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Content A CRITICAL ANALYSIS O F T H E NEGATIVE ATTITUDES IN PLAYS
EXCLUSIVE O F M U SICA L CO M ED IES W H IC H W O N T H E PULITZER PRIZE B E T W E E N
191*8 AND 1 9 5 7
by
E rnest Theodore Labrenz, J r .
A D is s e rta tio n P resented to the
FACULTY O F TH E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA
In P a rtia l- F u lfillm e n t of the
Requirements f o r th e Degree
D O C T O R O F PHILOSOPHY
(English)
June 1962
UMI Number: DP23028
All rights reserved
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UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CA LIFO RNIA
G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K
L O S A N G E L E S 7 , C A L IF O R N IA
Ph« D E ‘6 i £ •
This dissertation, written by
..............Er ne s t . _ Theodor e ..Labr e nz A _ Jr ................
under the direction of h±s.....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Dean of
the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date J.une.,1962
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
CONTENTS
In tro d u ctio n . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . ..................... . iv
Negative A ttitu d e s in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire . . . . . . . 1
Negative A ttitu d e s in Death of a Salesman # « • • • • • • • • 22
Negative A ttitu d e s in The Shrike . ..................... 1 * 2
Negative A ttitu d e s in P icn ic . . • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • $7
N egative A ttitu d e s in The Teahouse of the August Moon . . . . 77
Negative A ttitu d e s in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof .• • • . • • . . 8 1 *
N egative A ttitu d e s in The Diary o f Anne Frank . . . . . . . . 100
Negative A ttitu d e s in Long Day’ s Journey in to Night . . . . .1 1 9
Conclusion ................................. 1 1 * 2
ili
INTRODUCTION
Much re c e n t l it e r a t u r e ten d s, f o r a v a rie ty of reasons the
n o tin g of which i s beyond the scope of th is study, to be negative in
i t s outlook.'*' This d is s e r ta tio n is an attem pt to discover whether
o r not th is f a c t i s su b s ta n tia te d by an exam ination of p lay s which
won th e P u litz e r P rize in th e decade between 19U8 and 1957* The
P u litz e r P riz e plays were chosen because th ey are g en erally re p re se n t
a tiv e of the b e st l it e r a t u r e th a t th e American th e a te r has to o ffe r.
The decade between 19lt8 and 1957 was chosen because i t i s perhaps
the ric h e s t decade of the post-w ar American th e a te r, co n tain in g as
i t does some of the f in e s t works of our lead in g p lay w rig h ts. During
th is p erio d A rthur M ille r and W illiam Inge were awarded th e ir f i r s t
and only P u litz e r P riz e s , Tennessee W illiam s was awarded the two he
p o sse sse s, and Eugene O ’ N e ill was posthumously awarded h is fo u rth
p riz e .
I t should be p o in ted out th a t th e p lay s w ill be tre a te d as
p rin te d l i t e r a t u r e . That i s , they w ill be examined as they appear
in books prepared f o r the read in g p u b lic , n o t as they appear in a c tin g
l l h i s f a c t i s o fte n a sse rte d by l it e r a r y c r i t i c s and o th er
commentators on our tim es. For example, F rederick Lewis A llen in an
a r t i c l e e n title d ”The S p ir it of th e Times1 * (H arper1 s , 20$:66-7U,
Ju ly 1952) s ta te s th a t beginning a f t e r World War O ne' and continuing
in to th e f i f t i e s ”to have a l it e r a r y conscience was to take a bleak
view of American l i f e , human l i f e in g e n eral, and the way the world
was going” (p . 71).
iv
V
e d itio n s or on the sta g e . The purpose, then, of th is d is s e r ta tio n
i s to examine readers* e d itio n s of the p lay s to d isco v er the tech
niques ( i f any) by which and the e x te n ts ( i f any) to which they re v e a l
negative a ttitu d e s . Before the plays are examined, however, the
term s "tech n iq u es," " e x te n t," and " a ttitu d e s " need to be d efin ed .
The term "techniques" may be defined as methods by which a
playw right may express h is fe e lin g s in p r i n t. The "techniques" to be
considered in th is study in clu d e development of p lo t, s e ttin g , and
c h arac ter through th e use of d ialo g u e, stage d ire c tio n s , and s p e c ia l
explanatory m a te ria l such as d e sc rip tio n s of c h a ra c te rs , s e ts , music,
costumes, and s p e c ia l e ffe c ts (such as firew orks and s t r e e t n o is e s ).
The term "ex te n t" may be defined as degree. W e may s e t up a
h y p o th e tic a l continuum ranging from "o p tim istic " to " p e s s im is tic ,"
th a t i s , from a com pletely hopeful view of l i f e to a com pletely
d e sp airin g view of l i f e . The problem i s , where along th e continuum
does any one p lay belong? Is i t com pletely f re e of negative a ttitu d e s
and thus o p tim istic ? Or, i f i t has negative a ttitu d e s , how many are
th e re , how are they expressed, and how w eighty are they in terms o f
p la c in g th e p lay on the continuum? The answers to th ese questions w ill
in d ic a te the e x te n t of th e play* s negative a ttitu d e s .
The term " a ttitu d e s " may be defined as co n te n tio n s, expressed or
im plied. N egative a ttitu d e s a re contentions of d e n ia l or r e f u s a l. I
s h a ll use the term "negative a ttitu d e s " to in d ic a te th e playw rights'
negative contentions toward (1) man and h is a b i l i t i e s , (2) th e id ea of
an ordered, p u rp o sefu l, and moral w orld, and (3) the e f f e c t of the
modern world on man.
F in a lly , i t i s u s e fu l to l i s t the dramas which were awarded_______
v i
P u litz e r P riz es between 19 U 8 and 1957 w ith the p u b lish e rs of th e
readers* e d itio n s used in t h i s study and the d ates of t h e i r p u b lic a
tio n .
19U8 A S tre e tc a r Named D esire, by Tennessee W illiam s. New D ire c tio n s,
TWK
19U9 Death of a Salesman, by A rthur M ille r. Bantam Books, 1955*
1950 South P a c ific , by R ichard R ogers, Oscar Hammerstein I I , and
Joshua Logan. A m u sical. Not included in th is stu d y .
1951 No award p resen te d .
1952 The S h rik e, by Joseph Kramm. Random House, 1952.
1953 P ic n ic , by W illiam Inge. Random House, 1953*
19$h The Teahouse of the August Moon, by John P a tric k . Q.P. Putnam 's
Sons, 1952*
1955 Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, by Tennessee W illiam s. New D ire c tio n s,
' m r .-------------------------------
1956 The Diary of Anne Frank, by Frances Goodrich and A lbert H ackett.
Random House, 1956.
1957 Long Day's Journey In to N ight, by Eugene 0* N e ill. Yale
ifnT versity, 1956. .
C H A PTER I
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES IN A STREETCAR N A M E D DESIRE1
A S tre e tc a r Named D esire is not an a ffirm a tiv e p lay ; r a th e r , i t
i s a p lay made somber by th e negative a ttitu d e s found in i t s p lo t,
s e ttin g , costumes, m usic, and c h a ra c te rs . I t i s f a r n earer the
p e ssim is tic end of the continuum mentioned in the In tro d u ctio n than
i t I s near th e o p tim istic end.
There are fiv e im portant negative a ttitu d e s in A S tre e tc a r Named
D e sire : ( l ) h o s t i l i t y i s in h e re n t in w hatever fo rce or fo rc e s move
men; (2) man i s b a s ic a lly no good, o r, a t b e s t, he i s weak and enslavec.
by h is p a ssio n s; (3) such s e n s itiv e , te n d e r, and tru s tin g persons as
th e re are in th e world are crushed by th e in s e n s itiv e , r u th le s s , and
b ru ta l p erso n s, who have in h e rite d the e a rth ; (U) l i f e , f u l l of lo s s ,
d eath , and d e p ra v ity , is e s s e n tia lly sad; (55 th e re is nothing we can
do to change th ese c o n d itio n s. These fiv e negative a ttitu d e s can be
learn ed from an exam ination of th e p lo t, s e ttin g , costumes, m usic,
and c h a ra c te rs of A S tre e tc a r Named D esire. W e s h a ll begin w ith the
p l o t.
Blanche Du B ois, a high-school E nglish teach er from an upper-
c la s s but e ff e te fam ily of Southern country g entry, i s fo rce d to seek
■ * - B y Tennessee W illiam s (New York: New D ire c tio n s, 1914-7).
1
2
haven w ith her m arried s i s t e r , S te lla , in New O rleans, Blanche i s a
n e u rasth en ic, having been d riven to become one by th e tra g ic ending
of h er m arriage, th e lo ss of th e fam ily home and lands (B elle R eve),
and her own m oral decay fo llo w in g th ese e v en ts. Her s i s t e r , who i s
p regnant, i s m arried to a sen su a l, crude, b u t v i t a l man, S tanley
Kowalski, Blanche has been le d by S te lla 1 s l e t t e r s to b eliev e th a t
the Kowalskis are b e tte r o ff th an they a c tu a lly a re ; hence she i s
taken aback by what she considers to be th e sq u alo r and crudeness of
th e ir home, which i s in one of the poorer se c tio n s of N ew O rleans,
Furtherm ore, her b ro th e r-in -la w , who has not been to ld of her v i s i t ,
t r e a t s her badly, since he re se n ts her a i r of s u p e rio rity . As th e
p la y advances, h is h o s t i l i t y in cre ases u n t i l i t goads him in to in v es
tig a tin g B lanche's p a s t. He fin d s out th a t she was fo rced to re s ig n
from her teaching p o s itio n because of moral tu rp itu d e and became a
p r o s titu te . He re v e a ls t h is inform ation to S te lla and to Harold
M itc h e ll (M itch), a frie n d of h is who has become in te re s te d in Blanche
and wants to marry h e r. As a r e s u lt of S ta n le y 's d is c lo s u re s , Mitch
breaks o ff w ith Blanche, a f te r f i r s t try in g to fo rc e h is a tte n tio n s
upon h e r. Then, a f t e r ta k in g th e pregnant S te lla to th e h o s p ita l,
S tan ley re tu rn s home to fin d Blanche near H y ste ria . In a tow ering
a c t of b r u ta lity , he rapes h e r, causing h er to lo se her l a s t tenuous
hold on r e a l i t y . Ihe p lay ends w ith S te lla , home from the h o s p ita l
w ith her baby boy, re fu sin g to b e liev e B lanche's accu satio n s a g a in st
S tan ley ; in s te a d , fo rced to choose between her s i s t e r and her husband,
she has Blanche committed to a m ental i n s t it u t io n , and the c u rta in
f a l l s as Blanche i s being taken o ff by a d octor and a n u rse.
3
One of th e most obvious negative a ttitu d e s in th is p lo t i s the
a ttitu d e th a t h o s t i li t y i s in h e re n t in whatever fo rc e or fo rc e s move
men. Every a c tio n of Blanche, th e c e n tra l c h a ra c te r, b rin g s her
c lo se r to her te r r ib le f a t e . When she was six te e n she eloped w ith a
boy (a s S te lla t e l l s Stanley) "who wrote p o e try . . . . He was extrem e
ly good-looking” (p . 120)* But Blanche t e l l s Mitch:
There was something d if f e r e n t about th e boy, a nervousness, a
so ftn e ss and tenderness which wasn11 lik e a m an* s . . . . Then
I found o u t. In th e w orst of a l l p o ssib le ways. By coming
suddenly in to a room th a t I thought was empty—which w a sn 't
empty, b u t had two people in i t . . . the boy I m arried and an
o ld er man who had been h is frie n d f o r y e a rs. . . . A fterw ards
we pretended th a t nothing had been discovered. Yes, th e th re e of
us drove out to Moon Lake Casino, very drunk and laughing a l l
th e way. . . . W e danced th e Varsouviana'. Suddenly in th e m iddle
of the dance the boy I had m arried broke away from me and ran out
of the casin o . A few moments l a t e r —a shot1 * . . . I ran o u t -
a l l d id 1 . —a l l ran and gathered about th a t te r r i b le th in g a t th e
edge of the lak e l . . . He’ d stuck the rev o lv er in to h is mouth,
and f ir e d —so th a t the back of h is head had been—blown away'.
. . . I t was because—on the dance f lo o r —unable to sto p m yself—
I ’d suddenly sa id —"I saw’ . I know’ . You d isg u st me . • . ”
(pp. 111-113)
From th is o rd eal Blanche was plunged in to another one a t B elle Reve,
where death and fin a n c ia l ru in sta lk e d h e r. She t e l l s S te lla :
I , I , £ took th e blows in my face and my body'. A ll those deaths'.
The long parade to the graveyard’ . F a th e r, mother’ . M argaret,
th a t d rea d fu l way'. So b ig w ith i t , i t c o u ld n 't be p u t in a
c o ffin ’ . . . . And old Cousin J e s s ie ’ s r ig h t a f t e r M argaret’ s ,
h e rs’ . Why, the grim reap er had p u t up h is te n t on our doorstep1 .
. • • S te lla . B elle Reve was h is headquarters'. Honey—th a t’ s
how i t slip p ed through my fin g e rs ’ , (pp. 27-28)
And so th e c o st of dying and of fu n e ra ls robbed Blanche of B elle Reve.
A lready, in her e f f o r t to escape death she had tu rn ed , as she t e l l s
M itch, to i t s op p o site—d e sire (p . Iij2 ). This re v e la tio n comes a f te r
S tan ley has rev ealed B lanche's p a s t to M itch, and she t e l l s him every
th in g :
k
Yes, I had many in tim ac ie s w ith s tra n g e rs . A fter the death of
A llen—in tim ac ie s w ith stra n g e rs was a l l I seemed able to f i l l
my empty h e a rt w ith . . . . I th in k i t was p a n ic , j u s t p a n ic ,
th a t drove me from one to an o th er, hunting fo r some p ro te c tio n —
here and th e re , in the most—u n lik e ly p la c e s—even, a t l a s t , in
a sev en teen -y ear-o ld boy b u t—somebody w rote the su p erin ten d en t
about i t~ " T h is woman i s m orally u n f it fo r her p o s itio n ’ ." (pp.
lilO -liil)
A ll th e se blows Blanche su ffe re d before coming to New O rleans. In
N ew O rleans she i s driven in to S ta n le y 's w orld, given th e hope th a t
m arriage to M itch w ill end her nightm are, wrenched from th a t hope,
and m entally d estro y ed . In the fac e of th e h o s t i li t y of whatever
fo rce i s moving h e r, she does n o t have a chance, as we are candidly
and com pletely shown.
Even coincidence i s used in th e p lo t to re in fo rc e th is a ttitu d e
th a t h o s t i l i t y i s in h ere n t in God or f a te o r chance or whatever
W illiam s b e lie v e s to be the fo rce th a t moves men. By coincidence
S tanley i s ab le to hear Blanche condemning him to S te lla as "sub
human," " a p e -lik e ," and a "su rv iv o r of th e stone age . . . grunting
• • . s w illin g and gnawing and hulking" (pp. 82-83). S tanley j u s t
happens to come home in tim e to hear t h is speech, a noisy t r a i n ju s t
happens to go by so th a t he can s lip in unheard, and another tr a in
ju s t happens to pass by a t the end of th e speech so th a t he can s lip
out ag ain , th en c a l l to S te lla as i f he had j u s t come home. Yet i t
i s t h is eavesdropping—and B lanche's ignorance of i t —t h is coincidence,
th a t perhaps more th an anything e ls e n u rtu re s th e h atred in S tanley
th a t f i n a l ly d estro y s Blanche. I t i s a ls o coincidence, m alevolent
coincidence, th a t enables S tan ley to disco v er th e f a c ts about B lanche's
re c e n t p a s t. He happens to have a frie n d (Shaw) who happens to tr a v e l
5
through L aurel, the town where Blanche had been a p r o s titu te , and
Shaw happens to have stopped a t the Flamingo H otel and heard of
Blanche’ s escapades th e re . Truly, coincidence i s shown not as some
th in g m indless, but as something m alevolent, something su p p o rtin g the
a ttitu d e th a t h o s t i l i t y i s in h e re n t in w hatever fo rc e s move men.
t
3
] Another negative a ttitu d e in h e re n t in the p lo t i s th a t such sen-
i
j s i t i v e , te n d e r, and tr u s tin g persons as th e re are in th e world are
crushed by th e in s e n s itiv e , r u th le s s , and b r u ta l p erso n s. T his fa c t
is i ll u s t r a te d by the f a te s of both Blanche and M itch. Of Blanche,
S tan ley , knowing her p a s t, says s a t i r i c a l l y to S te lla , ’ ’D e lic a te piece
she i s . ” S te lla re p lie s* ”She i s . She was. You didn’ t know Blanche
as a g i r l . Nobody was ten d e r and tru s tin g as she was. But people
lik e you abused h e r, and fo rced her to change” (pp. 131-132). And
Blanche h e r s e lf , seeming to r e a liz e th a t her type needs a tra n sfu sio n
from S tanley’ s type i f they are to su rv iv e , says to S te lla , ” . . .
maybe he’ s what we need to mix w ith our blood now th a t we’ ve lo s t
B elle Reve” (p . I48) . Yet i n her h e a rt of h e a rts , she h a te s S tan ley
fo r h is in se n sitiv e n e ss and fe a rs him, perhaps because she in s tin c
tiv e ly f e e ls th a t he w ill d estro y h e r. I n th a t im passioned speech to
S te lla where she c a lls S tan ley ’ ’sub-human” and ”a p e -lik e ” and says th a t
thousands of y ears have passed him by, she concludes by saying:
Maybe we are a long way from being made in God’ s image, but S te lla
—my s i s t e r —th ere has been some p ro g ress since then’ . Such th in g s
as a r t —as p o etry and music—such kinds of new l ig h t have come
in to th e world since then'. In some kinds of people some te n d e re r
fe e lin g s have had some l i t t l e beginning1 . That we have to make
growl And c lin g to , and hold as our f la g 1 . In t h is dark march
toward whatever i t i s we’ r e approaching. . . . Don* t —don’ t
hang back w ith the b ru te s’ , (p . 83)
6
Ihese are noble sen tim en ts, but th ey are crushed to death in th e end
by S tan ley , whose a ctio n s b rin g out the au th o r1 s negative a ttitu d e
th a t such people as Blanche, w ith such sen tim en ts, are destroyed by
the a p e -lik e S ta n le y s.
No c h a ra c te r in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire, in clu d in g Blanche, i s
e n tir e ly fre e from co arsen ess, b u t among the male c h a ra c te rs the one
who i s most tender and understanding i s M itch (as Blanche seems to
r e a liz e , fo r she remarks to S te lla , ’ ’That one seems—su p e rio r to th e
o th e rs ,” p . 55) • And he i s , next to Blanche, the one most burdened
w ith tro u b le s . He has a dying mother to look a f te r (p . 110), and,
as w ith Blanche, th e re i s a dead lo v er haunting h is p a s t. T his i s th e
g i r l who had given him th e c ig a r e tte lig h te r w ith th e in s c rip tio n
(from Mrs. Browning) ’ ’And i f God choose, I s h a ll but love th ee b e tte r
a f te r d e a th ,” which he shows to Blanche ( ”A very stran g e g i r l , very
sweet—very1 . ” he t e l l s h e r, pp. 60-61). A lso, he too i s b u llie d by
S tan ley , who orders him to b rin g b eer fo r the poker n ig h t (p . 2 9 ),
makes fu n of h is a tte n tio n to h is mother (pp. 51-52), i s in f lu e n tia l
in g e ttin g him to give up th e id ea of m arrying Blanche (pp. 121-122),
and f i n a l ly keeps him from going to her j u s t before she i s taken away
by th e Doctor and the Matron (p . 169). M itch does not fa re n e arly
as badly as Blanche (though he i s sobbing as she leaves) because he i s
not n e arly as s e n s itiv e , but to the e x te n t th a t he i s s e n s itiv e he i s
made to s u ffe r by the in s e n s itiv e S ta n le y . His f a t e , lik e Blanche’ s , ,
i l l u s t r a t e s W illiam s’ negative a ttitu d e th a t the s e n s itiv e , te n d e r,
and tr u s tin g persons a re crushed by th e in s e n s itiv e , b r u ta l, and ru th
le s s p erso n s.
7
And f i n a l ly , th e p lo t i l l u s t r a t e s th e neg ativ e a ttitu d e s th a t
l i f e , f u l l of lo s s , d eath , and d e p ra v ity , i s e s s e n tia lly sad, and
th a t th e re is nothing we can do to change th is c o n d itio n . Blanche
lo se s her husband, her fam ily , her home, her youth, her m oral f ib e r ,
and f in a lly her mind. And though she i s only t h i r t y , her l i f e has
been f u l l of death and d e p ra v ity . M itch to a le s s e r e x te n t has a lso
i
known lo s s and d eath . And a t th e end he can do nothing to help Blanche.
He sobs, S tanley soothes S t e ll a , and the o th er men resume t h e i r poker
game. There i s nothing more to be done.
