231) Such i s o l a t i o n fo c u se s th e r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n and adds fo r c e b u t th e game i s n ' t w orth th e c a n d le . No c o n v ersio n from men to f i s h e r s occurs w ith in th e s e n te n c e , which would j u s t i f y h ig h lig h ti n g th e noun p h ra s e , and because o f th e in v e r s io n , coherence w ith th e n e x t sen te n c e ("He th ereu p o n r e p a ir e d to a f i f t h stump where he t i e d h i s b o a t" ) i s dam aged. But Crane can a ls o a t tim es i n v e r t e f f e c t i v e l y : 97 O ff over th e r id g e s , th ro u g h th e ta n g le d sounds o f n ig h t, came th e y e l l o f a hound on th e t r a i l . ( " K illin g His B e a r," 249) Here he le f t- b r a n c h e s two f r e e p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se s t h a t c r e a te s u s pense w ith a s u b je c t d e la y in g in v e r s io n . C ra n e ’s prim ary means o f am p lify in g h is b a s ic se n te n c e s to p i c t u r e sc e n e s, c h a r a c te r s , and a c tio n s i s n o t, however, th e f r e e m o d ific a tio n o f th e se n te n c e j u s t quoted b u t bound m o d if ic a tio n , e s p e c ia ll y sim ple a d je c tiv e s and adverbs and p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s . Many a d je c tiv e s and adverbs s t a r t l e th ro u g h C ra n e 's m ixing s c h o l a r l y w ith o rd in a ry d i c t i o n o r a t t r i b u t i n g hum an--and o f te n e v i l - - a s - p e c ts t o in an im ate o b je c ts ("v e n e ra b le p ip e ," " s e p u lc h ra l r o a r , " " e l o quent to b a c c o ," " t r a i t o r o u s r o c k s ," " v in d ic tiv e w eeds," "flam es s t r u g g le d c h o l e r i c a l l y , " "wind f r e n z ie d ly opposed"), and te n d more to i n t e n s i f y th a n c l e a r l y d e s c r ib e . However, d e s p ite C ra n e 's co n scio u s se a rc h in g f o r unique and stu n n in g m o d ifie rs , he n e v e r th e le s s o fte n r e l i e s on th e same m o d if ie r s , which because o f t h e i r o b tr u s iv e n e s s , i t e r a te m onotonously th ro u g h th e s e t a l e s . Almost an y th in g and e v ery th in g seems to be l u r i d (c u rs e s , th e sky, arms) o r re d ( c u r s e s , ey es, s i len ce) or yellow (th e sky, f i n g e r s , windows). That Crane r e l i e s h e a v ily on bound p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s to add d e t a i l s to h i s s e n te n c e s p o in ts to n o th in g unique about h i s s t y l e s in c e th e y , l i k e th e p o o r, a re alw ays w ith u s . But h is p a r t i c u l a r u se o f them i s o f s t y l i s t i c i n t e r e s t . O ften sen te n c e a f t e r sen te n c e marches by w ith no expansion o th e r th a n m in im ally expanded p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s and an o c c a s io n a l sim ple a d je c tiv e o r ad v erb , as th e fo llo w in g p a ra g rap h from "A G h o u l's A ccountant" i l l u s t r a t e s : 98 He c a s t a dazed g lan ce about th e room and saw vag u ely t h a t i t was d is h e v e lle d as from a t e r r i f i c s c u f f l e . C h airs la y s h a tt e r e d , and d is h e s in th e cupboard were ground to p i e c e s . D e s tr u c tio n had been p r e s e n t. There were moments o f s i l e n c e . The g h ouls and th e w ild , g ray man contem plated t h e i r v ic tim . A th r o e o f f e a r passed o v er him and he sank limp in h i s c h a i r . His eyes swept f e v e r i s h l y over th e fa c e s o f h i s to r m e n to r s . (241) The p arag rap h depends e n t i r e l y upon bound m o d ifie rs f o r d e t a i l s , m o stly p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s ( s in g le u n d e rsco re ) but w ith a s p r in k lin g o f s in g le word m o d ifie rs (double u n d e rs c o re ): two p a r t i c i p l e s , th r e e a d j e c t i v e s , th r e e ad v erb s. A ll th e se n te n c e s s ta y on one s t r u c t u r a l l e v e l , t h i n l y te x tu r e d and minus th o s e v e rb a l form s, f r e e o r bound, t h a t c r e a te a sense o f sim u ltan eo u s a c t i v i t y . R ath er th a n show us th e room and i t s chaos, o r re n d e r th e te n s e atm osphere, Crane l e s s e f f e c t i v e l y t e l l s and r e p o r ts in se n te n c e s t h a t in d iv id u a lly move s w i f t l y b ut combine in to a s t a t i c p a ra g ra p h . He depends more upon s t a r t l i n g word ch o ice th a n m odulated sy n tax to d riv e home h i s e f f e c t s . This does n o t mean t h a t Crane n e v e r w r ite s more d e n se ly te x tu r e d se n te n c e s and p a ra g rap h s in th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ." But he c e r t a i n l y does n o t combine p r o p o s itio n s so as to re v e a l d e t a i l s eco n o m ic a lly as f r e q u e n tly as he does in th e l a t e r work, b e g in n in g w ith th e Mexican a d v en tu re s t o r i e s o f l a t e s p rin g and summer 1896 and up u n t i l The 0 1 Ruddy. Only two s e n te n c e s add a t h i r d le v e l o f s p e c i f i - .. 9 c i t y : 1 From a re c e s s o f th e bank he produced a b lu n t-e n d e d b o a t, 2 p a in te d a v e ry l i g h t b lu e , (VC) 3 w ith y ellow f i n i s h i n g s , (PP) 3 in accordance w ith S u lliv a n a e s t h e t i c s . (PP) ("The O ctopush," 230) 99 1 The l i t t l e m an,/ / rem ained in th e shadows, 2/ w ith n e rv e s t i n g l i n g and b lood th ro b b in g , (PP) 2 li k e a f a n t a s t i c bronze f i g u r e , (PP) 3 w ith je w e lle d eyes swaying s h a r p ly in i t s head. (PP) ( " K illin g His B ea r," 250) And only one re a ch e s a f o u r th le v e l: 1 The t r e e s kep t up t h e i r cro o n in g , 1 and th e l i g h t in th e w est faded to a d u ll red s p la s h , 1 b u t th e l i t t l e m an's fa n c y was fix e d on th e p a n tin g , fo a m -s p a tte re d hound, 2 c a n te rin g w ith h i s h o t nose to th e ground in th e r e a r o f th e b e a r , (VC) 3 which ru n s a s e a s i l y and as s w i f t l y as a r a b b i t , (RC) 4 th ro u g h b ru s h , tim b e r and sw ale. (PP) ( " K illin g H is B e a r," 250) In each o f th e s e s e n te n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y th e l a s t two, Crane d e s c rib e s th e scenes and c h a r a c te r s s h a r p ly , zooming in from f a r to m iddle to c lo se d is ta n c e , a t each s te p in c r e a s in g m a g n ific a tio n o f p a r t s o f th e whole. In th e second se n te n c e th e l i t t l e m an's p h y s ic a l appearance and p sy c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e a r e v iv id ly (a lth o u g h m e lo d ra m a tic a lly ) d e f in e d in p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e drama o f th e t h i r d s e n te n c e , th e unseen y e t c l e a r l y p ic tu r e d hound z e a lo u s ly tr a c k in g th e b e a r . A d d itio n a lly , th e t h i r d sen te n c e rh y th m ic a lly p u ls a te s w ith th e chase as th e th r e e s u c c e ss iv e independent c la u s e s b u ild to a clim ax which i s fo llow ed by th r e e f r e e m o d if ie r s , each ebbing and flow ing as th e se n te n c e winds down w ith a se n se o f f i n a l i t y . Most se n te n c e s w ith f r e e m o d ifie rs develop no f u r t h e r th a n th e second l e v e l , even i f , which i s r a r e , more th a n one m o d ifie r i s added as in t h i s se n te n c e , which i l l u s t r a t e s n o t o n ly t h i s s t y l i s t i c f e a tu r e b u t a ls o C ra n e 's u se o f a b s o lu te s : 100 2 F a s c in a te d , (VC) 2 t h e i r to n g u es c le a v in g , (Abs) 2 t h e i r blood c o ld , (Abs) 1 th e y a ro se to t h e i r f e e t . ("Four Men in a C ave," 228) S ince a b s o lu te s e la b o r a te w ith s p e c i f i c in fo rm a tio n th e g e n e ra l s t a t e ment made by th e base c la u s e , t h e i r e f f e c t u s u a lly i s im p arted b e t t e r when th e y accum ulate a f t e r th e base c la u s e . Yet a t tim e s th e a n t i c i p a tio n produced by f r o n t - s h i f t e d a b s o lu te s may have ad v an tag es in a p a r t i c u l a r c o n te x t. Such i s th e case h e re . The sen te n c e o c cu rs a t t h a t moment in "Four Men in a Cave" when th e men tum ble o u t o f th e d a rk , slim y c o r r id o r t h a t le a d s to a chamber o f th e cave th e y have been e x p lo rin g in to th e l i g h t , and th e f i e r y , th r e a te n in g gaze o f th e c a v e ’ s o ccu p an t, a deranged o ld man. The to p -h e a v y , h y p e rb o lic v e r b a l s , one p a r t i c i p l e and two a b s o lu te s , c u m u la tiv e ly develop th e fo u r m en's p a n ick y r e a c tio n to t h e i r p l i g h t and h e ig h te n th e s u r p r is e o f th e base c la u s e . From th e b u ild - u p , r e a d e r s would expect th e men not to manage to r i s e b ut r a t h e r to rem ain fro z e n in a tum bled heap on th e f l o o r o f th e chamber. C rane, a l b e i t h eav y-handedly, u n d e rc u ts th e fo u r men. He a ls o m ic ro c o sm ica lly foreshadow s th e s tr u c t u r e o f most o f th e t a l e s w herein th e l i t t l e man, and o fte n h i s companions to o , a re d e f l a t e d , th e p o in t b ein g m an's in s ig n if ic a n c e and f o o lis h n e s s . C ra n e 's f r e e m o d ifie rs in t h i s s e n te n c e i l l u s t r a t e th r e e o th e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h i s e a r l y s t y l e . One i s t h a t f r e e m o d if ie r s , e sp e c i a l l y a b s o lu te s , te n d to c l u s t e r . A nother i s t h a t a t l e a s t in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s th e y te n d to be f r o n t - s h i f t e d , hence em phasized, even when awkwardness r e s u l t s . " ^ A t h i r d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t h a t n o t o n ly i s Crane l e s s l i k e l y to 101 expand se n te n c e s w ith f r e e m o d if ie r s , he i s l e s s l i k e l y to ta k e advan ta g e o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r expansion. They a re as c lip p e d as h is s e n te n c e s ; Crane ru sh e s o f f to th e n e x t d e t a i l b e fo re f u l l y dev elo p in g th e one a t hand. Such a b ru p tn e ss , an earmark o f C ra n e 's s t y l e a t t h i s s ta g e , causes s t y l i s t i c problem s t h a t have a b e a rin g on n a r r a t i v e problem s and, in a la r g e r s e n s e , th e f a i l u r e o f th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s . The n a r r a t o r sounds to o much l i k e th e f e a r f u l l i t t l e man; what he says and how he says i t a lig n him to o c lo s e ly w ith th e l i t t l e man f o r him to be a r e l i a b l e g u id e . Time a f t e r tim e he le a d s th e r e a d e r a s tr a y . A l though he d e s c rib e s an a n im is tic n a tu r e t h a t can mourn te n d e r ly ("On th e r id g e - to p a dism al c h o ir o f hemlocks crooned ov er one t h a t had f a l l e n " ) o r one s t o l i d l y i n d i f f e r e n t to th e l i t t l e m an's fe ro c io u s a s s a u lt ("The m ountain u n d er h is f e e t was m o tio n le s s " ) , most o fte n he p o r tr a y s n a t u r e 's a sp e c t as dark and s i n i s t e r ("N ight a lso came v e ry n e a r and menaced th e w anderers w ith d a rk n e ss") o r w ith b a r e ly con c e a le d t h r e a t u n d e rly in g i t s daytim e b e n e fic e n c e ("The sun gleamed m e r r ily upon th e w a te rs" b u t b en eath th e s u rfa c e " m illio n s o f fe rn 11 branches quavered and h id m y s t e r i e s " ) . D e s c rip tio n s such as th e l a s t two match th e l i t t l e m an's f e a r o f what lu r k s in th e dark woods. Hence th e l i t t l e m an's t e r r o r s seem le g itim a te to r e a d e r s , who assume th a t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p eo p le and ev en ts i s j u s t i f i e d : t h a t , f o r exam p l e , th e h erm it in th e cave could indeed be a "ghoul" o r a "vam pire" o r someone e q u a lly s a t a n i c , o r t h a t th e fo u r men s tra n d e d in a "g ra v e y ard " pond by t h e i r drunken guide a re in d eed v u ln e ra b le t o "dread o b j e c t s . " J u s t i f i e d , t h a t i s , u n t i l , w ith a q u ick f i n a l t w i s t , th e 102 n a r r a t o r a t s t o r y 's end exposes th e l i t t l e m an's a b s u r d ity , b u t in a c o n triv e d n o t i n e v i t a b l e fa s h io n . The e sse n ce o f C ra n e 's m oral v a lu e s rem ains uncommunicated, v ic tim o f C ra n e 's i n a b i l i t y to d is ta n c e h is n a r r a t o r from th e p r o ta g o n is t. Throughout most o f th e t a l e s manner and m a tte r are n o t w e ll-fu s e d , a m eth o d o lo g ical i n s t a b i l i t y n o t u n ex p ected in budding a r t i s t s , in c lu d in g C rane, who a re g roping t h e i r way tow ard m a stery o f t h e i r c r a f t . However, one S u lliv a n County t a l e r e v e a ls C ra n e 's i n c ip ie n t a b i l i t y to u n if y manner and m a tte r: " K illin g His B e a r." Crane m oderates h i s p u r p l e p ro se ("The l i t t l e man, w ith n e rv e s t i n g l i n g and blood th ro b b in g , rem ained in th e shadows, l i k e a f a n t a s t i c bronze f i g u r e , w ith je w e lle d eyes swaying s h a r p ly in i t s head" i s th e s t o r y 's extrem e exam ple), mod u l a t e s h i s sen te n c e rhythm s and le n g th s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e i s th e t e r s e l y u n d e r s ta te d "He i s s o rry he came" t h a t e m p h a tic a lly conveys th e h e a r t o f th e t a l e ' s moral le s s o n ) , s u s ta in s fo c u s , and e s t a b l i s h e s co h e re n c e . These fu n c tio n ;, s i g n i f i c a n t l y to produce and c o n tr o l atm os p h e ric e f f e c t s and iro n y , from a s o f t l y te n d e r n a tu re ("hemlocks crooned o v er one th a t had f a l l e n " ) and th e agony t h a t th e ho u n d 's c r i e s h e r a ld (" h is baying t e l l s o f th e approach o f d e a th " ) to th e i r o n i c s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n o f th e l i t t l e man as he k i l l s h is b e ar ("Upon h is fa c e was th e sm ile o f a s u c c e s s fu l l o v e r " ) . Readers im m ediately t r u s t th e o m n iscien t n a r r a t o r , who knowledge ab ly s e t s th e scen e, d e s c r ib e s th e e v e n ts o f th e s to r y , and lo c a te s th e l i t t l e man in h is p ro p e r p la c e w ith in b o th . I t i s th e n a r r a t o r who, th ro u g h h is ex p an siv e and k een ly aimed d e s c r ip ti o n , d ia m e tr ic a ll y opposes h i s v a lu e s (hence th e r e a d e r 's v a lu e s ) to th e l i t t l e man’ s. 103 The l i t t l e man w ears a "hideous c a p ," stamps " im p a tie n t f e e t , " u t t e r s s o f t c u r s e s ," and v i s c e r a l l y im agines h im s e lf g l o r i o u s ly " k i l l i n g a thousand b e a r s ." More damning, th e l i t t l e man le a p s i n t o th e a i r when h i s b u l l e t speeds home, waving h i s h a t and y e l l i n g " h i t . " And, s m ilin g , s a d i s t i c a l l y k ic k s th e r ib s o f th e dead b e a r. On th e o th e r hand, th e n a r r a t o r i s s e n s i t i v e to th e so rro w in g , v u ln e ra b le la n d sca p e , th e d ir e meaning o f th e hound’s b ay in g , and th e b e a r 's f r a n t i c ru sh f o r l i f e , a l l o f which a re humanized to c r e a te a p o in t o f r e f e r ence f o r re a d e rs and g u id e t h e i r judgm ent. Edwin H. Cady lin k s C ra n e 's S u lliv a n County t a l e s and s k e tc h e s to a m ajor mode o f American humor v a r io u s ly la b e l l e d '" f r o n t i e r * o r 'W est e r n , ' 'O ld South-West* o r 'p i c a r e s q u e ,' perhaps 'a d o l e s c e n t , ' c e r - 12 t a i n l y 'm a s c u lin e ' and p ro b a b ly 'p r e c i v i l i z e d . '" Humor o f th e eg o -d e f l a t i n g , put-down ty p e u n d e r lie s th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s and i s n o t a b se n t from " K illin g His B e a r," b u t th e mocking d e f l a t i o n o f th e b r a g g in g l i t t l e man ta k e s second p la c e to th e t a l e ' s more s e r io u s message: d e a th , w hether o f inan im ate o r anim ate n a tu r e , i s th e o c c a sio n f o r s o r row, n o t triu m p h . In la r g e m easure i t i s C ra n e 's more m ature s t y l e , h i s more a d r o i t h a n d lin g o f sy n tax and word ch o ice t h a t e s ta b l i s h e s th e n a r r a t o r 's d is ta n c e from th e l i t t l e man and a u th o r iz e s t h i s m essage f o r r e a d e r s , who in t h i s s to r y a t l e a s t , a re r a r e l y d i s t r a c t e d by v iv id , y e t fragm ented, c o n triv e d p r o s e . Crane, who d isp a ra g e d h i s S u lliv a n County t a l e s as " c l e v e r ," i s im p re s siv e ly n o t c le v e r in " K illin g His B e a r," and to t h a t d eg ree i s more s u c c e s s f u l. Maggie: A G irl o f th e S t r e e t s Of Maggie Crane made two s ta te m e n ts t h a t a re n o t e n t i r e l y t r u e . 104 One, d i r e c t , r e f e r r e d to re sp o n se t o M aggie's p u b lic a tio n in 1893: 13 " I t f e l l f l a t . Nobody seemed t o n o tic e i t o r c a re f o r i t . " The o th e r , im p lie d , r e f e r r e d to i t s s t y l e ; Crane claim ed to have abandoned h i s " c le v e r R udyard-K ipling s t y l e " sometime in 1892, t h a t i s , th e s t y l e o f th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ," b e fo re com pleting M aggie. But a t l e a s t Hamlin G arland responded to th e 1893 M aggie, immedi a t e l y and e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y "because i t [was] th e work o f a young man, and a ls o because i t [was] a work o f a s to n is h in g ly good s t y l e " d e s p ite i t s b ein g a " fra g m e n t," " p i c t o r i a l , g ra p h ic , t e r r i b l e i n i t s d i r e c t n e s s ." P a r t l y because Maggie "no c o n v e n tio n a l p h r a s e s ," Crane im p re s se d G arland o v e r a ll as a s t y l i s t o f "alm o st u n lim ite d reso u rce."* '* And when Maggie was r e v is e d and p u b lish e d in 1896 to r i d e th e c r e s t o f The Red Badge p r o p e lle d wave of p o p u la r s u c c e s s , many re v ie w ers rem ark ed on i t s q u a l i t i e s (rem arks in g e n e ra l a p p ly in g to e i t h e r e d i t i o n ) , o f te n having to do w ith i t s u n p reced en ted outspokenness about slum l i f e and i t s in n o v a tiv e s t y l e . M aggie's s t y l e i s , in d e ed , l i k e none o f i t s slum novel p re d e c e s s o r s , n o r o th e r contem porary n o v e ls , b u t in many ways i t c o n tin u e s to d is p la y th e u n g a in ly s t y l e o f th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s . D e sp ite M aggie's b ein g a s u s ta in e d e f f o r t t h a t h o ld s our a t t e n t i o n u n t i l th e novel winds down to i t s t r a g i c and ir o n i c end, n o t a group o f s h o rt t a l e s , th e s k e tc h form u n d e r lie s M aggie. I t im p resses us more as a s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d in c id e n ts s tru n g to g e th e r th a n a c a r e f u l l y p l o t t e d n o v e l. The b a t t l e betw een th e y o u th fu l Rum A lle y and D e v il's Row an ta g o n is ts i s fo llow ed by o th e r v i o l e n t in c id e n ts : Jimmie pummeling Maggie, Mr. and Mrs. Johnson engaging in a drunken b ra w l, and so on. 105 W e g e t a le n g th y d e s c r ip ti o n o f Jimmie growing up and w orking--and f i g h t i n g — as a tru c k d r i v e r , h e a r o f M aggie's s e d u c tio n and d e s e r tio n by P e te , h e r even more s o rd id c a r e e r as a p r o s t i t u t e and d e sc e n t to d e a th in th e r i v e r , each ep iso d e form ing, along w ith o th e r s , alm ost a s e p a r a te o n e -a c t drama. These ep iso d es form ing th e n o v e l's la r g e r s t r u c t u r e a re seconded on th e more m ic ro sco p ic s t r u c t u r a l le v e l th ro u g h C ra n e 's emphasis on in d iv id u a l w ords, p h ra s e s , and s e n te n c e s . The r e s u l t , frag m en tated s y n ta x , i s a key in g r e d ie n t o f th e c o llo q u ia l s t y l e developed by Amer ic a n w r i t e r s between 1825 and 1925, a cc o rd in g to B ridgm an.1^ Along w ith fragm ented sy n tax came a cc e n t on in d iv id u a l v e rb a l u n i t s , more c o n c re te and c o llo q u ia l d i c t i o n , and s im p lif ie d s y n ta x , a l l common in g r e d ie n ts o f C ra n e 's p ro se f i c t i o n s t y l e , e x cep t t h a t h i s d ic tio n te n d s to be mixed and h i s fra g m e n ta tio n extrem e, p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e e a r ly work. Maggie c o n tin u e s many o f th e s t y l i s t i c f e a tu r e s e v id e n t in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s , in c lu d in g th e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f i n t e n s i t y and s t r e s s f o r d epth and s tr e n g th and s t a r t l i n g word ch o ice f o r m odulated sy n tax to o b ta in r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c t s . The f i r s t group o f p a ra g rap h s d e s c rib in g th e s t r e e t f i g h t t h a t 17 in a u g e ra te s th e n o v el i l l u s t r a t e s th e s e p r o p e n s itie s o f C ra n e 's . C ra n e 's d e s c r ip ti o n o f Jimmie defen d in g th e honor o f Rum A lle y a g a in s t a tta c k e r s from D e v il's Row combines ed u cated d i c t i o n ( " u r c h in s ," " w ra th ," "g am in s," " a s s a s s i n s ," " p r e c i p i t a t e l y , " and so f o r th ) w ith o rd in a ry ("b o y s," "m adly," " g r i n s " ) , im plem enting a c o n tr a s t t h a t am p l i f i e s th e i n t e n s i t y o f th e scen e. R einforcem ent comes from e n e r 106 g e t i c v e rb s such as " c i r c l i n g , " " w r ith in g ," " c h a rg e d ," " stu m b le d ," and m o d if ie r s such as " f u r i o u s ," " in s a n e ," " b a r b a r ic ," "h o w lin g ." S hort p a ra g ra p h s , s e n te n c e s , and T - u n its a ls o c o n tr ib u te to th e tu m u lt. But a c tio n , p a r a d o x ic a lly , i s r e ta r d e d . N early every s e n te n c e b e g in s w ith th e s u b je c t, d i r e c t i n g a c tio n inward so th a t each s e n te n c e te n d s to h a rb o r i t s own dynamic f o r c e . Each moves s w i f t l y on ly to a b ru p tly sto p b e fo re th e n e x t s e n te n c e , th e n e x t a c ti o n , c u rb in g movement o f th e p a ssa g e as a whole. There a re few c o n n e c tiv e d e v ice s between p r o p o s i t i o n s . L a te r in t h i s d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e s t r e e t f i g h t , as th e Rum A lle y /D e v il’s Row b a t t l e winds down to an exchange o f ta u n t s , Crane u ses a c o n ju n c tiv e adverb sen te n c e i n i t i a l l y to r e l a t e two e v en ts in tim e sequence: "A few s to n e s were thrown a t long d is ta n c e s , and words o f c h a lle n g e p assed betw een sm all w a r r io r s . Then th e Rum A lle y c o n tin g e n t tu rn e d slo w ly in th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r home s t r e e t " (7 ). But t h i s i s th e o n ly s e n te n c e i n i t i a l c o n ju n c tiv e adverb o c c u rrin g in th e Maggie d a ta , showing t h a t Crane i s n o t y e t tr y i n g to ach iev e coherence and e s ta b l i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p s th ro u g h t h i s gram m atical d e v ice whose c h ie f fu n c tio n i s to accom plish th e s e two e f f e c t s . The c h ie f c o n n ecto r in th e quoted p assag e i s rhnd," s u g g e s tin g , in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e i s o l a t e d s e n te n c e s , s e q u e n tia l, n o t c o in s ta n ta n e - ous a c ti o n s . I t i s as i f Jimmie sta n d s on th e heap o f g r a v e l, th en throw s s to n e s , th e n g la r e s f u r i o u s l y , th e n tw is ts h i s body as h e r a in s c u rs e s down upon h i s enem ies, and so on. Only r a r e l y in th e s e p a r a g raphs does Crane employ s y n t a c t i c o p tio n s open to him t h a t could sim u l a t e a w e lte r o f sim u ltan eo u s e v e n ts . One i s th e f r e e s u b o rd in a te 107 c la u s e "As th e y c h a rg e d ," b u t b ecau se o f th e c o o rd in a te s t r u c t u r e o f th e main c la u s e , " th e y threw s to n e s and c u rsed in s h r i l l c h o ru s ," th e e f f e c t o f b a t t l e tu rm o il i s n o t as pronounced as in th e l a s t quoted sen te n c e w ith i t s a tta c h e d v erb c l u s t e r s : "The l i t t l e boys ra n to and f r o , dodging, h u r lin g s to n e s and sw earing in b a r b a r ic t r e b l e s . " Here Crane e s t a b l i s h e s n o t o n ly c o n c u rre n t movements b u t a t th e same tim e g r a c e f u l ly moves from th e panoram ic to th e p a r t i c u l a r . (O therw ise, f o r th e most p a r t , th e n a r r a t o r p r e s e n ts th e d e t a i l s o f th e scene in fragm ents and e x p ec ts th e r e a d e r to c o o rd in a te th e v a rio u s p ie c e s and f i l l i n m issin g l i n k s .) In f a c t , C ra n e 's d e v ia tio n from s ta n d a rd E n g lish sy n tax fo rc e s th e re a d e r to f i l l i n t e r n a l se n te n c e gaps as w e ll as th o s e betw een s e n te n c e s . For exam ple, th e f i r s t two se n te n c e s in th e p a ssa g e a re b o th e l l i p t i c a l , a p o e tic u se o f language c h a r a c te r iz in g C ra n e 's e a r ly s t y l e p a r t i c u l a r l y (we have a lre a d y n o ted h is fr e q u e n t use o f a l l i t e r a tio n and rh y m in g ). In th e f i r s t s e n te n c e th e r e a d e r must su pply " f ig h tin g " b e fo re " f o r th e honor o f Rum A lle y ," t h a t i s , d e fen d in g i t . In th e second s e n te n c e th e r e a d e r must su pply an o b je c t f o r " p e l t i n g . " The boys cannot sim ply p e l t a t Jim m ie; th e y must p e l t so m eth in g , in t h i s case s to n e s o r g r a v e l. W e have a lre a d y d is c u s s e d th e e f f e c t s of C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c i n v e r s io n s , which b e s id e s p ro v id in g rhythm ic v a r i a t i o n a ls o fo reg ro u n d se n te n c e e lem en ts, o fte n nouns, fo c u sin g th e r e a d e r 's a t t e n t i o n on p a r t i c u l a r o b je c ts o r p e o p le . In s i m i l a r fa s h io n t h i s p ro c e ss o f e l l i p s i s , a n o th e r s y n t a c t i c f e a t u r e o f C ra n e 's s t y l e , e x e r ts em phatic r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c t . The r e a d e r i s fo rc e d to p a r t i c i p a t e as fe llo w c r e a to r 108 by s u b s t i t u t i n g m issin g elem en ts. A nother example o f p o e tic language i s th e synecdochic " D e v il's Row t h r o a t s , " which even as i t h ig h lig h ts th e key p a r t o f th e anatomy in v o lv ed in th e how ling a ls o dehum anizes th e h o w lers. The r e a d e r must rehum anize and r e c o n s t i t u t e th e whole, th e boys, from th e p a r t , t h e i r t h r o a t s , s u b s t i t u t i n g " th e t h r o a t s o f th e boys from D e v il's Row." Almost im m ediately fo llo w in g we read th e d i s t o r t e d sy n tax o f "His sm all body was w rith in g in th e d e liv e r y o f g r e a t, crim son o a t h s ." Here we have d e v ia n t u se o f th e p r e p o s itio n in where we would ex p ect th e sta n d a rd d u rin g in tro d u c in g th e p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se , o r a s u b o rd in a te c la u s e : "d u rin g h is d e liv e r y o f g r e a t , crim son o a th s " o r "as he d e liv e r e d g r e a t, crim son o a t h s ." In o f te n a l t e r n a te s w ith d u rin g b u t o n ly in l im it e d c o n te x t where th e meaning i s " a t a p o in t in th e co u rse o f som ething" (They v a c a tio n d u rin g J u ly o r They v a c a tio n in J u ly ) b u t n o t where th e meaning i s "th ro u g h o u t th e d u r a tio n o f so m eth in g ," th e meaning r e q u ir e d f o r th e sen te n c e in q u e s tio n . Two m a tte rs o f i n t e r e s t t o C ra n e 's gram m atical s t y l e emerge from t h i s s y n ta c tic m a n ip u la tio n . One i s w hether such d i s t o r t i o n s o f s ta n d a rd E n g lish sy n tax a re r h e t o r i c a l l y w o rth w h ile. In t h i s case two seem awkward and u n n e c e ssa ry . The l i t t l e boy and h i s s t r a t e g i c lo c a t io n a to p th e g ra v e l heap a re a lre a d y foreg ro u n d ed in th e f i r s t se n te n c e o f th e n o v e l, a re p e a te d " s to n e s " in th e second se n te n c e would n o t o n ly e lim in a te d e s c r ip ti v e vagueness b u t p ro v id e s y n ta c tic b a lan c e and a c l e a r sense o f th e bombardment b ein g r e c i p r o c a l . In th e t h i r d case C ra n e 's synecdochic re f e r e n c e does f o r c e f u l l y r e l a t e th e boys, t h e i r how ling, in f a c t t h e i r f i g h t i n g , to a n im a ls, in d ic a tin g t h a t th e y and t h e i r b e h a v io r a r e l e s s th a n human, b u t th e d e v ia n t sy n tax r e s t s heavy- handedly a to p a lr e a d y m elodram atic d i c t i o n . What Crane does to a la r g e 109 e x te n t i s s a c r i f i c e i n t e r e s t i n g and d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s on th e a l t a r o f l i t e r a r y in n o v a tio n , g iv in g th e re a d e r an e x c lu s iv e d e s c r ip ti o n d e pendent upon s t r e s s f o r e f f e c t , r a t h e r th a n an in c lu s iv e one dependent upon d e t a i l s t h a t would g iv e more th a n a shadowy s k e tc h o f th e b a t t l e and i t s p a r t i c i p a n t s . The o th e r m a tte r o f i n t e r e s t i s t h a t th e s y n t a c t i c d i s t o r t i o n s c l u s t e r . W e have a lre a d y n o ted th e c l u s t e r i n g o f m o d if ic a tio n a l s t r u c tu r e s in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s . Of th e n in e a b s o lu te s t h a t occur in th e t a l e s , fo u r occur in "Four Men in a Cave" in two se n te n c e s w ith two each, one o f th e s e n te n c e s a ls o in c lu d in g a v erb c l u s t e r . Three a b s o lu te s occu r in " K illin g H is B e a r," a l l w ith in th r e e p arag rap h s and a l l in se n te n c e s a d d i t i o n a l l y expanded w ith o th e r f r e e m o d if ie r s . In Maggie f r o n t - s h i f t e d dependent c la u s e s a ls o te n d to c l u s t e r . In a sudden ru sh to s u b o rd in a te p r o p o s itio n s , alm ost as i f he suddenly became aware o f t h e i r t r a n s i t i v e power, Crane in c r e a s e s h i s o v e r a ll use o f f r e e c la u s e s (bound were n o t s e p a ra te d o ut and counted) from t h i r te e n in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s to t h i r t y - f o u r in Maggie f o r a v e r ages o f .035 compared t o .096 p e r T - u n it. Not o n ly does Crane combine p r o p o s itio n s and show r e l a t i o n s h i p s th ro u g h f r e e r s u b o rd in a tio n b u t he e x p re sse s a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s and fo reg ro u n d s them more o fte n by f r o n t - s h i f t i n g . T hree s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s a r e f r o n t - s h i f t e d in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s (one tim e a d v e r b ia l, two combined tim e and a tte n d a n t c irc u m stan c es) f o r an average o f .004 p e r sen te n c e whereas tw e n ty -th re e a r e f r o n t - s h i f t e d in Maggie (e ig h te e n tim e, one tim e and a tte n d a n t c irc u m sta n c e s, th r e e c o n d itio n , one co n cessio n ) f o r an av erag e o f .081 p e r s e n te n c e . (Because o f t h i s heavy em phasis on 110 tim e in s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s coupled w ith f r o n t - s h i f t e d tim e word o r p h ra se a d v e r b i a l s - - " e v e n t u a l l y ," "m o m en tarily ,” " in th e f i n a l e , " " a t f i r s t " - - Maggie a p p ea rs more d e f i n i t e l y p la c e d in tim e th a n th e S u l l i van County t a l e s . And in sp ace, s in c e in term s o f f r o n t - s h i f t e d p h ra se a d v e r b ia ls , p la c e ("On t h e i r sm a ll, co n v u lsed f a c e s , " "In th e lower p a r t s o f th e c ity " ) outnumber tim e by about 3 :1 . Such ch o ice o f sy n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r placem ent c o n tr ib u te s to th e s u r r e a l q u a l i t y o f S u lliv a n County compared to th e o b je c t iv e r e a l i t y o f th e Bow- 18 e r y .) S l i g h t l y more th a n h a l f o f th e s e f r o n t - s h i f t e d su b o rd in a te c la u s e s , tw e lv e , o ccu r in th e le n g th y d e s c r i p t i o n o f Jim m ie's a d o le s cence in C hapter IV. The r e s u l t i s t h a t a lth o u g h th e n a r r a t o r d e s c r ib e s Jimmie m ainly th ro u g h i s o l a t e d , f l o r i d d e t a i l s , many more sug- 19 g e s tiv e th a n e x p l i c i t l y d e s c r i p t i v e , he a ls o c o n n ects some d e s c r i p t i v e and n a r r a t i v e d e t a i l s , c l a r i f y i n g main and s u p p o rtin g id e a s and sm oothing th e flow o f h is p ro s e . Jimmie does n o t a t tim es have money to spend and o c c a s io n a lly f e e l s a t i s f i e d w ith th e w orld, b ut r a t h e r one e n t a i l s th e o th e r : "When he had a d o l l a r in h is pocket h is s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith e x is te n c e was th e g r e a te s t th in g in th e w orld" (34): Through th e s y n ta c tic d e v ice o f s u b o rd in a tio n , Crane can e x p l i c i t l y and u n o b tru s iv e ly e n ab le re a d e rs to u n d e rsta n d Jim m ie's "m oral" code: s e l f - s a t i s f a c tio n f o r him i s m a t e r i a l l y , n o t good-deed o r ie n te d . Crane a ls o u ses s u b o r d in a tio n to e x p re ss c o n d itio n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s having to do w ith Jim m ie's a c tio n s and a t t i t u d e s in h i s tr u c k d r i v e r jo b . He i s a tro u b le -m a k e r u nder c e r t a i n c o n d itio n s : " I f in th e f r o n t and key- tru c k o f ch ao s, he e n te re d t e r r i f i c a l l y in to th e q u a rre l t h a t was ra g in g to and fr o among th e d r i v e r s on t h e i r h ig h s e a ts , and sometimes I l l ro a re d o a th s and v i o l e n t l y got h im s e lf a r r e s t e d " (3 5 ). On th e o th e r hand, " i f he and h i s team chanced to be in th e r e a r he p re s e rv e d a demeanor o f s e r e n i t y , c ro s s in g h i s le g s and b u r s tin g f o r t h in to y e l l s when fo o t p a ss e n g e rs took dangerous d iv e s b en eath th e noses o f h is champing h o rs e s " (34). A lthough th e r e i s s t i l l much se n te n c e expansion by c o o rd in a tio n , C ra n e 's fa v o re d method (th e fo rm er o f th e two se n te n c e s r e v e a ls t h i s in i t s compounded main c la u s e , which im p airs th e s e n te n c e 's e f f e c t by s e p a r a tin g Jim m ie's c u rs in g and h i s b ein g a r r e s t ed from h is q u a r r e lin g w ith h is fe llo w d r i v e r s ) , th ro u g h o c c a s io n a l u se o f s u b o rd in a tio n Crane v a r i e s h i s p ro se rhythm s and i s a b le to draw im p lic a tio n s in to h i s n a r r a t i v e d e s c r ip ti o n t h a t e x p re ss im p o rtan t th in g s about Jimmie n o t e x p r e s s ib le w ith o u t th e u se o f s u b o rd in a te s t r u c t u r e s . A nother example o f c l u s t e r e d s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s o ccu rs in Chap t e r XVII, th e most n o ta b le s t y l i s t i c achievem ent in a l l o f Maggie. In i t , in m arvelous p a lim p s e s t e f f e c t , a re c h ro n ic le d M aggie's l a s t n ig h t on e a r th l i t e r a l l y , h e r walk th ro u g h a wet New York evening s o l i c i t i n g g ra d u a lly le s s d e s ir a b le custom ers u n t i l she m eets h e r doom a t th e 20 r i v e r e i t h e r by s u ic i d e o r m urder, and h e r c a r e e r as a p r o s t i t u t e s y m b o lic a lly , h e r d o w nhill c a r e e r from a f f lu e n c e to d e g ra d a tio n c o v e r ing an in d e te rm in a te tim e span. What may seem on th e s u r f a c e to be a m ajor f a u l t , C ra n e 's sen d in g Maggie s o l i c i t i n g e v e r more d eg en e ra te custom ers when she i s e a r l y d e s c rib e d as a p p a re n tly p ro sp e ro u s " in h e r handsome c lo a k , d a i n t i l y l i f t i n g h e r s k i r t s and p ic k in g f o r h e r w e ll- shod f e e t th e d ry e r sp o ts upon th e pavem ents" (145), i s r e a l l y a f o r c e f u l and e v o c a tiv e com pression o f tim e and e v e n ts . 112 C hapter XVII im p resses us a s being n o t o f a p ie c e w ith most o f M aggie, and w ith good re a so n . I t i s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c h a p te r t h a t shows th e f ig u r e s on M aggie, numbers t h a t by th em selv es b e l i e M aggie’s b e lo n g in g to th e e a r ly group in term s o f gram m atical s t y l e . Average se n te n c e le n g th o v e r a ll i s 17.50 compared to 13.42 o f th e " S u lliv a n County S k etch es" and 14.90 o f The Red Badge; mean T -u n it le n g th o v e r a ll in Maggie i s 13.75 compared to 9.64 o f th e " S u lliv a n County S k etch es" and 11.91 o f The Red Badge, a mean T -u n it le n g th even g r e a t e r th a n th e Mexican a d v en tu re t a l e s o f Group 5; se n te n c e s a re sm oother flow ing and more v a r ie d in le n g th ; and th e number o f f r e e m o d ifie rs too i s more on p a r w ith th e l a t e r work th a n w ith e i t h e r th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s o r The Red Badge, and, in d eed , w ith c e r t a i n ty p e s even exceeds th e l a t e r work. But c l u s t e r i n g and th e ty p e s o f s t r u c t u r e s in v o lv e d e x p la in th e s e a p p a re n tly anomalous f i g u r e s . For exam ple, av erag e sen te n c e le n g th in C hapter I i s 14.62 and mean T -u n it le n g th 1 1 .1 9 , consonant w ith le n g th s in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s and The Red Badge, whereas in C h ap ter XVII th e average sen te n c e le n g th i s 17.98 and mean T -u n it le n g th 15.00. The lo n g e r T - u n its show t h a t C h ap ter X V II's lo n g e r se n te n c e s a re n o t a r e s u l t o f sim ply compounding, but more s u b o rd in a te s t r u c t u r e s and f r e e m o d ifie rs embedded in and a tta c h e d to main c la u s e s , c r e a tin g a stro n g er, more d e n se ly te x tu r e d , f l u i d s t y l e . T his p ro v e s t r u e in C h ap ter XVII where C ra n e 's f r e e m o d ifie rs in Maggie c l u s t e r . For example, e ig h t o f th e fo u r te e n a b s o lu te s o c c u rrin g in th e Maggie d a ta o ccu r in C hapter XVII (a n i n t h o c cu rs a t th e b eg in n in g o f C h ap ter XV in a p a r a l l e l and foreshadow ing s i t u a t i o n in which a n o th e r f o r lo r n woman a lso l o i t e r s 113 along th e c i t y ' s avenues, f u t i l e l y scanning m en's f a c e s : "H urrying men, bent on c a tc h in g some bo at o r t r a i n , j o s t l e d h e r elbow s, f a i l i n g t o n o tic e h e r , t h e i r th o u g h ts fix e d on d i s t a n t d in n e rs " [128]), tw en ty - ■ I ■ I — T T - n T r - .1 ■ - .n r ■ ■ i r i . . . ■ i ,r ~ , . ■ .r . . ‘‘ ' , — - ■ ■ ^ two o f th e s i x t y - f i v e v erb c l u s t e r s . Many f e a tu r e s o f C ra n e 's s t y l e t y p ic a l o f h i s e a r l y work and some spanning h is c a r e e r a r e , o f c o u rs e , p re s e n t in C h ap ter XVII. There i s 21 an o c c u rre n c e o f an e a r ly fa v o re d v e rb , th e h ig h ly l i t e r a r y "wended," which accom panies th e cerem onial " p ro c e s s io n " ["An e n d le s s p ro c e s s io n wended tow ard e le v a te d s t a t i o n s " (1 4 4 )], c r e a tin g a l o f t y c o n tr a s t to th e low ly means o f mass t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . There a re odd word c o l l o c a t i o n s : "pompous and p h ila n th r o p ic w h isk ers" (146) and " b e la te d man" (1 4 6 ), and m o d ifie rs more s u g g e s tiv e th a n s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s c r ip ti v e : "A t a l l young man, smoking a c i g a r e t t e w ith a sub!im e a i r . . . ," (145) and ones t h a t c h a r a c te r iz e as w ell as d e s c rib e : "Women shrugged im p a tie n t sh o u ld e rs . . . " (1 4 3 ). M oreover, Crane ex clu d e s d e t a i l s we might e x p e c t; we do n o t h e a r what Maggie says to most o f h e r p r o s p e c tiv e cu sto m ers, no r are we p r iv y to h e r th o u g h ts ; some e n c o u n te rs a re d is c o n c e r tin g ly a b ru p t; th e r e i s no d e f i n i t e m ention o f h er d e a th . F u r th e r , sy n tax can be b o th awkward ["P eo p le h aving been co m p arativ ely s i l e n t f o r two hours b u r s t in to a ro a r o f c o n v e rs a tio n , t h e i r h e a r ts s t i l l k in d lin g from th e glow ings o f th e s ta g e " (143-144)] and a r t f u l l y in n o v a tiv e ["He had on evening d r e s s , a m oustache, a chrysanthemum, and a look o f e n n u i, a l l o f which he kep t c a r e f u l l y u nder h is eye" (1 4 5 )]. But C hapter XVII i s u n lik e many o f C ra n e 's e a r ly d e s c r i p t i v e p a s sages which depend upon s e p a ra te c la u s e s and bound m o d if ie r s t o add 114 d e t a i l s and s y n ta c tic d i s t o r t i o n to em phasize in t h a t i t e x te n s iv e ly depends upon f r e e m o d ifie rs to d e s c rib e and h ig h lig h t. Through th e p rism o f C ra n e 's k i n e s t h e t i c s t r u c t u r e s we view t e l e s c o p i c a l l y M ag g ie's p a s t and p re s e n t s t a t e . Let u s look f i r s t a t C ra n e 's use o f a b s o lu te s , which sim u la te a camera zooming in from a panoram ic, d i s t a n t sh o t f o r a m ag n ified c lo s e - up, g e n e r a tin g b o th k i n e s t h e t i c and v is u a l e f f e c t s . R eaders a re enabled to see sim u lta n e o u sly p a r t s o f th e same a c ti o n , s i t u a t i o n , t h in g , o r p e rso n t h a t th e y see as a w hole. A b so lu tes zero in on th e flo w er d e a le r d u rin g th e i n i t i a l scene s e t t i n g : A flo w e r d e a l e r , h i s f e e t ta p p in g i m p a tie n tly , h i s nose and h i s w ares g l i s t e n i n g w ith r a i n - d r o p s , sto o d behind an a r r a y o f r o s e s and chrysanthemums. (143) They h ig h lig h t th e man w ith in th e p a n o ra m ic a lly composed background f o r M aggie's e n tra n c e , a n o is y , c o m fo rta b le , busy, r a d ia n t s e t t i n g s u i t a b l e to h e r e a r ly p r o s p e r ity . " E l e c t r i c l i g h t s , w h irrin g s o f t l y , shed a b lu r r e d r a d ia n c e " on ja n g lin g c a r s " p u lle d by s lip p in g h o r s e s ," c l a t t e r i n g cabs "w ith co at-en sh ro u d e d d r i v e r s , " and a crowd o f men and women le a v in g th e t h e a t e r s f o r th e storm -sw ept pavem ents," " t h e i r h e a r ts s t i l l k in d lin g from th e glow ings o f th e s ta g e " (143-144). In a sh arp s y n ta c tic d e p a rtu re from th e more complex se n te n c e s form ing i t s c o n te x t, a f l a t , s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d s e n te n c e ) in tro d u c e s Maggie: "A g i r l o f th e p a in te d c o h o rts o f th e c i t y went along th e s t r e e t " (144). Then Crane r e v e r t s to ad ding f r e e m o d ifie rs to h i s se n te n c e s , a s e r i e s o f v e rb c l u s t e r s t h a t speed th e n a r r a t i v e l i n e and e co n o m ically p in p o in t p r e c is e d e s c r ip ti v e and c h a r a c te r iz in g f e a t u r e s , f o r in s ta n c e th o s e s ig n a lin g M aggie's a f flu e n c e : 115 She h u r r ie d fo rw ard th ro u g h th e crowd as i f i n t e n t upon re a c h in g a d i s t a n t home, bending forw ard in h e r handsome c lo a k , d a i n t i l y l i f t i n g h e r s k i r t s and p ic k in g f o r h e r w e ll-sh o d f e e t th e d ry e r s p o ts upon th e p avem ents. (145) Again a b so lu te c o n s tr u c tio n s to h ig h lig h t id e n tif y in g f e a tu r e s o f th e men t h a t Maggie e n c o u n te rs on h e r walk tow ard th e r i v e r and d e ath : A s to u t gentlem an, w ith pompous and p h ila n th r o p ic w h isk ers, went s t o l i d l y by, th e broad o f h i s back s n e e rin g a t th e g i r l . (146) She sm iled s q u a r e ly in to th e fa c e o f a boy who was h u rry in g by w ith h i s hand b u rie d in h i s o v e rc o a t, h i s blonde lo ck s bobbing on h i s y o u th fu l te m p le s , and a c h e rry sm ile o f unconcern upon h i s l i p s , (147) He laughed, h i s brown, d is o rd e re d t e e t h gleam ing u nder a g re y , g r i z z l e d m oustache from Which b e e r - drops d rip p e d . (149) The a b s o lu te s a ls o c r e a te r a p id , f l u i d movement, adding to th e sen se o f urgency p erm eatin g th e c h a p te r once Maggie s te p s upon th e sce n e . Not on ly a b s o lu te s and v erb c l u s t e r s , b u t a ls o p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s ("A dozen c ab s, w ith c o at-en sh ro u d e d d r i v e r s , c l a t t e r e d to and f r o " ) zero in on s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s o f th e scene, e s ta b lis h in g i t s ambi ance and c r e a tin g an ebbing and flo w in g movement t h a t c o n tin u e s th ro u g h o u t th e c h a p te r as Crane in terw eav es sim ple se n te n c e s w ith com p le x , in th e l a t t e r p la c in g f r e e m o d ifie rs in l e f t - , m id -, and r i g h t - b ran ch in g p o s i t i o n s to p o in t b o th forw ard and backw ard. T his w avelike movement u n d e rsc o re s th e te le s c o p in g tim e elem ent c r u c ia l to th e fo rc e and meaning o f th e c h a p te r. Most l e f t - s h i f t e d s t r u c t u r e s fu n c tio n a d v e r b ia lly and ex p ec te d ly to e s t a b l i s h such m a tte rs as th e tim e and p la c e o f th e s e n te n c e ’s main a c tio n : 116 In th e m ingled l i g h t and gloom o f th e a d ja c e n t p a r t , a h a n d fu l o f wet w an d erers, in a t t i t u d e s o f c h ro n ic d e je c tio n , was s c a t t e r e d among th e b en ch es. (144) They a ls o produce cohesion between s e n te n c e s , and, in t h i s c a se , i r o n i c c o n tr a s t on th e b a s is o f " th e r e - h e r e " o rd e rin g , " th e r e " b ein g th e g l i t t e r i n g sid ew alk s crowded w ith c h e e r f u l, p ro sp e ro u s t h e a t e r - g o e r s . L e ft-b ra n c h in g v erb c l u s t e r s can a ls o f u n c tio n t r a n s i t i v e l y , b u t more im p o rta n tly th e y d e la y d is c lo s u r e o f p ro s p e c tiv e cu sto m ers' r e - 22 a c tio n s to M aggie's s o l i c i t a t i o n s . A key in s ta n c e o ccu rs when Maggie p r o p o s itio n s th e r e p u ls iv e f a t man a f t e r p r o g r e s s iv e ly more d e g e n e ra te men (though n o t r i g i d l y so) r e j e c t h e r advances. For t h i s e n co u n ter Crane lo ad s h i s s e n te n c e s w ith d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s , a ro u sin g th e r e a d e r ' s ap p reh en sio n and h o ld in g i t through th e v erb c l u s t e r t h a t i n t r o duces th e l a s t main c la u s e , which comes w ith a se n se o f i n e v ita b le f i n a l i t y : His sm a ll, b le a r e d e y es, s p a r k lin g from am idst g r e a t r o l l s o f re d f a t , swept e a g e rly ov er th e g i r l ' s u p tu rn e d fa c e . He laughed, h is brown d is o rd e re d te e t h gleam ing u n d e r a g re y , g r iz z le d m oustache from which b e e r-d ro p s d rip p e d . H is whole body g e n tly q u iv ered and shook l i k e t h a t o f a dead j e l l y f i s h . C huckling and le e r in g , he fo llo w ed th e g i r l o f th e crim son le g io n s . (149) T his a c tio n , th e f a t m an's fo llo w in g Maggie w ith o b scen ely jo y f u l l u s t , b r in g s th e c h a p te r f u l l c i r c l e to th e s e t t i n g f o r M aggie's d e p a r tu re from th e scen e, and l i f e . As e q u a lly s u i t a b l e to h e r l a t e m arcescence as th e c h a p t e r 's s t a r t i s to h e r e a r ly a f f lu e n c e , in a n t i t h e t i c a l b a l ance th e c h a p t e r 's l a s t s e t t i n g , th e r i v e r o f " d e a th ly b la c k hue" edged by t a l l , grim b u ild in g s , i s s i l e n t , lo n e ly , d a rk , and s i n i s t e r . Crane by f a r p r e f e r s r ig h t- b r a n c h in g , cu m u lativ e s e n te n c e s , n o t 117 o n ly in Maggie (tw e n ty -s ix r ig h t- b r a n c h in g f r e e m o d ifie rs) b u t th ro u g h o u t h i s work. T his g iv e s h i s p ro s e a n a t u r a l l i n e a r i t y p a tte r n e d a f t e r u n r e f l e c t i v e th o u g h t, in which th e b a s ic id e a o f th e sen te n c e i s s t a t e d in a g ram m atically com plete s t r u c t u r e to which v a rio u s commenting s t r u c t u r e s a re added. But as we have p o in te d o u t, he a ls o l e f t - b ran ch es w ith f r e e m o d ifie rs (n in e tim es in .M aggie)- f o r c e r t a i n e f f e c t s . (No e f f e c t in Maggie i s t h a t o f a h a rd ly j u s t i f i e d o rd e a l to surmount b e fo re re a c h in g th e to p ic u n d er d is c u s s io n , as in arg u a b ly th e c ase in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s . ) Crane a ls o f r e q u e n tly i n s e r t s f r e e m o d ifie rs m id -se n te n ce in Maggie ( t h i r t e e n ) , a l l between th e sub j e c t and p r e d i c a t e , th e most n a tu r a l i n s e r t i o n p o in t. O ften th e i n t e r r u p tio n i s to i n s e r t i n c i d e n t a l d e t a i l s , which in th e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e , as i s o f te n th e case w ith Crane, c h a r a c te r iz e as w e ll as d e s c r ib e : In th e m ingled l i g h t and gloom o f th e a d ja c e n t p a rk , a h a n d fu l o f wet w an d erers, in a t t i t u d e s o f c h ro n ic d e j e c t i o n , was s c a t t e r e d among th e b en ch es. (144) But a t tim es th e i n t e r r u p t i o n adds su sp en se as a bonus: His s m a ll, b le a r e d e y e s, s p a r k lin g from am idst g r e a t r o l l s o f re d f a t , swept e a g e rly o v er th e g i r l ’ s u p tu rn e d fa c e . (149) In e i t h e r case m id -b ran ch in g se n te n c e s tu r n in on th em selv es, and once th e to p ic i s announced p ro p e l th e r e a d e r ’s th o u g h ts forw ard to th e expected gram m atical c o n c lu sio n o f th e main c la u s e , a c o n c lu sio n which b rin g s th e e n t i r e s e n te n c e in to fo c u s. Because m id-branching s e n te n c e s have an a i r o f d e lib e r a t e n e s s about them, th e y su g g est to th e r e a d e r a r e l i a b l e , lo g ic a l sp e a k e r, one who h as o rg a n iz ed and c o n sid e re d h is se n te n c e s b e fo re w r itin g them. A lso, b ecau se gram m atical com pleteness 118 h in g e s on what comes b e fo re and a f t e r th e in t e r r u p t i n g m o d if ie r s , mid b ra n c h in g s e n te n c e s enjoy a d e n s ity n o t sh ared by l e f t - o r r i g h t - b ran ch in g s e n te n c e s which s p in o u t from a c e n t r a l c o re . T his d e n s ity i s enhanced in C h ap ter XVII by th e abundance o f f r e e m o d if ie r s , many o f them red u c ed , s o p h is ti c a te d s t r u c t u r e s . T his i s n o t to say t h a t a l l C ra n e 's n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i o n should be f i l l e d w ith f r e e m o d ifie rs o r t h a t lo n g e r se n te n c e s and v a r ie d s e n te n c e p a t t e r n s n e c e s s a r i l y e q u ate w ith q u a l i t y , b u t t h a t where c o n te n t i s s u i t a b l e , ad o p tio n o f v a rio u s s y n t a c t i c o p tio n s does make C ra n e 's id e a s , h i s m essage, more a c c e s s ib le to r e a d e r s . T h is i s t r u e because th e y c r e a te n o t o n ly l i v e l i e r , more s p e c i f i c d e s c r ip ti o n b u t a ls o e s t a b l i s h a more a u t h o r i t a t i v e n a r r a t i v e v o ic e t h a t can u n o b tr u s iv e ly , b u t s u r e ly , g u id e r e a d e r s ' re sp o n se s. A lthough C hapter X V II's p a ra g rap h s a re s t i l l r a t h e r s h o r t, c r e a tin g s p u r ts o f a c t i v i t y w ith r a t h e r fr e q u e n t tu r n in g s o f fo c u s, and i t s d i c t i o n and sy n tax a re a t tim es s t r a i n e d , s t i l l , C h ap ter XVII f o r e c a s ts C ra n e 's l a t e r s y n t a c t i c s t y l e . The d if f e r e n c e i s t h a t l a t e r C ra n e 's c o n tr o l o f s y n t a c t i c f e a tu r e s becomes more s u s ta in e d and ex p a n siv e , g iv in g h i s p ro se a more g e n e ra l r a t h e r th a n i n t e r m i t t e n t f l u i d i t y and g ra c e . The Red Badge of Courage Crane d id n o t a ch iev e p o p u la r su cc e ss w ith Maggie in 1893, s p e c t a c u l a r as G arland th o u g h t i t to b e . E xcept f o r G arland and a h a n d fu l of o th e r re v ie w e rs , Maggie f e l l on d e a f e a r s . Not so w ith The Red Badge, which b u r s t upon th e scene w ith a v i t a l i t y equal to th e work 119 i t s e l f , a p o p u la r su cc e ss t h a t has d im in ish ed b u t n o t dimmed, and a c r i t i c a l su cc e ss t h a t has grown s tr o n g e r th ro u g h th e y e a r s . The q u e s tio n a r i s e s as to why The Red Badge i s o f such enduring i n t e r e s t . J . C. Levenson f o r one c r e d i t s C ra n e 's p u ttin g f o r th " th e 23 most s u s ta in e d p a in s ta k in g e f f o r t o f h is l i f e . " T h is may be p a r t o f th e re a so n f o r i t s s u c c e s s , and, in d e ed , Crane rem arked t h a t " i t was 24 an e f f o r t born o f p a i n ," b u t we have no re a so n to b e lie v e t h a t Crane was n o t e q u a lly la b o rio u s in p ro d u cin g h is e a r l i e r work. ( A n d , in any c a se , i f p a in s ta k in g e f f o r t was a l l t h a t was r e q u ir e d , many o rd in a ry m o rta ls could w r ite l i t e r a r y m a s te r p ie c e s .) Nor can we c r e d i t h is s u c c e ss to d e l i b e r a t e , p u rp o s e fu l developm ent. Twenty-one when he s t a r t e d The Red Badge, Crane was n o t o ld enough, had n o t e x p erien c e d enough, had n o t w r itt e n enough to be a m ature a r t i s t . Yet The Red Badge looms as th e m a ste rp ie c e o f h i s e a r l y work, and we must t h e r e f o r e g iv e la rg e c r e d i t to in s p ir e d g e n iu s , t h a t g en iu s t h a t made th e most o f h i s expe r i e n c e , im a g in a tio n , and c a p a b i l i t i e s . In The Red Badge Crane found h i s m e tie r . S ty le , c o n te n t, and p o in t o f view a l l come to g e th e r to im press upon h is re a d e rs a h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f what war must ap p ear to be to a young, n a iv e mind and how t h a t mind would r e a c t to i t . In a number o f ways The Red Badge i s li k e th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s . I t s c h ie f p r o ta g o n is t to o i s v a in g lo r io u s , h a rb o rs a dread o f th e unknown, and has h i s e g o t i s t i c a l p r id e u n d e rc u t. I t s lan d scap e too can be v a r io u s ly h o s t i l e : 1. Absurd id d a s to o k h o ld upon him . He th o u g h t t h a t he d id n o t r e l i s h th e la n d sc a p e . I t th re a te n e d him. A c o ld n e ss swept over h i s back and i t i s t r u e t h a t h i s tr o u s e r s f e l t to him t h a t th e y were no f i t f o r h is le g s a t a l l . 120 A house, [s ta n d in g p l a c i d l y in d i s t a n t f i e l d s ] had to him an ominous lo o k . The shadows o f tlte woods were formidable"! He was c e r t a i n t h a t in t h i s v i s t a th e r e lu rk e d f ie r c e - e y e d h o s ts . (35) b e n e f i c i e n t : 2. He la y down on th e g r a s s . The b la d e s p re s s e d te n d e r ly a g a in s t h is ch eek . The moon had been li g h t e d and was hung in a t r e e - t o p . The 1iq u id s t i l l n e s s o f th e n i g h t , [env elo p in g him ], made him f e e l v a s t p i t y f o r h im s e lf . There was a c a r e s s in th e s o f t w in d s. And th e whole mood o f th e d a rk n e ss , he th o u g h t, was one o f sympathy f o r him in h is d i s t r e s s . (26) o r i n d i f f e r e n t : 3. But th e long s e r p e n ts craw led slow ly from h i l l to h i l l w ith o u t b l u s t e r o f smoke. A d u n -c o lo re d cloud o f d u st f l o a t e d away to th e r i g h t . The sky o v er-h ead was o f a f a i r y b lu e . (24) b u t in any case i s e q u a lly a n im is tic . (The v a rio u s m arkings w ill be r e f e r r e d to as th e c h a p te r p r o g r e s s e s .) But n o t o n ly i s The Red Badge l i k e th e e a r l i e r work in m o tif , i t 25 resem b les i t in gram m atical s t y l e . As th e s e p a ssa g e s i l l u s t r a t e , se n te n c e s and T - u n its a re e q u a lly s h o rt and c o n ta in e d in brusque p a r a g rap h s, c o n tr ib u tin g to i t s s i m i l a r l y a b ru p t q u a l i t y , r e in f o r c e d by th e r a p id unw inding o f s u c c e s s iv e , o f te n d is c o n n e c te d , v i s u a l i z a t i o n s and p e r c e p tio n s , b o th r e a l and im aginary, th e tu r n in g s o c c u rrin g n o t o n ly w ith su c c e ss iv e p ara g rap h s b u t w ith s u c c e ss iv e se n te n c e s and even w ith in se n te n c e s . For exam ple, in sen ten ce fo u r o f p assag e one, th e r e i s a s w ift s h i f t in fo c u s, and gram m atical c o n s tr u c tio n , betw een th e two in d e pendent c la u s e s , th e n a n o th e r tu r n in g in th e s t a r t o f th e nex t p a r ag raph. In p assag e two th e r e a re q u ick movements from th e g ra s s to th e sky and moon. And p assag e t h r e e i s fo llo w ed by an e q u a lly r a p id 121 s h i f t in p e r s p e c tiv e : The youth s tu d ie d th e fa c e s o f h i s com panions, [ev er on th e watch to d e te c t k in d re d e m o tio n s]. He s u f f e r e d d isa p p o in tm e n t. (24) F re q u e n tly in The Red Badge s h i f t s in focus p a t t e r n l i k e t h i s l a s t p a s sage. S e p a ra te c la u s e s move l i k e fram ed s l i d e s from panoram ic to p a r t i c u l a r , from d e s c r ip ti o n to p e rc e p tio n to re sp o n se . At a n o th e r tim e , in th e m idst o f b a t t l e , we a re bombarded w ith m yriad d e t a i l s o f c o lo r and n o is e , apprehending b a t t l e tu rm o il through th e re g im e n t’ s e y e s : ^ 4 . [Looking o v er t h e i r own tr o o p s ] , th e y saw mixed m asses slo w ly g e ttin g in to r e g u la r form . The s u n - lig h t made tw in k lin g p o in ts o f th e b r ig h t s t e e l . [To th e r e a r ] , th e r e was a glim pse o f a d i s t a n t road-way as i t curved o v er a s lo p e . I t was crowded w ith r e t r e a t i n g i n f a n t r y . From a l l th e interw oven f o r e s t aro se th e smoke and b l u s t e r o f t h e ~ b a t t l e . The a i r was always o ccupied by a b l a r i n g . [Near where th e y s to o d ] , s h e l l s were f l i p - f l o p p i n g and h o o tin g . O ccasio n al b u l l e t s buzzed in th e a i r and spanged in to t r e e - t r u n k s . Wounded men and o th e r s t r a g g l e r s were s lin k in g th ro u g h th e woods. (133) On a n o th e r o c ca sio n we meet th e h o r r o r d e a th a t c lo se hand th ro u g h F le m in g 's e y es. F le m in g 's c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith d eath im m ediately fo llo w s h i s c r u c ia l f l i g h t from th e b a t t l e f i e l d , d u rin g which he ta k e s re fu g e in a f o r e s t chapel o n ly t o be c o n fro n te d w ith a double iro n y . He en c o u n te rs d e a th in th e form o f a s o l d i e r 's decaying co rp se even as he seeks to a v o id d e a th , and he f in d s i t in th e arms o f what has appeared to him, as he n e ared th e th r e s h o ld o f th e f o r e s t c h a p e l, to be a benev o le n t n a tu r e . 