Negative a ttitu d e s in th e p lay are a lso conveyed by the symbolism
in h e re n t in th e c a re fu lly se le c te d lo c a tio n s , costum es, m usic, and
time of day. The negative a ttitu d e s thus rev ealed are th a t such sen
s i t i v e , te n d e r, and tr u s tin g persons as th ere are in the world are
crushed by the in s e n s itiv e , r u th le s s , and b r u ta l persons and th a t l i f e ,
f u l l of lo s s , d eath , and d e p ra v ity , i s e s s e n tia lly sad.
The scene of th e a c tio n of the p lay i s a two-room f l a t in a poor
s e c tio n of New O rleans (p . 9 ) . There are no s e t changes, b u t th ere
are in r e a l i t y two s e ts , j u s t as th e re are two b asic types of back
ground m usic. One s e t (and one type of music) sym bolizes B lanche's
w orld, th e o th er Stanley* s w orld. The s e t th a t does not appear (except
in the d ialo g u e, m usic, and sound e ffe c ts ) i s th e s e t re p re se n tin g
the lo s t world of B elle Reve. The f a c t th a t i t i s in s u b s ta n tia l,
even, perhaps, in some ways im aginary, does not decrease i t s importance;
in f a c t , i t in c re a se s i t s symbolic v alu e, fo r the im aginary world is
th e world th a t th e n eu rasth en ic Blanche now fin d s most r e a l . I t is
not a p r e tty world th a t Blanche remembers, and B elle Reve1 s name
becomes b i t t e r l y ir o n ic , f o r in French i t means B e a u tifu l Dream* But
even though i t s p assin g was exhausting and b i t t e r , B elle Reve before
i t s tra g ic lo s s , during i t s g re a t days, seems tr u ly to have been the
B e a u tifu l Dream, th e haven, th a t Blanche would lik e to re tu rn to . Thus
i t sym bolizes the e f f e te b u t g e n te e l u p p e r-c lass country l i f e now gone
I
fo rev e r and stands d ia m e tric a lly opposed to th e v i t a l , coarse l i f e of
the New O rleans slum s. And in th e p o la r ity of th e s e ts we see sym
b o liz ed th e negative a ttitu d e th a t the s e n s itiv e are crushed by th e
in s e n s itiv e (fo r i t i s S tanley’ s world th a t i s r e a l , not Blanche’ s ) ,
as w e ll as the negative a ttitu d e th a t l i f e i s f u l l of lo ss and essen
t i a l l y sad, fo r Blanche h ates the p re se n t r e a l i t y and so withdraws
f a r th e r and f a r th e r in to the p a s t and in s a n ity .
The costumes are a lso used to sym bolize th e neg ativ e a ttitu d e
th a t l i f e i s f u l l of lo ss and sad. As th e p lay opens, S tan ley comes
in ’’roughly dressed in blue denim work c lo th e s ” and c arry in g h is
bowling ja c k e t (p . 10). A few m inutes l a t e r Blanche comes in and i s
d escribed thus:
Her appearance i s incongruous to t h i s s e ttin g . She i s d a in tily
dressed in a w hite s u i t w ith a f l u f f y bo d ice, necklace and
e a rrin g s of p e a rl, w hite gloves and h a t, looking as i f she were
a rriv in g a t a summer te a or c o c k ta il p a rty in the garden d i s t r i c t
(p . 12).
Here again we fin d o p p o sites. S tanley i s dressed fo r r e a l it y ; Blanche
i s d ressed fo r u n re a lity —the u n re a lity of h er world which has been
taken from her even though she t r i e s so d e sp e ra te ly to c lin g to i t .
Her very costume sym bolizes th e negative a ttitu d e th a t l i f e i s f u l l of
lo s s .
The c o lo rs of th e costumes are a lso sym bolic. At the beginning
of the play and during th e rape scene, Blanche wears w h ite, as i f to
symbolize her in n er p u rity which her name in d ic a te s (as she h e rs e lf
p o in ts out: ’ ’Blanche means w h ite ,” p . 62) and which she b e liev e s in .
When M itch accuses her of ly in g to him about her p a s t, she t e l l s him,
‘♦Never in s id e , I didn’ t l i e in my h e a rt • • (p . l l i l ) . So she wears
w h ite. But she a lso has a d ark-red s a tin wrapper in which she some-
i
tim es appears and which she has on when she f i r s t m eets Mitch (p . 59)• I
This wrapper i s symbolic of the im m orality which she has p u t on, and
though i t i s only a ’ ’w rapper," i t i s what the b r u ta l w orld she has
e n tered sees her in .
S ta n le y , on th e o th er hand, wears raw prim ary c o lo rs, f o r he i s
’ ’th e gaudy seed -b earer . . . a ric h ly -fe a th e re d male b ird among hens”
(p . 2 9 ). On th e n ig h t th a t he comes home and a tta c k s Blanche a f te r
tak in g th e pregnant S te lla to th e h o s p ita l, he sym bolically wears h is
v iv id green bowling s h i r t (p . H&) • He and h is k in d , th e ru th le s s and
the b r u ta l, have the sexual v i t a l i t y , not th e s e n s itiv e B lanche. The
fu tu re belongs to him, n o t to h e r, f o r she, in th e s t e r i l e , lo s t p u rity
of h er w h ite, w ill be crushed and l o s t .
Music i s a lso used sy m b o lically . Sensual ja z z , e s p e c ia lly the
’’blue p ia n o ,” sym bolizes S tanley’ s w orld, w hile a rom antic polka tu n e,
th e V arsouviana, sym bolizes Blanche’ s . The ja z z comes from a cafe'
around the corner and i s r e a l , expressing th e s p i r i t of the p re se n t;
th e polka comes from the w orld of B elle Reve and i s im agined, expressing
the s p i r i t of th e l o s t p a s t. The ja z z i s used over and over again to
symbolize the dom ination of th is r e a l , co arse, sen su al w orld over the
imagined, g e n te e l, l o s t w orld of B elle Reve. When Blanche t e l l s S te lla
th a t B elle Reve has been l o s t , "th e music of th e ‘blue piano* grows
louder*’ (p . 2 7 ). When S tanley t e l l s Blanche th a t S te lla i s going to
have a baby, **the ’ blue piano* sounds lo u d er1 * (p . U7)« When S t e ll a ;
a f te r h earin g Blanche condemn S tanley as "sub-human" and * * ap e-lik e,* '
runs in to Stanley* s arms w ith p a ssio n a te abandon, *'the music of the
’ blue piano* and trum pet and drums i s heard*' (p . 8U). Each time
S tanley o r S ta n le y 's world trium phs over Blanche or dem onstrates i t s
v i t a l i t y , i t s theme music announces i t s v ic to ry . Thus, more and more
in the l a t t e r p a rt of the p lay th e ja zz i s h eard . When S tanley
fu rio u s ly ra n ts a t S te lla and Blanche f o r c a llin g him a p ig and a
Polack and th en h u rls h is supper d ish es to th e f lo o r , "The Negro e n te r
ta in e r s around the corner /who play the j a z z / are heard" (p . 127).
When Blanche i s fo rced to shout " F ire 1 ." in order to keep M itch from
a tta c k in g h e r, "The d is ta n t piano i s slow and blue" (p . llU*). Then,
when she i s a tta c k e d by S tan ley , the "blue piano" i s heard a t the be
ginning o f th e a tta c k and "The hot trumpet and drums from th e Four
Duces" are heard as th e c u rta in clo ses on S tan ley as he c a rrie s the
i n e r t Blanche to th e bed (p . 155). And f i n a l ly , a t the very end of
the p la y , w ith Blanche on h er way to her f a t e , we hear "th e sw ellin g
music of th e ' blue piano' and th e muted trum pet" (p . 171)• S ta n le y 's
music announces th a t Stanley* s world has won; th e s e n s itiv e , te n d e r,
and tr u s tin g person has been crushed by in s e n s itiv ity , ru th le s s n e s s ,
and b r u ta lity .
Even Blanche’ s music haunts h e r, ta u n tin g h er about the p a s t. She
hears i t when she t e l l s M itch about th e tr a g ic death of her husband
(p . 112), as w e ll as o ff and on during th e l a s t scene when she i s
11
having delu sio n s concerning an old boy frie n d of h ers who i s now a
m illio n a ire (pp. 163» 165). L ife , so th e music of the b an al polka
tune sin g s to h e r, i s f u l l of lo ss and death and d e p ra v ity .
And f i n a l ly , W illiam s even uses the tim e of day in one scene so
th a t a negative a ttitu d e i s brought out sy m b o lically . He s e ts Scene
E ig h t, th e scene in which Blanche re a liz e s th a t H itc h has re je c te d her
and th e scene in which S tanley gives her a bus t ic k e t back to L au rel
as a b irth d a y p re s e n t, in t h is fashions
The view through th e b ig windows i s fad in g g rad u ally in to a
s till- g o ld e n dusk. A to rc h of su n lig h t b laz es on th e sid e of a
b ig w ater-tank or o i l drum acro ss the empty l o t toward the
b u sin ess d i s t r i c t which i s now p ierc ed by p in p o in ts of lig h te d
windows or windows r e f le c tin g th e su n set (p . 125)*
This s e ttin g i s splendid enough f o r Gotterdammerung, which i s what
th is scene i s f o r Blanche, f o r in i t she re a liz e s th a t she has been
betray ed and th a t she no longer has a chance w ith M itch, her l a s t hope.
This s e ttin g , in sym bolizing th e end of Blanche’ s w orld, b rin g s out the
negative a ttitu d e s th a t l i f e i s sad , and th a t th e s e n s itiv e person i s
destroyed by th e in s e n s itiv e .
W e have seen th a t the p lo t, th e s e ttin g , the costumes, the m usic,
and th e time of day in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire re v e a l negative
a ttitu d e s . M oreover, perhaps th e profoundest negativism i s found in
th e c h a ra c te rs . An exam ination of them re v e a ls th e a ttitu d e th a t man
i s b a s ic a lly no good, o r, a t b e s t, weak and enslaved by h is p a ssio n s.
Not one person in the p la y , w ith th e p o ssib le exception of a very
minor c h a ra c te r, th e Doctor (who t r e a ts Blanche k in d ly as he i s ta k in g
her away), d isp lay s any n o b ility of s p i r i t . A ll of th e c h a ra c te rs are
p e tty , mean, s e lf-c e n te re d , or w orse. Even m ost of the c h a ra c te rs who
12
are only mentioned and do not appear on stag e are no good.
There are fiv e minor c h a ra c te rs whom we get to know to some
2
e x te n t: Eunice, her husband S tev e, Pablo, the D octor, and the Matron.
Eunice and Steve are frie n d s and neighbors of S te lla and Stanley}
they liv e in th e f l a t above the Kow alskis. Pablo i s in th e poker
group w ith S tev e, S ta n le y , and M itch. The Doctor and the Matron appeal
very b r ie f ly a t th e end of th e p la y . Of th e l a t t e r two, W illiam s
w rite s , M The g ra v ity of t h e i r p ro fe ssio n i s exaggerated— -the unmis
tak ab le aura of the s ta te i n s t it u t io n w ith i t s c y n ic a l detachment"
(p . 163). In o th er words, they are h y p o c rite s; they p reten d to be
profoundly in te re s te d in the p a tie n t, b u t th ey are a c tu a lly u n in te r
e s te d . Yet the Doctor does seem to have some compassion, f o r when
Blanche, becoming h y s te r ic a l, has to be fo r c ib ly re s tra in e d by the
M atron, he comes to her a id . W illiam s says:
He takes o ff h is h a t and now he becomes p e rso n a liz e d . The
unhuman q u a lity goes. His voice i s gentle and re a ssu rin g as he
cro sses to Blanche and crouches in fr o n t of h e r. As he speaks
her name, her t e r r o r subsides a l i t t l e (p . 169).
Blanche seems to t r u s t th e D octor. She asks him to t e l l th e Matron to
l e t her go, and he does. Then she tr u s tin g ly takes h is arm and goes
o ff w ith him, rem arking w ith dram atic irony th a t she has always depend
ed on the kindness of s tra n g e rs . The M atron, however, i s not so com
p a ssio n a te . Of her W illiam s says: '♦Divested of a l l the s o fte r prop
e r t i e s of womanhood, the Matron i s a p a r tic u la r ly s i n i s t e r fig u re in
her severe d re s s . Her voice i s bold and to n e le s s as a f ir e b e ll"
2
And th re e , A Negro Woman, A Young C o lle c to r, and A Mexican Woman,
re v e a l so l i t t l e of t h e i r p e rs o n a litie s th a t one cannot say th a t he
r e a lly le a rn s anything about them.
13
(p . 166)* Nor does Blanche t r u s t h e r. She becomes p a n ic -stric k e n
when th is " s in is te r " person t r i e s to lead her away, and th e Matron has
to p in io n her arms.
Eunice, S tella* s b e s t f r ie n d , t r i e s to comfort S te lla when Blanche
i s tak en away by a ssu rin g her t h a t she has done th e only th in g she
could do, but Eunice does not seem to be g re a tly moved by Blanche* s
p lig h t. Indeed, one has th e f e e lin g th a t f o r her i t i s only something
to gossip about a t work o r over the back fen c e, f o r when she f i r s t
meets Blanche and l e t s her in to th e Kowalski f l a t she asks questions
lik e a gossip u n t il Blanche c u ts her o ff ra th e r c u rtly (pp. 15-16),
L a te r Eunice gets in to a fa c e -sla p p in g , pan-throw ing f ig h t w ith her
husband which can be heard by the whole neighborhood. She th re a te n s
to re p o rt him to th e p o lic e and walks out on him (pp. 8 5 -8 6 ). L a te r,
having made up w ith h er husband, she laughingly allow s him to chase
her out in to th e s t r e e t , he bounding a f t e r her "w ith g o a t-lik e
screeches" (p . 95)• Such a c tio n p o rtra y s them both a s co arse . And
S teve, in a d d itio n to s tr ik in g h is w ife , swears a t her (p . 8 6 ), t e l l s
o ff-c o lo r s to r ie s (p . 52) , and i s u n fa ith fu l, which i s th e reason why
th e f ig h t mentioned above tak es p la c e . P ablo, a very minor c h a ra c te r,
i s on stage long enough to re v e a l h is coarseness by c u rsin g S tanley
during the poker game th a t tak es p lace in the l a s t scene.
Even th e c h a ra c te rs who are only mentioned are m ostly no good.
A llen Gray, Blanche* s young husband, i s a m oral degenerate who k i l l s
him self (p . 112). And the an cesto rs of Blanche and S te lla a re d e sc rib
ed as im provident f o r n ic a to r s . T e llin g S tanley of the lo s s of B elle
Reve, Blanche says: "Our im provident gran d fath ers and fa th e r and uncles
I k
and b ro th e rs exchanged the land fo r t h e i r epic fo rn ic a tio n s —to p u t i t
p la in ly ’ , . . . The f o u r - le t te r word deprived us of our p la n ta tio n ”
(p , Lt7) , No one i s mentioned who i s kind or g en tle except Mitch* s
dead g i r l frie n d (p , 61),
A ll fo u r of the p rin c ip a l c h a ra c te rs a ls o i l l u s t r a t e th e negative
a ttitu d e th a t man i s b a s ic a lly no good o r, a t b e s t weak and enslaved
by h is p a ssio n s. Of th e fo u r, S te lla i s perhaps th e most wholesome,
but even she i s w eak-w illed, a n im al-lik e a t tim es, mendacious, and
s e lf is h . Her weakness of w ill i s seen when she allow s both her s i s t e r
and h e r husband to order her about. When Blanche sends her fo r ” a
coke,” she goes (pp. 1j3, 115), When S tanley t e l l s her th a t Blanche
must le a v e , she i s a fr a id to r e s i s t him (p , 123)• A lso, though she
has presumably had a good education, she has descended to her husband' s
le v e l, as i s shown by th e f a c t th a t she reads comic books (p , 71),
Furtherm ore, she i s a fra id to t e l l Blanche th a t M itch i s through w ith
h er (p . 121;), Her an im ality i s rev ealed when she confides to Blanche
th a t she was t h r i l l e d by S ta n le y 's smashing of th e l ig h t bulbs w ith
her s lip p e r on t h e ir wedding n ight (p . 73) and by S ta n le y 's comment
to her th a t she m arried him, common as he was, because in bed he got
th e "colored lig h ts going” (p . 132), Her m endacity i s rev ealed by the
f a c t th a t her l e t t e r s to Blanche " tr ie d to gloss th in g s o v e r,” As
she t e l l s S ta n le y , "She /Blanche/ wasn’ t expecting to fin d us in such
a sm all p la c e . You see I ’ d tr ie d to gloss th in g s over a l i t t l e in
my l e t t e r s ” (p . 334)* This may seem to be a l i t t l e l i e , b u t th e shock
Blanche experiences when she fin d s S te lla liv in g so crudely i s one she
never g ets o ver. And f i n a l ly , S te lla i s s e l f is h . When Blanche t e l l s
15
h er th a t she has been a ttac k ed by S tan ley , S te lla re fu se s to b eliev e
h e r. To Eunice S te lla say s, M I c o u ld n 't b e liev e her s to ry and go on
liv in g w ith S tan ley ” (p . 158). So S te lla abandons her s i s t e r and sends
her to an asylum in order to p ro te c t her own i n te r e s ts . This base
a c tio n d riv e s home th e a ttitu d e , expressed through her c h a ra c te r, th a t
men and women are weak and enslaved by t h e i r p a ssio n s. As S te lla t e l l s
Blanche, " th e re are th in g s th a t happen between a man and a woman in the:
dark—th a t s o rt of make ev ery th in g e lse seem—unim portant" (p.p. 80-81).
Blanche r e t o r t s , "What you a re ta lk in g about i s b r u ta l d e s ire —j u s t —
D esire" (p . 8 1 ). And to t h is D esire S te lla s a c r if ic e s Blanche.
S tan ley i s , of course, the most loathsom e in d iv id u a l in the p la y .
He, more th an any o th er c h a ra c te r, i l l u s t r a t e s th e a ttitu d e th a t man
i s no good. S tanley i s a n im a l-lik e , co arse , mean, given to tem per-
tantrum s, s tu p id , greedy, foul-m outhed, la s c iv io u s , e g o ti s t i c a l, and
unrem orseful. His an im al-lik e q u a lity comes out over and over ag ain .
W illiam s say s, "Animal joy in h is being i s im p lic it in a l l h is move
ments and a ttitu d e s . . . . /He is_ 7 a r ic h ly fea th ere d male b ird among
hens" (p . 2 9 ). When he i s drunk, he s tr ik e s S te lla , who c a l ls him
"anim al thing" and leaves w ith Blanche (p . 610. Then, rem o rsefu l,
S tan ley follow s her and, " lik e a baying hound • . • bellow s h is wife* s
name" (p . 6 7 ). When th ey come to g e th e r (fo r S te lla alm ost im m ediately
fo rg iv e s him) they do so "w ith low, anim al moans" (p . 6 8 ). Blanche
sees S ta n le y as an anim al, comparing him to an ape (p . 82) and c a llin g
him a swine to h is face (p . 150). Even S te lla c a lls him a p ig when he
e a ts h is porkchop w ith h is f in g e rs (p . 126). Furtherm ore, W illiam s
makes sure th a t even sym bolically S tan ley i s an anim al, fo r i t comes
16
out th a t h is a s tro lo g ic a l sig n i s C apricorn—the Goat (p . 88),
S ta n le y 's co arsen ess, to o , i s rev ealed tim e and tim e ag ain . Ttoice
he removes h is s h i r t in fr o n t of Blanche (pp. 31, lit8 ), who a lso
complains th a t he s ta lk s through th e rooms in h is underwear (p . 109).
In h e r presence he y e lls to S te lla , who i s in the bathroom, "H aven't
f a l l e n in , have you?" (p . 32) During th e f i r s t poker n ig h t he sla p s
I
S te lla on the th ig h as she walks by, to th e amusement of th e other
men (p . 51*). He o rd ers people around in a bellow ing voice (pp. 59,
6 3 ), e a ts w ith h is fin g e rs a t th e ta b le (p . 127), and t e l l s Blanche
th a t when th e h o s p ita l c a lls to t e l l him he has a son he i s going to
r ip o ff h is pyjama coat and wave i t lik e a f l a g (p . lii9 )•
And he i s mean. He k ick s B lanche's tru n k closed because he f e e ls
th a t she has s a c rific e d B elle Reve in order to buy h e rs e lf fu rs and
jew els (p . 3 9 ). He goes through B lanche's love l e t t e r s , unheeding
of h er p le a to stop (p . U5)• He makes Blanche a b irth d a y p re se n t of
a bus t ic k e t back to L au rel, which he b lu n tly p re se n ts to her (p . 131)*
And when Blanche i s tak en away, he rip s her paper la n te rn o ff the lig h t
bulb and o ffe rs i t to h e r, then fo rc ib ly keeps M itch from going to
her (pp. 167-169). A lso, h is meanness o fte n ends in tem per-tantrum s.
He sh o u ts, throws h is own ra d io out of the window in a fu ry (p . 6k) >
and h u rls h is p la te , cup, and saucer to the f lo o r when S te lla c a lls
him a p ig (p . 127) .
Furtherm ore, he i s stu p id and greedy, as i s shown when he accuses
Blanche of having swindled S te lla and him out of B elle Reve and of
having spent th e money on f u rs and jew els. He says to S te lla , in a
speech ty p ic a l of him?