5. He was b ein g looked a t by a dead man who was s e a te d [w ith h is back a g a in s t a c o lu m n -lik e t r e e ] . The co rp se was d re s se d in a u niform t h a t once had been b lu e b u t was now fad ed to a m elancholy shade o f g re e n . The ey es, [ s t a r i n g a t th e y o u th ] , 122 had changed to th e d u ll hue to be seen on th e s id e o f a dead f i s h . The mouth was opened. I t s re d had changed to an a p p a llin g yellow . Over th e g re y sk in o f th e fa c e ran l i t t l e a n ts . One was tr u n d lin g s o m e s o r t o f a bundle along th e upper l i p . The youth gave a s h rie k as he c o n fro n te d th e th in g . He was, [ f o r moments], tu rn e d to sto n e b e fo re i t . He rem ained s t a r i n g in to th e l i q u i d - l o o king e y e s . The dead man and th e l i v i n g man exchanged a long_lo o k . Then, th e youth c a u tio u s ly p u t one hand behind him and b rought i t a g a in s t a t r e e . [Leaning upon t h i s ] , he r e t r e a t e d , [s te p by s t e p ] , [w ith h is fa c e s t i l l tow ard th e t h i n g ] . He fe a re d , t h a t i f he tu rn e d h i s back , th e body m ight s p rin g up and s t e a l t h i l y p u rsu e him. (62-63) - In a l l th e s e exam ples as w ell as numerous o th e r s t h a t could have been s e le c te d from th ro u g h o u t The Red Badge, o r d e r in g , c o n n e c tin g , and sometimes su p p ly in g d e s c r i p t i v e - n a r r a t i v e d e t a i l s a re r e le g a te d to th e r e a d e r . To i l l u s t r a t e s e l e c t i v e l y from th e s e p a s s a g e s , th e re a d e r must su p p ly th e c a u s a tiv e c o n n e c tiv e between s e n te n c e s th r e e and fo u r in p assag e one. In a d d itio n , s e n te n c e fo u r , a d e s c r ip ti v e summary o f F le m in g 's r e a c tio n to h i s p e r c e p tio n o f th e la n d sc a p e , would be more l o g i c a l l y and m e an in g fu lly o rd e re d a f t e r th e d e t a i l s o f what in th e lan d scap e th r e a te n s him. In p assag e fo u r re a d e r s must su p p ly th e con n e c tio n between se n te n c e s one and tw o, and some m issin g in fo rm a tio n . Presum ably th e tr o o p s c a r r y guns, p erh ap s w ith b a y o n ets a tta c h e d , angled to c a tc h th e s u n 's ra y s . A lso in p assag e fo u r , between s e n te n c e s th r e e and fo u r r e a d e r s must so lv e th e a m b ig u o u s'if' r e f e r e n c e ; th e i n f a n t r y may be crowding o n ly th e roadway o r th e e n t i r e slo p e. To ta k e one more exam ple, much th e same la c k o f cohesion i s a ls o a p p aren t in p assag e f iv e . Crane ag ain composes s h o r t , choppy se n te n c e s , e x clu d in g r a t h e r th a n in c lu d in g d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s and i g n o rin g s e v e ra l o p p o r tu n i tie s to combine p r o p o s itio n s . Flem ing s e e s , 123 and fo r c e s th e re a d e r t o se e , th e body piecem eal and h a l t i n g l y : th e uniform fa d in g to g re e n , th e fis h -h u e d e y e s, th e open mouth and sep a r a t e l y i t s yellow c o lo r , th e g rey s k in , th e c raw lin g a n t s , and th en th e burden o f once l i v i n g f l e s h borne by th e a n t s , as h i s gaze s e t t l e s f i r s t on one g h a s tly f e a t u r e , th e n a n o th e r, s u f f i c i e n t and n e c e s s a ry to p o r tr a y th e c o r p s e 's decay and F lem in g 's numbed s t a t e o f mind. A l though p u n c tu a tio n i s n o t a p o in t o f a n a ly s is in t h i s stu d y , we can n o te t h a t i n t e r n a l sen te n c e p u n c tu a tio n a ls o c o n tr ib u te s t o th e g en eral e f f e c t . R h e to r ic a lly i n s p ir e d , n o t s y n t a c t i c a l l y r e q u ir e d , th e e n c lo s ing s e t s o f commas in th e l a s t two s e n t e n c e s - - i s o l a t i n g " s te p by s te p " and th e t h a t - c la u se fo llo w in g " fe a r e d " - - b r e a k up th e o th e rw ise smooth 27 rhythm o f th e se n te n c e s in to an a p p r o p r ia te ly h a l t i n g one. P re s e n tin g th e v iv id d e t a i l s o f th e decaying c o rp se in s e p a ra te c la u s e s i s a s y n ta c tic s t r a t e g y t h a t evokes F le m in g 's " h o rro r -s tric k e n " s t a t e . In f a c t , t h e s h o r t , minimum sen te n c es and T - u n its accompanied by th e montage e f f e c t as se n te n c e s r a p id ly s h i f t focus th ro u g h o u t th e above p a ssa g es and elsew h ere in The Red Badge a l l c o n tr ib u te t o an a c c u ra te re n d e rin g o f F le m in g 's a g i t a t e d mind, th ro u g h which su rg e "a th o u san d d e t a i l s o f c o lo r and form " (43). C ra n e 's c h i e f d e v ice f o r u n i t i n g h i s fragm ented s y n ta x c o n tin u e s t o be (b e s id e s dependency on th e r e a d e r to su pply c o n n e c tio n s) a s s o c ia t i o n . For example, in p assag e t h r e e : "sm oke," "cloud o f d u s t , " "sk y "; in p assag e fo u r "troops.?" " b r ig h t s t e e l , " "ro ad -w ay ," " f o r e s t , " " a i r " and v a rio u s ty p e s o f movement: " f l i p - f l o p p i n g , " "b u zz e d ," "sp an g ed ," " s l i n k i n g ." In p assag e f iv e th e synonym sequence "dead m an," " c o r p s e ," "body," " th in g " t i e s th e two p a ra g rap h s to g e th e r . 124 However, Crane a ls o i n s e r t s c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs in to h i s p ro s e . Weighty sen te n c e c o n n e c to rs, c o n ju n c tiv e ad v erb s o ccu r more s p a r s e ly in f i c t i o n th a n n o n - f ic ti o n . And th e y a r e , in d eed , v e ry s p a rs e in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s and M aggie. But th e y q u a n t i t a t i v e l y in c r e a s e in The Red Badge, im posing a sem blance o f o rd e r upon F le m in g 's th o u g h ts , 28 which d a r t in c o h e r e n tly f i r s t in one d i r e c t i o n , th e n a n o th e r. But th e s e c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs f u n c tio n n o t o n ly f o r coherence; th e y c h a r a c t e r i z e . Throughout th e n o v e l, Flem ing v a s c i l l a t e s between hope and 29 d e s p a ir , a rro g an ce and p e r s p e c tiv e . Even a t th e end o f th e n ovel h is m ental p ro c e s s e s a re s t i l l "u n d er-g o in g a s u b tle change" (171) as he t r i e s to p e rc e iv e h im s e lf and h is p la c e in th e w orld. C ra n e 's m ajor use o f s p e c i f i c c o n n e c to rs , e s p e c i a l l y o b v e rs a tiv e o n es, o ccu rs in th e e a r ly d e b a te s t h a t occupy F le m in g 's mind. They serv e to p o r tr a y h is s e n s i t i v i t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e even as th e y h ig h l i g h t th e burden o f f e a r and u n c e r t a i n t y t h a t p la g u es him. An im por t a n t a sp e c t o f F le m in g 's c h a r a c te r i s t h a t he weighs one s id e and th e n th e o th e r in h is d e b a te s . O ften , c o n n e c to rs p o in t o u t th e r e a l i t y t h a t Flem ing needs n o t o n ly to see b u t c lin g to , even i f t h a t r e a l i t y i s sim ply t h a t one n e v er knows an y th in g c e r t a i n l y , such as how one w ill fa c e b a t t l e and p o s s ib le d e a th . For example, Fleming f e e l s some con fid e n c e in h i s s i m i l a r i t y to Jim C o n k lin , who f e e l s a ss u re d t h a t he w ill fa c e b a t t l e h o n o rab ly . But Flem ing q u ite n a t u r a l l y has some doubt s : S t i l 1 , he th o u g h t t h a t h is comrade m ight be m istaken about h im s e lf. Or, on th e o th e r h an d , he might be a man h e r e to f o r e doomed to peace and o b s c u r ity b u t , in r e a l i t y , made t o sh in e in war. (20) 125 N otably, d u rin g th e s e e a r ly d e b ate s r e a d e r s a re n o t le d to con demn Fleming f o r h i s u n c e r t a i n t y and s e l f - c e n t e r e d w orry about h is a c ti o n s , because w ith i t a l l Fleming has a c o n sc ie n ce (though i t b e t r a y s him a t tim e s) and a sense o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I t i s when Fleming th in k s he knows i t a l l , i s " m a s te r," but does n o t and i s n o t t h a t he f o r g e ts a l l th e how ever1s and n e v e r t h e l e s s ' s . He does so a t th e nov e l ' s end when C ra n e 's u n d e rc u ttin g iro n y v i t i a t e s F le m in g 's unearned 30 a ssu ra n ce t h a t a l l i s w ell w ith h im s e lf and th e w orld. Lack o f d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s , l i k e r a p id s h i f t s in focus and con t e n t , a lso su g g est F le m in g 's b ew ild ered s t a t e . R eaders expect in fo rm a t i o n to be lim ite d from F le m in g 's p o in t o f view , and i t i s . Fleming t r i e s " to o b serv e e v e ry th in g " (34)> but h i s th o u g h ts keep " c a re e rin g o f f in o th e r p la c e s " (45); t h e r e f o r e , h i s " j o l t e d dreams [a re ] n ev er p e r f e c t to him a fte rw a rd ,” b u t rem ain "a mass o f b lu r r e d shapes" (45). He i s h ard p re s se d a t tim e s to f in d d e s c r i p t i v e w ords; empty p h ra se s such as " h ith e r and t h i t h e r , " " to and f r o , " and " h e re and th e r e " echo th ro u g h o u t th e book as he lo s e s " d ir e c t io n s and lo c a t io n s " (128). In a d d itio n , th e r e i s a c e r t a i n r e p e t i t i v e n e s s in d e s c r ip ti o n s o f Fleming in f 1i g h t : His c an teen banged rh y th m ic a lly upon h i s th ig h and h is h a v ersa ck bobbed s o f t l y . (32) The f la p s o f th e c a r trid g e -b o x e s were a l l u n fa s te n e d , and fla p p e d and bobbed i d i o t i c a l l y w ith each movement. (47) The f la p o f h i s c a r tr id g e - b o x bobbed w ild ly and h is c an teen , by i t s s le n d e r c o rd , swung o u t b eh in d . (54) and in c o n se c u tiv e s e n te n c e s , though a d i f f e r e n t s o r t o f r e p e t i t i o n : I t seemed t h a t th e dead men must have f a l l e n from some g re a t h e ig h t to g et in to such p o s i t i o n s . They looked to be dumped o u t upon th e ground from th e sky. (49)________________________________ 126 The e f f e c t o f th e form er i s o f a sla c k e n in g a t tim es o f im a g in a tiv e power. The e f f e c t o f th e l a t t e r i s to mark Fleming as p u z zle d and stu n n ed , to a ffir m h is p e r c e p tio n and to s u s ta in fo cu s. In keeping w ith F le m in g 's lim ite d p e r s p e c tiv e , Crane h e a v ily u t i l i z e s bound, m inim ally expanded m o d if ie r s , p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s ( s i n g le u n d e rsc o re in th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a ssa g e s above) and sim p le mod i f i e r s (double u n d e r s c o r e ) , to add in fo rm a tiv e d e t a i l s to h i s b a se c la u s e s . As i s a p p a re n t from th e p a s s a g e s , Crane u ses a much s m a lle r number o f bound r e l a t i v e and s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s , and v e ry few o f th e ty p es o f f r e e m o d ifie r s t r u c t u r e s (b rac k eted ) t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y allow f o r more e x te n s iv e d e s c r ip ti o n . Even when Crane does w r ite f r e e m odi f i e r s , he r a r e l y e x p lo its t h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r expansion and p a r t i c u l a r and s u b t l e e f f e c t s through s h i f t i n g t h e i r p lacem en t. Bound p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s d e fin e r a t h e r th a n comment and a re o fte n u n av o id ab le. Many a re th e p e r i p h r a s t i c g e n itiv e o f , commonly u sed by sp ea k e rs o f E n g lish f o r in an im ate p o s s e s s io n r a t h e r th a n th e compact _ |_ s_ o r sj_ ("on th e s id e s o f a dead f i s h " ) . Only th r e e tim es in a l l th e d a ta does Crane choose th e compact form fo r in an im ate p o s s e s s io n , once in "The Cry o f H u ck leb erry P u d d in g ," c r e a tin g awkwardness where he m ight have achieved a more f i t t i n g l y b a lan c e d rhythm , wedding sound and sen se: "They had slum bered th ro u g h th e t r e e s ' song o f lo n e lin e s s , and th e la y o f i s o l a t i o n o f th e m o u n ta in -g rass" (255). There a re two o c cu rren c e s in The Red Badge, th e id io m a tic "guns were ro a r in g w ith o u t an i n s t a n t 's pause f o r b r e a th " (119-120) and a r a r e a tte m p t to avoid o v eru se o f p r e p o s itio n s : "There was a p o r tio n o f th e w o r ld 's h i s t o r y . . ." (7 ). These a re e x c e p tio n s though. Crane i s 127 v e ry much concerned w ith p r e p o s itio n s b u t in term s o f ch o ice n o t number. W e can see evidence o f t h i s i n t e r e s t in h is changes from th e d r a f t to f i n a l m a n u sc rip t. Crane adds p r e p o s itio n s and p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s , some a d d itio n s le n g th e n in g s e n te n c e s ( " a l l h i s l i f e " > " a l l o f h i s l i f e " ) more th a n enhancing t h e i r meaning. But a t o th e r tim es he se a rc h e s f o r th e e x ac t p r e p o s itio n to e x p re ss th e meaning he w ants, w ith "on" b e in g th e p r e p o s itio n most f r e q u e n tly changed: once to "alo n g " ["The o n ly fo e s he had seen were some p ic k e t s along th e r i v e r bank" (1 3 )], g iv in g a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e o f th e s o l d i e r s ' e x te n s io n in sp ace, th r e e tim es to "upon" [ f o r example, "He was o b lig e d to walk upon b o g - tu f ts " (62) ]. "Upon" adds a s l i g h t a u ra o f f o r m a lity and an im atio n , s in c e i t c a r r i e s a sense n o t o n ly o f p la c e b u t m otion toward. Crane a ls o a l t e r s adverbs to t h e i r p r e p o s i t i o n a l c o u n te r p a r ts . The most a s to n is h in g o f th e s e i s "suddenly" changed to " o f a su d d en ," a tru n c a te d v e r s io n o f th e more common p e r i p h r a s t i c a l l o f ja sudden (which Crane n ev er u s e s ) , o c c u rrin g o n ly tw ic e in th e Crane d a ta , bo th tim es in The Red Badge (46, 159). They se rv e an em phatic fu n c tio n as do o th e r d e v ia tio n s from s ta n d a rd sy n tax in C ra n e 's e a r l y work, each o f th e s e in The Red Badge s ig n a lin g a s h i f t in s u b je c t m a tte r and p e r s p e c tiv e , a q u ick en in g o f t e n s i o n . 3'* ' C ra n e 's i n t e r e s t in p r e p o s itio n s p o in ts to an im p o rtan t f a c t o r in h i s p ro se s t y l e . The m u ltitu d e o f p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s th ro u g h o u t h i s work and fr e q u e n t placem ent o f them se n te n c e f i n a l l y g iv e s h is p ro se a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c rhythm . His t y p i c a l sen te n c e i s f a i r l y s h o r t, s t a r t s w ith th e s u b je c t, o f te n in tro d u c e d by d e te rm in e r th e , and ends 128 w ith one o r more p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s , o fte n composed o f th r e e e l e m ents: p r e p o s itio n , d e te rm in e r o r a d je c tiv e , noun, g iv in g h i s s e n te n c e s a pseu d o -iam b ic b e a t as th e y end. A nother s id e e f f e c t o f t h i s s y n t a c t i c c h o ice i s t h a t nouns become f e a tu r e d in se n te n c e f i n a l p o s i t i o n , c o n tr ib u tin g to h is f i c t i o n ' s o v e r a ll e f f e c t o f c o n c r e te n e s s . As th e p assag es quoted above i l l u s t r a t e , Crane depends h e a v ily upon sim ple m o d if ie r s , n o t o n ly bound p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s , to expand h is b ase s e n te n c e s . Not as e v id e n t in th e s e p a ssa g es though i s C ra n e 's c la s h in g s c h o la r ly and m elodram atic w ith o rd in a ry d i c t i o n in o rd e r to add an elem ent o f s u r p r is e and d e n s it y to h i s o th e rw ise t h i n l y and u n ifo rm ly s tr u c tu r e d sy n ta x . (T his absence i s , in a se n s e , i n d i c a t i v e because C ra n e 's s t y l i s t i c e x ce sse s do a b a te somewhat in The Red Badge.) In th e p a ssa g es above such sim p le m o d ifie rs as "g rey " and " a p p a llin g yellow " evoking th e dead m an's ap pearance a re v iv id b u t ex p ec te d . " P la c id ly " r e f e r r i n g to a house p e r s o n i f i e s i t b u t n o t s t a r t l i n g so. " F ie rc e -e y e d h o s ts " i s th e m ost b iz z a r e m o d if ie r . Elsew here in The Red Badge, however, C ra n e 's m o d ifie rs more n e a r ly c o in c id e w ith th o se ty p i c a l o f h i s e a r ly work. Some i n t e n s i f y and su g g est more th a n c l e a r l y d e s c rib e : b a t t l e s a re "crim son b lo tc h e s on th e pages o f th e p a s t" (6 ), men have "perched e a rs " a ttu n e d to h e a rin g th e " f i r s t words o f th e new b a t t l e " (159), songs a r e "w ild , b a r b a r ic " (4 6 ), w rangles "stu p en d o u s" (1 2 0 ), o a th s "co m p lica te d " (107) (and " l u r i d " - - a c o n tin u ing f a v o r i t e , " f u r i o u s ," " c rim so n ," and so f o r t h ) , f l a g s " f ie r c e - h u e d " (1 4 6 ), and numerous th in g s a re " u n sp e a k a b le ," v a lo r (14) and n o is e (158) f o r exam ple, a l l a ro u sin g more em otional th a n i n t e l l e c t u a l r e sponse from r e a d e r s , encouraging them to f e e l r a t h e r th a n s e e . 129 O ften , sim ple m o d ifie rs fu n c tio n d u a lly to c h a r a c te r iz e as w ell as d e s c r ib e , g u id in g th e r e a d e r 's re sp o n se to Flem ing and what i s being re n d e red th ro u g h F le m in g 's ey es. C olor term s a re u sed t h i s way a t tim e s , f o r in s ta n c e when Flem ing, in r e a c tio n to h is m o th e r's n a y -s a y in g h i s e n lis tm e n t in th e army, makes " firm r e b e l l i o n a g a in s t t h i s yellow l i g h t thrown upon th e c o lo r o f h i s a m b itio n s" (8 ). O ther sim p le m o d ifie rs fu n c tio n s i m i l a r l y . The enemy sh o o ts " r e f l e c t i v e l y a t th e b lu e p ic k e ts " (13) and f i r e s "despondent powder" (14). F ir in g dw indles from "an u p ro a r to a l a s t v i n d i c t i v e popping" (4 8 ). F lem in g 's "unguided" f e e t c a tc h " a g g r a v a tin g ly in bram bles" (63) as he f l e e s th e co rp se in th e f o r e s t c h a p e l. His eyes open upon an "unexpected w orld" (106) a f t e r he re c e iv e s h is re d badge o f courage and r e tu r n s to h is re g im e n t. W e have a lr e a d y n o te d C ra n e 's u se o f sim ple m o d ifie rs to p o r tr a y sound and c o n tr o l atm osphere in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s . The f i r s t two p a ra g rap h s from " K illin g His Bear" amply i l l u s t r a t e v a rio u s forms o f f l o r a and fau n a cro o n in g , q u a v erin g , and w a ilin g in snow and i c i c l e la d e n , w ind-whipped su rro u n d in g s as th e dying sun s in k s to g iv e way to b lu r r e d b la c k n e s s « Maggi e 's e a r 1 .y; ba 111 e ‘ o f ' th e g r a y e r ’h'eap' resounds -.with y e l l s , and ro a rin g c u r s e s . Even in C h ap ter XVII, which i s more con cern ed w ith s ig h t th a n sound, th e atm osphere i s p a r t i a l l y evoked and changes in i t su g g ested by ja n g lin g h o r s e s , c la s h in g salo o n d o o rs, and o i l i l y la p p in g w a te rs . The Red Badge i s a v e r i t a b l e echo chamber o f sound. The reg im en t "w heez[es] and b a n g [s] w ith m ighty power" (45), b u l l e t s "spang" in to t r e e - t r u n k s (133), s h e l l s f l i p - f l o p and hoot (133) and s n a r l among th e t r e e to p s (1 3 8 ), and th e r e i s much s p l i t t i n g , 130 s p l u t t e r i n g , s p u t t e r i n g , s h r ie k in g , s q u a llin g , and squawking. T hat C ra n e 's m o d ifie rs f u n c tio n as th e y do i s u n d o u b ted ly a r e s u l t o f h i s c o n v ic tio n t h a t d e s c r ip ti o n in v o lv ed more th a n sim ply s e e in g . E a rly in h i s c a r e e r he w rote t h a t " th e p h otograph i s f a l s e in p e r s e p e c tiv e , in l i g h t and sh ad e, in fo c u s. When a p h otograph can 32 d e p ic t atm osphere and sound, th e com parison w i l l have some m eaning." C ra n e 's s t r i v i n g to a c h ie v e such an amalgam o f e f f e c t s w ith words m ainly s u r f a c e s in th e bound m o d if ie r s he chooses a t t h i s p o in t in h is c a r e e r . Not o n ly d e s c r ip ti o n b u t a c tio n o fte n depends upon word c h o ic e . The e n e r g e tic , n o is y m o d ifie rs a re one method. (Verbs s u r p r i s i n g l y a re n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y im p o rtan t in t h i s r e s p e c t . Those having reduced v e rb a l f o r c e , s t a t e o f b e in g and p e rc e p tio n v e r b s , a re common. P ero sa co unts 350 v e rb s o f v i s u a l p e rc e p tio n such as s e e , lo o k , w i t - 33 n e s s , and so f o r t h . ) B r ie f p a ra g ra p h s, s h o r t se n te n c e s and T - u n its , s w if t r e v e r s a l s o f s i g h t s , p e r c e p tio n s , im a g in in g s, a c t i o n s , and r e a c tio n s a re o th e r m ethods. P reposed p a r t i c i p i a l m o d if ie r s a re a n o th e r. As w ith h i s verb c l u s t e r s , Crane p r e f e r s th e more a c t i v e p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p i a l form ("co n ten d in g f o r c e s " ) th a n p a s t ("tram p led sod") w ith h i s bound p a r t i c i p i a l m o d if ie r s , alth o u g h n o t by as wide a m argin. (Bound p rep o sed and p o stp o se d : P re s e n t - 70, P a s t - 56; Verb C lu s t e r s : P re s e n t - 57, P a st - 13 .) Crane th u s enhances th e energy o f h is war n o v e l, e n fo rc in g a sen se o f n ev er-en d in g a c t i v i t y , as i l l u s t r a t e d by "The ru s h in g yellow o f th e d ev elo p in g day went on b ehind t h e i r backs" (2 3 ). Yet Crane does a t tim es c a l l upon th e ad v an tag es o f th e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e whose essen ce i s i t s p a s s i v i t y r a t h e r th an i t s p a s tn e s s , th e n o tio n o f an a c tio n b ein g perform ed upon th e m o d ified noun by an 131 unknown p e rfo rm er. O ften th e e f f e c t i s sim p ly n e u t r a l ["The b u rn ish e d sun sank u n t i l s la n t e d bronze ra y s s tru c k th e f o r e s t " (6 4 )], b u t a t l e a s t once th e m issin g a g en t o f th e a c tio n h i n t s a t a p o t e n t i a l l y awe some f o r c e . T his i s th e e f f e c t t h a t Crane p r o j e c t s in h i s d e s c r ip ti o n o f a dead o f f i c e r : His body la y s tr e tc h e d o u t in th e p o s itio n o f a t i r e d man, r e s t i n g , b u t upon h is fa c e th e r e was an a s to n is h e d and so rro w fu l look as i f he th o u g h t some f r ie n d had done him an i l l tu r n . (47-48) (In h is l a t e r work Crane e n l i s t s th e p a s s iv e more d r a m a tic a lly , f o r example, to su g g est in "The M onster" J o h n so n 's im potence in th e fa c e o f th e h o lo c a u s t: "The s t i l l form in th e b la n k e t flu n g from h i s arm s, r o l l e d to th e edge o f th e f l o o r and b e n ea th th e window" (2 4 ). He u ses th e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e m o d ifie r w ith e q u a lly d ra m a tic e f f e c t . In "The Open B o at," "The l i t t l e b o a t, l i f t e d by each to w erin g s e a , and sp la sh e d v i c io u s ly by th e c r e s t s , made p ro g re s s t h a t in th e absence o f sea-w eed was n o t a p p aren t to th o s e in h e r" (73) p o r tr a y s th e l i t t l e b o a t and i t s occu p an ts as h e lp le s s v ic tim s o f th e s e a 's w ra th . The p a s t p a r t i c ip le in "He knew t h a t he was t h r u s t i n g h im s e lf in to a tr a p whose d o o r, once c lo s e d , opened o n ly when th e b la c k hand knocked, and every p a r t o f him seemed to be in p a n i c - s t r i c k e n r e v o l t " ("The Clan o f No-Name," 130-131) w ith i t s unnamed ag en t c lo s in g th e door enhances th e a u ra o f a n o lo 's in e sc a p a b le doom.) C ra n e 's u se o f v e rb c l u s t e r s , g r e a t e r th an th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s and m ost o f M aggie, adds to th e dynamic q u a l i t y o f The Red Badge by e x p re ss in g sim u ltan eo u s a c t i v i t i e s :^ The men bending and su rg in g in t h e i r h a s te and rage were in every im p o ssib le a t t i t u d e . (46) 132 In h i s l i f e , he had tak en c e r t a i n th in g s f o r g ra n te d , n ev er c h a lle n g in g h i s b e l i e f in u ltim a te su c c e ss and b o th e rin g l i t t l e about means and r o a d s . C14) Sometimes th e y a ls o g e n e ra te a n t i c i p a t i o n th ro u g h le f t- b r a n c h in g : Leaning upon t h i s , he r e t r e a t e d , s te p by s t e p , w ith h is fa c e s t i l l tow ard th e th in g . (63) o r m id -b ran ch in g : A fte r a tim e , he paused and, b r e a th le s s and p a n tin g , l i s t e n e d . (63) But t y p i c a l l y , m id -b ran ch in g sim ply fu n c tio n s to p e rm it i n s e r t i o n o f a m p lify in g d e t a i l s : The c re e p e rs , c a tc h in g a g a in s t h i s le g s , c r ie d out h a rs h ly as t h e i r sp ra y s were to r n from th e b a rk s o f t r e e s . (60) Crane u se s v e ry few a b s o lu te s in The Red Badge, u n d o u b ted ly a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f i t s p o in t o f view s in c e v e ry few o ccu r i n The 0 1Ruddy e i t h e r . A b so lu tes a re more " l i t e r a r y " in n a tu r e , t h e r e f o r e , more s u i t a b le to a t h i r d p e rso n o m n iscien t n a r r a t o r , n o t one v e ry c lo s e to th e p r o ta g o n is t as in The Red Badge o r i d e n t i c a l w ith him as in The 0 1 Ruddy. Those t h a t Crane does u se zero in on s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s expand in g on th e g e n e r a liz a tio n in th e main c la u s e , b u t q u i e t l y , and have reduced v e rb a l f o r c e , a l l o f them b ein g formed from BE, a l l b u t one w ith "b ein g " d e le t e d . A ll ex cep t one a re in tro d u c e d by " w ith ," hence a re le s s d ra m a tic . Two examples occu r in p assag e f iv e above, one as Fleming c ro s s e s th e th r e s h o ld o f th e f o r e s t c h a p e l, a second as he le a v e s i t , w hich, s in c e th e y a re p a r a l l e l in s t r u c t u r e and fo c u s, frame th e sce n e . I t i s by and la r g e th e a d je c tiv e c l u s t e r s and a d je c tiv e s e r i e s t h a t illu m in a te p a r t i c u l a r f e a tu r e s t h a t re a d e rs need t o know and t h a t 133 35 h e lp c r e a te atm o sp h eric e f f e c t s : And a g a in s t i t , b la c k and p a t t e r n - l i k e , loomed th e g ig a n tic f ig u r e o f th e c o lo n e l on a g ig a n tic h o rs e . (21) H is busy mind had drawn f o r him la r g e p i c t u r e s , e x tra v a g a n t in c o l o r , l u r i d w ith b r e a t h l e s s d e e d s . (7) Taken as a w hole, however, C ra n e 's s t y l e i s n o t d e n se ly te x tu r e d . Free m o d ifie rs when used a re r a r e l y expanded and t y p i c a l l y a re p a rc e le d o u t one to a se n te n c e . S entences f o r th e most p a r t rem ain on one s t r u c t u r a l le v e l o r two a t th e m ost: 1 I t s re d had changed to an a p p a llin g y ello w . (62) 1 The e y e s ,/ / had changed to th e d u ll hue to be seen on th e s id e o f a dead f i s h 2 s t a r i n g a t th e y o u th , (VC) (62) even when more th a n one f r e e m o d if ie r i s added: 1 B u t/ / t h e guns sto p p ed an d / /rum ors ag ain flew l i k e b ir d s 2 a t l a s t (PP) 2 among th e men in th e r i f l e p i t s , (PP) 1 b u t th e y were now/ /b la c k and cro ak in g c r e a t u r e s / 2 f o r th e m ost p a r t , (PP) 2 who fla p p e d t h e i r w ings d r e a r i l y n e a r to th e ground and re fu s e d to r i s e on any wings o f hope. (RC) (120) There a re on ly th r e e e x c e p tio n s o f s e n te n c e s whose com plexity re a ch e s 36 a t h i r d l e v e l , one o f which i s : 2 On a s lo p e to th e l e f t , (PP) 1 th e r e was a long row o f guns, 2 g r u f f and maddened, (A+A) , • 2 denouncing th e enemy (VC) 3 who down th ro u g h th e woods were form ing f o r a n o th e r a t t a c k in th e p i t i l e s s monotony o f c o n f l i c t s . (RC) (159) Yet alth o u g h th e t e x t u r e o f The Red Badge rem ains t h i n in term s o f s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r a l expansion and v a r i e t y , i t i s , n e v e r th e le s s , d e n se r and more ex p an siv e th a n th e d r a f t m a n u sc rip t. In th e com parable p o r- 134 t i o n s o f th e f i n a l m a n u sc rip t and d r a f t s tu d ie d , C ra n e 's d e s ir e to add d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s and v a ry h i s s t r u c t u r e s i s o b v io u s. These s t r u c tu r e s and d e t a i l s emerge e i t h e r in added s e n te n c e s , o f which th e r e a re many, o r a d d itio n s to e x is t in g s e n te n c e s . Most r e v is io n s d i s t i n c t l y improve s t y l e and e x p re ss io n o f meaning as t h i s r e v i s i o n i l l u s t r a t e s : D ra ft: N early ev ery man was making a n o is e w ith h is mouth. The c h e e rs , s n a r l s , im p re c a tio n s, w a ilin g s , made a w ild , b a r b a r ic song. (222) MS: Many o f th e men were making low -toned n o is e s w ith t h e i r mouths and th e s e subdued c h e e rs , s n a r l s , im p re c a tio n s, p r a y e r s , made a w ild b a r b a r ic song t h a t went as an u n d e r - c u r r e n t o f sound, s tr a n g e and c h a n t - l i k e , w ith th e re so u n d in g chords o f th e war-m arch. (46) Crane combines two se n te n c e s in to one in th e m a n u sc rip t, adding in th e p ro c e ss a s u b o rd in a te c la u s e , an a d je c tiv e s e r i e s , a p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e . These a d d itio n s n o t o n ly am p lify th e d e s c r ip ti o n b u t g iv e th e sen te n c e an a p p r o p r ia te ly su rg in g b e a t n o t p r e s e n t i n th e o r i g i n a l v e r s io n . Crane a d d i t i o n a l l y ach ie v e s i n t e r - c l a u s e co herence when he r e v i s e s . As in th e r e s t o f th e e a r l y work, C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c m a n ip u la tio n s converge" on in v e r s io n f o r v a r i e t y and em phasis, and n o n -sta n d a rd con s t r u c t i o n s . In v e rs io n s w ith th e r e c o n tin u e to be h i s tradem ark w ith v a ry in g se n te n c e openings h is main p u rp o se. Less f r e q u e n tly does Crane in v e r t to em phasize th e s u b j e c t , sometimes w ith le s s th a n f e l i c i t o u s consequences: A fte r co m p licated jo u rn e y in g s w ith many p a u se s , th e r e had come months o f monotonous l i f e in camp. (12) T his s t i l t e d in v e rs io n stem s from C ra n e 's d e s i r e to throw in to r e l i e f th e to p ic o f th e fo llo w in g few p a ra g ra p h s , th e monotony o f l i f e in 135 camp. Sim ple s u b je c t- v e r b in v e rs io n s p reced ed by le f t- b r a n c h in g p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra s e s , o fte n th e im petus f o r an in v e r te d s t r u c t u r e , a ls o em phasize th e noun p h ra se s u b je c t, e s p e c i a l l y i f i t th e n f a l l s in s e n te n c e f i n a l p o s itio n : Over th e grey sk in o f th e fa c e ra n l i t t l e a n t s . (62) Crane a ls o i n v e r ts o th e r s y n t a c t i c e le m e n ts* o fte n w ith clumsy r e s u l t s . In v e rte d adverbs em phasize p la c e : O ff, was th e rumble o f d e a th . (61) (T his s e n te n c e i s n o t o n ly in v e r te d , b u t p o e t i c a l l y e l l i p t i c a l , e x c l u d - . ing e x a c t lo c a tio n in fa v o r o f vagueness: o f f in th e d is ta n c e ? o f f t o th e r i g h t ? to th e l e f t ? e t c . ) In v e rte d a d je c tiv e s em phasize a p a r t i c u l a r f e a tu r e : Under f o o t , th e r e were a few g h a s tl y form s, m o tio n le s s . (49) An in v e r te d r e f l e x i v e em phasizes F le m in g 's c o n tr a s t o f h im s e lf to th e enemy tro o p s : He began to e x a g g e ra te th e en durance, th e s k i l l , and th e v a lo r o f th o se who were coming. H im self r e e lin g from e x h a u s tio n , he was a s to n is h e d beyond m easure a t such p e r s is te n c y . (53) O th er n o n -sta n d a rd c o n s tr u c tio n s a ls o c a l l a t t e n t i o n to th e m selv e s, 37 p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e in v o lv in g v e rb form s: He d inned re p ro a c h e s , a t tim e s . (21) He t r i e d to re lo a d h i s gun b u t h i s shaking hands p r e v e n te d . (47) The mouth was opened. (62) The a i r was always o ccupied by a b l a r i n g . (133) One e x p ec ts " re p ro a c h e s" to be dinned a t somebody and a d i r e c t o b je c t , " i t , " to fo llo w " p re v e n te d ." Where one would e x p ect a co p u la p lu s 136 p r e d ic a te a d je c tiv e , th e n e x t to l a s t s e n te n c e in s te a d employs a p a s s iv e c o n s tr u c tio n , a llo w in g b o th d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e p o s i t i o n o f th e mouth and im p lic a tio n o f some m y ste rio u s f o r c e , unnamed, c au sin g th e mouth to be open. "A b la r in g " in th e l a s t s e n te n c e d e v ia te s in two ways, hence i s s tr o n g ly fo reg ro u n d ed . The v erb "occupy" r e q u ir e s a c o n c re te s u b je c t b u t " b la r in g " i s a b s t r a c t . In a d d itio n , C ra n e 's ch o ice o f a noun o f a c ti o n , s p e c if ie d by i t s p re c e d in g count a r t i c l e " a ," d e v ia te s more th a n th e gerund " b la r in g " would have s in c e a b s t r a c tio n s can no more be counted th an th e y can occupy. In v e rs io n s , e s p e c i a l l y th o s e s t r i k i n g l y out o f th e o rd in a ry , and d e v ia n t c o n s tr u c tio n s o f o th e r ty p e s run two r i s k s . F i r s t , th e y may c a l l u n d e rserv e d a t t e n t i o n to item s t h a t a re b e t t e r ta k en f o r g ra n te d , unduely d i s t r a c t i n g r e a d e r s . Second, th e y may m y s tify b e fo re th e y e n lig h te n . Crane ta k e s th e s e r i s k s and sometimes lo s e s , b u t he lo s e s le s s in The Red Badge th a n th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s and M aggie, f o r , on th e w hole, C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c c h o ice s in The Red Badge p r o j e c t a way o f s e e in g - ~ d is ju n c tiv e , m u ltip l e , im m ediate, i n t e n s e - - t h a t i s ap p ro p r i a t e f o r young Fleming as he s t r i v e s to become a man. Summary C ra n e 's e a r ly s t y l e i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by i t s c o n triv e d q u a l i t y and extrem e p a r a t a x i s . I t depends p r im a r i ly upon e c c e s t r i c word c h o ice and h y p erb ato n to c r e a te i n t e n s i t y and t e x t u r e r a t h e r s u b tly m anipu la te d s y n ta x . I t s t r i k e s us as coming from th e pen o f a man s t r u g g lin g to g a in c o n tr o l o f language f o r h i s f i c t i o n a l p u rp o se s. Syntax i s fragm ented w ith f r e q u e n t, s w if t changes o f fo c u s. In i t s b r e v i t y and a b ru p tn e ss i t echoes th e a b b re v ia te d n a tu re o f th e 137 S u lliv a n County t a l e s and scenes w ith in th e n o v els Maggie and The Red Badge. C onnective d e v ic e s and t r a n s i t i o n s a re conspicuous by t h e i r ab sen ce. Crane r e l i e s upon e x a c t r e p e t i t i o n o f key w ords, e q u iv a le n c e c h a in s , b u t m a in ly a s s o c ia ti o n , th e w eakest c o n n e c tiv e d e v ic e , to e s t a b l i s h co h eren ce. He p la c e s a heavy burden on re a d e rs to e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and, in addition* to f i l l in d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s . This l a t t e r i s t r u e b ecau se s h o r t se n te n c e s and T - u n its te n d to c r e a te th re a d b a re n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i o n . S entence expansion o ccu rs p r im a r i ly th ro u g h bound m o d if ie r s , sim p le a d je c tiv e s and ad v erb s (o f te n more s u g g e s tiv e th an p r e c i s e l y d e s c r i p t i v e ) , and m in im ally expanded p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra s e s , which a re a ls o in s tru m e n ta l in e s t a b l i s h i n g C ra n e 's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p ro se rhythm , a p seudo-iam bic b e a t c r e a te d by one o r more th r e e p a r t p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se s p la c e d in se n te n c e f i n a l p o s i t i o n . Crane a ls o expands h i s se n te n c e s w ith f r e e m o d ifie rs b u t le s s o f te n in th e e a r ly s t y l e , and th o s e he u ses te n d to c l u s t e r in c o n se c u tiv e s e n te n c e s , o r even one s e n te n c e . An im p o rtan t re a so n f o r th e f a i l u r e o f th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s and th e uneven q u a l i t y o f Maggie i s C ra n e 's i n a b i l i t y to d iv o rc e h i s n a r r a t o r s from h i s p r o ta g o n is ts ; th e y speak th e same language. The f a i l u r e i s much more s i g n i f i c a n t in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s because re a d e rs a re c o n s ta n tly b ein g m isle d by t h e i r u n r e l i a b l e g u id e . The most n o ta b ly s u c c e s s fu l achievem ents in th e s e two works a re " K illin g His Bear" and C hapter XVII o f M aggie, b o th o f which s e p a r a te th e n a r r a t o r from th e p r o ta g o n is t and re v e a l o th e r f a c e ts t h a t foreshadow C ra n e 's l a t e r s t y l i s t i c m astery . 138 N a rra to r and p r o ta g o n is t a ls o merge in The Red Badge, b u t in t h i s case th e r e s u l t i s p r o v i d e n t i a l . C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c c h o ices o p tim a lly s u i t h is p s y c h o lo g ic a l p o r tr a y a l o f F le m in g 's f e a r f u l and confused m ental p ro c e ss e s d u rin g h is f i r s t b a t t l e f i e l d e x p e rie n c e . 139 Notes 1 Edwin H. Cady, I n t r o d . , T a le s , S ketches and R e p o r ts , V ol. V III o f The Works, p . x x ix . 2 Numerous re f e r e n c e s by th o se who knew Crane t e s t i f y to h is spon tan eo u s p ro d u c tio n o f f in i s h e d work, b u t s u b se q u e n tly d is c o v e re d manu s c r i p t s deny t h i s c laim . With p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to p a r a l l e l e x c e rp ts from "The Fisherm en" and "The O ctopush," Cady in h i s I n tr o d u c ti o n (pp. x x x -x x x ii) a s s e s s e s th e p ro c e ss and im pact o f C ra n e 's r e v i s io n s : "Crane bo re down on th e s u r f a c e s , n o t th e s t r u c t u r e . . . . He ground upon p o lis h in g up th e te x t u r e s o f d ic tio n and s y n ta x , and he smoothed th e run o f h i s t a l e ' s p ro g r e s s io n . . . . In r e v is io n he worked to sh arp en eye and e a r ." Cady s e l e c t i v e l y su p p o rts h is c la im , z ero in g in on th e m etaphor o f " th e f l a r e , " which i s s h i f t e d in th e f i n a l v e r sio n to form an a p t o b je c tiv e c o r r e l a t i v e f o r a p s y c h o lo g ic a l moment, and i s on ly p a r t l y c o r r e c t . Crane sh arp en s "eye and e a r" in ways o th e r th an re a rra n g em e n t and p o lis h in g in th e p a r t i c u l a r s e c tio n o f th e d r a f t d is c u s s e d by Cady, one way in v o lv in g s t r u c t u r a l change (a lth o u g h th e la r g e r s t r u c t u r e o f th e p ie c e rem ains s u b s t a n t i a l l y th e sam e). B esides adding and changing sim ple and bound m o d ifie rs ("a b la c k b o t t l e " ^ "a g r e a t yellow -brow n b o t t l e " ) , Crane a tta c h e s th r e e v erb c l u s t e r s to main c la u s e s . One o f them h e ig h te n s th e im pact o f " th e f l a r e " m etaphor on which Cady comments in term s o f i t s r e p o s itio n in g . The d r a f t 's "When th e sun had s l i d down u n t i l i t only threw a re d f l a r e among th e t r e e s . . . . " ^ t h e f i n a l v e r s i o n 's "The sun s l i d down and threw a f l a r e upon th e s i l e n c e , c o lo rin g i t r e d ." He a ls o adds th r e e c o n ju n c t i v e a d v erb s, "sm oothing th e ru n " o f h is t a l e . These r e v is io n s a re n o t sim ply p o lis h in g as Cady m a in ta in s , b u t ad ding, a p ro c e ss t y p i c a l as Crane r e v i s e s , w hether m in im ally as in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s o r e x te n s iv e ly as in p a r t s o f The Red Badge o r th e l a t e r work. ^ In l e t t e r s to N e llie C rouse (Dec. 31st £18953) and L ily Brandon Munroe CMarch, 1894?3, L e t t e r s , pp. 86 and 31. 4 "The moon r e s te d f o r a moment in th e to p o f a t a l l p in e on a h i l l . "The l i t t l e man was s ta n d in g in f r o n t o f th e c a m p -fire making o r a tio n to h i s companions. '"We can t e l l a g r e a t t a l e when we g e t back to th e c i t y , i f we in v e s t i g a t e t h i s t h i n g , ' s a id h e , in c o n c lu sio n . "They were won. "The l i t t l e man was d eterm in ed to e x p lo re a cav e, b ecau se i t s alack mouth had gaped a t him. The fo u r men took l i g h t e d p in e -k n o ts and clam bered o v er b o u ld e rs down a h i l l . In a t h i c k e t on th e m o u n ta in -sid e lay a l i t t l e t i l t e d h o le . At i t s s id e th e y h a lte d " (225) . 140 5 See Appendix E f o r C ra n e 's use o f c o n ju n c tiv e a d v erb s, an im p o rtan t ty p e o f c o n n e c to r, which in number and v a r i e t y a re l e a s t in th e e a r l y work. 3 The p a ra g ra p h a ls o i l l u s t r a t e s C ra n e 's e x c e s s iv e ly p a r a t a c t i c s t y l e . 7 " I t would be d i f f i c u l t to d e s c rib e th e s u b t l e b ro th e rh o o d o f men t h a t was h e re e s ta b lis h e d on th e s e a s . No one s a id t h a t i t was so. No one m entioned i t . . . . And a f t e r t h i s d e v o tio n to th e commander o f th e b o a t th e r e was t h i s com radeship t h a t th e c o rre sp o n d e n t, f o r in s ta n c e , knew even a t th e tim e was th e b e s t e x p e rie n c e o f h is l i f e . But no one s a id t h a t i t was so . No one m entioned i t " (7 3 ). ® Corwin K. L inson, My Stephen C rane, ed. Edwin H. Cady (S y racu se, N. Y .: Syracuse U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1958), p . 59. Q Level one r e f e r s to th e b a s e , which may be s in g le o r c o o rd in a te . See Appendix E f o r C ra n e 's use o f f r e e m o d if ie r s . Or even momentary c o n fu sio n along w ith awkwardness: "The maddened fo u r men fo llo w ed f r a n t i c a l l y , f o r i t i s b e t t e r to be in th e p re se n c e o f th e awful th a n o n ly w ith in h e a r i n g . T h e ir e a r s s t i l l q u iv e rin g w ith th e s h r ie k , th e y bounded th ro u g h th e h o le in th e c e il in g , and in to th e s ic k room" ("The Black Dog," 246). 11 " K illin g His B ear," 249; "The Mesmeric M ountain," 271; "The Black Dog," 242; "The O ctopush," 231. 12 I n t r o d . , T a le s , S k e tc h es, and R e p o rts, V ol. V III o f The Works, p . x x v ii. 1^ In a l e t t e r to an e d i t o r o f L e s l i e ' s Weekly Cabout November, 1895U, L e t t e r s , p . 79. 1^ In a l e t t e r to L ily Brandon Munroe CMarch, 1894?3, L e t t e r s , p . 32. 13 In a rev iew in A ren a, June 1893, r p t . i n W eatherford, p p . 37-38. W eatherford a ls o r e p r i n t s p o r tio n s o f a h a n d fu l o f o th e r c r i t i c s ' re v ie w s: Edward M arsh all from an in te rv ie w w ith W . D. H ow ells, P h i l a d e lp h ia P r e s s , A p ril 1894; W illiam Dean Howells from H a rp e r' s W eekly, Ju n e 1895; and R upert Hughes from G odey's M agazine, O ctober 1895, pp. 39-41. 13 R ich ard Bridgman, The C o llo q u ia l S ty le i n America (New York: O xford U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1966. 17 "A v e ry l i t t l e boy sto o d upon a heap o f g ra v e l f o r th e honor o f Rum A lle y . He was th row ing s to n e s a t how ling u rc h in s from D e v il's Row who were c i r c l i n g madly about th e heap and p e l t i n g a t him. 141 "H is i n f a n t i l e countenance was l i v i d w ith fu r y . H is sm all body was w rith in g in th e d e liv e r y o f g r e a t , crim son o a th s . "Howls o f renewed w rath went up from D e v il's Row t h r o a t s . T a t te r e d gamins on th e r i g h t made a fu r io u s a s s a u l t on th e g ra v e l heap. On t h e i r s m a ll, convulsed fa c e s th e r e shone th e g r in s o f t r u e a s s a s s in s . As th e y charged, th e y threw s to n e s and cu rsed in s h r i l l ch o ru s. "The l i t t l e champion o f Rum A lle y stum bled p r e c i p i t a t e l y down th e o th e r s id e . His c o a t had been to r n to sh re d s in a s c u f f l e , and h i s h a t was gone. He had b r u is e s on tw enty p a r ts o f h i s body, and blood was d rip p in g from a c u t on h is head. His wan f e a tu r e s wore a look o f a t i n y , in san e demon. "On th e ground, c h ild r e n from D e v il's Row c lo s e d in on t h e i r a n ta g o n is t. He crooked h i s l e f t arm d e f e n s iv e ly about h i s head and fou g h t w ith c u rs in g fu r y . The l i t t l e boys ra n to and f r o , dodging, h u r lin g s to n e s and sw earing in b a r b a r ic t r e b l e s " ( 3 - 4 ) . (D ialogue o m itte d .) I® In com parison to Maggie tim e p h ra se a d v e r b ia ls a re more numerous in The Red Badge, s e t t i n g th e scene and r e v e a lin g a tte n d a n t a c tio n s and c irc u m sta n c e s; t h i s em phasis on tim e d o v e ta ils w ith theme and fo c u s, th e m u ta b ility o f F lem in g 's p e r c e p tio n s . 19 For example: "The in e x p e rie n c e d f i b r e s o f th e b o y 's eyes were hardened a t an e a r ly age. He became a young man o f l e a t h e r . He liv e d some re d y e a rs w ith o u t la b o r in g . D uring t h a t tim e h is s n e e r became c h ro n ic . He s tu d ie d human n a tu r e in th e g u t t e r , and found i t no worse th a n he th o u g h t he had re a so n t o b e lie v e i t " (3 1 ). 20 The form er doom i s th e most commonly a ccep ted re a d in g , b u t in "The V ir g in ia E d itio n o f Stephen C ra n e 's Maggie" P a rk e r and H iggins p la u s i b ly advance th e l a t t e r p o s s i b i l i t y in view o f th e s q u a lid n a tu r e o f th e f a t man, M aggie's l a s t custom er. 21 I t ap p ears o n ly in th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ," M aggie, and The Red Badge d a ta . 22 A ll se n te n c e s w ith v e rb a l openers in th e Maggie d a ta , f o u r , o c cu r in C h ap ter XVII. 2^ I n t r o d , , The Red Badge, V ol. II o f The Works, p . x iv . 2^ To an e d i t o r o f L e s l i e 's Weekly Cabout November, 1895!], L e t t e r s , p . 78. 2^ And in one se n te n c e a t l e a s t we fin d a d i s t i n c t echo o f th e c le v e rn e s s o f th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s : "The s w ir lin g mass went some tw enty f e e t and l i t upon a le v e l dry p la c e in a s tr o n g , y ellow l i g h t o f c a n d le s . I t d is s o lv e d and became ey es" ("Four Men in a C ave," 227); 142 "A s k e tc h in g rey and re d d is s o lv e d in to a m o b -lik e body o f men who g a llo p e d li k e w ild -h o r s e s " (The Red Badge, 219). 26 The Red Badge much le s s o f te n p r e s e n ts th e r e g im e n t's p o in t o f view th a n F le m in g 's ; when i t d o e s ,th e r e a d e r th ro u g h h a b i t a s s ig n s th e view point as s t i l l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f Flem ing. 27 in t h i s re g a rd i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t d e s p it e i t s con t r i b u t i n g to th e e f f e c t o f th e s e n te n c e , th e second s e t o f e n c lo s in g commas was d e le te d in th e 1895 Red Badge, and o n ly th e second comma o f th e s e t r e s to r e d in The Works, r e v e r t i n g t o C ra n e 's Red Badge d r a f t m a n u sc rip t p u n c tu a tio n and ig n o rin g h is own l a t e r c h o ic e . At o th e r tim es Crane p u n c tu a te s f o r p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t , tw ic e in th e d a ta to em phasize rig h t- b r a n c h in g s t r u c t u r e s t h a t o th e rw ise would flow w ith th e s e n te n c e : "The c o ld p a sse d r e l u c t a n t l y from th e e a r th and th e r e t i r i n g fogs re v e a le d an army s tr e tc h e d o u t on th e h i l l s , r e s t i n g " (3) and "They s tr u c k sa v a g e ly and p o w e rfu lly a t each o th e r fo r a p e rio d o f m inutes and th e n th e lig h te r - h u e d reg im en ts f a l t e r e d and drew back, le a v in g th e d a rk , b lu e l i n e s , sh o u tin g " (159). R isks in h e re in non s ta n d a rd p u n c tu a tio n f o r e f f e c t , o f c o u rse . Each b re a k in g o f th e code c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to i t s e l f , and, l i k e c ry in g w o lf to o o f te n , may work a g a in s t th e v ery e f f e c t s t h a t an a u th o r seek s t o im pose. (A lthough c r i t i c s m ention C ra n e 's unique p u n c tu a tio n "sy ste m ," an in -d e p th stu d y o f i t s r a t i o n a l e and e f f e c t s rem ains to be d one.) 28 See Appendix E f o r C ra n e 's use o f c o n ju n c tiv e a d v erb s. 29 I borrow th e s e l a s t two term s from Max W estbrook's a p p lic a tio n o f them to C ra n e 's p o e tr y in "S tephen C ra n e 's P o e try : P e r s p e c tiv e s and A rro g an ce," Stephen C rane' s C aree r: P e r s p e c tiv e s and E v a lu a tio n s , ed. Thomas A. G ullason (New York: New York U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1972), pp. 295-305. 30 That Crane was i n t e n t upon e s t a b l i s h i n g b o th coherence and an a s p e c t o f F le m in g 's c h a r a c te r i s a p p a re n t in h i s adding seven co n ju n c t i v e adverbs to h i s f i n a l m a n u scrip t in th e com parable p a ssa g es examined f o r t h i s stu d y . These in c lu d e th o se ap p ea rin g in newly formed se n te n c e s where no d r a f t pages a re m issin g and th o se added to a lre a d y e x is t in g s e n te n c e s . No c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs were d e le te d from th e d r a f t . Crane a ls o added a number o f c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s , many c l e a r l y f o r th e sake o f c o h eren ce. See Appendix F. 3^ F o r d e t a i l s o f C ra n e 's changes in s y n ta x between th e d r a f t and f i n a l m a n u sc rip t, se e Appendix F. 32 "Howells D iscussed a t A v o n -b y -th e-S ea, Aug. 18, 1891, T a l e s , S k e tc h e s, and R e p o rts , Vol. V III o f The Works, p . 507. 33 S e rg io P e ro sa , "S tephen Crane f r a n a tu ra lis m o e im p ressio n israo ," t r a n s . and r p t . in Stephen C ra n e : A C o lle c tio n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , ed. Maurice Bassan (Englewood C l i f f s , N. J . : P r e n ti c e H a ll, 1967), pp. 80- 94.__________________________________ ; _________________ ! ______________________________ 143 34 The verb c l u s t e r i s C ra n e 's f a v o r i t e ty p e o f f r e e m o d if ie r in a l l th e works examined. The verb c l u s t e r s in th e second se n te n c e a re two o f th e seven t h a t Crane added d u rin g h i s r e v is io n o f The Red Badge d r a f t p o r tio n s t h a t were examined, showing h i s d e s i r e t o in c r e a s e th e k i n e t i c fo rc e o f h i s n o v e l. He d e le te d on ly one, changing i t to a f r e e p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e . See Appendix F. 33 The a d je c tiv e c l u s t e r s i n th e second example a re b o th a d d itio n s to th e m a n u sc rip t. 36 No s e n te n c e s o r T - u n its in The Red Badge d a ta go beyond th e t h i r d le v e l o f in c r e a s in g s p e c i f i c i t y . See Appendix E. 37 C r i t i c s have p r e v io u s ly been s tr u c k by C ra n e 's a d o p tio n o f Homeric e p i t h e t m o d if ic a tio n ("He o f th e in ju r e d f in g e r s swore b i t t e r l y and aloud" C23U) and su b sta n d a rd o r n o n -id io m a tic usage ("He bended fo rw ard , s c a rc e b re a th in g " C 22l, "The dim ensions o f t h e i r howls was e x tr a o r d in a r y " C473, th e o th e r end Cof th e room ], c r a c k e r boxes were made to se rv e as f u r n i t u r e " C6H). One could a ls o add s p l i t i n f i n i t i v e s . E a rly c r i t i c s c a s t i g a t e d Crane f o r t h i s gram m atical so le c ism , a s i n which seems l e s s th a n h orrendous to d a y , and, as th e d a ta show, o c cu rs f a r le s s o fte n th a n we m ight ex p ect given th e in te n s e c r i t i c i s m . There a re te n in s ta n c e s , some o f which would be awkward i f n o t s p l i t (" to be w ell known," " to long e n d u re " ). C rane, in f a c t , a v o id s s p l i t i n f i n i t i v e s where th e y would n o t r a i s e an eyebrow ( " to pace n e rv o u sly to and f r o , " " t o c a l l o u t i m p a t i e n t l y " ) . 144 CHAPTER V STAGE TW O: TRANSITION AN D LATE MATURITY In The Red Badge Crane had developed h is e a r l y s t y l e a s f a r as he co u ld . I d e a lly s u ite d to i t s p r o ta g o n is t and them e, i t made th e novel an im p ressiv e and en d u rin g su c c e ss. But a s t y l e c e n te re d on s h o r t, sh arp se n te n c e s t h a t s p a t t e r l i k e a random h a i l o f b u l l e t s on r e a d e r s , though d o v e ta ile d to th e b e w ild ered c o n sc io u sn ess o f a raw r e c r u i t in b a t t l e , i s , f i n a l l y , lim ite d in scope, in th e n a r r a t i v e v o ic e s , and hence th e them es i t can p r o j e c t . Crane needed to develop h i s s t y l e in o th e r d i r e c t i o n s , to p r o j e c t o th e r v o ic e s , o r be fo r e v e r doomed to r e p e a t h im s e lf. I t may have been t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n , co n scio u s o r subcon s c io u s , t h a t im p elled him in a new s t y l i s t i c d i r e c t i o n . I t may a lso have been in resp o n se to c r i t i c i s m o f The Red Badge coming on th e h e e ls o f c r i t i c s ' d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e e c c e n t r i c i t i e s o f Maggie and The Black R id e r s . Edward M a rsh a ll, Sunday e d i t o r o f th e New York P re ss c r i t i c i z e d h i s "wrenched a d j e c t i v e s and coined a d v e r b s ." 1 O ther r e v iew ers bore down h ard on th e chaos and co n fu sio n o f The Red Badge, i t s 2 s lip s h o d grammar, in d e ed , i t s "g en e ra l b u tc h e ry o f th e la n g u a g e ." Tom in h is f i c t i o n and p o e tr y between i l l u s o r y i d e a l s and c o n c r e te , a l b e i t u n p r e d ic ta b le , r e a l i t y , he was s i m i l a r l y t o m in h i s own l i f e between h i s a r t i s t i c c o n v ic tio n s and d e s ir e f o r p o p u la r, c r i t i c a l , and 3 f in a n c ia l su c c e ss . C on seq u en tly , Crane may have d e l i b e r a t e l y changed h i s s t y l e to meet th e e x p e c ta tio n s o f c r i t i c s and th e p u b lic . One I 145 p ie c e o f s u p p o rtin g evidence l i e s in C ra n e 's m uting h i s h ig h c o lo r p a l e t t e and b iz a r r e m o d ifie rs a f t e r The Red Badge. But such changes in word c h o ice la y under h i s c o n sc io u s c o n tro l w hereas changes in h i s gram m atical s t y l e l a r g e l y d id n o t. As modern l i n g u i s t s ' s tu d ie s o f language a c q u i s i t i o n and c o n tr o l o f gram m atical s t r u c t u r e s have shown, th e s e p ro c e s s e s a re l a r g e l y u n c o n sc io u s. F u r th e rm o re , l i n g u i s t s have shown t h a t a c q u is itio n and c o n tr o l p ro ceed in th e d i r e c t i o n o f v a r i e t y and co m p lex ity . F o r exam ple, ex p an sio n s in t h e s u b je c t, th e more complex em beddings, and red u ced s t r u c t u r e s ( g e r unds, p a r t i c i p l e s , a p p o s itiv e s o f v a rio u s ty p e s , and so f o r th ) are a c q u ire d l a t e in th e language a c q u i s i t i o n p ro c e sh , and by some u s e r s o f E n g lish o n ly in term s o f competence (u n d e rs ta n d in g ), n o t a t a l l in 4 term s o f perform ance (u s in g ). Hence, a p la u s i b le re a so n f o r C ra n e 's changing gram m atical s t y l e i s t h a t as he gained e x p e rie n c e a s a w r i t e r , he developed a more c o n s is te n t and ad ep t command o f th e s y n t a c t i c op t i o n s t h a t make o f E n g lish a r i c h e r e x p re ss iv e in s tru m e n t. T h is i s n o t to say t h a t c e r t a i n s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s , th e m a n ip u la tio n o f which c h a r a c te r iz e s m atu rer h a n d lin g o f lan g u ag e, n e v er o ccu r in th e e a r l y work. Examples from th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s ( " K illin g H is B ear") and Maggie (C hapter XVII) have a lr e a d y been p in p o in te d . And we c e r t a i n l y co u ld add th e f i n e l y m odulated opening o f The Red Badge in which sy n tax f i n e l y melds w ith s e n s e .^ But as ex am ination o f C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c c h o ice s r e v e a l s , i t i s in th e l a t e r work t h a t he depends more on m odulated sy n tax and l e s s on o u tla n d is h d ic tio n and e c c e n tr ic sy n tax to gain h i s e f f e c t s . J u s t as C ra n e 's gram m atical c h o ic e s j u s t i f i e d grouping h i s " S u lliv a n County 146 S k e tc h e s ,” M aggie, and The Red Badge as r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f h i s e a r ly s t y l e so "The Open B o at," ''The M o n ster," "The Blue H o te l," " T h e P r ic e of th e H a rn e ss," and "The Gian o f No-Name" w a rra n t grouping as r e p r e s e n ta t i v e o f C ra n e 's second s t y l i s t i c p h a se . These s t o r i e s form ing Groups s ix and seven in th e d a ta w a rra n t th e la b e l "ex p an siv e" in c o n t r a s t to th e a b ru p tn e ss o f C ra n e 's e a r ly w ork.