17
Look a t these fe a th e rs and fu rs th a t she come here to preen h e r
s e lf in'. W hat's th is here? A s o lid -g o ld d re s s , I b e lie v e !
And th is one'. What i s t h is here? F ox-pieces’ . . . • Genuine
fo x fu r-p ie c e s , a h a lf a m ile long'. Where are your fo x -p ie c e s,
S te lla ? Bushy snow-white ones, no le s s ’ . Where are your w hite
fo x -p ieces? (p . 37)
S te lla c a lls him an i d i o t , knowing th a t what Blanche has a re cheap,
im ita tio n fu rs and costume jew elry , b u t he s te a d fa s tly m aintains th a t
th e fu rs and jew elry are genuine and th a t he and S te lla have been
sw indled. " I t looks to me /The t e l l s S te lla ^ lik e you have been
sw indled, baby, and when you' re sw indled under the Napoleonic code I'm
sw indled too. And I d o n 't lik e to be sw indled" (p . 3 5 ).
His foul-m outhedness i s rev ealed ag ain and ag ain . When S tanley
g e ts drunk and a tta c k s S te lla , he cu rses h is frie n d s when th ey subdue
him by saying, "L et the r u t go of me, you sons of b itc h e s !" (p . 6 6 ).
He a ls o uses the words "damn" (p . 39)> "Jesus" (p . 5 1 ), " s u g a r - tit"
(p . 5 2 ), "ass" (p . 8U), "God" (p . 128), and "Goddamn" (p . 129). His
la sc iv io u sn e ss i s rev ealed when he t e l l s Blanche w ith a suggestive
pause, th a t a woman, to i n te r e s t him, would have to "Lay . . . h er
cards on the tab le" (p . U2)• This c h a r a c te r is tic i s a lso shown by
h is rape of Blanche and by th e f a c t th a t a t play* s end, when he wants
to com fort S te lla , "He kneels beside her and h is fin g e rs fin d the
opening of her blouse" (p . 171).
And f i n a l ly , he i s e g o tis tic a l and unrem orseful, as i s i l l u s t r a t e d
when, in the l a s t scene, j u s t b efore Blanche i s taken away, he brags
to h is p oker-playing frie n d s about h is lucks
You know what luck is ? Luck i s b e lie v in g you' re lucky. Take a t
S alerno. I b eliev ed I was lucky. I fig u re d th a t U out of 5 would
not come through b u t I would . . . and I d id . I p u t th a t down as
a r u le . To hold f ro n t p o s itio n in t h i s ra t-ra c e you’ ve got to
18
b e lie v e you are lucky (p . 156)•
S ta n le y , in a l l h is i n s e n s itiv ity , ru th le s s n e s s , and b r u t a l it y , stands
as th e most pow erful testim ony to the negative a ttitu d e t h a t man i s no
good,
M itch comes the c lo s e s t to being s e n s itiv e and ten d er toward
Blanche, but h is c h a ra c te r a lso i l l u s t r a t e s the a ttitu d e th a t man i s
no good, or a t b e st weak, fo r clo se exam ination of M itch re v e a ls th a t
he i s co arse, la s c iv io u s , mean, and weak. His coarseness is i l l u s t r a t
ed by h is bellow ing back a t S tan ley (p . 57)> by h is coming a f t e r
h earin g the tr u th about Blanche to v i s i t her unshaven and in "uncouth
ap p arel” (p . 13W, and by th e f a c t th a t Blanche has to t e l l him to
take h is fo o t o ff th e bed (p . 137)* His la sc iv io u sn e ss i s i ll u s t r a te d
by the f a c t th a t Blanche has to reprim and him f o r try in g to p e t w hile
out on a d ate (p . 101), and by th e f a c t t h a t a f te r he le a rn s th e tr u th
about her he t r i e s to get her to submit to him (p . 1U3)• During th is
same scene h is meanness i s re v e a le d , fo r when Blanche asks him to
m arry h e r, he r e p lie s , ''You1 re not clean enough to b rin g in th e same
house w ith my mother” (p . II4 . 3) • M itch' s dominant p e rs o n a lity t r a i t i s
h is weakness of c h a ra c te r. He t r i e s to get out of b rin g in g beer to the
poker n ig h t by p reten d in g not to hear S tanley t e l l him to (p . 29), he
i s a Mamma's Boy (p . 5 2 ), and he lacks the c h a ra c te r to apologize to
B lanche, tak in g haven in ste a d in sobbing (p . 169). One f e e ls contempt
f o r h is weakness alm ost as much as one f e e ls contempt f o r S ta n le y 's
b r u t a l it y . The two men a re f o i l s , one weak, one stro n g , but in both
the a ttitu d e th a t man i s no good i s apparent.
And f i n a l ly th e re i s Blanche—th e once s e n s itiv e , te n d e r, and
19
tr u s tin g person who has been abused u n t il she becomes neu rasth en ic and
then in sa n e . The very f a c t th a t she becomes insane gives expression
to the a ttitu d e th a t men a re weak. But d e sp ite her weakness, or
because of i t , Blanche i s a lso mendacious, v a in , s e lf-c e n te re d , c a tty ,
a f l i r t , la s c iv io u s , and a heavy d rin k e r. The d rin k in g i s no doubt
th e r e s u lt of her n e u ra sth e n ia , a n eu ro sis re s u ltin g from em otional
c o n flic ts th a t leave the v ictim fa tig u e d , depressed, and w orried.
Perhaps Blanche picked up her o th e r c h arac ter t r a i t s in an e f f o r t to
f ig h t o ff the fo rc e s overwhelming h e r. She i s continuously t e l l i n g
l i e s —about why she gave up teach in g (pp. 19-20), about how she acq u ir
ed her clo th es and jew els ("a tr ib u te from an ad m irer,” p . 1*1), and
about how l i t t l e she drin k s (p . 6 1 ). She t e l l s M itch th a t S te lla is
o ld er than she (p . 62), she l i e s in the l e t t e r she w rite s to h e r old
b o y -frien d Shep H untleigh (p . 8 5 ), and she l i e s about her l i f e in
L au rel (p . 11*0), u n t i l f i n a l ly her ly in g and h er d elu sio n s a re a l l of
a piece so th a t she h e rs e lf can no longer se p ara te them.
She i s a ls o , in a p i t i f u l way, v a in . She is always fis h in g fo r
compliments, fo r she knows th a t her youth and beauty are s lip p in g
away (pp. 2 1 ,2 2 ), and th is fis h in g f i n a l ly becomes so obvious th a t
S te lla urges S tan ley to compliment Blanche (p . 3h)> and Blanche h e rs e lf
adm its to S tan ley th a t she i s ‘ 'f is h in g fo r a compliment" (p . 1*1).
This a sp e c t of her c h a ra c te r—her b a sic in s e c u rity —i s a ls o expressed
in her su p e rio r a ttitu d e and c a ttin e s s . When she f i r s t sees S te lla
she remarks th a t S te lla has p u t on some w eight, then h a s tily adds th a t
i t i s becoming; but she cannot r e s i s t the remark th a t S te lla does "have
to watch around th e hips a l i t t l e " (p . 20). Her su p e rio r a ttitu d e i s
20
rev ealed by her te l l in g S te lla th a t she fin d s S tanley common (p . 82),
by her speech in which she compares him to an ape (p . 8 2 ), and by her
t e l l in g S tan ley th a t she considers him and M itch to be swine (p . 1E>0).
This a ttitu d e , of course, in f u r ia te s S tan ley and c o n trib u te s to
Blanche1 s d e s tru c tio n .
But Blanche’ s g rav est c h a ra c te r f a u l t i s her im m orality. She
i l l u s t r a t e s the tr u th th a t, as the most tr u s tin g people through d is
illu sio n m e n t o fte n become the most c y n ic a l, so those most in n o cen t,
b eing tak en advantage o f, o fte n become th e most immoral. In o rd er to
help s a tis f y h e r la sc iv io u sn e ss Blanche has become a f l i r t . She p lay
f u l ly sprays S tan ley w ith her atom izer (p . hh) > then adm its to S te lla
th a t she was f l i r t i n g w ith him (p . I48). While the f i r s t poker game i s
going on and she and S te lla are in the o th e r room, she d e lib e ra te ly
stands in th e lig h t w ith only her b ra s s ie re and s k i r t on u n t i l S te lla
t e l l s her to move (p . $6)5 th en , when S te lla goes in to th e bathroom,
she moves back in to th e lig h t again (p . E>7). She f l i r t s w ith th e young
paper boy, te l l in g him he looks lik e a p rin c e out of the A rabian N ights
(p . 98) and w ith M itch, c a llin g him her R osenkavalier (p . 98) . Her
o b jec t in f l i r t i n g w ith S tan ley is to t r y to win him over to the f a c t
th a t he was not sw indled out of B elle Reve (though t h is f l i r t i n g helps
b rin g on th e rape l a t e r in th e p la y ), but w ith th e o th er two her
m otives are q u ite d if f e r e n t. Here we see her la s c iv io u s n e s s. She
says to th e paper boy, ” 1 want to k is s you, j u s t once, s o ftly and
sw eetly on your mouth” (p . 9 8 ), She does, th en say s, ’ ’Now run along,
now, quickly*. I t would be nice to keep you, but I 'v e got to be good
—and keep my hands o ff c h ild re n ” (p . 98)• And to M itch, a f te r f i r s t
21
e s ta b lis h in g th a t he does not understand French, she says H Voulez-vous
coucher avec moi ce s o ir? ” (p . 103). Then, o f course, her la s c iv io u s
p a s t i s exposed by S tan ley w ith tra g ic consequences (pp. 116-119)*
A ll these c h a ra c te r t r a i t s make Blanche a very com plicated person
—p itia b le m ostly, y e t a lso not com pletely excusable. In h er character
!
she seems to sum up th e b e s t and th e w o rst of h er p eo p le, ^he i s sen -j
j j
J s i t i v e , te n d e r, tr u s tin g ; y e t she i s a ls o weak, e f f e te , wanton. These j
i
c h a ra c te r t r a i t s combine to make her v u ln erab le to S tanley’ s onslaught
a g a in st h e r, and we w itness her d e s tru c tio n . The s e n s itiv e person is
destroyed by the in s e n s itiv e .
Thus we see th a t the c h a ra c te rs of A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire,
lik e th e play* s p l o t, s e ttin g , costum es, and m usic, re v e a l the negative
a ttitu d e s of the a u th o r. And, tak in g the a ttitu d e s rev ealed by th e se
means and e v a lu a tin g them to g e th e r, we see th a t the play stan d s much
n earer th e p e ssim is tic th an th e o p tim istic end of the o p tim is tic -
p e ssim is tic continuum.
CHAPTER I I
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES IN D E A T H O F A SA LESM A N 1
Death of a Salesman, lik e W illiam s's A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire,
i s a p la y th a t i s made somber by the negative a ttitu d e s found in i t s
p lo t, s e ttin g , music, and c h a ra c te rs . I t i s a lso n e a re r the pessim is
t i c end of th e o p tim is tic -p e s s im is tic continuum th an i t i s near the
o p tim istic end.
There are th re e im portant negative a ttitu d e s in Death of a
Salesman: ( l ) l i f e i s f u t i l e f o r the l i t t l e (o r low) man, whose dreams
do not come tru e ; (2) th e p a s t was b e tte r than th e p re s e n t, both in
a c tu a lity and in the prom ise th a t i t seemed to hold; (3) th e modern
w orld warps one* s sense of values so th a t the l i t t l e man, d riv en by
greed and f e a r , lo se s h is d ig n ity a id begins to commit immoral a c ts ,
in clu d in g ly in g , s te a lin g , a d u lte ry , f o rn ic a tio n , and s u ic id e . These
negative a ttitu d e s are conveyed by p l o t, s e ttin g , m usic, and charac
t e r s . As w ith A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire , the p lo t w i l l be d iscu ssed
f i r s t , th en the s e ttin g , and f i n a l ly th e c h a ra c te rs .
The p lo t of Death of a Salesman, although covering only two days
as a g a in st th e se v e ra l months covered in A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire ,
i s more com plicated th an the p lo t of A S tre e tc a r Named D esire because
■ ^ E iy Arthur M ille r (New York: Bantam, 1955)* The e d itio n referred
to i s a paperback. T his e d itio n is bein g used because i t i s a readers'
e d itio n s p e c ia lly expanded by the author.
22
23
th e p a s t o fte n impinges a c tiv e ly on th e p re s e n t. In W illiam s’ s p la y
the p a s t o cca sio n ally comes forw ard, b u t only in Blanche’ s im a g in a tio n
as symbolized by the music of the V arsouviana, or in h er speeches. In
M ille r 's p la y th e p a s t a c tu a lly tak es over the sta g e ; we see the
c h a ra c te rs as they were y e ars ago, and we a lso see a c h a ra c te r who
has died (B en). But, as M ille r says:
There a re no "flash b ack s” h ere—we never go backward. I t i s
sim ply t h a t the p a s t keeps flow ing in to th e p re s e n t, b rin g in g i t s
scenes and i t s c h a ra c te rs w ith i t —and sometimes we s h a ll see
both p a s t and p re se n t sim ultaneously (p . U).
Because th e p a s t i s tr e a te d a c tiv e ly on th e stag e (though i t s t i l l i s
only the im agination of one person—W illy ), i t i s b e st to give an
account of the a c tio n as i t o ccurs, r a th e r than as i t would have
occurred c h ro n o lo g ica lly .
The p lay opens w ith W illy Loman, a s ix ty -y e a r-o ld tra v e lin g sa les-'
O
man, re tu rn in g to h is Brooklyn home a t n ig h t because he has n e a rly had
an autom obile accid en t w hile musing about th e p a s t. He t e l l s h is w ife,
L inda, th a t he no longer t r u s t s him self to d riv e . She com forts him
and encourages him to ask f o r a p o s itio n in th e home o f f ic e , which
w ill get him o ff the road. W illy says th a t he w i l l, then begins to
compare d isp a rag in g ly the p re se n t w ith the p a s t.
His voice wakes up h is two sons, B if f , th ir ty - f o u r , and Happy,
se v e ra l y e a rs younger, who are asleep i n the room above. Ih e ir con
v e rs a tio n b rin g s out th e f a c t th a t W illy ta lk s to him self a good d e a l,
o fte n as i f ad d ressin g B iff, The co n v ersatio n a lso brings out the
f a c ts th a t B iff has been d r if tin g around from odd-job to odd-job out
West and th a t Happy i s a w h ite -c o lla r worker in th e c it y . N eith er of
2h
them re sp e c ts h is f a th e r .
As th ey l i s t e n to W illy , he d r i f t s o ff in to the p a s t when the boys
were in high school, and he was very clo se to them. During t h is scene,
the f i r s t played in the p a s t, we discover th a t B iff was a fin e a th le te
b u t a poor s tu d e n t. W illy , a mediocre, salesm an even th e n , id o liz e s
|
h is boys but indulges them in th e ir p e tty th ie v e ry and f i l l s them w ith
h is grandiose dreams. But he re v e a ls fe e lin g s of i n f e r io r ity to h is
w ife . She, as alw ays, b u ild s up h is ego f o r him.
Then, suddenly, we are back in the p re s e n t. Happy comes down
s t a i r s and t r i e s to com fort W illy . C harley, th e next-door neighbor,
a ls o comes o v er. He i s always try in g to help W illy and now o ffe rs hin.
a jo b , b u t W illy , as alw ays, re fu s e s . As th ey argue about Charley’ s
o f fe r over a game of c a rd s, W illy’ s im agination c a rrie s us back in to
th e p a s t ag ain , and Ben, h is o ld er b ro th e r who has re c e n tly died in
South A frica , appears, looking as he did when s t i l l a r e la tiv e ly young
man. From th e c o n v ersatio n we le a rn th a t Ben, a very aggressive man,
has become r ic h by m ining diamonds.
Then Charley le a v e s, W illy goes o u tsid e , B iff comes down th e
s t a i r s , and we are in th e p re s e n t ag ain . Linda t e l l s B iff th a t W illy’ s
h a b it of becoming i r r i t a b l e and ta lk in g to him self always worsens when
B iff i s home. She begs him to indulge h is f a th e r , who, she re v e a ls ,
has been taken o ff s a la ry and who has been borrow ing f i f t y d o lla rs a
week from Charley to give her as pay. She th en upbraids both her,'sons
f o r th e d is re s p e c t which they show th e ir f a th e r . When B iff r e to r ts
th a t W illy i s a fa k e , Linda rev e als th a t he has been try in g to k i l l
h im self, both through d e lib e ra te ’ ’a c c id e n ts” w ith th e c ar and w ith gas.
25
B iff, shocked, says th a t he w i l l sta y a t home, g et a jo b , and help get
h is fa th e r back on h is f e e t .
W illy th en comes i n from th e backyard, and he and B iff im m ediately
get in to an argument. But W illy calms down and then becomes w ild ly
e n th u s ia s tic when Happy proposes th a t the two b ro th e rs go in to the
sp o rtin g goods b u sin ess to g e th e r. But when th e e x c ite d W illy t e l l s
Linda to stop in te rru p tin g as he t e l l s B iff how to go about g e ttin g a
loan, he and B iff get in to another argum ent. Linda calms them down
and persuades th e boys to hear W illy o u t. They do so fo r her sake,
th en go back u p s ta irs to bed. The a c t ends as W illy t e l l s Linda what
a fin e boy B iff i s .
Act Two opens w ith W illy e a tin g b re a k fa s t th e next morning. The
two boys have gone, Happy to work, B iff to t r y to g et a lo an . A fter
b re a k fa s t W illy goes o ff to ask h is boss f o r a p o s itio n in the home
o ffic e and f o r a tw o-hundred-dollar advance to ’ ’c arry them o v e r.” At
the o f f ic e , however, W illy’ s boss not only re fu se s to give W illy a
p o s itio n in th e home o ffic e , b u t he f i r e s him because W illy has not
been producing.
W illy’ s im agination th en tak e s us back in to the p a s t and Ben enters.
He o ffe rs W illy a p o s itio n in A laska, but Linda persuades him n o t to
take i t . As they ta lk , young B iff and young Happy e n te r. B iff i s the
c a p ta in of the A ll-S c h o la stic New York C ity fo o tb a ll team and has been
o ffe re d f o o tb a ll sc h o larsh ip s by th re e u n iv e r s itie s .
The scene then s h i f t s back to th e p re s e n t, and we fin d W illy in
C h arley 's o f f ic e , where he runs in to Charley1 s son Bernard, now a
su c c e ssfu l lawyer and the boy who used to help B iff w ith h is s tu d ie s
26
when the two of them were in high school to g e th e r. In th e conversation
between W illy and Bernard we le a rn th a t B iff f a ile d m athem atics i n h is
l a s t sem ester, was planning to make up the course in summer school,
but a f t e r v is itin g W illy in Boston, gave up the id e a , Bernard says
th a t he knew B iff had " given up h is l i f e 1 ' and asks W illy what happen
ed in B oston, W illy becomes angry and evades answering him.
Charley th en comes in , Bernard le a v e s, and W illy asks Charley f o r
one hundred ten d o lla r s . Charley o ffe rs W illy a job ag ain , but W illy
i s too proud to take i t o r to t e l l Charley th a t he has been f i r e d , and
so a f te r an argument Charley gives W illy th e money, W illy a ssu rin g him
th a t he i s ‘'keeping s t r i c t acco u n ts."
The scene then s h if ts to the cafe^ where W illy i s to meet h is sons
f o r supper. Happy comes in f i r s t , then B if f . A fter Happy has picked
up a g i r l , B iff t e l l s him th a t th e man from whom he was going to request
a lo an d id n o t even remember him. W illy th en comes in , t e l l s the boys
he has been f i r e d , and g ets in to another argument w ith B if f . As th ey
argue, th e g i r l Happy has picked up comes back w ith a frie n d fo r B iff.
W illy goes to the washroom, and B iff, angry, storm s out follow ed by
Happy and th e g i r l s .
Ihen, w ith W illy in th e washroom, we are tak en back in to the p a s t
through h is im agination. Young B iff has come up to Boston to seek
so lace from h is f a th e r a f t e r f a i l i n g m athem atics. I t i s n ig h t when he
a rr iv e s , and when he unexpectedly e n te rs W illy’ s room he fin d s him with
a woman. His f a t h e r 's b e tra y a l of h is mother breaks B i f f 's s p i r i t and
causes him to leave home and become a w anderer.
The scene then s h i f t s back to th e p re se n t a t th e Loman house. I t
27
i s night* Happy and B iff come in w ith flo w ers fo r L inda, but she
knocks them from t h e i r hands and upbraids the boys f o r d e se rtin g t h e i r
f a th e r , who, she t e l l s them b i t t e r l y , i s now out in the backyard try in g
to p la n t a garden.
The scene then s h i f t s to W illy , who i s ta lk in g to Ben about
k i ll i n g h im self. B iff comes out and in te r r u p ts , t e l l i n g W illy th a t he
i s going away and not coming back. They have a l a s t argument, during
which B iff accuses W illy , Happy, and h im self of being l i a r s . During
t h is scene, the love f o r W illy t h a t B iff has been fig h tin g to lo se
comes out and i s recognized by W illy . A ll b u t W illy then r e t i r e . He,
r e a liz in g B iff loves him, and w anting to leave him som ething, crashes
h is c ar and k i l l s h im self, so th a t th e fam ily can c o lle c t on h is twenty-
th o u san d -d o llar insurance p o lic y . But in s te a d of winning th e re s p e c t
of Linda and h is boys by h is a c tio n , h is death produces only dism ay,
e s p e c ia lly in L inda, who a t th e p lay 1 s end i s kneeling by W illy1 s
grave ask in g , "Why?"
One of th e m ost obvious negative a ttitu d e s in th is p lo t i s th a t
l i f e i s f u t i l e f o r th e l i t t l e man (o r low man, which i s what W illy and
h is sons re p re s e n t, as symbolized by t h e i r l a s t name, "Loman"), whose
dreams do not come tr u e . The fe e lin g of f u t i l i t y i s the f e e lin g th a t
one has when he f e e ls th a t he has f a ile d com pletely to o b tain what he
wished to o b ta in . W illy c e rta in ly knows th is f e e lin g . He t e l l s
Charley: "Funny, y1 know? A fter a l l the highways, and the t r a in s , and
th e appointm ents, and the y e a rs, you end up w orth more dead th an a liv e "
(p . 10U). Linda seems to be ab le to sense th e f a c t th a t W illy i s
gripped by t h i s fe e lin g of f u t i l i t y . She t e l l s B iff:
28 |
I don’ t say he1 s a g re a t man. W illy Loman never made a l o t of
money. His name was never in th e p ap er. He’ s not th e f in e s t
c h a ra c te r th a t ever liv e d . But he* s a human bein g , and a
t e r r i b le th in g i s happening to him. So a tte n tio n must be p a id .
H e* s not to be allow ed to f a l l in to h is grave lik e an o ld dog
(p . 5 8 ).
But som ething worse happens to W illy . Although he k i l l s him self
th in k in g th a t he i s doing th e r ig h t th in g f o r h is fam ily , th ey f a i l to
i
j understand h is s a c r if ic e and a re only dismayed and em b itte red . At the
very end of th e p la y , L inda, k n eelin g by Willy* s grave, says:
I don* t understand i t . Why d id you ever do th a t? . . . Why did
you do i t ? I search and search and I se arc h , and I c a n 't under
stan d i t , W illy . I made th e l a s t payment on the house today.
Today, d e a r. And th ere * 11 be nobody home. . . . W e* re fr e e and
c le a r . . . . We’ re f r e e . . . . W e’ re f r e e . . . . W e’ re f r e e . . • <
(p . 151) .
Thus, fo r W illy not only l i f e but a lso death was f u t i l e , f o r , as B iff
say s, "He had th e wrong dream s. A ll, a l l , wrong" (p . 150).
But W illy i s not th e only "Loman" in th e p la y . There a re a lso
h is two sons and h is w ife . They, to o , a re l i t t l e people f o r whom l i f e
i s f u t i l e . B iff t e l l s h is b ro th e r:
Hap, I 'v e had twenty or t h ir t y d if f e r e n t kinds of jobs sin c e I
l e f t home before the w ar, and i t always tu rn s out th e same. I
ju s t re a liz e d i t la t e l y . In Nebraska when I herded c a t t l e , and
in the D akotas, and A rizona, and now in Texas. It* s why I came
home now, I guess, because I re a liz e d i t . This farm I work on,
it* s sp rin g th e re now, see? . . . And it* s cool th e re now, see?
Texas i s cool now, and i t ’ s sp rin g . And whenever sp rin g comes
to where I am, I suddenly get the f e e lin g , my God, I ’m n o t g e ttin ’
anywhere*. What th e h e ll am I doing, p lay in g around w ith h o rse s,
tw enty-eight d o lla rs a week*. I'm th ir ty - f o u r y e ars o ld , I oughta
be makin* my fu tu r e . That* s when I come running home. And now,
I g et h ere, and I d o n 't know what to do w ith m yself. • . • I 'v e
always made a p o in t of n o t w asting my l i f e , and every tim e I come
back here I know th a t a l l I ’ve done i s to waste my l i f e (pp. 18-
19).
Then B iff goes on to ask Happy i f he i s c o n te n t, and h is b ro th e r
r e p lie s :
29
A ll I can do now i s w ait f o r the m erchandise manager to d ie . And
suppose I g et to be merchandise manager? He1 s a good frie n d of
mine, and he j u s t b u i l t a t e r r i f i c e s ta te on Long Is la n d . And he
liv e d th e re about two months and so ld i t , and now he’ s b u ild in g
another one. He can’ t enjoy i t once i t ’ s fin is h e d . And I know
th a t’ s ju s t what I would do. I don’ t know what th e h e ll I ’m
workin* f o r . Sometimes I s i t in my apartm ent—a l l alo n e. And I
th in k of th e r e n t I ’m paying. And i t ’ s crazy . But th e n , i t ’ s
what I always wanted. M y own apartm ent, a c a r, and p le n ty of
women. And, s t i l l , goddammit, I ’ m lo n ely (p . 1 9 ).
For a l l th e Lomans, l i f e i s f u t i l e , even f o r th e most wholesome of them,
L inda, For Linda liv e d only fo r W illy , and j u s t a t th e tim e when they
were f r e e ( ”He was even fin is h e d w ith th e d e n t i s t ,” she say s, p . 1E > 0)
W illy k i l l s h im self. For h e r, to o , l i f e i s f u t i l e and dreams do not
come tru e .
As i f to p o in t up th e f a c t th a t i t i s the l i t t l e man f o r whom-i
l i f e i s f u t i l e , M ille r provides a f o i l f o r W illy . T his f o i l i s
C harley, who does not p re s s to become su c c e ssfu l, does n o t panic in
th e face of b ru ta l com petition, and so succeeds. When W illy d e sp a ir
in g ly t e l l s him th a t B iff i s going back to Texas and the l i f e of a
d r i f t e r ag ain , Charley says: ”He won' t s ta rv e . None a them s ta rv e .
F orget about him. You take i t too hard. To h e l l w ith i t . When a
d e p o sit b o ttle i s broken you d o n 't get your n ic k e l back” (p . U3).
And i t i s Charley who can take l i f e as i t comes—good or bad. But not
W illy . The th ir d time the ’ ’p a st flow s in to th e p re s e n t” a younger
Charley k id s a younger W illy about Biff* s b ein g made c a p ta in of th e
New York C ity A ll-S c h o la stic fo o tb a ll team. W illy , always in te n se
and pushing, m isunderstands C harley’ s f r ie n d ly je s tin g and challenges
him to a f i s t f ig h t (p . 910 • Then, l a t e r , back in th e p re s e n t ag ain ,
W illy , a f te r g e ttin g f i r e d , meets Bernard i n C harley1s o f f ic e . A fter
30
Bernard le a v e s, Charley t e l l s W illy th a t th e boy i s going to argue a
case in fro n t of th e U nited S ta te s Supreme C ourt. Ih is news asto n ish es
W illy , who say s, "The Supreme Court*. And he d id n 't even m ention it*."
Charley r e p lie s sag ely , "He don* t have to —h e 's gonna do i t " j where
upon W illy say s, "And you never to ld him what to do, did you? You
never took any i n te r e s t in him ." Charley answ ers, "M [y s a lv a tio n i s
th a t I never took any i n te r e s t i n anything" (p . 101). In o th er words,
he did not fo rce him self upon people as W illy d id , b u t, ir o n ic a lly , he
and h is son are both f a r more su c c e ssfu l than W illy and h is two boys.
W illy f e e ls t h a t a man must s tr iv e d e sp era tely to be w e ll-lik e d and
im pressive i f he i s going to g et ahead, and w ith t h is b e lie f he has
in d o c trin a te d h is sons. Thus th e whole fam ily (w ith the exception of
Linda) has a p re d ile c tio n to s to r y - te llin g and b o a stin g . But Charley
s e ts W illy s tra ig h ts "Why must everybody lik e you? Who lik e d
J . P. Morgan? Was he im pressive? In a T urkish bath h e 'd look lik e a
b u tch e r. But w ith h is pockets on he was very w e ll lik e d " (p . 103).
I t i s th is coolness (even cynicism ), th is sense of humor and re fu s a l
to fo rc e him self upon people th a t makes the su c c e ssfu l Charley a f o i l
to the w orried, s e rio u s , p re s sin g l i t t l e W illy , who f a l l s in to trag ed y .
In th e same way th a t Charley i s a f o i l to W illy , C h arley 's son
Bernard i s a f o i l to B iff and Happy. Not p ressed in to anything by
h is f a th e r , never harassed, he becomes a su c c e ssfu l lawyer who does
not have to brag and l i e , because h is accomplishments are r e a l; w hile
B iff and Happy, two l i t t l e men, must b lu s te r and p re v a ric a te in order
to cover up th e i r f a i l u r e s .
The p lo t a lso i l l u s t r a t e s th e negative a ttitu d e th a t th e p a st was
31
b e tte r than the p re s e n t, both in a c tu a lity and in the prom ise th a t i t
seemed to h o ld . When the ’ ’p a s t flow s in to th e present** i t i s general}?
a happy p a s t, which prom ises a happy fu tu re . When W illy r e c a lls th e
p a s t, i t i s not th e hardships he remembers, b u t "those two b e a u tifu l
elm tre e s out th e re . . . w (p . 12) o r '‘l i l a c and w is te r ia . . ."
(p . 1 2 ). And when he a c tu a lly e n te rs th e p a s t, i t i s shown as a world
where he and h is boys were p a ls , th e youngsters sh in in g up th e car
(p . 12) o r being encouraged by t h e i r f a th e r in a th l e t i c s , as when
W illy gives th e boys a punching bag (pp. 26-27).
And th e p a s t held more prom ise th an i t has d e liv e re d . In the
f i r s t lengthy scene played in the p a s t, W illy says to h is sons, " T e ll
you a s e c r e t, boys. . . . Someday I ' l l have my own b u sin e ss, and I ' l l
never have to leave home anymore" (p . 28)• And l a t e r du rin g another
scene played in the p a s t he t e l l s C harley, "They*11 be c a llin g him
/B if f 7 m o th e r Red Change. Tw enty-five thousand a year" (p . 9h) .
But none of th e se dreams m a te ria liz e s* In ste a d , th e fu tu re b rin g s
only f u t i l i t y fo r W illy and th e boys, and W illy f i n a l ly r e a liz e s th is
f a c t . As he contem plates s u ic id e , he says to Bens
Oh, Ben, how do we get back to a l l the g re a t tim es? Used to be
so f u l l of l ig h t, and com radeship, th e s le ig h -rid in g in w in te r,
and th e ruddiness on h is / B i f f 's / ' cheeks. And always some kind
of good news coming up, always something nice coming up ahead
(p . 138).
The p a s t was " g r e a t," and "som ething nice" always "seemed" to be coming
up, but never q u ite d id , and so W illy , a f te r f a i l in g to p la n t a garden
in h is l a s t e f f o r t to cap tu re th e p a s t, k i l l s h im self, and B iff comes
to th e r e a liz a tio n of what he r e a l ly i s —not another Red Grange but
"one d o lla r an hour" (p . lU ii),
32
The music used in th e p lay a ls o i l l u s t r a t e s the negative a ttitu d e
th a t th e p a s t was b e tte r th a n the p re s e n t, both in a c tu a lity and in
th e prom ise th a t i t seemed to h o ld . J u s t b efore the a c tio n b eg in s,
M ille r w rite s : ” The th e a te r i s dark and s i l e n t , As though out of th e
a i r i t s e l f a melody i s h eard , played on a f l u t e j i t i s a song, sm all
and f in e , t e l l i n g of grass and tre e s and the horizon1 * (p . l ) . This
melody played on th e f l u t e i s symbolic of th e p a s t. At th e beginning
of the p lay i t sym bolizes th e b e a u tifu l open spaces f u l l of ” grass and
tre e s and th e horizon” th a t were the W estern p r a ir ie s of W illy ’ s youth
and Brooklyn when W illy and Linda f i r s t s e ttle d th e re as a young couple.
L a te r, the mood and meaning of t h i s music i s fu rth e r defined f o r u s.
As th ese opening s tr a in s fade away, M ille r t e l l s us in th e stag e
d ire c tio n s :
I t was a song W illy has been remembering more and more o fte n in
re c e n t weeks, a d is ta n t, clean melody th a t p lay s in h is mind, a
sound from somewhere beyond h is remembering, but a sound th a t
draws a sense of longing out of him and undefined sadness (p . 7)*
The sadness i s f o r th e p a s t, of course, l o s t beyond rec ap tu re except
in in s u b s ta n tia l day-dream s.
When th e ’ ’p a s t flow s in to th e p re s e n t” f o r th e f i r s t tim e, th e
tr a n s itio n i s accompanied by music played on th e f l u te again: ” a new
m usic, f a i r and s p rig h tly and f u l l o f la u g h te r” (p . 2it). This i s the
way W illy hears the music because t h is i s the way he remembers th e
p a s t i n h is day-dream s. And th e instrum ent used to p lay th e music i s
the f l u te because W illy’ s f a th e r was a man who made and played and
sold f l u t e s . The in stru m en t i t s e l f becomes symbolic of those alm ost
m ythical days of h is youth which W illy w ishes he could r e c a l l and keep.
33
The second time the " p a s t flow s in to the p re s e n t” W illy begs h is
b ro th e r Ben to t e l l him about t h e ir f a th e r , whom W illy was to o young
to remember. And Ben (w ith a f l u t e in the background p lay in g "a .high,
r o llic k in g tune”) t e l l s W illy:
F ather was a very g re a t and a very w ild -h e a rte d man. W e would
s t a r t in Boston, and h e 'd to s s the whole fam ily in to th e wagon,
and then h e 'd d riv e th e team r ig h t across th e countryj through
Ohio, and In d ian a, M ichigan, I l l i n o i s , and a l l the W estern s t a te s .
And w e'd stop in the towns and s e l l th e f l u te s th a t h e 'd made on
the way. Great in v e n to r, F a th e r. With one gadget he made more
in a week than a man lik e you could make in a life tim e (p . U9).
The f l u te and i t s music a re symbols of a g re a t, f r e e p a s t th a t
p resen ted a fu tu re of u n lim ited prom ise, a fu tu re t h a t has not been
r e a liz e d .
M ille r 's d e sc rip tio n of the stag e s e ttin g a ls o i l l u s t r a t e s th e
a ttitu d e th a t the p a s t was b e tte r th an the p re s e n t. Dominating th e
stag e i s a house, o r, as M ille r w rite s ,
. . . the anatom ical bones of a house. * . ev ery th in g can be seen
through, j u s t a s in memories or in dreams we remember houses and
rooms by the scenes we liv e d through th e re , by co n v ersatio n s and
sh o u ts, and not by th e w a lls th a t surround us (p . 1 ).
Behind th e house tower th e w a lls of apartm ent b u ild in g s, b u t M ille r
reminds us th a t i t was n o t always so . For he gives in h is d ire c tio n s
to th e read er th is account of the p a s t th a t W illy remembers:
. . . In c e rta in p a r ts of Brooklyn dense woods grew, and men who
worked a l l day on F orty-second S tre e t got o ff a t t h e i r E l s ta tio n
a t n ig h t and heard the sounds of a s q u ir r e l gun going o f f , th e
n eighing of a horse in p a s tu re , sm elled th e hopeful sm ell of
gpape c lu s te r s , and could see th e ir houses u n o bstructed a long
way o f f . And in th e basem ents of those houses th e re were sh elv es
f i l l e d w ith p reserv e s—tomatoes e s p e c ia lly , tomatoes they had
grown on surrounding land th a t did not belong to them.
Brooklyn was v illa g e s in those days, i t was l i t t l e clumps
of th ree or fo u r houses, and a sto re sometimes m iles away where
they bought t h e i r p o tato es i n hundred-pound sack s, and in th e
3 k
sp rin g and w in te r a man needed b o o ts, not ru b b ers. Brooklyn was
g ig a n tic elms and the lu s h e s t kind o f m aples; i t was young couples
who had brought t h e ir sm all c h ild re n to escape th e p riso n o f th e
c ity w a lls , to rec ap tu re a dream of freedom and hopefulness a f te r
th e f i r s t g re a t war*
The anatomy of th e house on th e stag e b efore us now i s lik e
th e symbol of th a t dream, i t s g e n e sis, i t s flo w erin g , and— -fo r |
W illy Loman—i t s conclusion. T his p la y tak es p lac e in the p re se n t
when the tomato f i e l d s a re apartm ent houses, when the view from J
the bedroom windows has been b lin d ed by b ric k , when the back yard,'
which was once lim itle s s and s tre tc h e d a l l the way to the school
a h a lf m ile away, is now p re c is e ly d efin ed —j u s t f i f te e n f e e t deep
and fo u rtee n wide, and dark most of th e day (p . 2 ).
C le a rly , f o r M ille r (who grew up in Brooklyn) as fo r W illy , the p a s t
was b e tte r th a n the p re s e n t, f o r th e p a s t is equated w ith s u n lig h t and
growing th in g s and a dream of freedom and hopefulness and open spaces,
w hile the p re s e n t is equated w ith darkness and c lo se d -in spaces—th e
'^prison of the c ity w alls" th a t W illy and Linda had hoped to escape.
When W illy t e l l s Linda th a t he would lik e to buy some seeds (an o th er
e f f o r t on h is p a r t to rec ap tu re th e f r u i t f u l , s u n lit p a s t) , Linda says,
"That1d be w onderful. But not enough sun g e ts back th e re . Nothing111
grow any more" (p . 7U)* But a t the l a s t , j u s t before he k i l l s h im self,
W illy i s sym bolically out in the backyard try in g to p la n t seed s. And
fS
sy m b o lically , to o , i t i s n ig h t (pp. 1 3 5 ff• ) • Then, a t th e play ’ s
end, we hear the f l u te again as B iff lead s Linda sway from Willy* s
grave. This dream of th e p a s t i s a l l t h a t i s l e f t of W illy—t h is
dream and the now -paid-for house, over w hich r i s e "th e hard tow ers o f
^ I t i s in te r e s tin g to compare t h is negative a ttitu d e ( th a t th e
p re s e n t equals darkness and th e p riso n of c ity w a lls , and th e p a s t
equals openness, l ig h t , and growing th in g s) w ith th e re v e rse a ttitu d e
found in L orraine Hansberry*s A R a isin i n th e Sun (New Yorks French,
1959). In t h i s p lay the f u tu re , not th e p a s t, i s equated w ith openness
and lig h t and growing th in g s , f o r th e Youngers look not back from th e ir
d ark , drab apartm ent, but forw ard to th e house in the suburbs where
they w ill have a yard f u l l of su n lig h t and room enough f o r a garden.
35
th e apartm ent b u ild in g s” as the c u rta in f a l l s (p . 152) •
F in a lly , th e c h a ra c te rs in Death o f a Salesman i l l u s t r a t e the
negative a ttitu d e s th a t l i f e i s f u t i l e f o r the ’’Lomans” and th a t the
modern world warps one’ s values so th a t th e l i t t l e man, d riv en by greec.
and f e a r , lo se s h is d ig n ity and begins to commit immoral a c ts . The
i
only Loman who does not succumb i s L inda. Though h er l i f e seems to be j
|
t r a i l i n g o ff in to f u t i l i t y , she a t l e a s t m aintains her d ig n ity and j
i
honesty, f o r she i s stro n g enough to have ’ ’developed an iro n m astery of
her o b je c tio n s to her husband” (p . 5)* But W illy and th e two boys
are not t h a t stro n g .