^ Forming a b rid g e betw een th e e a r ly and l a t e r s t y l e s a re th e s t o r i e s o f Group f i v e , "The Wise Men," "The Five White M ice," and "A Man and Some O th e r s ." However, a lth o u g h th e s e s t o r i e s form a t r a n s i t i o n , th e y le an more c lo s e ly tow ard th e s t y l e o f th e l a t e r work. S entence and T -u n it le n g th s in c re a s e in th e l a t e s t o r i e s , and w ith t h i s in c re a s e we fin d more s e n te n c e co m p lex ity , s t r u c tu r e s used e a r l i e r (such as f r e e m o d ifie rs) used o f te n e r and more e f f e c t i v e l y , and o th e r s t r u c t u r e s (such as th e i n f i n i t i v e s u b je c t) used f o r th e f i r s t tim e . With th e s e changes come a new a b i l i t y to p r o j e c t a mul t i p l i c i t y o f v o ic e s and a g e n e r a lly more g r a c e f u l s t y l e , n o t as s t a r t l i n g as th e e a r ly s t y l e b u t a more pow erful v e h ic le f o r C ra n e 's id e a s . W e w i l l f i r s t examine th e s t o r i e s o f Group f iv e and th e n th o s e o f Groups s ix and seven combined s in c e , in term s o f th e c a te g o r ie s exam ined, th e two groups converge enough to be jo in e d f o r p u rp o ses o f d is c u s s io n . "The Wise Men," "The Five White M ice," and "A Man and Some O th ers" The s t o r i e s o f Group f iv e s p rin g from C ra n e ’s own w estern and Mexican a d v e n tu re s . Ranging from seeming s p o n ta n e ity o f com position and lig h tn e s s o f to n e to more c o n sid e re d s e r io u s n e s s , th e y n e v e r th e le s s , as Levenson rem arks, a r e , as a whole, s t r i k i n g l y y o u th fu l compared to th e s t o r i e s which Crane w rote th e v ery n e x t y e a r . '7 In them Crane advances a s te p c l o s e r to th e a r t i s t i c m a stery o f h i s g r e a t e s t work. 147 "The Wise Men" and "The F iv e White Mice" a re cognate p ie c e s f e a tu r in g th e two Kids, one from New York and th e o th e r from San F ran c is c o , who "w ickedly" in d u lg e th e companion s in s o f d rin k in g and gam b lin g in Mexico C ity f a r from t h e i r o r i g i n a l , P u r ita n h a b i t a t . "A Man and Some O th ers" tu r n s from c i t y to open ran g e and th e c o n f l i c t between a sh eep h erd er named B i l l and some Mexicans who th r e a t e n him o f f th e ran g e in so u th w este rn Texas. In "The Wise Men" th e Kids c o n tr iv e a fo o t r a c e betw een o ld Pop* th e b a rte n d e r a t th e Cafe C olorado, who, p o r t l y and g ray ed , ap p ears to be in le s s th a n h i s a t h l e t i c prim e, and F re d d ie , a much younger b a r te n d e r a t th e Casa V erde. R ashly unconcerned w ith o ld P o p 's obvious p h y s ic a l d isa d v a n ta g e s , th e Kids a c c e p t h i s cocksure c laim to be a " f l i e r " and w ith cool in so u c ia n c e ta k e on a l l b e t s , b e ts t h a t i f c a ll e d th e Kids could n o t make good. Knowing how d e ep ly in th e Kids a re , Pop w i l t s under th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and, backing away from h i s e a r l i e r s u preme s e lf - c o n f id e n c e , warns them he m ight lo s e . But th e s i b y l l i c Kids s t i c k w ith Pop, who b e a ts F red d ie h a n d ily . As th e s u l l e n Benson, who had backed F re d d ie , pays o f f h is b e t s , d e f i a n t l y m a in ta in in g t h a t he d id n o t lo s e much, th e K ids, in r e p ly , q u i e t l y u n d e r s ta te t h e i r w in n in g s. U n derstatem ent q u i e t l y y e t p o w e rfu lly a ls o ends."T he F iv e White M ice," whose co n clu d in g se n te n c e re a d s : "N othing had h ap p en ed ," th e n a r r a t o r 's comment on th e chance c o n f r o n ta tio n o f th e so b e r New York Kid and th e drunken 'F r is c o Kid and Benson w ith th r e e h o s t i l e Mexicans whose k n iv e s f l a s h a t th e read y in resp o n se to B enson's j o s t l i n g and th e 'F r is c o K id 's accep tan ce o f th e M exicans' c h a lle n g e to f i g h t . 148 Leading up to t h i s c r i s i s i s th e fo llo w in g sequence o f e v e n ts . The New York Kid, gam bling a t th e Casa V erde, lo s e s a t d ic e d e s p it e h is p o e tic ap p eal to " th e f i v e w h ite mice o f change" (an ap p eal t h a t he re p e a ts d u rin g th e m id n ig h t c o n f r o n ta tio n , making o ut o f i t a new, alth o u g h more d ead ly , game), th e p e n a lty f o r which i s t r e a t i n g th e w inners to a c ir c u s p erfo rm an ce. On h i s way home from th e c ir c u s he seeks o u t th e 'F r is c o Kid and Benson as b idden to e a r l i e r and fin d s them b o th needing a s s is ta n c e home. I t i s as he and th e 'F r is c o Kid, a u to m a to n -lik e in resp o n se to th e New York K id 's commands, s t e e r Benson along th e dark Mexico C ity s t r e e t s t h a t th e c la s h w ith th e M exicans o c c u rs. P u llin g o ut h i s gun a lth o u g h quaking w ith f e a r , th e New York Kid cows th e Mex ic a n s and th e y s l i n k o f f in to th e d a rk n e ss , b o th s id e s w i l l i n g to end th e c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith o u t b lo odshed. In t h i s sen se th e n and a ls o in th e sen se t h a t n e i t h e r th e 'F r is c o Kid n o r Benson a re aware o f th e New York K id 's sav in g t h e i r liv e s " n o th in g has hap p en ed ." Yet f o r th e New York Kid som ething has happened; he has m a in ta in ed g ra c e u n d er p r e s s u r e and been awakened to th e f a c t t h a t " th e y were a l l human b e in g s" and t h a t he does n o t have "a com plete monopoly o f a l l p o s s ib le t r e p i d a t io n s " (5 0 ), no mean le s s o n . Even more im p o rta n t, t h i s knowledge, r a t h e r th a n p u f f in g him up, humbles him. In "A Man and Some O th ers" i t i s th e s tr a n g e r who le a r n s th e l e s so n s. A n a iv e and chance o b s e rv e r when he e n te r s th e sce n e , he e arn s h i s knowledge th ro u g h a c ti v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in B i l l ' s stu b b o rn r e s i s t ance a g a in s t th e M exicans. B i l l , b a s i c a l l y a d ecen t man (who warns to s tr a n g e r to " h i t th e t r a i l " (60) and n o t g e t e n ta n g le d in h is t r o u b l e ) , has lan d ed in so u th w este rn Texas a t th e end o f a long downward 149 plu n g e t h a t ta k e s him from a r i s t o c r a t i c Wyoming mineowner through s t i n t s as cowboy, r a i l r o a d w orker, b o u n cer, f i g h t e r , and once even a k i l l e r . D efying th e v i l l a i n o u s J o s e and th e o th e rs he r e p r e s e n ts , who th r e a te n to k i l l him i f he does n o t leav e th e ra n g e , B i l l sen ses h is impending doom b u t s ta y s to f i g h t n o n e th e le s s : ''Don’t see n o th in ' e ls e to do" (6 0 ). The s tr a n g e r s ta y s w ith him, and th ro u g h " c e r t a i n lin e s " t h a t s ta n d o u t " s tr o n g ly from th e in co h eren ce" (66) o f th e f i n a l a t ta c k and en dure, he comprehends th e message c a r r i e d in th e "boom o f th e sea " and " th e s l i v e r o f th e wind" a sh o re : " th e inconsequence o f i n d i v id u a l tra g e d y " (6 0 ). During th e f i g h t th e s tr a n g e r k i l l s a man and n o te s th e ease o f doing i t ; he see s th e sh ee p h e rd er in d e ath and marks th e d ig n ity o f i t . And th e s e t r u t h s become more im p o rtan t to him th an h is f e a r o f d y in g . The n a r r a t i v e c o n ce p tio n o f th e s t o r i e s i s s l i g h t , in d ic a te d by th e s u b t i t l e o f "The Wise Men: A D e ta il o f American L ife in M exico." There i s a h i n t h e re o f th e pu rp o se o f th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ," s k e tc h e s o f l i f e in Mexico and th e southw est as th o s e were sk e tc h e s o f l i f e in th e woods o f S u lliv a n County. But beyond t h e i r a tte m p tin g to r e v e a l th e ambiance o f u n f a m ilia r su rro u n d in g s to new spaper r e a d e r s , b ein g in th e s h o r t s t o r y mode, and t o l d by a t h i r d p e rso n o m n iscien t n a r r a t o r , d if f e r e n c e s abound. The s l i g h t n e s s i s d e c e p tiv e . These s t o r i e s a re o rg a n iz e d around a s e r i o u s , c o h e re n t p u rp o se: e x p lo rin g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m an's in n e r w orld and h i s o u te r w o rld , an e x p lo ra tio n t h a t a ls o u n d e r lie s th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s and c ru c ia lly ^ p e rm e a te s The Red Badge. But in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s th e e x p lo r a tio n i s l e f t u n re so lv e d as c le v e r 150 endings a v o id p ro b in g th e meaning o f e x p e rie n c e and how i t m a tte r s , and in The Red Badge, d e s p it e th e s e n s i t i v i t y o f F lem in g 's p e r c e p tio n s , any s te p s ta k en by him tow ard l a s t i n g se lf-k n o w le d g e about h is in n e r and o u te r w orlds a re l e f t shrouded in a m is t o f am b iguity. His d i s c o v e rie s a re as fragm ented and u n su re as h i s s y n t a c t i c s t y l e . How e v e r, in th e s e l a t e r s t o r i e s r e s o l u t i o n and illu m in a tio n accompany ex p l o r a t i o n . The Kids may fre q u e n t a lo o s e , v ic e - r id d e n w orld b u t th e y m a in ta in ad m irab le s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e ; a d d i t i o n a l l y , th e New York Kid and th e s tr a n g e r a c q u ire know ledge, t h a t , w ith o u t them claim in g i t - - a n d in f a c t t h e i r n o t claim in g i t u n d e rsc o re s it--m a k e s them men. And C ra n e 's s u re n e ss o f p u rp o se i s accompanied by a growing su re n e ss o f s t y l e . Crane s t i l l u ses c o lo r b u t a lth o u g h f i g h t i n g and anger o c c u r, no crim son, l u r i d o a th s b la z e skyward. C olor i s used more n a t u r a l l y , w ith d e s c r ip ti o n r a t h e r th an shock i t s main p u rp o se . The K ids, ta k in g b e t s , have "much b u s in e s s w ith c e r t a i n o ra n g e , re d , b lu e , p u r p le , and g reen b i l l s " (3 4 ). The extended s e r i e s (one m ight even say c a t a l o g ) , a s t r u c t u r a l o p tio n newly e x p lo ite d by C rane, n o t o n ly su g g e sts d i f f e r i n g amounts o f money b ein g wagered th ro u g h th e v a rio u s c o lo r s b u t in i t s p i l i n g up o f m o d ifie rs th e v a s t amount o f money b e in g w agered, a c u m u la tiv e e f f e c t a ls o e n t a i l e d in C ra n e 's d e s c r ip ti o n o f d rin k s : "D rinks o f many k in d s and c o lo r s , amber, g re e n , mahogany, s tro n g and m ild , began to swarm upon th e b a r w ith a l l th e a tte n d a n ts o f lemon, su g a r, m int and ic e " (3 9 ). S l i g h t l y g a ris h , th e w e lte r o f a d je c tiv e s c r e a te s an em otional charge t h a t i s l i g h t and humorous. L a te r Crane u se s trip-ham m er c a ta lo g u in g em phasized by hyphenated m o d ifie rs to gen e r a t e a w eig h ty , s e r io u s em otional c h arg e, e x p e r tly u n d e rsco re d and 151 r e le a s e d by th e fo llo w in g se n te n c e s which wind down to t e r s e ir o n ic f i n a l e : One viewed th e e x is te n c e o f man th e n as a m arv el, and conceded a glam our o f wonder to th e s e l i c e which were caused to c lin g t o a w h irlin g , f ir e - s m o te , ic e - lo c k e d , d i s e a s e - s t r i c k e n , s p a c e - lo s t b u lb . The c o n c e it o f man was e x p lain ed by t h i s storm to be th e v e ry en gine o f l i f e . One was a coxcomb n o t to d ie in i t . However, th e Swede found a sa lo o n . ("The Blue H o te l," 165) In "A Man and Some O th ers" d e f t c o lo r c h o ic e , i n t e n s i f y i n g th e rh y th m ical cadence o f th e s e n te n c e s , s e t s th e p h y s ic a l and em otional scene o f th e n ig h t- tim e a tta c k : "Long, sm oldering c lo u d s sp read in th e w estern sky, and to th e e a s t s i l v e r m is ts la y on th e p u rp le gloom o f th e w ild e rn e s s . F in a lly , when th e g re a t moon clim bed th e heavens and c a s t i t s g h a s tly ra d ia n c e upon th e bu sh es, i t made a new and more b r i l l i a n t crim son o f th e c a m p -fire * , • ." . (60). N ature i s a n im is tic b u t l e s s o b tr u s iv e ly and more q u i e t l y so: "The b ra n c h es, th e le a v e s , t h a t a re f a in to c ry o u t when d e ath ap p ro ach es in th e w ild s , were f r u s t r a t e d by th e s e uncanny b o d ie s g lid in g w ith th e f i n e s s e o f th e e scap in g s e r p e n t" (6 1 ). Sound c o n tin u e s to be im p o rtan t, but i t s im pact i s more n a tu r a l and l e s s d e afen in g th a n in th e e a r ly work: ffiessages a re "clam orous" (26); th e p e o p le w atching Pop and F red d ie ra c e "howl" a s th e men come in to view (36); men ch eer and b i t t e r l y argue o v er d ic e (4 0 ); th e sea booms and hemlock boughs c la s h (60). Formal and, more r a r e l y , m elodram atic d i c t i o n s t i l l mixes w ith o r d in a r y , and s y n t a c t i c d e v ia tio n marks C ra n e 's s e n te n c e s , but each l e s s p r o f u s e ly . An a fte rn o o n shower " l e f t th e pave wet and g l i t t e r in g " (3 3 ), "a la r g e c i r c l e o f men t h a t had been g e s t i c u l a t i n g n e a r th e 152 b a r" g r e e ts th e Kids w ith a r o a r (3 3 ), y o uths a re " d re ss e d v a in ly ac co rd in g to s u p p o s i t i t i o u s fa s h io n s " (4 0 ), and Benson and th e 'F r is c o g Kid throw "m a le d ic tio n s " a f t e r th e New York Kid (4 4 ). M o stly , though, C ra n e 's e c c e n tr ic word c h o ic e s , e s p e c i a l l y v e rb s , a re s t r i k i n g l y apt and v iv id ["They semaphored to him e a g e r ly . . . 'S (3 0 ), . . h e l a z i l y f l i r t e d th e d ic e " (3 9 ), . . th e y scummed Benson on p a s t th e door" (4 6 )]. S y n ta c tic d e v ia tio n ran g es from t h a t r e s u l t i n g from C ra n e 's u n c e r t a i n grammar: The Caf% C olorado has a f r o n t o f w hite and g o ld , in which ii^ s e t l a r g e r p l a t e - g l a s s windows th a n a re commonly t o be found in Mexico. (26) They to p p le d on t h e i r way li k e th r e e comedians p la y in g a t it_ on th e s ta g e . (4 6 )^ and c u rio u s c h o ice s in v o lv in g c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s: Benson re fu s e d t o be c o r r a l l e d b u t sp read h i s le g s and tw ir l e d l i k e a d e r v is h , meanwhile under th e e v id e n t im p ressio n t h a t he was co n d u ctin g h im s e lf most handsomely. (4 6 )10 to p r e p o s itio n s : One hand, grown c u r io u s ly t h i n n e r , had been flu n g out r e g a r d l e s s l y to_ a c a c tu s bush. (6 3 )H and v e rb s : 12 The crowd swayed and j o s t l e d . (36) O ther o f C ra n e 's d e v ia tio n s serv e an em phatic f u n c tio n , f o r ex ample a f r o n t - s h i f t e d adverb p lu s in v e r s io n : "Always co u ld be heard th e w ild p a tte r ;" which o c cu rs in th e m id st o f th e c a r e f u l l y r e g u la te d 13 clim ax o f "The Wise Men," th e ra c e between Pop and F red d ie : 153 From th e profound gloom came th e n o is e o f f e e t p a t t e r i n g f u r io u s ly . Vague forms f la s h e d in to view f o r an i n s t a n t . A h o a rse r o a r broke from th e crowd. Men bended and swayed and fo u g h t. The Kids back n e a r th e ta p e exchanged a n o th e r s t o l i d lo o k . A w h ite form shone f o r t h . I t grew l i k e a s p e c tr e . Always could be h eard th e w ild p a t t e r . A b a r b a r ic scream broke from th e crowd. "By Gawd, i t ' s Pop'. Pop'. P o p 's ahead'." The o ld man spun tow ard th e ta p e l i k e a madman, h is chin thrown back, h i s g rey h a i r f ly in g . His le g s moved l i k e maniac m achinery. And as he shot forw ard a howl as from f o r t y cages o f w ild an im als went tow ard th e im p e rtu rb a b le c h i e f t a i n s in b ro n ze. The crowd flu n g th e m selv e s forw ard. For an i n s t a n t th e whole g re a t tra g e d y was in view . F re d d ie , d e s p e r a te , h is t e e t h s h in in g , h i s fa c e c o n to rte d , w h irlin g alo n g in d e ad ly e f f o r t , was tw en ty f e e t behind th e t a l l form o f o ld Pop, who, d re s s e d o n ly in h i s —o n ly in h is u n d e r c lo th e s - - g a in e d w ith each s t r i d e . One grand in sa n e moment, and th e n Pop had h u rle d h im s e lf a g a in s t th e t a p e - - v i c t o r ’ . (36-37) The s h o r t, choppy s e n te n c e s and d a r tin g fo cu s o f p a ra g rap h one ( a d r o i t l y r e lie v e d by th e a c tio n slow ing p o ly sy n d eto n o f "Men bended and swayed and fo u g h t") g e n e ra te an atm osphere o f te n s io n and commo t i o n le a d in g up to th e appearance o f th e r u n n e rs , upon whom th e s p o t l i g h t th e n r e s t s . P o p 's f r e n z ie d , s w ift f l i g h t and F r e d d ie 's d e s p e r a te e f f o r t to o v e rta k e him a re c a p tu re d in a s e r i e s o f f r e e m o d ifie r a d d itio n s r id i n g p ig g y -b ack on t h e main c la u s e s , m agnifying p a r t s o f t h e i r b o d ie s in o rd e r to sim u la te t h e i r in te n s e p h y s ic a l e f f o r t (flaw ed , how ever, by th e frag m en tin g and m otion s to p p in g s e p a ra te c la u s e "His le g s moved l i k e m aniac m a c h in e ry " ).. Crane u s e s th e s e syn t a c t i c o p tio n s , p lu s r e p e t i t i o n and d e la y ("o n ly in h i s - - o n l y in h is u n d e rc lo th e s " ) to augment suspense in p a ra g rap h t h r e e , suspense s h a rp ly r e le a s e d w ith th e l a s t sen te n c e composed o f a h u r r ie d frag m en t, a b r i e f c la u s e , and th e n an e l l i p t i c a l c la u s e o f which o n ly th e p r e d ic a te ad- 154 j e c t i v e " v ic to r " rem ain s. " V ic to r" l i k e "only in h i s u n d e rc lo th e s " i s s e t o f f p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , and w ith a t t e n t i o n r i v e t i n g d a sh e s, to c i r - 14 cumvent th e n a t u r a l l i n e a r i t y o f se n te n c e s. Crane c o u n te rp o in ts b o th asyndeton and p o ly sy n d eto n in "The Five White M ice" to m odulate th e a c t i v i t y in v o lv ed in th e d ic e game. Even w hile t h e th r e e p a r a l l e l e d and c l u s t e r e d gerunds m a in ta in a sen se o f c o n tin u in g a c t i v i t y , a c c l e r a t i o n i s su p p la n te d by r e t a r d a t i o n : They had p a sse d beyond sh ak in g f o r d rin k s f o r th e crowd, f o r Mexican d o l l a r s , f o r d in n e r, f o r th e wine a t d in n e r. They had even gone t o th e tr o u b l e o f s e p a r a tin g th e c ig a r s and c i g a r e t t e s from th e d i n n e r 's b i l l and c au sin g a d i s t i n c t man to be r e s p o n s ib le fo r them. Then a l l a c t i v i t i e s and l i s t i n g o f p r iz e s a re a b ru p tly and hum orously stopped by a h y p e rb o lic , b a re -b o n es sen te n c e and i t s q u a l i f i e r : F in a lly th e y were a g h a s t. N othing rem ained w ith in s ig h t o f t h e i r minds which even rem o tely su g g ested f u r t h e r gam bling. (40) L a te r in th e s to r y as th e two Kids and Benson make t h e i r way down a d ark s t r e e t , th e drunken Benson a c c id e n ta l ly j o s t l e s some M exicans, and when th e y im m ediately throw down th e g a u n tle t, th e drunken 'F r is c o Kid as s w i f t l y a c c e p ts th e c h a lle n g e . Crane m a rsh als sy n ta x so as to o r c h e s t r a t e th e ebb and flow o f t h i s te n s e e n c o u n te r, u s in g clim ax p a t t e r n asy n d eto n ; f r e e m o d if ie r s , e s p e c i a l l y non c l u s t e r s t h a t f r e e z e th e a c tio n as th e y d e s c rib e i t s p a r t i c i p a n t s ; and t e r s e se n te n c e s t h a t a c c e l e r a t e t h e a c tio n a l t e r n a t e d w ith e la b o r a te d ones t h a t s u s t a i n fo c u s. He a ls o chooses p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s t h a t add a c o v e rt t h r e a t t o t h e o v e rt o n e ."^ The e f f e c t o f th e s e te n s io n rid d e n moments on th e New York Kid i s t o g e n e ra te views t h a t a re " p e r f e c t l y s te r e o p tic o n , f la s h in g in and 155 away from h i s th o u g h t w ith an in c o n c e iv a b le r a p i d i t y u n t i l a f t e r a l l th e y were sim ply one q u ick dism al im p ressio n " (4 9 ). But C ra n e 's n a r r a t o r r e p o r t s them in f a r l e s s s te r e o p tic o n fa s h io n th a n F lem in g ’s view s a re re n d e re d in The Red Badge, o r th o s e o f th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s and Maggie a re r e p o r te d by t h e i r n a r r a t o r s . The d if f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h i s n a r r a t o r i s f a r more a d e tac h e d , know ledgeable o b s e rv e r who o rd e rs th e e v e n ts and meaning o f th e s to r y t o make them more a c c e s s ib le to r e a d e r s , f i l t e r i n g th e scene t h a t re a d e rs e x p e rie n c e e s s e n t i a l l y from th e New York K id 's p o in t o f view . The opening o f "A Man and Some O th e rs" (5 3 ), which p o r tr a y s th e i s o l a t e d , d u sty scene in which th e drama w ill be e n a c te d , a ls o i l l u s t r a t e s s i m i l a r l y f i l t e r e d o r d e r in g . The l a s t se n te n c e s o f each o f th e two opening p a ra g rap h s e s p e c i a l l y e n c a p s u la te C ra n e 's a r t i s t i c r e n d e r ing o f th e way a mind m ight p e rc e iv e o b je c t s t h a t slow ly impinge them s e lv e s on t h e c o n sc io u sn e ss. Words o rd e re d and p u n c tu ated as th e y a re ("a b lu e shape, dim, o f th e su b sta n c e o f a s p e c t e r 's v e i l " ; " a t tim e s a sh ee p h e rd er could see , m ile s away, th e long w h ite stre am e rs o f d u s t" ) sim u la te a s te a d y growth in aw areness, new images b ein g added to th o s e a lr e a d y p e rc e iv e d , a l l shaped by th e u n fo ld in g o f in fo rm a tiv e d e t a i l s in l e f t - , m id-, and r ig h t- b r a n c h in g m o d ifie rs t h a t p o in t forw ard and backward and c o i l in on th em selv es. L a te r in th e s to r y th e tu rm o il o f th e f i n a l a t t a c k i s re co u n ted ( 6 6 - 6 7 ) . ^ But r a t h e r th a n " p re s e n t th e immediacy o f a w e lte r o f a u r a l , v i s u a l , and k i n e t i c p e rc e p tio n s in fragm ented, d i s ju n c tiv e se n te n c e s as in The Red Badge, C ra n e 's n a r r a t o r f i l t e r s and o rd e rs th e s t r a n g e r 's c h a o tic in n e r and o u te r p e rc e p tio n s f o r r e a d e r s . The " lig h tn in g a c 156 tio n " o f th e c lim a c tic moment i s o rg an ized in to s w if t moving asy n d eto n , b u t th e n a r r a t o r l in g e r s on th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e e v e n ts f o r th e s tr a n g e r . Crane ju d ic io u s ly p la c e s f r e e m o d ifie rs ( p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s and noun c l u s t e r s ) so as to r e t a r d th e movement o f th e s t r a n ger* s '"le sso n " and em phasize i t , th e double r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a lth o u g h in th e la r g e r scheme o f th in g s in d iv id u a l d e ath i s in c o n s e q u e n tia l, th e 17 d ig n ity and n o b i l i t y o f man in d e a th i s n o t. Through th e n a r r a t o r 's r e p o r t and i n t e r p r e t i v e comments re a d e rs con tem p late th e drama and i t s meaning s t e a d i l y , eco n o m ically , and c l e a r l y . As th e quoted p a ssa g e s from th e s e Group f iv e s t o r i e s r e v e a l, C ra n e 's se n te n c e s and T - u n its le n g th e n , and n o t p r im a r i ly th ro u g h com pounding b u t th ro u g h embedding and a tta c h in g s t r u c t u r e s t h a t e la b o r a te h is th o u g h ts more com plexly as Crane ex ten d s h is s y n t a c t i c r e s o u rc e s . The lo n g e st T -u n it in th e d a ta , and one o f on ly two se n te n c e s w ith s ix s t r u c t u r a l la y e r s , o ccu rs i n "A Man and Some O thers,."18 A nalyzed in to f r e e m o d ifie rs and le v e l s i t i s : 2 F i n a l l y , when th e g r e a t moon clim bed th e heavens and c a s t i t s g h a s tly ra d ia n c e upon th e b u sh es, (SC) 1 i t made a new and more b r i l l i a n t crim son o f th e c a m p -fire , 2 where th e flam es c ap e re d m e r r ily th ro u g h i t s m esquit b ra n c h e s, (RC) 3 f i l l i n g th e s ile n c e w ith th e f i r e ch o ru s, (VC) 4 an a n c ie n t melody (NC) 5 which s u r e ly b e ars a message o f th e inconsequence o f in d iv id u a l tr a g e d y - - (RC) 6 a message t h a t i s in th e boom o f th e s e a , th e s l i v e r o f th e wind th ro u g h th e g r a s s - b la d e s , th e s ilk e n c la s h o f hemlock boughs. (NC) (60) Two n o ta b le a t t r i b u t e s o f t h i s ty p e o f s y n ta c tic in te rw e av in g a re 157 f i r s t , t h a t i t s com plexity i s a p p r o p r ia te t o th e profo u n d n ess o f th e th o u g h t i t conveys, and second, t h a t i t s com plexity and rhythm ic c a dence in s u re t h a t r e a d e r s w ill a tte n d to i t ; th e y sim ply cannot ''sk ip th e d e t a i l s . " Each s t r u c t u r e t h r u s t s th e r e a d e r forw ard to th e next u n t i l th e message i s com plete and a l l p ie c e s f a l l to g e th e r . The v o ic e , p h ilo s o p h ic a l and p r o p h e tic , th e s t y l e v e rg in g on th e l y r i c a r e n ot e n t i r e new in C ra n e 's f i c t i o n , but th e y a re given o n ly f l e e t i n g u t t e r ance in th e e a r l y work. In th e l a t e r work th e v o ic e makes i t s e l f h eard more c l e a r l y e i t h e r in a s in g le le n g th e n e d , complex s y n ta c tic l i n e as in th e s e n te n c e im m ediately c i t e d o r in c a r e f u l l y interw oven and b alan ced s h o r te r se n te n c e s and T - u n its . But in e i t h e r case i t s fu n c tio n i s t o i n t e r p r e t as w ell a s p r e s e n t , u n lik e th e e a r l i e r work where p r e s e n ta tio n alo n e i s i t s p u rp o se. C ra n e 's growing w illin g n e s s to i n t e r p r e t r e v e a ls a growing r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t th ro u g h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n he can b e t t e r c o n tro l h i s r e a d e r s ' re s p o n se s. Crane m odulates sy n tax to e x p re ss o th e r v o ic e s to o . For example, in th e fla s h b a c k d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e sh eep h erd er B i l l ' s p a s t , sen te n c es march b r i s k l y in s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d p ro c e s s io n w ith fre q u e n t s h o r t, p a r a l l e l c la u s e s c o n tr ib u tin g to th e headlong ru s h t h a t m atches th e ru sh o f e v e n ts . T his p a ce , p lu s an a rc h to n e , d e n ie s r e a d e r s an o p p o rtu n ity to a s s im ila te f u l l y o r dw ell on B i l l ' s v io le n t re c o rd , in c lu d in g th e k i l l i n g o f a forem an, so as n o t to damage t h e i r sympathy f o r him in h i s c o n f l i c t w ith th e M exicans, sympathy p r e v io u s ly e s ta b lis h e d when th e murderous Jo sd th r e a te n s B ill w ith d e ath i f he does n o t leav e th e lan d . The fo llo w in g i l l u s t r a t e s b r i e f l y : 158 B i l l , w ith h is k in g ly frown and h is long n i g h t - s t i c k , appeared a t p r e c i s e l y t h a t moment in th e doorway. He sto o d l i k e a s t a t u e o f v i c t o r y ; h i s p r id e was a t i t s z e n ith ; and in th e same second t h i s a tr o c io u s p ie c e o f s c a n tlin g punched him in th e bulw arks o f h is stomach, and he v a n ish ed li k e a m is t. O pinions d i f f e r e d as to where th e end o f th e s c a n tlin g landed him, b ut i t was u l t i m a t e l y c l e a r t h a t i t lan d ed him in so u th w estern Texas, where he became a s h e e p -h e rd e r. (57) C ra n e 's in c re a s e d s y n t a c t i c c o n tr o l, which a llo w s him to extend h i s n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i v e power and p r o je c t a v a r i e t y o f v o ic e s , i s im p o rtan t to th e su cc e ss o f th e s e s t o r i e s as i s h i s a b i l i t y to m ain tain ad eq u ate d is ta n c e between h i s n a r r a t o r s and p r o t a g o n i s t s . These s i g n i f i c a n t f e a tu r e s form th e u n d erp in n in g o f C ra n e 's l a t e s t y l e . Indeed, C ra n e 's in c re a s in g command o f s y n t a c t i c o p tio n s c o in c id e s w ith and i s c r u c ia l to th e flo o d o f im a g in a tiv e f i c t i o n t h a t flow s from h i s pen a t th e h e ig h t o f h is c a r e e r. "The Open B o a t," "The M o n ster," "The Blue H o te l," "The P r ic e o f th e H a rn e ss," "The Clan o f No-Name" The dynamic a c t i v a t i o n o f d e s c r ip ti o n and complex id e a s in th e newly u n d e r s ta te d , ex p an siv e s t y l e t h a t buds in th e s t o r i e s o f Group f iv e blossom s in th o s e o f Groups s i x and seven. These s t o r i e s do n o t have th e u n i f i e d background t h a t th o se o f Group f iv e have, ex cep t f o r th e two war t a l e s , but are u n i f i e d in t h e i r co m p risin g some o f C ra n e 's b e s t work. In f a c t one s t o r y , "The Open Boat" i s o f te n judged C ra n e 's most p e r f e c t f i c t i o n . "The Open Boat" d i r e c t l y r e c r e a t e s C ra n e 's own escape from th e sh ip Commodore, which sank a t sea on i t s way to Cuba where Crane was to r e p o r t on th e r e v o lu tio n . A fte r two g ru e lin g n ig h ts a t sea in a sm all 159 dinghy o f f th e F lo r id a c o a s t, C ap tain Murphy, th e cook Montgomery, th e o i l e r B illy H ig g in s, and Crane made a d e s p e ra te ru n f o r sh o re th ro u g h th e b re a k in g s u r f , o n ly to have, t h a t c lo s e to s a f e ty , B illy H iggins drown, ex h au ste d , in th e s u r f . "The Open Boat" r e c r e a te s th e s e e v e n ts , but i t s f u r t h e r and more s i g n i f i c a n t pu rp o se i s to review th e e v e n ts in o rd e r to e l i c i t t h e i r meaning f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t s , which in c lu d e n o t o n ly th e c o rresp o n d en t th ro u g h whose co n sc io u sn ess much o f th e s to r y i s f i l t e r e d , but th e n a r r a t o r and, th e r e f o r e , re a d e rs who a t tem pt to o rd e r and u n d e rsta n d th e meaning o f th e whole. In a s o r t o f s y l l o g i s t i c p r o g r e s s io n , a t th e s t a r t o f t h e i r o rd e a l none o f th e men u n d e rsta n d t h e i r s i t u a t i o n ("know th e c o lo r o f th e sky") beyond th e immediacy o f s u rv iv a l in th e sm all dinghy. But th e e x p e rie n c e s o f th e two days and n ig h ts expand t h e i r u n d e rs ta n d in g , re p re s e n te d in th e c o r re sp o n d e n t, o f m an's r e l a t i o n to man and th e u n iv e rs e and l i f e and d e a th . T h e re fo re , a t th e s t a r t o f th e l a s t s e c tio n , "when th e c o r r e spondent ag ain opened h is e y e s ," he see s an e n la rg e d h o riz o n in fu s e d w ith c o lo r. T his does n o t mean t h a t th e c o rresp o n d en t assumes an unw arranted optim ism , sim ply t h a t he can se e , t h a t i s , u n d e rsta n d , more i f he a d o p ts m u ltip le view s: n o t o n ly th e view from th e b o at im p ris o n e d by a w all o f waves b ut a d etach ed view (one th e n a r r a t o r has from t h e s t a r t ) o f th e scene from th e v an tag e p o in t o f a b alco n y , where i t m ight seem m erely p ic tu r e s q u e . Only th e n can he a ch iev e th e c a p a c ity f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . (The s to r y i t s e l f i s C ra n e 's i n t e r p r e a - t i o n o f h is e x p erien c e f o r r e a d e r s .) In "The M onster" Crane moves from sea to sh o re , from t r i a l by w ater to t r i a l by f i r e , from in d iv id u a l growth to s o c ia l s a t i r e . A 160 f i r e t h a t sweeps th ro u g h Dr. T r e s c o t t 's house i s th e means th ro u g h which sm all town te n s io n s , p ro v in c ia lis m , and h y p o c risy a re exposed. Dr. T r e s c o tt, c h a r t e r member o f th e e s ta b lis h e d community and ad h eren t to i t s p ro f e s s e d C h r is tia n v a lu e s , a c t s on th o s e v a lu e s when he saves th e l i f e o f Henry Johnson, h is Negro s e r v a n t, a moral o b l i g a t i o n sin c e Johnson h as saved Dr. T r e s c o t t 's son Jimmie from b u rn in g to d e a th in th e f i r e . Dr. T r e s c o tt ig n o re s th e w arning t h a t he may be com m itting "one o f th e b lu n d e rs o f v i r t u e " (31) by p re s e rv in g th e l i f e o f a man whose fa c e and mind a re d e s tro y e d , th e re b y s e a lin g b o th t h e i r f a t e s in t h e community: o s tra c is m . Iro n y p erm eates th e t a l e as i t does most o f C ra n e 's f i c t i o n . Johnson, a s a in t to th e to w n sfo lk when he i s a s sumed to have d ie d from h i s h e r o ic a c t i s to them a m onster and an o u t c a s t a l i v e . Dr. T r e s c o tt, who ran k s C h r is tia n v i r t u e o v er s o c ia l p r u dence, a ra n k in g t h a t s o c ie ty o n ly s u p e r f i c i a l l y ap p ro v es, a ls o becomes an o u tc a s t, a s o c ia l "m onster" in th e eyes o f th e to w n sfo lk . The s to r y ends w ith an u n d e r s ta te d account o f th e p r i c e to be p a id f o r stubborn m o r a lity . Dr. T r e s c o tt, h o ld in g h i s sobbing w ife in h i s arm s, can only count th e empty te a c u p s o f th e women who d id n o t come to v i s i t h e r . In "The Blue H o tel" th e Swede, li k e Dr. T r e s c o tt, l a r g e l y b rin g s h i s f a t e upon h im s e lf, not th ro u g h a d v e r te n t a c tio n , but r a t h e r th ro u g h b lin d i l l u s i o n . His head f u l l o f w ild west t a l e s o f v io le n c e , he i s convinced t h a t he w ill be k i l l e d a t F ort Romper d e s p it e th e ho t e lk e e p e r S c u l l y 's and th e o th e r g u e s ts ' a tte m p ts to assuage h is f e a r s . With S c u l l y 's liq u o r enflam ing h i s courage so t h a t i t consumes h is e a r l i e r f e a r , th e Swede p a r t i c i p a t e s in a f r i e n d l y game o f c a rd s d u rin g which he t u r n s on S c u l l y 's son Jo h n n ie and accu ses him o f 161 c h e a tin g . A fte r f ig h t in g w ith Jo h n n ie and soundly whipping him, th e Swede le a v e s th e P a la ce H o te l, and ta k e s re fu g e from th e storm in a F o rt Romper salo o n . There c h a r a c te r , f a t e , and chance c o l l i d e as th e y do in "The Five White Mice" but w ith o u t i t s a u sp ic io u s outcome. The Swede i s k i l l e d by a gam bler when he b i l l i g e r a n t l y i n s i s t s upon th e gam bler and th e r e s t o f th e custom ers in a salo o n d rin k in g w ith him in c e le b r a tio n o f h i s v i c t o r y over Jo h n n ie. But th e g a m b le r's k n if e seems to a c t on i t s own, and th e cash r e g i s t e r announces "This r e g i s t e r s th e amount o f your p u rc h a se " (169) to th e s t a r i n g eyes o f th e dead Swede. F u r th e r , in th e e p ilo g u e , th e E a s te r n e r r e v e a ls to th e cowboy t h a t he knew Jo h n n ie had been c h e a tin g a t c ard s b ut k ep t s i l e n t and t h a t t h i s a b d ic a tio n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y along w ith th e o th e rs s p o ilin g f o r a f i g h t made a l l o f them c o lla b o r a t o r s in th e Sw ede's d e a th . The cowboy's r e sponse i s t h a t he " d i d n 't do a n y th in '" (170), a hollow d is c la im e r , fo r Crane p o in ts th e m oral le ss o n o f m utual r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , as much f o r s in s o f o m issio n as co m ission. "The P ric e o f th e H arness" and "The C lan o f No-Name" o f f e r much th e same le ss o n though in a d i f f e r e n t c o n te x t, t h a t o f war. The le s s o n i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , th is '.tim e , in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to a code o f b e h a v io r whose main in g re d ie n t i s q u i e t , s t o i c a l d ev o tio n to d u ty . "The P ric e o f th e H arness" and "The Clan o f No-Name" a re war t a l e s , but th e y s t r i k e o u t in new d i r e c t i o n s from The Red Badge, s h i f t i n g t h e i r focus from e x p lo r a tio n o f t h e in d iv id u a l in n e r e x p e rie n c e o f war in r e l a t i o n to o u te r e x p e rie n c e , to e x p lo r a tio n o f war in r e l a t i o n to s o c i e t y . The s o l d i e r s c e le b r a te d in th e s e s t o r i e s , com bat-hardened o r newly r e c r u i t e d , a re p r o f e s s i o n a ls who la c k e g o t i s t i c a l , rom antic 162 i l l u s i o n s about war: A man o f t h i s k in d m ight be s tu p id ; i t i s c o n c e iv a b le t h a t in rem ote c ase s c e r t a i n bumps on h i s head m ight be composed e n t i r e o f wood; b u t th o s e t r a d i t i o n s o f f i d e l i t y and courage which have been handed t o him from g e n e r a tio n to g e n e r a tio n , and which he has te n a c io u s ly p re se rv e d d e s p ite th e p e r s e c u tio n o f l e g i s l a t o r s and th e in d if f e r e n c e o f h is c o u n try , make i t i n c r e d ib le t h a t in b a t t l e he should ev er f a i l to g iv e h i s b e s t blood and h i s b e st th o u g h t f o r h is g e n e r a l, f o r h is men and f o r h im s e lf. ("The P r ic e o f th e H a rn e ss," 101-102) Even th e h o rs e s are guided by t h i s id e a o f d u ty , su rv ey in g th e men th e y serv e w ith eyes deep as w e lls , s e re n e , m ournful, generous e y e s, l i t h e a r t- b r e a k in g ly w ith som ething t h a t was akin to a p h ilo so p h y , a r e l i g i o n o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c e - - o h , g a l l a n t , g a lla n t h o rse s! ("The P ric e o f th e H a rn e ss," 102) The id e a l o f d u ty , in f a c t , c o n s t i t u t e s a code, th e "P rin c e o f Conduct" (127), which, alth o u g h s k e tc h y ,is s im ila r in i t s e s s e n t i a l s to t h a t worked out in d e t a i l by Hemingway: f o r t i t u d e in th e fa c e o f c a t a s tr o p h e ," ^ honor, co u rag e, grace under p r e s s u r e , r a t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in an i r r a t i o n a l w orld. In "The P ric e o f th e H arness" Nolan i s th e p a r t i c u l a r p r o ta g o n is t th ro u g h whom th e code i s e x p re ss e d . A sim p le , r e g u la r s o l d i e r , who even so has a sense o f th e h i s t o r i c and h i s p la c e in i t , he works and f i g h t s in Cuba. M odestly c o n s id e rin g h im s e lf unw orthy among h i s com ra d e s in t h e regim ent and th e army, h i s l i f e and lo v e , he n e v e r th e le s s q u i e t l y and co m p eten tly does what he was t r a i n e d to do. Nolan was n o t, how ever, t r a i n e d how to d ie ; y e t he does t h a t w ith g race to o . Not r e a l i z i n g t h a t he i s m o r ta lly wounded in th e stom ach, he m ista k e s th e pool o f blood he l i e s in f o r th e dampness o f th e ground, and d e b a te s t h i s c o n d itio n w ith h i s fe llo w s o l d i e r s . Two sim p le, u n d e r s ta te d 163 sen te n c es evoke th e f u l l em otion o f th e scene: "He d id n o t know he was dying. He th o u g h t he was h o ld in g an argument on th e c o n d itio n o f th e t u r f " (112). T h e ir e f f e c t i s enhanced by th e s e c tio n th e y conclude being composed (a s id e from d ia lo g u e and th e s h a r p ly worded "Somebody punched him v i o l e n t l y in th e stom ach" (111) to d e s c r ib e N o la n 's being h i t by a b u le t) p r im a r i ly o f lo n g e r, more complex s e n te n c e s , r e p l e t e w ith a c tio n s t r u c t u r e s and d e t a i l . In "The C lan o f No-Name" i t i s Manolo P r a t, th e young l i e u t e n a n t , whose tu r n i t i s to d ie u n d er th e law s o f th e code. "C lan" i s an i n t r i c a t e l y c o n s tr u c te d s to r y , a s t r u c t u r a l f e a t one cannot im agine Crane b ein g c ap a b le o f c o n t r o l l i n g in h i s e a r l y f i c t i o n . In i t Crane c a tc h e s and u n i f i e s th e c ro s s rhythm s o f th e frame lo v e s t o r y and both s id e s o f th e b a t t l e , w ith Manolo to u c h in g a l l p o in ts o f r e f e r e n c e . Loved by M a rg h a rita , he le a v e s Tampa f o r combat in Cuba, h i s f i r s t , and l a s t , f i g h t . O rdered by th e g e n e ra l to ta k e a message to th e p r a c tic o s who a re v a l i a n t l y b u t f u t i l e l y b e s e ig in g th e enemy b lo c k house he ru n s th ro u g h a h a i l o f b u l l e t s because i t i s h i s d u ty , whose s u f f i c i e n t rew ard i s " to be c a lle d a brave man by e s ta b lis h e d brave men" (127). Also b ecau se i t i s h i s d u ty , he d e l i b e r a t e l y r o l l s in to a s a u c e r - lik e hollow fla n k e d by g u e r i l l a s even though "he knew t h a t he was t h r u s t i n g h im s e lf in to a t r a p whose d o o r, once c lo s e d , opened o n ly when th e b la c k hand knocked" (130). Shot and p a r t i a l l y p a ra ly z e d , Manolo t r i e s b u t f a i l s to remove M a r g h a r ita 's p h otograph from h is po ck et f o r a l a s t look b e fo re th e g u e r i l l a 's m achete ends h i s l i f e . M a r g h a r ita 's code o f f i d e l i t y i s in s c r ib e d on th e back: "One le s s o n in E n g lish I w ill g iv e y o u - - th is : I lo v e y o u ." But, in t h e a c t o f 164 b u rn in g M anolo’ s photograph two months a f t e r h i s d e a th when she a c c e p ts th e p ro p o sa l o f Manolo’ s r i v a l s u i t o r , she w eakly a b d ic a te s h e r d u ty to h e r code. Her r e p u d ia tio n a c c e n tu a te s t^hrqugh a sharp con- > t r a s t,M a n o lo ' s s tr e n g th and d e v o tio n to h i s code. There i s a s e r io u s n e s s about th e s e l a t e r w orks, one m ight alm ost 21 say grim ness, imbued as th e y a re w ith s u f f e r in g and d e a th . Problems and answ ers a re n o t sim p le, and n e i t h e r i s th e gram m atical s t y l e in which C ran e’ s id e a s a re conveyed. Berryman sums up C ra n e 's s t y l e o f "The Open Boat" as "su p p le m a je s ty ," f u r t h e r l a b e l s th e s t y l e o f "The M onster" as " c lo s e d , c i r c u m s t a n tia l, 'n o rm a l' in f e e lin g and s y n ta x ," 22 and d e t e c t s a new s y n ta c tic co m p lex ity in "The C lan o f No-Name." A c tu a lly , as f a r as h i s s u b je c tiv e judgm ents go, th e y could in g e n eral a p p ly to th e gram m atical s t y l e o f a l l C rane’ s l a t e work, in which h is sy n tax i s more norm al, w ith a b a lan c e and f l u i d i t y t h a t pro d u ces n o t o n ly a su pple m a je sty b u t an e f f e c t o f i n e v i t a b i l i t y . One change we can d e te c t i s in C ra n e 's com parisons, a fav o red means o f adding d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s th ro u g h an alo g y t h a t spans h i s f i c t i o n , f l o a t i n g a nimbus o f fan cy over th e c o n c re te co re o f h i s p ro s e . O fte n , a t l e a s t in th e e a r l y f i c t i o n , com parisons a re com pressed in to prenom inal m o d if ie r s , some w ith l i k e , o th e r s w ith l i k e d e le te d : Group 1: th e a l t a r - l i k e s to n e , a g h o s t - l i k e m is t, mummy-like b u n d les Group 2: b lo o d -re d dream s, g h o u l- lik e g r in s Group 4: a n im a l- lik e ey es, d a g g e r-p o in te d gaze Group 5: p a r r o t - l i k e c r i e s o f d i s t a n t v en d o rs, o w l-fac ed clo ck 165 Group 6: th e iro n -n e rv e d m a ster o f th e ceremony, a ru b y -re d s n a k e lik e th in g Group 7: a p a g o d a -lik e house Group 8: sm all a sh y -fa c e d a n c ie n t-e y e d y o u th s, an o w l-fac ed p a rso n . T his com pressed form o f com parison ta p e r s o f f in th e s t o r i e s o f Group 5 and th e n becomes r a r e in h i s l a t e r work, as do C ra n e 's o th e r com pressed m o d if ie r s : " b lu n t-e n d e d b o a t ," " d i r t - s t a i n e d ch eek s"; e p i t h e t s ("deep ly -en g ag ed one") d is a p p e a r. T his s y n t a c t i c change c o n tr ib u te s to th e e x p an siv e n ess o f th e l a t e r p ro s e . Comparisons c o n tin u e b ut th e in h e r e n tly expandable ty p e s predom i n a te o v er n o n -expandable, f o r example p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s w ith l i k e , b o th bound and f r e e : Group 1: th e s l a t e c o lo re d man . . . looked l i k e a h id eo u s C hinese id o l th e l i t t l e man . . . rem ained . . . l i k e a f a n t a s t i c bronze f ig u r e Group 2: he looked l i k e a p ic tu r e d d e v il on a Jap a n e se k i t e h i s whole body . . . shook l i k e t h a t o f a dead j e l l y f i s h Group 4: th e y [th e arm ies] were li k e two s e r p e n ts th e b u g le s c a l l e d . . . l i k e brazen game-cocks Group 5: h i s le g s moved l i k e maniac m achinery he sto o d l i k e a s t a t u e o f v ic t o r y Group 6: one l i g h t gleamed l i k e a t i n y jew el th e two com batants . . . crash ed to g e th e r l i k e b u llo c k s Group 7: r i f l e b u l l e t s . . . l i k e th e n o is e o f so many lamp chimneys to make i t [th e blockhouse] fume and s p i t and rav e l i k e th e tom cat when th e g la d , fre e -b a n d foxhound pups c a tc h him in th e la n e Group 8: c a s t l e s which were l i k e churches stu c k on end Paddy and Jem to be s le e p in g . . . l i k e b ig dogs 166 ■The f a m i l i a r :as com parison i s a fre q u e n t form th ro u g h o u t: Then i t [th e c ry o f th e hound] grew m ournful as th e w a ilin g o f a l o s t t h i n g , a s, p e rh a p s, th e dog g ain ed on a f l e e i n g b e a r. ( " K illin g H is B ea r," 249) When an engine would s t r i k e a mass o f b lo ck ed t r u c k s , s p l i t t i n g i t in to frag m e n ts, as a blow a n n i h i l a t e s a cake o f i c e , Jim m ie 's team co u ld u s u a ll y be o b serv ed h ig h and s a f e , w ith whole w heels, on t h e sid ew alk . (M aggie, 38) S ta r in g , once, a t th e re d eyes a c ro ss th e r i v e r , he conceived them to be grow ing l a r g e r , as th e o rb s o f a row o f d ra g o n s, advancing. (The Red Badge, 22) At m idnight a l i t t l e Mexican s t r e e t burrow ing among th e walls o f th e c i t y i s as dark as a w h a le 's t h r o a t a t deep s e a . ("The Five White M ice," 46) There was a n o th e r p e r p l e x i t y o f f ly i n g arm s, and J o h n n ie 's body ag ain swung away and f e l l , even as a bundle m ight f a l l from a r o o f . ("The Blue H o te l," 161) And so t h i s young o f f i c e r in th e s h a p e le ss h a t and th e t o m and d i r t y s h i r t f a i l e d to heed th e w a ils o f th e wounded man, even as th e p ilg r im f a i l s to heed th e w orld as he r a i s e s h is illu m in e d fa c e tow ard h i s p u r p o s e - - r i g h t l y o r w rongly h is p u rp o se —h is sky o f th e id e a l o f d u ty ; and th e w onderful p a r t o f i t i s t h a t he i s guided by an id e a l which he has h im s e lf c r e a te d , and has alo n e p r o te c te d from a tta c k . ("The P ric e o f th e H a rn e s s ," 102) I soon le a rn e d to e n te r an in n as a drunken s o l d i e r goes th ro u g h th e b re a ch in to a s u rre n d e rin g c i t y , (The O' Ruddy, 5) b ut Crane i s more l i k e l y to v a ry h is com parative forms in th e l a t e r work, u s in g , f o r in s ta n c e , l i t o t e s and " re se m b le ." A s e a t in t h i s b o at was n o t u n lik e a s e a t upon a bucking b ro n ch o , and, by th e same to k e n , a broncho i s n o t much s m a l le r . ("The Open B o a t," 69) T rees arch ed from a f i e l d o f g u in e a -g ra s s which resem bled young w ild c o r n . ("The P ric e o f th e H a rn e ss," 97) These exam ples re v e a l s e v e ra l s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s about C ra n e 's s t y l e . One i s t h a t h i s com parisons a re o f te n k e e n ly , a p p r o p r ia te ly im agina t i v e , some, l i k e th e example from "The Open B o a t," r a d i a t i n g th ro u g h 167 an e n t i r e s e n te n c e , ad d in g to i t s i n t e n s i t y . A nother i s t h a t o c c a s i o n a l l y in t h e l a t e r work C rane expands h i s com parisons e x te n s iv e ly . A t h i r d i s t h a t th ro u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r C ra n e ’ s com parisons s p o t l i g h t a n i m a l i s t i c , m y s te rio u s , f e r o c io u s , and g ro te s q u e e le m e n ts. However, in th e l a t e r work ex trem es a b a te , and C rane r e l i e s more on f a m i l i a r com parisons, y e t ones s t i l l a p p r o p r ia te t o t h e a c tio n o r o b je c t and ones more d e s c r i p t i v e th a n s u g g e s tiv e . For exam ple, in Maggie dream s a re re d l i k e b lo o d ; in ”A Man and Some O th e rs " f i r e i s re d l i k e b lo o d . In "The C lan o f No-Namd' C rane u s e s h i s f i r s t and o n ly c a r e f u l l y b a la n c e d d o u b le a n t i t h e t i c a l com parison: "One o f h i s s t a r s was b r i g h t , l i k e h i s h o p es; th e o t h e r was p a l e , l i k e d e a th ” (1 2 3 ), sh a rp e n in g th e sen se o f fo re b o d in g th ro u g h c o n t r a s t . T h is complex c o n s t r u c t i o n , one t h a t s u g g e s ts a u t h o r i a l c o n tr o l a s i t g iv e s p le a s u r e in i t s g r a c e , p o in ts t o a n o th e r change in C ra n e 's s t y l e , f u r t h e r developm ent o f h i s a b i l i t y to p r o j e c t a v a r i e t y o f v o ic e s t h a t was h e ra ld e d in t h e s t o r i e s o f Group f i v e . The s e n te n c e comes from th e d etach ed p o in t o f view o f th e n a r r a t o r a s do s e r io u s s ta te m e n ts about m oral o b l i g a t i o n : Men c o u ld have gone drunken in a l l t h i s f la s h in g and f l y i n g and s n a r l i n g and d in , b u t a t t h i s tim e he was v e ry d e l i b e r a t e . He knew t h a t he was t h r u s t i n g h im s e lf in to a t r a p whose d o o r, once c lo s e d , opened o n ly when th e b la c k hand knocked, and e v e ry p a r t o f him seemed t o be in p a n i c - s t r i c k e n r e v o l t . But som ething c o n tr o lle d him; som ething moved him in e x o ra b ly in one d i r e c t i o n ; he p e r f e c t l y u n d e rs to o d , b u t he was o n ly sa d , sad w ith a s e re n e d i g n i t y , w ith t h e cou n ten an ce o f a m ournful young p r in c e . He was o f a k in d —t h a t seemed to be i t — and th e men o f h i s k in d , on peak o r p l a i n , from th e d a rk n o r th e r n i c e - f i e l d s t o th e h o t wet ju n g le s , th ro u g h a l l wine and w ant, th ro u g h a l l l i e s and u n f a m ilia r t r u t h , d a rk o r l i g h t , th e men o f h i s k in d were governed by t h e i r gods, and each man knew th e law and y e t c o u ld n o t g iv e to n g u e t o i t ; b u t i t was 168 th e law, and i f th e s p i r i t s o f th e men o f h i s k in d were a l l s i t t i n g in c r i t i c a l judgment upon him even th e n in th e sky, he could not have b e tte r e d h is conduct; he needs must obey th e law, and always w ith th e law th e r e i s o n ly one way. But from peak and p l a i n , from d ark n o rth e rn i c e - f i e l d s and hot wet ju n g le s , th ro u g h wine and want, th ro u g h a l l l i e s and u n f a m ilia r t r u t h , dark o r l i g h t , he h eard b re a th e d to him th e approval and th e b e n e d ic tio n o f h is b r e a th re n . ("The Clan o f No-Name,” 130-131) In s i m i l a r fa s h io n t o th e sen te n c e quoted e a r l i e r from "A Man and Some O th e rs ” (and th e complementary se n te n c e s o f i t s c o n tex t n ot q u o te d ), Crane e s ta b l i s h e s a rhythm ic cadence t h a t draws re a d e rs alo n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y r e ly in g on r e p e t i t i o n , n o t o n ly o f words b ut s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s (which a ls o c o n t r a s t ) ( " o n peak . . . , from th e dark . . . , to th e wet . . . , th ro u g h a l l . . . , th ro u g h a l l . . . ”) , and even r e p e t i t i v e sounds ( a l l i t e r a t i v e s 1s and b ' s : " s a d ," " s e r e n e ," " b r e a th e d ," " b e n e d ic tio n ," " b r e a th r e n " ) . S t y l i s t i c s t r e s s f a l l s on d e l i b e r a t e , c l e a r o rd e rin g o f id e a s in m easured u n i t s . P a r t i c u l a r l y em phasized th ro u g h r e p e t i t i o n i s th e " r e f r a i n " d e s c rib in g "th e men o f h is k in d ," a r e f r a i n which a ls o ends th e s to r y and p o in ts i t s m oral: " f o r th e word i s c l e a r o n ly to th e kind who on peak o r p l a i n , . . . " (136), t h a t i s , c l e a r to th o se who f u l f i l l t h e i r moral o b lig a tio n s l i k e Manolo b u t n o t to th o se who d e f a u lt lik e M arg h arita. W e have a ls o seen t h a t a r e f r a i n i s d e l i b e r a t e l y re p e a te d in "The Five White Mice" to a cc e n t l i f e and d e a th b ein g as much a game o f chance as d ic e i s . A r e f r a i n - l i k e lament a ls o keys "The Open Boat": " I f I ’m going to be drowned . . ." (77, 81, 84, 9 1 ). The c a p ta in , as le a d e r o f th e group, a p p r o p r ia te ly s e t s th e theme o f t h i s r e f r a i n w ith h i s m ir ro r v e rs io n : " I f we don’t a l l g e t a sh o re . . . . I f we d o n 't a l l get a sh o re , . . ." (7 6 ). S ty liz e d as th e o th e r r e f r a i n s 169 a re , i t to o g a in s i t s f u l l meaning th ro u g h r e p e t i t i o n in d i f f e r e n t con t e x t s , th e l a s t an u n s ty liz e d echo (" I am going to drown? Can i t be p o s s ib le ? Can i t be p o s s ib le ? Can i t be p o s s ib le ? " ) in which drown ing has become n o t h y p o th e tic a l f o r t h e c o rre sp o n d e n t but r e a l . G ripped by th e d e ad ly c u r r e n t a f t e r abandoning t h e p r o te c tio n , however flim sy , o f th e dinghy to swim f o r sh o re th ro u g h th e s u r f , he c o n sid e rs th e in d iv id u a l meaning o f drowning: d e a th a s th e f i n a l phenomenon o f n a tu r e . A lthough sy n tax o f te n b o rd e rs on th e l y r i c a l in th e e x p re ss io n o f im p o rtan t m essages, i t need n o t, even though i t employs s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e s t h a t b a la n c e , m odulate, r e p e a t, and c o n t r a s t . For example, th e key message o f "The Open B o at," th e f u t i l i t y o f s e l f - l o v e and n e c e s s i t y f o r com radeship in a c o ld and i n d i f f e r e n t u n iv e rs e , i s ex p re s se d more p r o s a i c a l l y in keeping w ith t h e d etach ed n a r r a t o r 's v o ic e 23 b len d in g im p e rc e p tib ly in to th e c o rre s p o n d e n t's c o n sc io u sn e ss. In th e l a t e r work, s h i f t s in th e n a r r a t o r 's v o ice from d etach ed p o in t o f view to t h a t c lo se to a c h a r a c t e r 's te n d to be much more sub t l e and v a r ie d th a n in th e e a r ly work and b e t t e r m o tiv a te d . The S u lliv a n County t a l e s r e a l l y p r o je c t o n ly one v o ic e , which, as ex p la in e d e a r l i e r , c au se s problem s w ith r e a d e r re sp o n se . In Maggie th e r e i s l i t t l e s h i f t i n g and what o c cu rs i s a b ru p t: The l i t t l e boys ra n to and f r o , dodging, h u r lin g sto n e s and sw earing in b a r b a r ic t r e b l e s . From a window o f an apartm ent house t h a t u p re a red i t s form from amid s q u a t, ig n o ra n t s t a b l e s , th e r e lean ed a c u rio u s woman. Some la b o r o r s , u n lo a d in g a scow a t a dock a t th e r i v e r , paused f o r a moment and re g a rd ed th e f i g h t . The e n g in e e r o f a p a ss iv e tu g b o a t hung l a z i l y to 170 a r a i l i n g and w atched. Over on t h e I s la n d , a worm o f y ello w c o n v ic ts came from th e shadow o f a g re y ominous b u ild in g and craw led slo w ly alo n g th e r i v e r ' s bank. A sto n e has smashed in to Jim m ie 's mouth. . . . (45) In The Red Badge th e r e a re r e a l l y o n ly two v o ic e s (w ith , as in M aggie, a b ru p t s h i f t betw een th e two), th e d e ta c h e d , m ature v o ic e o f th e n a r r a t o r heard r a r e l y , r e p re s e n te d in th e opening p arag rap h o f th e n o v e l, and th e blended v o ic e o f n a r r a t o r and Henry Flem ing heard th ro u g h o u t, o f te n so c lo s e t h a t a lth o u g h immediacy r e s u l t s so to o does am b ig u ity . For in s ta n c e , a t th e s t a r t o f C hapter VII we re a d : "By heavens ( d ir e c t s p e e c h ),' th e y had won a f t e r a l l ( in d i r e c t sp e e c h ). The im b e c ile l i n e (H en ry 's judgm ent) had rem ained and become v i c t o r s ( e i t h e r n a r r a t o r o r H enry)" (5 9 ). I t i s l a r g e l y because a r e f l e c t i v e n a r r a t i v e v o ic e to guide r e a d e r s ' judgm ents i s m issin g in The Red Badge th a t i t s o v e r a ll message i s a ls o ambiguous. One r e s u l t i s t h a t th e q u e s tio n o f w hether Fleming becomes a man i s s t i l l a crux f o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s . Crane p r o j e c t s a v a r i e t y o f v o ic e s in th e l a t e r work, n o t o n ly t h a t o f a detach ed p e r s p e c tiv e , th ro u g h h i s g r e a t e r s y n ta c tic c o n tr o l; hence he i s a b le to more r e l i a b l y g u id e r e a d e r s ' re s p o n se s. A lthough s h i f t s from one v o ic e to a n o th e r o f te n a re smooth and c r e a te an im m ediacy s i m i l a r to t h a t o f The Red Badge, am b ig u ity does n o t r e s u l t . For example, in "The P r ic e o f th e H arness" Crane d u p lic a te s M a r tin 's confused m ental s t a t e when, wounded in th e arm, d iz z y and s ic k , he s tr u g g le s rearw ard to f in d a d re s s in g s t a t i o n ; "Such was h i s m ental c o n d itio n t h a t he brought up a t a r i g i d h a l t b e fo re t h i s fen ce and s ta r e d s tu p id ly a t i t . I t d id n ot seem p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s o b s ta c le could be defended by any means. The fe n c e was th e r e and i t stopped 171 h is p r o g r e s s . He could n o t go in t h a t d i r e c t i o n " (106). Readers e a s i l y s e p a ra te r e f l e c t i v e n a r r a t o r from im m ediate p e r c e iv e r even though one v o ic e b len d s in to th e o th e r m id -se n te n ce ; M artin may be b e w ild e re d b ut th e n a r r a t o r i s n o t. Nor i s th e re a d e r except momentar i l y . Because M a r tin 's co n fu sio n i s b r i e f , re a d e rs can make th e im ag i n a tiv e le a p and p r o je c t th em selv es in to M a r tin 's m ental s t a t e f o r th e le n g th o f tim e r e q u ir e d , a p ro c e ss f a r more d i f f i c u l t f o r re a d e r s to s u s ta in in The Red Badge, where F le m in g 's b e w ild ered , se a rc h in g mind i s th e n o v e l 's r a is o n d ' e t r e . Connected w ith th e m a tte r o f p r o je c te d v o ic e s a re " a s i d e s ," an o b tru s iv e s t y l i s t i c f e a tu r e th a n spans C ra n e 's work, anom alously in view o f C ra n e 's seem ing d e s ir e n ot to comment, n o t to p re a ch , but r a t h e r to in te r p o s e as l i t t l e as p o s s ib le betw een h is f i c t i o n and h is 24 re a d e rs . A sides c o n s is t o f in t e r p o l a t e d comments and a re marked by a change in verb te n s e (u s u a lly from p a s t to p r e s e n t i n d ic a tiv e o r su b j u n c tiv e moods, th e l a t t e r p a s t in form b u t p re s e n t o r f u tu r e in fu n c t i o n ) , s y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e , and to n e , a l l te n d in g to emphasize th e in t e r p o l a t i o n . Comments te n d to be s u p e r f i c i a l l y c le v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , n o t o n ly in th e e a r ly but l a t e work, and a re o f te n o f a s o c ia l n a t u r e : Two g i r l s , on th e b i l l as s i s t e r s , came f o r t h and sang a du et t h a t i s h eard o c c a s io n a lly a t c o n c e rts g iv en u n d er church a u s p ic e s . They supplem ented i t w ith a dance which o f c o u rse can n e v e r be seen a t c o n c e rts given under church a u s p ic e s . (Maggie, 61) Such a ttem p t a t w it do l i t t l e more th a n d i s t r a c t , a lth o u g h t h i s a s id e from "The Open Boat" does p ro v id e momentary comic r e l i e f f o r re a d e r s 25 e m o tio n a lly absorbed in th e m en's p l i g h t : 172 The human back can become th e s e a t o f more aches and p a in s th a n a re r e g i s t e r e d in books f o r th e com posite anatomy o f a re g im e n t. I t i s a lim it e d a r e a , b ut i t can become th e t h e a t r e o f innum erable m uscular c o n f l i c t s , ta n g l e s , w renches, k n o ts , and o th e r c o m fo rts. (78) O ther a s id e s , e q u a lly d i s t r a c t i n g b u t v a lu a b le in a s c h o la r ly sense f o r what th e y r e v e a l about C ra n e 's a r t i s t i c c re e d , a r e more s e r io u s th a n s l i c k . Such i s th e c a se in t h i s a s id e from "A Man and Some O th e r s , " which sheds l i g h t on C ra n e 's composing aims: But l e t a man adopt f ig h t in g as h is b u s in e s s , and th e th o u g h t grows c o n s ta n tly w ith in him t h a t i t i s h i s b u s in e s s to f i g h t . These p h ra s e s became mixed in B i l l ' s mind p r e c i s e l y as th e y a re h e re mixed; . . . " (56) Those a s id e s t h a t o ccu r in f i c t i o n w ith c lo s e ly merged n a r r a t o r and p r o ta g o n is t a re th e ones b e s t in te g r a te d w ith th e flow o f th e s to r y . This from The Red Badge conveys a d e s c r ip ti v e d e t a i l s i g n i f i cant in p o r tr a y in g F le m in g 's p sy c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e : In to th e y o u th 's eyes th e r e came a look t h a t one can see in th e o rb s o f a ja d e d h o rs e . (53) A long a sid e in "The Open Boat" (84-85) merges th e n a r r a t o r 's p e rs p e c t i v e w ith th e c o rr e s p o n d e n t's (and, indeed, th e p ro b a b le p e r s p e c tiv e s o f a l l th e men in th e d in g h y ). E x p ressin g a m ajor th e m a tic l i n e o f th e s to r y , i t r e v e a ls th e c o r r e s p o n d e n t's o u tra g e o v e r m istre a tm en t a t th e hands o f an i n d i f f e r e n t u n iv e rs e . Longing f o r b r ic k s to throw a t te m p le s, he ru e s th e f a c t t h a t th e r e a re no b r ic k s and no tem p les and t h a t s u p p lic a tin g p le a s ad d re ssed to "a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n " e l i c i t from n a tu r e o n ly "a h ig h c o ld s t a r on a w i n t e r 's n ig h t" in re s p o n se . Be cau se t h i s message o c cu rs in th e a s id e form, r e a d e r s a r e le d to extend th e n o tio n s e x p ressed from th e c o r r e s p o n d e n t's p e r s p e c tiv e o f h is 173 e x p erien c e to l i f e in g e n eral o u ts id e th e immediate f i c t i o n a l c o n te x t. T h e re fo re , each re a d e r to o i s drawn in to " t h e r e a f t e r ” knowing " th e 2 6 p a th o s o f h i s s i t u a t i o n . " A sides in The 0 1Ruddy a re th e most c lo s e ly merged w ith c h a r a c te r . In f a c t , s in c e p o in t o f view i s f i r s t p e rso n , th e y r e v e a l c h a r a c te r , alw ays 0 ' Ruddy' s, but sometimes th e y r e f l e c t C ra n e 's o p in io n s a s w e ll, f o r example in th e long a s id e mixed w ith n a r r a t i v e in C hapter X X (134- 135) d e s c rib in g p e o p le 's m o tiv es behind t h e i r fa s h io n a b le p a ra d in g in K ensington P ark. O'Ruddy a s s e r t s t h a t th e women come to show o f f t h e i r fro c k s and see o th e rs* fro c k s and "n ev er have a r e a l l y good tim e but o f t h i s f a c t th e y a re n o t aware s in c e women a re so c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t th e y a re a b le to m is in te r p r e t alm ost ev ery one o f t h e i r e m o tio n s." The men, o f c o u rs e , avoid such s o c ia l e v e n ts u n le s s th e r e a re s p e c ia l r e a so n s, a l l presum ably stemming from th e one m entioned, " d is p la y o f fem in in e b e a u ty ." O'Ruddy r e v e a ls h i s s e n s u a l i t y and s t e r e o t y p i c a l male view o f women in g e n e ra l as em pty-headed sex u al o b je c t s , Lady Mary, h i s p a r t i c u l a r o b je c t o f a d o ra tio n , being o n ly p a r t i a l l y exempt from t h i s view; t h a t i s , she i s a sex u al o b je c t b u t n o t an em pty-headed one. r Only h i s a rc h to n e and adherence to c o n v e n tio n a l mores o f th e e ig h te e n th and n in e te e n th c e n tu r ie s save O'Ruddy (and Crane) from r e a d e r s ', 27 c e r t a i n l y fem ale r e a d e r s ', d is a p p r o b a tio n . C ra n e 's phase two f i c t i o n r e v e a ls a f i n e r m astery o f s y n t a c t i c m a n ip u la tio n f o r p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t s in a d d itio n to th e changes in h is s t y l e t h a t have been n o te d . To i l l u s t r a t e , l e t us look a t a p ara g rap h from "The Open B oat": 174 I t would be d i f f i c u l t to d e s c rib e th e s u b tle b ro th erh o o d o f men t h a t was h ere e s ta b lis h e d on th e se a s . No one s a id t h a t i t was so. No one m entioned i t . But dw elt in th e b o a t, and each man f e l t i t warm him. They were a c a p ta in , an o i l e r , a cook, and a c o rre sp o n d e n t, and th e y were f r ie n d s , f r ie n d s in a more c u r io u s ly iron-bound d e g re e th a n may be common. The h u r t c a p ta in , ly in g a g a in s t th e w a te r - ja r in th e bow, spoke always in a low v o ic e and c alm ly , b ut he c o u ld n e v e r command a more read y and s w i f t l y o b e d ie n t crew th a n th e m otley th r e e o f th e dinghy. I t was more th a n a mere r e c o g n itio n o f what was b e s t fo r th e common s a f e t y . There was s u r e ly in i t a q u a l i t y t h a t was p e rs o n a l and h e a r t f e l t . And a f t e r t h i s d e v o tio n to th e commander o f th e bo at th e r e was t h i s com radeship t h a t th e c o rre sp o n d e n t, f o r in s ta n c e , who had been ta u g h t to be s y n ic a l o f men, knew even a t th e tim e was th e b e s t e x p e rie n c e o f h i s l i f e . But no one s a id t h a t i t was so . No one m entioned i t . (73) As in th e p a ra g rap h from "The Clan o f No-Name" (131) quoted e a r l i e r , a key word i s re p e a te d and expanded in a p p o s itiv e f r e e m o d if ie r s , each narrow ing to a more s p e c i f i c le v e l o f d e s c r i p t i o n E "sad, sad w ith a s e ren e d i g n i t y (AC), w ith th e countenance o f a mournful young p r in c e " (P P ); " f r i e n d s , f r ie n d s in a more c u r io u s ly iron-bound d eg ree th a n may be common" (NCj] s e t t i n g th e to n e o f one p a ra g ra p h , th e theme o f th e 28 o th e r . Crane e x e r ts c o n tro l o v er sy n tax in o th e r ways in th e p a ra g ra p h . For exam ple, i n i t i a l c o o rd in a to r " b u t" in each in s ta n c e f u n c tio n s n o t o n ly to in tro d u c e an o p p o s itio n and q u a lif y what p reced es b u t to em p h a s iz e , a s does r e p e t i t i o n and p a r a l l e l w ording, id e a s o f key th e m a tic s ig n if ic a n c e : th e n o tio n o f b ro th erh o o d and th e s u p e r la tiv e q u a l i t y o f ex p e rie n c e t h a t prom otes f r a t e r n a l s p i r i t . Sentence i n i t i a l " a n d ," s y n t a c t i c a l l y u n n e ce ssa ry but r h e t o r i c a l l y advantageous, conveys a sense o f c a r e f u l l y d e lib e r a t e d a f te r th o u g h t, u n d ersco red by th e d e l i b e r a te d a f te r th o u g h t, u n d e rsco re d by th e d e l i b e r a t e l y complex sy n tax 175 th a t h o ld s o f f th e s e n te n c e ’ s key p h ra se u n t i l i t s v e ry end. T his too h as th e e f f e c t o f fo c u sin g r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n on th e theme o f comrade s h ip . Crane i s n o t sim ply adding c o o rd in a to rs a t ju n c tu r e p o in ts fo r th e sake o f co h eren ce. He i s c r e a tin g ju n c tu r e s and u s in g c o o rd in a t o r s to h ig h lig h t what p re c ed e s and fo llo w s. Crane a ls o c o n tr o ls sy n tax to expand d e s c r ip ti o n s o f s i t u a t i o n s and p e o p le . W e have seen an example o f t h i s in c re a s e d a b i l i t y to e la b o r a te d e s c r ip ti o n and make i t more a c c e s s ib le to r e a d e r s in th e o v e r view o f a p assag e from "The P ric e o f th e H arn ess” in C h ap ter I I I . Nu merous o th e r in s ta n c e s o c cu r, two o f which a re c o n c e n tra te d d e s c r ip t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r p eo p le im p o rtan t to C ra n e 's s a t i r i z a t i o n o f sm all town p r o v in c ia lis m and h y p o c risy . One o f th e s e i s th e le n g th y d e s c r ip t i o n o f th e gam bler in "The Blue H o te l” (166-167), h is p o s itio n in F o rt Romper and h is r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e to w n sfo lk , which c r e a te s a complex web o f sympathy o v e rla d en w ith c r i t i c i s m f o r th e gam bler, to w n sfo lk , and farm ers a l i k e . The gam bler i s "a man so d e l i c a t e in manner, when among p eo p le o f f a i r c l a s s , and so ju d ic io u s in h i s c h o ice o f v ic tim s , t h a t in th e s t r i c t l y m ascu lin e p a r t o f th e to w n 's l i f e he had come to be e x p l i c i t l y t r u s t e d and a d m ire d ." He i s p a r t l y to be adm ired sin c e in m a tte rs o u ts id e gam bling h is m o ra lity o u ts h in e s th e to w n f o lk s ', b u t he i s c h i e f l y to be condemned because o f t h e v ic tim s he chooses, unwary t r a v e l e r s and fa rm e rs , as a re th e to w n sfo lk f o r condoning th e g a m b le r's c h o ice o f v ic tim s and d efen d in g him, a s long as he knows h is p la c e . S im ila r ly , M artha Goodwin comes under e x te n s iv e s c r u tin y in "The M onster" (49-51, 5 9 -6 1 ). She i s p a r t i a l l y an o b je c t o f sympathy f o r 176 two r e a s o n s . One i s h e r undeserved penance imposed by h e r s i s t e r and to w n sfo lk . In h e r s i s t e r ’s household "she perform ed n e a r ly a l l th e house-w ork in exchange f o r th e p r i v i l e g e o f e x i s t e n c e ," and "ev e ry one t a c i t l y re co g n ized h e r la b o r a s a form o f penance f o r th e e a r ly end o f h e r b e tr o th e d , who had d ie d o f sm all-p o x , which he had n o t caught from h e r . " The o th e r i s h e r s id in g w ith Dr. T r e s c o tt when Jak e W inter r e fu se s to a llo w th e d o c to r to t r e a t h i s d a u g h te r. But f o r s e v e ra l r e a sons she i s m o stly an o b je c t o f s c o rn . She defends Dr. T r e s c o tt and d e f ie s th e to w n sfo lk o ut o f s h e e r o b s tin a c y r a t h e r th a n m oral courage; she h a rb o rs o p in io n s on m a tte rs e n t i r e l y out o f h e r c o n tr o l ra n g in g from one extrem e, th e e x o tic (" th e c o n d itio n o f women in C h in a "), to a n o th e r extrem e, th e mundane (" th e f l i r t a t i o n between Mrs. M in ste r o f N iagara Avenue and young G risco m "); and she argues f o r a c re e d o f " i l l i m i t a b l e f e r o c i t y . " The v o ic e in b o th d e s c r ip ti o n s i s a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y r e p o r t o r i a l th ro u g h lo g ic a l developm ent (a m a rs h a llin g o f exam ples, cause and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s , com parisons, and so f o r t h ) , u n ity (a s u s ta in e d and c o h eren t fo c u s ) , and em phasis, a l l couched in a sy n tax more complex th a n sim ple b u t c h a r a c te r iz e d by a v a r i e t y o f sen te n c e p a t t e r n s , le n g th s , and embeddings. Each d e s c r ip ti o n b u ild s to a f i n a l c lim a tic s ta te m e n t. That from "The Blue H o tel" c o i l s in to one complex sen te n c e: I t i s i r r e f u t a b l e t h a t in a l l a f f a i r s o u ts id e o f h i s b u s in e s s , in a l l m a tte rs t h a t o ccu r e t e r n a l l y and commonly between man and man, t h i s th ie v in g c a rd - p la y e r was so g en ero u s, so j u s t , so m oral, t h a t , in a c o n te s t, he could have put to f l i g h t th e c o n sc ie n ce s o f n in e - te n th s o f th e c i t i z e n s o f F ort Romper. (167) That from "The M onster" depends upon a n t i t h e t i c a l b a lan c e and r e p e t i 177 t i o n p lu s a l e s s complex f i n a l sen te n c e : She was an en g in e, and th e f a c t t h a t she d id not know t h a t she was an en gine c o n tr ib u te d l a r g e l y t o th e e f f e c t . One re a so n t h a t she was fo rm id ab le was t h a t she d id n o t even im agine t h a t she was fo rm id ab le. She rem ained a weak, in n o c e n t, and p ig -h ead ed c r e a t u r e , who alone would d efy th e u n iv e rs e i f she th o u g h t th e u n iv e rs e m e rite d t h i s p ro ceed in g . (51) At th e end o f each d e s c r ip ti o n cum ulative em otional fo r c e i s q u ic k ly and e f f e c t i v e l y d is s i p a t e d by a f l a t , sim ple s e n te n c e re tu r n in g re a d e r s to th e s t o r y 's n a r r a t i v e l i n e , in "The Blue H o te l" : "And so i t happened t h a t he was s e a te d in t h i s salo o n w ith th e two prom inent lo c a l m erchants and th e d i s t r i c t - a t t o r n e y " and in "The M onster": One day C a rrie Dungen came a c ro ss from h e r k itc h e n w ith sp e e d ." Crane c o lo r s h is l a t e r work more s e l e c t i v e l y as h i s purpose changes. In c o n tr a s t to th e e a r l i e r work in to which he fr e q u e n tly s p la s h e s c o lo r to evoke th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e s o f h i s c h a r a c te r s and 29 i n t e n s i f y h is s t y l e , in th e l a t e r work h i s aim i s to am plify o b je c t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n . Hence, la v is h as th e c o lo r e x tra v ag a n z a in "The M onster" (24) i s , th e r i o t o f c o lo r approxim ates a chem ical f i r e even though i t s b ein g " l i k e a garden in th e re g io n where m ight be bu rn in g flo w e rs ," f a i r y l a d i e s , and w rith in g s n a k e s --a s a ta n ic garden compared to th e Edenic one a t th e s t o r y 's o u t s e t - - i s fa n c y . Not depending p r i m a rily upon a high c o lo r p a l e t t e f o r e f f e c t , C ra n e 's d e s c r ip ti o n i s c h ro n o lo g ic a lly , s p a t i a l l y , and c l i m a c t i c a l l y a rra n g e d , p a r a d o x ic a lly th ro u g h i t s t i g h t c o n tr o l evoking th e w ild n ess o f th e f i r e . Crane im m ediately i n i t i a t e s an em otional charge th ro u g h c a ta lo g in g o f c o lo r s , th e n z ero es in on s p e c if ic a re a s o f th e room ("one b la z e . . . a d e l i c a t e c o r a l , " " in a n o th e r p la c e . . . p i l e o f e m erald s"), 178 b u ild in g i n t e n s i t y w ith c lim a c tic p a t t e r n asyndeton ("But a l l th e s e m arvels were to be seen dim ly th ro u g h clo u d s o f h eav in g , tu r n i n g , d e ad ly smoke") as John re a c h e s th e th r e s h o ld o f th e la b o r a to r y . John s o n 's dash th ro u g h th e b la z e i s c h ro n ic le d in se n te n c e s t h a t a re f a i r l y s h o rt and d i r e c t , y e t v a r ie d in le n g th and p a t t e r n to sim u la te h i s f a s t but to r tu o u s p assag e: "Then he ru sh ed a c ro ss th e room. An o ra n g e -c o lo re d flam e leap ed l i k e a p a n th e r a t th e la v en d e r t r o u s e r s . T his anim al b i t d e ep ly in to Johnson. There was an e x p lo sio n a t one s id e , and suddenly b e fo re him th e r e re a re d a d e l i c a t e , tre m b lin g s a p p h ire shape l i k e a f a i r y la d y ." The pace q u ick en s th ro u g h added v erb c l u s t e r s fram ing th e main c la u s e and com pressing Jo h n so n 's f r a n t i c movements ("Bowing h is head as i f h is neck had been s tr u c k , Johnson lu rc h e d forw ard, tw is tin g t h i s way and t h a t way"), th e n h a l t s a b r u p t ly : "He f e l l on h is b a c k ." A fte r th e pause Crane g e n e ra te s suspense th ro u g h n e e d le s s redundancy ("Johnson had f a l l e n w ith h is head a t th e base o f an o ld -f a s h io n e d d esk . There was a row o f j a r s upon th e to p o f t h i s desk " ) , le n g th en ed c la u s e s , v a rio u s m o d if ic a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e s , and r e ta r d in g p u n c tu a tio n t h a t w ith h o ld th e outcome o f Jo h n so n 's h e ro ic a c t: "At th e a n g le i t waved i t s s i z z l i n g m olten head to and fr o o v er th e c lo se d eyes o f th e man b e n ea th i t . Then, in a moment, w ith m y stic im pulse, i t moved a g a in , and th e re d snake flow ed d i r e c t l y down in to J o h n so n 's u p tu rn ed f a c e ." M aste rly s y n t a c t i c m odulation and c o n t r a s t , n o t s y n ta c tic o r sem antic e c c e n t r i c i t y , em phasizes th e d is a s tr o u s o u t come . Crane s t i l l e m b e llish e s h is p ro se w ith form al and m elodram atic d i c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y e c c e n tr ic v e rb s and adverbs ("th e crowd im m ediately 179 v o c if e r a te d d e s c r i p t i o n s ," " im p lacab ly m y ste rio u s f o r e s t s and h i l l s , " "Nolan i n te r p o la te d a d r in k o f w a te r ," "com m ercially e x c i t e d ," " fiz z e d l ik e a f i r e - w h e e l " ) . He c o n tin u e s to r e l y on sound a s a means o f c r e a tin g atm osphere, sometimes w ith a f f e c t i v e s u p e r f l u i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e war t a l e s (" th e s n a r lin g o f c r e s t s , " "w a ilin g f l a k e s , " "a g r e a t grand s t e e l loom, c l i n k i n g , c la n k in g , p lu n k in g , " " th e poppety-pop o f a sm all v o l l e y ," sh ra p n el . . . s w ir lin g and sw ishing in s u p e r n a tu r a l v e l o c i t y " ) . But, o v e r a l l , sem antic d isso n an ce le s s e n s . V erbal i n t e n s i t y wanes as C ra n e 's s t y l e becomes s y n t a c t i c a l l y more d e n se ly te x - t u r e d . A lthough in v e rs io n i s no lo n g e r h is c h i e f means o f v a ry in g h is s y n ta x , Crane c o n tin u e s to e x p lo it t h i s d ev ice f o r em phasis, o f , fo r in s ta n c e , a dreaded p r e d a to r: Ahead o r a s t e r n , on one s id e o r th e o th e r , a t i n t e r v a l s long o r s h o r t, f l e d th e long s p a r k lin g s t r e a k , and th e r e was to be heard th e whiroo o f th e dark f i n . ("The Open B o a t," 84) a c r u c ia l ev en t: He seemed v e ry happy; he laughed a t a l l t h e i r j e s t s alth o u g h h i s eye, roved c o n tin u a lly o v e r th e sunny g r a s s - la n d s where was going to happen h i s f i r s t f i g h t . ("The Clan o f No-Name," 123) a fo reb o d in g c e s s a tio n o f sound: The b u g le s had in th e w est c eased , and t h a t was more ominous th a n b u g lin g . ("The Clan o f No-Name," 126) th e v io le n t a c tio n o f a f i g h t : For a tim e th e e n co u n te r in th e d ark n ess was such a p e r p l e x i t y o f f ly i n g arms t h a t i t p re s e n te d no more d e t a i l th a n would a s w i f t l y re v o lv in g w heel. ("The Blue H o te l," 160) But he fr e q u e n tly and e f f e c t i v e l y c a p i t a l i z e s on o th e r em phatic de- 180 v ic e s , a number m entioned p r e v io u s ly in ou r d is c u s s io n o f th e s e l a t e works: a p p o s itio n a l r e p e t i t i o n o f key w ords, ju d ic io u s use o f sen te n c e i n i t i a l c o o r d in a to r s , a s id e s , k e rn e l se n te n c e s in th e c o n te x t o f lo n g e r o n es. Crane a lso much more f r e q u e n tly p a r e n th e s iz e s w ords, p h ra s e s , and c la u s e s , im p elled n ot o n ly by th e d e s ir e to s t r e s s some p a r t i c u l a r item but to circum vent th e l i n e a r i t y , th e s e q u e n tia l n a tu re o f s e n te n c e s . A ll p a r e n th e ti c a l elem ents a re s y n t a c t i c a l l y d iv o rc e d from th e r e s t o f th e s e n te n c e ; th e y a re a p p o s itio n a l s t r u c t u r e s which f o r th e most p a r t could be sim ply s e t o f f w ith commas b u t which Crane chooses to a d d i t i o n a l l y s t r e s s by d a sh e s. Crane p a r e n th e s iz e s a v a r i e ty o f f r e e m o d if ie r s , a l l o f whose c o n ten t would s u f f e r dim in ish ed em otional charge i f s tr u c tu r e d any o th e r way, as in d ic a te d in t h i s p a r e n t h e t i c a l r e l a t i v e c la u s e : The covered la n d was b lu e w ith th e sheen o f an u n e a r th ly s a t i n , and th e r e was no o th e r hue save where a t th e low b la c k ra ilw a y s t a t i o n —which seemed in c r e d ib ly d i s t a n t (RC)--one l i g h t gleamed l i k e a t i n y je w e l. C"The Blue H o te l," 159)30 "The C lan o f No-Name," C ra n e 's l a s t work o f th o s e c o n sid e re d in t h i s c h a p te r r e v e a ls th e most e x te n s iv e use o f t h i s d e v ic e , o f te n p la c e d m id -se n te n ce , which, as e x p la in e d e a r l i e r , c r e a t e s a n t i c i p a t i o n , a f o r ward t h r u s t tow ard th e s e n te n c e 's gram m atical c o n c lu sio n , and a p a r t i c u l a r k in d o f d e n s ity . In o th e r ways to o th e s e l a s t works r e v e a l C ra n e 's g r e a te r b o ld n e ss in pack in g h i s sen te n c es w ith a v a r i e t y o f f r e e m o d if ie r s , o f te n l i b e r a l l y expanded, docum enting B errym an's s u b je c tiv e judgment about th e growing s y n ta c tic co m p lex ity o f one o f th e l a t e works, "The Clan o f No-Name." In ev ery f r e e m o d ifie r c a te g o ry co u n ted , C ra n e 's use i n - 181 c re a s e s in Group seven o v e r t h a t o f Group s ix , a lth o u g h sen te n c e and T -u n it le n g th rem ain v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l , except f o r r e l a t i v e c la u s e s , and t h i s le s s e n in g i s b alan ced by a g r e a t e r number o f su b o rd in a te c la u s e s . In o n ly one c a te g o ry , a b s o lu te s , does Crane u se l e s s f r e e m o d ifie rs th a n Group f i v e , and t h i s f ig u r e i s l a r g e l y e x p la in e d by a b s o l u t e s , o f te n c l u s t e r i n g n o t o n ly in a s e c tio n o f a s to r y but in a p a ra g rap h o r s e n te n c e . A lthough t h e works were n o t s c r u tin iz e d m icro s c o p ic a lly f o r "m issed" a b s o lu t e s - - o r v erb c l u s t e r s , which a ls o te n d to f lo c k - - a q uick p e r u s a l re v e a le d s i x "m issed" a b s o lu te s on one page o f "The P ric e o f a H a rn e s s ," th r e e in one se n te n c e alo n e: "These marksman had been ly in g f o r n e a r ly an hour in sto n y s i l e n c e , t h e i r s i g h t s ad j u s t e d , t h e i r f in g e r s fo n d lin g t h e i r r i f l e s , t h e i r eyes s t a r i n g a t th e in tren c h m e n ts o f th e enemy" (109). A ccording to C h r is te n s e n 's schema, f r e e m o d ifie rs form s t r u c t u r a l l a y e r s , an in c re a s e o f which in c re a s e s d e n s ity o f p ro se s t y l e . Theo r e t i c a l l y , th e r e i s no l i m i t to th e number o f s t r u c t u r a l la y e r s t h a t an a u th o r can form alth o u g h C h ris te n se n shows no se n te n c e s having more th a n seven le v e l s . Crane fa v o rs one o r tw o -le v e l se n te n c e s th ro u g h o u t h i s p ro se f i c t i o n . However, he i s more l i k e l y in th e work fo llo w in g The Red Badge to in c re a s e th e number o f second le v e l a d d itio n s p e r se n te n c e . M oreover, as a d e f i n i t e sig n o f th e in c r e a s in g s y n ta c tic den s i t y o f h is s t y l e , d u rin g phase two he adds more s t r u c t u r e s a t th e t h i r d le v e l o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n , more a t th e f o u r th l e v e l , and o c c a sio n a l l y e n ric h e s h i s s e n te n c e s w ith f iv e and s ix s t r u c t u r a l la y e r s th ro u g h fr e e m o d ifie r a d d itio n s . Only th r e e tim e s in phase one does Crane form f o u r - le v e l s e n te n c e s , once in " K illin g His B e a r," tw ic e in 182 M aggie. Looking ahead to The O'Ruddy, we can p o in t o u t t h a t as w ith o th e r s t r u c t u r e s s tu d ie d , The O'Ruddy r e v e r t s tow ard C ra n e 's e a r ly p r a c t i c e in term s o f f r e e m o d if ic a tio n a l d ep th , but does n o t re p e a t i t . A lthough no f i v e - o r s i x - l e v e l se n te n c e s appear and o n ly two fo u r - l e v e l , t h r e e - l e v e l se n te n c e s o c cu r f r e q u e n tly . (See Appendix f . ) F ree m o d if ie r s , th o s e reduced s t r u c t u r e s t h a t p a r a d o x ic a lly expand and e n ric h se n te n c e s , a re n o t th e o n ly s t r u c t u r e s t h a t c o n tr ib u te to C ra n e 's le n g th e n in g sen te n c es and T - u n its , a lth o u g h th e s e a re th e com m enting ty p e s t h a t add s t r u c t u r a l d e n s it y to h is p ro se th ro u g h in c re a s e d l e v e l s o f s p e c i f i c i t y . Bound s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s in c re a s e in th e s e phase two s t o r i e s , and Crane c o n tin u e s to compound and add in c id e n ta l d e t a i l s to h i s se n te n c e s w ith bound p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s and o th e r m o d if ie r s . W e can see th e s e p ro c e s s e s a t work in th e s e l e c t i o n s p re v io u s ly quoted in t h i s c h a p te r. The f i n a l sen te n c e in th e d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e gam bler can p ro v id e one i l l u s t r a t i o n . Upon th e g ram m atically sim ple c o re , th e s u b je c t-p o s tp o n e d e x p l e t i v e - i t b a se , a re superim posed m u l t i p le bound s u b o rd in a te t h a t - c la u s e s (some w ith t h a t d e l e t e d ) , p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra s e s , and p r e d ic a te a d j e c t i v e s . S u b o rd in ate bound t h a t - c la u s e s a ls o expand th e f i r s t sen te n c e o f th e long a s id e q u o ted from 31 "The Open Boat" m entioned e a r l i e r . M u ltip le p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s , a lth o u g h in t h i s in s ta n c e f r e e o n e s, compounded i n tr a - p h r a s e as w ell a s i n t e r - p h r a s e , sp ark th e long p a ra g rap h from "The C lan o f No-Name." Here a lso i s a n o th e r sen te n c e t h a t depends upon bound and compounded p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s and s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s , f o r i t s developm ent and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , f i n a l compounded ad v erb s, p o ly syndeton s t r e s s i n g 183 th e e f f e c t o f i n e v i t a b i l i t y : "The mind o f th e m a ste r o f a v e s s e l is ro o te d deep in th e tim b e rs o f h e r , though he command f o r a day o r a decade, and t h i s c a p ta in had on him th e s te r n im p ressio n o f a scene in th e grays o f dawn o f seven tu rn e d f a c e s , and l a t e r a stump o f a t o p mast w ith a w hite b a l l on i t t h a t s la s h e d to and f r o a t th e waves, went low and low er, and down" (6 8 -6 9 ). S entences and T - u n its n o t o n ly le n g th e n g e n e r a lly b u t a re more v a r i a b l e in le n g th , a llo w in g Crane to c r e a te p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t s (f o r example iro n y and em phasis) w ith e x c e p tio n a lly s h o r t, sim ple sen te n c es and a lso to ach iev e a more v a r ie d and f l u i d p ro se s t y l e . Fragmented se n te n c e s lim ite d in s t r u c t u r a l v a r i e t y and a t tim e s s e q u e n t i a l l y r e dundant d is a p p e a r f o r th e most p a r t ex cep t when u sed s e l e c t i v e l y to p o r tr a y a numbed, confused m ental s t a t e . Such i s th e c a se w ith C ra n e 's im ita tio n o f M a r tin 's bew ilderm ent in "The P r ic e o f t h e H arness" d i s cu ssed e a r l i e r and a ls o o f th e c o r r e s p o n d e n t's in "The Open Boat" d u r in g h i s e n d le s s s t i n t s a t th e o a r s : "The brown m ats o f sea-w eed t h a t appeared from tim e to tim e were l i k e i s l a n d s , b i t s o f e a r t h . They were t r a v e l l i n g , a p p a r e n tly , n e i t h e r one way n o r th e o th e r . They w ere, to a l l i n t e n t s , s t a t i o n a r y . They inform ed th e men in th e bo at t h a t i t was making p ro g re s s slo w ly tow ard th e la n d " (72). (But we s t i l l re a d awkward, choppy sequences t h a t could c l e a r l y b e n e f it from some sen te n c e com bining such as th e s e from "The Blue H o te l": "The Swede s a id n o th in g . He seemed to be making f u r t i v e e s tim a te s o f each man in th e room. One might have th o u g h t t h a t he had th e sense o f s i l l y s u s p ic io n which comes to g u i l t . He resem bled a b a d ly fr ig h te n e d man" (1 4 4 ). As in th e e a r l y work, th e n a r r a t o r s ta n d s to o c lo s e to a c h a r a c t e r .) 184 P arag rap h s le n g th e n consonant w ith se n te n c e s and T - u n its le n g th e n in g , and th e y to o become more v a r ia b le , s h o rt ones g e n e r a lly c o in c id in g w ith in c re a s e d a c t i v i t y , lo n g e r ones w ith n a r r a t i v e d e s c r ip ti o n s o f id e a s o r o b j e c t s . Focus i s more s u s ta in e d , and when i t s w i f t l y t u r n s from one p o in t t o a n o th e r, fram ing p i c t u r e s in s te a d o f s p lic in g them to g e th e r , i t c r e a te s e f f e c t s p e c u l i a r and s u i t a b l e to a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n as we have seen in th e d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e crowd a w a itin g th e g r e a t ra c e in "The Wise Men." C ohesion grows n o tic e a b ly s tr o n g e r . E quivalence c h a in s , in c lu d in g pronoun r e f e r e n c e , become th e m ajor means to b in d se n te n c e s to g e th e r r a t h e r th a n th e more ten u o u s c o n n e c to rs, a s s o c ia ti o n and mood. A s tro n g i n d ic a tio n o f C ra n e 's d e s ir e to make h i s p ro se more c o h eren t i s h i s in c r e a s in g use o f c o n ju n c tiv e ad v erb s th ro u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , th o s e c o n n e c to rs whose p rim ary fu n c tio n i s to e s t a b l i s h coherency, r e l a t i n g in v a rio u s ways p r o p o s itio n s to o th e r p r o p o s itio n s . His in c re a s e d use o f s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s and f r o n t - s h i f t e d v erb c l u s t e r s a lso c o n tr ib u te s to i n te r - s e n te n c e and in te r - p a r a g r a p h coherency. He i s more c o n sc io u s o f i n tr a - s e n te n c e coherency to o , as ev id en ced in r e p e t i t i v e and expan s iv e a p p o s itio n a l s t r u c t u r e s . Noun and a d je c tiv e c l u s t e r s were i l l u s t r a t e d e a r l i e r ; Crane a ls o r e p e a ts v e rb s to h o ld to g e th e r lo n g e r, more complex s e n te n c e s : But d e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t th e r e was alw ays in th e way o f t h i s crowd a w is tf u l m elancholy, one must know t h a t th e r e were p le n ty o f men who la u g h ed , laughed a t t h e i r wounds w h im sic a lly , q u a in tly in v e n tin g odd humors con c e rn in g b ic y c le s and c ab s, e x tr a c ti n g from t h i s shedding o f t h e i r blood a w onderful amount o f m a te r ia l f o r c h e e r f u l b ad in ag e, and w ith t h e i r fa c e s tw is te d from p a in as th e y ste p p e d , th e y o f te n joked l i k e m u s ic -h a ll s t a r s . ("The P ric e o f th e H a rn e ss," 107) 185 P a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e a ls o a id s co h esio n in t h i s se n te n c e , and elsew h ere, o f com plem entary id e a s , and a ls o c o n tr a s tin g id e a s : "The h o riz o n n a r rowed and w idened, and dipped and ro s e , . . ("The Open B o a t," 68 ). And Crane o fte n u ses p a r a l l e l s tr u c t u r e to u n i t e v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f a scen e: "The su n sh in e s p r in k le d th ro u g h th e l i l a c - b u s h e s and poured g re a t c o in s on t h e b o a rd s. The sparrow s d is p u te d in th e t r e e s th a t lin e d th e pavem ents. The judge mused d e e p ly , w h ile h i s hands g e n tly c a re s s e d th e iv o ry head o f h i s cane" ("The M o n ste r," 3 1 ). This i s n ot to say t h a t Crane does n o t a t tim e s s t i l l p la c e th e burden o f fo rm u la tin g t r a n s i t i o n s , making c o n n e c tio n s , and f i l l i n g in th e d e t a i l s upon th e re a d e r . Note, f o r exam ple, th e f i r s t few sen-TV te n c e s o f p a ra g rap h one and th e f i r s t few independent c la u s e s o f p a r agraph two from th e scene s e t t i n g i n i t i a l p arag rap h s o f "A Man and 32 Some O th ers" (53) m entioned above, o r th e sequence o f se n te n c e s de s c r ib in g th e Sw ede's a l i e n a t i o n from th e r e s t o f th e men a w aitin g t h e i r noon meal a t th e Blue H otel (144) quoted above. But, by and la r g e , we » w itn e ss in th e s e s t o r i e s a dynamic a c t i v a t i o n o f complex th o u g h t, en ric h e d d e s c r i p t i o n , and a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f v o ic e s th ro u g h C ra n e 's w ider and more ju d ic io u s ch o ice o f th e s y n ta c tic o p tio n s o f E n g lish th a n is p re s e n t in t h e e a r l i e r work. Summary The a d v en tu re s t o r i e s form ing a t r a n s i t i o n between C ra n e 's e a r ly and l a t e work d is p la y a y o u th fu l lig h tn e s s n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e s t o r i e s o f h i s f u l l m a tu r ity . Y et, a t th e same tim e , th e y in c o rp o ra te an u n d e rly in g s e r io u s n e s s t h a t h e r a ld s th e s e r io u s n e s s p erm eatin g th e 186 l a t e r s t o r i e s , and a ls o re v e a l budding m a stery o f s y n t a c t i c o p tio n s t h a t blossom in th e s t o r i e s produced by Crane a t th e h e ig h t o f h is c a r e e r . I t i s in c re a s e d use o f th e s e s y n t a c t i c o p tio n s t h a t a llo w s us t o la b e l C ra n e 's phase two s t y l e as ex p an siv e in c o n tr a s t to th e a b ru p tn e ss o f phase one; th e l a t e r s t y l e g a in s h y p o ta c tic q u a l i t i e s at th e expense o f p a r a t a c t i c o n es, even though elem ents o f C ra n e 's e a r ly s t y l e c o n tin u e th ro u g h o u t h i s work. C ra n e 's se n te n c e s and T - u n its g e n e r a lly le n g th e n because o f in c re a s e d use o f f r e e m o d ifie rs and more s o p h is ti c a te d embeddings. Sen te n c e s and T - u n its a ls o v a ry more in le n g th and p a tte r n in g , g r e a t l y r e ducing th e o f te n m onotonously r e p e t i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s o f th e e a r l y work. Cohesion and coherence in c re a s e w ith C ra n e 's c o n sc io u sly a d o p tin g sy n t a c t i c d e v ic e s such as c o n ju n c tiv e ad v erb s and o r g a n ic a ll y m o tiv a te d p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e to i n t e g r a t e s e n te n c e s and c la u s e s one w ith a n o th e r. S y n ta c tic s t r u c t u r e s t h a t Crane u ses e a r l i e r , such as f r e e m o d ifie rs and, much more r a r e l y , p a r e n th e ti c a l i n s e r t i o n s , are used in th e l a t e s t o r i e s more o f te n and more s k i l l f u l l y to e n liv e n and expand h i s n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n . O th er s t r u c t u r e s added to h is r e p e r t o i r e , such as th e ex tended s e r i e s , b a lan c e d a n t i t h e s i s , and a p o stro p h e, show Crane to be s t r i v i n g n o t o n ly f o r v a r i e t y b ut f o r a s u b t l e r , more e le g a n tly e x p re ss iv e in stru m e n t f o r h i s id e a s . He m arsh als sy n tax so as to e la b o r a te h i s th o u g h t w ith more com p l e x i t y , hence i s a b le to p r o je c t n o t o n ly th e n a iv e , u n tu to r e d v o ic e o f th e e a r l y work but o th e r v o ic e s as w e ll, in c lu d in g t h a t o f a ma t u r e , d etach ed p e r s p e c tiv e e x p re ssin g firm ly h e ld moral v a lu e s , and move from one to a n o th e r v o ic e more s u b tly . Crane le a r n s how to m ain 187 t a i n h is n a r r a t o r s ' d is ta n c e from th e p r o ta g o n is ts u n le s s m erger i s a p p r o p r ia te , th e re b y enchancing th e n a r r a t o r s ' a b i l i t y to guide a u th o r i t a t i v e l y r e a d e r s ' re s p o n se s. A doption o f a w ider v a r i e t y o f s y n ta c tic o p tio n s a ls o e n ab le s Crane to s u s ta in focus on id e a s , p e o p le , scen es, and e v e n ts , and e n liv e n and c l a r i f y h is d e s c r ip ti o n o f them. While n o th in g a b s o lu te ly good in h e re s in u se o f any p a r t i c u l a r s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e (s in c e s t r u c t u r e s must always be a p p ro p ria te and e f f e c t i v e in given s i t u a t i o n s ) , e f f e c t iv e n e s s does in h e re in a w r i t e r ' s a b i l i t y to u se a v a r i e t y o f s t r u c t u r e s . For Crane t h i s a b i l i t y means th e o p p o rtu n ity to accompany e x p lo ra tio n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between m an's in n e r and o u te r w orlds w ith what i s m issin g in th e e a r ly work, r e s o l u t i o n and illu m i n a ti o n . The p r o ta g o n is ts o f h is l a t e s t o r i e s e i t h e r ach iev e a r e c o n s tr u c te d image o f th e w orld ( f o r example, th e New York Kid, th e c o rre sp o n d e n t, and th e E a s te rn e r) o r a re a lre a d y men whose e x p e rie n c e r e a f f ir m s t h e i r v a lu e s ( f o r exam ple, T r e s c o tt, Nolan, and M anolo). They and th e themes th e y embody a re made p o s s ib le a s C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c s k i l l expands, f o r e x p lo r a tio n and illu m in a tio n o f m ature id e a s and t h e i r consequences demands an e q u a lly m ature sy n tax . 188 Notes 1 S ta llm a n , A B iography, p . 84. 2 See, f o r exam ple, r e p r i n t s o f e a r l y review s in W eath erfo rd : H. G. W ells from th e S atu rd ay Review, pp. 54-55; H arry T hurston Peck from Bookman, p p . 63-65; J . L. Onderdonk from D ia l, pp. 142-143; C. D. Warner from H a rp e r’s M agazine, pp. 148-150; R upert Hughes from G odey's Maga z in e , p p . 158-164. ^ H is correspondence r e v e a ls a l l th e s e f a c e t s . See i n L e t t e r s , f o r in s ta n c e , th o se co n cern in g e d i t i n g , indeed b o w d le riz in g , th e 1896 Maggie f o r th e g e n te e l re a d in g p u b lic : to R ipley H itchcock [^February 4- 6? 18963 and CFebruary 10, 18963, pp. 112-114; th e s ta te m e n t o f h is l i t e r a r y c re e d : to L ily Brandon Munroe CMarch, 1894?3, pp. 31-33; h is d e s ir e f o r su c c e ss: to an E d ito r o f L e s l i e ’s Weekly CAbout November, 18953, pp. 78-79; h is f i n a n c i a l p l i g h t , a problem spanning h is c a r e e r : to Acton Davies ["May 26, 18923 and to James B. P in k e r CMarch 31, 19003, pp. 11 and 266-267. ^ The l i t e r a t u r e on t h i s s u b je c t i s v a s t. Noam Chomsky's work i s b a s ic ; h i s S y n ta c tic S tr u c tu r e s and A spects have been c a t a l y s t s f o r e x te n s iv e r e s e a r c h , b o th in su p p o rt o f and in o p p o s itio n to h i s th eo ries. See a ls o Frank Smith and George A. M ille r , ed s. The G enesis o f Language (Cambridge, M ass.: The M. I . T. P r e s s , 1966); Lois Bloom, Language Development: Form and F u n ctio n in Emerging Grammars (Cam bridge, M ass.: The M. I . T. P r e s s , 1970); John R. Hayes, e d ., C o g n itio n and The D evel opment o f Language (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c . , 1970); C arol Chomsky, The A c q u is itio n o f Syntax in C h ild re n from J5 t o 10 (Cambridge, M ass.: The M. I . T. P r e s s , 1969); C ourtney B. Cazden, C h ild Language and E d u catio n (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt and W inston, I n c ., 1972); Roger Brown, A F i r s t Language: The E a rly S tag es (Cambridge, M a s s .: H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1973); Timothy; E. Moore, e d ., C o g n itiv e Development and th e A c q u is itio n o f Language (New York: Academic P r e s s , 1973). For s tu d ie s w ith a more p e d ag o g ic a l approach, see a number o f NCTE p u b lic a t i o n s : Donald R. Bateman and Frank J . Z id o n is, The E f f e c t o f a Study o f T ra n sfo rm a tio n a l Grammar on th e W ritin g o f N inth and Tenth G raders (1966); John C. M ellon, T ra n sfo rm a tio n a l Sentence-C om bining: A Method f o r Enhancing th e Development o f S y n ta c tic Fluency in E n g lish Composi t i o n (1969); Frank 0 ' H are, S entence Com bining: Im proving S tu d e n t W ritin g w ith o u t Formal Grammar I n s t r u c t i o n (1973); W alter Loban, Language D evelopm ent: K in d erg arten th ro u g h Grade Twelve (1976). The s t r u c t u r a l i s t s to o had some words on th e s u b je c t: C h arles C a rp e n te r F r i e s , The S tr u c tu r e o f E n g lish (New York: H a rc o u rt, Brace 8 World, I n c ., 1952), pp. 288-293; C arl A. L e fe v re , "A C oncise S t r u c t u r a l Grammar," L in g u is t i c s f o r T e a c h e rs, ed. John F. Savage (C hicago: S cience R esearch A s s o c ia te s , I n c ., 1973), pp. 152-159. "The c o ld p a sse d r e l u c t a n t l y from th e e a r th and th e r e t i r i n g fogs re v e a le d an army s t r e t c h e d o u t on th e h i l l s , r e s t i n g . As th e lan d scap e changed from brown to green th e army awakened and began to tre m b le w ith 189 e ag e rn e ss a t th e n o is e o f rum ors. I t c a s t i t s eyes upon th e ro ad s which were growing from long tro u g h s o f li q u i d mud to p ro p e r th o ro u g h f a r e s . A r i v e r , a m b e r-tin te d in th e shadows o f i t s banks, p u rle d a t th e arm y 's f e e t and a t n ig h t when th e stream had become o f a so rro w fu l b la ck n e ss one could s e e , a c r o s s , th e re d e y e - lik e gleam o f h o s t i l e camp f i r e s s e t in th e low brows o f d i s t a n t h i l l s " (3). ^ "The Open B o at," "The M o n ster," and "The Blue H o te l" com prise Group s ix ; "The P r ic e o f th e H arness" and "The Clan o f No-Name," Group seven, ^ J . C. Levenson, I n t r o d . , T ales o f A d venture, Vol. V o f The Works, p. x l i i . 3 C ra n e 's tendency to re p e a t h im s e lf and c l u s t e r elem ents b o th a re in d ic a te d i n th e s e sam ples. Echoing th e s t a r t o f C h ap ter XVII o f Maggie a re th e se n te n c e s su rro u n d in g th e f i r s t q u o ta tio n : "An e l e c t r i c l i g h t s p u tte r e d and fumed o v er th e th ro n g . The a fte rn o o n shower had l e f t th e pave wet and g l i t t e r i n g . The a i r was s t i l l lad en w ith th e odor o f r a i n on flo w e rs , g r a s s , le a v e s ." " G e s tic u la tin g " o ccu rs only tw ice in a l l th e d a ta , b o th tim es in "The Wise Men" and w ith in th r e e p ag es. 9 F a u lty s u b je c t- v e r b agreem ent and no r e f e r e n t f o r " i t . " 10 One would e x p ec t "and" n o t " b u t." 11 "To a c a c tu s b u s h ," c o n sid e rin g C ra n e 's t y p i c a l s e a rc h f o r p r e c is e p r e p o s i t i o n s , seems n o t on ly c o n sc io u s ly b u t a d v an tag eo u sly m o ti v a te d . T hat i s , w hereas " to w a rd ," th e ex p ected p r e p o s i t i o n , e n t a i l s only d i r e c t i o n , " to " connotes a g e s tu r e o f f r i e n d l i n e s s and, a p p ro p p ri- a t e l y , th e dead man m erging back i n t o n a tu r e . 12 A t r a n s i t i v e v e rb , " j o s t l e d " r e q u ir e s an o b je c t . One would ex p ect " j o s t l e d each o t h e r ," n o t sim ply " j o s t l e d . " 13 A ll d ia lo g u e e x cep t t h a t demanded f o r sen se i s o m itte d . 14 Crane u ses th e s y n ta c tic d ev ice o f p a r e n th e s is as e f f e c t i v e l y and even more f r e q u e n tly in h is l a t e r work. 13 "There was no sound n o r l i g h t in th e w o rld . The w all a t th e l e f t happened to be o f th e common p r i s o n - l i k e c o n s tr u c tio n - - n o d o o r, no window, no opening a t a l l (NC in c lim a c tic asyndeton p a t t e r n ) . Humanity was en clo se d (p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ) and a s le e p . In to th e mouth o f th e so b er Kid came a w retch ed b i t t e r t a s t e as i f i t had f i l l e d w ith b lo o d . He was tr a n s f ix e d (p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ) as i f he was a lr e a d y see in g th e lig h n in g r ip p l e s on th e k n if e - b la d e . "But th e M exican's hand d id n o t move a t t h a t tim e . H is fa c e went s t i l l f u r t h e r forw ard and he w hispered: "So?" The so b e r Kid saw t h i s face as i f he and i t were a lo n e in s p a c e --a y ello w mask (NC) sm ilin g in 190 e a g e r c r u e l t y (VC), in s a t i s f a c t i o n (P P ), and above a l l (PP) i t was l i t (p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ) w ith s i n i s t e r d e c is io n . As f o r th e f e a tu r e s th e y were re m in is c e n t o f an u n p la c e d , a f o r g o tte n (p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ) ty p e (NC) which r e a l l y resem bled w ith p r e c is io n th o se o f a man who had shaved him th r e e tim es in Boston in 1888. But th e e x p re ssio n burned h is mind as sealin g -w ax b u rn s th e palm and f a s c in a te d (p a s t p a r t i c i p l e VC), s tu p e f i e d (p a s t p a r t i c i p l e VC), he a c t u a l l y w atched th e p ro g re s s o f th e m an's th o u g h t tow ard th e p o in t where a k n if e would be wrenched from i t s s h e a th . The em otion, a s o r t o f m echanical fu ry (NC), a b re e z e made by e l e c t r i c fan s (NC), a ra g e made by v a n ity (NC), smote th e d ark c o u n te nance in wave a f t e r wave. "Then th e New York Kid took a sudden s te p fo rw ard . H is hand was a ls o a t h is h ip . He was g rip p in g th e r e a re v o lv e r o f ro b u s t s i z e . . . . " (47) . "The lig h tn in g a c ti o n o f th e n e x t few moments was o f th e f a b r i c o f dreams to th e s tr a n g e r . The m uscular s tr u g g le may n o t be r e a l to th e drowning man. His mind may be fix e d on th e f a r , s t r a i g h t shadows back o f th e s t a r s , and th e t e r r o r o f them. And so th e f i g h t , and h is p a r t in i t , had to th e s tr a n g e r o n ly th e q u a l i t y o f a p i c t u r e h a l f drawn. The ru sh o f f e e t , th e s p a t t e r o f s h o ts , th e c r i e s , th e sw ollen fa c e s seen lik e masks on th e smoke, resem bled a happening o f th e n ig h t" (6 6 ). "And y e t a fte rw a rd c e r t a i n l i n e s , form s, liv e d o u t so s tr o n g ly from th e in co h eren ce t h a t th e y were always in h is memory. " He k i l l e d a man, and th e th o u g h t went s w i f t l y by him, li k e th e f e a t h e r on th e g a le , t h a t i t was easy to k i l l a man. "M oreover, he su ddenly f e l t f o r B i l l , t h i s grimy s h e e p -h e rd e r, some deep form o f i d o l a t r y . B i l l was d y in g , and th e d i g n i t y o f l a s t d e f e a t , th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f him who s ta n d s in h i s g ra v e , was in th e pose o f th e l o s t s h e e p -h e rd e r" (6 6 -6 7 ). ^ See Appendix E. In term s o f l e v e l s , i t makes no d if f e r e n c e w h eth er we t a l k about T - u n its o r se n te n c e s s in c e by d e s ig n a tin g c o o r d in a te b ase u n i t s each as le v e l one, C h r is te n s e n 's system i n e f f e c t re c o g n iz e s T - u n its . T his s e n te n c e from "The M o n ster," a tw o -le v e l se n te n c e w ith two, tw o -le v e l T - u n its , i l l u s t r a t e s : 2 A f te r a moment (PP) 1 th e window b rig h te n e d 2 as i f th e fo u r panes o f i t had been s ta in e d w ith b lo o d , (SC) 1 and a q u ick e a r m ight have been le d to im agine th e f ir e - im p s 2 c a l l i n g and c a l l i n g , (VC) 2 c la n jo in in g c la n , (Abs) 2 g a th e r in g to th e c o lo r s . (VC) (20) Use o f th e a p o stro p h e i s new f o r Crane. 191 2° Foreshadowing f i c t i o n a l sta te m e n t o f h i s id e a l a re C ra n e 's new spaper d is p a tc h e s r e p o r tin g th e n ig h tm are abandonment o f th e Commo d o re , d u rin g which what im pressed Crane th e most was th e s i l e n t f o r t i tu d e o f th e men on th e sh ip and r a f t s : "And a l l t h i s tim e , mind you, th e r e were no s h r ie k s , no g ro a n s, b u t s i l e n c e , s ile n c e and s i l e n c e ." From "S tephen C ra n e 's Own S to r y ," in The P o r ta b le Stephen C rane, ed. Joseph Katz (New York: The V iking P r e s s , 1969), p . 341. 21 One i s in c lin e d to a t t r i b u t e t h i s to C ra n e 's f i n a n c i a l and h e a lth d i f f i c u l t i e s , b u t, on th e o th e r hand, he w rote th e r o l l i c k i n g 0 ' Ruddy on h i s d eath b ed . Stephen C rane, p . 284. N a rra to r and p r o ta g o n is t a re c l o s e r in "The Open Boat" th an e l s e where ex cep t The Red Badge and The 0 ' Ruddy. ^ However, t h a t Crane was drawn to comment w hether he approved o f th e p r a c t i c e in f i c t i o n o r n o t i s a ls o borne o u t by h i s fr e q u e n t compar is o n s , e s p e c i a l l y a s / a s i f ty p e s , t h a t comment as w e ll as d e s c r ib e , a lth o u g h l e s s o b tr u s iv e ly th an a s id e s . 25 Some o th e r a s id e s : " I t i s n o t w ell to q u a r r e l upon a s lip p e r y i n c l i n e , when th e unknown i s below" ("Four Men in a C ave," 227); "One was from San F ra n c isc o and one was from New York b u t th e y resem bled each o th e r in ap p earan ce. T his i s an id io s y n c ra s y o f geography" ("The Wise Men," 26); " R e ifsn y d e r was v e ry g a r r u lo u s - - a f a c t which made him r a t h e r rem arkable among b a r b e r s , who, as a c l a s s , a re a u s te r e ly speech l e s s , having been ta u g h t s ile n c e by th e hammering r e i t e r a t i o n o f a t r a d i t i o n . I t i s th e custom ers who t a l k in th e o rd in a ry e v en t" ("The M o n ster," 3 9). P r o p o r tio n a te ly few er a s id e s o c cu r i n Maggie and "The M o n ster," u n d oubtedly in flu e n c e d by t h e i r b ein g s o c ia l s a t i r e w ith comments in te g r a te d in to th e body o f th e s t o r i e s th e m selv e s. 26 Although no a c c u ra te count was made, i t i s a p p a re n t t h a t Crane u ses many more and lo n g e r a s id e s in "The Open Boat" th a n in any o th e r o f h is f i c t i o n s . 27 T hat O 'R uddy's o p in io n on women g e n e r a lly m atches C ra n e 's i s e v id e n t in C ra n e 's c o rresp o n d en ce. Speaking o f h i s o v e r r id in g aim in c o m p o sitio n , he sa y s, "And my c h i e f e s t d e s ir e was to w r ite p l a i n l y and u n m istak ab ly , so t h a t a l l men (and some women) m ight re a d and u n d er s ta n d ." In a l e t t e r to John N o rthern H i l l i a r d d Jan u ary , 1896?H, L e t t e r s , p . 109. 28 A lso, as in th e p a ra g rap h from "The Clan o f No-Name," we have in t h i s p a ra g rap h from "The Open B o at," though l e s s l y r i c a l , an example o f C ra n e 's u se o f complex s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s to e s t a b l i s h a s e r io u s , a u t h o r i t a t i v e n a r r a t i v e v o ic e to e x p re ss a s i g n i f i c a n t m essag e. 192 29 For example, th e e m o tio n a lly s u g g e s tiv e "At l a s t , how ever, he had made firm r e b e l l i o n a g a in s t t h i s y ello w l i g h t thrown upon th e c o lo r o f h i s a m b itio n s" from The Red Badge ( 8 ) . C ra n e 's c o lo r im agery was n o t a p o in t o f t h i s stu d y , b u t th e d a ta re v e a l p r o g r e s s i v e ly l e s s c o lo r images i n su c c e ss iv e w orks, a lth o u g h re d i s s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h a l l th e p ro se f i c t i o n , and c e r t a i n c o lo rs ap p ear more f r e q u e n tly in p a r t i c u l a r w orks: y ello w in Maggie and brown in "The Clan o f No-Name," f o r i n s ta n c e . Some o th e r examples o f p a r e n t h e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s a re : " I t was no lo n g e r m erely a p i c t u r e o f a few th r o e s in th e b r e a s t o f a p o e t, mean w h ile d rin k in g te a and warming h is f e e t a t th e g r a t e ; i t was an a c t u a l i t y - s t e r n , m ournful, and f in e (A+A)" ("The Open B o at," 8 5 ); "U ltim a te ly he appeared w ith a com panion--a man who walked slo w ly and c a r e f u l l y (NC), as i f he were le a rn in g " ("The M o n ster," 33); and from "The Clan of No-Name": "T h e ir lin e n c lo th in g was n o ta b le from b ein g d i s t i n c t l y w h iter th an th o se o f th e men who, one hundred and f i f t y in number, la y on th e ground in a long brown f r i n g e , ra g g e d --in d e e d , b a re in many p la c e s (AC) - - b u t s in g u la r ly r e p o s e f u l, u n w o rried , v e te r a n - lik e " (122); " I t was n o t an easy t a s k , b u t i t was a f a m i l i a r t a s k - c h e c k i n g th e advance o f a g r e a t l y s u p e r io r fo rc e by a v ery h ard f i r e from concealm ent (VC)" (123); "A hundred men c a r ry in g p re c io u s b u rd e n s --b e s id e s t h e i r own equipm ent (P P )--w ere to p a ss in as much o f a ru sh as p o s s ib le between th e s e two w ings, c ro ss th e ro ad and sk ip f o r th e h i l l s , t h e i r r e t r e a t b ein g co v ered by a com bination o f th e two f i r i n g p a r t i e s " (1 2 3 ). O c c a sio n a lly Crane i n t e r p o l a t e s a c la u s e : "He was o f a k in d —t h a t seemed to be i t — and th e men o f h is k in d . . (The Clan o f No-Name," 131). 31 "When i t o ccu rs t o a man t h a t n a tu re does n o t re g a rd him as im p o rta n t, and th a t she f e e l s she would n o t main th e u n iv e rs e by d i s p o sin g o f him, he a t f i r s t w ishes to throw b r ic k s a t th e tem p le, and he h a te s d eep ly th e f a c t t h a t th e r e a re no b r ic k s and no tem ples" (8 4 -8 5 ). 32 "Dark m esquit sp re ad from h o riz o n to h o riz o n . There was no house o r horseman from which a mind could ev olve a c i t y o r a crowd. The w orld was d e c la re d to be a d e s e r t and unp eo p led . . . . In th e s ile n c e o f th e s e p la in s th e sudden and c h ild is h banging o f a t i n pan could have made an iro n -n e rv e d man leap i n t o th e a i r . The sky was e v e r f la w le s s ; th e manoeuvering o f clouds was an unknown p a g e a n t," 193 CHAPTER VI STAGE THREE: N EW HORIZONS The 0 1Ruddy A, J . L ie b lin g s a id o f Crane t h a t , had he liv e d , he m ight have w r i t t e n long n o v els o f an o r i g i n a l i t y as h a rd to im agine, in r e tr o s p e c t, As Maggie and The Red Badge would have been to a n t i c i p a t e ." * C ra n e 's The 0 1 Ruddy a t t e s t s to t h i s p r e d ic tio n . Begun when he was i l l and c o n tin u ed even on h i s d eath b ead , th e tw e n ty -fiv e c h a p te rs o f The 0 ' Ruddy t h a t Crane managed to com plete r e v e a l no s la c k e n in g o f im agi n a tiv e powers n o r la c k o f re a d in e s s to s t r i k e in new d i r e c t i o n s . The novel i s n o t h is b e s t work, b u t had Crane been g iv en l i f e and tim e to f i n i s h , r e v i s e , and rew ork, The 0 1Ruddy c o u ld p erh ap s have become a m ajor work. I f n o t, i t could w e ll have l a i d th e fo u n d a tio n f o r o th e r a r t i s t i c s u c c e s s e s , j u s t as has e a r ly a tte m p ts in th e r e a l i s t i c mode d id f o r th e s t o r i e s produced a t th e h e ig h t o f h is c a r e e r . Yet even though th e novel i s n o t h is b e s t work, i t n o n e th e le s s can o n ly amaze us w ith i t s c r a f t , en erg y , and exuberance, em erging as i t d id from th e most d e s p e ra te o f c o n d itio n s : la ck o f money, lack o f h e a l t h , and lack o f tim e . None o f th e e a r ly work p re p a re s us f o r C ra n e 's tu r n in g h i s c r e a t i v e t a l e n t s from h ig h s e r io u s n e s s to comedy, from r e a l i s t i c n o v els and s t o r i e s to rom ance, a genre t h a t in h i s hands d is s o lv e s in to th e p ic a r e s q u e , r e v e a lin g h i s l i f e t i m e a f f i n i t y f o r e p is o d ic r a t h e r th an c a r e f u l l y p l o t t e d s t r u c t u r e . 2 That he s h i f t e d from th e r e a l i s t i c mode 194 steins from a t l e a s t th r e e re a s o n s . The f i r s t , th e c r a s s one, i s t h a t he d id so f o r money. Crane la b o re d u n d er th e c o n sta n t hope and d e s p a ir o f e v e r f r e e in g h im s e lf from deb t and knew t h a t n o v e ls, long n o v e ls , commanded more money th a n s h o rt s t o r i e s , and t h a t a h i s t o r i c a l romance w ith p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r l a t e r d ra m a tiz a tio n would, o f c o u rs e , have 3 prom ised even g r e a te r f in a n c ia l r e t u r n e v e n tu a lly . The second i s t h a t a lth o u g h h is e a r ly work was r e a l i s t i c and he p ledged a lle g ia n c e to t h a t c re e d , he had no s tro n g th e o r e tic a l, com mitment to any p a r t i c u l a r form, o n ly an ir o n c la d commitment t o t e l l i n g 4 th e t r u t h as he saw i t ; t h e r e f o r e , a h i s t o r i c a l romance p re s e n te d no id e o lo g ic a l o b s ta c le s f o r him to overcom e. I t d id , however, p re s e n t p r a c t i c a l o b s ta c le s . C ra n e 's f o r t e was n o t p lo t and c h a r a c te r sh ap in g , n o r had he th e i n c l i n a t i o n and tim e f o r th e r e s e a rc h demanded by a h i s t o r i c a l romance. These f a c t o r s u n d o u b ted ly le d Crane to s h i f t The O' Ruddy's form from romance to p ic a r e s q u e , a lth o u g h i t s e p is o d ic n a tu re was p lan n ed n o t a c c id e n ta l , and to in c o rp o ra te in i t s atm osphere no d e f i n i t i v e h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c tiv e and s e t t i n g . Readers know th e novel ta k e s p la c e in England in th e e a r l y G eorgian p e r io d , but th e knowledge i s c e r t a i n l y n o t o v e r r id in g , o n ly b a r e ly c o n sc io u s. What i s o v e r r id in g i s th e p re sen c e o f O'Ruddy, C ra n e 's a d v en tu rin g I r i s h h e ro . A t h i r d re a so n o r i g i n a t e s in C ra n e 's growing f i c t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s , n o t th e l e a s t o f which concerns h i s a b i l i t y to m an ip u late l a n guage f o r w ider p u rp o se s. Having s tr e tc h e d h is command o f s y n ta c tic o p tio n s so as to more f u l l y e la b o r a te d e s c r ip ti o n and p r o j e c t a v a r i e t y o f v o ic e s , Crane, we can l e g i t i m a t e l y c o n je c tu r e , f e l t re a d y to move on to new h o riz o n s , w hether h is a ssu ra n ce was co n scio u s o r u n co n scio u s. 195 Such a ssu ra n ce u n d oubtedly u n d e rla y h i s a tte m p tin g f o r th e f i r s t tim e a f i r s t p e rso n n a r r a t i v e . H is ta s k was no e a sy one. Although Crane p r o j e c t s a v a r i e t y o f v o ic e s in h i s l a t e s t o r i e s , each v o ic e c o n ce iv a b ly r e f l e c t s an e s s e n t i a l a sp e c t o f Crane h im s e lf . Presum ably he could have developed h is c r a f t f u r t h e r in t h i s d i r e c t i o n , b u t, having f a i r l y w ell m astered a complex sy n tax adequate t o e x p re ss h i s m ature id e a s (and, one might c o n je c tu r e , u nder th e p r e s s u r e o f tim e running o u t f o r him),'* he was to b u ild on t h a t assu ra n ce and attem p t a p o r tr a y a l o f a h e r o - n a r r a to r who would be d iv o rc e d from him in tim e , p la c e , and c i r cum stance. This c h a p te r w ill e x p lo re th e ways in which Crane newly e x p lo its h i s s y n t a c t i c o p tio n s to c r e a te such a h e r o - n a r r a to r o f , f o r C rane, a new g e n re , th e p ic a re s q u e romance. A m ajor d i f f i c u l t y f o r Crane la y in re n d e rin g th e O 'R uddy's v o ice in a co n v in cin g manner. In Maggie C ra n e 's d e p ic tio n o f I r i s h d i a l e c t b o rd e rs on th e p a ro d ic , as we can see in Mary J o h n so n 's d i a t r i b e a g a in s t Maggie, which in p a r t re a d s : "An' den when d a t Sadie MacMal- l i s t e r n e x t door to us was sen t te h deh d e v il by dat f e l l e r what worked in deh s o a p - f a c to r y , d i d n 't I t e l l ou r Mag d a t i f s h e - - " (8 7 ). C ra n e 's t r y i n g to a u t h e n t i c a l l y reproduce n a tu r a l speech p a t t e r n s i r o n i c a l l y r e s u l t s in c a r ic a tu r e d , s te r e o ty p e d sp e e c h .