W illy has seen h is b ro th e r Ben succeed and he has seen h is
neighbor Charley succeed. The ’ ’sweet sm ell o f success” warps h is
sense of values u n t i l he becomes so obsessed w ith the id ea of success
th a t when success does not come to Mm he in v e n ts i t . Even as a young
man he had alread y f a lle n in to th is s e lf-d e c e p tio n . He t e l l s Linda
during th e f i r s t scene played in the p a s t t h a t he ’’d id fiv e hundred
gross in Providence and seven hundred gross in Boston” (p . 3 2 ). When
Linda quickly fig u re s th a t th a t means two hundred tw elve d o lla r s in
commissions, W illy s t a r t s to back down and ends by ad m ittin g th a t he
so ld only two hundred gross on th e whole t r i p , which amounts to seventy
d o lla r s in commissions. Even j u s t before h is death W illy i s s t i l l
try in g somehow to catch hold of success and ly in g to h is w ife about
how much of a f a ilu r e he r e a lly i s . He borrows f i f t y d o lla rs a week
from C harley, hoping to deceive Linda and make h er th in k th a t i t i s
M s pay, b u t she i s not fo o le d (p . 59) •
Dreams th a t do not cone tru e lead W illy in to an o th er kind of
36
f u t i l i t y - w i s h f u l thinking* T his w ish fu l th in k in g allow s W illy to
provide success not only f o r h im self, but a lso f o r h is sons* For
h im self, he w ishes to be popular and w e ll-lik e d # To h is fam ily , before
whom he a c u te ly f e e ls h is i n f e r i o r it y , he b lu ste rs* "They laugh a t
me, heh? Go to F ile n e ’ s , go to th e Hub, go to S la tte ry ’ s B oston. Call,
out the name W illy Loman and see what happens’ * Big sh o t’ ." (p . 61*)
j
i
And to Ben ( th a t i s , to h im self, r e a lly ) j u s t b efo re he k i l l s him self
he say s, try in g to r a tio n a liz e what h is u n fa ith fu ln e s s has done to
B iff:
Ben, th a t fu n e ra l w ill be m assive’ . A ll th e old tim e rs w ith th e
stran g e lic e n s e p la te s —th a t boy /B iff /7 w i l l be th u n d e r-stru c k ,
Ben, because he never re a liz e d —l"“am known’ . Rhode Isla n d ,
New York, New Je rse y —I am known, Ben, and he’ 11 see i t w ith h is
eyes once and f o r a l l . He’ l l see what I am, Beni He’ s i n f o r a
shock, th a t boy’ , (p . 137)
The measure of W illy’ s s e lf-d e c e p tio n i s rev ealed a f t e r the fu n e ra l by
Linda’ s q u estio n so f u l l of dram atic iro n y : "Why didn’ t anybody
come?” (p . li*9)
Another f a c e t of W illy1 s f u t i l e w ish fu l th in k in g i s h is d e s ire
not only to be somebody but a lso to have som ething. To Linda he say s,
as thousands of h is kind must have sa id to t h e i r w ives:
You w a it, k id , b efo re i t ’ s a l l over we’ re gonna g et a l i t t l e
p lac e o u t in the country, and I ’ l l ra is e some v e g e ta b le s, a couple
of chickens. . . . And they’ 11 get m arried / B if f and Happy/,
and come f o r the weekend. I ’d b u ild a l i t t l e guest house f p . 7h)»
Willy* s f u t i l e w ish fu l-th in k in g a lso provides th e success f o r h is
sons th a t has eluded them. To B iff he sa y s, "You know sp o rtin g goods
b e tte r th an S palding, f o r God’ s sake’ . ” (p . 65) And to both o f th e
boys he say s, ’ ’L ick th e w orld’ . You guys to g e th e r could a b so lu te ly
l ic k th e c iv iliz e d w orld” (p . 6 6).
37
The p i t i f u l th in g i s th a t though th e f u t i l i t y of l i f e has d riv en
W illy in to th is w ish fu l th in k in g , th e w ish fu l th in k in g does not help*
In ste a d , i t lead s to a f e e lin g of d e sp air which breeds lo s s of d ig n ity
and then the immoral behavior of o u trig h t ly in g . B ut, as w ith
I
Blanche Du B ois, who a ls o found l i f e f u t i l e i n A S tre e tc a r Named D esire
and who a lso tr ie d to escape w ith w ish fu l-th in k in g and d e lib e ra te j
i
J
ly in g , we are o ften unsure of j u s t when W illy c ro sses th e l i n e ~ a s w ith
Blanche, i t seems th a t h is ly in g and h is day-dream d e lu sio n s fin ally -
become a l l of a p iec e so th a t even W illy cannot se p a ra te them.
Willy* s w ish fu l-th in k in g and ly in g grow out of h is f e a r o f, and
sense of inadequacy as he fa c e s , the c ru e l r e a l i t i e s o f th e w orld in
which he liv e s —a world which b a ff le s him and w ill n o t give him th e
success he longs f o r . O ccasionally th is sense of inadequacy i s graph
i c a ll y re v e a le d . To Linda he sayss
I*m f a t . I*m very—fo o lis h to look a t , L inda. I didn’ t t e l l you,
b u t Christmas tim e I happened to be c a llin g on F. H. S tew arts,
and a salesm an I know, as I was going i n to see the buyer I heard
him say something about—w a lru s. And I —I cracked him r ig h t across
the fa c e . I won’ t tak e t h a t. I sim ply w i l l not ta k e th a t. But
th ey do laugh a t me, I know th a t (p . 35)•
And he becomes so upset th a t Linda must comfort him as i f he were a
c h ild . L ater upon m eeting Bernard in Charley’ s o ffic e and fin d in g him
a su c c e ssfu l law yer, a b a ffle d W illy asks in a voice ’ ’sm all and alon% ’
”What—what’ s th e s e c re t? ” (p . 97) He has staked h is l i f e on the wrong
th in g s in h is d e sp e ra te , lif e lo n g e f f o r t to le a rn the s e c r e t, and been
d riv en in to se v e ra l kinds of immoral behavior in a d d itio n to h is chrem:
ly in g . He condones and even encourages p e tty th e f ts and ly in g by h is
boys. Hie f i r s t tim e the ”p a s t flow s in to th e p re s e n t’ * we see W illy
38
allow young B iff to keep a f o o tb a ll t h a t th e boy has s to le n from h is
high school (p . 2 7 ). The second time we are taken in to th e p a s t he
brags to Ben about how th e boys have s to le n lumber from a near-by
b u ild in g t h a t i s under c o n stru c tio n , even though Charley warns him th a t
the watchman i s going to re p o rt them to th e p o lic e (p . 51)* Ben, a
symbol of th e type of "rugged in d iv id u a lis t1 1 who p u ts him self b efore |
the law and seems to get away w ith i t , condones th e immoral behavior j
j
in the name of "nerve” (p . £ > 2 ) • L a te r, W illy advises B iff to l i e in
order to cover th e th e f t of a fo u n ta in pen (p* 120),
W illy’ s sense of lo n e lin e ss b efore th e w orld a lso fo rc e s him in to
im m orality—an im m orality th a t not only f i l l s him w ith s e lf-lo a th in g ,
b u t th a t a lso breaks B iff’ s s p i r i t . When B iff comes to Boston looking
f o r com fort from W illy a f te r f a i l i n g m athem atics and fin d s a woman in
W illy ’s room, th e blow breaks him. Being young and i d e a l i s t i c , he
cannot understand W illy4 s d esp erate c ry , "She* s nothing to me, B if f ,
I was lo n e ly , I was t e r r i b ly lonely" (p , 130). In ste a d , B iff’ s g re a t
love and a ffe c tio n fo r h is fa th e r tu rn s to h a tre d , h is f a i t h in l i f e i s
crushed, and he becomes a b ro k e n -s p irite d d r i f t e r .
The g u ilt W illy f e e ls concerning B iff i s one of th e th in g s th a t
weigh him down, but he i s too stubborn—or a fr a id —to admit i t . When
Bernard co n fro n ts him in Charley* s o ffic e and asks p o in t-b lan k what
happened to B iff in B oston, W illy evades him, ta k in g refu g e in anger
(p , 100). L a te r he t r i e s to throw th e blame back onto B iff:
I want you to know ^he t e l l s B iff7 , on th e t r a i n , in the mountains*
in the v a lle y s , wherever you go, th a t you cut down your l i f e f o r
s p ite ’ . . . . When you’ re r o t ti n g somewhere b esid e th e ra ilr o a d
tra c k s , remember, and d o n 't you dare blame i t on mei (p p . lkO -llil)
39
This g u ilt he f e e ls a g a in s t B iff, a g u ilt th a t he is too cowardly to
ex p ia te by confessing i t , i s one of the th in g s th a t f in a lly lead s
him, badgered beyond endurance, to commit th e u ltim a te immoral a c t; he
takes h is own l i f e (p . ll*8).
B iff i s more lik e h is f a th e r th an he lik e s to adm it. Of him,
M ille r says:
Like h is f a th e r , B iff has many dreams; d riv in g , stro n g , im perative
dreams th a t one day have se n t him f o r th lik e an eagle acro ss
m ountains, and the next have w ithered h is hope and l e f t him
f e a r f u l and t e r r i b l y lo n ely (p , 15).
B iff i s a dream er, and he i s a weak, l i t t l e man, d e sp ite h is fin e
physique. Like W illy , he i s f e a r f u l, lo n e ly , and mixed up, as he t e l l s
Happy (pp. 15, 18-19). As b o th W illy and Linda r e a liz e , " B iff Loman
i s l o s t ” (p . 11)• But W illy knows why; Linda does n o t. And i t i s th is
knowledge th a t causes the breach between f a th e r and son.
Since h is s p i r i t u a l breakdown re s u ltin g from lo ss of f a i t h in h is
f a th e r , B iff has become a compulsive th ie f who has sp e n t time in j a i l
(p . lit2) and who s te a ls o b je c ts of l i t t l e value (such as B i l l O liv e r's
fo u n ta in pen, p . I l l ) f o r no apparent reaso n . F in a lly he adm its to
him self and h is fam ily th a t ”1 s to le m yself out o f every good job since
high school’ . ” (p . ll|2) A lso, encouraged by Happy, he fo rn ic a te s w ith
women, seem ingly in order to prove to him self th a t he i s a man
(p . 109). He has a lso picked up h is f a th e r’ s h a b it of ly in g and
b lu s te r . He t e l l s h is fam ily and him self th a t he was a salesman f o r ,
and good frie n d o f, B i l l O liv e r. But when he i s h u m iliated in h is
attem pt to borrow te n thousand d o lla rs from O liv er, he sees th e tr u th
about h is p o s itio n . He t e l l s Happy:
Uo
How th e h e ll d id I ever get the id e a I was a salesman th ere ? I
even b e liev ed m yself th a t I 'd been a salesman f o r himl And he
gave me one look and—I re a liz e d what a rid ic u lo u s l i e my whole
l i f e has beenV W e’ ve been ta lk in g in a dream f o r f i f t e e n y e a rs .
I was a shipping c le rk (p . 111).
And th en , having begun to see th e t r u th about him self and h is fa m ily ,
he can begin to h e a l the breach between him self and W illy . He had
I
I
• c a lle d h is f a th e r ’’s e lf is h ” and ’ ’stu p id ” (p . 2U) and sa id to h is faces
i
| ”1 never got anywhere because you blew me so f u l l of hot a i r I could
never stan d ta k in g o rd ers from anybodyl That1 s whose f a u l t i t i s ’ . ”
(p . Hi3) But now B iff’ s deep need to love W illy comes o u t, j u s t before!
the p la y ends. ’ ’I ’m n o thin g, Pop. C an 't you understand th a t? ” B iff
t e l l s W illy . "T h ere 's no s p ite in i t anymore. I ’m j u s t what I am,
t h a t 's a l l ” (p . XUU). Then, having come to t h i s s e lf - r e a liz a tio n , B iff
sobs in W illy’ s arm s. He i s weak and immoral, but t h i s sm all measure
of s e lf - r e a liz a tio n , a t l e a s t , i s h i s .
Happy i s n o t so fo rtu n a te as B if f . He never u n d erstan d s, perhaps
because he i s even w eaker. M ille r says of him:
. . . f o r him, to o , l i f e i s n o t m erely what i t i s , b u t what i t
ought to and must b e . • • • S e x u a lity i s lik e a v is ib le c o lo r on
Happy, or lik e a sc e n t th a t many women, d e sp ite them selves, have
d isco v ered . Like h is b ro th e r, he is l o s t , but in a d if f e r e n t way,
f o r he has never allow ed him self to tu rn h is face toward t o t a l
d e fe 'a t. Thus, p a ra d o x ic a lly , he i s more confused about h im se lf,
more hard -sk in n ed , although seem ingly more content (p . 15).
Happy has not been betrayed by h is fa th e r as B iff h a s, b u t he has
always f e l t th a t he was ’ ’th e second in im portance and B iff th e
a u th o rity ” (p . 15), and so h e, to o , f e e ls in f e r io r and a fra id underneath
h is apparent s e lf-p o s s e s s io n . And th is f e a r d riv e s him in to immoral
beh av io r. To prove th a t he i s a success and a r e a l man, he fo r n ic a te s ,
e s p e c ia lly w ith th o se women who belong to men above him in h is company.
h i
He t e l l s B iff th a t he has '‘ruined*1 th e fia n c e e s of th re e men more
im portant in th e company th a n h e. "Maybe I j u s t have an overdeveloped
sense o f com petition or som ething," he t e l l s h is b ro th e r ( p . 2 2 ). He
a ls o adm its to ta k in g b rib e s : "M anufacturers o ffe r me a hundred-dollar
b i l l now and th en to throw an o rd er t h e i r wagr" (p . 2 2 ). And, as B iff
i s a chronic t h ie f , Happy i s a chronic l i a r . He pieces up th e two g ir ls
a t th e cafe/ where he and B iff a re to e n te r ta in W illy f o r supper, by-
t e l l i n g th e f i r s t one th a t B iff i s quarterback f o r th e New York G iants
f o o tb a ll team and th a t he i s a West P o in t graduate (pp. 108-109). Then,
when W illy a rriv e s and he and B iff g et in to an argument and B iff
le a v e s , Happy follow s w ith th e g i r l s , e x p la in in g h is running out on
W illy by t e l l i n g them th a t W illy i s not r e a lly h is f a th e r as he had
to ld them e a r l i e r , but " ju s t a guy" (p . 121+) • I t even comes out th a t
Happy has been ly in g about h is p o s itio n . He i s not an a s s is ta n t buyer,
b u t "one of th e two a s s is ta n ts to the a s s is ta n t" (p . 11+2). And th e n ,
a t th e p lsy ’ s end, when B iff has come to h is s e l f - r e a l i z a t io n , Happy
i s s t i l l dreaming, s t i l l deceiv in g him self w ith th e co n fid e n t assurance
th a t he w i l l come out "number-one man" (p . 151).
Thus W illy , B i f f , and Happy a l l i l lu s t r a t e th e n eg a tiv e a ttitu d e
th at l i f e i s f u t i l e fo r th e l i t t l e man, whose dreams do not come tr u e ,
and th e n egative a ttitu d e th a t th e modern world changes one’ s sense o f
va lu es so th a t th e l i t t l e man, d riven by greed and f e a r , lo s e s h is
d ig n ity and begins to commit immoral a c t s . When W illy f a l l s , h is sons
tumble a fte r him lik e dominoes w hile Linda stands w atching in uncompre
hending f u t i l i t y and horror.
C H A P T E R I I I
NEGATIVE ATTIHIDES IN THE SHRIKE1
The Sh rik e, lik e A S treetca r Named D esire or Death o f a Salesman,
i s a p lay made somber by the n eg a tiv e a ttitu d e s found in i t s p lo t ,
s e tt in g , and ch a ra cters. I t i s a lso nearer th e p e s sim is tic end of the
o p tim is tic -p e s s im is tic continuum than i t i s near the o p tim istic end.
There are three im portant n egative a ttitu d e s in The S hrike; (1)
to m aintain h is sa n ity , one must give up h is moral standards and bend
to the w i l l of those in power (who may be the ones who are r e a lly
m en tally i l l ) ; (2) the good s u ffe r at th e hands of the e v i l ; (3) a
la rg e percentage o f th e s t a f f s of p u b lic h o sp ita ls are incom petent,
in d iffe r e n t, or corrupt. These th ree n eg a tiv e a ttitu d e s can be learned
from an exam ination o f the p lo t , s e t t in g , and ch aracters o f The S hrikej
W e s h a ll begin w ith th e p lo t .
Jim Downs, an u n su ccessfu l Broadway d ir e c to r separated from h is
w ife , i s rushed to C ity H o sp ita l in c r i t i c a l con d ition a fte r tak in g an
overdose o f phenobarbital in an e f f o r t to k i l l h im se lf. His estranged
w ife , Ann, endears h e r s e lf to th e h o sp ita l s t a f f by her seem ingly
s e l f l e s s e f f o r t to p u ll Jim through. The doctors and nurses are
a lso drawn to her through p ity by the f a c t th a t Jim, in h is comatose
%y Joseph K ram m (New York; Random House, 1952).
U3
s t a t e , mumbles the name o f C h a rlo tte , th e g i r l he has been seein g
sin ce lea v in g Ann. A lso, a f t e r Jim has passed th e c r i t i c a l sta g e , he
t r i e s to send a l e t t e r to C h a rlo tte , but i t i s tu rn ed over to th e
head doctor by th e a tte n d a n t to whom Jim e n tru s ts i t ,
Ann i s happy th a t Jim has recovered, d e s p ite h e r knowledge of
Jim1 s a f f a i r w ith C h a rlo tte , and she i s eager to have him re le a se d from
I the h o s p ita l so th a t he can come home w ith h e r. She re v e a ls to him
th a t a producer wants to t a l k to him about h is d ir e c tin g a show. Jim
r e a liz e s th a t t h i s i s th e chance he has been w a itin g f o r f o r y e a rs, but
he makes the m istake o f t e l l i n g Ann th a t he i s not coming back to h e r.
T his knowledge changes Ann* s a ttitu d e about Jim ’ s being re le a s e d , and
when she ta lk s to th e d o cto rs she m entions th a t Jim ’s eyes do not seem
to focus and th a t he i s sometimes w ild and in c o h e re n t. L a te r she t e l l s
th e head d o cto r t h a t she f e e ls i t would help Jim i f he were kept in
th e h o s p ita l a w hile lo n g e r. The r e s u lt o f th ese in te rv ie w s i s t h a t
Jim i s not re le a se d in tim e to keep an appointm ent w ith th e producer
and i s tra n s fe rre d to a convalescent ward in th e ’ ’psycho b u ild in g .”
I
In t h is ward Jim i s grouped w ith a v a rie ty of men, some seem ingly
norm al, some obviously n e u ro tic o r p sy c h o tic . He i s deeply depressed
because he has not been re le a se d in tim e to ta lk to th e producer and
h o r r ifie d by the knowledge th a t Ann consented to h is continued confine
m ent. He soon d isco v ers th a t he and h is fello w inm ates a re c o n tin u ally
watched and th a t any o u t-o f-th e -o rd in a ry behavior may cause him to be
se n t to ” seven," th e dreaded v io le n t ward from whence one can be
committed to a s ta te h o s p ita l as in san e. One of th e inm ates, a g e n tle ,
a r t i s t i c Cuban boy, i s , in f a c t , c a rrie d o ff to ” seven” a f t e r being
W i
goaded in to th re a te n in g a foul-m outhed, e v il , and obviously far-m o re-
d istu rb e d p a tie n t who has c a lle d th e Cuban b o y 's m other a whore.
Jim cannot convince the d o cto rs th a t he is normal, fo r th ey con
tin u e to b e lie v e Ann, who re p o rts him to be s t i l l o c c a sio n a lly w ild and
I
in c o h e re n t. Then, in a d v e rte n tly , Jim le a rn s from one of th e nurses th at
Ann can have him re le a se d i n her custody any time she chooses. When
he co n fro n ts Ann w ith t h i s f a c t , she t e l l s him th a t she i s doing her
b e s t, b u t t h a t th e doctors do n o t f e e l he i s q u ite ready to go home
y e t. She c o u n te ra tta c k s by rebuking him f o r try in g to reach C h a rlo tte ,
and th en has him endorse a sm all check he had receiv ed in the m ail f o r
te a c h in g E nglish p r iv a te ly . When she sees one of th e doctors alone
he t e l l s h er th a t Jim can go home i f she w i l l assume custody, but she
t e l l s him th a t Jim frig h te n s h e r. Jim i s now becoming d esp erate and
i s n e a rly rep o rte d and s e n t to " seven1 * a f t e r he v io le n tly t r i e s to stop
some of th e o th er men from d is tu rb in g him w ith th e ir sin g in g .
F in a lly , J im 's b ro th e r H arry, a sm all-tow n business-m an, comes
w ith Ann to v i s i t him. Ann t e l l s Jim th a t she has dism issed th e
stu d e n ts he was tu to rin g in E nglish and has had a l l phone c a l ls receiv ed
a t h is apartm ent sw itched to h e rs . Harry f i n a l l y asks to speak t o Jim
alone and Ann re lu c ta n tly c o n sen ts. From H arry, Jim le a rn s th a t Ann
has moved a l l h is belongings in to h er apartm ent and th a t Ann has made
him com pletely dependent on her because she wants him back. H arry t e l l s
h is b ro th e r th a t th e only way he w i l l ever get out of th e h o s p ita l i s
to become a model p a tie n t and to convince Ann th a t he i s s t i l l in love
w ith h e r. When Jim p ro te s ts such h y p o crisy , Harry reminds him th a t
Ann can have him sent to an insane asylum i f she wants t o , and so he
u $
must "p lay b a ll" —s e l l him self in order to g et out*
Jim 's f i r s t problem l i e s in convincing th e d o c to rs t h a t h is
a ttitu d e s toward C h a rlo tte and h is w ife have changed. This he does
w ith some d if f ic u lt y , but he " s e l l s him self" s u f f ic ie n tly w e ll to
convince th e d o cto rs th a t he has fo rg o tte n C h a rlo tte and i s s t i l l in
love w ith Ann. He th en convinces Ann of h is love i n a scene which i s
w itnessed by her b ro th e r Tom, who i n a p o in t-b la n k manner l e t s Jim know
t h a t because of what Ann has gone through on h is account Jim w ill have
to deport him self in a model fa sh io n or expect to be sen t back to th e
h o s p ita l. Ann th en t e l l s the d o cto r th a t she has n o tic ed a "tremendous
improvement" i n Jim . L a te r, a f t e r q u estio n in g Jim , th e d o cto r re le a s e s
him in Ann1 s custody. The p la y ends w ith Jim* s c a llin g Ann to t e l l her
to come and get him, th en tu rn in g away convulsed w ith sobs brought on
by th e knowledge th a t he i s trap p ed .
Thus th e p lo t re v e a ls th e n eg ativ e a ttitu d e t h a t to m ain tain h is
s a n ity one must give up h is m oral standards and bend to th e w i l l of
th o se in power. Had Jim n o t made a p re te n se o f lo v in g A m , he m ight
never have got out of th e h o s p ita l. Ann would p ro b ab ly have had him
committed as insane and he would have spent th e r e s t o f h is l i f e as a
m ental p a tie n t. And th e iro n y of th e s itu a tio n i s t h a t Ann i s probably
more m entally d istu rb e d th an he i s . But when Jim t r i e s to t e l l
Doctor S ch lesin g er the t r u th about h e r, he i s n o t b e lie v e d . Thus th e
head p s y c h ia tr is t i s shown to be incom petent. Furtherm ore, th e p lo t
re v e a ls the negative a ttitu d e th a t the good s u ffe r a t the hands of th e
e v i l . 0* B rien , th e Cuban boy, i s perhaps as sane as Jim , b u t when he
i s d riv en by an obviously c rim in a lly insane man, committed f o r b e atin g
U6
h is w ife and c h ild re n (p . 9li), in to re a c tin g in a very normal manner,
he i s adjudged ready f o r th e v io le n t w ard. This m istake a lso i l l u s
tr a te s th e negative a ttitu d e th a t the h o s p ita l s t a f f i s incom petent.
The s e ttin g of The Shrike is used m ainly to help c re a te the
atmosphere of f r u s tr a tio n th a t surrounds Jim, but i t a lso re in fo rc e s
the negative a ttitu d e t h a t th e h o s p ita l s t a f f i s in d if f e r e n t to th e
needs of the p a ti e n t s . The s e t used f o r the f i r s t p a rt o f the p la y i s
d escrib ed th u s: ” . . . No ornam entation in th e room, no flo w ers. Only
m etal c a b in e ts f o r th e p a tie n ts ’ belongings n ext to each bed” (p . 3)*
Of co u rse, one would not expect e la b o ra te ly decorated rooms in a c ity
h o s p ita l o r even flo w ers, b u t the complete absence of ornam entation of
any kind—n o t even a p ic tu re i s hung—i s sym bolic o f th e im p erso n ality
o f a la rg e i n s t it u t io n and of th e in d iffe re n c e of the s t a f f . A lso, to
f u r th e r emphasize the im p erso n ality and in d iffe re n c e , the ward in to
which Jim i s tra n s fe rre d when h is re le a s e is d e fe rre d is d escrib ed as
^ e s s e n tia lly . . . th e same ward we saw b e fo re . S tru c tu ra lly , i t ’s
e x a c tly th e same” (p . 8 1 ). The sameness and the b leak n ess, re in fo rc e d
by the f a c t t h a t the windows a re h e av ily screened and th e doors locked,
emphasize Jim’ s hopeless p o s itio n , but th e f a c t th a t th ese co n d itio n s
a re u n reliev ed by any show of ten d ern ess or even i n te r e s t on the p a r t
of the s t a f f a ls o re in fo rc e s the neg ativ e a ttitu d e th a t th e s t a f f i s
in d iff e r e n t to the p lig h t of th e p a tie n ts .
F in a lly , an exam ination of the c h a ra c te rs re v e a ls th e negative
a ttitu d e s th a t to m aintain h is s a n ity one must give up h is m oral
stan d ard s and bend to the w ill of those in power, who may be the ones
who a re r e a lly m entally i l l ; th a t the good s u ffe r a t th e hands of th e
U7
e v il; and th a t a la rg e percentage of the s t a f f s of p u b lic h o sp ita ls
are incom petent, in d if f e r e n t, or corrupt*
Many of th e h o s p ita l s t a f f take advantage o f Jim f o r a v a rie ty of
rea so n s, b u t the person p rim a rily resp o n sib le f o r h is s u ffe rin g i s not
on th e h o s p ita l s t a f f b u t i s behind them, prom pting, f l a t t e r i n g ,
j
I c a jo lin g them in to doing her bidding* T his p erso n , of course, i s Ann* j
!
She i s th e " sh rik e ” of th e p la y 's t i t l e . The Encyclopedia Americana
d e scrib e s th e sh rik e (o r butcher b ird ) as a b ird which feed s c h ie fly
upon " in s e c ts , r e p t i l e s , sm all mammals and sm all b ird s and t h e i r
young*" One sp ecies "has a h a b it o f suspending i t s prey upon thorns
O
o r fence s p lin te r s , o r in fo rk s o f tr e e branches*" Ann i s th e b ird of
p rey ; Jim i s h er v ic tim .
Furtherm ore, i t i s made obvious through dram atic iro n y th a t Jim
i s : m entally normal and Ann i s th e one who i s in need o f p s y c h ia tric
care* When he comes out of th e coma induced by th e p h en o b arb ita l he
had taken in h is su ic id e attem p t, Jim i s in good s p i r i t s , and he helps
th e d o cto rs a l l he can by being q u ite fran k and tr u th f u l w ith them
except th a t he i s r e lu c ta n t to d isc u ss C h a rlo tte because he does not
want to involve h e r. He answers th e i r questio n s and tak e s t h e i r t e s t s
w ith a le rtn e s s and a la c r ity (pp. 39 f f . , 55 f f * , 99 f f . ) u n t il th e
t e s t s become absurd to him, as when Doctor Bellman asks him to name the
Mayor of New York, th e P re sid e n t of th e U nited S ta te s , th e C a p ita l of
France, and so on (pp* 107-108), To th e re a d e r i t soon becomes
p e rfe c tly obvious th a t Jim i s a r a th e r w ell-b alan ced in d iv id u a l, b u t
^(New Yorks Americana C orporation, 195U) XXIV, 758-759*
U8
th e d o cto rs re fu se to recognize t h i s f a c t . Ann, on th e o th er hand,
re v e a ls h e r n e u ro tic p e rs o n a lity more and more as th e a c tio n p ro g re sse s
b u t th e do cto rs are unaware of th is f a c t , to o . Jim gives them clu es
i
they should reco g n ize, b u t they f a i l to do so . When Jim t e l l s
Doctor S ch lesin g er th a t i f he were re le a se d he would n o t go back to
Ann and S ch lesin g er asks him why, Jim says th a t she i s im possible to
liv e w ith . He goes on to say th a t Ann wants him back because she fe a rs
lo n e lin e s s . Jim t e l l s th e d o cto r th a t he and Ann had q u a rre le d , and
then says:
I to ld h er she1 d probably end up a lo n ely old woman. I th in k
she1 s a fra id of t h a t . My w ife i s th e same age as me—fo rty -tw o
—and a t th at age th e f e a r of lo n e lin e ss can be a very r e a l th in g .
She has a couple of f rie n d s —th e only r e a l frie n d s she h a s, as
a m atter of f a c t —and th ey a re alo n e. She knows w hat lo n e lin e ss
has done to th ese women. I t ’ s a t e r r i b l e c u rse . I guess even
having someone to f ig h t w ith i s b e tte r th an being lo n e ly (p . 68).
But Doctor S ch lesin g er re fu se s to b e liev e what Jim t e l l s him of Ann,
even though Jim a lso t e l l s him th a t Ann would o fte n s t a r t a q u a rre l
over something as t r i v i a l as h is b rin g in g only one p a ir of s a l t and
pepper shakers to the ta b le in ste a d of two (p . 67)•
Nor does th e d octor attem pt to co rro b o rate Jim’ s sta te m e n ts. But
th e read er sees th a t J im 's d iag n o sis o f Ann i s s u b s ta n tia te d fcy her
b eh av io r. She i s happy th a t Jim has improved and eager to have him
re le a s e d u n t il he t e l l s her t h a t he does not want to re tu rn to her
(p . 1*2). Then her a ttitu d e changes, and when she sees Doctor Barrow
and Doctor S c h le sin g e r, who are ready to re le a s e Jim so th a t he can
keep h is appointm ent f o r the job in te rv ie w , she t e l l s them th a t Jim’ s
eyes do not always seem to focus and th a t he i s sometimes w ild and
in co h e ren t (p . 1*6). Her d e sp era te d e s ire to escape lo n e lin e ss d riv e s
h9
h e r to im pale Jim on th e bleak and ho p eless l i f e of h o s p ita l confine
ment, j u s t as the sh rik e im pales i t s prey f o r i t s own convenience*
L a te r, when Jim d isco v ers th a t Ann can have him re le a se d a t any
tim e , she l i e s to him in order to keep him a t her mercy, so th a t she
can fo rc e him to do her w i l l, thus making him a v ictim of her g re a t
f e a r o f lo n elin ess* In f a c t , so g re a t i s her f e a r of being a lo n e , so
g rea t is her need fo r Jim , th a t she f a i l s to r e le n t even when Jim t e l l s
her th a t he i s a fra id he w i l l become so d is tra u g h t th a t he w ill be se n t
to the v io le n t ward and perhaps even to an insane asylum. When Ann
p ro te s ts th a t i t cannot happen to him, Jim r e p lie s :
I t can.' I t can. I 'v e seen i t happen on th e f lim s ie s t p r e te x t.
You've got to hold on t ig h t to keep your balance h e re , Ann.
E verything you say and do i s reported* You a re c o n sta n tly watched,
I sh o u ld n 't even be g e ttin g so e x c ite d now. I f I'm seen, i t w i l l
s e t me back God knows how long. You c a n 't have normal fe e lin g s
h e re , Ann. Only continuous calm . Is th a t normal—f o r anyone?
(p . 131)
Ann m erely t e l l s him th a t he i s ex ag g eratin g . But Jim i s beginning
to f e a r th a t th e p ressu re may cause him to have a m ental breakdown:
Don’ t p r e tty i t up, Ann /h e t e l l s h e r / You d o n 't know what goes
on h e re . I 'v e seen fe a rs ’ b u i l t up i n th e se men t h a t d id n 't e x is t
b e fo re . I d o n 't know why most of them are h e re , b u t a f t e r th ey
spend a day in t h i s p la c e , th o se f e a rs tak e o v er, . . . I know,
because i t ' s happening to me (p , 130).
Jim th en t e l l s Ann th a t he wants to go home and asks fo r h is freedom .
But she t e l l s him, " I ’m doing ev ery th in g I can" (p . 127), When he
asks why she to ld th e do cto rs th a t he was w ild and incoherent she
s t a r t s to cry and denies ever saying he was (p . 133)* L a te r when he
asks h er to c a l l two doctors who a re frie n d s of h is she says th a t she
w i l l , but she does n o t. Then she t e l l s him th a t she has ta lk ed to
them and th a t th ey have to ld her they can do nothing (p* 157)•
50
While she i s ly in g in order to keep Jim in th e h o s p ita l, Ann i s
making every e f f o r t to make Jim dependent on h e r. She g ets him to sig n
over th e only money he has to h e r, saying, T m not asking anything f o r
m yself. There a re b i l l s to pay—money f o r the s p e c ia l n u rse s, and God
knows what e ls e . They’ re a l l your expenses” (p . 138). Then, as i f in
■
a d e lib e ra te attem pt to break h is s p i r i t , she t e l l s him t h a t th e job
he wanted so badly, th e job th a t would have changed h is l i f e had she
agreed to have him re le a s e d in time f o r th e in te rv ie w , he could have
had (p . 139). And when even th e doctors f e e l th a t Jim can be re le a se d
in to her custody, Ann hedges, knowing th a t he i s , ir o n ic a lly enough,
too w e ll f o r her to l e t o u t, f o r he w i l l leave her again* In her
r e l e n tl e s s , fe a r -in s p ire d campaign to have Jim as h er c a p tiv e , body
and s o u l, she has Jim’ s phone c a lls sw itched to h er phone (p . 155)» she
dism isses the stu d e n ts th a t Jim had been tu to rin g (p . 156), and f in a lly
she gives up Jim’ s apartm ent f o r him and moves a l l h is th in g s to h er
p lace (p . 161;).
I t i s Harry who reco g n izes th a t Ann i s sick* He sayss
She loves you, Jim . She wants you back. She to ld th e doctor th a t,
I w o n 't tr y to e x p la in it* I th in k th e r e 's som ething d is to rte d
in tak in g advantage of your being here to g et you back th is way*
But I d o n 't q u estio n th a t she loves you—and my advice to you i s
to be in love w ith h e r. That* s th e only way you111 g et out of
here quickly (p . 161;).
In t h i s statem en t l i e s much of th e iro n y of th e p lay and a lso th e main
theme: to m ain tain h is s a n ity , one must give up h is m oral stan d ard s
and bend to th e w ill o f th o se in power, even though th ey may be th e
ones who are r e a lly m entally i l l . Jim must " s e l l h im self”—th a t i s ,
convince Ann and th e d o cto rs th a t he r e a lly lo v es h is wife* But to do
51
th is he must a ls o ’ ’s e l l h im self'1 in another way—he must compromise
h is m oral sta n d a rd s.
I t may be th a t th e negative a ttitu d e th a t th e good s u ff e r a t th e
hands of the e v il i s a lso in h e re n t in th e re la tio n s h ip between Jim
and Ann, but Jim i s n o t com pletely good, f o r he has d e serte d Ann, tak e r
I
up w ith C h a rlo tte , and tr ie d to k i l l h im self. On th e o th er hand, Ann
i s not com pletely bad, though she i s unbalanced enough to l e t fe a r
m otivate h e r in to immoral b eh av io r. But th e c h a ra c te rs of O 'B rien and
Schloss are more c le a r c u t. O' B rien i s made to seem alm ost com pletely
good. He i s g en tle and a r t i s t i c , and innocent enough to have had
him self committed w h ile under the im pression th a t he was m erely going
to undergo a p h y sic a l checkup. S ch lo ss, on th e o th e r hand, i s v u lg a r,
foul-m outhed, s tu p id , and mean. He has a ls o sp en t some tim e in j a i l .
When O 'B rien se n tim e n ta lly m entions h is m other, Schloss c a lls him a
"Spic b astard " and h is mother a "Spic whore" (p . 9U)• L ater when
O 'B rien i s rem in iscin g about Havana, S chloss breaks in w ith , "In Havana
your mother was a w hore. . . . " and when O 'B rien im p u lsiv ely sa y s,
"1*11 break your neck1 ." Schloss c a l ls f o r help and t e l l s H iss W ingate,
th e a tte n d a n t, th a t O 'B rien th re a te n e d him. As a r e s u l t , O ’ B rien i s
tak en p r e c ip ita te ly aw ay to "sev en ," the v io le n t ward, d e sp ite th e
rem onstrances of Jim and th e o th e rs (pp. 118-120). There i s no
in v e s tig a tio n , no q u estio n in g of th o se in v o lv ed , and once again th e
incompetence and in d iffe re n c e of th e s t a f f i s rev ealed as th e good a re
made to s u ffe r a t th e hands of th e e v il .
Furtherm ore, most o f th e s t a f f members, w ith th e exception of
c e rta in ones in m enial p o s itio n s , such as th e a tte n d a n t Don Gregory,
52
a re shown to be incom petent, in d if f e r e n t, or corrupt* The f i r s t nurse
we are introduced t o , Miss Hansen, is d escrib ed as ”a m iddle-aged
woman who has been soured ra th e r th an mellowed by her c o n ta c t w ith
i l l n e s s ” (pp. 3-U ). When a stu d e n t nurse re p o rts th a t she has caught
a h e a rt p a tie n t w ith c ig a r e tte s , M iss Hansen, ’’paying no a tte n tio n ,”
r e p lie s , ”H m -hm m m m ” (p . 6)«
Grosberg, a male a tte n d a n t d escrib ed as ’ ’effem in ate” (p . 6 ), i s
th e one who has been supplying th e h e a rt p a tie n t, Mr. Flem ing, w ith
c ig a r e tte s and matches f o r a fe e (p . 8 ). And l a t e r , when Jim asks
Grosberg to m ail a l e t t e r to C h a rlo tte f o r him, Grosberg demands a
package of c ig a re tte s in payment. When Jim cannot give him one,
Grosberg ta k e s the l e t t e r anyway, b u t he tu rn s i t over to Doctor
S c h le sin g e r. This procedure i s th e proper one, b u t th e im p lic a tio n i s
t h a t he would not have done h is jo b had Jim been able to pay him fo r
the ’’f a v o r .”
Another a tte n d a n t, M iss W ingate, i s describ ed as ’ ’t a l l , heavy,
m iddle-aged, u n in te llig e n t, . . . / p i t h / th e b ro ad est p o ss ib le southern
accen t” (p . llU ). She cannot c o rre c tly pronounce th e names o f some
o f th e p a tie n ts , even a f t e r they c o rre c t her (p , 115)J she lo se s her
tem per w ith them (p . 116)j and she speaks c u rtly and h a rsh ly to them
(pp. 116, lU3^lUi+). Furtherm ore, i t i s she who i s re sp o n sib le fo r
O' B rie n 's being tak en to th e v io le n t ward w ithout any kind of in q u iry ’s
b ein g made in to th e circum stances surrounding S ch lo ss’ s accu satio n of
O ’ B rien . When one of th e men o b je c ts , saying i t was r e a lly S chloss’ s
f a u l t , Miss W ingate r e p lie s , ”1 don’ t want to hear a word out o f any
of you. No p o in t asking you, 0’ B rien , w hether you th re a te n e d
53
Mr. S ch lo ss. Of course, y o u 'l l deny i t " (p . 119). And when O 'B rien
p r o te s ts th a t Schloss in s u lte d h is m other, M iss Wingate r e t o r t s :
I d o n 't care what he sa id about your m other. You c a n 't go around
th re a te n in g p eo p le. When you g et to "seven" you w on't be able to
th re a te n anybody. (Two a tte n d a n ts e n te r) Here he i s —take him
up (p . 119).
And O 'B rien i s c a rrie d o f f . M iss W ingate i s sim ply too t i r e d , too
irre s p o n s ib le , and too stu p id to t r y to see t h a t th e r ig h t th in g i s
done. Her only concern i s to g et th e ward q u ie t a g ain , no m atter by
what method.
I f th e incom petence and in d iffe re n c e of the nurses and a tte n d a n ts
i s bad, th e incompetence and in d iffe re n c e o f th e d o cto rs is w orse.
These p e o p le , who are supposed to be i n te l li g e n t and h ighly tra in e d ,
make some f r i g h t f u l b lu n d e rs. Doctor S c h le sin g e r, th e head p sy ch ia
t r i s t , not only pays no a tte n tio n to what Jim t e l l s him about Ann
(p p . 6 6 f f .) , but he i s so b lin d ed by her an g elic fapade th a t he allow s
him self to be in flu en ced by h e r. When Doctor Barrow suggests th a t i t
might be a good th in g f o r Jim p sy c h o lo g ic a lly i f he were allowed to
keep h is appointm ent w ith th e producer, Doctor S ch lesin g er m omentarily
a g re es. But when S ch lesin g er asks Ann (who has alread y been to ld by
Jim th a t he i s not coming home w ith h er) what she th in k s , she su b tly
tu rn s him a g a in s t th e id ea by m entioning th a t J im 's eyes " d o n 't always
seem to focus" and th a t "once i n a w hile h e '11 say something w ild and
incoherent" (pp. k5~k6) • Even though Doctor Barrow and Doctor Kramer
argue f o r J im 's being re le a s e d , Doctor S ch lesin g er postpones th e
d e c isio n , and then when he does make i t , he decides a g a in st r e le a s in g
Jim (p . 71). Furtherm ore, S ch lesin g er a ls o allow s him self to be
5U
in flu en ced by Ann in reg a rd to th e qu estio n of w hether or not C harlotte,
who wants very much to see Jim , should be allow ed to v i s i t him* Even
Doctor Barrow, th e most se n sib le of th e p s y c h ia tr is ts , allow s h e rs e lf
to be swayed by Ann a t th is p o in t. Ann asks h e r, " I th in k i t would
be very bad f o r Jim to see h e r—don’ t you D octor?” and Doctor Barrow
r e p lie s , w I t would be a g re a t s t r a i n . ” Doctor S ch lesin g er th en say s,
" I q u ite ag re e. I* 11 leave word dow nstairs she1 s not to be adm itted
a t any tim e” (p . U9)• Thus Ann once more g ets h er way, using th e
d o cto rs as her dupes.
Doctor Bellman, s t i l l another p s y c h ia tr is t, i s a ls o in flu en ced by
Ann’ s statem en ts about Jim . W hile in te rv ie w in g Jim , Bellman rem arks,
”Do you know you have a re p u ta tio n f o r being b e llig e r e n t and n asty ?”
(p . 103) Jim i s puzzled by th is statem en t, e s p e c ia lly when th e doctor
t e l l s him th a t Ann has made i t , and he i s obviously shocked when the
d octor t e l l s him t h a t Ann has a ls o sa id th a t he i s w ild and in c o h e re n t.
To th e doctor he re p lie s : ’ ’E ith e r you’ re making t h i s up to see how I ' l l
behave, or som ething has happened to my w ife . W e were se p a ra te d , I
know, b u t I c a n 't b e lie v e s h e 'd say such a th in g about me” (p . 105)•
The d o cto r th en asks him, ’’Then you d o n 't th in k i t ' s tru e ? ” and Jim
r e p lie s , "Of course i t ' s n o t tr u e ” (p . 105). But D octor Bellman, lik e
h is incom petent colleague D octor S c h lesin g e r, re fu se s to b e liev e Jim
o r even to in v e s tig a te to t r y to get a t th e tr u th of th e m a tte r.