^ By th e tim e he w rote The 0 ' Ruddy Crane no lo n g e r f e l t com pelled to a b so lu te re a lis m in re n d e rin g d i a l e c t ; r a t h e r he f e l t f r e e to c a p tu re more sim ply and n a t u r a l l y th e essen ce o f th e I r i s h cadence and idiom n o t o n ly in n a r r a - 7 t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n , which i s ou r prim e co n cern , b u t in d ia lo g u e a ls o . T his d e c is io n to su g g est r a t h e r th a n d u p lic a te i s im p o rtan t because i t allo w s Crane to t e l l h i s s to r y in f i r s t p e rs o n , w hich, had he i n s i s t e d 196 upon t r a n s l i t e r a t e d d i a l e c t would have been u n re a d a b le . Even w ith sug g e s tio n r a t h e r th a n e x ac t re n d e rin g h i s i n t e n t , th e c h a lle n g e to C rane's s y n t a c t i c m a n ip u la tiv e s k i l l s was fo rm id a b le . He had, in d e e d , to p r o j e c t v i r t u a l l y a new v o ice to c h a r a c te r iz e O'Ruddy th ro u g h s u i t a b l e syn ta x and to n e , n o t f o r a p ara g rap h o r two b u t w ith s u s ta in e d c o n sis te n c y O th ro u g h o u t an e n t i r e n o v e l. Any i d e n t i f i c a t i o n Crane made w ith h is n a r r a t o r had to be im a g in a tiv e , and he a ro se to th e c h a lle n g e w ith verve and dash. I t i s th e way th e s to r y i s t o l d , i t s v o l u b i l i t y and ex u b eran ce, t h a t c h i e f l y makes th e s t o r y and O'Ruddy c a p ti v a tin g . T e x tu re r a t h e r th an s t o r y li n e in v e s ts th e novel w ith m eaning. Crane im m ediately e s t a b l i s h e s th e b a s is o f th e t a l e a t i t s s t a r t . The s e n io r O 'R uddy's death b ed b e q u est to h is son o f " o n ly enough money to l a s t a gentlem an two y e a r s ," two sw ords, and some m y ste rio u s p a p e rs (m y sterio u s because n e i t h e r f a t h e r n o r son have tim e f o r re a d in g ) to be d e liv e r e d to t h e i r owner, th e E arl o f W estp o rt, i s an in h e r ita n c e th a t le a d s to O 'Ruddy's q u e s t f o r fo r tu n e and m a rria g e to a b e a u t i f u l woman. Once t h i s b a s ic l i n e i s s e t in m otion, Crane pro m p tly and f r e e l y r ic o c h e ts h i s hero from a d v en tu re to a d v en tu re: th e re c ru itm e n t o f a fe llo w Irish m an , th e flam in g h a ir e d Paddy, and a highwayman Jem B o ttle s as h i s Sancho Panzas (e x c ep t t h a t th e y , u n lik e t h e i r f o r e b e a r e r , do n o t s t e a l th e n ovel from O'Ruddy); d u e ls , one w ith th e n e f a r io u s F o r r i s t e r , O 'R uddy's r i v a l f o r Lady M ary's hand; l o s t , s t o l e n , and re g a in e d p a p e rs ; and so f o r t h , a l l le a d in g up to th e c e n t r a l d ram atic sce n e , th e f i g h t a t B rede. Crane, however, o n ly aimed a t t h i s d ra m a tic moment. That ta s k f e l l to R obert B a rr, who p ic k ed up th e s t o r y 's th re a d a t C hapter XXVI and unwound i t , n o t w ith C ra n e 's m a s te rly touch b u t in workm anlike f a s h io n . 197 The m osaic o f e p iso d e s has one common b a se . Each r e v e a ls th e c h ie f o b s ta c le to 0 fR uddy's succeeding in h is q u e s t: h is need to p en e t r a t e th e v a rio u s masks t h a t p eople assume, f o r exam ple, th e in-name o n ly n o b i l i t y o f th e E a rl and C ountess o f W estp o rt, th e d e c e p tiv e f r ie n d s h ip o f Dr. Chord, th e f a l s e bravado o f Jem B o ttle s , th e b a s ic good sen se and m agnanim ity o f C olonel Royale and Lord S trep p d e s p ite t h e i r being o f th e d u e llin g g e n try . The e p iso d es a ls o p ro v id e O'Ruddy o p p o r tu n itie s f o r c r i t i c i z i n g s o c ie ty , p u n c tu rin g ab su rd ro m an tic con v e n tio n s , and commenting on h i s own b e h a v io r, th e l a t t e r two g e n e r a lly comic a n d /o r s e lf - d e p r e c a t i n g , th e form er g e n e r a lly s e r io u s u nder cam o u fla g in g comedy. His w ell-h o n ed b a rb s p ro v id e im p o rtan t guidance f o r r e a d e r s ' re sp o n se s n o t o n ly to O'Ruddy b u t to h is "m essag e," a message t h a t has to do w ith th e f o i b l e s o f mankind, b o th w ith in and beyond th e b o u n d aries o f th e n o v e l. A lthough t o l d from f i r s t p erso n p o in t o f view , The 0 ' Ruddy avoids th e c la u s tro p h o b ic v is io n o f Henry Flem ing. O'Ruddy ran g es o u ts id e o f h im s e lf, and as he does so s t y l e and to n e s h i f t , rounding o ut O 'Ruddy's c h a r a c te r . Always he i s h o n e st and can d id , b u t he can in tu r n a ls o be b o ld , b ra s h , o r b lu n d e rin g , a n ta g o n i s tic o r s y m p a th e tic , o b tu se o r p e r c e p tiv e , proud o r humble. Hence, th e v o ic e c r e a te d f o r O'Ruddy has to be and i s c ap ab le o f s u b tle v a r i a t i o n . In C hapter XX, a f t e r b r i e f l y e s ta b lis h in g h is p la c e in th e Sunday promenade a t K ensington G ardens, O'Ruddy s h i f t s i n t o h i s s e r io u s , s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d v o ic e to d e t a i l th e sce n e . M yriad c o lo rs d a z z le h is ey es, b u t w hereas e a r l i e r C ra n e 's c o lo r s e n s i t i v i t y would have c a lle d f o r t h h i s h ig h p a l e t t e , in The O'Ruddy h is s o c ia l s e n s i t i v i t y comes to 198 th e f o r e . In h i s o b je c tiv e o b se rv e r r o le O'Ruddy guides r e a d e r s ' r e a c tio n s as he d e s c rib e s th e rig o ro u s s o c ia l p ecking o rd e r in which th e " a l t o g e t h e r too w e ll-b re d " snub in tu r n th o se low er on th e s c a le . Icy s t a r e s a re a l l one p a r t i c u l a r p a i r , a m other and h e r b e a u t i f u l , r e l u c t a n t d a u g h te r, r e c e iv e as th e y approach one s o c ia l lio n a f t e r a n o th e r in K ensington G ardens. 1. But as th e y were le a v in g th e Gardens th e y re c e iv e d a t t e n t i o n from members o f th e v e ry b e s t s o c ie ty . One lo r d l in g nudged a n o th e r lo r d l in g and th e y s ta r e d in to th e fa c e o f th e g i r l as i f she had been a c r e a tu r e o f th e s t r e e t . Then th e y l e i s u r e l y looked h e r up and down from head to to e . No t a i l o r c o u ld have ta k en h e r m easurem ents so co m p letely . A fterw ard th e y g rin n e d a t each o th e r and one spoke b eh in d h i s hand, h is in s o le n t s p e c u la tiv e eyes fix e d on th e r e t i r i n g form o f th e g i r l . T h is was th e s o c ia l rew ard o f th e am b itio u s m other. (134) N e ith e r snubbers n o r snubbed n o r th e n o tio n of th e fa s h io n p a ra d e i t s e l f emerge u n sc a th e d . Women, however, b e a r th e b ru n t o f O 'Ruddy's c r i t i c i s m . I t i s th e em pty-headed women who come to see and be see n , unaware t h a t th e y a re hav in g no fu n , w hereas th e men, q u ite s e n s ib ly , come to see th e women in t h e i r low c u t d re s s e s and c lin g in g s k i r t s , o b v io u sly knowing e x a c tly what fun i s . Crane fin d s fre q u e n t o p p o r tu n itie s f o r poking fun a t rom antic c h ic h e s , somewhat e x te n s iv e ly in C hapter V III when O'Ruddy, ap p reh en s iv e about h i s upcoming duel w ith th e renowned swordsman F o rris te r, wan d e rs in to th e garden o f th e in n a t which he and th e E a rl o f W estport and fa m ily a re s ta y in g . O'Ruddy s e t t l e s h im s e lf in a summer-house, a sec lu d e d v an tag e p o in t from which to w atch Lady Mary and h e r m other s t r o l l , engaged in anim ated c o n v e rsa tio n , on ly to lam ent in s e r i o comic v e in : 199 2. But d id I o v e r-h e a r an y thing? I o v e r-h e a rd n o th in g . From what I knew o f th e p ro p e r conduct o f th e r e a l l y t h r i l l i n g e p iso d e s o f l i f e , I ju d g ed t h a t I should have been a b le to o v e r-h e a r alm ost every word o f t h i s c o n v e rs a tio n . In s te a d , I co u ld o n ly see th e C ountess making i r r i t a t e d speech to Lady Mary. M oreover, i t was le g itim a te t h a t I sh ould have been u n d e te c te d in th e summer-house. On t h e c o n tr a r y , th e y were p e r f e c t l y aware t h a t th e r e was somebody in th e summer-house and so in t h e i r promenade th e y p re s e n te d i t w ith a d is tin g u is h e d i s o l a t i o n . . . . Almost ev ery im p o rtan t c o n v e rsa tio n e v er h e ld had been o v e r-h e a rd from a p o s itio n o f t h i s k in d . I t seemed u n f a i r t h a t I o f a l l men in l i t e r a t u r e should be d en ied t h i s c a su a l and u su a l p r i v i l e g e . (59-60) Having r i d i c u l e d th e d e v ice o f c o in c i d e n ta lly o v e rh e ard h ig h ly r e v e a l in g c o n v e r s a tio n s , O'Ruddy n ex t mocks th e b e h a v io r o f c o u r tly lo v e r s . The C ountess sweeps out o f th e g arden, le a v in g o n ly O'Ruddy and Lady Mary, and a g a in n o th in g p ro ceed s acco rd in g to rom an tic c o n v en tio n s: 3. Now, I could see p l a i n l y t h a t h e re f a t e had a rra n g ed f o r some kind o f in te rv ie w . The whole th in g was s e t l i k e a scene in th e t h e a t r e . I was u n d oubtedly to emerge suddenly from th e summer-house; th e lo v e ly maid would s t a r t l e , b lu s h , c a s t down h e r e y es, t u r n away. Then when i t came my t u r n I would d o f f my h a t t o th e e a r t h and beg pardon f o r c o n tin u in g a c o m p a ra tiv e ly f u t i l e e x is te n c e . Then she would sh y ly murmur a d is c la im e r o f any a b i l i t y to c r i t i c i s e my c o n tin u a tio n o f a c o m p a ra tiv e ly f u t i l e e x is te n c e , adding t h a t she was but an in e x p e rie n c e d g i r l . The ic e th u s b e in g bro k en , we would t r a v e l by easy s ta g e s in to more in tim a te t a l k . (61) The glow o f th e romance genre (and in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry a hundred c e l l u l o i d dream s) fad es in th e g la r e o f r e a l i t y . S tr a ig h tfo rw a rd r a t h e r th a n shy, Lady Mary im m ediately announces, " 'T i s th e v e ry gentlem an I wished to s e e ." I t i s O'Ruddy who becomes co n fu sed , Lady Mary who rem ains c o o l . O c c a sio n a lly O 'R uddy's comments on h i s b e h a v io r a re s e r io u s . See- 200 ing F o r i s t e r s tr e tc h e d o u t on a p a l l e t a f t e r th e duel subdues O'Ruddy in to a sh arp r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e e v i l e f f e c t s o f v io le n c e : 4. I tu rn e d away w ith a new im p ressio n o f th e p astim e o f d u e llin g . F o r i s t e r 's p a l l o r , th e show o f bloody c lo th , h i s g ro an , th e dark s t a r e s o f th e men made me see my v ic t o r y in a d i f f e r e n t way and I even wondered i f i t had been a b s o lu te ly n e c e s sa ry to work t h i s m is c h ie f upon a fe llo w -b e in g . (72) His g rim ly b e la te d aw areness s ta n d s in c o n tr a s t to h is e a r l i e r venge an ce, throw n in to sh arp r e l i e f w ith s h o r t , t e r s e s e n te n c e s: 5. I d ecid ed upon one th in g . I would k i l l F o r i s t e r . (67) and h is p r id e in h i s swordsmanship: 6. I t i s o n ly n e c e s sa ry to rem ark t h a t F o r i s t e r dropped alm ost im m ediately to d e fe n siv e t a c t i c s b e fo re an a s s a u l t which was n o t o n ly impetuous b u t e x ce e d in g ly b r i l l i a n t , i f I may be allow ed to say so. (67-68) O ften , though, h i s rem arks on h i s b e h a v io r a re comic, as when he adm its h is c o n fu sio n b e fo re Lady M ary's c o o ln e s s , o r r u e f u l l y d e s c rib e s h i s r e a c tio n to Lady Mary’s "God sp a re you" b e fo re he d u e ls w ith F o r i s t e r : "And so I marched in a tu m u lt o f jo y to a du el w herein I e x p ected to be k i l l e d " (6 5 ). R e lish in g somewhat h is new renown as a swordsman a f t e r he wins th e d u e l, O'Ruddy n o n e th e le s s re c o g n iz e s t h a t i f he l i v e s up to th e image he w ill be a " g r e a t b lu s t e r i n g o v er-pow ering p r e p o s te ro u s a s s " (6 9 ). (As t h i s p h ra se r e v e a l s , Crane c o n tin u e s to r e l y upon a l l i t e r a t i o n to em phasize, b u t w ith f a r more s e l e c t i v i t y th a n in th e e a r l y work, h e re g a in in g e x a c tly th e r i g h t comic e f f e c t . The same can be s a id o f h i s r a r e use o f rhyme in The 0 ' Ruddy. "To s i t and gloom in my room . . ." (59) i s a lre a d y fo reg ro u n d ed by i t s b ein g an i n f i n i t i v e s u b je c t; i t s humor i s a d d i t i o n a l l y em phasized by th e rhyme. Gloom 201 f o r O'Ruddy i s n o th in g i f n o t emphem eral.) In any case h is b ra v e ry i s n o t w ith o u t i t s l i m i t s ; he f r a n k ly adm its to cow ardice b e fo re th e C ountess o f W e s tp o rt's w rath. In a d v e r te n tly m eeting h e r in th e d in in g room o f th e in n and u n a b le to appease h e r a n g e r, O'Ruddy makes a tim e ly escape from h e r a t t a c k when th e o ld h a r r id a n p auses to abuse v e r b a lly th e s p e c t a t o r s . In a b i t o f s e l f - d i r e c t e d iro n y , he r e co u n ts: "As h e r eye f ix e d upon them, The O'Ruddy, i l l u s t r i o u s f ig h tin g man, saw h i s chance and b o lte d l i k e a h a re " (7 1 ). As i s obvious from th e s e le c tio n s quoted th u s f a r , O 'R uddy's n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i v e v o ice d is tin g u is h e s i t s e l f more by i t s l i g h t con v e r s a tio n a l q u a l i t y , which, a s we s h a ll se e , Crane s tro v e , to convey, th a n d i s t i n c t i v e l y I r i s h idiom . Indeed, Crane r e s e rv e s most I r i s h o r sim ply a n a c h r o n is tic nuances f o r d ia lo g u e : t h e p a s t s u b ju n c tiv e to s t a t e a w ish e x tr a p o l i t e l y ( " 'T i s o n ly t h a t I would be making a p r e se n t to th e f a i r Lady Mary which I p ra y h e r t o r e c e iv e " ) , th e p r o g re s s iv e a s p e c t s u b s t i t u t e d f o r te rm in a te ("My f a t h e r was knowing a l l about i t . . . , " " I am s e e in g you a re a t r u e th e o lo g ia n " ) , and v a rio u s o th e r lo c u tio n s ("She was a f t e r re c o g n iz in g you th e n ? " " I bethought m e," "Look y o u ," " I s he so?" " I n e v e r doubt m e," "Paddy, do you ta k e c a re o f t h i s poor h o rse " (command, n o t i n t e r r o g a t i v e ) . '" T i s , " '"T w a s," '"T w o u ld ," '" T w i l l " ) , some r e s t r i c t e d t o O'Ruddy and 9 Paddy, o th e r s used by th e E n g lish c h a r a c te r s a ls o . But some I r i s h idiom c re ep s in to n a r r a t i v e d e s c r ip ti o n a t tim e s, enough to endow i t w ith O 'R uddy's d i s t i n c t v o ic e . The fo llo w in g i s i l l u s t r a t i v e ( d i s t i n c t i v e lo c u tio n s a re i t a l i c i z e d ) : 202 7. I remember my f a t h e r say in g t h a t th e most a g g ra v a tin g c r e a tu r e in l i f e was one who would be keeping back th e b e s t p a r t o f a s to r y th ro u g h mere re a so n s o f t r i c k e r y a lth o u g h I have seen h im s e lf dawdle over a t a l e u n t i l h i s f r ie n d s w ished to h u r l th e d e c a n te rs a t him. However th e r e can be no d o u b tin g o f th e wisdom o f my f a t h e r 's rem ark. Indeed th e r e can be l i t t l e d o u b tin g o f th e wisdom o f a n y th in g t h a t my f a t h e r s a id in l i f e f o r he was a v e ry le a rn e d man. The f a c t t h a t my f a t h e r d id n o t in v a r ia b ly d e f e r to h i s o p in io n s does n o t a l t e r th e t r u t h o f th o s e o p in io n s , in my judgm ent, s in c e even th e g r e a t e s t o f p h ilo s o p h e rs i s more l i k e l y to be liv in g a l i f e b ased on th e tem per o f h i s w ife and th e a d v ice o f h i s p h y s ic ia n th a n on th e r u l e s l a i d down in h i s books. . . . And my f a t h e r was going on w ith Mickey on ly t h a t he looked about him a t t h i s tim e and d isc o v e re d h i s g u e s ts a l l upon t h e i r f e e t , one w ith th e to n g s, one w ith th e p o k er, o th e rs w ith d e c a n te rs ready to throw . . . . By t h i s tim e , th e y were so angry t h a t Mickey, s e e in g how th in g s were g o in g , and I b ein g a mere la d , took me from th e room. (63-64) Not e v id e n t in t h i s p a ssa g e i s C ra n e 's dropping o f a r t i c l e s , an o th e r s u b tle s y n t a c t i c d e v ice to evoke O 'R uddy's d i s t i n c t i v e v o ic e: 8. Every man in th e dining-room took o a th he had n ev er s a id a word and th e y a l l spoke t r u t h . But th e women clam oured on w ith o u t p a u sin g f o r wind and r e f u s in g to ta k e word o f th e m en -fo lk , who were g i f t e d w ith th e power o f re a so n . (140) A lthough Crane d e le te s a r t i c l e s e lsew h ere, th e s e th r e e d e le t io n s f o l lowing in c lo s e su c c e ss io n i l l u s t r a t e C ra n e 's c o n tin u in g p r o p e n s ity to c l u s t e r s t r u c t u r e s . O ther o f th e v a rio u s lo c u tio n s l i s t e d above could as e a s i l y have been c i t e d . Such d e v ia tio n s from s ta n d a rd E n g lish in The O'Ruddy, though, a re n o t u sed to c r e a te i n t e n s i t y and em phasis as in th e e a r ly work (n o t always m e an in g fu lly ) by v i o l a t i n g r e a d e r s ' e x p e c ta tio n s b u t a re i n t e r posed to c h a r a c t e r i z e . I t i s because O’Ruddy's l i n g u i s t i c s t y l e i s what i t i s t h a t he emerges as th e kind o f c h a r a c te r he d o es. Hence, th e u n u su al s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s do n o t d i s t r a c t r e a d e r s from th e con t e n t o f th e novel because such s t r u c t u r e s f u l f i l l t h e i r e x p e c ta tio n s . ^ 203 A h i s t o r i c a l I r i s h f ig u r e i s n o t ex pected to t a l k l i k e a modern En glishm an o r American. Nor, e q u a lly , do C ran e’ s s y n ta c tic c h o ic e s t h a t c r e a te th e con v e r s a tio n a l q u a l i t y em in en tly s u i t a b l e to O 'R uddy's c h a r a c te r d i s t r a c t . Even a t h i s most s e r io u s and o b je c t iv e , r e p re s e n te d in p assag e one and fo u r , O 'R uddy's s t y l e le a n s tow ard th e in fo rm al more th a n th e fo rm al. Yet t h i s i s n o t to say t h a t Crane does n o t c a l l upon s o p h is ti c a te d s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s . In f a c t , such s t r u c t u r e s a re a s u b tle way o f r e v e a lin g and em phasizing O 'R uddy's e s s e n t i a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y o v er a l l th e o th e r c h a r a c te r s and marking him as a w orthy guide f o r th e r e a d e r . That i s , h is innocence and n a iv e te a r e more assumed th a n r e a l ; he a s s e r t s more power o v er o th e r s th an th e y o v e r him. One ty p e o f s o p h is ti c a te d s t r u c t u r e has p r e v io u s ly been men tio n e d , i n f i n i t i v e s u b je c ts , which do n o t ap p ear in th e d a ta u n t i l C ra n e 's l a s t two works, once in "The Clan o f No-Name" ( s t a r t i n g th e second c la u s e o f a compound s e n te n c e ), tw ic e in The 0 ' Ruddy (both tim e s sen te n c e i n i t i a l ) . 11 N othing a b s o lu te ly good in h e re s in th e i n f i n i t i v e as s u b je c t. However, i t does add one more s t r u c t u r a l p o s s i b i l i t y to C ra n e 's r e p e r t o i r e which can fu n c tio n to prom ote c o h esio n , sen ten ce p a t t e r n v a r i e t y , a change in rhythm ic p ace, and, because i t i s a so p h i s t i c a t e d s t r u c t u r e (one o f th o s e a c q u ire d l a t e , and n e v e r in term s o f perform ance f o r many p eo p le) an adm iring re sp o n se f o r th e re a d e r. A nother i s p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e , n ot th e s ta n d a rd k in d based sim ply on two o r more c o o rd in a te c o n s tr u c tio n s but th e k in d exceeding t h i s minimum req u irem en t t h a t a ch ie v e s rhythm , em phasis, and b a la n c e , and s im u lta n e o u sly su g g e sts words b ein g weighed s in c e th e p a t t e r n must be 204 seen b e fo re th e c o n s tr u c tio n i s w r i t t e n . Some exam ples from The 0 ' Ruddy a r e : 9 He m ight swing th e te n arms o f an In d ia n god; he m ight y e l l l i k e a g a le a t se a ; he m ight be more t e r r i b l e in appearance th a n a v olcano in i t s p a s s io n s ; s t i l l I would meet him. (52) 10 But I could h e a r n o th in g but a murmur o f angry argument from th e C ountess and a murmur o f g e n tle o b je c tio n from Lady Mary. (60) 11 And my f a t h e r was going on w ith Mickey o n ly t h a t he looked about him a t t h i s tim e and d isc o v e re d h is g u e s ts a l l upon t h e i r f e e t , one w ith th e to n g s , one w ith th e p o k e r, o th e r s w ith d e c a n te rs read y to throw . (63-64) 12 The m orning o f th e duel dawned s o f t l y warm, s o f t l y wet, s o f t l y foggy. (64) 13 I t i s o n ly n e c e s sa ry to rem ark t h a t F o r i s t e r dropped alm ost im m ediately to d e fe n siv e t a c t i c s b e fo re an a s s a u lt which was n o t o n ly im petuous but e x ce e d in g ly b r i l l i a n t , i f I may be allow ed to say so. (67-68) These, which o ccur in f a i r l y c lo s e p ro x im ity , a re in d i c a t i v e o f a w ide sp read phenomenon t h a t c o n tr ib u te s to th e unique rhythm o f The O'Ruddy, th e " I r i s h l i l t " c r i t i c s have n o te d . The s t r u c t u r e s c r e a te o th e r e f f e c t s to o , one o f which i s c lim a c tic su rg e . Both n in e and e lev e n i l l u s t r a t e c lim a c tic o r d e r , n in e th ro u g h ev er more fe ro c io u s com pari sons, which a re a b ru p tly h a lte d by th e t e r s e l y d e f ia n t " s t i l l I would meet h im ," elev en th ro u g h each noun c l u s t e r b ein g s u c c e s s iv e ly lo n g e r. A g ra c e fu l "not o n ly . . . b u t" s t r u c t u r e anchors t h i r t e e n . Also m arking O'Ruddy1s s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i s h i s r a t h e r fre q u e n t and v a r ie d use o f c o n ju n c tiv e a d v erb s. (See Appendix E .) Crane employs c o n ju n c tiv e ad v erb s in c r e a s in g ly o f te n in th e l a t e r work and c o n tin u e s to do so in The O' Ruddy; in a d d itio n , he chooses a w ider v a r i e t y . Con ju n c tiv e ad v erb s a id coherence (and O'Ruddy i s em in en tly c o h e r e n t) , and 205 th e y a ls o su g g est a f l e x i b l e mind t h a t fo c u ses on r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tween id e a s and e v e n ts . P assages two, t h r e e , and seven above, in which lo g ic a l c o n t r a s t s and tim e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a re c l e a r l y s p e lle d o ut f o r r e a d e r s , i l l u s t r a t e th e s e e f f e c t s . Something o f th e same e f f e c t s in h e re in in tr o d u c to r y c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s , adding to O 'R uddy's im p ressin g th e re a d e r as c l e a r headed and l o g i c a l . However, w hile c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs impose a f o r mal q u a l i t y , c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s le n d a c o llo q u ia l q u a l i t y . T his l a t t e r q u a l i t y in p a r t c o n tr ib u te s to th e more re la x e d and " n a tu r a l " s t y l e o f The 0 ' Ruddy. When p eo p le t a l k in in fo rm al s i t u a t i o n s , th e y a re more l i k e l y to u se s h o r t, sim ple s e n te n c e s , s tr in g in g them to g e th e r w ith c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s , e s p e c i a l l y when re c o u n tin g a c tio n s . The 0 ' Ruddy r e v e a ls th e g r e a t e s t u se o f t h i s s t y l i s t i c d e v ic e , and alth o u g h Crane was u n d oubtedly m o tiv a te d by a d e s ir e f o r co h eren ce, he a c h ie v e s th e more s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t o f sim u la tin g con v e r s a tio n a l speech even in n a r r a t i v e d e s c r ip ti o n . (The e f f e c t o f easy c o n v e rs a tio n a l speech i s , o f c o u rs e , more pronounced in d ia lo g u e .) At tim e s O 'R uddy's use o f c o o rd in a to rs b o rd e rs on sem antic s u p e r f l u i t y ("So f i n a l l y I was o b lig e d . . . ," "And so t h i s o ld woman . . . ," "And so I walked abroad . . . " ) , b ut th e y a re im p o rtan t r h e t o r i c a l l y , s u g g e stin g to re a d e rs th e y o u th fu l, n a iv e a s p e c ts o f O 'R uddy's c h a r a c t e r and draw ing them in to in tim a te , in fo rm al r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith 12 him. A sample o f C ra n e 's m a n ip u la tio n o f i n i t i a l c o o rd in a tin g con ju n c tio n s o c cu rs d u rin g O 'R uddy's re c o u n tin g h i s duel w ith Colonel Royale: 206 14. And now as to th e duel. . . . C olonel Royale came a t me in a somewhat l e i s u r e l y manner and, as I s a id , my mind was so f u l l o f ra g e a t Paddy t h a t I met th e f i r s t o f my o p p o n e n t's t h r u s t s th ro u g h sh ee r fo rc e o f h a b i t . But my head was c l e a r a moment l a t e r and I knew t h a t I was f i g h t i n g my f i r s t duel in England and f o r my fa.th er ’s -h o n o u r. ; It'w d s,,n o tim e to th in k ; 'of' Paddy. And a t a n o th e r moment l a t e r , I knew th a t I was th e C o lo n e l's m a ste r. I could re a c h him where I chose. But he d id n o t know i t . He went on prodding away w ith a s e r io u s co u n ten an ce, e v id e n tly under th e im p ressio n t h a t he had me h ard p u t to i t . He was grave as an o w l-fac ed p a rso n . And now h e re I d id a s o r r y th in g . I became t h e v ic tim o f a n o th e r o f my mad im p u lses. I was s e iz e d w ith an ungovernable d e s i r e to la u g h . I t was h id e o u s. But laugh I d id and, o f n e c e s s i t y , sq u are in th e C o lo n e l's fa c e . And t o t h i s day I r e g r e t i t . (17) Crane a ch ie v e s n o t o n ly c o n v e r s a tio n a l idiom w ith fre q u e n t c o o rd in a t o r s , b o th sen te n c e i n i t i a l and m e d ia l, but coherence (in p assag e f o u r te e n , "And now . . . ," "And a t a n o th e r moment . . . . " ) , q u a l i f i c a t i o n (in p assag e f o u r te e n , "But my head . . . ," "But he d id n o t . . . " ) , and em phasis (in p assag e f o u r te e n , "But laugh I d id . . doubly em phasized w ith in v e r s io n , "And t o t h i s day . . . " ) . What we see i s d e l i b e r a t e e x te n s io n o f a w e ll- e s ta b lis h e d s t y l i s t i c t r a i t o f C r a n e 's , compounding, a penchant which he in d u lg e s even more c o n s p ic u o u sly in d ia lo g u e . As one o f O’ R uddy's o u tb u r s ts shows, Crane o c c a s i o n a l l y l e t s th e e x c e s siv e compounding t y p i c a l o f o r a l s t o r y - t e l l i n g run r i o t : "'Twas on h is d e ath -b ed t h a t he t o l d me o f le n d in g you th e b re e ch e s and t h a t i s why I k ick ed th e man in to th e y ard and i f your lo r d s h ip had a r r iv e d so o n er I co u ld have avoided t h i s du el a t day b reak and, anyhow, I wonder a t h is b re e ch e s f i t t i n g you" (1 1 ), a l l o f which comes to an ab ru p t h a l t w ith "He was a sm all m an," evoking v i v i d l y O 'R uddy's l i t e r a l l y ru n n in g o u t o f b r e a th . Also r e s u l t i n g 207 from fre q u e n t compounding a re s h o r te r T - u n its and th e s e , along w ith s h o r t e r av erag e s e n te n c e le n g th , a ls o c o n tr ib u te to th e n o v e l's con v e r s a t i o n a l s t y l e . In n e i t h e r T -u n it n o r se n te n c e le n g th , however, does Crane r e v e r t to h is e a r l i e s t s t y l e . Both u n i t s a re lo n g e r, though n o t as long as th e o th e r l a t e work, and v a r ie d f o r em phasis and to avoid monotony. A d d itio n a lly , because o f o th e r co n n ec tiv e t i s s u e such as s u s ta in e d focus w ith in e p iso d es th e m selv e s, c h a r a c te r s a p p e a r in g i n t e r m i t t e n t l y th ro u g h o u t th e n o v e l, and c o h esio n , s h o r t e r T - u n its and se n te n c e s do n o t mean a r e tu r n to fragm ented p ro s e . Some o th e r gram m atical d e v ice s t h a t Crane c a l l s upon to fo rg e O 'Ruddy's f r i e n d l y , b re e z y in tim a c y , t r i g g e r i n g c lo s e re a d e r in v o lv e ment w ith him, a re d i r e c t a d d re ss to th e r e a d e r , r h e t o r i c a l q u e s tio n s , e x c la m a tio n s, i n t e r j e c t i o n s , and p a r e n t h e t i c a l i n t e r r u p t i o n s , th e f i r s t 13 fo u r p a r t i c u l a r l y b ein g newly e x p lo ite d in The 0 1Ruddy. O 'R uddy's d i r e c t a p p ea ls to re a d e rs th ro u g h a s id e s , though i n f r e q u e n t, a d d i t i o n a l l y g u a ra n te e re a d e r involvem ent in h is t a l e : "I o n ly g iv e you t h i s in c id e n t to show t h a t i f l a t e r I came to b ello w l i k e a b u l l w ith th e b e s t o f them i t was o n ly th ro u g h th e n e c e s s ity o f p ro v ing to s tr a n g e r s t h a t I was a gentlem an" (5 ). In t h i s in s ta n c e r e a d e r s a re led to adopt O 'R uddy's v ie w p o in t, m ild d is p le a s u r e o v er th e ungentlem anly b e h a v io r o f "gentlem en" and amused to le r a n c e f o r O 'R uddy's s i m i l a r b e h a v io r. Nowhere e ls e in th e d a ta do r h e t o r i c a l q u e s tio n s a p p ear, b u t Crane ad opts them f r e q u e n tly and e f f e c t i v e l y in The 0 ' Ruddy. Passage two above has a r h e t o r i c a l q u e stio n e x p re ssin g O 'R uddy's in c r e d u l i t y tin g e d w ith m ild in d ig n a tio n . Indeed, O 'R uddy's u n c e r ta in t y a t tim e s , 208 e s p e c i a l l y in th e form o f i n c r e d u l i t y o r bafflem en t, i s o f te n th e e f f e c t o f h i s r h e t o r i c a l q u e s tio n s , as in t h i s s e r i e s : 15. I s ta r e d a t my image in a m ir ro r. Could I be The O'Ruddy? Perhaps my name was Paddy or Jem B o ttle s ? Could I p ic k m y self o u t in a crowd? Could I e s t a b l i s h an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ? I l i t t l e knew. . . . I f i g h t th e b e s t swordsman in England? As an amusement, a show? I began to see re a so n s f o r r e tu r n in g to I r e la n d . (51) With th e s e q u e s tio n s , c lu s t e r e d as th e y are, we see an a d d itio n a l e f f e c t . R e so lu tio n i s postp o n ed , aro u sin g th e r e a d e r 's im p atien ce and in p a r tin g an urgency to th e n a r r a t i v e , e le v a tin g i t s d ra m a tic co n to u r. H eig h ten in g a ls o r e s u l t s from O 'Ruddy's o c c a s io n a l e x cla m a tio n s. In f i c t i o n ex clam ations a re u s u a ll y r e s t r i c t e d to d ia lo g u e , a p r a c t i c e tr u e o f The 0 'Ruddy, b u t a t tim es words a lo n e f a i l O'Ruddy and he r e s o r t s to t h e e x c la m a tio n 's added em otional im pact in n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p - t i o n , f o r in s ta n c e to e x p ress h is a sto n ish m en t a t P ad d y 's flam in g c o ro na: "Ye s a i n t s ! What h a i r ! " (1 4 ), h i s dism ay a t th e E a r l 's pronounce ment t h a t th e m y ste rio u s p a p ers a re w o rth le s s : "And t h i s was my in h e r i t a n c e ! " (4 1 ), h i s fu r y a t F o r i s t e r : "T his l i t t l e v i l l a i n ! " (4 9 ), h is jo y a t c a tc h in g Lady M ary's eye: "But she saw me!" (145). I n t e r j e c t i o n s sim u la te th p h a tic elem ent o f c o n v e rsa tio n and em p h a siz e in g e s t u r e - l i k e f a s h io n , d i r e c t i n g th e r e a d e r 's a t t e n t i o n to th e c o n te n t o f w hatever s t r u c t u r e fo llo w th e i n t e r j e c t i o n . Both fu n c t io n s a re e v id e n t in th e s e p a ssa g e s: 16. A f te r a l l , I r e f l e c t e d , Mickey C lancy could ta k e c a re q u ite w ell o f t h a t e s t a t e a t G landore and, i f he d i d n 't , F a th e r Donovan would soon b rin g him to tr o u b le and, i f F a th e r Donovan c o u l d n 't , why, th e p la c e was w orth v e ry l i t t l e anyhow. B esid es, ' t i s a v ery weak man who cannot throw an e s t a t e in to th e a i r f o r a p a i r o f b r i g h t e y e s - - I mean, eyes li k e Lady M ary's ey es. Aye, and Lady M ary's b r i g h t ey es. (52) 209 17. Well my f a t h e r p a la v e re d on f o r a long tim e t e l l i n g h e r t h a t he would ta k e away th e p e n sio n o f tw e n ty -fiv e s h i l l i n g s a y e a r which he had g iv en h e r b ecau se he by a c c id e n t had sh o t h e r second co u sin in th e le g tw elve y e a rs b e fo re t h a t tim e . (141) O’Ruddy's se n te n c e s a re r e p l e t e w ith e x p re ss io n s o f th e kind i n te n d ed to a ch ie v e c lo se n e ss w ith th e r e a d e r . His f i r s t p e rso n " I" con t i n u a l l y a s s e r t s h is p re sen c e in th e norm al t e l l i n g o f th e s to r y , b u t O'Ruddy a ls o p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n t e r p o l a t e s ind ep en d en t c la u s e s in to se n te n c e s , em phasizing h i s comment on th e m a trix se n te n c e . The f i r s t and l a s t se n te n c e s o f p a ra g rap h one o f p assag e s ix te e n above i l l u s t r a t e t h i s phenomenon. Crane can, o f c o u rse , and more f r e q u e n tly does, com b in e p r o p o s itio n s by n o m in a liz in g th e m a trix s e n te n c e , which th e n fu n c t io n s as d i r e c t o b je c t o f what was th e p a r e n t h e t i c a l c la u s e . Such em bedding subdues th e p e rs o n a l fo rc e o f O 'R uddy's comment somewhat as can be seen in t h i s r e v is io n o f th e f i r s t se n te n c e o f p a ssa g e s ix te e n : "I r e f l e c t e d t h a t , a f t e r a l l , Mickey C lancy. . . . " But Crane o fte n chooses p a r e n t h e t i c a l em phasis. Some o th e r in s ta n c e s a re : " our fa m ily name was on m en's tongues in h a l f th e s e a - p o r ts o f Europe, I d a re say" (3 ), " B r i s t o l I c o n fe ss , f r ig h te n e d me g r e a tly " (4 ), ". . . b u t, as I have s a id , I was p o sse sse d o f a rem ark ab le c le a rn e s s o f v i s io n and s tr e n g th o f arm" (6 7 ). (The l a s t example i l l u s t r a t e s a n o th er s t r a t e g y to sim u la te c o n v e r s a tio n a l s t y l e : r e p e t i t i v e p a ra p h ra se to make su re an au d ien ce has n o t m issed a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t .) Crane a ls o c a s ts O 'R uddy's p a r e n t h e t i c a l comments in to th e e x p l e t i v e - f t s t r u c t u r e : "A ll th e h ig h ly f a s h io n a b le f o lk knew each o th e r in tim a te ly , i t ap p eared , . . ." (133)*. P a r e n th e tic a l p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra ses such as " f o r my p a r t , " " in my ju d g m en t," and "upon my word" a ls o engender con 210 v e r s a t i o n a l in tim acy w ith r e a d e r s . One ty p e o f p a r e n t h e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e th a t d e c re a se s in q u a n tity in The O'Ruddy i s th e f r e e m o d if ie r . D e sp ite C ra n e 's g e n e r a lly in c r e a s in g h is use o f th e v a rio u s ty p e s o f econom ical f r e e m o d ifie r s t r u c t u r e s in p hase two f i c t i o n , th e q u a n tity o f th e s e s t r u c t u r e s in The 0 ' Ruddy more n e a r ly resem b les th e e a r ly work. The q u e s tio n a r i s e s as t o why, a f t e r Crane began to e x p lo it t h e i r p o t e n t i a l , he re tu rn e d to h i s e a r l i e r p r a c t i c e . The c h ie f e x p la n a tio n f o r t h i s r e v e r s a l i s t h a t O 'R uddy's c o n v e r s a tio n a l s t y l e sim ply does n o t len d i t s e l f to f r e e m o d if ie r s , ex cep t f o r th e more common f r e e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra s e s , s u b o rd in a te c la u s e s , and r e l a t i v e c la u s e s . As Curme claim s o f th e a b s o lu te (an a s s e r t i o n t h a t co u ld alm ost as e a s i l y ap p ly to v erb c l u s t e r s , noun c l u s t e r s , and a d je c tiv e c l u s t e r s ) , i t i s b e t t e r e s ta b lis h e d in l i t e r a r y 14 language th a n in c o llo q u ia l o r p o p u la r sp eech . In l i n e w ith t h i s s ta te m e n t, most o f The 0 1 Ruddy' s a b s o lu te s occu r when O'Ruddy i s b ein g " l i t e r a r y " : s ta n d in g a s id e to observe a scene (th e a r i s t o c r a c y g a th e re d a t K ensington G ardens), a p la c e ( h is f i r s t view o f London), o r to re m in isc e about h i s f a t h e r . (Noun c l u s t e r s and v erb c l u s t e r s a re a ls o p ro m in en tly re p re s e n te d in such o b je c t iv e d e s c r ip ti o n , t o o .) But Curme does re c o g n iz e one c o llo q u ia l use o f th e a b s o lu te t h a t has b e a r in g on The 0 ' Ruddy, th e I r i s h c o llo q u ia l in tro d u c e d by an d . Crane u ses t h i s form , f o r exam ple, in : By t h i s tim e , th e y were so angry t h a t Mickey, s e e in g how th in g s were g o in g , and I b ein g a mere l a d , took me from th e room. (64) As Curme e x p la in s t h i s u s e , in th e l e s s c h o ice I r i s h c o llo q u ia l th e 15 a c c u s a tiv e me would more l i k e l y occur th a n I_, b u t Crane shows h i s 211 f i n e l y tuned e a r by c a tc h in g e x a c tly th e r i g h t p h ra s in g f o r h i s young gentlem an h e ro . While C ra n e 's e a r may f a l t e r a t tim es,'^ f o r th e most p a r t i t r e mains t r u e to n o t o n ly th e e s s e n t i a l I r i s h cadence b u t to th e ja u n ty c o n v e r s a tio n a l idiom so a p p r o p r ia te f o r The 0 1Ruddy' s h e ro and s u b je c t m a tte r . Crane f l e x i b l y and r e a l i s t i c a l l y m a n ip u la tes O 'R uddy's s t y l e to shade from th e form al a t one end to th e in fo rm al a t th e o th e r , from b a lan c e d p h ra sin g and s tu d ie d coherence to th e sy n tax o f c a r e le s s on- ru s h in g speech. He, in d e ed , fin d in The O'Ruddy a new a b i l i t y to s te p beyond h is own v o ic e , a r t i s t i c a l l y re n d e re d f o r h is f i c t i o n though i t i s , and assume th e v o ic e o f h is h e ro , to e n te r h i s mind and d u p lic a te h i s th o u g h t p ro c e s s . Summary In The 0 ' Ruddy we see Crane s t r i k i n g out in new d i r e c t i o n s . The u n d e rsta te m e n t p erv ad in g th e s t o r i e s o f h is m a tu r ity i s exchanged f o r h y p erb o le and exuberance. The l a t e t a l e s ' s e r io u s n e s s g iv e s way to The 0 ' Ruddy' s r e f u s a l to ta k e i t s e l f s e r io u s ly even though o fte n th e hook o f g r a v i t y i s b a r e ly cam ouflaged by th e b a i t o f comedy. A lthough i t i s m o stly in h i s s h o r t s to r e s t h a t C rane, as Joseph Katz a rg u e s, 17 a ch ie v e s a b re a d th and d ep th t h a t le av e s him few p e e r s , i t would seem t h a t The O'Ruddy h o ld s th e prom ise o f C ra n e 's h aving d is c o v e re d th e key to a new mode in which he could p o s s ib ly have found a new m e tie r , th e p ic a re s q u e n o v e l. And w ith in i t he may w e ll have developed h i s concern f o r s o c ia l problem s t h a t emerges s tr o n g ly in "The M onster" and u n d e r l i e s th e comic s p i r i t o f " The 0 'Ruddy. " Much would depend upon how w e ll Crane would have been a b le to 212 extend th e m a stery o f h i s c r a f t . But i f The O’Ruddy can s ta n d as an example, th e r e i s re a so n to b e lie v e t h a t he co u ld . Crane i s s t i l l e s s e n t i a l l y th e same Crane t h a t w rote th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ." Throughout h i s work he te n d s to produce th e s h o r t, sim ple s e n te n c e s , n o t th e lo n g , complex one. Bound, lim ite d m o d if ic a tio n c o n tin u e s to pred o m in ate. But superim posed on such b a s ic s t y l i s t i c t r a i t s i s C ra n e 's c o n tin u e d ad o p tio n o f new s t r u c t u r e s to v a ry and co m p licate h i s p ro s e . In The 0 ' Ruddy s t r u c t u r e s Crane has u sed a re ad ap ted to th e s p e c ia l needs o f form ing h i s young, I r i s h h e r o - n a r r a t o r , and he u ses o th e rs f o r th e f i r s t tim e to good e f f e c t . In The O'Ruddy Crane a l s o , f o r th e f i r s t tim e , c r e a te s a n a r r a t i v e v o ic e d iv o rced from h is own. Crane no lo n g er s t r i k e s us as a man s tr u g g lin g w ith language to t r y to g e t i t to say what he w ants i t to say , no r even a man sim ply a t ease w ith language, b u t as a man now a b le to p la y w ith language, to experim ent w ith s t r u c t u r e s so as to open up f i c t i o n a l w orlds t h a t had been c lo se d to him b e f o r e . 213 N otes Quoted in T a le s , S k e tc h e s, and R e p o rts , V o l. V III o f The Works, p . x x i i . 2 E x cep t, as p r e v io u s ly n o te d , th e t i g h t l y s tr u c t u r e d "The Clan o f No-Name." 3 The background c irc u m stan c es le a d in g to C ra n e 's w r itin g The 0 1 Ruddy, in c lu d in g i t s commercial a s p e c ts , a re documented i n th e I n t r o d u c tio n to The O'Ruddy, V ol. IV o f The Works. 4 For th e s e two p o r ti o n s o f C rane’ s a r t i s t i c views see h i s s t a t e ments in a l e t t e r to L ily Brandon Munroe CMarch, 1894?U in which he i d e n t i f i e s h i s c re ed as t h a t o f Howells and G arland even though he claim s to have a r r iv e d a t i t by independent means, and a n o th e r to John N o rth ern H i l l i a r d [[January, 1896?D, in which Crane a s s e r t s : " I u n d e r s ta n d t h a t a man i s born in to th e w orld w ith h i s own p a i r o f e y e s, and he i s n o t a t a l l r e s p o n s ib le f o r h i s v is io n - - h e i s m erely re s p o n s ib le f o r h i s q u a l i t y o f p e rs o n a l h o n e s ty ." In L e t t e r s , p p . 31 and 110. 3 Crane seems to have had p re m o n itio n s o f an e a r ly d e ath even b e fo re th e o n se t o f t u b e r c u l o s i s . He once p r e d ic te d to L ily Brandon Munroe t h a t he would n o t l i v e long, and a ls o rem arked to N e llie Crouse t h a t he was "minded to d ie in ChisD t h i r t y - f i f t h y e a r ," a generous f o r e c a s t as i t tu rn e d o u t. In L e t t e r s , as re p o rte d by S tallm an and G ilk e s, p . 20, and l e t t e r o f Jan u a ry 1 2 th . H1896U, p . 99. ^ Such a phenomenon i s n o t u n ex p ected . As W illiam Labov rem arks, v e rb a l b e h a v io r which i s v a r i a b l e in a c tu a l speech becomes s te r e o ty p e d i n l i t e r a t u r e so t h a t forms which occur 30-40 p e r c e n t o f th e tim e w i l l o ccu r 100 p e rc e n t o f th e tim e in a w r i t e r 's tre a tm e n t. The main reaso n f o r t h i s d isc re p a n c y l i e s in p eo p le p e rc e iv in g speech c a t e g o r i c a l l y ; i f c e r t a i n f e a tu r e s o ccu r o f te n enough to r e g i s t e r , th e y w i l l be p e rc e iv e d as o c c u rrin g a l l th e tim e when i n f a c t th e y do n o t. In The Study o f N onstandard E n g lish (Champaign, 1 1 1 .: NCTE, 1970), p . 62. 7 T his i s n o t to su g g est t h a t C ra n e 's r e a l i z a t i o n was a sudden one. The e n l i s t e d men o f "The P r ic e o f th e I h a r n e s s ," one o f whom, N olan, i s s u r e ly I r i s h , re v e a l none o f th e g r o te s q u e r ie s o f M aggie’s C h a ra c te rs . N o la n 's speech conforms to t h a t o f th e o th e r e n l i s t e d men ( " g i t , " " g o in * ," " i t d o n 't h u r t a n y ," and so f o r t h ) , who as a group c o n tr a s t w ith th e o f f i c e r s ( " g e t ," " g o in g ," " T h e y 're a l l going h ig h ," and so f o r t h ) . Crane th u s s u b tly d is tin g u is h e s th e two groups o f men who a re n o n e th e le s s u n ite d in t h e i r competence and common f i d e l i t y to th e " r e g u la r " s o l d i e r s ' code: d u ty , o b ed ien ce, and m utual r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . 3 The re a so n f o r th e q u a l i f i e r " v i r t u a l l y " i s t h a t no m a tte r what v o ic e s Crane assum es, c e r t a i n s y n ta c tic p r e d i l i c t i o n s i d e n t i f y C ra n e 's w r itin g as C ra n e 's , th e same h o ld in g t r u e , o f c o u rs e , f o r o th e r w r i t e r s . Indeed, such f a c to r s make p o s s ib le a u th o rs h ip a t t r i b u t i o n . B efore The 214 O'Ruddy m a n u scrip t was d isc o v e re d in 1969, as m entioned e a r l i e r , Bernard O 'D onnell examined t h i s novel to determ in e which c h a p te rs were C ra n e 's , which R obert B a r r 's . Using s y n ta c tic v a r i a b l e s b ased on a t t r i b u t a b l e sam ples o f each a u t h o r 's work, O 'D onnell d e s ig n a te d C hapters I-XXIV as C ra n e 's , th e rem ain d er as B a r r 's . The d isc o v e re d m a n u scrip t proved him wrong by one c h a p te r , b u t t h i s c h a p te r was b o r d e r lin e in th e a ss ig n in g o f a u th o r s h ip . 9 As m entioned e a r l i e r , d ia lo g u e was n o t in c lu d e d in th e d a ta b a s e , b u t from sam pling The O'Ruddy's d ia lo g u e to n o te i t s most obvious d i f fe re n c e s from n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n , i t would appear th a t a stu d y o f th e d ia lo g u e would be rew ard in g , p a r t i c u l a r l y in term s o f th e c h a ra c t e r s ' i d e o le c ts and th e c o n s is te n c y w ith which Crane m a in ta in s them. For exam ple, O'Ruddy and Paddy, b o th b eing I r i s h , sh a re some s t r u c t u r e s , b u t n o t a l l ; Jem B o t t l e s , who i s E n g lish , s h a re s a t l e a s t one s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s id io m a tic I r i s h w ith b o th O'Ruddy and Paddy; Dr. C h o rd 's sy n tax te n d s to be more complex and form al th a n anyone e l s e 1s . in p a ssa g e th r e e above we can n o te a n o th e r d e v ia tio n , an in s ta n c e o f C ra n e 's c o n v e rtin g t r a n s i t i v e to i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s (" th e lo v e ly maid would s t a r t l e " ) . Whereas in p re v io u s work such d e v ia tio n would c a l l a t t e n t i o n to i t s e l f , h ere th e form s h i f t b le n d s i n t o th e g e n e ra l a rc h a ic f l a v o r - - a s does "beg p a rd o n ." 11 From "C lan": "As f a r as th e h e a v ily p a t r o l l e d and guarded m i l i t a r y ro a d was co n cern ed , th e in s u rg e n ts had been i n th e h a b it o f dashing a c ro ss i t in sm all b o d ie s whenever th e y p le a s e d , b u t to s a f e l y sco o t o v er i t w ith a v a lu a b le convoy o f arms was d e c id e d ly a more im p o rtan t th in g " (122); from The 0 ' Ruddy: "To s i t and gloom i n my room u n t i l th e tim e o f th e g r e a t a f f a i r would do me no good i n any c ase " (59) and "To have speech o f a boor i s w e ll enough i f he would n o t f i r s t stu d y you o v er to f in d , i f he can , why you want th e in fo rm a tio n and a f t e r a p r o longed p a u se , t e l l you wrong e n t i r e l y " (115). 12 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h a t th e o b v e rs a tiv e r e l a t i o n s h i p , p r im a r ily marked by " b u t," c o n tin u e s to be th e one Crane em phasizes. W e a re rem inded t h a t r e g a r d le s s o f O 'R uddy's "new ness" in C ra n e 's r o s t e r o f c h a r a c te r s , C ra n e 's p e r c e p tio n o f th e w orld i s , l i k e t h a t o f th e e a r l i e r t h i r d p e rso n n a r r a t o r s , la r g e ly c o n t r a s t i v e . D e sp ite th e r e i g n ing comic s p i r i t i n The O'Ruddy, th e s e r io u s n e s s o f O 'R uddy's having to p e n e tr a te ap p earan ces to g e t a t r e a l i t y , as m entioned e a r l i e r , rem ains. One m ight argue t h a t The O'Ruddy's f i r s t p e rso n n a r r a t i v e lends i t s e l f to some o f th e s e d e v ic e s , b u t Crane n o ta b ly does n o t r e l y on t h e i r e f f e c t s in th e e a r l i e r The Red Badge and "The Open B o at," in which n a r r a t o r and p r o ta g o n is t m erge. 14 S y n ta x , p . 154. 13 Curme q u o te s s e v e r a l exam ples, one o f which i s from Kate Douglas W iggin's Rebecca o f Sunnybrook Farm: " I t i s s tr a n g e he h a s n 't m arried 215 w ith a l l h i s money, and him ( in s te a d o f th e c h o ic e r he) so fond o f c h il d r e n ," p . 154. No p a r t i c u l a r in s ta n c e emerged in th e d a ta , b u t th e d ia lo g u e betw een Paddy and O’Ruddy as th e y amble o ut o f Bath (C h ap ter XV) c le a r ly overdoes I r i s h d i a l e c t f e a tu r e s . 17 j n h i s I n tr o d u c tio n to The P o r ta b le Stephen C rane, p . x v i. 216 CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION The a n a l y t i c method used in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n was n o t in te n d e d to make f i n a l and d e f i n i t i v e s ta te m e n ts about C ra n e 's p ro se f i c t i o n s t y l e , b ut to answer c e r t a i n q u e s tio n s about h is s t y l e , p r im a r ily th o se cen t e r i n g on w hether o r n o t i t changes d u rin g th e span o f h is c a r e e r . The c lo s e gram m atical a n a ly s is p r a c tic e d in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n has r e v e a le d C ra n e 's in c r e a s in g m astery o f th e s y n t a c t i c o p tio n s o f f e r e d by th e E n g lish language, b o th q u a l i t a t i v e l y and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , and in doing so has fo rm a liz e d some so u rc es o f o bserved d if f e r e n c e s between h is e a r l y and l a t e work. I t has a ls o fo rm a liz e d some o f C ra n e 's r e c u rrin g gram m atical c h o ic e s t h a t mark h i s f i c t i o n as h is a t no m a tte r what s ta g e o f h i s c a r e e r . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f C ra n e 's s t y l e th ro u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r a re s h o r t, t e r s e s e n te n c e s , fram ed in sim ple sy n ta x , w ith r e s u l t i n g s t r e s s on in d iv id u a l v e rb a l u n i t s , n ot on co h esiv e jo in in g o f u n i t s . His p r i mary means o f am p lify in g b a s ic se n te n c e s to p i c t u r e sce n e s, c h a r a c t e r s , a c ti o n s , and id e a s a re bound m o d if ie r s , which d e fin e more th a n comment, p a r t i c u l a r l y sim ple a d je c tiv e s and ad v erb s and p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s . S ince bound m o d ifie rs a re lim ite d in th e amount o f expansion th e y accommodate, th e y do n o t a p p re c ia b ly le n g th e n h i s se n te n c e s . And because Crane r e l i e s h e a v ily upon bound m o d ifie rs and o f te n lo c a te s t h r e e p a r t p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s in sen te n c e f i n a l p o s i t i o n , h is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p ro se rhythm moves s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d ly in q u ick , sharp t h r u s t s 217 t h a t wind down w ith a pseudo-iam bic beat.'