On another occasion th e incompetence of th e d o cto rs i s again
rev e ale d when Jim fo o ls Doctor Bellman and Doctor Barrow w hile they are
g iving him a w o rd -asso ciatio n t e s t . By t h is tim e Jim has been to ld by
h is b ro th e r th a t he must " s e l l him self” in o rd er to escape th e h o sp italj
55
so he d e lib e ra te ly l i e s during the t e s t , f i r s t by a s s o c ia tin g th e word
"w ife” w ith th e word '’sw e e th e a rt,'1 and th en by in s is tin g over th e
o b je c tio n s of th e d o c to rs, p a r tic u la r ly Bellman, th a t he i s in love
w ith h is wife* When Bellman challenges him by say in g , "You re a liz e
t h is change is ra th e r sudden,” Jim r i s e s to th e occasion by re p ly in g
J a n g rily :
I d o n 't know about th a t* I d o n 't know what c o n s titu e s a sudden
change* But I 'v e been in th e h o s p ita l more th an two weeks, and
I ’ ve had tim e to th in k . I ’ve been away from both Ann— -and
C h a rlo tte —and I have a p e rsp e c tiv e I didn’t have b efo re
(pp. 175-176).
He th en calms down, adm its th a t he indulged him self by ta k in g up w ith
C h a rlo tte , and humbles h im self b efore the d o c to rs. This technique
w orks, and, ir o n ic a lly , Jim through d u p lic ity wins th e confidence from
them th a t was denied him when he to ld the t r u t h . T his f a c t i s th e
b i t t e r e s t comment on th e incom petence of th e do cto rs th a t th e p la y
c o n ta in s. I t i s as i f they a re v a in enough and fo o lis h enough to be
p a ssin g sentence on J im 's m oral behavior r a th e r th an to be judging
w hether o r not Jim i s sane, which i s a l l t h e i r p o s itio n gives them a
r ig h t to do.
The d o cto rs a re a lso shown to be ir re s p o n s ib le . This charac
t e r i s t i c i s im p lic it in th e scene where M iss W ingate rem arks, "The men
get p r e t t y t ir e d of th e games we have h e re ” and Doctor Barrow remarks
" I know” and looks a t Doctor Bellman, as i f to pass th e re s p o n s ib ility
o ff on him. He shrugs t h i s r e s p o n s ib ility o f f , m erely rem arking,
"There is n ’ t anything we can do” (p . 168).
Thus i t can be seen th a t in th e c h a ra c te rs of th e h o s p ita l s t a f f
th e re i s im p lic it th e neg ativ e a ttitu d e th a t a la rg e percentage of
the a tten d a n ts, n u rses, and doctors are Incom petent, in d iffe r e n t, or
corrupt* That th ese people are in d iffe r e n t to th e b est in te r e s ts of
the p a tie n ts i s fu rth er emphasized by the b leak n ess o f the s e t t in g ,
which i s a lso sym bolic of Jim’ s entrapment*
The In cid en t in v o lv in g O ’ B rien and S ch lo ss em phasizes the n egative’
|
a ttitu d e th a t th e good s u ffe r a t th e hands o f the e v i l , and Jim’ s f a t e !
j
s tr e s s e s the main n egative a ttitu d e o f the p la y : th a t to m aintain h is |
s a n ity , one must give up h is moral standards and bend t o th e w i l l o f
those in power, who may them selves be m entally i l l . These n eg a tiv e
a ttitu d e s , perm eating as they do The S hrike, make i t a somber p la y and
p la ce i t along w ith A S tr e e tc a r Named D esire and Death o f a Salesman
in th e p e s s im is tic ca tegory.
C H A PT E R IV
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES IN PICNIC1
P ic n ic , u n lik e A S treetca r Named D e sir e , Death of a Salesman, or
The S h rik e, cannot be c a lle d a play made somber by i t s n egative
a t tit u d e s . B ut, on the oth er hand, i t does not b elong a t th e o p tim istic
end o f our o p tim is tic -p e s s im is tic continuum. I t i s too d istu rb in g a
p la y , e s p e c ia lly to th e person who thinks about i t s im p lic a tio n s. Ever
though the two main ch aracters are brought togeth er in the la s t a c t,
the ending cannot be sa id to be happy in the con ven tion al sense o f
th at term. There i s in i t not th e f e e lin g o f contentm ent from f u l f i l l
ment, but rath er a wondering about what w i l l happen t o th e se two
people and perhaps even a presentim ent th at th e ir r e la tio n s h ip , foundec
as i t i s on an acquaintanceship o f le s s than two days, w i l l not l a s t .
By examining the p lo t and ch aracters we can perhaps d isco v er why the
reader i s l e f t w ith t h is f e e lin g o f vague d is q u ie t and can see whether
or not the p lay con tain s any n eg a tiv e a t tit u d e s . L et us begin w ith the
p lo t .
Hal C arter, a v i r i l e young man who i s wandering around the
m idwest, has come to a sm all Kansas town on Labor Day hoping th a t a
w e ll-to -d o fr ie n d o f h is from c o lle g e days can g et him a jo b . Before
1By W illiam Inge (New York: Random House, 1953)•
5?
£8
goin g to see h is frien d (Alan Seymour), Hal tak es a job doing yard-
work fo r a m iddle-aged widow (Mrs. P o tts) in order to get h is b reakfast
and a l i t t l e spending money. W hile working he meets the two g ir ls who
l i v e next door, M illie and Madge Owens. They take a lik in g t o H al, as
g ir ls u su a lly do, but th e ir mother, F lo , in s t in c t iv e ly d is t r u s t s H al.
She see s him as the kind of man her w o rth less husband was and attem pts
to p ro te ct her daughters from him. She e s p e c ia lly i s concerned about
Madge, who i s very b e a u tifu l and the g ir l-f r ie n d o f Alan Seymour. But
I
when Alan comes t o take M illie swimming (w h ile Madge works around the
house) and F lo lea rn s th at Hal and Alan went to c o lle g e to g e th e r , she
r e le n ts a b i t and agrees to Mrs. P o tts’ s su g g estio n th a t Hal e sc o r t
M illie to th e Labor Day p ic n ic . Alan, happy to see Hal ag a in , prom ises
to get him a job on an o i l p ip e lin e .
Later in th e aftern oon , Alan and Hal come fo r M illie , Madge, F lo ,
and Mrs. P o t t s . Howard Bevens, a lo c a l businessm an, comes fo r
Rosemary Sidney, a h ig h -sch o o l teach er who boards w ith the Owenses.
W hile Hal and Howard are w a itin g in the yard w ith M illie and Rosemary,
Howard brings out a b o ttle o f liq u o r and a l l except M illie s ta r t to
d rin k . They then begin to dance, Howard w ith Rosemary and Hal w ith
M illie . But when Madge comes o u t, Hal begins to dance w ith h er, and
M illie , u nnoticed, begins d rin k in g. Rosemary, jea lo u s o f Madge’ s beauty
and you th, fo r c e s Hal to dance w ith h er, much to h is d is g u s t. M illie
then becomes s ic k from th e liq u o r , and when Flo fin d s o u t, Rosemary
u n ju stly blames Hal and t e l l s him he belongs in the g u tte r . F lo then
t e l l s M illie th a t she i s to rid e w ith h er, A lan, and Mrs. P o tts .
Madge, who i s not ready y e t , i s to ld to r id e w ith Howard and Rosemazy.
59
But Rosemary does not want to go to the p ic n ic , and she and Howard
go o f f , lea v in g Hal and Madge alone w ith A lan 's second c a r. H al, very
d e je c te d because Rosemary has h u m iliated him, i s comforted by Madge,
and suddenly they f in d them selves making lo v e . The a c t ends as H al,
about to c a rry Madge to the c a r, sa y s, "We a in 11 goin' on no God-damn
p ic n ic ."
The f i r s t scene of Act Three begins a f t e r m idnight w ith Howard
b rin g in g Rosemary home. She has subm itted to h is a tte n tio n s and now
p lead s d e sp e ra te ly w ith Howard to m arry h e r. Howard, em barrassed bjut
tra p p e d , agrees to come by in th e m orning. He th en le a v e s, Rosemary
goes in to the house, and Madge and Hal come in . Madge has subm itted
to Hal and i s ashamed and a f r a id , b u t she consents to l e t t i n g Hal
k is s her before he le a v e s . The k is s becomes p a ssio n a te , and she breaks
away and t e l l s Hal she never wants to see him ag ain .
Scene Two of Act Three tak e s p lac e e a rly the next m orning. M illie ,
F lo , and M rs. P o tts a re d isc u ssin g Madge when Rosemary appears and asks
i f Howard has been by. Two o th e r te a c h e rs, Irma and C h ristin e , appear,
and f i n a l l y Howard a rriv e s and soon r e a liz e s th a t th e re i s no way out
and th a t he must marry Rosemary. Alan has a ls o appeared and asked to
see Madge, who comes o u t. They are l e f t alone and Madge apologizes
fo r running o ff w ith H al. Alan t e l l s her th a t Hal has been tak e n care
o f . Rosemary and Howard th en appear w ith th e o th e rs , and th e re i s
g en eral excitem ent as th e two of them are s e n t on t h e i r way. During
th e excitem ent Hal appears and fin d s him self alone w ith Madge. He
t e l l s h e r th a t A lan 's f a th e r has se n t th e p o lic e a f te r him f o r car
t h e f t , and th a t he has narrow ly escaped from them. He i s about to
6 0
catch a fr e ig h t tr a in fo r Tulsa where he can get a job in a h o t e l. T h es
others then come back, and Alan a tta ck s H al, who, though he does not
want to f ig h t , e a s ily subdues him. Hal then t e l l s Madge th a t he lo v es
her and su g g ests that she fo llo w him to Tulsa. Hearing t h is , F lo
orders him to le a v e , and he d oes. Madge, cry in g th at she lo v es Hal,
goes in to the house. When F lo in v ite s Alan fo r din n er, he t e l l s her
he i s going on a hunting tr ip w ith h is fa th e r and le a v e s . Madge
reappears carrying a s u itc a se and t e l l s her mother she i s going to
T u lsa. F lo t r i e s to stop h er, but cannot.
W e se e from t h is summary th a t P ic n ic i s a se r io u s , thought-
provoking p la y . The d e c isio n s made by H al, Madge, Rosemary, and Howard
are very im portant ones and may le a d to many p a in fu l consequences, a
f a c t o f which the reader i s made aware. The theme o f th e p la y , which
i s the triumph o f the em otions, p a r tic u la r ly the triumph o f th e sexu al
im pulse, i s a lso se r io u s . The a ttitu d e we can d iscern from th e
s itu a tio n s in the p la y would seem to be th a t b a sic em otions are more
pow erful than the v o ice of experience or p a ren ta l wisdom. In d iv id u a ls
im p u lsiv ely give in to d e s ir e . Inge* s main purpose seems to be to show
the tremendous in flu e n ce th a t sex has, both co n scio u sly and subcon
s c io u s ly , in th e liv e s o f people^ and to show a lso th a t, because we
can do nothing about i t , we had b e tte r make th e b e st o f i t .
The sex u a l overtones o f the p lay make them selves apparent on
n early every p age. The ju st-b eg in n in g im pulses of a d o lesce n ts, the
f u l l p a ssio n of young p eo p le, th e desperate d e sire of th e fr u str a te d
who are approaching middle age, and the waning p a ssio n s o f the aging
are a l l shown.
61
M illie , Bomber th e newsboy, J u a n ita Badger, Poopdeck McCullough,
and the boys who f l i r t w ith Madge by c a llin g , "You' re th e one fo r
me," a l l re v e a l th e bud of sex in adolescence. M illie i s s ix te e n , and
not y e t aware of her p h y sic a l a ttr a c tiv e n e s s . The sexual urge has not
y e t flow ered in h e r, but subconsciously she i s urged on by i t . Her
re la tio n s h ip w ith boys i s s t i l l based on antagonism r a th e r than
a ffe c tio n because though she knows she wants to be n o ticed by them, she
does not y e t know why or how to go about g e ttin g n o tic e d . So she b a its
them and they b a it h e r. When Bomber " s lin g s th e paper n o is ily a g a in st
the house," M illie y e l l s , "Hey, Crazy, wanta knock th e house down?"
(p . £) T his o u tb u rst gives Bomber an opening and he r e t a l i a t e s by
c a llin g her "Goonface" (p . 6 ) . M illie , tr y in g to show she i s grown-up
by using what she th in k s i s a d u lt language, c a l ls him an "ornery bas
ta r d ," but she makes the ad o lescen t m istake of try in g to f ig h t w ith
himj whereupon Bomber c a l ls her "Mrs. Tarzan" (p . 6 ) . Thus th e two
ad o lescen ts grope f o r sex u al re c o g n itio n from one an o th er.
M illie a ls o comes c lo se to g e ttin g in a f ig h t w ith Poopdeck
McCullough. When he ta u n ts her by c a llin g to h e r, "Hey, G oongirll
Come k is s me. I wanna be s ic k ," she picks up a s tic k and s t a r t s a f t e r
him, b u t she stops when reproved by her m other, who says, " M illie 1 .
M illie 1 . You* re a grown g i r l now" (p . 161;).
M i l li e 's growing awareness of and a ttr a c tio n to th e opposite sex
i s a lso rev e ale d by her a ttitu d e toward Hal and A lan. She accep ts Hal
fo r what he i s u n t il i t i s arranged th a t he should be her date a t the
p ic n ic . Then she becomes s e lf-c o n sc io u s. She asks her s i s t e r , "Madge,
how do you ta lk to boys?" (p . 66) And l a t e r she a sk s, "Madge, do you
62
th in k h e 'l l lik e me?" (p . 69) She becomes se lf-c o n sc io u s when her
mother compliments her on her good looks (p . 69)* and she asks Madge if
she can borrow Madge's m anicure s e t (p . 25)• I t becomes obvious th a t
she i s a ttr a c te d to Hal when she o ff e rs to show him her p ic tu re s ( a t
h er m o th er's u rg in g ), th en sketches him ( a t h is re q u e s t), and f i n a l ly
(on her own i n it i a t i v e ) shyly t e l l s him, " I w rite p o e try , too# I 'v e
w r itte n poems I 'v e never shown to a liv in g soul" (p . 92)* L a te r, w hile
dancing w ith H al, she sa y s, " I f e e l lik e R ita Hayworth’ *" (p . 101)
M illie i s a ls o a ttr a c te d by Alan, and toward th e end o f th e play
she g e ts up enough courage to t e l l him so* She sa y s, very sh y ly , " I
* * • I always lik e d you, Alan* D id n 't you know th a t? " Alan, "w ith
some s u r p r is e ," answ ers, "Like me?" and M illie r e p lie s , " I t 's aw fully
hard to show someone you lik e them, i s n 't i t ? . . . i t makes you f e e l
lik e such a sap. I d o n 't know why." Alan, " ra th e r touched," sa y s,
" I * . • I'm glad you lik e me, M illie ," and M illie ("One can sense her
lo n e lin e s s ," says Inge) r e p lie s , " I don’ t expect you to do anything
about it* I ju s t wanted to t e l l you" (p . 11*2), M illie , stru g g lin g
through t h is d i f f i c u l t p e rio d , i s beginning to grow up* The bud is
beginning to flo w er.
But perhaps th e most s ig n if ic a n t sig n th a t M illie i s growing aware
of her womanhood i s her je a lo u sy of h e r s i s t e r , "La-de-d%" she jib e s
a t h e r, "Madge i s th e p r e tty one—but s h e 's so dumb they alm ost had
to burn the schoolhouse down to get her out of i t I " (p , 18) When
Madge r e t a l i a t e s by c a llin g h e r a goon, M illie , fu rio u s , c a lls her
s i s t e r a s l u t (p . 19)* L a te r, a f t e r d rin k in g some of Howard's liq u o r
w hile w atching Madge dance w ith H al, she says to her s i s t e r , f o r no
63
apparent reason, " I h ate you’ . " Then, sobbing, she sa y s, "Madge i s the
p r e tty one~Madge i s th e p r e tty one** and dashes in to th e house lea v in g
a bew ildered Madge to say to h e r s e lf , '‘ What d id she have to do th a t
fo r? " (p . 109) The scene contains dram atic iro n y , f o r though th e
o th e r c h a ra c te rs do not understand M illie ’ s a c tio n s , i t i s c le a r to
th e read er th a t M illie i s je a lo u s of Madge because Hal i s so a ttr a c te d
to th e o ld e r and p r e t t i e r g irl*
The a d o lescen t sex u al impulse i s a ls o shown in th e a c tio n s o f
Bomber, J u a n ita Badger, Poopdeck McCullough, and the boys who f l i r t
w ith Madge by c a llin g , "You’ re the one f o r me." Bomber, in a d d itio n
to fig h tin g w ith M illie , t r i e s t o f l i r t w ith Madge. He t e l l s h e r th a t
he w i l l soon be part-ow ner o f a h o t-ro d and a sk s her to go out w ith
him. When M illie inform s him th a t Alan sends Madge flow ers b efo re
they go o u t, Bomber, w ith ad o lescen t bravado, says to Madge, " I can’ t
send you flo w e rs, B aby--but I can send you!" (p . 7) L a te r, a f t e r
h earin g of Madge's t r y s t w ith H al, he y e lls to h e r, "Hey, Madge’ .
Wanta go d a n c in '? L e t me be n e x t, Madge’ . ” (p . lU l) And he i s most
lik e ly one of the h o t-ro d gang who c a l l to Madge, "Hey Madge’ . Hey,
B e a u tifu l! you’ re the one f o r me'." (p . 166) Poopdeck McCullough a lso
f ig h ts w ith M illie and i s probably a lso one of th e h o t-ro d gang who calL
to Madge. J u a n ita Badger i s the g i r l t h a t M illie , Alan, and Hal meet
a t a soda fo u n ta in c a lle d the "HiHo." When J u a n ita and her g i r l friends
see Hal th ey begin "g ig g lin g and te e -h e e in g and saying a l l s o rts of
crazy th in g s ." Then J u a n ita comes over to M illie and, r e fe rrin g to
H al, w hispers, "He’ s the c u te s t th in g I ever saw" (p . 6 8 ). J u a n ita 's
sex u al impulse (and th e f a c t t h a t she i s immature in h er em otional
6U
development) i s a lso rev e ale d by th e f a c t t h a t she has a re p u ta tio n
as a g i r l who i s se x u a lly loose (p . 68), Thus we see th a t th e te e n
agers in the p lay are used to re v e a l th e c h a ra c te r o f th e ad o lescen t
sex u al impulse*
Most o f th e sexu al overtones o f the p la y , however, have to do w ith
the flo w erin g o f th e sex u a l impulse in young a d u lts, p a r tic u la r ly in
Hal and Madge. Alan’ s a ffe c tio n fo r Madge, w h ile not p la to n ic , seems
to be c a r e fu lly r e str a in e d , alm ost w orshipful# He looks on her as
som ething b e a u tifu l. When F lo b lu n tly asks Madge i f Alan ever t r ie s
to go beyond k is s in g w h ile they are on a d a te , Madge admits th a t he
d o es. But when F lo asks Madge i f Alan g ets mad when she won’ t perm it
him to get to o fa m ilia r , Madge r e p lie s , ”No# • . . Alan’ s not lik e
most boys. He d o esn 't wanta do anything he’ d be sorry fo r ”' (p . lU ).
But Alan does have a deep d e sire f o r Madge. He t e l l s her th a t he w ill
miss her when he goes back to c o lle g e , t e l l s h er t h a t he can’ t under
stand how a g i r l lik e her could care fo r him, and then says th a t he
hopes she does care f o r him and k is s e s her (pp# 58-59)# His w orshipful
a ttitu d e i s rev ealed when, in th e same scene, he t e l l s her he would lik e
to take her out on th e r iv e r a f te r supper t o see **if you look r e a l in
th e m oonlight” (p . 6 1 ). When Madge o b je c ts , Alan say s, ”1 don’ t care
i f you’ re r e a l or not# You’ re the p r e t t i e s t g i r l I ever saw” (p . 6 2 ).
And l a t e r , a f t e r Madge has betrayed h is love by going o ff w ith H al,
Alan t e l l s F lo , w ith bereavement, not b itte r n e s s , th a t, ’’Madge i s
b e a u tifu l. I t made m e f e e l so proud—ju s t to look a t her—and t e l l
m yself she’ s mine” (p . l 6 l ) . With t h is r e fin e d a ttitu d e o f look in g a t
Madge alm ost as i f she were an a rt o b je c t, Alan seems t o be a f o i l to
65
H al, who has th e more e a rth y a ttitu d e of seein g Madge as an o b je c t to
take p o ssessio n of se x u a lly .