*' Crane a lso a tta c h e s a l l ty p e s o f f r e e m o d ifie rs to h i s b ase c la u s e s , but h is fa v o re d f r e e m o d ifie r ty p e i s th e v e rb c l u s t e r (headed by a p re s e n t r a t h e r th a n p a s t p a r t i c i p l e headw ord). T his p a r t i c u l a r choice c o n tr ib u te s to th e a c ti v e fo r c e ty p i c a l o f h i s f i c t i o n . F ree 0 m o d ifie rs comment more th a n d e fin e and can comment on ev er n arro w er le v e l s o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n . C rane, however, r a r e l y d o w n sh ifts more th an th r e e l e v e l s to e x p lic a te and ex em p lify th e main c la u s e and h ig h e r le v e l f r e e m o d ifie rs (in f a c t , he o f te n s ta y s a t th e second l e v e l no m a tte r how many f r e e m o d ifie rs he adds to a base c l a u s e ) . Yet even w ith o u t e x p lo itin g th e d e p th p o s s ib le w ith f r e e m o d if ie r s , Crane u ses them e f f e c t i v e l y to s u s ta in a broad p e r s p e c tiv e w hile s im u lta n e o u s ly zooming in on s p e c if ic d e t a i l s im p o rtan t to re a d e rs u n d e rsta n d in g c h a r a c te r s , a c ti o n s , o r id e a s . Free m o d if ic a tio n , w ith th e ebbing and flow ing movement t h a t i t c r e a te s as s e n te n c e s le a p and l in g e r on s t r u c t u r e s , v a r i e s C ra n e 's b a s ic p ro se rhythm . O ther s y n ta c tic elem ents a ls o v a ry h i s p ro se rhythm and, l i k e a tta c h e d f r e e m o d if ie r s , a l l e v i a t e monotonous sequences o f s im i l a r l y p a tte r n e d s t r u c t u r e s . Crane fa v o rs in v e r s io n s , w ith e x p le tiv e th e r e a f r e q u e n tly used ty p e . In v e rs io n s f u n c tio n , as do f r e e m o d if ie r s , to em phasize b u t w hereas f r e e m o d if ie r s fo cu s on p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s o f r e f e r e n t s in th e main c la u s e , in v e r s io n s sim ply emphasize p a r t i c u l a r elem en ts, in C ra n e 's c ase , v e ry o fte n nouns. This em phasis c o n t r i b u t e s , along w ith sen te n c e f i n a l p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s , to t h e con c r e te n e s s o f C ra n e 's f i c t i o n . Throughout h i s f i c t i o n , ty p e s o f s t r u c t u r e s o f te n c l u s t e r . Take, 218 f o r in s ta n c e , ab solutesT ?w hich seem to b re e d a b s o lu te s . I f one o c c u rs, 9 a n o th e r o c cu rs in n e a r p ro x im ity , f r e q u e n tly in th e same s e n te n c e . A nother example i s th e in tr o d u c to r y dependent c la u s e ; one dependent c la u s e may g e n e ra te a sp a te o f them , as o c c u rs in C hapter IV o f M aggie. In The 0 * Ruddy a p a r t i c u l a r I r i s h idiom r e p e a ts in c lo s e su c c e ssio n o n ly to h a l t and th e n re a p p e a r l a t e r . S u b je c t m a tte r seems n o t to be th e d e te rm in in g fo rc e f o r c l u s t e r i n g . Crane i s as l i k e l y to lo a d se n te n c e s w ith a b s o lu te s and v erb c l u s t e r s in one d e s c r ip ti v e p arag rap h o f an a c tio n as om it them from a n o th e r. These a re some im p o rtan t r e c u r r in g c h o ice s o f C ra n e 's , th e "what" o f h i s u n ique s t y l e , a q u e s tio n e a s i e r to answer th an th e "why." But we can c o n je c tu re . The re a so n f o r C ra n e 's s h o r t f i c t i o n s (even th e lo n g e r works a re e r e c te d upon th e framework o f s h o r t e p is o d e s ) , a b b re v ia te d , d i r e c t s e n te n c e s , and la c k o f t r a n s i t i o n a l d e v ic e s may l i e in h is outspoken r e j e c t i o n o f c o n v en tio n al l i t e r a r y s t y l e , which t o him re p re s e n te d "bad" w r iti n g . C e r ta in ly he o b je c te d to what he deemed w o rd in ess. A lthough he adm ired T o lsto y above o th e r w r i t e r s , he condemned th e le n g th o f b o th Anna K arenina and War and P e a c e , sa y in g o f th e l a t t e r t h a t T o lsto y "co u ld have done th e whole b u s in e s s in o n e - th ir d th e tim e 2 and made i t j u s t as w o n d e rfu l." Crane a ls o comments on contem porary methods in h i s f i c t i o n i t s e l f . As th e A m erican, R ich ard so n , in "One Dash—H orses" escap es from some p u rsu in g Mexican b a n d its , Crane has him remember " a l l th e t a l e s o f such ra c e s f o r l i f e , " and th in k "them b a d ly w r i t t e n . " In th e same s to r y he a ls o c r i t i c i z e s conven t i o n a l use o f c o lo r (u n co n v en tio n al u se b ein g a h a llm a rk p f h is s t y l e , 219 e s p e c i l l a y in h is e a r ly w ork): "Above them, th e sky was o f t h a t m ar v e lo u s to n e o f g r e e n - - l i k e s t i l l , su n -sh o t w a ter--w h ic h p eo p le d e nounce in p i c t u r e s . " ^ Crane may a ls o have r e b e l l e d a g a in s t c o n v en tio n al n o v el s t y l e w ith i t s lo n g e r, complex se n te n c e s c a r e f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d one w ith a n o th e r b ecau se he b e lie v e d t h a t th e y i n t e r f e r e d w ith th e r e a d e r 's d i r e c t ap p reh en sio n o f th e s c e n e s, a c ti o n s , and id e a s b e in g p re s e n te d . A d d itio n a lly , he may have b e lie v e d t h a t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t i n g c o n n ec tio n s imposed to o much a u th o r ia l guidance on th e r e a d e r . Here we a re only c o n je c tu rin g s in c e Crane does n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y t e l l us why he judged contem porary w r itin g " b a d ," b u t b o th f a c t o r s may u n d e r lie h i s s t y l i s t i c c h o ic e s , how he chose to say what he had to say. However, i t i s e q u a lly p ro b a b ly , i f n o t more so, t h a t C ra n e 's la ck o f t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y t r a i n i n g , h i s j o u r n a l i s t i c background, and, p erh ap s more im p o rta n tly , h i s lim ite d s y n ta c tic a b i l i t i e s d id n o t allo w him to s t y l e h i s f i c t i o n c o n v e n tio n a lly . That i s , y o u th fu l r e b e l l i o n and n a tu r a l a b i l i t y worked h an d -in -h a n d as Crane made th e b e s t o f what he had w ith in h i s l i t e r a r y c o n v ic tio n s to produce h i s unique s t y l e . Yet C ra n e 's s t y l e , u n ique though i t rem ains, does change, and i t changes in th e d i r e c t i o n o f c o n v e n tio n a lly s t y l e d f i c t i o n d u rin g th e span o f h i s c a r e e r . T his tu r n in g o f an a n g u la r, d i s j u n c t i v e p ro se 4 s t y l e i n t o f l e x i b i l i t y and sm oothness could have been no easy ta s k . T hat Crane succeeded as w e ll as he d id i s rem ark ab le. A lthough in some ways th e changes o ccu r g r a d u a lly , th e r e i s , n o n e th e le s s , on th e b a s is o f C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c c h o ice s j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g two 220 main s t y l i s t i c s ta g e s or p h ases f o r him and one m inor one. The f i r s t o f th e main s ta g e s which I have r e f e r r e d t o a s C ran e’s p ro v e n ie n ce and e a r ly m a tu r ity , encompasses th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ," M aggie, and The Red Badge. The second o f th e main s ta g e s , which I have r e f e r r e d to as t r a n s i t i o n and l a t e m a tu r ity , encompasses C ra n e 's e a r ly and l a t e a d v en tu re s t o r i e s , h i s s o c i a l l y o r ie n te d "The M o n ster," and l a t e war t a l e s . * * The O’Ruddy by i t s e l f c o n s t i t u t e s C ra n e 's t h i r d s ta g e , a b o rte d by h is u n tim e ly d e a th , and r e v e a ls Crane se a rc h in g o ut new h o riz o n s in f i c t i o n a l mode and s t y l e . In c o n t r a s t t o th e f i r s t s t a g e 's ex trem ely a b b re v ia te d , f r a g mented s t y l e dependent upon b i z a r r e d i c t i o n and sy n tax to g a in i t s e f f e c t s , s ta g e tw o 's f i c t i o n becomes l e s s a b ru p t, e l l i p t i c a l , and d e v i a n t , and more ex p an siv e, i n c lu s iv e , and c o n v e n tio n a l (though n ev er o r d i n a r i l y s o ) . S en ten ces grow g e n e r a lly lo n g e r and a t th e same tim e a re more v a r ie d in le n g th , le s s e n in g th e ju v e n ile q u a l i t y o f C ra n e 's e a r ly s t y l e . T - u n its a ls o le n g th e n , p ro v in g t h a t in c re a s e d se n te n c e , le n g th r e s u l t s n o t from sim p le compounding b u t from embedded (depend e n t) and a tta c h e d ( f re e ) m o d if ic a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e s . A d d itio n o f th e s e s t r u c t u r e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f r e e m o d if ie r s , produces a more d e n se ly te x - tu r e d s t y l e . As re g a rd s f r e e m o d if ie r s , even though Crane s t i l l f a v o rs s e n te n c e s w ith one and two s t r u c t u r a l la y e r s , in s ta g e two f i c t i o n th e second s t r u c t u r a l la y e r i s more l i k e l y to be ex tended. F u r therm ore, se n te n c e s t h a t d o w n sh ift to a t h i r d s t r u c t u r a l la y e r o f s p e c i f i c i t y in c r e a s e s h a r p ly , and C rane, though r a r e l y , even forms s e n te n c e s w ith f i f t h and s i x t h s t r u c t u r a l la y e r s . The f r e e m o d ifie rs form ing th e s e s t r u c t u r a l la y e r s more f r e q u e n tly in C rane' l a t e r s t o 221 r i e s a re m id -b ran ch in g and com binations o f th e th r e e t y p e s . ^ Even though th e r ig h t- b r a n c h in g o r cu m u lativ e sen te n c e rem ains th e backbone o f h i s s t y l e , th e s e c h o ice s a ls o c o n tr ib u te to th e d e n s ity o f h is p ro s e . A ll o f th e s e c h o ic e s i n e v ita b ly r e s u l t in more e la b o r a te , inform a t i v e n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i o n and a sy n tax t h a t g a in s in co m p lex ity and v a r i e t y . The changes a ls o r e s u l t in C ra n e 's sy n tax form ing a more v a r ie d , s u b t l e , d y n am ically ebbing and flow ing rhythm t h a t u n d u la te s ato p th e b a s ic cadence o f h i s p ro s e . The sm oothness th e s e s y n t a c t i c changes c r e a te c o n tr a s ts to th e e a r l i e r choppy rhythm r e s u l t i n g from C ra n e 's w renching o r ig n o rin g s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s . In s ta g e two f i c t i o n s y n t a c t i c c o n t r a s t and m o d u latio n become im p o rtan t to C ra n e 's a ch ie v in g h i s e f f e c t s . H igher freq u en cy o f dependent c la u s e s , more complex in v e rs io n s w ith e x p le tiv e i t , p a r e n t h e t i c a l i n s e r t i o n s , and f i n e l y tu n ed p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e s a l l t e s t i f y to in c r e a s in g com plexity and v a r i e t y . T h is i s t r u e even though one m ight e a s i l y f in d se n te n c e s in s ta g e one t h a t a re a l t o g e t h e r more complex th a n se n te n c e s found in s ta g e two. F u r th e r m ore, Crane a d o p ts s t r u c t u r e s in s ta g e two t h a t do n o t ap p ear in th e d a ta from th e e a r ly work such as th e a p o stro p h e, a n t i t h e s i s , and c a t a lo g u e s. And he u se s th e newly adopted s t r u c t u r e s w ith a s k i l l n o t always c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i s f i r s t u se o f s o p h is ti c a te d s t r u c t u r e s in th e e a r ly work, such as th e a b s o lu te in th e S u lliv a n County t a l e s which i s le f t- b r a n c h e d heav y -h an d ed ly . C o n tra ry t o what we m ight e x p e c t, C ra n e 's making h i s sy n tax more complex in s ta g e two does n o t r e s u l t in lo s s o f c l a r i t y b ecau se he s u s ta in s p e r s p e c tiv e and s t r i v e s 222 f o r s y n t a c t i c a l l y r e a l i z e d co h eren ce. In deed, c o n sc io u s ly a p p lie d co h esiv e d e v ice s coupled w ith e x p an siv e n ess, th e in c lu s io n o f more i n fo rm ativ e d e t a i l s , more th a n com pensates f o r added s y n ta c tic complex i t y , enhancing in fo rm a tio n flow and c l a r i t y . Scenes, c h a r a c te r s , a c ti o n s , and id e a s emerge w ith com prehensiveness and v iv id n e s s n o t ty p i c a l o f th e e a r ly work. M oreover, ex p an siv en ess and com plexity allo w f o r th e in c re a s e d e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f C ra n e 's s h o r t, t e r s e se n te n c e s th ro u g h c o n t r a s t . A lthough c l u s t e r i n g o f p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e s c o n tin u e s, th e e f f e c t i s n o t as pronounced as in s ta g e one s in c e more k in d s o f s t r u c tu r e s a re used and used more f r e q u e n tly . T here i s a sen se o f C ra n e 's c r e a t i v e powers b ein g more s u s ta in e d in s ta g e two and h is sp eaking w ith more a u th o r ity . F u r th e r ev id en ce l i e s in h is u sin g r e p e t i t i o n more ju d i c i o u s l y , to em phasize, and, in form ing ech o ic p a t t e r n s , to o rg a n i z e . R e p e titio n in s ta g e one f i c t i o n a t tim e s means o u tr i g h t s e l f - 7 p la g ia r is m , s u g g e s tin g a fla g g in g o f C ra n e 's c r e a t i v e pow ers. In s ta g e two Crane makes o f sy n tax n o t o n ly a more e x p re ss iv e in stru m e n t f o r e la b o r a te d n a r r a t i v e d e s c r ip ti o n b u t f o r a v a r i e t y o f v o ic e s . The S u lliv a n County t a l e s , M aggie, and The Red Badge p r o j e c t e s s e n t i a l l y o n ly one v o ic e , an immature one, which c r e a te s co n fu sio n f o r th e r e a d e r , who, in o rd e r to make m oral and i n t e l l e c t u a l ju d g m ents, needs to s e p a r a te n a r r a t o r s from e g o c e n tr ic , deluded p ro ta g o n i s t s . (In th e d a ta f o r t h i s stu d y in s ta g e one f i c t i o n only C h ap ter XVII o f Maggie r e v e a ls a s u s ta in e d a tte m p t on C ra n e 's p a r t to p r o j e c t a m ature n a r r a t o r . ) C ra n e 's e a r ly i n a b i l i t y t o m a in ta in n a r r a t i v e d is ta n c e c o n tr ib u te s c r u c i a l l y to th e f a i l u r e o f th e S u lliv a n County 223 t a l e s , in which re a d e rs a re c o n tin u a lly le d a s t r a y . I t i s a ls o a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e in c o n s is te n c y t h a t c r i t i c s have n o te d in h e re s in Maggie, co n fu sin g wary as w ell as unwary r e a d e r s . The Red Badge’s b le n d in g o f n a r r a t o r and p r o ta g o n is t succeeds s in c e Crane makes no p r e te n s e o f an o b je c t iv e t h i r d p erso n n a r r a t o r , a t tim es b le n d in g th e p e rc e p tio n s o f Fleming and th e n a r r a t o r w ith in one se n te n c e . D is ju n c tiv e , fragm ented sy n tax e lo q u e n tly re n d e rs th e b e w il d ered mind o f Fleming fa c in g h i s f i r s t b a t t l e f i e l d e x p e rie n c e , and in th e p ro c e ss p o r tr a y s war as i t had n e v e r been p o rtr a y e d b e f o r e , as a p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a t t l e . The n o v e l, however, b ecau se o f i t s one v o ic e , e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t o f young, n a iv e (and confused) Flem ing, f a i l s to illu m in a te and r e s o lv e th e c o n f l i c t s i t e x p lo re s . Such illu m in a tio n and r e s o l u t i o n accompany e x p lo r a tio n o f c o n f l i c t in s ta g e two f i c t i o n b ecau se C ran e’ s in c r e a s in g s y n t a c t i c a b i l i t y allo w s him to p r o j e c t a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f v o ic e s , one o f which i s t h a t o f a p h ilo s o p h ic a l, p r o p h e tic n a r r a t o r who g u id es th e r e a d e r 's m oral and i n t e l l e c t u a l ju d g ments o f c h a r a c te r s and t h e i r a c tio n s . M ature id e a s and t h e i r con sequences demand an e q u a lly m ature sy n tax . In s ta g e two f i c t i o n Crane a ch iev es enough o f th e l a t t e r to make th e form er p o s s ib le . A gain, what Crane does i s e a s i e r to d e s c rib e th a n why he does i t . H is change in s t y l e i s c e r t a i n l y n o t b ecau se he su ddenly d e cid e d t h a t contem porary f i c t i o n s t y l e was "good" w r i t i n g . The ev id en ce l i e s in h i s c o n tin u e d c r i t i c i s m o f t h a t f i c t i o n . On th e o th e r hand, i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t he s h i f t e d h i s s t y l e in th e d i r e c t i o n o f contem porary f i c t i o n p r a c t i c e s , d e s p it e h i s condem nation o f them , in re sp o n se to c arp in g c r i t i c s . Crane was alw ays k e en ly m indful o f th e need to 224 s a t i s f y p o p u la r demand s in c e h is liv e lih o o d depended upon th e s a l e o f h is f i c t i o n . However, we can on ly a s c r ib e changes i n h is s t y l e such as th e m uting o f h i s h ig h c o lo r p a l e t t e and re d u c tio n o f b i z a r r e m o d ifie rs to h i s d e s i r e to s a t i s f y c r i t i c s and th e buying p u b lic . Changes in s y n t a c t i c s t y l e l i e , f o r th e most p a r t , beyond co nscious c o n tr o l. What seems more l i k e l y i s t h a t C ra n e 's f i c t i o n w r itin g expe r ie n c e s g r a d u a lly developed h i s c o n tro l o f s y n t a c t i c o p tio n s in th e d i r e c t i o n o f v a r i e t y and com plexity. As h i s s y n t a c t i c m a tu r ity i n c re ased he was a b le to produce th e f i n e l y w rought s t o r i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e h e ig h t o f h i s c a r e e r . In s ta g e th r e e Crane a g ain moves in new d i r e c t i o n s , more s h a rp ly even th a n in s ta g e two. Having mined th e themes and h is c r a f t in th e l a t e s t o r i e s to t h e i r f u l l e s t , Crane a p p a r e n tly f e l t c o n fid e n t, d e s p it e h i s s e v e re f i n a n c i a l p l i g h t and f a i l i n g h e a l t h , t o atte m p t a new f i c t i o n a l mode f o r him, th e p ic a re s q u e romance. The b a s ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C ra n e 's s t y l e c o n tin u e in The O'Ruddy (e p is o d ic s t r u c t u r e though t h i s tim e c l e a r l y p la n n e d , s h o r t, sim ple s e n te n c e s , and so f o r t h ) , b u t he m a n ip u la tes them in new ways and pdds new s t r u c t u r e s to h i s r e p e r t o i r e in o rd e r to c a p tu re th e essen ce o f I r i s h idiom and th e c h a r a c te r i s t i c v o l u b i l i t y and exuberance o f O'Ruddy. We see i n C ra n e 's novel a new w illin g n e s s to p la y w ith language, to a p p ly c o n sc io u s ly h i s s k i l l to c r e a te f o r th e f i r s t tim e a f i r s t p e rso n n a r r a t o r and n o t o n ly f i r s t p e rso n b u t a p e rso n d iv o rc e d from him in tim e , p la c e , and circum s ta n c e , a young I r i s h a d v e n tu re r o f f to e a r ly G eorgian England to seek h is f o r tu n e . A lthough some o f C ra n e 's o p in io n s and a t t i t u d e s s u rfa c e in O'Ruddy, O 'R uddy's v o ic e i s n o t C ra n e 's . O'Ruddy o f te n speaks f o r 225 h im s e lf, and h i s g a r r u l i t y c o n t r a s t s w ith C ra n e 's n a tu r a l laco n ism . On th e o th e r hand, th e m u ltip l e v o ic e s o f s ta g e two f i c t i o n can a l l re a so n a b ly be a ss ig n e d to Crane even though some a re more lo q u acio u s th an o th e r s . C rane av o id s th e p i t f a l l o f t r a n s l i t e r a t e d d i a l e c t t h a t he f e l l in to w ith th e s te r e o ty p e d I r i s h speech o f M aggie, and c r e a te s a b e l i e v a b le , though im agined, h e ro whose v o ic e shades from th e form al a t th e one end to b re e zy in tim a c y a t th e o th e r . He forms a h e ro who can p u n c tu re ro m an tic c o n v en tio n s and m an k in d 's and h i s own f o i b l e s , a l l th e w h ile n e v er ta k in g h im s e lf too s e r i o u s l y . C rane d id n o t li v e to b u ild on th e fo u n d a tio n e r e c te d in The O'Ruddy; in d e ed , he d id n o t even l i v e to f i n i s h i t . P a r t l y f o r t h i s re a so n and p a r t l y , o f c o u rs e , b ecau se th e n ovel r e f u s e s to ta k e i t s e l f s e r i o u s l y , The O'Ruddy i s no match f o r C ra n e 's b e s t work. I t does n o t a c h ie v e th e b re a d th and d ep th o f h i s b e s t s h o r t s t o r i e s , n o r t h e i r f i n e fu s in g o f manner and m a tte r , b u t in The 0 ' Ruddy Crane shows t h a t h i s energy and in n o v a tiv e powers were n o t e x h au sted b u t r a t h e r e n te r in g a new p h a se . Had he l iv e d , he m ight w ell have g ain ed c o n tro l o f t h i s p ic a r e s q u e romance g e n re , and even, as we have seen he d id b e f o r e , have s tr u c k o ut f o r new h o riz o n s . 226 Notes 1 Although rhythm i s an a sp e c t o f C ra n e 's s t y l e n o t in v e s t ig a te d fo rm a lly in t h i s stu d y , i t i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s . 2 S ta llm a n , Omnibus, p . 51. ^ T a le s ° f A dventure, Vol. V o f The Works, pp. 22 and 13. 4 A lthough M arston LaFrance does n o t probe C ra n e 's gram m atical c h o ic e s t h a t produce t h i s change, he i n t u i t i v e l y p e r c e iv e s th e t o i l r e q u ir e d , hence a p tly la b e l s Crane a " b r u t a l l y h a rd w orking c ra fts m a n ." In A Reading o f Stephen Crane (Oxford: C larendon P r e s s , 1971), p . 248. 5 S p e c i f i c a l l y : "The Wise Men," "The F ive W hite M ice," and "A Man and Some O th e rs ," t r a n s i t i o n p ie c e s , a re b ased upon C ra n e 's a d v en tu res in Mexico and th e American so u th w est; "The Open B o a t," "The M o n ster," and "The Blue H o tel" a re a m ix tu re o f ad v en tu re and s o c ia l s a t i r e ; "The P r ic e o f th e H arness" and "The Clan o f No-Name" a re l a t e war t a l e s based upon C ra n e 's Cuban e x p e rie n c e s . 6 "And a t th e f r o n t ( l e f t ) th e b a ttle - s o u n d , as i f i t were sim ply m usic (m id), was b e g in n in g to sw ell and sw ell u n t i l th e v o lle y s r o l l e d l i k e s u r f ( r i g h t ) " ("The P r ic e o f th e H a rn e ss," 103). 7 T his i s n o t to say t h a t C ra n e 's tendency to r e p e a t h im s e lf non p u rp o s e fu l ly s to p s in phase two f i c t i o n . A lthough n o th in g so g la r in g as th e p a ssa g e s in "The Cry o f H uckleberry Pudding" (255) t h a t v i r t u a l l y re p e a t some in "A G h o u l's A ccountant" (240) o ccu r in th e l a t e r work, th e Sw ede's " fiz z C in g ! l i k e a f ir e - w h e e l" (154) in "The Blue H o tel" d i s t i n c t l y r e c a l l s (though to no purpose) "w heels re v o lv C in g ! in [ th e l i t t l e m a n 's ! so u l" in "A G h o u l's A ccountant" (241). No u n j u s t i f i e d r e p e t i t i o n s o f t h i s s o r t ap p ear in th e d a ta from th e r e s t o f C ra n e 's l a t e work alth o u g h one in s ta n c e o ccu rs in a t r a n s i t i o n s to r y , "The Wise Men" (3 3 ), which echoes th e s t a r t o f C hapter XVII o f M aggie. 227 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, R ich ard P. " N a t u r a l i s t i c F ic tio n ; 'The Open B o a t .'" Tulane S tu d ie s in E n g lis h , 4 (1954), 137-146. A hnebrink, L a rs. The B eginnings o f N a tu ra lism in American F ic tio n : A Study o f The Works o f Hamlin G arlan d , Stephen C rane, and Frank N o r r i s . U ppsala, Sweden; A. B. L undequistka B o k la n d elin , 1950. A ltic k , R ichard D. P re fa c e to C r i t i c a l R eading. New York; H o lt, R in e h a rt and W inston, I n c ., 1963. A nderson, Warren D. "Hommer and S tephen C ra n e." N in e te e n th C entury F i c t i o n , 19 (June 1964), 77-86. Bassan, M aurice, ed. Stephen C rane: A C o lle c tio n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s . Englewood C l i f f s , N. J . : P r e n tic e H a ll, 1967. Bateman, Donald R ., and Frank J . Z id o n is. The E f f e c t o f a Study o f T ra n sfo rm a tio n a l Grammar on th e W ritin g o f N inth and Tenth G ra d e rs. R esearch Rep. 6. Champaign, 111.: NCTE, 1966. B eer, Thomas, w ith an I n tr o d . by Jo sep h Conrad. Stephen Crane: A Study in American L e t t e r s . New York: A lfre d Knopf, I n c . , 1923. Berryman, Jo h n . 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"S tephen Crane As Symbolic N a t u r a l i s t : An A naly s i s o f 'The Blue H o t e l . '" Modern F ic tio n S tu d i e s , 3 (Summer 1957), 147-158. C rane, S tephen. Men, Women and B o a ts. Ed. w ith an In tr o d . by V incent S t a r r e t t . New York: Boni and L iv e r ig h t, I n c . , 1921. . _________. The Work o f S tephen C ran e. Ed. W ilson F o l l e t t . 12 v o ls . New York: A lfre d Knopf, I n c . , 1925-27; r p t . in 6 v o l s . , New York: R u s s e ll and R u s s e ll, 1963 _________ . Stephen C ran e: An Omnibus. Ed. w ith an I n tr o d . and Notes by R obert W ooster S ta llm a n . New York: A lfre d A. Knopf, 1952. _________ . The Red Badge o f Courage and O ther W r itin g s . Ed. w ith an I n tr o d . by R ich ard Chase. Cambridge, M ass.: The R iv e rs id e P r e s s , 1960. _________ . Stephen Crane: L e t t e r s . Eds. R. W . S ta llm a n and L i l l i a n G ilk e s. I n tr o d . R. W . S ta llm a n . New York: New York U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1960. _________ . The Red Badge o f C ourage. Eds. S c u lle y B rad ley , Richmond Croom B ea tty , and E. Hudson Long. New York: W . W . N orton 8 Company, I n c ., 1962. _________ . S tephen C ra n e 's 'M ag g ie': Text and C o n tex t. Ed. M aurice B assan. Belmont, C a l.: Wadsworth P u b lish in g Company, I n c ., 1966. 229 ___________. Maggie: A G irl o f th e S t r e e t s . Ed, w ith an I n tr o d . by Jo sep h K atz. G a in e s v ille , F l a .: S c h o la rs ' F a c sim iles § R e p r in ts , 1966. ___________. The Complete Novels o f Stephen C ra n e . Ed. w ith an I n tr o d . by Thomas A. G u llaso n . Garden C ity , N.Y.: Doubleday § Company, I n c ., 1967. __________ The P o r ta b le Stephen C ra n e . Ed. w ith an In tr o d . and Notes by Joseph K atz. New York: The .V ik in g P r e s s , 1969. ___________. The Works o f Stephen C ra n e . Ed. Fredson Bowers. 10 v o ls . 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American L i t e r a r y R ealism , 4 (W inter 1971), 91-97. 231 M ellon, John G. T ra n sfo rm a tio n a lC S e n te n c e -C o m b in in g : A Method f o r Enhancing th e Development o f S y n ta c tic F luency in E n g lish Com p o s i t i o n . R esearch Rep. 10. Urbana, 111.: 1969. M ilic , Louis Tonko. A Q u a n tita tiv e Apprach t o th e S ty le o f Jo n ath an S w if t. The Hague: Mouton § C o., 1967. Moore, Timothy E . , ed. C o g n itiv e Development and th e A c q u is itio n o f Language. New York: Academic P re s s , 1973. O 'D onnell, B ernard. An A n a ly sis o f Prose S ty le to D eterm ine A uthor sh ip : The O'Ruddy A Novel by Stephen Crane and Robert B a r r. The Hague: Mouton, 1976. O 'D onnell, Roy C ., W illiam J . G r i f f i n , and Raymond C. N o rris . Syntax o f K in d e rg a rte n and E lem entary School C h ild r e n . R esearch Rep. 8. Champaign, 111.: NCTE, 1967. O 'H are, Frank. 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In Hemingway and His C r i t i c s , ed. w ith an I n tr o d . by C a rlo s Baker. New York: H ill and Wang, 1961, pp. 19-37. Ross, Donald. "Beyond th e concordance: a lg o rith m s f o r d e s c r ip ti o n o f E n g lish c la u s e s and p h r a s e s ." In The Computer and L i te r a r y S tu d i e s . Eds. A. J . A itk e n , R. W . B a ile y , and N. H am ilton-S m ith. Edinburgh: The U n iv e rs ity o f Edinburgh P r e s s , 1973, pp. 85-99. Simoneaux, K ath erin e G. "C olor Imagery in C ra n e 's G eo rg e's M other." CLA J o u r n a l , 14 (June 1971)'*, 410-419. 232 S lo tk in , R o b ert. "A Study o f th e Use o f D ia le c t and D ic tio n in S e le c te d Works o f Stephen Crane: The Language o f New York C ity and I t s Rural E n v iro n s." D iss. U n iv e rs ity o f South C a ro lin a 1970. Sm ith, Frank, and George A. M ille r , ed s. The G enesis o f Language. Cam bridge, M ass.: The M. I . T. P re s s , 1966. S p i l l e r , R obert E ., e t a l ., e d s. 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P r e s s , 1960, 113-220. Winterowd, W . Ross. "The Grammar o f C o h eren ce." C o lleg e E n g lish , 31 (May 1970), 828-835. Wogan, C lau d ia C. " C ra n e 's use o f C olor in The Red Badge o f C ourage." Modern F ic tio n S tu d ie s , 6 (Summer 1960), 168-172. 233 APPENDIX A THE COMPUTER PROGRAM AND PROCESS The com puter program used f o r t h i s stu d y i s HAW KEYE, an a u to m a tic p a r s in g program t h a t i s an up d ated and improved v e rs io n o f th e com puter program EYEBALL fo rm u lated by DonaH Ross and R obert Rasche in 1969. (O u tlin e d by Ross in "Beyond th e concordance: a lg o rith m s f o r d e s c r ip t i o n o f E n g lish c la u s e s and p h r a s e s ," The Computer and L i t e r a r y S tu d ie s [[Edinburgh: The U n iv e rs ity o f Edinburgh P r e s s , 1973], pp. 8 5 -9 9 .) P r o f e s s o r R obert D illig a n and Lucy Hawk o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f S outhern C a l i f o r n i a a re r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e re fin e m e n ts in HAW KEYE, a more com p l e t e and a c c u ra te p a rs in g program . The HAW KEYE program i s s p e c i f i c a l l y d esig n ed to d e s c r ib e , u s in g an o r d i n a r i l y typed t e x t as in p u t, th e components o f th e language o f l i t e r a ry t e x t s : word, s e n te n c e , and c la u s e le n g th s ; v o c ab u la ry freq u en cy s t a t i s t i c s ; w o rd -c la ss d i s t r i b u t i o n s ; and o th e r s y n t a c t i c elem en ts b ased on sen te n c e p a r s in g . A lthough a d d itio n a l human b r a in and hand work a re n e c e s sa ry to o b ta in a com plete and a c c u ra te p a r s in g o f a su b m itte d t e x t , s t i l l , th e au to m atic p a r s in g phase removes much o f th e tedium and chance f o r e r r o r r e s u l t i n g from t h a t tedium , and allo w s c r i t i c s to examine gram m atical and l e x i c a l elem ents from an a u t h o r 's e n t i r e corpus r a t h e r th an b r i e f s e l e c t i o n s . The HAW KEYE program i s w r i t t e n to run on an IBM 370 com puter w ith a PL /I O ptim izing C om piler. The f i r s t p h ase o f concordance making and p a r s in g i s done in b a tc h mode. S o r tin g i s done u sin g IBM's SORT/MERGE 234 system u t i l i t y . The second and a l l subsequent s ta g e s a re done in an i n t e r a c t i v e mode u sin g IBM's TSO system . Only Phase One o f th e p a r s in g can be c o n sid e re d a p a r s in g program . Phase Two and Phase T hree a re e d i t i n g program s which allow th e o u tp u t from Phase One to be c o rre c te d and u p d ated . The program s a f t e r Phase T hree a re s e a rc h p ro c e d u res which e n ab le th e u s e r to q u ery th e p a rs e d t e x t f o r th e o c cu rren c e and freq u en cy o f any p h ra se s t r u c t u r e o r s e r i e s o f c o n tig u o u s p h ra se s t r u c tu r e s in th e t e x t . The com puter p ro c e ss b e g in s a f t e r e d itio n s a re d ecid ed upon, re a d th ro u g h , and p a ssa g e s to be s tu d ie d a re s e l e c t e d . A ctu al i n t e r a c t i o n w ith th e com puter began w ith ty p in g a l l th e s e l e c t i o n s on a ty p e w r ite r te rm in a l co n n ected t o th e com puter. At th e end o f each s e s s io n th e d a ta was t r a n s f e r r e d onto a ta p e , form ing a cu m u lativ e re c o r d . When th e ty p in g was com pleted, I o b ta in e d a p r i n t o u t o f th e e n t i r e t e x t , resem b lin g th e fo llo w in g b r i e f sam ple, f o r p ro o f re a d in g : 00015100 $$$$$$$$$$THE OPEN BOAT 00015110 %None o f them knew th e c o lo r o f th e sk y -.* T h e ir eyes 00015120 g lan ced l e v e l , and were fa sten d * * upon th e waves t h a t 00015130 swept tow ard them. These waves were o f th e hue o f (L ines a re numbered by te n s to allo w f o r su b seq u en t i n s e r t i o n s , and s in c e th e same numbers ap p ear on o th e r su b seq u en t p r i n t o u t s , a re a means o f c ro s s-c h e c k in g ite m s; th e te n $ 's and % a re among v a rio u s symbols chosen to d e s ig n a te b re a k s in th e t e x t , in t h i s case th e s t a r t o f a new work and s t a r t o f a p a ra g ra p h . O thers chosen: @ . . . # to e n c lo se m a te ria l ty p ed b u t n o t to be s tu d ie d , such as i n t e r r u p t i n g d ia lo g u e , and f iv e $ 's to mark th e s t a r t o f c h a p te r s .) T ran sm issio n e rro s (*), ty p o 235 g r a p h ic a l e r r o r s (* * ), o r in a d v e r te n t o m issions were n o te d , th e n c o r r e c tio n s su b m itted t o th e com puter, fo llo w in g which a n o th e r p r in t o u t was o b ta in e d , p ro o fre a d , and so f o r t h u n t i l a f i n a l c le a n copy r e s u lte d . The n e x t p r i n t o u t o b ta in e d was a concordance, o f k e y -w o rd -in - c o n te x t, l i s t i n g a l l th e words i n t h e i r c o n te x ts in th e same fa s h io n as "w aves," shown in Concordance P r in to u t 1 on page 236. The n e x t s te p was d isam b ig u atin g th e t e x t , which means d e term in in g th e f u n c tio n o f fu n c tio n s o f key w ords. For example, a lth o u g h "waves" can be b o th a noun and a v e rb , Crane u se s i t only as a noun, in fo rm a t i o n t h a t th e com puter needed to know f o r th e a u to m atic p a r s in g p h a se . However, Crane n a t u r a l l y does n o t alw ays use a word in o n ly one o f i t s f u n c tio n s , and in th e s e c ase s a l l e x ce p t on fu n c tio n needed to be marked f o r th e com puter. "C an," shown in Concordance P r in to u t 2 on page 236> s e rv e s a s an example. With " c a n ," i t s appearance as an a d je c tiv e was marked " c a n l ," by ty p in g a " c o r r e c ti o n " on th e te rm in a l which was t r a n s f e r r e d to th e ta p e , as a v erb "can 2 "; a u x i l i a r i e s , th e most fre q u e n t form o f " c a n ," rem ained unmarked. The p ro c e ss was th e same f o r o th e r words having more th an one f u n c tio n . Next a "Crane d ic tio n a r y " was com piled d e s c rib in g C ra n e 's f u n c tio n a l use o f a l l th e words in th e concordance ex cep t th o se s t a b l e forms such as " th e " (d e te rm in e r), which th e au to m atic p a rs in g program "knows," and i t was typed in to th e com puter, fo llo w in g which th e com puter a u to m a tic a ll y p a rse d th e t e x t in Phase One o f th e p a r s in g . (Compounds were n o t an aly zed s e p a r a te ly Cthe com puter counted compounds as one w ord], and were sim ply marked in term s o f t h e i r o v e r a ll form. For exam ple, in "haggard t r e e - t r u n k s , " " t r e e - t r u n k s " was marked noun; in "a s i l v e r - O PEN B O A T M C N ST E R R B C M S M A G G IE A M A N A N D O PEN B O A T * • O 'R U D D Y WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 1 3 0 L E V E L . AND WERE FASTENED UPON THE WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 1 4 0 THE WAVES THAT SWEPT TOWARD THEM. THESE WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 1 8 0 AT ALL T I » E S I T S EDGE WAS JAGGEO WITH WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 2 0 0 ' WHICH H F PF D(in £ UPON THE S E A . THESE WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 4 0 0 THE RESOURCES OF THE SEA IN THE L I N E OF WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 4 5 0 WAS A T F R R IB L E GRACE IN THE MOVE OF THE WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 5 7 0 OF T H I S E F F E C T UPON THE COLOR OF THE WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 6 1 0 p AST THEM . THE CREST OF EACH OF THESE WAVES 0 0 0 1 5 6 8 0 , OF RROWN S F a-W EED THAT ROLLED OVER THE WAVES 0 0 0 1 6 0 7 0 1 WORLD. OTHERWISE THERE WAS NOTHING BUT WAVES 0 0 0 1 6 0 8 0 i VIOLENCE OF THE SEA HAD C E A S E D . THE WAVES 0 0 0 1 6 1 2 0 WHFN THE C R E S T S RUSHED P A S T . THE BLACK WAVES 0 0 0 1 6 1 7 0 : WIND HA O' A VOICE AS IT CAME OVER THE WAVES 0 0 0 1 6 7 0 0 THE SU N LIG H T FLAMED ON THE T I P S OF THE WAVES 0 0 0 1 9 8 6 0 FROM THE S T R E E T . C R E E P IN G IN S IL V E R Y WAVES 0 0 0 5 4 7 0 0 THE R A I L AND F I R E A PA R TIN G S H O T . THE WAVES 0 0 0 5 7 8 3 0 CF THE O P P O S IN G ARM IES WERE TWO LONG WAVES THAT SWEPT TOWARD T h E M . T HESE WAVES WERE OF THE HUE OF S L A T E . SAVE FOR THAT SEEMED THRUST UP IN P O I N T S L I K E WERE MOST WRONGFULLY AND BARBAROUSLY THAT I S NOT PROBABLE TO THE AVERAGE AND THEY CAME IN S I L E N C E . SAVE FOR THAT ROLLED TOWARD THEM. %AS THE WAS A H I L L . FROM THE TOP O F WHICH THE WITH A MOVEMENT L I K E C ARPETS ON A L I N E XTHE PA R TIC U LA R VIOLENCE OF THE SEA CAME WITHUUT S N A R L IN G . THE WERE S I L E N T AND HARD TO BE SEEN IN AND IT WAS SADDER THAN THE END. %0N D IS T A N T DUNES WERE SET MANY OVER THE G R A S S , CAUSED THE ROW OF HAO R E C E D E D . LEAVING B I T S OF DARK THAT P I T C H E D UPON EACH OTHER MADLY AT Concordance Printout 1 0 0 0 0 6 8 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 5 3 0 0 0 0 1 5 3 9 0 0 0 0 2 6 9 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 9 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 9 1 8 0 0 0 0 3 1 2 6 0 CAN IT WITH A DANCE WHICH OF COURSE, CAN HE HAD NOT ECRED THE FOREMAN OF T IN CAN B O A T S . IN A T EN -FD C T DINGEY CNE CAN THE DECANTERS AT H I M . HOWEVER THERE CAN CF MY F A T H E R 'S REMARK. INDLEC THERE CAN tfOT F I R S T STUDY YOU OVER TO F I N D , I F HE CAN NEVER SEEN HER B E FO R E .N O R S I N C E . I F I , CAM Concordance Printout 2 NEVER BE SEEN AT CONCERTS G IV EN UNDER RANCH WITH ANY SUCH R E Q U E ST , BUT HAD GET AN IDEA OF THE RESOURCES OF THE SEA BE NO DOUBTING OF THE WISDOM OF MY BE L I T T L E DOUBTING OF THE WISDOM OF WHY YOU WANT THE INFORMATION AND TRACE A BAD WORD TO ANY MAN*S MOUTH H O W C N 237 gleam ing f i s h , " " s ilv e r - g le a m in g was marked a d j e c t i v e .) Phase Two o f th e p a rs in g i s i n t e r a c t i v e , c o n s is tin g o f a re a d e r view ing th e r e s u l t s o f Phase One on a cathode ra y te rm in a l and in s e r t i n g c o r r e c t io n s . For exam ple, in th e sample below o f what f la s h e d on to th e view ing screen (w ords, a s s ig n e d forms and f u n c tio n s , l i n e n o t a t i o n , ru n n in g count o f words in th e s e n te n c e ) , I p a r t i c u l a r l y marked th e con s t i t u e n t s headed by " th e f lo o r " and " th e w a lls " as a b s o lu te s , a c a t e gory t h a t I was i n t e r e s t e d in exam ining b u t which th e au to m a tic p a rs in g program d id n o t in c lu d e , c o r r e c te d th e fu n c tio n o f word n in e (APRP), and i n s e r t e d th e f u n c tio n s o f words fo u r te e n and f i f t e e n (COMP). (See Appendix B f o r th e key to th e com puter code f o r forms and f u n c tio n s .) 1001001 A PASSAGE, THE FLOOR OF DAM P CLAY AND PEBBLES, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 DET NOUN DET NOUN PREP ADJ NOUN COOR NOUN SUBJ SUBJ SUBJ SUBJ APRP APRP APRP APRP SUBJ THE W ALLS SLIMY, GREEN-MOSSED AND DRIPPING, SLOPED 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 DET NOUN ADJ ADJ , COOR PPL VERB SUBJ SUBJ COM P COM P X X X X X X X X PRED DOW N W A RD . 17 ADVB PRED Depending upon an a u t h o r 's i d i o s y n c r a t i c s t r u c t u r a l c h o ic e s and th e e x te n t o f th e su b m itted d i c t i o n a r y , Phase Two can be a m ajor o r m inor u n d e rta k in g . With C rane, i t was somewhat midway. His s e n te n c e s ten d n o t to be complex n o r lo n g , b u t h is e x te n s iv e compounding and in v e r te d s u b je c t- v e r b sequences (b o th sim p le in v e r s io n and in v e r s io n w ith ex p le- t i v e - th e r e as s u b je c t p o stp o n e r) p ro v id ed problem s f o r th e a u to m atic p a r s in g program as in d ic a te d in th e s e s e n te n c e s : 238 2018001 THE FOUR M EN CLAMBERED INTO THE BEAUTIFUL BOAT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 DET DET NOUN VERB PREP DET ADJ NOUN SUBJ SUBJ SUBJ PRED APRP APRP APRP APRP AND THE INDIVIDUAL MANOEUVERED HIS CRAFT 9 10 11 12 13 14 COOR DET NOUN VERB DET NOUN APRP OBJ OBJ PRED OBJ OBJ UNTIL HE HAD DEALT 0UT1 TO FOUR L0W-SPI 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 SUBD PRON[ AUXV VERB PART PREP DET ADJ ADJT SUBJ PRED PRED PRED APRP APRP APRP STUMPS, FOUR FISHERS. 23 24 25 NOUN DET NOUN OBJ OBJ OBJ 2005001 IN CONSEQUENCE:, THE FOUR M EN CONFRONTED A SHEET 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 PREP NOUN DET DET NOUN VERB DET NOUN APRP APRP SUBJ SUBJ SUBJ PRED OBJ OBJ OF W ATER FROM WHICH THERE UP-REARED COUNTLESS GREY, 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 PREP NOUN PREP DETS ADJT VERB ADJ ADJ APRP APRP APRP ADJT THER PRED COM P COM P HAGGARD TREE-TRUNKS. 17 18 ADJ NOUN COM P OBJ In th e f i r s t se n te n c e th e f u n c tio n s o f word n in e th ro u g h e lev e n and tw e n ty -th re e needed c o r r e c t in g t o CLAU, SUBJ, and APRP. In th e second sen te n c e th e fu n c tio n s o f words f i f t e e n th ro u g h e ig h te e n needed c o r r e c t in g to SUBJ. When Phase Two was com pleted, I o b ta in e d a p r i n t o u t o f th e d a ta , p ro o fre a d i t , and i n s e r t e d c o r r e c tio n s d u rin g Phase Three by r e - c a l l i n g on th e cathode ra y te rm in a l th e l i n e numbers o f th o s e se n te n c e s e rr o n e o u sly p a rs e d . Appendix C c o n ta in s th e f i r s t fo u r se n te n c e s from each group as f i n a l l y p a rse d b e fo re o b ta in in g v a rio u s ty p e s o f p r i n t o u t s . 239 At t h i s p o in t, p r i n t o u t s o f v a rio u s ty p e s based upon th e c o r r e c te d p a rs e d t e x t could be o b ta in e d , f o r exam ple, a l l p h ra s e s grouped a c c o rd in g t o f u n c tio n , a l l s e n te n c e s in t e x t u a l o rd e r, a l l s e n te n c e s c o n ta in ing a b s o lu te s , and so f o r th upon which th e a n a ly s is o f C ra n e ’s grammat i c a l s t y l e could p ro c e ed . Appendix C c o n ta in s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ples o f v a rio u s p r i n t o u t s , which co u ld n o t be in c lu d e d in t h e i r e n t i r e t y b e cause o f t h e i r b u lk . COMPUTER 240 APPENDIX B CODE FOR FORMS AND FUNCTIONS Computer Form and Code Function § COOR C o o rd in a to r $C COORCLAU C o o rd in a to r o f a c la u s e SI COOR*INF C o o rd in a to r in an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se SJ COORSUBJ C o o rd in a to r in a s u b je c t SM COORCOM P C o o rd in a to r i n a complement so CQOROBJ C o o rd in a to r in an o b je c t SP COORPRED C o o rd in a to r i n a p r e d ic a te SR COORAPRP C o o rd in a to r i n a p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se ss COORSENT C o o rd in a to r se n te n c e i n i t i a l sv COORVOC C o o rd in a to r in a v o c a tiv e % PREPAPRP P r e p o s itio n i n a p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se % % APRP P r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se # PART P a r t i c l e #1 PART*INF P a r t i c l e in an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se #p PARTPRED P a r t i c l e i n a p r e d ic a te @ ADVB Adverb @ c ADVBCOM P Adverb i n a complement §1 ADVB*INF Adverb i n an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se @ 0 APVBOBJ Adverb in an o b je c t @ p ADVBPRED Adverb in a p r e d ic a te @ R ADVBAPRP Adverb in a p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra se @ s ADVBSUBJ Adverb in a s u b je c t @ v ADVBVOC Adverb in a v o c a tiv e c COM P Complement D DET D eterm iner D C DET COM P D eterm iner in a complement DI DET *INF D eterm iner in an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se D O DET OBJ D eterm iner in an o b je c t DR DET APRP D eterm iner in a p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se DS DET SUBJ D eterm iner in a s u b je c t D V DET VOC D eterm iner in a v o c a tiv e I *INF I n f i n i t i v e p h ra se N NOUN Noun NC NOUNCOM P Noun in a complement NI NOUN*INF Noun in an i n f i n i t i v e N O NOUNOBJ Noun in an o b je c t NR NOUNAPRP Noun in a p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h rase NS NOUNSUBJ Noun in a s u b je c t NV NOUNVOC Noun in a v o c a tiv e 0 V : OBJ O bject P PPL P a r t i c i p l e PC PPL COM P P a r t i c i p l e in a complement PD PRED 241 P r e d ic a te PI PPL *INF P a r t i c i p l e in an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se PO PPL OBJ P a r t i c i p l e in an o b je c t PP PPL PRED P a r t i c i p l e in a p r e d ic a te PR PPL APRP P a r t i c i p l e in a p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se PS PPL SUBJ P a r t i c i p l e in a s u b je c t PV PPL VOC P a r t i c i p l e in a v o c a tiv e R PRON Pronoun RC PRONCOMP Pronoun in a complement RI PRON*INF Pronoun in an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se RO PRONOBJ Pronoun in an o b je c t RR PRONAPRP Pronoun in a p r e p o s itio n a l p h rase RS PRONSUBJ Pronoun in a ,s u b j e c t RV PRONVOC Pronoun in a v o c a tiv e S SUBDADJT S u b o rd in a to r in an a d ju n c t SU SUBJ Subj e c t T PREPAPRP P r e p o s itio n in a p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se T* TO* *INF I n f i n i t i v e t £ in an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se TH THERADJT There a d ju n ct U AUXV A u x ilia ry verb UI AUXV*INF A u x ilia ry verb in an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se UP AUXVPRED A u x ilia ry verb in a p r e d ic a te V VERB Verb VC VERBCOMP Verb in a complement VI VERB*INF Verb in an i n f i n i t i v e p h ra se VP VERBPRED Verb in a p r e d ic a te VV VOC V ocative ADJT A djunct SUBD S u b o rd in a to r DETS S u b o rd in a to r and r e l a t i v e pronoun NOT Not New c a te g o r ie s added f o r t h i s stu d y and n o t p a r t o f th e HAW KEYE A utom atic P a rsin g Program: INTJVQC I n t e r j e c t i o n in a v o c a tiv e ADVB®SEN S entence adverb ABSU S u b je c t in an a b so lu te ABC Complement in an a b s o lu te ABO O b ject in an a b so lu te GER Gerund 242 APPENDIX C REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES'OF PRINTOUTS BASED ON THE CORRECTED PARSED TEXT Sample P arsed S en ten ces Number Words Running Line Number (Key a p p lie s th ro u g h o u t in S en ten ce Word Count Group R eferen ce F u n c tio n s Appendix C .) 1? ' ' f" 1 10O1001 6 S U B J A B S U A P R P A B S U A B C P R E D O E T N O U N D E T N O U N P R E P A D J N O U N C O C R N O U N D E T N O U N A D J A D J C O O R P P L V E R B A P A S S A G E , T H E F L O O R C F D A M P C L A Y A N D P E B B L E S, T H E W A L L S S L IM Y . G R E E N -M O S S E O A N D D R IP PIN G . S L O P E D D C W N W A R O . 13 18 I 1002001 S A P R P S U B J P R E D C O M P A P R P P R E P D E T N O U N O E T N C U N V E R B N O U N P R E P A D J N C U N C C O R A D J N O U N IN T H E C A V E -A T M O S P H E R E T H E T O R C H E S B E C A M E S T U D IE S IN R E D E L A Z E A N O B L A C K S M O K E . S 3i: » 1005001 3 S U B J P R E D C C M P D E T N O U N V E R B N O T A C J H IS C O M P A N IO N S W E R E 1 N O T B R A V E . 3 36 1 1006001 3 S U B J P R E O C O M P P R O N vcno A D J T H E Y W E R E I L A ST!. 16 3777 2 9001001 3 S U B J P R E D A P R P O E T A D V B A D J N O U N V E R B P R E P D E T N C U N P R E P N C U N P R E P O E T N C U N P R E P A D J N O U N A V E R Y L IT T L E B O Y S T O O D U P O N A H E A P O F G R A V E L 1 F O R T H E H O N O R O F R U M A L L E Y . 21 3793 2 9C C 2001 9 S U B J P R E O O B J A P R P A C J T P R E D A P R P P R E D A P R P P R O N A U X V V E R B N O U N P R E P P P l. N C U N P R E P D E T N O U N D E T S A L X V V E R B A D V B P R E P O E T C O O R V E R B P R E P P R O N H E W A S ! T H R O W IN G S T O N E S A T H O W L I N G U R C H IN S F R C M O E V IL 'S R O W M F C W E R E C IR C L IN G M A D L Y A B O U T T H E H E A P A N D P E L T IN G A T H IM . 7 3814 2 9003001 4 S U B J P R E D C C M P A P R P D E T A D J N O U N V E R B A C J P R E P N O U N H IS IN F A N T IL E C O U N T E N A N C E W A S L IV ID W IT H F U R Y . 12 3821 2 9004001 3 S U B J P R E D A P R P O E T A D J N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P A D J A D J N O U N H IS S M A L L B O D Y W A S l W R IT H IN 6 1 IN T H E D E L IV E R Y O F G R E A T , C R IM S C N O A T H S . A0V8 N C U N 243 13 33003 3 41022001 S U B J A P R P P R E O A P R P C L A U S U B J P R E D A P R P N C U N P R E P O E T P P L N O U N V E R B P R E P O E T A O J N C U N C O O R O E T N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P D E T N O U N A P IC T U R E F R O M A N IL L U S T R A T E D W E E K L Y W A S U P O N T H E L O G W A L L A N D T H R E E R IFL E S W E R E P A R A L L E L E D O N P E G S . 10 33021 3 41023001 3 S U B J P R E O A P R P ' D E T A D J N C U N V E R B P R E P D E T A D J N O U N P R E P N O U N S O M E T IN D IS H E S L A Y O N A S M A L L P IL E O F F IR E -W G Q 0 * 6 33931 ' 3 41024001 3 . J S U B J P R E O A P R P N O U N A L X V V E R B P R E P A D J N C U N E Q U IP M E N T S W E R E H U N G C N H A N D Y P R O JE C T IO N S * IS 330 3 7 3 41025001 7 S U B J A P R P P R E O C 8J C L A U P R E O A P k h O E T N O U N P R E P D E T N C U N P R E P N O U N V E R B O E T N C U N C Q O fi V E R e P R E P D E T N O U N T H E S M O K E F R O M T H E F IR E A T T IM E S N E G L E C T E D T H E C L A Y -C H X M N E Y A N D W R E A T H E D IN T O T H E R O O M * 20 4S396 4 43001001 10 SU 8J P R E O A P R P C L A U S U B J P R E O O B J C O M P A P R P C O M P D E T N O U N V E R B A D V B P R E P D E T N O O N C O C R O E T P P L N O U N V E R B O E T N C U N P P L P A R T P R E P O E T N C U N P P L T H E C O L D 1 P A S S E D R E L U C T A N T L Y F R O M T H E E A R T H A N D T H E R E T IR IN G F C G S R E V E A L E D A N A R M Y S T R E T C H E D O U T I G N T H E H IL L S * R E S T IN G * 22 45914 4 43002001 9 A D J T S U B J P R E O A P R P S U B J C L A U P R E D * I N F A P R P S U B D D E T N O U N V E R B P R E P N O U N P R E P N O U N O E T N O U N V E R B C O O R V E R S T O * V E R B P R E P N O U N P R E P D E T N C U N F R E P N C U N A S T H E L A N D S C A P E C H A N C E D F P C M C R O W N T O G R E E N I T H E A R M Y A W A K E N E D A N O B E G A N T02 T R E M B L E W IT H E A G E R N E S S A T T H E N O IS E C F R U M O R S * 19 45938 4 43003001 7 S U B J P R E O C 9J A P R P A C J T P R E O A P R P P R O N V E R B D E T K C U N P R E P O E T N O U N O H T S A U X V V E R B P R E P A D J N C U N P R E P A D J N O U N P R E P A D J N O U N IT C A S T IT S E Y E S U P C N T H E R O A D S W H IC H W E R E G R O W I N G F R O M L O N G T R O U G H S O F L IQ U IO M U D T O P R O P E R T H O R O U G H F A R E S * 45 45957 4 43004001 14 S U B J A P R P P R E O A P R P C L A U A P R P A D J T S U B J P R E D A P R P S U B J P R E O 06J A P R P D E T N O U N A O J P R E P D E T N C U N P R E P O E T N C U N V E R B P R E P D E T O E T N O U N C O O R P R E P N O U N S U B D D E T N O U N A U X V V E R S P R E P O E T A D J N C U N P R C N A U X V V E R B A O V B O E T A D J N O U N A R IV E R , A M E E R -T IN T E D IN T H E S H A D O W O F IT S B A N K S , F U R L E D A T T H E A R M Y 'S F E E T A N D A T N IG H T W H E N T H E S T R E A M H A C B E C O M E C F A S O R R O W F U L B L A C K N E S S O N E C O U L D S E E A C R O S S T H E R E D E Y E -L IK E G L E A M O F H O S T IL E C A M P -F IR E S S E T IN T F £ L O W B R O W S O F D IS T A N T H IL L S * 1 1 ♦IN F A P R P 25 8898 5 18001001 S U B J P R E D 08J A P R P A D J T P R E D SU bJ A O J T P R E D O E T A D J N C U N V E R B O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N C O O R N O U N P R E P Q E T S A L X V V E R B A D J S U B D V E R S A O V B T O * A L X V V E R B P R E P N O U N c2t0R A 0° H A S1 A F W G N T O F W H IT E 1 A N D G C L D * IN W H I C H IS1 S E T L A R G E R P L A T E -G L A S S W I N D O W S T F .A N 1 A R E C L 'M M G N L Y T 02 B E 1 F O U N D IN M E X IC O * A D J N C U N 10 8923 5 13002001 6 S U B J A P R P S U 8J P R E D A C J T S U B J O E T A D J N C U N P R E P N C U N P P L A O V B V E R B S U B D N O U N T W O L IT T L E W IN G S O F W I L L O W FH P-FLAPPlsG IN C E S S A N T L Y S E R V E A S O O O ftS * 2 0 8933 5 18003001 9 A P R P S U B J P R E O A P R P C L A U P R E D A P R P P R E O A P R P P R E P P R O N A D J A O J N C U N V E R B A D V B P R E P O E T N O U N C O O R A U X V V E R B P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N U N D E R T H E M S M A L L S T R A Y O G G S G O F U R T IV E L Y IN T O T H E C A F E 1 * A N D A R E 1 S H IE D IN T O T H E S T R E E T A G A IN B Y T H E W A IT E R S * 30 8953 5 18009-001 5 A P R P A D J T P R E O S U B J A P R P P R E P D E T N O U N T H E P V E R B A D V B D E T A O J N O U N P R E P N O U N P P L P R E P O E T A D J C O O R N O U N P R E P O E T A D J N C U N P R E P D E T A D J N C U N P P L P R E P A O J N C U N O N T H E S ID E W A L K T H E R E IS A L W A Y S A D E C O R A T IV E E F F E C T IN L O U N G E R S * R A N G IN G F R O M T H E N E W L Y -A R R IV E D A N C S U P E R IO R T O U R IS T T O T H E O L D V E T E R A N C F T H E S IL V E R M IN E S B R O N Z E D B Y V IO L E H T S U N S * 9 15041 6 21001001 5 S U B J A P R P P R E D O B J A P R P P R O N P R E P P G D N V E R 8 D E T N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N N O N E O F T H E M K N E W T H E C C l.C R C F T H E S K Y * 14 15050 6 2100200I 6 S U B J P R E O C L A U P R E O A P R P A D J T P R E O A P R P O E T N O U N V E R B A O V B C O O R A U X V V E R B P R E P O E T N O U N O E T S V E R B P R E P P R O N T H E IR E Y E S G L A N C E D L E V E L , A N D W E R E F A S T E N E D U P C N T H E W A V E S T H A T S W E P T T O W A R D T H E M . 28 15064 6 21003001 12 S U B J P R E O A P R P A D J T P P E D A P R P C L A U S U B J A P R P P R E O O B J' A P R P O E T N O U N V E R B P R E P D E T N C U N P R E P N O U N P R E P P R E P D E T N O U N O E T S V E R B P R E P P P L C O O R P R C N P R E P D E T N C U N V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P D E T N C U N T H E S F W A V E S W E R E l O F T H E H U E C F S L A T E . S A V E F C R T H E T O P S . W H I C H W E R E ! O F F O A M IN G W H IT E ! • A N D A L L 2 O F T H E M E N K N E W T H E C C L C R S O F T H E S E A * 27 15092 t 21004001 12 S U B J P R E D C L A U A P R P S U B J P R E C C O M P A P R P A O J T P R E D C O M P A P R P D E T N O U N V E R B C O O R V E R E C O C R V E R B C O O R V E R B C C O R P R E P O E T N C U N D E T N O U N V E R B P R E P N O U N D E T S V E R B P P L A D V B P R E P N C U N P R E P N C U N T H E H O R IZ O N N A R R O W E D A N D W ID E N E D . A N D O IP P E O A N D R O S E , A N D A T A L L T IM E S IT S E D G E W A S J A G G E D W IT H W A V E S T H A T S E E M E D T H R U S T U P IN P O IN T S L IK E R O C K S . 13 20781 7 30001001 4 S U B J P R E D O B J A P R P D E T N U U N A U X V V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P D E T N C U N T W E N T Y -F IV E M E N W E R E M A K I N G A R C A O C U T O F A P A T H U P 2 T H E H IL L S ID E * 27 20794 7 30002001 12 S U B J A P R P P R E D C O M P A IN F C L A U P R E O S U B J A D J T P R E O O B J A P R P D E T A D J N C U N P R E P D E T N O U N V E R B A D J T O * V E R B C O O R A O V B A U X V A U X V V E R B O E T N O U N C O O R N O U N D E T S V E R B D E T P P L N O U N P R E P N C U N T H E L IG H T B A T T E R I E S IN T H E R E A R . W E R E 1 IM P A T IE N T . T O 2 A O V A N C E 1 , B U T F IR ST 1 M U S T B E I D O N E A L L T H A T D IG G IN G A N D S M O O T H IN G W H IC h G A IN S N O IN C R U S T E D M E D A L S F R O M W A R * 15 20821 7 30003001 7 S U B J P R E D A P R P C L A U S U B J P R E D A P R P O E T N O U N V E R B P R E P N C U N C C O R D E T N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P D E T A C J A O J N O U N T H E M E N W O R K E D L IK E G A R D E N E R S , A N D A R O A D W A S l G R O W I N G F R O M T H E O L D P A C K -A N IM A L T R A IL * 12 20836 7 30004001 6 S U B J P R E D A P R P A O J T P R E D C C M P N O U N V E R B P R E P O E T N C U N P R E P N O U N D E T S V E R B A O J A O J N C U N T R E E S A R C H E D F R C M A F IE L D O F G U IN E A — G R A S S W H I C H R E S E M B L E D Y O U N G W IL O C O R N . 244 A O V B A O J N O U N AOJ DET 245 14 25694 8 33001001 6 S U B J P R E D A P R P C L A U P R E O C O M P O E T A O J N O U N A U X V V E R E P R E P N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N C O O R V E R B A D V B A O J M Y C H IE F T A IN A N C E S T O R S H A D L lV E O A T G L A N O C R E F C R M A N Y C E N T U R IE S A N D W E R E 1 V E R Y W E L L -K N O W N * 40 25708 8 33002001 14 P R E D S U B J P R E O O B J A P R P * IN F O eJ A P R P C L A U S U B J P R E D A P R P S U B J P R E D * " " A D V B D E T N O U N A U X V V E R B D E T A D J N O U N P R E P N C U N P R E P D E T N C U N P P L A O V B T O * V E R S O E T N O U N P R E P N C U N P R E P P R O N C O O R C E T A D J N C U N V E R B P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P V E R B H A R D L Y A S H IP C O U L D P A S S T H E C L D H E A D O F K IN S A L E W IT H O U T S O M E E O A T S P U T T IN G O F F T O 2 E X C H A N G E T H E T IM E O F D A Y W IT H H E R ! A N O C U R F A M IL Y N A M E W A S C N M E N * S T O N G U E S IN H A L F I T H E S E A -P C R T S O F E U R O P E . I D A R E 1 S A Y , 27 25748 8 33C 03001 1 1 S U B J P R E O A P R P A D J T P R E D A P C P C L A U SU eJ P R E O O B J A P R P D E T N O U N V E R S P R E P N C U N D E T S V E R B P R E P N C U N P P L P R E P N O U N C C C R P R O N V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P P fiC N P R E P O E T A C J N O U N P R E P O E T P P L N C U N M Y A N C E S T O R S L lV E O IN C A S T U F S W H I C H W E R E 1 L IK E C H U R C H E S S T U C K ! O N E N D A N D T H E Y D R A N K T H E B E S T 2 O F E V E R Y T H IN G A M ID T H E J O Y O U S C R IE S O F A D E V O T E D P E A S A N T R Y * 50 2577* 6 33004001 23 6 S E N S U B J P R E O C L A U A C J T S U B J P R E O O B J A P R P S U B J P R E O O B J A P R P A C J T P R E O C O M P C L A U S U B J P R E D ♦IN F A P R P A D J T A P R P C O O R D E T A D J N C U N V 6 R 6 A C V B A C V B A O V B C O O R S U B D P R O N A U X V V E R B D E T S O U K P R E P N O U N P R O N V E R B P R O N P R E P O E T N O U N C O O P O E T D E T N O U N C O O R A D J N C U N N O U N D E T S N C U N B U T T H E G C O O T IM E S P A S S E D A W A Y S O O N E N O U G H A N O W H E N ( H A D R E A C H E D T H E A G E O F E IG H T E E N !. W E F A D I N C B C D Y C N T H E L P N C B U T A F E W F IS H E R -F O L K A N O S M A L L F A R M E R S . P E O P L E W H O W E R E 1 A L M O S T L A W -A B ID IN G A N D M Y F A T H E R C A M E T C 2 O IE M 0 R E 2 F R O M T H E D IS A P P O IN T M E N T T H A N F R O M A N Y C A U (N ote: When forms and words in a s e n te n c e exceed a s p e c if ie d number, th e com puter does not p r i n t th e e x c e s s .) S en ten ces O rdered by Group and F u n ctio n 12 3174 1 6019001 5 r e,Ghj C U R J A P R ® p O F O O B J * f5oq n C T A O J N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N A U X V V E R B P R O N B U T A rflL S F N O T E IN T H E S O U N D S O F N I G H T hA O C O N V U L S E O l T H E *. 21 I B A 2 1 0022001 9 oerJ aSjP 5 S 5 n pSep £ e? P noSn 55“ Jc tS p«- p«ep oet aoj noun coop auxv aovs A * T H O U S A N D SPIR ITS O F T H E K IN D S H A D S E C O W E E N T A N G L E D IN T H E P IN E B R A N C H E S A N O W E R E L O W L Y P L E A D IN G T O ? B E L O O S E N E D . 2R 7 1 6 4 2 1 TO 120 P 1 A D J T S U B J A P R P P R E D O B J C O M P O B J A P R P S U B J O B J P R E D S U B D P R O N P P E P P R O N V E R B V E R B A D V B A O J S U R D D E T IF O N E O F T H E M R E N D E R E D R IG H T A N D W R O N G !, W IC K E D N E S S . A N D 19 P R E O C O M P A D J T S U 0J P R E D O B J C L A U P R E O A O J N O U N P R E P N O U N C O O R N O U N O E T N O U N V E R R P R O N A O V P M O S T S U B T IL E D IS T IN C T IO N S B E T W E E N A W A R E IF T H E A C T O R M E A N T N O U N P P L O F . T D E T N O U N V E R B N P U N C O O R L IN E S C O N T A IN IN G T H E T H P GALL ERY w a s i m m e d i a t e l y D E N O U N C E D H IM A C C O R D IN G L Y . 1 1 4576 2 1C 004O 0I 4 A P R P A D J T P P E O S U B J P R E P D E T A D J N C U N T H E » V E R B N O U N N O U N N O U N C O O R N O U N IN A L L " U N H A N D Y P L A C E S T H E .P E W E R E 1 B U C K E T S , B R O O M S . R A G S A N D B O T T L E S . 246 2 0 49944 4 44012C 01 1 C ♦ IN F 08J S U B J P P fE D O B J S S E M A O J T S U B J P R E O O B J T O * V E R B P K O N P R O N A U X V V E R B N O U N N O U N C O O R N O U N ' A D V B S U B D D E T N O U N V F R B P R O N P R O N C O O P D E T P R O N T O ? G A IN IT ** H E V U S T H A V E ! 8L A 7E . B L G G O A N D D A N G E R * E V E N A S A C H E M IS T R E Q U IR E S T H IS!* T H A T A N D T H E O T H E R !• 10 4797* 4 43139001 S » S F N A O J T S U R J P fc E D A P R P S U B J P R E O O B J A D V B S U B D P R O N A U X V V E R B A D V H P R E P O E T N O U N S T IL L W H E N H E H A D L O O K E D B A C K F R O M T H E G A T E A M O N G T H E P O T A T O -P A R IN G S * 10 C O M P A P R P N C U N P R O N A U X V V E P B O E T N O U N P P L P R E P O E T H E H A D S E E N H IS M O T H E R K N E E L IN G 1! 9832 5 18058001 5 A P R P SU 3J P P E D S U B J A P R P P R E P O F T N O U N O F T N O U N V E R B P P L C O O P P P L P R E P N O U N IN T H E D A R K N E S S T H E C R O W D M O V E D * G E S T IC U L A T IN G A N O M U M B L IN G IN A R G U M E N T • 9 13803 5 2006100! 4 COM P P P 6 D S U B J A P P P A D J C O O R A D V B A D J V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P N O U N M Y S T IC A N D S T IL L M Y S T IC A P E T H E L A W S O F F A T E * 30 1913 4 6 25004 00 1 12 d r fd adjt p rrr> aprp subj absu a pr p subj dbj adjt preo o rj A D V B T M F P V F R B P »E P P P O N D E T A D J A D J -N O U N D E T N O U N P P L P R E P O E T N O U N P R F P N O U N C O O R P f* L O C T A D J N O U N G E T S V E R B A D V B D E T N O U N C O O R A D J N O U N O C C A S IO N A L L Y T H E R E C A M E IN T O IT A S H R IL L E L E C T R IC S T R F E T -C A R , T H E M O T O R S IN G IN G L IK E A C A G E F U L O F G R A S S H O » P F R S • A N D P O S S E S S IN G A G R E A T G O N G T H A T C L A N G E D F O R T H B O T H W A R N IN G S A N O S IM P L E N O IS E * II 1743 P 6 2 20? 7 0 0 1 6 S U D J A D J T P R E O O B J P R E O A P R P o c t n o u n sunn a d v b v e r b d e t n o u n a d v o c o o p prep n o u n t h e S W E D E * H O W E V E R , m e r e l y D IP P E O H IS F IN G E R S G IN G E R L Y A N O W IT H T R E P ID A T IO N # 23B B 1 3 10 590 01 A P R P P R E O A P R P P R E O A D J P P L N O U N D 5T S V E R B N O U N P R E P D E T S U B J A P R P A C J T P R E O O B J e » » n r s J P R F P D c T N O U N P R E P D E T V F F ft P R F P P R C N A D V B T H O S C 1 O F T h p IN S U R G E N T S IN T H E B L O C K H O U S E A T T A C K IN G P A R T Y W H O H A D ! N E IG H B O R S IN T H E G R A S S T U R N E D A N O L O O K E D A T T H E M S E R IO U S L Y . N O U N V E R B C O O R 6 21330 7 30032001 3 S U B J A P R P P R E O D E T N O U N P P E P N O U N A U X V V E R B A D A Y O F B A T T L E W A S 1 B E G U N * 7 26667 8 34C 330O 1 & S F N s > S E N A D J T » « E O S U B J C O O R A D V B T H E P V E R B D E T A D J N O U N A N D T H E N T H E R E . W A S F Q R IS T C R * S B R IG H T S W O R D * 22 26966 8 35012001 5 * IN F A P R P P R E D O B J A P R P T O * - V F R B C O O P V E R B P P E P D E T N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P O P T A D J N O U N A U X V V F R B P R O N D E T N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N T O ? S T T A N D G L O O M 1 IN M Y R O O M U N T IL T H E T IM E O F T H E G R E A T A F F A IR W O U L D D O M E N O G O O D 1 IN A N Y C A S E . 247 S en ten ces w ith I n i t i a l C o o rd in ato r IS 1908 4027001 7 _ ‘ & S E N S U B J P R E D A D J T S U O J P R E D A P R P C O O R D E T N O U N V E R B S U B D D E T N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N B U T T H E D O G L IN G E R E D A S A F R IE N D M IG H T L IN G E R A T T H E T C M 0 O F A F R IE N D * _ . . . ■ ■ ■ ' '3 12 3174 6019001 5 C S E N S U B J A P R P P R E O O B J C O O R O E T A O J N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N A U X V V E R B P R O N B U T A F A L S E N O T E IN T H E S O U N D S O F N IG H T H A D C O N V U L S E D ! T H E M * 7 .5064 1 1C 27001 6 & S E N P R E O S U 8J P R E D C C M P 41 N F C O O R A O V U P R O N V E R B P P L T O * V E R B S02 E V E N T U A L L Y . H E F E L T O B L IG E D I T 02 W O R K 1 * 43 5666 11055001 15 & S E N 0 S E N A D J T S U B J P fiC O O B J *IN F * IN F O B J *IN F O B J A P R P S U B J P R E O A P R P A D V B S U B D D E T N C U N V E R B D E T A O J N O J N T O * V E R B A O V B V E R B P A R T O E T A D J P P L N O U N C U U R A D V B V E R B O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N P R O N A U X V A U X V A D V D A U X V A D V B V E R B V E R B A N D P E R H A P S . IF T H E G O D — D R IV E R H A D ! A N U N G O V E R N A B L E D E S IR E T 02 S T E P 1 D O W N * P U T U P I H IS F L A M E ! C O L O R E D FIST S A N D M A N F U L L Y O lSP U T E l T H E R IG H T G F W A Y . H E W O U L D H A V E P R O B A B L Y B E E N IM M E D IA T E L Y O P P O S E D B Y A S C O W L IN G M O R T A L W IT H T W O S E T S O F V E R Y H A R O K N U C K L E S . 6 4670! 4 43060001 6 tS B N S U B J P R E O A P R P P R E O * IN F C O O R P R O N A U X V F H E P N C U N V E R B T O W V E R B S02 T h e y W E R E a t L A S T C C IN G T C 2 F IG H T !* 24 50030 4 44010001 1 1 C S E N A P R P S L Q J P R E O C C M F A P flP C C M P A P P P C C M P *IN F A P R P C O O R P R E P O E T O f f T N C U N P P Q N A U X V V E R B D E T N C U N A O V B P P L P R g P N C U N C O O R N O U N C O O R P R E P N C U N P P L T O * V E F F P l? £ P N O U N D P 'ON T H C C T H E R H A N D , F t M I G H T B E A MAN H E R E T O F O R E C O C M fc O l T U P E A C E A N O O B S C U R IT Y B U T . IN R E A L IT Y . M A D E t T 02 S H IN E IN W A R * 16 9297 18025001 6 C -S E N A P R P S U B J P fiE D S U B J 03 J C O U P P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P D tT N O U N C O O R N O U N P R O N A U X V A U X V V E R B - P P L D E T N O U N S02 A T A N Y H O U R O F T H E D A Y O R N IG H T T H E Y M IG H T B E ! S E E N O W O E R IN G l A S A L A D . 21 10281 18097001 9 6SE N A D J T S U B J P R E L ) S U B J A D J T A P R P P R E D A P R P C O O R S U E 1 D P F O N V E R B A D V B O E T N O U N S U R D P R E P D E T N C U N P R E P A C J N C U N V E R B P R E P O E T A O J N O U N P P E P N O U N A N D A S H E S H O T F O R W A R D A H O W L A S F R C M F O R T Y C A G E S O F W IL D A N IM A L S W E N T T O W A R D T H E IM P E R T U R B A B L E C H IE F T A IN S IN B R O N Z E 1 * 23 1701 € 6 22007C 01 7 & S E N A P R P A D J T P R E O S L H J P R E D O B J C O O P P R E P D E T N C U N P R CP D E T N O U N N O U N C O O R P R E P O E T N O U N O E T S A L X V A D V B V E R B A D V B A D J N C U N A U X V V E R B O E T N O U N H U T T O T H E C IT IZ E N S O F T H IS P R A IR IE T C W N . A N D T O T P E P E O P L E W F O W O U L D N A T U R A L L Y S T O P T H E R E 2. P A T S C U L L Y H A D P E R F O R M E C A F E A T * 248 1? 2C494 6 2 80 2 0 C O 1 14 C S fr N S U B J P R E O C C M P A O J T S U B J C L A U S U B J P R E O A P R P A D J T S U B J P R E D A P R P C O O R P R O N V E R J 3 A D J S U B D N C U N C O O R O E T N O U N V E R S P R E P P R C N S U 8 D P P O N V E R B P R E P P R O N B U T S H E W A S S W IF T E R T H A N E A G L E S * A N D H E R T A L O N S C A U G H T IN H IM A S H E P L U M G E O P A S T H E R I * _ 1 10 2 1 97 5 ? 30064001 4 & S E N S U O J P R E D C B J C C O R C C O R P P O N A D V B A C V E A U X V V E R B D E T D E T N O U N A N D Y E T H E N E V E R © E F 0 R E 1 H A O S E E N S U C H A S IG H T • , It 24688 7 31107001 7 tSE N A D J T S U B J P R E O S U B J P R E D O B J C O O R S U B D D E T N O U N A U X V V E R e A U X V P R O N A O V B V E R B N O U N N O R IF T H E C A S E W A S 1 R E V E R S E D * D ID T H E Y E V E R G IV E Q U A R T E R . 15 28402 8 36067001 9 S S E N A P R P A O J T S U B J P R F I C S U B J P R E O C O M P A P R P C O O R D E T N O U N S U B D O E T N O U N A U X V V E R B P R O N V E R B D E T A D J N C U N P R E P N O U N B U T T H E M O M E N T A F T E R C U R S w O R C S H A O C R O S S E D * I W A S A N A B S O L U T E D E M O N O F A T T A C K . 17 29547 8 38014001 10 { V S E N S U B J P R E D A P R P S U E J O B J A P R P A D J T S U B J P R F l) C O O R C C O R P P C N V E R B P R E P C E T N O U N N O T P P L O E T A D J N O U N P R E P S U B D P R O N A U X V V E R S A N D S Q 2 W E R O D E IN T O T H IS P A N O E M O N IU M * N O T H A V IN G T H E L E A S T IC 6 A O F W H E R E W E W E R E G O !K G . S en ten ces w ith S u b ject-V erb In v e rs io n s 1 7 209 1 1021001 A P R O O P F O S U B J P P F O O F T N C U N V E R S D E T A D J N O U N A T T H E B O T T O M S H C N E A Y E L L O W L IG H T . 2*2 1 1023001 A P R ® P R E O S U B J A P R P P »F P P R O N V E R B O fT N O U N P R E P P P L A D J N C U N P P L P R E P D E T N O U N O V E R IT B U R N E D T H R E E C A N D L E S IN S W A Y IN G T IN C U P S H U N G F R O M T H E C E IL IN G . 7 1 3977 2 9016001 A A P R P A D J T P P L O O f? J A P R P A D J T P R E D S U B J V F M O D E T A C J N N C U N °E T *0J N °U N °E T S V E P B °E T N Q U N P R E P P R eP A O J A D J N O U N T H E B Pfrw noiM T ficr?nfr<jA N T *P nR ™ E N T H O U S E T H A T U P R E A P E O IT S F O R M F R O M A M ID S O U A T . IG N O R A N T S T 4I3L E S . T H E R E L E A N E D A C U R IO U S W U M A N . 1 4 6261 2 12014001 4 A P R P P R E D S U B J A P R P P R E P D E T N C U N C O O R A O V B C O O R A D V B A D V B V E R B D E T A D J N C U N P R E P N O U N ' IN T H E B A L C O N Y , A N D H E R E I A N D T H E R E B E L C W 1 . S H O N E T H E IM P A S S IV E F A C E S O F W O M E N . 6 3S49B 3 4 I SSI 001 3 P P E O S U B J A P R P A O V B V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P N Q U N O F F W A S T H E R U M B L E O F D E A T H . 249 1 0 3 * 5796 3 41578001 3 A d r p P R E D S U 8J P R E P D E T A O J N C U N P R E P D E T N O U N V E R B A D J N C U N O V E R T H E G R A Y S K IN O F T H E F A C E R A N L IT T L E A N T S # 15 46709 A 43061001 9 A P R P P R E O A D J T P R E D S U B J C L A U S U B J P R E O A P R P P R E P O E T N C U N A D V B T H E P A U X V V E R B D E T N C U N C O O R P R O N A U X V V E R B P R E P P R O N O N T H E M O R R O W P E R H A P S T H E R E W O U L D B E A B A T T L E A N D H E W Q U L O B E IN IT. 1 6 47070 43 0«5C O I a )S E N A P R P P R E D S U B J A D J T S U B J A P R P P R E O C O M P A D V B 'J R P P O F T B E S ID E S O N H E R Im preg nable. N O U N V F R B O F T N O U N O F T S D E T A O J N O U N P R E P O F T N O U N V E R B A O J S ID E * W A S H IS B E L IE F T H A T H E R E T H IC A L M O T IV E IN T H E A R G U M E N T W A S 25 S U R J P R E D O B J 8898 I 800 I 00 I I 1 A P R P A D J T P R F D S U B J A D J T P R E O * IN F A P R P D E T A D J N C U N V E » R O E T N O U N P R E P N C U N C C C 9 N O U N P R E P O E T S A U X V V E R B A O J A O J S U B O V E R B A O V B T C * A U X V V E R B P R E P N C U N T H E C A F E C O L O R A D O H A S ! A F R O N T Q F W H IT E ! A N D C O L D * IN W H I C H IS1 S E T L A R G E R P L A T E -G L A S S W IN D O W S T H A N 1 A P E C O M M O N L Y T 0 2 B E 1 F O U N D IN M E X IC O # 9 11710 5 19096001 A D J T P R E D S U B J A P R P T H F R V E R B D E T N O U N C O O R N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N T H E R E W A S N O S O U N D N O R L IG H T IN T H E W O R L D # 3 1 16391 6 21072001 10 P R E D A P R P P R E D S U B J C L A U A D J T P R F D * IN F S U B J A P R P A D V B C O O R A C V fi P R E P O E T N O U N C O O R O E T P R O N P P E P N O U N A O J P P L N O U N C O O R IH E R V E R B T O * A U X V V E R B D E T N O U N P R fP A M E A D 1 O R A S T E R N * O N Q K E l S ID E O R T H E O T H E R 1 « A T 1 N T F R V A L S L C N G O R S H O R T . F L E D T H E L O N G S P A R K L IN G S T R E A K * A N C T H E R E W A S T O 2 D E I H E A R D T H E W H I R Q Q QF THE D A R K F IN # C O O R A O J V E R B O E T D C . T A D J N C U N 26 18045 6 22062001 1 3 A P R P S U B J A P R P P P E O C O M P A P R P A D J T S U R J P P E O O B J A D J T P R E O S U B J P R E P D P T N C U N D E T N C U N P R F .P D E T N O U N V E R B C £ T O E T N C U N P R E P P P L N C U N D E T S V E R B D E T A D J N C U N S U B D V E R B D P T A O J N C U N F O R A T IM S T H E E N C O U N T E R ! IN T H E D A R K N E S S W A S S U C H A P E R P L E X IT Y O F F L Y IN G A R M S T H A T IT P R E S E N T E D N C M O R E O f : T A IL T M A N t W O U L O l A S W | F T L V — R E V O L V I N G W M F E L • 24 25616 7 3 U 41001 1 1 A D J T P R E O S U B J A P R P C L A U S U B J O R C D S U B J A D J T P R E O S U B J T H F R V E R B D E T N C U N P P E P O E T N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N C O O R D E T N O U N A D V B P P L S U B D V E R B D E T D E T N O U N T H E R F W A S A S T IR I N T H F G R A S S A T T H E E D G E O F T H E S A U C E R A N O A M A N A P P E A R F O T H E R E 2 L O C K IN G W H E P F . L A Y T H E F O U R IN S U R G E N T S . 1 0 22732 7 31002001 4 A P R P P R E O S U B J A P R P P R F P P R O N V E R B D E T A D J P P L N O U N P P L P R E P N O U N B E F O R E T H E M W A S A L O N G -G R A S S E D R O L L IN G P R A IR IE M A R K E D W IT H P A L M S # 19 27539 R 36007001 10 G S E N P R E O S U B J C C M P A O J T S U B J P O fD A P R P O R J A P R P C O O R V E R B P P O N A C J D E T S D E T N O U N V E R B P R E P D E T A O J N C U N P R E P G E R D E T N O U N D E T N O U N N O P A M t C E R T A IN T H A T M Y F A T H E R W A S IN A R E G U L A R H A B IT O F D E L A Y IN G T H E P O IN T O F A S T O R Y * N O U N AOJ P R O N V E R S P R E P # 250 1 0 20440 a 36070001 S A D J T P R F D S U B J *IN F A P R P T H fS R V E R B N C U N T O « V E R S P R E P O E T P P L P P L N O U N T H E R E IS L IT T L E 1 T Q 2 S A Y O F T H E F L Y IN G S P IN N IN G B L A D E S . 2 S en ten ces w ith S en ten ce Adverbs 3 1374 1 3023001 3 S )S F N S U B J P R E O A D V B P R O N V E R B T H E N H E S M IL E D . 10 1956 1 4032001 5 P R E O R S E N S U B J P R E O A P R P A D V B A D V E P R O N V E R B P A R T C O O R V E R B P R E P O E T N O U N S U D D E N L Y H O W E V E R . H E G O T U P A N O S H A M B L E D T O T H E R O A D W A Y . 14 4394 2 9043001 4 neeM cmq • p c p n APRP A D V B D E T A O J A D J N O U N V E R B A D V B P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P O E T A O J N O U N T H E N T H E R U M A L L E Y ! C O N T IN G E N T T U R N E D S L O W L Y IN T H E O lR E C T IO N O F T H E IR H Q M E 1 street# 16 J & S E N S U B J P R E D A D V B p R O N A L X V S T I I . L H E C O U L D T H E IR P R E Y . A 6631 4 4 JI 7900 I R O B J A P R P C L A U S U B J P M E D C C M P N O T V E R B O E T A O J N C U N P P E P O E T N O U N C O C R N O U N V E R B O E T N O U N N O T P U T A W H O L E F A IT H IN V E T E R A N 'S T A L E S * F O R I R E C R U IT S W E R E I 1 0 4Q 97C 4 -44C 1400I 6 S S E N S U B J P R E O • I N F O B J A P R P A O V B P P f l N A O V B V F R B T O * V E R B P R O N P R E P O E T N O U N -M E A N W H IL E h e C O N T IN U A L L Y T R IE O T O ? M E A S U R E ! H IM S E L F B Y H IS C O M R A D E S . 10984 5 18074001 14 A B S U A B O C L A U S U B J A O J T P R E O O B J A P R P 5 > S E N P R E O A P R P N O U N V E R B P P L C E T N O U N P P L D E T N O U N C C O P D E T N O U N D E T S V E R B O E T N C U N A D V O A O V B V E R B A D V P F R fP P R O N T H E O T H E R C A R S C A M E S W A R M IN G * T H E D R IV E R S L A S H IN G T H F IR H O R S E S * F O R T H E S E A M p M iC A N S . W H O D ID ! A L L M A N N E R O F S T R A N G E T H IN G S . N E V E R T H E L E S S A L W A Y S P A ID W E L L F O R IT. 26 S U B J P «E D S U B J O F T O E T R R F P A O J N O U N C L A U P R E O A O J T S U B J P R E D N O U N P R E P D E T S 31 t 1541 5 19086001 18 s > S E N S U B J A C J T A P R P P R E O C O M P A P R P A O J T S U B J P R E O A O J T A » R P C O M P A C V « O E T A O J N O U N O E T S P P E P O F T A O J N O U N V F R B C C O R V E R B N O U N V E R O S U S D D E T N O U N P R F P O E T N O U N C O O R V E R B D E T S P R O N M O R R O V tK T H F A M E R IC A N C L O W N W H O IN T H E M E X IC A N A R E N A P R A N C E S A N D G A B B L E S IS T H E C L .O W N T O WHOM W R IT E R S R E F E R A S T H E D E L IG H T O F T H E IR C H tL O H O Q D A N D L A M E N T T H A T H E IS D E A D * V E R B V F R 8 D F T A O J A P R P N O U N C O O P A O V 8 P R E P A « 15212 f > 21010001 15 S U F 3 J A D R P P P E O C O M P C L A U S > S F N A P P P P R E O S U B J A P R P A 0 S U A P R P A B S U A B O O F T N O U N P R F P O F T N Q U N P R E P D E T N C U N P R E P N O U N V E R B D E T A D J D E T N n tjN P R E P P R O N V E R B A D V B D E T N C U N P P F P A O J N C U N D E T N C U N P P L A 0 V 6 N O U N T H E M A N N E R O F H E P S C R A M B L E O V E R T H E S F . W A L L S O F W A T E R IS A M Y S T IC T H IN G * A N O * M O R F O V F R . A T T H E T O P O F T H E M w F R E l O R D IN A R IL Y T H E S E P W O H L F M S IN W H IT E W A T E R * T H E F O A M R A C IN G D O W N F R O M T H E S U M M IT O F E A C H W A V E . R F O U IR IN G A N E W L E A P * A N O A L E A P F R O M T H E A IR * 251 6 18712 6 22096001 s ise n S U B J P R E O O B J A D V B D E T N O U N V E R B D E T N O U N h o w e v e r t h e s w e d e f o u n o a s a l o o n . 16 21562 7 3 0043C 01 7 3 IS E N S U B J P R E D A P R P S U B J O B J A P R P A D V B A D V B P E T A D J N O U N A U X V V E R B P R F P D E T N O U N P P L N O U N P R E P A O V B A O J N O U N F U R T H E R M O R E A L M O S T E V E R T B L U E S H IR T -S L E E V E W A S 1 R O L L E D T O T H E E L B O W . D IS C L O S IN G F 0E €-A ftM 5 O F A L M O S T IN C R E D IB L E B R A W N . 9 2 4034 7 31067001 5 S I S E N S U B J A P R P P P E D C O M P A O V 3 N O U N P P E P O E T N O U N A U X V V E R B A 0 V 8 A O J H F N C fc T R A V E L IN T H A T D IR E C T I O N W O U L D B E C O M E E X C E E D IN G L Y H A Z A R D O U S . 8 26502 8 34021001 6 S I S E N S U B J P R E D C O M P W I N E O B J A D V fl P R -O N V E R B A D J T O * V E R B A D J N O U N N O P E O V E R J T W A S N E C E S S A R Y T 02 T A K E Q U IC K M E A S U R E S . 12 29012 B 37035001 4 S IS E N S U R J P R E O A P R P A £ V i? P R O N A U X V A O V B A O V B V E R B P R E P C E T N C U N P R E P A D J N C U N B E S ID E S I C O U L D N O I L O N G E R T R A V E L 1 O N T H E G U IN E A S O F J E M B O T T L E S . T -U n its in T ex tu al O rder 17 1 1 1001001 6 S U B J A B S U A P R P A 8S U A R C P R E O D E T N O U N D E T N O U N P R E P A D J N O U N C O O R N O U N O E T N O U N A O J A O J C O O R P P L V E R B A D V B A P A S S A G E . T H E F L O O R O F D A M P C L A Y A N O P E e e L E S . T H E W A L L S S L IM Y , G R E E N -M O S S E D A N D O R IP P IN G . S L O P E D O O W N W A R O . 13 18 1 1002001 S A P R P S U B J P R E O C O M P A P R P P R E P D E T N O U N D E T N O U N V E R B N O U N P R E P A D J N O U N C O O R A D J N C U N IN T H E C A V E -A T M O S P H E R E T H E T O R C H E S B E C A M E S T U D IE S IN R E D B L A Z E A N O B L A C K S M O K E . S 3 1 I 1003001 3 S U B J P R E O C O M P D E T N O U N V E R B N O T A D J H IS C O M P A N IO N S W E R E 1 N O T B R A V E . 3 36 1 1004001 3 S U B J P R E D C O M P P R O N V E R B A D J T H E Y W E R E l L A ST I. 16 3777 2 9001001 3 S U B J P R E O A P R P D E T A D V B A D J N O U N V E R B P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P A O J N O U N A V E R Y L IT T L E B O Y S T O O D U P O N A H E A P O F G R A V E L 1 F O R T H E H O N O R O F R U M A L L E Y . 252 21 3793 2 9002001 9 S U B J P R E O O B J A P R P A O J T P R E O A P R P P R E O A P R P P R O N A U X V V E R B N O U N P R E P P P L N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N D E T S A U X V V E R B A D V B P R E P D E T N O U N C O O R V E R B P R E P P R O N M E W A S 1 T H R O W IN G S T O N E S A T H O W L IN G U R C H IN S F R O M D E V IL 'S R O W W H O W E R E C IR C L IN G M A D L Y A B O U T T H E H E A P A N D P E L T IN G A T H IM . 7 381A 2 9003001 S U B J P R E O C O M P A P R P D E T A O J N C U N V E R B A O J P R E P N O U N H IS IN F A N T IL E C O U N T E N A N C E W A S L IV IO W IT H F U R V . 12 3821 2 9004001 3 S U B J P R E O A P R P O E T A D J N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P A D J A D J N O U N M IS S M A L L B O D Y W A S 1 W R IT H IN G 1 IN T H E D E L IV E R Y O F G R E A T . 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It 33003 3 41022001 4 S U B J A P R P P R E D A P R P D E T N O U N P R E P O E T P P L N O U N V E R B P R E P O E T A D J N O U N A P IC T U R E F R O M A N IL L U S T R A T E D W E E K L Y W A S U P O N T H E L O G W A L L 6 33015 3 41022013 3 S U B J P R E D A P R P D E T N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P N O U N T H R E E R IF L E S W E R E P A R A L L E L E D O N P E G S.-------------- ---- to 33021 3 41023001 3 S U B J P R E D A P R P D E T A O J N O U N V E R B P R E P O E T A D J N O U N P R E P N O U N S O M E T IN D IS H E S L A Y O N A S M A L L P IL E O F F IR E -W O O D . 6 33031 3 41024001 3 S U B J P R E O A P R P N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P A O J N O U N E Q U IP M E N T S W E R E H U N G O N H A N O Y P R O JE C T IO N S . 7 4S896 4 43001001 3 S U B J P R E D A P R P D E T N O U N V E R B A O V B P R E P O E T N O U N T H E C O L O l P A S S E D R E L U C T A N T L Y F R O M T H E E A R T H 12 45904 4 43001009 6 S U B J P R E O O B J C C M P A P R P C O M P D E T P P L N C U N V E R B O E T N O U N P P L P A R T P R E P O E T N O U N P P L T H E R E T IR IN G F O G S R E V E A L E D A N A R M Y S T R E T C H E D O U T ! O N T H E H IL L S. R E S T IN G . II 45916 4 43002001 6 A O J T S U B J P R E D A P R P S U B J P R E D S U B D D E T N C U N V E R B P R E P N O U N P R E P N O U N O E T N O U N V E R B A S T H E L A N D S C A P E C H A N G E D F R O M B R O W N T O G R E E N 1 T H E A R M Y A W A K E N E D 10 45926 4 43002013 3 P R E O * IN I A P R P V E R B T O * V F P B P R E P N O U N P R E P D E T N C U N P R E P N C U N B E G A N T O 2 T R E M B L E W I T H E A G E R N E S S A T T H E N O IS E O F R U M O R S . 253 25 8896 5 16001001 1 1 S U O J P R E O O B J A P R P A O J T P R E D S U B J A D J T P R E D * IN F A P R P D E T A O J N C U N V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P N O U N C O O R N O U N P R E P D E T S A U X V V E R B A D J A O J N O U N S U B D V E R B A D V B T O * A U X V V E R B P R E P N O U N T H E C A F E C O L O R A D O H A S 1 A F R O N T O F W H IT E I A N D G O L D * IN W H IC H IS! S E T L A R G E R P L A T E -G L A S S W I N D O W S T H A N ! A R E C O M M O N L Y T 02 B E 1 F O U N O IN M E X IC O * 10 6923 S 18002001 6 S U B J A P R P S U B J P R E D A D J T S U B J D E T A O J N C U N P R E P N O U N P P L A D V B V E R B S U B D N O U N T W O L IT T L E W IN G S O F W I L L O W F L IP -F L A P P IN G IN C E S S A N T L Y S E R V E A S 000«S# 10 6933 5 18003001 A A P R P S U B J P R E O A P R P P R E P P R O N A O J A D J N C U N V E R B A D V B P R E P D E T N O U N O N O E R T H E N S M A L L S T R A Y O O G S G O F U R T IV E L Y IN T O T H E C A F E !* 9 894 A 5 16003012 4 P R E D A P R P P R E D A P R P A U X V V E R B P R E P O E T N O U N A O V 8 P R E P D E T N O U N A R E l S H IE O IN T O T H E S T R E E T A G A IN B Y T H E W A IT E R S * 9 15041 6 21001001 5 S U B J A P R P P R E O O B J A P R P P R O N P R E P P R O N V E R B O E T N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N N O N E O F T H E M K N E W T H E C O L O R O F T H E S K Y * 4 1S0S0 6 21002001 2 S U B J P R E O O E T N O U N V E R B A O V B T H E IR E Y E S G L A N C E D L E V E L # 9 15055 6 21002006 5 P R E D A P R P A C J T P R E D A P R P A U X V V E R B P R E P O E T N O U N D E T S V E R B P R E P P R O N W E R E F A S T E N E O U P O N T H E W A V E S T H A T S W E P T T O W A R D T H E N * * 57 15064 6 21003001 6 S U B J P R E O A P R P A O J T P R E O A P R P O E T N O U N V E R B P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N P R E P P R E P O E T N O U N O E T S V E R B P R E P P P L N O U N T H E S E W A V E S W E R E I O F T H E H U E O P S L A T E . S A V E F O R T H E T O P S. W H I C H W E R E 1 O F F O A M IN G W H IT E !, 13 20781 7 30001001 4 S U B J P R E O O B J A P R P O E T N O U N A U X V V E R B O E T N O U N P R E P P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N T W E N T Y -F IV E M E N W E R E M A K IN G A R C A D O U T O F A P A T H U P 2 T H E H IL L SIO E . 10 20794 7 30002001 S S U B J A P R P P R E O C O M P *IN F O E T A O J N C U N P R E P O E T N O U N V E R B A O J T C * V E R B T H E L IG H T E A T T E R IE S IN T H E R E A R W E R E ! IM P A T IE N T T 02 A D V A N C E 1 . 1 6 20805 7 30002012 6 P R E O S U B J A C J T P R E D O B J A P R P A O V B A U X V A U X V V E R B O E T O E T N O U N C O O R N O U N O E T S V E R B D E T P P L N O U N P R E P N O U N F IR S T 1 M U S T B E 1 C O N E A L L T H A T D IG G IN G A N D S M O O T H IN G W H IC H G A IN S N O IN C R U S T E D M E D A L S F R O M W A R . 254 5 20321 7 30003001 S U B J P R E O A P R P O E T N O U N V E R B P R E P N O U N T H E M E N U O R K E O L IK E G A R D E N E R S . , 10 25694 8 33001001 3 S U B J P R E O A P R P O E T A O J N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N M V C H IE F T A IN A N C E S T O R S H A O L IV E D A T G L A N D O R E F O R M A N Y C E N T U R IE S 3 25705 8 33001012 P R E O C O M P V E R B A O V B A O J W E R E l V E R Y W E L L -K N O W N . 23 2S708 B 33002001 8 P R E O S U B J P R E O O B J A P R P *IN F O B J A P R P s i r pU p Sow piei i i Sn aoj noun prep noun prep oet noun ppl aovb t °* verb t S H Ifi C O U L O P A S S T H E O L D H E A D O F K lN S A L E W IT H O U T S O M E B O A T S P U T T IN G O F F T 02 E X C H A N G E T H E T IM E O F 0 A Y W IT H H E R I 16 25732 8 33002025 5 S U B J P R E O A P R P S U B J P R E O * .A C > J N C U N V E R B P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N P R O N A U X V V F R B S A Y V N A M E W A S O N M E N 'S T O N G U E S IN H A L .F 1 T H E S E A — P O R T S O F E U R O P E * I 0 A R E 1 A S h o rt and a Long T -U nit from Each Group 2 194 1 1C20001 2 S U B J P R E O P R O N V E R 8 H E IN V E S T IG A T E D 36 773 1 2030001 10 S U B J A P R P *tN F A P R P P R E O O B J C O M P O B J C C M P A P P P D E T N O U N P P E P G E R T O * V E R B P R E P P R O N A U X V C O O R V E R B P R O N P P L O E T A O J N O U N C O O R A O V B P P L P R E P O E T N O U N C O Q R N O U N P P L P R E P C E T N O U N P R E P A O J N O U N C C O R N O U N H IS F E L L O W S . U P O N S T A N D IN G ! T 02 G A Z E A T H IM . W O U L D E IT H E R F IN D H IM H O L D IN G A S T O U T FISH . O P N E R V O U S L Y S T R U G G L IN G W IT H A H O O K A N D L IN E E N T A N G L E D IN T H E H O R D E S Q F V IN D IC T IV E W E E O S A N O S T IC K S O N T H E B O T T O M . 2 4463 2 9048001 2 S U B J P R E D P R O N V E R B T H E Y D E P A R T E O * 43 6675 2 12036001 18 S U B J P R E D C O M P A P R P *IN F O B J 4 IN F O B J A O J T S U B J P R E D A P R P A D J T P R E O A P R P A D J T P R E O A P R P O E T N O U N V E R B A O V B A D J A D V B P R E P P R O N T O * V E R B P R O N V E R B C O O R V E R B O E T A D J N O U N D E T S N O U N V E R B P R E P D E T D E T N O U N C O O R O E T N O U N O E T S V E R B C O O R O F T A C J N O U N T H E A U D IE N C E W A S J U S T E N T H U S IA S T IC E N O U G H O V E R IT T 02 H A V E ! H E R R E T U R N A N O S IN G A S O R R O W F U L L A Y I• W H O S E L IN E S T O L D O F A M O T H E R 'S L O V E A N D A S W E E T H E A R T W H O W A IT E D A N D A Y O U N G M A N W H O W A S L O S T A T S E A U N D E R T H E M O S T H A R R O W IN G C IR C U M S T A N C E S * 255 3 48064 4 43146001 2 SU 8J P R E O P R O N A U X V V E R B T H E Y H A O S T R U T T E D * A S 511T8 4 45 015001 1 0 S U B J P R E D A P R P P R E D A P R P A D J T A P R P P R E D C O M P A P R P D E T N O U N A D V B P P L A U X V V E R B P R E P D E T N C U N C O O P V E R B P R E P A O J N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N C O O R P R E P P R O N P R E P D E T P P L C O O R P P L N O U N D E T S P R E P O E T N C U N P R E P D E T N O U N T H E R IFLES. O N C E L O A D E D . W E P E J E R K E D T O T H E S H O U L D E R A N O F IR E D W IT H O U T A P P A R E N T A IM IN T O T H E S M O K E O R A T O N E O F T H E B L U R R E D A N O S H IF T IN G F O R M S W H I C H U P O N T H E F IE L D B E F O R E T H E R E G IM E N T H A D B E E N 1 G R O W IN G L A R G E R A N D L A R G E R L IK E P U P P E T S U N O E R A M A G IC IA N 'S H A N O * 5 10226 5 18C 66001 2 S U B J P R E O D E T A O J N C U N V E R B A O V B A W H IT E F O R M S H O N E F O R T H * 45 12500 S 19141008 13 A P R P P P E O S U B J A P R P S U B J A P R P S U B J A O J T P R E D O B J A P R P O B J A P R P P R E P O E T O E T N O U N P R E P D E T A D J N O U N P R E P N O U N A U X V V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P A O J N O U N O E T N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P A D J N O U N O E T N O U N D E T S V E R B D E T N O U N O E T N O U N IN T O T H IS K ID 'S N O S T R IL S . A T T H E E X P E C T A N T M O M E N T O F S L A U G H T E R . H A O C O M E T H E S C E N T O F N E W -M O W N H A Y . A F R A G R A N C E F R O M A F IE L D O F P R O S T R A T E G R A S S * A F R A G R A N C E W H I C H C O N T A IN E Q T H E SU N SH IN E . T H E B E E S. T H E P E A C E O F M E A D O W S A N D T H E W O N D E R O F A D IS T A N T C R O O N IN G ! S T R E A M * 2 15T 59 6 21032001 S U B J P R E O P R O N V E R B O N E C A M E * 46 I 7064 22009001 A O J T S U B J A P P P P R E D S U B J P R E O C O M P *IN F A D J T S U B J P R E D A P R P S U B D SU 60 D E T P P L N O U N P R E P D E T D E T N O U N T O W V E R B D E T N O U N C O O R N O U N T O * A S IF T H E D IS P L A Y E O l D E L IG H T S O F S U C H A E N T IC IN G , T T W A S S C U L L Y 'S H A B IT T Q 2 G O M E E T T H E L E IS U R E L Y T R A IN S T H A T S T O P P E D S E D U C T IO N S U P O N A N Y M A N T H A T H E M IG H T 21 O B J * I N F O B J A D J T P R E D A P R P * IN F O B J A P R P A O J N O U N A U X V N O T A D V B V E R B P R O N V E R B O E T V E R B D E T A D J N O U N O E T S V E R B P R E P N O U N B L U E H O T E L W E R E N C T S U F F IC IE N T L Y E V E R Y M O R N IN G A N D E V E N IN G T Q 2 A T R O M P E R A N D W O R K 1 H IS S E E W A V E R IN G . G R IP S A C K 4 23226 7 31027001 3 S U B J P R E D C O M P P R O N V E R B A O V B A O J H E S E E M E D V E R Y H A P P Y ! 73 23679 7 310460Q 1 25 S U B J P R E O A P R P A D J T S U B J A P R P P R E D C C M P A P P P C O M P *!N F C O M P A P R P C O M P O B J A P R P *IN F O B J * IN F A P R P A O J T S U B J P R E D O B J A P R P D E T N O U N V E R B A D V B P P E P D E T A O J A D J C O O R A O V B A D J N O U N S U 8 D D E T N C U N P P L P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P P R O N V E R B A O J A D J N C U N P R E P D E T N O U N A O V B A O J T O * V E R B N O U N T H E B L O C K H O U S E S T O O D A L W A Y S F O R S O M E B IG . C L U M S Y A N O R A T H E R IN C O M P E T E N T A N IM A L * W H IL E T H E IN S U R G E N T S , S C A T T E R E O l O N T W O SID E S O F IT. W E R E 1 L IT T L E E N T E R P R IS IN G C R E A T U R E S O F A N O T H E R SPE C IE S. T O O W IS E T 0 2 C O M E T O O N E A R 3. B U T J O Y O U S L Y R A G G IN G A T IT S E A S IE S T F L A N K S A N O A 3 26322 8 34009001 S U B J O B J P R E O P R C N N O U N V E R B I L IT T L E 2 K N E W * 256 33 3!100 8 39012013 14 S U B J P R E D A P R P O B J A P R P A O J T P R E O C O M P *IN F A P R P A O J T P R E O O B J A P R P P R O N V E R 8 A O V B P R E P A O J N O U N N O U N P R E P D E T A O J N C U N N O T A D V B A D V B A D J C O O R A O J O E T S V E R B A O V B P P L T C * V E R B P R E P N O U N D E T S A U X V V E R B P R O N P R E P D E T A O J N O U N T H E Y K E P T O F F W I T H F IG U R A T IV E P IK E S A T T E M P T S O F A C E R T A IN C L A S S N O T Q U IT E S O H IG H A N O M IG H T Y W H O S E E M E D F O R E V E R T R Y X N G 1 T 02 E D G E 1 IN T O S IT U A T IO N S W H I C H W O U L O B E N E F IT T H E M O N T H E S O C IA L L A D D E R * Sentences w ith Participles U . 1 l 1001001 6 S U R J A B S U A P R P A B S U A B C P R E O D E T N O U N D E T N C U N P R E P A D J N O U N C O O R N C U N O E T N O U N A O J A O J C O C R P P L V E R B A O V B A P A S S A G E * t h e F L C O R O F D A M P C L A Y A N D P E B B L E S * T H E W A L L S S L IM Y . G R E E N -M Q S S E O A N O D R IP P IN G * S L O P E D O C W N W A R D . 2? 122 1 1 0 1 2 0 0 1 10 S U B J P R F D C O M R C L A U S U R J A P R R P R F O *IN F C B J A P P P D E T N O U N V E R B A D J C O O P A D J C O O R O E T N O U N A O V B P P L P R E P N O U N V E R B T O * V F R B O E T N O U N A D V B P »E P D F T N C U N M I« C L O T H E S W E R E ! W E T A N D M U D -C O V E C F O . A N D H IS E Y E S . N E A R L Y B L IN D E D B Y S M O K E . T P I C D ' T O ? P IE R C F T H E D A R K N E S S A L W A Y S U E F O R E H fS T O R C H . 2 1 3793 2 9002001 9 S U B J P R E D OAPRP A D J T P R E D A P R P P R E O A P P P P P O N A U X V V E R B N C U N P R E P P P L N C U N P R E P D E T N C U N O E T S A U X V V E R B A D V B P R E P O E T N O U N C H O P V E R B P L E P P P O N H C W A S 1 T H R O W IN G S T O N E S A T H C W L IN G U R C H IN S F R O M D E V IL 'S R O W W H O W E R E C IR C L IN G M A O I .Y A B O U T T H R H E A P A N D P E L T IN G A T H IM . 1 0 3B 33 2 9 C 05 001 4 S U R J A P R P P R E O A P R P N C U N P R F P P P L N C U N V F « = * R A O V B P R E P D F T A D J N C U N H O W L S O F R E N E W E D W R A T H W E N T U P F R O M D E V IL 'S R O W l T H R O A T S . IS S U R J A P R P P R F D D E T N O U N P P E P N C U N A P IC T U R E F R O M 31003 3 4! C 2 2 O 0 1 A P R P C L A U S U R J P R E O A P R P O E T P P L N O U N V E R B P R E P O E T A O J N C U N C O O R O E T N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P a n illustrated w e e k l y w a s u po n t h e l o g w a l l a n o th r ee rifles W E R p P A R A L L E L E D O N P E G S . I 3 3 J052 3 4 1026001 4 S U B J P R E D O B J A P « P D F T A D J N C U N V E R B D F T A D J N C U N P R E P N C U N P R E P D E T P P L N C U N A S M A L L W I N D O W S H O T A N O B L IQ U E S Q U A R E O F L IG H T U P O N T H E C L U T T E R E D F L O O R . 20 45B96 A 430C 1C 01 1 0 S U B J P R F D A P R P C L A U S U B J P R E D O B J C O M P A P R P C O M P O F T N O U N V E R B A D V B P R F P D E T N O U N C O O P D E T P P L N O U N V E R B O E T N O U N P P L P A R T P R E P D E T N O U N P P L T H E C O L O l P A S S E D R E L U C T A N T L Y F R O M T H E F A R T H A N D T H E R E T IR IN G F O G S R E V E A L E D A N A R M Y S T R E T C H E D O U T | O N T H F H IL L S. R E S T IN G . 257 45 4505? 4300400 I 14 S U R J A P R P P P E D A P R P C L A U A P R P A O J T S U R J P R E O A P R P ’ S U B J P R E O O P J O E T N O U N A D 4 N O U N P R E P O E T P R E P D E T S U B D D E T N C U N A U X V V E R E P R E P D E T A D J A R IV E R , A M O E O -T lN T E O IN T H E S H A D O W O F A T N IG H T W H E N T H E S T R E A M H A O 3 H C C M f OF A C R O S S T H f ~ R E D E Y E -L IK E G L E A M O F H O S T IL E C A M P -F IR E S S E T IN T H E L O W B R O W S O F D IS T A N T H IL L S. A P R P N O U N C O O R P R E P N O U N N O U N V E R B P R E P D E T D E T N C U N P R O N A U X V V E R B A O V B O F T A D J N O U N IT S B A N K S . P U R L E D A T T H E A R M Y 'S F E E T A N D A S O R R O W F U L B L A C K N E S S O N E C O U L D S E E 1 0 ft02J 5 18002001 6 S U B J A P R P S U B J P R E D A D J T S U B J D F T A D J N C U N P R E P N C U N P P L A D V B V E P B S U P O N O U N T W O L IT T L E W IN G S o f W I L L O W F L IP -F L A P P IN G IN C E S S A N T L Y S E R V E A S O O O R S * A D J C O O R A O J 30 e< 3 5 3 5 18004001 A P R P A D J T P P E O S U B J A P R P P R F P O E T N C U N T H £ P V F .R P A D V 8 D E T A D J N C U N P9E ° C F T A D J N C U N P P E P D E T A D J O N T H E S ID E W A L K T H E R E IS A L W A Y S A C E C U W A T IV E E F F E C T IN L O U N G E R S * R A N G IN G F R O M T HF N E W L Y - A R R T V F D A N O S U P E R IO R T O U R IS T TO T H E C L D V E T E R A N O F T H E S IL V E R M IN E S B R O N Z E D B Y V IO L E N T S U N S # N O U N P R £ P N C U N P P L N C U N P P L P R F P A D J P R E P D E T N C U N 28 I S O ft 4 6 21003001 1? S U P J P R E D A P R P A O J T P P F .O A P R P C L A U S U R J A P R P P R E O O B J A P R P O E T N O U N V F R B PP£o D E T N O U N P R F P N O U N P R E P P R E P D E T N O U N O E T S V E R B P R E P P P L N C U N C O C R P R C N P R F P G E T N O U N V E R B O E T N C U N P P E P O F T N O U N T H E S E W A V E S W fP E l O F T H E H U E O F S L A T E , S A V E F O R T H E T C P S . W H I C H W E P E 1 O F F O A M IN G W H IT E !. A N D A L L 2 O F T H E •M E N K N E W T H E C O L O R S OF T H E S E A # • ?7 I50R 2 6 21004001 12 S U B J P »F D C L A U A P R P S U P J P R E D C O M P A P R P A D J T P R E O C O M P A P R P O C T N O U N V E R B C O O P vrP fl C O O P V F O R C O O P V E R B C O O R P R E P O E T N O U N O E T N O U N V E R B A O J P R F P N O U N O E T S V E R B P » L A D V B P P E P N C U N P R E P N O U N T H E H O R IZ O N N A R R C w F D A N D W ID E N E D , A N D D IP P E D A N O P O S E . A N O A T A L L T IM E S IT S E D G E W A S J A G G E D W IT H W A V E S T H A T S E E M E D T H R U S T U P IN P O IN T S L IK E R O C K S . 2? 2 0 7R 4 7 3 0 00Z 001 12 subj aprp p n er. c o m p *inf c l a u pred subj ad jt ppfo obj aprp O E T A O J N C U N P R « ? P D F T N O U N V E R B A D J T C * V E R B C O O P A O V P A U X V A U X V V F R B D E T N C U N C no« N O U N D E T S V F P D D E T P P L N O U N P R E P N C U N T H E L IG H T P A T T F P IF .S IN T H E F t A R Wf £PF! T M P a T IC N T T O P A D V A N C E 1 • R U T F IR ST 1 M U S T B F .l D O N E A L L T H A T D IG G IN G A N D S M O O T H IN G W H I C H . G A IN S N O IN C R U S T E D M E D A L S F R Q V W A R . D E T 13 20054 7 30006001 3 S U R J P R E D 4 P P D D E T N O U N P P L A U X V V E R B P R E P O E T A D J N C U N P R E P A D J A O J N O U N T H F M £ N W O R K I N G W E R E D °F S 5F D IN T H E C O N S !S T E N T B L U E ! O F U N IT F D S T A T E S R E G U L A R S . 4C 2570 P R r .o S U B J P P E D O B J A P R p * 1 N F A TV D O C T N C U N A U X V V F Pp O F r D ET N C U N P R F P N C U N P PF .p F R G N H A P ()LY A SH I P c o u l d P A ss T H F . ' T 0 2 E X C H A N G E T H E TI m e O F D A Y T C N G U F 5 tN H A L F 1 T HF sE a-P O P i -* -* < 3 0 2 0 0 1 1 4 O B J A P R P C L A U S U B J P R E O A P P P S U B J P R E D A D J N O U N P R F P N O U N P »£P D E T N C U N P P L A C V S T O * V E R B C O O P G E T A C J N O U N V F .R G P R E P D E T N O U N P R F P V F R B 2? ?«748 8 33003001 1 1 S U B J P P E O A P R P A D J T p o f= D A P R P C L A U S U P J P R E 0 O B J A P R P D E T N O U N V E R B P R £ P N O U N O E T S V F R P P R E P N C U N P P L P R F P N C U N C O O P P R O N V E R B O E T N O U N prep ppcn p( tp nrr adj n o u n prfp d e t ppl n c u n M Y A N C E S T O R S L IV E O IN C A S T L E S W H I C H W E R E 1 L IK E C H U R C H E S S T U C K l O N E N D A N D T H E Y D R A N K T H F P E S T ? Q<= E V E R Y T H IN G A M ID T H E J O Y O U S C R IE S D F A D E V O T E D P E A S A N T R Y . 258 S en ten ces w ith A b so lu te s^ 17 ] 1 1001001 6 S U B J A B S U A P R P A B S U A B C P R E O D E T N O U N O E T N O U N P R E P A D J N C U N C O O R N O U N O E T N O U N A D J A O J C O O R P P L V E R B A O V B A P A S S A G E . T H E F L O O R C F D A M P C L A Y A N O P E B B L E S * T H E W A L L S S L IM Y * G R E E N — M O S S E D A N D D R IP P IN G * S L O P E D O O W N W A R O * 12 307 I 1029001 6 S U B J A B S U A B C S U B J P R E O A P R P P P L D E T N O U N P P L D E T N O U N A D J P P O N V E R B P R E P D E T N O U N F A S C IN A T E D T H E IR T O N G U E S C L E A V IN G * T H E IR B L O O D C O L D * T H E Y A R O S E T O T H E IR F E E T * 14 446S 2 9049001 5 S U O J P R E O A P R O A B S U A P R P O E T N O U N V E R B A C V R A D V B P R E P D E T A D J N C U N P R E P N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N T H E M A N P A C E D P L A C ID L Y A L O N G ! W IT H T H E A P P L E -W O O D E M P L E M O F S E R F N IT Y B E T W E E N H IS T E E T H * 26 6216 2 12012001 8 S U B J A P P R A B S U A B C A P P P P P E O O B J A P R P D E T A D J N C U N P R E P N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N D E T N O U N N O U N P R E P A D J N O U N V E R B D E T A O J N O U N P R F P D E T N O U N oR £D Q E T A O J A O J N C U N A N O C C A S IO N A L P A R T Y O F S A IL O R S F R O M A W A R -S H lP , T H E IR F A C E S P IC T U R E S O F S T U R D Y H E A L T H , S P E N T T H E E A R L IE R H O U R S O F T H E E V E N IN G A T T H E S M A L L R O U N D T A B L E S * 24 4 4 44097001 It P R E D A P R P A B S U A P R P S U B J P R E D *IN F A P R P A O J T C O M P A P P P A O V B P R E P D C T A D J N O U N P R E P O F T N O U N P P O N A U X V V E R B T O * V E R B A D V B P R E P O F T A D J N O U N S U O O N C U N P P E P O F T A O J N O U N N O W W IT H T H F N E W -B ^ R N O U F S ’ T IO N T N H IS M IN D H E W A S 1 C O M P E L L E D T 02 S IN K R A C K IN T O H IS O L D P L A C E A S P A R T O F A B L U E D E M O N S T R A T IO N * 22 6?902 4 51004001 9 A B S U A B C A P R P S U B J P R F D O B J *IN F 00 J A P R P D F T n uU N P P L P P L P R F P N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N P P O N V E R B N O U N T O * V E R B N C U N O ^ f- O O F T A O J N C U N H IS V ISIO N R E IN G 2 U N M O L E S T E D 9 Y S M O K E F R O M T H E R tF L E S O F H IS C O M P A N IO N S * H E H A O l O P P O R T U N IT IE S T P 2 S E F P A R T S O F T H E H A R D F IG H T * 35 9516 5 18041001 13 A P R P S U B J P R E O A B S U A B C A P R P A B S U S U B J A B S U O B J A P R P S U B J A P R P P P E P D E T N O U N O E T P P L N O U N V E R B D E T A O J N O U N A D J C O O R A O J P R E P D E T A D J N O U N C O O R A D J N C U N O E T A D J N C U N P P L D E T A D J N C U N P R E P D E T N O U N P P L A O V B N O U N O N T H E S ID E W A L K A G A Z IN G C R D W O S A U N T E R E D * T H E B E T T E R C L A S S SE L F -SA T ISF IE D A N D P R O U D , IN T H E IR D E R B Y H A T S A N D C U T A W A Y C O A T S * T H E L O W E R C L A S S E S M U F F L IN G T H E IR D A R K F A C E S IN T H E IR B L A N K E T S * SL IP P IN G A L O N G 1 IN L E A T H E R S S A N D A L S * 10 9671 5 I0C 49O O I 6 S U P J A P R P P R E O A P R P A B S U A P R P N O U N Pn L P R F .P D F T N O U N V E R B A D V B P R E P D E T N O U N P R E P D F T N C U N P R E P N O U N P R E P O F T N O U N P O P E N T H R O N E D B F H lN D T H E B A R , L D O K F C O V E R 2 A T T H IS S T O R M W IT H A S H A D O W O F A N X IE T Y U P C N H IS F A C E . 40 15212 S U B J A P R P P P E D C O M P C L A U OB T or t N O U N p r ? E P D F T N O U N P R F P D F T N O U N P R E P P R O N V E R B A O V B D E T 6 210100C 1 16 ® S F N A P R P P R E D S U B J A P R P A B S U A P R P A B S U A B O N O U N P P E P N O U N V E R B O E T N O U N P R E P A D J N O U N D E T O B J A P R P A D J N C U N C O O R A O V B P R E P N O U N P P L A O V B N O U N T H E m a n n p r n « = H E P sc pa m r lc o v e r th esf w a l l s o f w a t e r IS a M Y S T IC thing. A N O * ; M O R E O V E R . A T T H E T O P O F T H E M w E P F l O R O lN A P fL Y T H E S E P R O B L E M S IN W H IT E W A T F R * T H E F O A M R A C IN G D O W N F R O M T H E S U M M IT O F F A C M W A V F . R E Q U IR IN G A N E W L E A P , A N D A L E A P F R O M T H E A IR . 259 30 16674 6 21085001 1 6 »SE N A O J T pr ed S IJ B J * IN F S U B J P B E D O B J *IN F O B J *IN F A P R P SU 8J A P P P A B S U A B C A O V B S U B D T H E S V E R B O E T A D J N C U N T O * V F R B P P O N V E R B A D V B D F T N O U N T O * V E R B D E T N O U N C O O R V E R B P R F P N O U N P P L P R E P D E T N O U N C O O R P R E P N O U N A D J T H E N IF T H E R E R F N O T A N G IB L E T H IN G T O ? H O O T H E F E E L S . P E R H A P S . T H E O E S IR E T 02 I C O N F R O N T A P E R S O N IF IC A T IO N A N D IN D U L G E IN P L E A S . B O W E O l T O O N E 1 K N E E . A N D W I T H H A N D S S U P P L IC A N T . 34 22266 7 30C 74001 1 1 P R E O A P R P P P E O S U B J A B S U A B O C L A U A P R P S U B J P P E O A P R P V E R B P R F P O E T N O U N C O O R P R F P D E T N O U N A U K V D F T N O U N C O O R N O U N D E T N O U N P P L D E T P P L N O U N C O O P P R E P D E T N O U N O E T A D J N O U N V E R B P R E P D E T A D J N O U N P P E P N O U N A R R A Y E D D F L O W T H E H IL L A N D B E H IN D T H E B A T T E R Y W E R E ! T H E H O R S F S A N O L IM B E R S . T H E R ID E R S C H E C K IN G T H E IR P A W IN G M O U N T S . A N D B E H IN D E A C H P ID E P A P E O B L A N K E T F L A M E D A G A IN S T T H E F E R V F N l G R E E N 1 O F T H F B U S H E S . 51 22300 7 30075001 23 A D J T S U B J P R E O A P R P S U B J A P R P P R E O A P R P C L A U P R E O O B J A P R P A B S U A B C A O J T S U B J A B S U A P P P A D J T P R E O C O M P A P R P V O C S U B D D E T N O U N V E R B P R E P D E T N G U N P R C N P R E P O E T A D J N O U N V E R B P R E P C E T N O U N P R E P D E T P P L N O U N C O O R V E R B D E T N O J N P R E P N C U N A O J S U B O N O U N A O J A D J A D J N O U N A S T H E IN F A N T R Y M O V E D A L O N G T H E R O A D , S O M E ! O F T H E B A T T E R Y H O R S E S T U R N E D A T T H E N O IS E O F T H E T R A M P L IN G F E E T A N D S U R V E Y E D T H E M E N W IT H E Y E S D E E P A S W E L L S . S E R E N E . M O U R N F U L , G E N E R O U S E Y E S . L IT H E A R T -B R E A K IN G L Y W IT H S O M E T H IN G T H A T W A S A K IN T O A P H IL O S O P H Y . A R E L IG IO N H 25 27787 8 36027001 15 A P R P S U R J P P P D C O M P A D J T S U B J A D J T S U B J P R E O C L A U A B S U A B C P R E D O B J A P R P P R E P D C .T N C U N P R O N V E R B A D V R A D J O E T S N O U N P P L S U B O N O U N A U X V V E R B C O O R P R O N P P L O E T A D J N C U N V E R B P R C N P R F P D E T N O U N B Y T H IS T IM E , T H E Y W E R E 1 S O A N G R Y T H A T M IC K E Y . S E E IN G 1 H O W T H IN G S W E R E G O IN G . A N O I 0F IN G 2 A M E R E L A D , T O O K M E F R O M T H E R O O M . S U B J P R E D A P R P A B S U A B C P P O N V E R B A D V R P R E P D E T N O U N V F R R A O j R 38011001 1 0 C L A U S U O J A P P P P P E O C O M P N O U N P R O N A D V B P P L C O O R A D V B A O J C O O R D E T N O U N P R E P D E T •'f 0u T U P O N T H F B R ID G E . A L L ? M U C H 2 IN T E R E S T E D B U T S O M E W H A T F E A R F U L F O R T H F N O IS E D F T H E C IT Y W A S T E R R IB L E . P h rases in T ext as a Whole O rdered by F u n ctio n A P P P P R E P A O J N O U N P P L P R E P D E T A D J N O U N P R F P A O J N O U N 4 5 R R 1 O F H O S T IL E C A M P -F IR E S S E T IN T H E . L O W B R O W S O F D IS T A N T H IL L S. h : A P R P P P E P A O J N O U N P P L P R E P N Q U N O F O L D S O L D IE R S * H A R D E N E D T O B A T T L E A P P P P P E P A O J N O O N P R E P 5A 30 O F H E A V Y V E H IC L E S A T T H R O U G H D E N S E S H R U B B E R Y F R O M 260 aprp P R E P A D J N O U N P R F P A O J N O U N 1074 L IK E B P A S S 1 N A IL S IN C R U D E C A S K E T S . * . 53602 W I T H L A R G E F L A S H E S O F O R A N G E -C O L O R E D F L A M E . aprp prep A O J N O U N P R E P A O J N O U N P R E P A O J N O U N 45946 F R O M L O N G T R O U G H S O F L IQ U ID M U D T O P R O P E R I T H O R O U G H F A R E S . A P P P P R E P A D J N O U N P R E P D E T A D J A D J N O U N 31644 A T K E N S IN G T O N G A R D E N S O N A F IN F S U N D A Y A F T E R N O O N . A P R P P R F P A D J 7 34! N O U N P R E P D E T A D J N O U N A T R E G U L A R IN T E R V A L S O N T H E L O W E R S H E L V E S . 11373 O F O U IF T M E M B E R S O F T H E A N G L O -S A X O N C O L O N Y 31521 T O K E N S IN G T O N G A R D E N S O N A su n o a y afterno o n. A P P P P R E P A D J N O U N P R E P O E T A O J N O U N P R E P D E T N O U N 28957 O F O L D W O M E N IN T H E R E D G L O W 1 O F THF. P E A T — F IR E A P P P P R E P A D J N O U N P R E P O E T A O J P P L A D J N O U N 11262 W I T H B L U F F L A S H E S F R O M A G R E A T P U Z Z IN G E L E C T R IC L A M P , A P R P P R F P A D J P P L N O U N P R E P O F T O E T N O U N A O V B P R E P O F T N O U N 53191 O F D A R K B O D IE S W IT H A F E W H E A D S S T IC K IN G C U R IO U S L Y 0V F R 2 T H E T O P . A P R P P R E P A D J 4 1 7 581 1 N O U N P P E P D E T N O U N IN A P O A P F N T D E S P E R A T IO N T O T T S F O U N D A T IO N , W I T H W H O L E W H E E L S , O N T H E S ID E -W A L K , 5978 IN D IF F E R E N T P A R T S O F t h e city. 8595 IN T O G L O O M Y D IS T R IC T S N E A R T H E R IV E R * 1414 1 L IK E M O N S T E R L IZ A R O S T O W A R D T H E C A M P . 17306 A T V A R IO U S P O IN T S O N IT S su r fa c e IN B E R S E R K A B A N D O N A T H IS F O E . 19671 O F L E A F S H A D O W S O N T H E G R O U N D . 20C 29 I N S IL V E R Y W A V E S O V E R T H E G R A S S * 22026 O F P R E L IM IN A R Y R E F L E C T IO N F O R T H IS S ! T U A T IO N * T O O F F E N S IV E T A C T IC S R E F O R E A N A S S A U L T 48278 O F M O N O T O N O U S L IF E IN A C A M P , 5.1320 W IT H S H E E P -L IK E 1 T H E L IE U T E N A N T 1 83 3 0 28461 E Y E S A T 261 51636 O F D A R K D E B P IS U P O N T H E G R O U N D * 53786 W IT H D E X T E R O U S H O R S E M A N S H IP P A S T T H E M A N * A P R P P P E P A D J N O U N P P E P D E T N O U N C O O R P R E P P R O N P R E P D E T P P L C O O R P P L N O U N SUSP W IT H O U T A P P A R E N T A I M IN T O T H E S M O K E O R A T O N E O F T H E B L U R R E D A N O shifting fo r m s aprp P R E P aoj N C U N P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P D E T A O J N C U N C O O R P P E P O E T P P L N O U N P R E P O E T N C U N 46$ 98 W IT H E A G E R E A R S T O T H E W O R D S nr T H E T A L L S O L O IE R A N D T O T H E V A R IE D C O M M E N T S O F H IS C O M R A D E S * A ppp P P E P A O J N O U N P R E P O E T N C U N P R E P D E T N O U N 20979 O F S P A R E A M M U N IT IO N A T T H E T O P O F T H E H IL L A P R P P R F P A O J N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N P R E P D E T P P L N O U N 20230 L IK E B L O O D Y S P E C T R E S A T T H F A P E R T U R E S O F A H A U N T E D H O U S E * A O p p P R E P A O J N O U N P R E P O E T N C U N P R E P N O U N 20362 !N P H O S P H O R E S C E N T IN A C T IO N L IK E A P IL E O F E M E R A L D S . A P R P P R E P A D J N O U N P R E P O E T P P L A O J N C U N 54527 IN H O U N D -L IK E L E A P S T O W A R D T H E W A V IN G B L U E L IN E S * A P R P P R E P A D J N O U N P R E P O E T P P L N O U N 46653 O F W H IT E R L IG H T U P O N T H E C L U T T F R F .O F L O O R * 54635 L IK F L IG H T T O Y S B E T W E E N T H E C O N T E N D IN G F O R C E S * A P R P P R E P A O J N O U N P R E P N O U N 8 96 5 W IT H V A R IO U S S H A D E S O F IN T E R E S T 143C 5 W IT H T E N O F R D R E A M S O F A S S A S S I N A T IO N * A P R P P R E P A D J N O U N P R E P N O U N P R E P A O J N O U N 559 W I T H Y E L L O W FIN ISH IN G S. IN A C C O R D A N C E W IT H S U L L IV A N A E S T H E T IC S . 8064 O F W F T W A N D E R E R S . IN A T T IT U O H S O F C H R O N IC D E J E C T IO N * 262 Word Frequency Counts Group 1 Group 2 146 A 196 A 1 A -G L IT T E R 1 A B L E 1 A B A N D O N M E N T 8 A B O U T 3 A B O U T 4 A B O U T 1 1 A B O V E 2 A B O V E 1 A B R U P T L Y 1 A C C O R D IN G L Y 2 absenc e 2 A C C U R A C Y 1 A C C E N T E D 1 A C H IE V E D 1 A C C E N T E O t 1 A C K N O W L E D G M E N T 1 A C C E N T S Z A C R O S S Group 4 239 A 1 A -6L A Z E 1 A -F L A R E 13 A B O U T 1 49 O U T 1 XA B S E N C E X A C C E P T 1 A C C O R O IN G 1 A C C O U N T S \ A C C U M U L A T E Group 5 163 A 1 a b a n d o n e d 1 A O ! L IT Y 1 A 8 O 0 E 1 A B O U T 3 A B O U T 1 2 A B O V E 1 A B U S E D I A B U S IN G 1 A C C O R D IN G Group 6 i 92 A 1 A B A N D O N 2 a bo m inable 1 A B O M IN A T IO N 1 abom inations X A B O U T 1 A B O V E 2 A B R U P T 1 A B S E N C E 1 A B S O L U T E Group 7 164 A 4 A B O U T 3 A B O V E 2 ABSOLUTELY 1 A B S U R D I A C C O M P L IS H 1 A C C O U N T E D 1 A C C O U T R E M E N T S 4 A C R O S S 1 A C T IO N Group 8 I 90 A 1 A -B L A Z 6 1 A B IL IT Y 4 A B L E 5 A 1 3 O U T 2 A B R O A D 1 A B R U P T L Y 1 A B S O L U T E 1 A B S O L U T E L Y I A C C ID E N T A C o m p a ra b le P assage fro m C h ap ter V II of T h e R e d B a d g e of C o u ra g e M an u scrip t a n d D raft M anuscript 5 51833 4 46018001 S U B J P R E O 08 J D E T N Q U N V E R B P R O N N C U N T H IS L A N D S C A P E G A V E H IM A S S U R A N C E . 5 51338 4 46019001 2 C O M P O B J D E T A D J N O U N P P L N O U N A F A IR F IE L D . H O L D IN G LIFE. 6 .51343 A 46020001 S U B J P R E D C O M P A P R P 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 P R O N V E R B O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N IT W A S T H E R E L IG IO N O F P E A C E . 12 51849 4 46021001 7 S U B J P R E D A D J T S U B J P R E D *IN F O B J P R O N A U X V V E R B S U B D D E T A D J N O U N A U X V V E R B T O * V E R B N O U N IT W O U L D O IE IF IT S T IM ID E Y E S W E R E C O M P E L L E D T Q 2 S E E B L O O O . 13 51861 4 46022001 6 S U B J P R E D O B J * 1N F C C M P A R R P P R O N V E R B N O U N T O * V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P D E T A D J N O U N P R E P N C U N H E C O N C E IV E D N A T U R E T 02 B E A W O M A N W IT H A D E E P A V E R S IO N T O T R A G E D Y . 14 51874 4 46023001 8 S U B J P R E D O B J A P R P C L A U S U B J P R E D A P R P P R O N V E R B O E T N C U N P R E P D E T A O J N O U N C O O R P R O N V E R e P R E P P P L N O U N H E T H R E W A P IN E -C O N E A T A J O V IA L S Q U IR R E L A N O H E R A N W IT H C H A T T E R IN G F E A R . 22 51388 4 46024001 9 A P R P S U B J P R E O S U B J O B J S U B J A P R P P R E D A P R P A D J P R E P D E T N O U N P R O N V E R B C O O R P P L D E T N C U N A O V B P R E P P R E P D E T N O U N V E R B P R F P O C T N O U N P R E P N C U N H IG H IN A T R E E -T O P , H E S T O P P E D A N O . P O K IN G H IS H E A D C A U T IO U S L Y F R O M I3 E H IN 0 A B R A N C H , L O C K E D D O W N W I T H A N A IR O F T R E P ID A T IO N . /"•» 7 S1910 4 46025001 4 S U B J P R E D C O M P A P R P D E T N D UN V E R B A D J P R E P D E T N O U N T H E Y O U T H F E L T T R IU M P H A N T A T T H IS E X H IB IT IO N . 6 51917 4 46026001 4 A D J T P R E D S U B J P R E D T H E R V E R B D E T N O U N P R O N V E R B T H E R E W A S T H E L A W . H E SA ID . 6 51923 4 46027001 3 S U B J P R E D O B J N O U N A U X V V E R B P R O N D E T N O U N M A T U R E H A D G IV E N H IM A SIG N . 263 A O V B 264 14 51929 4 46028001 6 S U B J P R E O A P P P O B J P R E O A P P P O E T N O U N A O V B P R E P G E R D E T N O U N A U X V V E R B P R E P O E T N C U N P R E P N C U N T h e squirrel, im m ediately u po n recognizing a dang er* h a d ta k e n t o his legs* W IT H O U T A D O * 22 51943 4 46029001 7 S U B J P R E D S U B J O B J A P R P P R E O A P R P P R O N A U X V N O T V E R B A D V B P P L D E T A O J N O U N P R E P O E T N O U N C O O R V E R B P R E P D E T A O J N O U N P R E P D E T A D J N O U N H E O !9 N O T S T A N D S T O L ID L Y . D A R IN G H IS F U R R Y B E L L Y T O T H E M ISS IL E * A N D D IE W IT H A N U P W A R D 1 G L A N C E A T T H E S Y M P A T H E T IC H E A V E N S * 14 51965 4 46030001 A P R P S U B J P R E D A D J T S U B J P P E O O B J ~ " w i r r < c u u u J ?C U N P R O N A U X V V E R B A O V B A O V B S U B O D E T N O U N A U X V V E R B P R O N O N T H E C O N T R A R Y . H E H A O F L E D A Sl F A S T A S H IS lIgS C 6U L D C A R R Y H ^ M . J.4„„. ___ 4 46031001 8 - * » * » O V J I U U ] ££££ S iJ S H P R E O C O M P P R E O 3S E N C O M P A P R P a2S 2*«V S H i2 O E T A D J N O U N A D V B A C V 8 D E T N O U N P R E P D E T N C U N R A C ef A N G H 0 IN A R V S C U IR R E L T O O 5 D O U B T L E S S . N O P H IL O S O P H E R O F H IS !O 51993 4 46032001 7 S U B J P R E O S U B J A D J T S U B J P R E D A P R P D E T N O U N V E R B P P L O E T S N O U N V E R B P R E P OET N O U N T H E Y O U T H W E N O E O t F E E L IN G T H A T N A T U R E W A S O F H IS M IN D * 12 S U B J P R E D O B J P R O N V E R B D E T 52003 4 46033001 A P R P A D J T P R E O A D J T S U B J P R E D N C U N P P E P N C U N D E T S V E R B S U B D D E T N O U N V E R B S H E R E IN F O R C E D H IS A R G U M E N T S W I T H P R O O F S T H A T L IV E D W H E R E T H E S U N S H O N E * D raft 5 39512 3 41553001 3 S U H J P R E D O Q J D E T N O U N V E R B P R O N N C U N T H IS L A N D S C A P E G A V E H IM A S S U R A N C E * 6 39517 3 41554001. 4 S U B J P R E D C C M P A P R P P R O N V E R B O E T N O U N P R E P N O U N IT W A S T H E R E L IG IO N O F P E A C E * 1 2 39523 3 41555001 7 S U B J P R E D A D J T S U B J P R E D 4IN F O B J P R O N A U X V V E R B S U B D D E T A D J N O U N A U X V V E R B T O * V E R B N O U N IT W O U L O D IE IF IT S T IM ID E Y E S W E R E C O M P E L L E D T Q 2 S E E B L O O D * 265 13 39535 3 41556001 6 SU B J P R E D O B J »IN F C O M P A P R P P R O N V E R B N O U N T O * V E R B O E T N O U N P R E P D E T A D J N O U N P R E P N O U N H E C O N C E IV E D N A T U R E T 02 B E A W O M A N W I T H A D E E P A V E R S IO N T O T R A G E O Y . 16 39548 3 41557001 8 S U B J P R E D O B J A P R P C L A U S U B J P R E D A P R P ‘ P R O N V E R B D E T N O U N P R E P D E T A D J C O O R A D J N O U N C O O R P R O N V E R B P R E P P P L N O U N H E T H R E W A P IN E -C O N E A T A J O V IA L A N D P O T -V A L IA N T S Q U IR R E L A N O IT R A N W IT H C H A T T E R IN G F E A R . 6 39564 3 41558001 4 A D J T P R E D S U B J P R E D T H E R V E R B D E T N O U N P R O N V E R B T H E R E W A S T H E L A W . H E T H O U G H T . 6 39570 3 41559001 3. S U B J P R E O O B J N O U N A U X V V E R B P R O N O E T N O U N N A T U R E H A O G IV E N H IM A SIG N . 8 39576 3 41560001 7 S U B J P R E D S U B J A D J T S U B J P R E D A P R P P R O N V E R B P P L D E T S N C U N V E R B P R E P P R O N H E W E N D E D F E E L IN G T H A T N A T U R E A G R E E D W IT H H IM . 12 39584 3 41561001 9 S U B J P R E D O B J A P R P A D J T P R E D A D J T S U B J P R E O P R O N V E R B D E T N O U N P R F P N C U N D E T S V E R B S U D D D E T N O U N V E R B _ IT R E IN F O R C E D H IS A R G U M E N T S W I T H P R O O F S T H A T L IV E D W H E R E T H E S U N S H O N E . 266 APPENDIX D THE T-UNIT AS A MEASURE OF SYNTACTIC MATURITY In th e p a s t , s c h o la rs have used sen te n c e le n g th as a c r i t e r i o n f o r s tu d ie s o f s t y l e and a u th o rs h ip i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . R ec e n tly some s t a t i s t i c i a n s , n o ta b ly C. B. W illiam s, who d e fin e s se n te n c e le n g th as th e "number o f words betw een s u c c e s s iv e f u l l s t o p s , " have argued t h a t s e n te n c e le n g th d e fin e d t h i s way p ro v id e s a le g itim a te m easure o f s t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n . However, a number o f c r i t i c s d is a g r e e w ith se n te n c e le n g th as a r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r , one o f them, Kai Rander Buch, m a in ta in ing t h a t ov er a p e rio d o f y e a rs an a u th o r ’s se n te n c e le n g th may a l t e r so r a d i c a l l y t h a t "no p ro o f can w ith any c e r t a i n t y be e s ta b lis h e d to th e e f f e c t t h a t two sam ples an a u th o r 's s e n te n c e s ] can b elong to th e same c a te g o ry . C ra n e 's av erag e sen te n c e le n g th : Number Number o f Average Group2 o f Words S en ten ces S entence Length 1 3678 274 13.42 2 5022 287 17.50 4 6780 455 14.90 5 5269 281 18.75 6 5727 282 20.31 7 4862 226 20.51 8 6616 359 18.43 e x cep t f o r th e anomalous Maggie (Group two) and The 0 1 Ruddy (Group e ig h t) p r o g r e s s iv e ly in c r e a s e s th ro u g h tim e w ith a f a i r d if f e r e n c e b e tween th e e a r l i e s t and l a s t e s t work. The tu r n to s h o r t e r se n te n c e s in The 0 1 Ruddy i s th e most e a s i l y e x p la in e d . F i r s t p erso n n a r r a t i o n by a 267 young, e x u b eran t n a r r a to r - h e r o o b v io u sly c a l l e d f o r C ra n e 's p r o je c tin g a l i g h t - h e a r t e d , c o n v e r s a tio n a l s t y l e , to which s h o r t e r se n te n c e s con t r i b u t e . Y et, even so , The O'Ruddy's se n te n c e s s t i l l a re lo n g e r th an th e e a r l i e r work. The anomaly o f Maggie i s le s s e a s i l y e x p la in e d . However, c r i t i c s have o f te n n o te d th e uneven q u a l i t y o f M aggie; hence th e answer may sim ply l i e in th e p a ssa g es chosen. T hat t h i s seems to be t r u e i s in d ic a te d by an in d iv id u a l count o f words and s e n te n c e s in C h ap ter I and C hapter XVII o f M aggie. The average s e n te n c e le n g th in C h ap ter I , 14.62, i s more in k eeping w ith C ra n e 's " S u lliv a n County S k etch es" and The Red Badge, w hereas C hapter X V II's av erag e sen te n c e le n g th o f 17.98 approaches t h a t o f th e l a t e r work. Howevery a lth o u g h th e number o f words Crane p la c e s betw een f u l l s to p s a t d i f f e r e n t tim es in h i s c a r e e r may be a s t y l i s t i c f e a t u r e o f h is w r iti n g , i t need n o t in d i c a t e h is lo ad in g se n te n c e s w ith s t r u c t u r e s t h a t p ro v id e b o th v a r i e t y and th e means to i n s e r t n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s . In c re a se d s e n te n c e le n g th may sim ply r e s u l t from in c re a s e d compounding, which s c h o la r s u n i v e r s a l l y concede in c r e a s e s in in v e rs e p r o p o r tio n to th e developm ent o f m atu re, e f f e c t i v e w r iti n g . I t i s because o f t h i s f a c t t h a t s c h o la r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e whose g o a l i t i s to a s c e r t a i n th e p a ra m e te rs o f s y n t a c t i c m a tu r ity and how to enhance i t s grow th, have search ed f o r more a c c u ra te and r e l i a b l e mea surem ents o f s y n ta c tic co m p lex ity . In 1965 Hunt p roposed some new in d ic e s f o r a s s e s s in g language developm ent, th e m ost im p o rta n t b ein g th e T - u n it, a s y n ta c tic e n t i t y c o n s is tin g o f a main c la u s e and any sub o r d in a te c la u s e s o r p h ra s e s a tta c h e d to i t . Such a u n i t , Hunt c la im s, has th e advantage o f b ein g o b je c t iv e ly s e g re g a te d and p r e s e r v in g a 268 w r i t e r ’s s u b o rd in a tio n w h ile e lim in a tin g c o o rd in a tio n o f main c la u s e s , t h a t i s , com pounding.3 A lthough o th e r r e s e a r c h e r s have added o th e r in d ic e s such as th e number o f sen ten ce-co m b in in g tr a n s fo rm a tio n s p e r T- u n i t and o th e r s y n t a c t i c s t r a t e g i e s which c o n tr ib u te to a s y n t a c t i c a l l y m ature s t y l e , ^ th e number of words p e r T - u n it has tu rn e d o u t to be th e most r e l i a b l e s in g le in d ex . Hence, a new com puter program was d e v ise d to count o n ly T - u n its , none to count o th e r m easures which sometimes s t r a y i n t o sem an tics ( f o r exam ple, th e number o f a d je c tiv e o r adverb c la u s e s p e r T -u n it) o r a re o th e rw ise n o t amenable to m arking w ith in th e p a r s in g program u sed . In th e a n a ly s is o f C ra n e 's p ro se th e fo llo w in g r u le s were u sed to segment s e n te n c e s in to T - u n its : one main c la u s e w ith s u b je c t and p re d i c a t e p lu s any s u b o rd in a te s t r u c t u r e s a tta c h e d to o r embedded w ith in th e c la u s e , o r a main c la u s e w ith s u b je c t d e le te d i f t h a t c la u s e had a d i f f e r e n t p r e d ic a te p a t t e r n th a n th e p re c e d in g main c la u s e . " In th e s t r e e t s i n f a n t s p la y ed o r fo u g h t w ith o th e r i n f a n t s o r s a t s tu p id ly in th e way o f v e h ic le s " was t a l l y e d as one T - u n it s in c e th e p r e d i c a t e p a t t e r n (S u b je c t - Verb^n t r a n s ^t £v e) rem ains th e same. "Then in o th e r moments, he f lo u te d th e s e t h e o r ie s and a ss u re d h im s e lf t h a t h i s fe llo w s were a l l p r i v a t e l y w ondering and quaking" was t a l l y e d as two T - u n its (S u b je c t - Ve r t> tr a n s itiv e ~ D ire c t O b ject and S u b je c t - Verbt r a n s ^t ^ve - I n d i r e c t O b ject - D ire c t O b je c t) . "But l e t a man adopt f i g h t i n g as h is b u s in e s s , and th e th o u g h t grows c o n s ta n tly w ith in him t h a t i t i s h is b u s in e s s to f i g h t " was t a l l y e d as two T - u n its (two main c la u s e s , each w ith a s u b je c t and p r e d i c a t e ) . "These l a t t e r were c a r e e rin g madly th ro u g h th e crowd, p r e c i p i t a t i n g m inor a c c id e n ts from tim e to tim e , b u t 269 u s u a ll y f le e in g l i k e m is t swept by th e wind b e fo re r e t r i b u t i o n could la y i t s hands upon them" was t a l l y e d as one T - u n it (compound verb c l u s t e r s a tta c h e d to a main c l a u s e ) . The one fragm ent t h a t o ccu rs in th e d a ta ( in The Red Badge: "A f a i r f i e l d , h o ld in g lif e '.') was counted as a s in g le T -u n it w ith no words added to make i t a com plete se n te n c e . As f o r w ords, compounds w r i t t e n as two words co u n ted as two words, th o s e w r i t t e n as one counted as one word, and hyphenated compounds count ed as one word. Each item in a p h r a s a l p ro p e r name counted as one word. C o n tra c tio n s (ex trem ely r a r e ) counted as one word. In a d d itio n , th e t r a d i t i o n a l p ro ced u re o f c o u n tin g th e c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e second main c la u s e seemed n o t t o t a l l y j u s t i f i e d . As sim ply a c o n n ec to r lik e th e comma o r sem icolon i t r e a l l y b elo n g s to n e i t h e r c la u s e , as th e tr a n s f o r m a tio n a l- g e n e r a tiv e gram m arians show d ia g ra m m a tic a lly in t h e i r p h ra s e m arkers: The com puter was i n s t r u c t e d to om it th e s e p a r a to r i n i t s count o f T- u n i t le n g th s w hether a mark o f p u n c tu a tio n o r c o o r d in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n . T h is o u tlin e d p ro c e d u re does n o t e x a c tly match t h a t o f any o f th e r e s e a r c h e r s (whose p ro c e d u res in tu r n do n o t p r e c i s e l y match each o t h e r s ) . The most im p o rtan t d if f e r e n c e i s d e te r m in a tio n o f what con s t i t u t e s a T - u n it. Most r e s e a r c h e r s a c c e p t H u n t's c r i t e r i o n t h a t only th o se main c la u s e s w ith a s u b je c t count as s e p a r a te T - u n its . M ellon i s one e x c e p tio n s in c e he c o u n ts as T - u n its what o th e r r e s e a r c h e r s count as dependent c la u s e s : c la u s e s o f c o n d itio n , c o n c e s sio n , re a s o n , and .S S and S 270 p u rp o se ; re a so n in g t h a t c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs fu n c tio n much as c o o r d in a t in g c o n ju n c tio n s do. -H is re a so n in g was no more c o n v in cin g t o me th an t o th e o th e r r e s e a r c h e r s , so h i s method was n o t fo llo w ed . Loban is a n o th e r e x c e p tio n , b u t h is c r i t e r i o n , u n lik e M e llo n 's , r e s u l t s in lo n g e r T - u n its , n o t s h o r t e r ones. As shown by h is examples o f T - u n its c o u n ts, f o r some re a so n main c la u s e s w ith postp o n ed s u b je c ts do n o t count as s e p a r a te T - u n its . A s in g le T - u n it example i s : "The n e x t day th e g i r l s looked in th e p a p e r and su re enough th e r e was a p i c t u r e o f t h e i r s h o e s . L o b a n does n o t e x p la in h i s r a t i o n a l e f o r n o t t a l l y i n g main c la u s e s w ith postponed s u b je c ts as s e p a r a te T - u n its ; in any c a s e , w ith o r w ith o u t e x p la n a tio n , th e c h o ice was u n co n v in cin g , hence was n o t a d o p ted . Under H u n t's c r i t e r i o n , th e one most g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d , th e fo llo w in g would c o n s t i t u t e two T - u n its : 1. The man sto o d in th e h a l l , and he to s s e d h i s h a t on th e t a b l e . T his would count as one T - u n it: 2. The man sto o d in th e h a l l and to s s e d h is h a t on th e t a b l e . So a ls o would t h i s : 3. The man sto o d in th e h a l l and to s s e d h is h a t on th e t a b l e and th e n gave th e dog a bone and a f t e r a l l t h i s w alked u p s t a i r s . Under th e c r i t e r i a adopted f o r th e Crane stu d y , se n te n c e one would s t i l l be t a l l y e d as two T - u n its , b u t sen te n c e two would be t a l l y e d a ls o as two, and se n te n c e th r e e as fo u r s in c e p r e d ic a te p a t t e r n s change. A s e r i e s o f c o n ju n c ts w ith o n ly th e s u b je c t d e le te d when id e n tic a l w ith th e s u b je c t o f th e f i r s t c o n ju n c t r e s u l t s in no more m ature w r itin g th an a s e r i e s o f c o n ju n c ts w ith th e s u b je c t in c lu d e d . Thus, th e p ro cedure adopted h ere has th e advantage o f d is c r im in a tin g e x c e s siv e 0 < 271 compounding more e x a c tly , and alth o u g h i t i s c e r t a i n l y h a rd e r and more tim e consuming to a n aly z e p r e d i c a t e p a t t e r n s th a n sim ply mark main c la u s e s w ith s u b je c ts , i t i s an e q u a lly o b je c tiv e method. Less s i g n i f i c a n t d e v ia tio n from th e u su a l p ro c e d u re s comes in co u n tin g words. Whereas O’H are, for: example, co u n ts hyphenated com pounds as two words and p h r a s a l p ro p e rs names as one word, th e o p p o s ite h o ld s h e re s in c e th e com puter i s programmed to count words as o u tlin e d above. (The o p p o s ite ways o f co u n tin g do n o t b a la n c e ; Crane uses h yphenated compounds f a r more e x te n s iv e ly th an p h r a s a l p ro p e r nam es.) A lso , a l l th e re e a r c h e r s count c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s jo in in g main c la u s e s and count them as p a r t o f th e subsequent c la u s e . With th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , th e r e i s no way o f com paring C ra n e 's T -u n it le n g th w ith th o se o f s tu d e n ts a t v a rio u s grade le v e l s t h a t th e r e s e a r c h e r s have i n v e s t i g a t e d . As a r e s u l t o f th e m ethodology employed, C ra n e 's T - u n it le n g th s a re i n e v i t a b l y s h o r t e r . But what we a re i n t e r e s t e d in i s how Crane compares w ith Crane, what T -u n it le n g th r e v e a ls on th e con s i s t e n t b a s is adopted h e re , th a n e x te r n a l com parisons. G e n e ra lly sp ea k in g , s c h o la rs have found t h a t w r iti n g judged more m atu re, more e f f e c t i v e by b o th la y p e rso n s and e x p e r ts a l i k e i s accom p a n ied by le n g th e n in g T - u n its . T his i s because added le n g th m ostly comes from s u b o rd in a te d m o d if ic a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e s a tta c h e d to and embedded in main c la u s e s . Such w r iti n g , ag ain sp eak in g g e n e r a lly , is more e x p re ss iv e and d e t a i l e d , and more p r e c is e in e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a tio n s h ip s and h i e r a r c h i e s between p r o p o s itio n s . A d d itio n a lly , th e rhythm c r e a te d by lo n g e r T - u n its flow s more sm oothly, i s le s s d i s t r a c t in g . Because o f a l l th e s e f a c t o r s , w r ite r s whose T - u n its a re lo n g e r 272 command more r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r views s in c e b o th w r i t e r s and view s a re judged more m atu re. W hether re a d e rs can o r cannot p a rs e a t e x t o r name a l l th e v a rio u s s t r u c t u r e s t h a t ap p ear i n w r iti n g , th e y n o n e th e le s s r a te w r i t e r s as " b e t t e r ” when w r itin g shows th e more v e r s a t i l e m a n ip u la tio n o f language t h a t u s u a lly accom panies lo n g e r T - u n its . T h e re fo re , even though lo n g e r T - u n its and what th e y e n t a i l a re n o t a b s o lu te ly more v e r s a t i l e o r m ature (a w r i t e r can sim ply add many p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra s e s to main c la u s e s , f o r example) n o r an a b s o lu te req u irem en t f o r a l l w r itin g s i t u a t i o n s and c o n te x ts , s t i l l , th e a b i l i t y t o produce them s k i l l f u l l y i s im p o rtan t i f a w r i t e r i s t o make c h o ice s t h a t c r e a te v a rio u s e f f e c t s and p r o j e c t m u ltip le v o ic e s . The v a lu e o f co u n tin g T- u n i t le n g th s , th e n , i s n o t a b s o lu te , b u t i t i s p o t e n t i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . C ra n e ' s T - u n it le n g th s based on th e t a b l e t h a t fo llo w s a r e , by g ro u p : Mean Group T -U nit Length 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9.64 1 3 .756 11.91 13.39 14.41 14.88 12.85 273 TABLE OF T-UNIT LENGTHS Group 1 Group 2 Number Number Number Number o f T -U nits o f Words o f T -U nits o f Words 1 1 2 2 14 . 2 7 3 19 3 13 4 30 4 13 5 31 5 15 6 36 6 29 7 34 7 21 8 26 8 26 9 31 9 22 10 20 10 18 11 21 11 20 12 12 12 24 13 19 13 17 14 13 14 13 15 9 15 8 16 11 16 12 17 9 17 10 18 6 18 8 19 5 19 9 20 5 20 5 21 2 21 7 22 3 22 8 23 2 23 8 24 5 24 3 25 2 25 4 26 2 26 4 27 1 27 4 28 1 29 1 29 1 36 2 30 1 40 2 32 2 33 2 34 2 36 5 37 1 38 2 39 1 40 3 43 Group 4 Group 274 5 8 Number Number Number Number o f T -U nits o f Words o f T -U nits o f Words 1 2 4 2 8 3 7 3 19 4 15 4 33 5 29 5 42 6 31 6 36 7 29 7 51 8 21 8 41 9 28 9 47 10 30 i o : 41 11 11 n 40 12 14 12 21 13 17 13 31 14 18 14 23 15 15 15 16 16 12 16 26 17 10 17 8 18 13 18 14 19 12 19 9 20 4 20 8 21 10 21 10 22 6 22 4 23 6 23 6 24 2 24 4 25 12 25 2 26 3 26 2 27 2 27 1 28 4 28 5 29 2 29 2 30 4 30 2 32 2 31 1 33 2 32 1 34 1 33 2 35 2 34 2 37 1 35 1 42 3 36 1 2 1 1 1 37 43 45 62 81 Group 6 Group 275 7 Number Number Number Number o f T -U nits o f Words o f T -U nits o f Words 2 2 1 2 6 3 7 3 19 4 5 4 15 5 20 5 20 6 23 6 19 7 23 7 27 8 16 8 24 9 18 9 23 10 22 10 19 11 18 11 19 12 11 12 23 13 12 13 16 14 18 14 11 15 12 15 16 16 12 16 10 17 12 17 18 18 11 18 11 19 8 19 11 20 2 20 11 21 8 21 9 22 2 22 10 23 7 23 6 24 11 24 4 25 9 25 5 26 5 26 4 27 4 27 5 28 1 28 2 29 3 29 6 30 2 30 1 31 3 32 3 32 2 33 4 33 1 35 1 34 1 36 2 35 2 37 3 36 1 38 1 38 2 39 1 39 3 40 1 40 1 42 1 42 2 43 1 46 1 49 1 48 1 53 1 1 60 73 Group 8 276 Number Number o f T -U nits o f Words 1 1 2 2 15 3 20 4 35 5 29 6 35 7 40 8 29 9 30 10 34 11 34 12 20 13 23 14 15 15 17 16 14 17 12 19 14 20 7 21 6 22 9 23 6 24 7 25 6 26 2 27 6 28 3 29 3 30 1 31 2 32 4 33 1 36 2 38 1 39 1 45 1 49 1 50 1 59 277 Notes 1 W illiam s, "A Note on S en te n ce -L en g th ," and Buch, "A Note on S en ten ce-L en g th as Random V a r ia b le ,” b o th in S t a t i s t i c s and S t y l e , ed s. Lubomir D olezel and R ichard W . B a ile y (New York: American E ls e v ie r P u b lish in g Company, pp. 69 and 79. ^ Group 1: The " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ." Group 2: M aggie. Group 4: The Red Badge. Group 5: "The Wise Men," "The Five W hite M ice," "A Man and Some O th e rs ." Group 6: "The Open B o at," "The M o n ster," "The Blue H o te l." Group 7: "The P r ic e o f th e H a rn e ss," "The Clan o f No-Name." Group 8: The 0 ' Ruddy. ^ K. W . H unt, Grammatical S tr u c tu r e s W ritte n a t Three Grade L evels (Champaign: 1 1 1 .: NCTE, 1965). 4 See, f o r exam ple, Roy C. O 'D o n n ell, W illiam J . G r i f f i n , and Raymond C. N o r r is , Syntax o f K in d erg arten and E lem entary School C h il dren (Champaign, 1 1 1 .: NCTE, 1967); L e s te r S. Golub and C arole K idder, " S y n ta c tic D e n sity and th e C om puter," E lem entary E n g lis h , 51 (November- December 1974), 1128-1131; John C. M ellon, T ra n sfo rm a tio n a l S entence Combining (U rbana, 111.: NCTE, 1969); W alter Loban, Language D evelop ment: K in d e rg a rte n th ro u g h Grade Twelve (U rbana, 111.: NCTE, 1976). ■ 5 Language Development, p . 120. ^ C h ap ter I : 11.19; C h ap ter XVII: 15.00. 7 The t a b l e r e a d s : one T - u n it w ith one word, fo u rte e n T - u n its w ith two w ords, and so f o r t h . ® The e x c e p tio n a lly long T - u n it o ccu rs in "A Man and Some O th e r s " : " F in a lly , when th e g r e a t moon clim bed th e heavens and c a s t i t s g h a s tly ra d ia n c e upon th e b u sh es, i t made a new and more b r i l l i a n t crim son o f th e c a m p -fire , where th e flam es cap ered m e r r ily th ro u g h i t s m esquit b ra n c h e s, f i l l i n g th e s ile n c e w ith th e f i r e ch o ru s, an a n c ie n t melody which s u r e ly b e a rs a m essage o f th e inconsequence o f in d iv id u a l tra g e d y - - a message t h a t i s in th e boom o f th e s e a , th e s l i v e r o f th e wind th ro u g h th e g r a s s - b la d e s , th e s ilk e n c la s h o f th e hemlock boughs" (6 0 ). 278 APPENDIX E MEASURES OF SYNTACTIC MATURITY Crane ' s Use o f F ree M odifiers* Verb C lu s te rs ^ Group^ No. o f VC's % P e r T -U nit 1 37 .100 2 65 .184 4 71 .127 5 60 .155 6 58 .143 7 50 .154 8 48 .095 S u b o rd in ate C lauses Group No. o f SC's % P er T -U nit 1 13 .035 2 34 .096 4 41 .073 5 40 .103 6 54 .138 7 59 .182 8 74 .147 R e la tiv e C lauses Group No. o f RC's % P er T-U nit 1 8 .022 2 18 .051 4 16 .029 5 24 .062 6 32 .082 7 21 .065 8 24 .050 279 A b so lu tes Group No. o f Abs*s £ * 6 P er T-U nit 1 9 .024 2 14 .049 4 6 .011 5 24 .062 6 11 .028 7 10 .031 8 6 .012 Noun C lu s te r s Group No. o f NC's r % P er T-U nit 1 1 .003 2 6 .017 4 5 .009 5 18 .046 6 17 .043 7 19 .058 8 13 .026 A d je c tiv e C lu s te r s Group No. o f AC *s % P er T -U nit 1 5 .013 2 6 .017 4 6 .011 5 2 .005 6 9 .023 7 10 .031 8 4 .008 A d je c tiv e S e r ie s Group No. o f A+A's % P er T-U nit 1 0 .000 2 0 .000 4 10 .018 5 9 .023 6 8 .020 7 15 .046 8 8 .016 280 Depth o f Free M o d ifie r S t r u c t u r a l L evels^ T -U nits w ith Three S tr u c t u r a l L evels Group No. T -U nits % P er T -U nit 1 2 .005 2 9 .025 4 3 .005 5 17 .044, 6 28 .072 7 27 .083 8 26 .051 T -U nits w ith Four S tr u c t u r a l L evels Group No. T -U nits % P er T-U nit 1 1 .002 2 2 .006 4 0 .000 5 2 .005 6 5 .013 7 3 .009 8 2 .004 T -U nits w ith Five S tr u c t u r a l L evels Group No. T -U n its % P er T -U nit 1 0 .000 2 0 .000 4 0 .000 5 1 .003 6 1 .003 7 3 .009 8 0 T -U nits w ith S ix S tr u c t u r a l Levels Group No. T -U n its % P er T -U nit 1 0 .000 2 0 .000 4 0 .000 5 1 .003 6 0 .000 7 1 .003 8 0 .000 281 C o n ju n ctiv e Adverbs The com puter i s n o t programmed t o count c o n ju n c tiv e a d v erb s, only sen te n c e a d v erb s, a c a te g o ry which in c lu d e s b o th th o se w ith a co n ju n c t i v e fu n c tio n and th o se t h a t m odify an e n t i r e sen te n c e (u n f o r t u n a t e l y , o b v io u s ly , su d d en ly , and so f o r th ) b u t do n o t have a c o n ju n c tiv e fu n c t i o n . C o n ju n ctiv e adverbs were s e p a ra te d out by hand from t h i s g e n e ra l group as were p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra se s which fu n c tio n as c o n ju n c tiv e ad v erb s and which a re p a rse d as o rd in a ry p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra s e s . C hart A shows th e number o f c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs and p e rc e n t p e r T - u n it; C hart B shows th e v a r i e t y o f c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs chosen by Crane i n each group. Number o f Group C o n ju n ctiv e Adverbs % P er T-U nit 1 7 .019 2 2 .006 4 27 .048 5 25 .064 6 28 .072 7 23 .071 8 40 .079 C hart A Group C o n ju n ctiv e Adverbs 1 a ls o , however, th en 2 th e n 4 a ls o , b e s id e s , however, in f a c t , m eanwhile, n e v e r th e le s s , on th e c o n tra ry , on th e o th e r hand, s t i l l , th e n , to o 5 a f t e r a l l , a l s o , however, m oreover, n e v e r th e le s s , s t i l l , th e n , to o , whereupon 6 a f t e r a l l , f o r in s ta n c e , however, in f a c t , m oreover, n e v e r th e l e s s , on th e o th e r hand, s t i l l , th en 7 b e s id e s , fu rth e rm o re , hen ce, how ever, in d eed , in f a c t , m oreover o n .th e o th e r hand, th e n 8 a l s o , a f t e r a l l , b e s id e s , hence, however, in f a c t , in d eed , i n s te a d , m eanwhile, m oreover, on th e c o n tr a r y , s t i l l , th e n , t h u s , too C hart B 282 S entence I n i t i a l C o o rd in a to rs % Per Group C o o rd in a to rs Sentence And But For Or Nor So Yet And y e t And so I 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .043 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 .014 4 7 4 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 .033 5 2 4 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 .028 6 1 9 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 . 043 7 3 8 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 .066 8 9 20 1 0 2 1 0 0 1 .092 Gerunds Group Number o f Gerunds % P e r T -U nit 1 3 .008 2 10 .028 4 9 .016 5 15 .039 6 12 .031 7 14 .043 8 21 .042 283 N otes S e p a ra ted o u t and counted by hand e x ce p t f o r a b s o lu te s . P repo s i t i o n a l p h ra s e s were n o t counted. ^ Crane c o n s i s t e n t l y p r e f e r s p r e s e n t ('’ch u ck lin g and l e e r i n g , he . . to p a s t p a r t i c i p l e (" a b lu n t ended b o a t, p a in te d a v e ry l i g h t b lu e " ) verb c l u s t e r s . Only a few p a s t p e r f e c t p a r t i c i p l e s o c c u r ("They were worn, ex h au sted , hav in g s l e p t b u t l i t t l e " ) and no in s ta n c e o f the p e r f e c t p ro g r e s s iv e p a r t i c i p l e . The r e s u l t s o f C ra n e 's p r e fe re n c e a re to em phasize a c tio n ov er d e s c r ip ti o n , alth o u g h d e s c r ip ti v e fo r c e i s p r e s e n t in both a p p o s itiv e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t he u ses th e m ost, and to m itig a te a g a in s t th e sen se o f o u ts id e , n a t u r a l i s t i c fo r c e s c o n t r o l l i n g e v e n ts . 3 Group 1: The " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s ." Group 2: M aggie. Group 4: The Red Badge. Group 5: "The Wise Men," "The F ive White M ice," "A Man and Some O th e rs ." Group 6: "The Open B o at," "The M o n ster," "The Blue H o te l." Group 7: "The P r ic e o f th e H a rn e s s ," "The Clan o f No-Name." Group 8: The 0 1 Ruddy. 4 Crane p r e f e r s one-and tw o -le v e l s e n te n c e s ; th e s e were n o t c o u n ted . Nowhere in th e d a ta does a se v e n -o r m o re -le v e l sen te n c e o c cu r. 284 APPENDIX F CHANGES IN GRAMMATICAL STYLE BETW EEN THE RED BADGE OF COURAGE DRAFT AND MANUSCRIPT The b a s is f o r th e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n i s t h a t p a r t o f The Red Badge d r a f t t h a t co rresp o n d s to d a ta from th e m a u sc rip t which was i n cluded in th e l a r g e r stu d y . The m a te r ia l in c lu d e d from th e d r a f t f a c s im ile i s : pp. 204-205; p . 208, 1. 15-p. 210; p. 214; p. 222 from 1. 18; p. 232-234, 1. 6. T o tal words: 1852. T o ta l se n te n c e s: 142. As in th e d a ta f o r th e prim ary stu d y , d ia lo g u e and connected words and p h ra se s (such as "he s a id in a q u ie t v o ic e " ) were o m itted . Two s a l i e n t f e a tu r e s o f C ra n e's r e v is io n p ro c e ss emerge from th e d a ta : (1) i t i s p r im a r ily a d d itiv e , and (2) i t i s e x te n s iv e . Less than h a l f th e sen te n c es make th e t r a n s i t i o n from d r a f t to m an u scrip t un changed. (For our p u rp o se s, changed means s y n t a c t i c and l e x i c a l sub s t i t u t i o n s , a d d itio n s , and d e le t io n s ; unchanged se n te n c e s a re th o se w ith no change o th e r th a n p u n c tu a tio n .) In th e 142 sen te n c es examined from th e d r a f t , on ly f o r ty -s e v e n a re t r a n s f e r r e d i n t a c t (one o f them r e o rd e re d ). Most o f th e unchanged se n te n c e s ( t h i r t y ) occur in C hapter V II, which re c o u n ts F lem in g 's f l i g h t from th e b a t t l e f i e l d and c o n fro n ta tio n w ith a dead s o l d i e r in th e f o r e s t c h a p e l. In c o n t r a s t , on ly f i f te e n se n te n c e s from C hapter I c a r ry over unchanged. In a l l , as f a r as can be d eterm in ed , Crane adds t h i r t y - s i x new s e n te n c e s , t h a t i s , sen te n c e s w ith no co rresp o n d in g words in d r a f t s e n te n c e s . (Since some pages o f d r a f t are m is s in g - - in th e m a te r ia l s tu d ie d th e d r a f t b reak s o f f s e v e r a l tim es f o r a page o r m o re--o n ly th o se se n te n c e s in t e r p o l a t e d 285 w ith in th e c o n tin u in g p a ssa g es o f d r a f t were judged a d d i t i o n s .) The t o t a l o f t h i r t y - s i x does n o t in c lu d e new independent c la u s e s added to s e n te n c e s . R arely do se n te n c e s o r c la u s e s occur in th e d r a f t t h a t do n o t emerge in some form in th e m a n u sc rip t, w hether combined w ith an o th e r d r a f t se n te n c e o r form ing p a r t o f a se n te n c e to which new i n f o r m ation i s added. I w i l l , a f t e r examining one in s ta n c e o f C ra n e 's adding a number o f se n te n c e s in th e t r a n s f e r o f an e p iso d e from d r a f t to m a n u sc rip t, d i s cuss h is changes in v o lv in g v e rb s , a d je c tiv e s and ad v erb s, p r e p o s i t i o n s , sen te n c e c o n n e c to rs, f r e e m o d if ie r s , and sen te n c e combining.'*- A ll examples quoted w i l l show th e d r a f t v e rs io n f i r s t , th e m an u scrip t v e r sio n second. The arrow (-------- ^) between th e two means " i s tra n sfo rm e d in to " o r " i s r e w r itte n a s ." A lthough Crane re a r r a n g e s , d e l e t e s , and adds, o fte n combining th e th re e p ro c e s s e s , h is r e v is io n p ro c e ss o v e r a ll i s ex p an siv e, n o t c o n tra c t i v e . Indeed, w ith some o f h is a d d itio n s th e d e s ir e to add w ords, any w ords, seems param ount ( f o r exam ple, "an evening hymn" (234) ------- ^ "a hymn o f t w i l i g h t " (6 4 )). One i s rem inded o f C ra n e 's com pulsive word co u n tin g (he c u sto m a rily k e p t a running t o t a l o f th e word counts f o r each page in h is m a n u s c r ip ts ) , ev er h au n ted by th e f e a r o f n o t w r itin g enough f o r p u b lis h e r s and p u b lic t h a t ex p ected t h e i r m oney's w orth in / long n o v e ls , n o t C ra n e 's f o r t e . O ther a d d itio n s seem much more s tr o n g ly m o tiv a te d . For example, a lth o u g h , as rem arked e a r l i e r , Crane seems to have been re a so n a b ly s a t i s f i e d w ith h is d r a f t C hapter VII s e n te n c e s s in c e many a re t r a n s f e r r e d i n t a c t to th e m a n u sc rip t, he adds s i x o f e ig h t new sen te n c es to t h a t 286 p o r tio n o f th e c h a p te r b e fo re Fleming e n te r s th e f o r e s t c h ap e l. Crane p a r t i c u l a r l y aims in th e s e a d d itio n s to develop f u r t h e r F lem ing’s p e r c e p tio n o f th e s q u i r r e l ’ s a c tio n s and r e a c tio n s . As Crane t r a n s f e r s th e one sen te n c e from th e d r a f t m entioning and d e s c rib in g th e s q u i r r e l , he makes a s i g n i f i c a n t change in i t . He s u b s t i t u t e s m asculine pronoun r e fe re n c e f o r n e u te r , making more " n a tu r a l" F lem in g 's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e s q u i r r e l 's ru n n in g in f e a r from F lem in g 's to s s e d p in eco n e. The added sen te n c es am p lify th e s q u i r r e l 's f e a r f u l r e a c tio n to th e p inecone m i s s i l e , p ro v id in g Fleming w ith j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r h is co n v ic tio n t h a t th e s q u i r r e l 's prudence s i g n i f i e s a "law " a p p lic a b le a ls o to Flem ing. Of s i m i l a r s ig n if ic a n c e i s C ra n e 's a l t e r i n g re f e r e n c e to n a tu r e from " i t " to "sh e" im m ediately fo llo w in g th e added se n te n c e s des c r ib in g th e s q u i r r e l . T his change makes more " n a t u r a l " F le m in g 's con c lu s io n t h a t n a tu re i s " o f h is m ind," w hereas in th e d r a f t n a tu re s ta n d s o u ts id e Fleming a g re ein g w ith him. Such changes and a d d itio n s a re c r u c ia l to th e e x p re ssio n o f F lem in g 's c h a r a c te r and p e r c e p tio n s . Verbs C ra n e's most s i g n i f i c a n t change in verb forms in v o lv e s th e p a s t and p a s t p e r f e c t t e n s e s . ^ Some f i n a l d r a f t and m a n u scrip t ch o ices i n v o lv in g th e s e te n s e s a re : " had gone over th e h o riz o n and d isap p e a re d " (2 0 4 )------- ^ "had been long gone o v er th e h o riz o n and had d isap p e a re d " (7 ); " th e wind c a r r ie d " (2 0 5 )--------? " th e winds had c a r r ie d " (8 ); " I t was n o t q u ite what he had ex pected" (208)-------> " I t had n o t been q u ite what he e x p e c te d " ' (11). In t h i s l a s t example th e forw ard s h i f t o f "had" s t i l l allow s i t to be assumed f o r "expected.'V These a l t e r e d te n s e s show C ra n e 's p a r t i c u l a r concern w ith tim e , c e r t a i n l y o f key im portance 287 t0 The Red Badge's theme o f change: F lem in g 's s h i f t i n g th o u g h ts and p e rc e p tio n s as he undergoes e x p erien c e s t e s t i n g h is a b i l i t y to become a man. (In a d d itio n , s i x a l t e r a t i o n s in v o lv in g p a s t and p a s t p e r f e c t w ith in th e e x ta n t pages o f C hapter I o f th e d r a f t and f iv e w ith in Chap t e r I o f th e m a n u scrip t f u r t h e r a t t e s t to h i s concern w ith tim e .) C ra n e 's a l t e r a t i o n s m o stly in v o lv e a d d itio n o f "had" to em phasize p a s t com pleted a c tio n d u rin g F lem in g 's r e f l e c t i n g back upon h is th o u g h ts and a c tio n s le a d in g up to th e days o f encampment and b a t t l e t h a t form th e "ep iso d e o f th e C iv il War," alth o u g h in c o llo q u ia l u se , which would c e r t a i n l y seem a p p ro p ria te f o r Fleming, sim ple p a s t i s o fte n used to i n d i c a te com pleted a c ti o n .^ Change to th e p a s t p e r f e c t , th e n , s t r e s s e s th e tim e r e l a t i o n , and a t t h i s p o in t in th e n o v el d is tin g u is h e s F lem in g 's p e rc e p tio n s b e fo re h i s f i r s t b a t t l e from th o se during b a t t l e . S im ila r ly C ra n e 's u se o f th e p a s t p e r f e c t in th e m a n u s c r ip t's f i n a l c h a p te r s e ts o f f b a t t l e - i n v o l v e d Fleming from p o s t - b a t t l e Fleming. In re g a rd t o t h i s e s ta b lis h e d p a t t e r n , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t on one o c ca sio n sim ple p a s t w ith in th e c o n te x t o f p r e v a ilin g p a s t p e r f e c t assumes a c o n tin u in g a s p e c t. In C hapter I th e n a r r a t o r r e l a t e s from F lem in g 's p o in t o f view: "B e sid e s, on h e r [jiis m other's!] s id e , was h i s b e l i e f t h a t h e r e t h i c a l m otive in th e argument was im pregnable" (7 -8 ). (There i s no com parable d r a f t s e n te n c e .) O m itting "had" h e re imposes th e n o tio n t h a t Fleming b e lie v e s in h is m o th e r's i n t e g r i t y n o t o n ly w h ile he d is p a ra g e s h e r r e a l i s t i c a p p r a is a l o f h is w a r-a rd o r and where he i s most needed, on th e farm , b u t as a c o n tin u in g th in g . The e f f e c t on th e re a d e r i s to c r e a te a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard Flem ing. 288 Some a l t e r e d verb s t r u c t u r e s p o in t le s s to theme in The Red Badge th a n to a g e n e ra l tendency in C ra n e 's s y n t a c t i c c h o ic e s. He tra n sfo rm s a number o f v erb s in to nom inals and p a r t i c i p l e s , b o th o f which te n d to le n g th e n c la u s e s , th e f i r s t th ro u g h p e r i p h r a s i s , th e second th ro u g h con d e n sa tio n (s e p a ra te c la u s e s a re condensed and a tta c h e d to o r embedded ir m a tr ic e s ) . The f i r s t slow s and f ix e s a c tio n , th e second q u ick en s i t . (Some exam ples: "he had r e b e lle d " C205I]-------> "he had made firm r e b e l lio n " £8] ; "He had n ev er had doubts o f th e u ltim a te su cc e ss o f i t and had b o th e re d l i t t l e " C210H >"He . . . nev er c h a lle n g in g h i s b e l i e f i r u ltim a te su cc e ss and b o th e rin g l i t t l e " C14H; "He was c o n tin u a lly mea s u rin g h im s e lf" C214U— ---- > "He c o n tin u a lly t r i e d to m easure h im s e lf" Cl9D.) Both ty p es o f s t r u c t u r e s te n d to in c re a s e d u rin g th e span o f C ra n e 's c a r e e r. A d je c tiv e s and Adverbs A lthough C ra n e's tendency to add a p p lie s to a d j e c t i v e s , i t b a r e ly does. He d e le te s alm ost as many as he adds, h is purpose b e in g c l a r i t y o f d e s c r ip tio n r a t h e r th a n added w ords, as we can see in th e s e exam ples: "an o b liq u e sq u are o f l i g h t " (2 0 4 )-------) "an o b liq u e sq u are o f w h ite r l i g h t " (6 ); " o f sublim e a ssu ra n c e " ( 2 0 9 ) -------) " o f b lan d and i n f a n t i l e a ssu ra n c e " (13); " o f heavy golden crowns and h ig h d re a ry c a s t l e s " (204) r>"of heavy crowns and h ig h c a s t l e s " (7 ). Crane adds o r changes ad v erb s even le s s th an a d je c tiv e s e x cep t to le n g th en adverbs through tra n s fo rm a tio n in to t h e i r p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se c o u n te r p a r ts ; on ly one p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se i s co n v erted to i t s co rresp o n d in g ad v erb . These i l l u s t r a t e : "p au sin g once" (2 3 2 ) -------) ■ "p au sin g a t one tim e" (62); " Be fo r e t h i s , he had n ev er" (2 1 0 ) --------) " P re v io u s ly he had n ev er" (14). One 289 change p la c e s a freq u en cy adverb a t sen te n c e head, i t s more n a tu r a l and lo g ic a l p o s itio n : "He found h im s e lf alm ost in to a swamp once" (232) } "Once he found h im s e lf alm ost in to a swamp" (62). P re p o s itio n s Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s C ra n e's m a n ip u la tio n o f p r e p o s itio n s . R evisions and a d d itio n s in The Red Badge r e f l e c t C ra n e's d e s ir e to ex p re s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x a c tly and h i s f a v o r i t e method o f adding d e t a i l s to h is s e n te n c e s . In S to p p e 's exam ination o f se n te n c e s from Maggie and The Red Badge, she fin d s many a l t e r e d p r e p o s itio n s in Maggie b u t s c a n t m a n ip u la tio n o f p r e p o s itio n s in The Red Badge.^ Those in Maggie she a t t r i b u t e s to C ra n e 's concern, p erh ap s about p re v io u s c a r e le s s c h o ic e , when he re v is e d th e 1893 Maggie f o r p u b lic a tio n in 1896. W e have no way o f knowing un e q u iv o c a lly who changed th e p r e p o s itio n s in th e 1896 Maggie s in c e o th e r hands th an C ra n e 's in te rv e n e d in r e v is io n . But, c o n tra ry to S to p p e 's fin d in g s , Crane does m an ip u late p r e p o s itio n s when r e v is in g h is d r a f t o f The Red Badge, and we know th e m a n ip u la tio n s a re h i s . Nine p r e p o s itio n changes o ccur in th e d a ta , fo u r co ncerning " o n ." Once Crane changes "on" to "alo n g ": "The only fo es he had seen were some p ic k e ts along th e r i v e r bank" (1 3 ), g iv in g a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e o f th e m en's e x te n s io n in sp ace. Three tim es he changes "on" to "upon," t h i s l a t t e r p r e p o s itio n one t h a t Stoppe argues i s used " c r e a tiv e ly " in M aggie. She claim s t h a t in "A v ery l i t t l e boy sto o d upon a heap o f g ra v e l f o r th e honor o f Rum A lle y ," "upon" su g g e sts "up" f o r th e f i g u r a t i v e verb " sto o d up fo r" (meaning defended) and "on" f o r th e l i t e r a l verb " s to o d ." A c tu a lly , C ra n e 's use i s q u ite o rd in a ry . A common meaning o f " f o r " i s " in b e h a lf 290 of" and th e p r e p o s itio n s "on" and "upon" a re f a i r l y in te rc h a n g e a b le in meaning a lth o u g h t h e i r e f f e c t s d i f f e r s l i g h t l y . "On" i s le s s form al anc c a r r i e s only a sen se o f p la c e , hence i s more s t a t i c th a n th e more formal "upon," which c a r r i e s n o t o n ly a sen se o f p la c e b u t m otion. W e can assume t h a t th e se a re th e e f f e c t s fo r which Crane i s s t r i v i n g , e s p e c ia l ly t h a t o f a c t i v i t y , n o t only in h is s u b s t i t u t i o n o f "upon" f o r " o n ," b u t " in to " f o r " to " ("going from o b s c u r ity tc prom ises o f g r e a t e r ob s c u r i t y " C233H-------> "going from o b s c u r ity in to prom ises o f a g r e a t e r o b s c u r ity " C62]]) . Crane n o t only s u b s t i t u t e s p r e p o s itio n s , he adds bound p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h ra se s to le n g th e n h is c la u s e s and sen te n c es w ith d e t a i l s . Some o f th e a d d itio n s in c r e a s e word count more than meaning; o th e rs add needed s p e c i f i c i t y to make sta te m e n ts more in fo rm a tiv e . (A few examples;- a re : "He had ta k en c e r t a i n th in g s f o r g ra n te d " C210H------ ? " In h is l i f e , he had ta k e n c e r t a i n th in g s f o r g ra n te d " 14 ; " h is laws o f l i f e were u s e le s s " C210D > " in t h i s c r i s i s h is laws o f l i f e were u s e le s s " Cl5U; " to a m elancholy green" E233H y " to a m elancholy shade o f green " C62H.) One r e v is io n removes th e s t i f f , l i t e r a r y " w ith a l," and re p la c e s i t w ith th e le s s form al "w ith i t a l l . " But Crane i s as l i k e l y to sub s t i t u t e an unexpected c o n s tr u c tio n as d e le t e one. "Of a sudden" r e p la c e s th e more common "su d d en ly " o f th e d r a f t , c a l l i n g undue a t t e n t i o n to th e a b ru p tn e ss o f th e ev en t t h a t fo llo w s as opposed to th e ev en t i t s e l f : "From h i s CJim C o n k lin 's ] l i p s came a b la c k p ro c e ss io n o f c u rio u s o a th s . S uddenly, a n o th e r broke out in a q u erelo u s way li k e a man who has m is la id h i s h a t" (222)-------- . . . Of a sudden a n o th e r. . ." (46). I t i s th e m an's resp o n se among a l l th e o th e rs t h a t i s im p o rta n t, n o t th e 291 a b ru p tn e ss o f i t . (Crane g e n e r a lly p r e f e r s "su d d e n ly "; " a l l o f a sud den" does n o t occur in th e d a ta , and i t s tr u n c a te d v e rs io n o n ly in The Red Badge. Such d e v ia n t c o n s tr u c tio n s dw indle in h is l a t e r w ork.) Many o f th e p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se a d d itio n s in v o lv e e s ta b lis h in g tim e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c l a r i f y i n g when Fleming p e rc e iv e s and th in k s c e r ta in t h i n g s . Such a d d itio n s a re as p e r t i n e n t to The Red Badge*s theme of change as a re verb te n s e changes. Some o f th e se tim e a d v e r b ia ls are f r e e m o d if ie r s , meaning t h a t Crane could have s h i f t e d them w ith in t h e i r m a trix c la u s e s . Four tim e s , however, he p la c e s them se n te n c e i n i t i a l l y , s t r e s s i n g th e tim e f a c t o r . Sentence C onnectors Throughout h is w r iti n g c a r e e r , as we have see n , Crane in c re a s e s h is use o f se n te n c e c o n n e c to rs, a tre n d t h a t c u ts a c ro ss p a r t i c u l a r n o v els and s t o r i e s alth o u g h i t i s c o n d itio n e d to some e x te n t by h is need to c r e a te a p a r t i c u l a r f a c e t o f a c h a r a c te r . W e have a ls o n o te d t h a t C ra n e's fav o red c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n in em phasized sen te n c e i n i t i a l p o s itio n i s " b u t," a p p a re n tly r e f l e c t i n g h is c o n tr a s ti v e view o f th e w orld. Both elem ents o f C ran e’s gram m atical s t y l e a re re v e a le d in h is r e v is io n o f The Red Badge d r a f t , in t r a n s f e r r e d s e n te n c e s , combined se n te n c e s , and newly c r e a te d ones. He d e le te s one se n te n c e i n i t i a l "a n d ," s h i f t s a m id -cla u se "however" to s e n te n c e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n and s u b s t i t u t e s " b u t," and adds seven c o n ju n c tiv e adverbs (none a re d e le te d except th e one j u s t m entioned f o r which "b u t" i s s u b s t i t u t e d ) . ( Some examples in t r a n s f e r r e d se n te n c e s a re : "H is m other had, how ever, d isco u rag ed him" E2053 ------ ^ " But h is m other had d isco u rag e d him" C7U; "At l a s t , he had r e b e lle d " C205]--------) "At l a s t , however, he had r e b e lle d " C8H; "He 292 was c o n tin u a lly m easuring h im s e lf" C214II > "Meanwhile he c o n tin u a lly t r i e d to m easure h im se lf" C19H- Here i s one example o f C ra n e 's adding co n n ecto rs when combining d r a f t s e n te n c e s : "He would ag ain be o b lig e d to ex p erim en t, as he had in e a r ly y o u th , and g e t upon h is g u ard , e l s e th o se q u a l i t i e s o f which he knew n o th in g m ight e v e r l a s t i n g l y d is g ra c e him" []210U------- > "He saw t h a t he would ag ain be o b lig e d to experim ent as he had in e a r ly y o u th . He must accum ulate in fo rm a tio n o f h im s e lf and, m eanw hile, he re s o lv e d to rem ain c lo s e upon h i s guard l e s t th o se q u a l i t i e s o f which he knew n o th in g should e v e r l a s t i n g l y d is g ra c e him" C15H. And h e re a re two examples o f s e n te n c e c o n n ecto rs in newly c r e a te d manu s c r i p t se n te n c e s f o r which th e r e a re no com parable d r a f t s e n te n c e s : "The youth f e l t however t h a t h i s problem was in no w ise l i f t e d from him1 ' E19H; "On th e c o n tr a r y , he had f l e d as f a s t as h is le g s could c a r ry him'' ten.) Of as much i n t e r e s t s t y l i s t i c a l l y as C ra n e's q u a n t i t a t i v e in c r e a s e in s e n te n c e c o n n ecto rs (which r e f l e c t s h is in c re a s in g concern f o r co h eren ce) i s h is p o s itio n in g o f c o n n e c to rs , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e c o n ju n c tiv e adverb "how ever." In th e e a r ly work Crane p r e f e r s "however" in i t s less em phatic, " s o f t e r " p o s i t i o n w ith in a c la u s e ; in d eed , in The Red Badge he does so tw ice as o fte n as he p r e f e r s "however" in sen te n c e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n . Such placem ent c o n tr a s ts w ith th e l a t e r work, p a r t i c u l a r l y The O' Ruddy, in which C ra n e 's p re fe re n c e r e v e r s e s i t s e l f . Even though c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f O'Ruddy may in f lu e n c e C ra n e's p re fe re n c e , one may con j e c t u r e t h a t h i s growing b o ld n ess in th e use o f such form al co n n ecto rs i s a ls o a cause. In o th e r w ords, Crane n o t o n ly u ses few er sen te n c e c o n n ecto rs in th e e a r ly work, even in The Red Badge, which .re v e a ls many 293 more, he u ses them le s s o b tr u s iv e ly . S entence Combining As Crane r e v is e s h i s d r a f t , he employs th r e e g e n e ra l methods o f sen te n c e combining: (1) two se n te n c e s from th e d r a f t form one in th e m a n u scrip t (C ra n e 's most fre q u e n t p r o c e s s ) , (2) one s e n te n c e from th e d r a f t forms p a r t o f a new s e n te n c e to which a n o th e r c la u s e o r c la u s e s are added, and (3) one s e n te n c e from th e d r a f t forms th e b a s is f o r two sen te n c es in th e m a n u sc rip t. A d d itio n s and d e le tio n s o f words o r word groups can occur w ith any o f th e s e main p ro c e s s e s . An example o f th e f i r s t p ro c e ss i s : "Some t i n d is h e s la y on a sm all p i l e o f fire-w o o d . Equipments were hung on handy p r o je c tio n s " (204)-------> "Equipments hung on handy p r o je c tio n s and some t i n d ish e s la y upon a sm all p i l e o f f i r e wood" (6 ). Aniexample o f th e second p ro c e ss i s : "The smoke from th e f i r e a t tim es n e g le c te d th e clay-chim ney and w reathed i n t o . t h e room" (204)------- > "The smoke from th e f i r e a t tim es n e g le c te d th e clay-chim ney and w reathed in to th e room and t h i s flim sy chimney o f c la y and s t i c k s made e n d le ss t h r e a t s to s e t a -b la z e th e whole e s ta b lis h m e n t" (6 ). And an example o f th e t h i r d p ro c e ss i s : "They were a su n -ta n n e d , p h ilo s o p h i c a l l o t who sometimes sh o t th o u g h tf u lly a t th e o p p o site p ic k e ts b u t u s u a lly seemed s o rry f o r i t a fte rw a rd s" (209)-------> "They were a sun tan n ed , p h ilo s o p h ic a l l o t who sometimes sh o t r e f l e c t i v e l y a t th e b lu e p i c k e t s . When rep ro ach ed fo r t h i s , a fte rw a r d s , th e y u s u a ll y ex p ressed sorrow and swore by t h e i r gods t h a t th e guns had exploded w ith o u t p e r m issio n " (13). C ra n e 's m a n ip u la tio n o f s t r u c t u r e s as he combines sen te n c es fo llo w s no sim ple and c o n s is te n t p a t t e r n , b u t th e o v e r a ll r e s u l t i s le n g th e n in g 294 c la u s e s and se n te n c e s in th e m a n u sc rip t. He combines by compounding, adds by compounding, combines by embedding a d r a f t c la u se in to a new m a trix , and adds by s u b o rd in a tio n . Compounding i s th e sen te n c e combin in g method most fav o red by Crane a t t h i s p o in t in h is c a r e e r ; many newly formed se n te n c e s re v e a l a s p e c ts o f compounding, some only t h i s p ro c e ss . While compounding c o n tr ib u te s to lo n g e r s e n te n c e s , i t adds no a d d itio n a l com plexity. In f a c t , Crane m isses many o p p o r tu n itie s to condense and smooth h is p ro se by form ing f r e e m o d ifie rs and dependent c la u s e s as he combines s e n te n c e s . One p o s s i b i l i t y : "He k ep t up c e a s e le s s c a lc u la t i o n s . They were w ondrously u n s a ti s f a c to r y " (214) could have become, by form ing an a p p o s itiv e , "F or d ay s, he made c e a s e le s s c a lc u la tio n s , a l l w ondrously u n s a ti s f a c to r y " in s te a d o f "For days, he made c e a s e le s s c a l c u la t io n s , b u t th ey were a l l w ondrously u n s a ti s f a c to r y " (19). At an o th e r p o in t, "The smoke from th e f i r e a t tim es n e g le c te d th e c la y - chimney and w reathed in to th e room" (204) could have become a complex se n te n c e w ith th e fo rm atio n o f a s u b o rd in a te c la u s e , "Because th e smoke from th e f i r e n e g le c te d th e clay-chim ney and w reathed in to th e room, t h i s flim sy chimney o f c la y and s t i c k s made e n d less t h r e a t s to s e t a- b la z e th e whole e s ta b lis h m e n t," in s te a d o f th e compound se n te n c e Crane w r ite s : "The smoke from th e f i r e a t tim es n e g le c te d th e clay-chim ney and w reathed in to th e room and t h i s flim sy chimney o f c la y and s t i c k s made e n d le s s t h r e a t s to s e t a - b la z e th e whole e s ta b lis h m e n t" (6 ). Yet a t tim es Crane does c r e a te more complex, f lu e n t se n te n c e s from s h o r t e r , ch o p p ier o r i g i n a l s as in th e fo llo w in g : "He could n o t convince h im s e lf o f i t . I t was to o s tra n g e " (204)--------> "For a tim e, he was o b lig e d to make h im s e lf b e lie v e " (6 ). And because o f such in s ta n c e s and 295 th e le n g th e n in g o f se n te n c e s in g e n e r a l, The Red Badge m a n u sc rip t, though s t i l l c h a r a c te r iz e d by fragm ented s y n ta x , i s le s s fragm ented thai. th e d r a f t . Free M o d ifiers C ra n e 's se n te n c e combining and a d d itio n s in com parable p o r tio n s o f th e d r a f t and m a n u scrip t re v e a l an obvious d e s ir e to add d e s c r ip ti v e d e t a i l s and v ary s t r u c t u r e s . Ig n o rin g th o se p o r tio n s o f m a n u scrip t f o r which d r a f t pages a re m issin g , we f in d a number o f added f r e e m o d ifie rs which g iv e h is se n te n c e s d e n se r te x tu r e th an in th e d r a f t : seven verb c l u s t e r s , n in e p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s , two a d je c tiv e c l u s t e r s , one a d je c t i v e s e r i e s , and one r e l a t i v e c la u s e . Crane s u b tr a c ts on ly one v erb c l u s t e r , changing i t to a f r e e p re p o s i t i o n a l p h ra se . This change, p ro b ab ly m o tiv a te d by C ra n e's d e s ir e to avoid two s u c c e ss iv e - in g words, c rb a te s an even more awkwardly s t r u c tu re d sen te n c e : Some ta lk e d o f g ra y , bew hiskered hordes who were advancing, c u rsin g r e l e n t l e s s l y and chewing tobacco w ith unspeakable v a lo r . (209) Some ta lk e d o f g ra y , b e-w h isk ered hordes who were advancing, w ith r e l e n t l e s s c u rse s and chewing tobacco w ith unspeakable v a lo r . (13-14) C ra n e's change d e s tro y s sy m m e tric ally p a r a l l e l p a r t i c i p l e s , th e v e rb a l fo rc e o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n as th e a c tio n i s fro z e n and o b j e c t i f i e d , and a m eaningful re f e r e n c e f o r "w ith u n speakable v a l o r ," which w ith th e change r e f e r s r i d i c u l o u s l y to "chewing tobacco" o n ly . E lsew here, however, C ra n e 's adding f r e e m o d ifie rs improves th e a e s t h e t i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l q u a l i t y o f h is n o v e l, e s p e c i a l l y in th r e e se n te n c e s added to F le m in g 's r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f h is p a r tin g w ith h is m other. 296 Fleming h e a r s h i s m o th e r's long speech o f homely ad v ice im p a tie n tly ; " s t i l l , when he had looked back from th e g a te , he had seen h is m other k n e e lin g among th e p o ta to - p a r in g s . Her brown f a c e , u p - r a is e d , was s ta in e d w ith t e a r s and h e r sp a re form was q u iv e rin g . He bowed h is head and went on, f e e lin g suddenly ashamed o f h is p u rp o ses" (11). Crane ex pands h i s e a r ly co n cep tio n o f th e scen e, and th e d e t a i l s t h a t he adds a re c r u c ia l to th e r e a d e r 's p ro p e r judgment o f Flem ing, a f a r k in d e r judgment th an would r e s u l t from othe d r a f t , in which th e p a r tin g scene c o n s is ts s o l e l y o f F lem in g 's t o l e r a t i n g h is m o th e r's speech im p a tie n tly , and s h e e p is h ly f e e lin g g la d t h a t none o f h is f r ie n d s were th e r e to h e a r i t . Summary C ra n e 's r e v is io n s o f The Red Badge p ro v id e elo q u en t c o n tra ry e v i dence to claim s such as h is f r ie n d C. K. L in so n 's t h a t C ra n e 's w r itin g was "as e f f o r t l e s s as th e flow ing o f a s tr e a m ." 5 Crane r e v is e s both le x i c a l and s y n t a c t i c a s p e c ts o f h is d r a f t as he tra n sfo rm s i t in to th e m an u scrip t. Such dual r e v i s i o n , as n o te d p r e v io u s ly , i s n o t c h a r a c te r i s t i c o f r e v is io n s w ith in th e d r a f t and m a n u sc rip t, where s u b s t i t u t i o n s r e t a i n th e same form and fu n c tio n as p r i o r s e l e c t i o n s . Hence, th e two documents when compared p r e s e n t a unique o p p o rtu n ity to observe in microcosm w ith in one work C ra n e 's tendency th ro u g h o u t h is c a r e e r to develop a sm oother, f u l l e r , more complex w r itin g s t y l e between works. Evidence o f C ra n e's e f f o r t w ith in The Red Badge l i e s b a s i c a l l y in h is n o tic e a b le e f f o r t to add, n o t only by c r e a tin g new s e n te n c e s , b u t by le n g th e n in g p h ra se s and c la u s e s o f a lre a d y e x is t in g s e n te n c e s . A lthough sometimes th e r e s u l t i s words added fo r th e mere sake o f adding w ords, 297 most a d d itio n s a re m eaningful.. F urtherm ore, a lth o u g h Crane t r a n s f e r s s e r i e s o f s h o r t se n te n c e s i n t a c t (n o ta b ly in C hapter VII where he has j u s t cause s in c e th e y a p tly m ir ro r F lem in g 's d is o rd e re d mind when he en co u n ters th e decaying corpse propped a g a in s t a t r e e ) , he i s more l i k e l y to combine s h o r t se n te n c e s and add to them. R arely do se n te n c e s emerge s h o r t e r in th e m an u scrip t th a n in th e d r a f t . C ra n e 's fav o red o p tio n s f o r adding and sh arp en in g in fo rm a tiv e de t a i l s a re bound p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra s e s and s e p a ra te c la u s e s , y e t he does o c c a s io n a lly adopt some o f th e embedding o p tio n s o f f e r e d by th e E n g lish language. He a ls o s t r i v e s to make r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een c la u s e s and se n te n c e s more e x p l i c i t by adding sen te n c e c o n n e c to rs, and s e a rc h e s f o r th e p r e c is e word t h a t he w ants, n o t o n ly c o n te n t words b u t fu n c tio n words a ls o , e s p e c ia ll y p r e p o s itio n s . Of equal concern to him i s e x ac t re n d e rin g o f tim e , re v e a le d in verb te n s e changes and th e a d d itio n o f numerous p r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se s t h a t fu n c tio n as tim e a d v e r b ia ls , and enhanced coherence. A lthough in The Red Badge Cra n e has achieved a s t y l e which e x p re s s es h i s p e rs o n a l v is io n and perform ance c a p a b i l i t i e s a t th e tim e , he has n o t, a t l e a s t n o t s y n t a c t i c a l l y , a r r iv e d a t h is m ature s t y l e . But com p a r is o n o f th e d r a f t and m an u scrip t shows us h is e a r ly s te p s in t h a t d i r e c t i o n . 298 Notes * A lthough C ra n e 's even-exchange r e v is io n s s i g n i f i c a n t l y re v e a l h is s e a rc h in g f o r e x a c tly th e r i g h t word, f o r th e most p a r t we w ill n o t be concerned w ith them h e re . The fo llo w in g , however, a re some exam ples: "despondent r i f l e s " (2 0 9 ) ^ " d e s p o n d e n t powder" (14); " in h i s bunk d e b a tin g " (2 0 9 )--------> " i n h is bunk p o n d erin g " (1 4 ); " to g ra p p le to o s e r io u s ly " (2 09)—< —» " to w r e s tle to o s e r io u s ly " (1 4 ); "a woodpecker stu c k h i s in s o le n t head" (232) ------- >"a woodpecker stu c k h is impudent head" (6 1 ). W ithin th e d r a f t and th e m a n u scrip t th e m selv e s, C ra n e 's r e v is io n s a re alm ost in v a r ia b ly even exchanges. He se a rc h e s f o r th e e x ac t word o r word group m atching th e s t r u c t u r e s a lre a d y e s ta b lis h e d , f o r exam ple: " C o n k lin " - > "The f i r s t " > "The s o ld ie r " - > "The e x c ite d s o l d i e r " - > "The t a l l s o l d i e r " (4 ). Only r a r e l y does Crane a l t e r s y n ta x . One example: "Flem ing, a c e r t a i n y o u th fu l p r i v a t e , l i s t e n e d " ^ "There was a y o u th fu l p r i v a t e who lis te n e d " (5 ). 2 Crane a ls o r e c a s t s a c tiv e mode s e n te n c e s i n t o p a s s iv e mode, b u t none o f th e s e changes t h a t appeared in th e d a ta was s i g n i f i c a n t , and Crane i s e q u a lly in c lin e d to r e c a s t p a s s iv e c o n s tr u c tio n s in to t h e i r a c ti v e c o u n te r p a r ts . ^ For a d is c u s s io n o f th e h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f th e p a s t p e r f e c t and i t s u s e , see Curme, pp. 358 and 361. ^ , " . A T ra n sfo rm a tio n a l A n a ly s is ," pp. 45 and 92. 299 APPENDIX G RECORD OF EMENDATIONS A ll em endations made in th e s e le c tio n s chosen from th e e d itio n s used in th e stu d y a r e l i s t e d below . The co n v en tio n s o f The U n iv e rs ity P re ss o f V ir g in ia e d i t i o n o f C ra n e 's works a re fo llo w ed in ite m iz in g em endations ex cep t t h a t s u b s ta n tiv e and a c c id e n ta ls em endations a re n o t s e p a ra te d h e re . In each item page number i s f i r s t , fo llow ed by l i n e number (1 .1 0 ); th e a c c e p te d re a d in g i s b e fo re th e sq u are b r a c k e t, w ith so u rce n o ta tio n fo llo w in g th e sq u are b ra c k e t e x cep t when emenda t i o n i s mine in which c ase th e r e i s no n o ta tio n ; th e r e j e c t e d re a d in g fo llo w s th e sem icolon ( in each case th e so u rce e d itio n 's r e a d in g ); an i n f e r i o r c a r e t in d ic a te s absence o f a p u n c tu a tio n mark o r word. Where C ra n e 's s p e ll in g o f a word i s an a c c e p ta b le v a r i a n t o f th e more common form ( f o r example, "g rey " v ic e th e more common "g ray ") th e a c c e p ta b le v a r i a n t i s u sed . S i l e n t changes have been made th ro u g h o u t th e e a r ly d r a f t o f The Red Badge and th e m an u scrip t o f The Red Badge to c o r r e c t m is s p e llin g s such as C ra n e 's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " c ie " f o r " c e i" (f o r example, " r e c ie v e " v ic e " r e c e iv e " ) , "cammander" v ic e "commander," and so f o r th ; to remove th e ex tran eo u s ap o stro p h e in " i t ' s " f o r p o s s e s s iv e " i t s " ; and to i n s e r t th e o m itte d ap o stro p h e in c o n tr a c tio n s ( " i s n t " v ic e " i s n 't " ) . Em endations have been r e s t r i c t e d to a minimum, and m o stly in v o lv e a r e t u r n to th e m an u scrip t form, c o r r e c tio n o f s p e l l i n g , and o n ly tw ice a d d itio n o f words (n e c e ssa ry f o r th e sen se 300 o f p assag es in The Red Badge) which make no d if f e r e n c e in th e stu d y conducted. Since t h i s i s th e case, alth o u g h a te x tu a l p u r i s t would p ro b ab ly i n s i s t on le a v in g e v e ry th in g e x a c tly as Crane w rote i t , i t seemed u n n ecessary to n e e d le s s ly co m p licate com puter a n a ly s is . In re g a rd to word d iv is io n , a t tim es compounds or p o s s ib le com pounds occu r a t l i n e end o f Maggie and The Red Badge. In such c a s e s, C ran e’s u s u a l p r a c t i c e and p a r a l l e l o c cu rren c e s g u id e i n s e r t i o n o r om ission o f a hyphen to form o r n o t form a compound. Where a compound i s elsew h ere c o n s i s t e n t l y form ed, th e hyphai i s in s e r t e d i f o m itte d in o th e r o ccu rren ces ( " s t r e e t c ar" v ic e " s t r e e t - c a r " ) . In fo rm atio n about compounds o r p o s s ib le compounds which o ccur in th e V ir g in ia e d itio n i s n o ted in th e te x t u a l a p p a ra tu s o f in d iv id u a l volum es. E d itio n s and Em endations E d itio n : F a c sim ile o f th e 1893 M aggie: A G ir l o f th e S t r e e t s : A S to ry o f New Y ork, ed. Joseph Katz ( G a in e s v ille , F l a .: S c h o la rs ' F a c sim ile s 8 R e p r in ts , 1966). Em endations and Word D iv isio n : 6.2 manhood]; manood 33.10 i t . ] ; i t * 33.20 chrysanthem um s]; chrisanthem um s 34.13 b r e a th e ] ; b re a th 36:4-5 s t r e e t - c a r s ] ; s t r e e t / c a r s 38.22 f i r e e n g in e ]; f ir e - e n g in e 7 0.8-9 n i c k e l - p l a t e d ] ; n i c k e l - / p l a t e d 92.10 b e g rim e d ]; begrimmed 145.2-3 f o r g e t f u l n e s s ] ; f o r g e t- /n e s s 148.10 g rim y ]; grim ey 148.16 e y e s ]; e y et 148.19 s t r e e t - c a r ] ; s t r e e t Ac a r E d itio n : The Red Badge o f C ourage: A F a c sim ile E d itio n o f th e Manu s c r i p t , ed. Fredson Bowers (W ashington, D. C .: NCR M icro card E d itio n s , 1972). 301 Emendations and Word D iv isio n : 20.25 development!] ; developem ent 22.19 b re a th in g 1 1 ; b re a th e in g 23.19 b o d ies o f ] ; b o d ie sA 47.8 m ag ician 's!] ; m ag acian 's 62.24 a p p allin g !] ; a p a ilin g 63.16 squawk!] ; sqawk 107.3 squawking!] ; sqawking 120.16 borne!] ; born 125.22 th e r e was a!! ; t h e r e A a 133.27 b reath in g !] ; b re a th e in g 177.6-7 man-hood] ; man-/hood 177.13- 14 h o t-p lo u g h sh ares!] ; h o t-/p lo u g h s h a re s 208.14 borne!! ; born 209.29 ecstasy !] ; e c s ta c y 232.7 rhythm ical!] ; ry th m ica l 233.17 ap p allin g !] ; a p a llin g E d itio n : The O'Ruddy, Vol. IV o f The Works o f Stephen C rane, ed. Fredson Bowers ( C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : The U n iv e rs ity P re ss o f V ir g in ia , 1971). E m endations: 3.12 a b id in g A] MS; a b id in g , 4.22 B r i s t o l A!l MS; B r i s t o l , 51.20 s h o r tA] MS; s h o r t, 63.12 j udgment/O MS; j udgm ent, 114.5 afterw ards!] MS; a fte rw a rd 114.21 splendorD MS; sp len d o u r 115.7 o f course!] MS; o f c o u rse , 115.28 fa v o rite !) MS; f a v o u r ite 116.28 stab le-b o y s!] MS; s ta b le -b o y s 130.6 n ev er had I ] MS; n e v e r have I had 133.8 choose!] MS; chose 133.18 g a rd e n ] MS; Gardens 140.4 r e f u s in g ] MS; re fu s e d E d itio n : T ales o f A dventure, Vol. V o f The Works o f Stephen Crane, ed . Fredson Bowers ( C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : The U n iv e r s ity P re ss o f V ir g in ia , 1970). "The F ive White Mice" E m endations: 40.1 honour] MS; honor 302 44.23 comicAf o o li s h AwiseH MS; comic, f o o l i s h , w ise ( P a r a l l e l in s ta n c e s o f u n p u n ctu ated s e r i e s o f prenom inal a d je c tiv e s o ccur e lsew h ere. See, f o r example, The O' Ruddy, Vol. IV o f The Works, 128.30: " p a le w icked s n a r lin g f a c e s . ” ) 47.29 u n p la c e d ^ ] MS; u n p laced , "A Man and Some O th ers" E m endations: 53.27-28 m y stic and s i n i s t e r ] The C entury (C y), Feb. 1897; m y ste rio u s and d e v ilis h 57.7 t h r e e ] Cy; two 57.13 m y stic and s t i l l m y s tic ] Cy; s tra n g e and s t i l l s tra n g e 61.5 m y s tic ] Cy; uncanny ( S u b s titu tio n s f o r "m y stic" a re l a t e r changes by Crane th an th e tim e exam ined.) E d itio n : T ales o f War, V ol. VI o f The Works o f Stephen C rane, e d . Fredson Bowers ( C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : The U n iv e rs ity P ress o f V ir g in ia , 1969). "The P r ic e o f th e H arness" E m endations: 97.22 h i l l A] ; h i l l , (Bowers claim s he emends " h i l l , " to " h i l l " in ." E d ito ria l Emendations in th e C opy-T ext," p . 345, b u t w ith in th e t e x t on p . 97 th e comma a p p e a rs .) E d itio n : T a le s o f W h ilo m v jlle, Vol. VII o f The Works o f Stephen C rane, ed. Fredson Bowers ( C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : The U n iv e rs ity P re ss o f V ir g in ia , 1969). "The M onster" E m endations: 24.37 a f te r w a r d s ] H arper*s M onthly, 1898 and H a rp e r* s, 1899; a fte rw a r d j' V (Crane i s n o t c o n s is te n t in h i s u se ; in The Red Badge (MS), 138.25-26 and 13.18 f o r example show a l t e r n a t i o n between " a fte rw a rd " and " a f te r w a r d s ." ) 303 E d itio n : T a le s , S k e tc h es, and R e p o rts , Vol. V III o f The Works o f - Stephen C rane, ed„ Fredson Bowers ( C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : The U n iv e rs ity P ress o f V ir g in ia , 1973). "The Cry o f H uck leb erry Pudding" from th e " S u lliv a n County S k e tc h e s": E m endations: 255.24 im perturbable!] ; im p e rtu ra b le

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