Yet th e re i s enough of th e sex u al im pulse d riv in g Alan to make
him a t f i r s t admire Hal* s v i r i l i t y and then become b i t t e r when Hal
ta k e s Madge from him. Alan i n s i s t s on h e arin g th e com plete account of
how Hal was picked up on h is way e a s t to Kansas by two g i r l s in a
c o n v e rtib le . "N othing lik e t h a t ever happens to me,” he says “w ith
v ic a rio u s excitem ent1 1 (p . 1*1) as Hal reco u n ts how th e g i r l s took him
to a to u r is t cab in , th re a te n e d him w ith a gun, fo rc e d him to subm it
se x u a lly to them, and then fo rced him to d rin k u n t i l he passed out
(p p . ItO — It3) • And a f t e r Hal has taken Madge from him, Alan says to Flo,
w ith obvious b itte rn e s s * ” G irls have always lik e d H al. Months a fte r
he’ d l e f t th e f r a t e r n i t y , they s t i l l c a lle d . ’ I s Hal th e re ? 1 ’Does
anyone know where Hal’ s gone?’ T heir voices always sounded so fo r e -
lo rn ” (p . 160). Alan, to o , re v e a ls th e p a ssio n o f young people in h is
a ttitu d e toward H al. He does not have Hal* s v i r i l i t y , but he covets i l l
Hal i s , of co u rse, th e most sex u ally p o te n t person in the p la y .
His presence arouses th e sex u al im pulses of th e ad o lescen t g ir ls s
M illie , J u a n ita , and J u a n i ta 's g i r l fr ie n d s j i t arouses th e se x u ally
f r u s tr a te d Rosemary; i t seems to re k in d le a long-banked f i r e in
Mrs* P o tts ; and, most im portant o f a l l , i t arouses Madge in to a know
ledge of her womanhood and le a d s h e r in to th e experience th a t makes
her conscious of h er sexual d e sire s and fo rc e s her to give up Alan
and a l l th a t m arriage to him would have meant in th e way of m a te ria l
b le ssin g s and to follow th e p e n n ile ss Hal to T u lsa. Indeed, Hal i s a
v i r tu a l p h a llic god come to th a t "sm all Kansas tow n,” though he does
66
not r e a liz e i t .
W e have seen what e f f e c t Hal had on the a d o lescen t g ir ls * His
presence seems to a f f e c t Rosemary even more profoundly. At f i r s t she
o b je c ts because Hal works w ithout h is s h i r t on (pp. 25, 2 9 ), but she
i s c a re fu l to keep her eyes on him (p . 2 6 ). L a te r, during the dancing
scene in Act iWo, a fte r Howard good-naturedly shows Rosemary h is le g s ,
she “goes over to Hal, yanking him from Madge p o s s e s s iv e ly ,” and sa y s,
“Young man, l e t 's see your leg s" (p . 105). She then fo rc e s Hal to
dance w ith h er, sa y in g to him su g g e stiv e ly , "I may be an old-m aid
sc h o o lteach er, b u t I can keep up w ith you. R ide'em , cowboy I" (p . 106)
Inge d escrib es th e scene in th ese wordst "A l i t t l e t ig h t , stim u lated
by H al's p h y sic a l p resen ce, she abandons convention and grabs Hal
c lo s e ly to h er, p la ste r in g a cheek n ext to h is and h old in g her hips
f a s t a g a in st him. One can sense th a t Hal i s embarrassed and rep elled "
(p . 106). Then, over H a l's o b je c tio n , Rosemary t e l l s him th a t she
once had a boy fr ie n d who was a cowboy and who, as she t e l l s Hal,
. . . took me up in the mountains one n igh t and made lo v e .
Wanted me to marry him r ig h t th e r e on th e m ountain to p . Said
God'd be our p re a c h e r, th e moon our b e s t man. Ever hear such
ta lk ? (p . 106)
When Hal t r i e s to get away, Rosemary jerk s him c lo se r to her and says:
Dance w ith me, young man. Dance w ith me. I can keep up w ith you.
You know what? You remind me of one of th o se a n c ie n t s ta tu e s .
There was one in th e school lib ra ry u n t i l l a s t y e a r. He was a
Roman g la d ia to r . A ll he had on was a s h ie ld . ( She gives a bawdy
laugh) A s h ie ld over h is arm. That was a l l he had on. A ll we
g i r l s f e l t in s u lte d , havin’ to walk p a s t th a t s ta tu e every tim e
we went to the lib r a r y . W e g o t up a p e titio n and made th e p r in c i
p a l do som ething about i t . (She laughs h ila r io u s ly during her
n a rra tio n ) You know what he did? He got th e school ja n ito r to f i x
th in g s a l l r i g h t. He got a c h is e l and made th a t s ta tu e d ecen t.
(A nother bawdy laugh) Lord, those a n c ie n t people were depraved
(p . 107).
6 7 1
Hal ("He seldom has been made so uncom fortable,” says Inge) t r i e s to j
break away, b u t Rosemary catches him by the s h i r t and, “Commanding him
im p lo rin g ly ,” say s, “Dance w ith me, young man. Dance w ith me” (p . 107).
Hal p u lls lo o se , b u t so d e sp e ra te ly i s Rosemary c lin g in g to him th a t
she “te a r s o ff a s t r i p o f h is s h i r t as he g e ts away” ( p . 108) .
Hal1 s a c tio n h u m iliates Rosemary, who must f e e l th a t she has been j
re je c te d on th e grounds th a t she i s n o t se x u a lly d e sira b le to him, and
she tak es her revenge when M illie becomes s ic k from th e liq u o r by
accusing Hal of g iving i t to h e r, though she knows t h is i s n o t tr u e .
To P lo she sa y s, “Oh, he’ d have fe d h e r whiskey and taken h is p leasu re
w ith th e c h ild and then skidaddled'." ( p . 110) Over Howard's objections
she says to Hal:
You been stomping around here in th o se boots lik e you owned the
p la c e , th in k in g every woman you saw was gonna f a l l madly in love.
But h ere1 s one woman didn* t pay you any mind# . . . You th in k
j u s t cause y o u 're a man, you can walk in here and make o ff w ith
w hatever you l ik e . You th in k ju s t cause you1re young you can
push o th er people asid e and n o t pay them any mind. . . . But
you won' t sta y young fo re v e r, d id ja ever th in k a th a t? What' 11
become of you then? Y o u 'll end your l i f e in th e g u tte r and i t ' l l
serve you r i g h t, ’ cause th e g u t te r 's where you came from and th e
g u t te r 's where you belong (pp. 111-112).
I t i s as i f H a l's e f f e c t on Rosemary has been th a t o f both a reagent
and a c a ta ly s t. H a l's p resen c e, lik e a re a g e n t, b rin g s out Rosemary's
tru e n a tu re —her baw diness, her d esp erate sexual d e s ire s , h e r f e a r ,o f
growing o ld . And lik e a c a ta ly s t, Hal a lso a c c e le ra te s Rosem ary's
re la tio n s h ip w ith Howard by making her see her need w ith such c la r it y
th a t she begs Howard to marry h e r. She seems to have d isco v ered , through
h er experiences w ith H al, the tru e n atu re of her d e s ire s and to have
l o s t the rom antic v is io n o f h e rs e lf , so th a t Howard becomes more
68
d e sira b le to her th an h er s e lf - r e s p e c t, Hal th e n , ir o n ic a lly , makes
an em otionally honest woman of Rosemary by a ffo rd in g h e r, w ithout
meaning t o , w ith a c a th a r tic ex p erien ce. Here again Hal f i l l s th e
ro le of a p h a llic god,
Mrs, P o tts , the woman who allow s Hal to work f o r h is b re a k fa s t,
i s a lso a ffe c te d by Hal1 s presen ce, b u t to a le s s e r degree. She seems
to be, co n sid erin g her background, one of th e most em otionally s ta b le
people in th e p la y . Because of her m o th er's in te rfe re n c e , her m arriage
la s te d only one day, and she now fin d s h e rs e lf shackled to h er m other,
who, though very e ld e r ly , s t i l l dom inates h e r. Yet Mrs, P o tts i s
d escrib ed a s , "a m erry, dumpy l i t t l e woman c lo se to s ix ty " (p , it), and
she a c ts th e p a r t , being very easy-going and k in d ly . She seems to
compensate f o r h er lack o f male companionship by r e a d ily h elp in g bums
who sto p by f o r a handout. At l e a s t she has a re p u ta tio n f o r doing
t h i s . A fte r fin d in g Hal ta lk in g to M illie and Madge, F lo sa y s, "I'ra
going to speak to h er ^Mrs. P o tts J about th e way she takes in every
Tom, Dick and Harry1 ." (p . 11) Hal seems to re k in d le , to some e x te n t,
th e sex u al f i r e s i n M rs. P o tts , She admires H a l's stre n g th (p , 31)
and cooks him a huge b re a k fa s t (p . 3 2 ). When Rosemary, w ith a bawdy
laugh, sa y s, "Sounds to me lik e M rs. P o tts had h e rs e lf a new boyfriend1 , '
Mrs. P o tts , " fe e lin g in ju re d ," r e p lie s , " I d o n 't th in k t h a t 's very
funny" and s t a r t s to go home (p , 3 2 ). L ater she adm ires H a l's b u ild
(p . 8 0 ), and when H al, "throw ing h is arms around h e r," say s, "Oh, s h e 's
my b e st g ir l'." Mrs. P o tts g ig g les " lik e a g ir l" and sa y s, " I baked a
Lady B altim ore cake’ ." (pp. 80-81) She a ls o in s tin c tiv e ly says th e
r ig h t th in g s to H al, encouraging him w ith remarks in clu d in g , "C lothes
69;
d o n 't make the man" (p . 83) , "Money i s n 't everything" (p . 8 6 ), " I
th in k t h a t 's w onderful" (p . 8 6 ), "W ouldn't i t be n ice i f he could jo in
the Country Club and play golf?" (p . 87) and "And there* s a young
m an's B ible c la s s a t th e B a p tis t Church" (p . 87)* A fter Hal has l e f t ,
Flo remarks to Mrs. P o tts , "You—you lik e d th e young man, d id n 't you,
Helen? Admit i t , " and M rs. P o tts r e p lie s :
. Yes I d id . . . . He walked through th e door and suddenly every
th in g was d if f e r e n t. He clomped through th e tin y rooms lik e he
was s t i l l in the g re a t o u tdoors, he ta lk e d in a booming voice
th a t shook the c e ilin g * E verything he did reminded me th e re was
a man in the house, and i t seemed good. . . . And th a t reminded
me . . * I'm a woman, and th a t seemed good, too (p . 162).
Thus we see th a t even an o ld e r woman such as Mrs. P o tts i s a ffe c te d
by H a l's v i r i l i t y .
But i t i s Madge who i s a ffe c te d most profoundly by H al. Rosemary* s
p ro p o sal of m arriage to Howard seems p r e c ip ita te d by H al, b u t i t may
be th a t t h i s would have been her ev en tu al d e stin y , anyway. But Madge's
l i f e i s com pletely changed by H al. Madge i s not an i n te l li g e n t g i r l
lik e her s i s t e r M illie , nor i s she a p a r tic u la r ly in te n se g i r l . Rather,
she m ight be describ ed as p hlegm atic. When her mother asks her i f she
lik e s i t when Alan k isse s h e r, Madge m a tte r-o f- fa c tly says "Y es," and
F lo sa y s, "You d o n 't sound v ery e n th u s ia stic " } whereupon Madge r e p lie s ,
"What do you expect me to do—pass out every tim e Alan p u ts h is arms
around me?" (p . 19) And when Flo b rin g s up th e su b je c t of m arriage to
Alan, Madge r e p lie s , " I ’m only eig h teen " (p . 1 6 ). Yet a t th e p la y 's
end, t h is phlegm atic g i r l who seems even le s s in te r e s te d i n her romance
than h er mother i s , goes o f f to a stra n g e c ity to be m arried to and to
liv e w ith a man whom she b a re ly knows. T his profound change i s H a l's
70
doing. I t i s he who awakens p assio n in Madge and changes her whole
outlook on l i f e . S e lf - s u f f ic ie n t and em otionally in d if f e r e n t to men
before she meets H al, Madge becomes so em o tio n ally involved w ith him
th a t she l i t e r a l l y gives him e v ery th in g —h e r lo v e , h e r beau ty , her
body, h er fu tu re .
I t ta k e s j u s t one day f o r Madge to give h e rs e lf com pletely to Hal,
and th e p ro cess s t a r t s when she f i r s t meets him. Both a re described
as ’ ’awkward and self-conscious** (p . 1 0 ). I t i s u n lik e Madge to f e e l
th is way around m ales. L a te r, a f t e r i t has been arranged th a t Hal
should be M illie ’ s d ate a t th e p ic n ic , M illie t e l l s Madge about Hal’ s
swimming and d iv in g a b i l i t i e s . She a lso remarks th a t Ju a n ita Badger
sa id Hal was ’ ’th e c u te s t th in g ” she ever saw and asks Madge i f th a t i s
tr u e . Madge r e p lie s ( ’ ’not w illin g to go overboard”) , ”1 c e rta in ly
wouldn1 t say he was ’ th e c u te s t th in g I ev er saw* ” ( p . 6 8 ). But i t
seems th a t Madge’ s in d iffe re n c e i s crack in g , fo r th e next tim e she sees1
H al, t h e i r eyes m eet, they say ”Hi‘ ." to one a n o th e r, and ’’they both
look away from each o th e r, a l i t t l e g u i lt i ly ” (p . 8 5 ). L a te r, during
the dancing scene, Madge comes out of the house and fin d s M illie try in g
to dance w ith H al, b u t M illie i s not a good d an cer. The music i s slow
and sensuous, and a f t e r dancing w ith Howard (who i s snatched away by
Rosemary), Madge begins to do an in tr i c a t e ste p by h e r s e lf . H al,
tu rn in g and seeing h e r, leav es M illie and moves toward Madge. Inge
says*
Some d ista n c e a p a r t, snapping th e ir fin g e rs to th e rhythm, th e ir
bodies respond w ith o u t to u ch in g . Then they dance slow ly toward
each o th e r and Hal tak e s her in h is arms. The dance has something
of th e n atu re of a p rim itiv e r i t e t h a t would mate th e two young
people (p . 10k).
71
Here i n t h is n e a rly p h a llic dance Madge seems to be beginning to f a l l
under Hal’ s s p e ll as she gives h e rs e lf to him p h y s ic a lly .
S h o rtly a f te r th is scene th e f r u s tr a te d Rosemary crushes Hal by
t e l l i n g him th a t he belongs in th e g u tte r, and th e whole group, except
f o r Hal and Madge, leav es f o r the p ic n ic . Hal s i t s d e je c te d ly on th e
porch, and Madge comes out o f the house and t r i e s to ch eer him up by
complimenting him on h is a b i l i t y to dance. Hal rem ains despondent,
however, and so Madge t e l l s him to pay no a tte n tio n to Rosemary. But
H al, n e a rly weeping, r e p l i e s , ”What’ s th e u se , Baby? I ’m a bum. She
saw through me lik e a God-damn x -ra y m achine. T here’ s j u s t no p lace
in the w orld fo r a guy lik e me” (p . 116). But Madge co n tin u es to
com fort him, t e l l i n g him he i s e n te rta in in g , w itty , stro n g , and good-
lo o k in g . In re p ly Hal t e l l s her th e sto ry of h is l i f e —about the y ear
he spent in a reform school fo r s te a lin g a m otorcycle, and about how
he was unable to g et along w ith h is m other, who had l e f t h e r husband
(pp. 117-118). Madge i s so g ra te f u l t h a t he has confided in h e r—
th a t she im p u lsiv ely k is s e s him. ”1 • • . I g et so t ir e d of being
to ld I ’ m p r e t t y ,” she says (p . 119). Whereupon Hal fo ld s ”h er in h is
arms c a re s sin g ly ” and murmurs, ”Baby, Baby, Baby” (p . 119). Madge
r e s i s t s him, jumping away, b u t he comes to h e r, and she f e e ls ” a l i t t l e
t h r i l l of excitem ent as he draws n e a re r.” ”R e a lly ,” she s a y s ,”~ w e
have to be g o in g .” But ”Hal tak e s her in h is arms and k is s e s h e r
p a s s io n a te ly . Then Madge u t te r s h is name in a v o ice o f re s ig n a tio n ”
(p . 119). She fe e b ly t r i e s t o r e s i s t ag ain , but Hal p ic k s h e r up in
h is arms and s t a r t s o ff s ta g e , say in g to h e r, ”We' re not goin’ on no
God-damn p ic n ic ” (p . 119)•
72
When Hal and Madge retu rn la te r th at n ig h t, a fte r having gone o f f
by th em selves, Madge has surrendered h e r s e lf p h y sic a lly to H al. She
i s sobbing and f e e lin g rem orsefu l. But when Hal asks her to k is s him
goodnight she con sen ts grudgingly a fte r he prom ises not t o hold h er.
His p a ssio n i s too much fo r him, however, and he hugs her to him, she
responding. F in a lly she breaks away and runs in s id e , sobbing th a t she
never wants to see him again .
However, when Hal reap p ears the next morning a f t e r a n ig h t spent
in evading th e p o lic e , Madge adm its in f r o n t of h e r m other, Alan,
and M rs. P o tts th a t she lik e d Hal th e f i r s t tim e she saw him (p . 155)•
When Hal asks her i f she loves him, she r e p lie s ( ’ ’T ears form ing in her
eyes” ) , "What good i s i t i f I do?” (p . 157)* Hal th e n t e l l s h er th a t
he i s headed f o r th e Mayo H o tel i n T ulsa, k is s e s h e r, and le a v e s,
running to catch a f r e ig h t- tr a in # Madge c o lla p se s when he re le a s e s
h e r. When h er mother commands her to get up, she answers determ inedly,
” 1 do love himj I do’ . 1 1 (p . 158) She then goes in to th e house, and
when she reap p ears she i s c a rry in g a sm all s u itc a s e . To F lo she sa y s,
’’I'm going to T ulsa, M om " (p . 165). F lo t r i e s to sto p her by t e l l i n g
her th a t Hal won* t be ab le to support her and w i l l tu rn to d rin k and
o th er women, b u t H al’ s hold on Madge i s to o stro n g . She t e l l s her
mother t h a t she has thought o f those th in g s and leav es (p . 166). Hal
has succeeded in changing the course o f h er whole l i f e .
But i f Hal a f f e c t s Madge so fundam entally, she a ls o has an
e le c t r if y in g e f f e c t on him. When th e two o f them retu rn to Madge’ s
house a fte r going o f f by th em selves, Hal, in ste a d o f f e e lin g smug
or triumphant about having seduced th e p r e t t i e s t g i r l i n town, i s b itter
73
w ith se lf-d isp arag e m en t, f o r Madge i s ap p aren tly not j u s t another
conquest f o r him. She has managed to involve him em o tio n ally as much
as she h e rs e lf i s in v o lv ed . He c a l ls him self a "no-good burn” who
"oughta be taken out and hung" (p . 133)• And th e n ex t m orning, j u s t
b efo re he le a v e s, Hal begs Madge to come w ith him to T ulsa (p . 158).
Madge i s swept o ff h e r f e e t by the power o f Hal’ s v i r i l i t y , b u t Hal
i s , in tu r n , deeply moved by Madge’ s fe m in in ity . In b o th , th e sex u al
im pulse i s quickened to th e p o in t where i t ta k e s command of th e ir
l iv e s , so pow erful i s the f u l l p a ssio n o f t h e i r youth.
But Madge and Hal are not th e only ones swept away by th e ir
p a s s io n s . The f r u s tr a te d Rosemary, fo rced by Hal’ s presence to become
em otionally h o n est, a ls o i s c a rrie d away by p a ssio n . E arly in th e p la j
she i s given to making statem en ts such a s , "Shootl I liv e d t h is long
w ithout a man. I don’ t see what’ s to keep me from g e ttin g on w ith o u t
one" (p . 2ii). S h o rtly before t h i s she has sa id of a man she knows,
"A n ice fello w and a peck of fu n , b u t I don’ t have tim e f o r any o f ’ um
when th ey s t a r t g e ttin ’ se rio u s on me" (p . 2it). Of Howard she rem arks3
"Howard's j u s t a frie n d -b o y —not a boy frie n d " (p . 2ii). But a f t e r
h e r experience w ith H al, she r e a liz e s her tr u e d e s ire s and h er desperate
need to f u l f i l l them, and she becomes f r a n t i c . When Howard b rin g s h er
home l a t e on th e n ig h t of the p ic n ic , we a re made aware th a t she has
given h e rs e lf se x u ally to Howard. At f i r s t Rosemary t e l l s Howard
b lu n tly t h a t he cannot go o f f w ith o u t h e r (p . 12U). When th is s t a t e
ment does not move Howard, she demands t h a t th e y t a l k about th e ir
r e la tio n s h ip . She t e l l s him, " I t ’ s no good l iv i n ' lik e t h i s , in rentec
rooms, m eetin’ a bunch of old maids f o r supper every n ig h t, then cornin’
7i*
back home alone” (p . 127)* When t h is p le a s t i l l does not move him,
Rosemary, becoming more d e sp e ra te , d e c la re s , ’ ’You g o tta m arry me,
Howard” (p . 128). Howard b alk s a t t h i s demand, say in g , ’ ’I'm not gonna
marry anyone th a t sa y s, 'You g o tta marry me, Howard*' . . . I f a woman
wants me to marry h er—she can a t l e a s t say * p le a s e '” (p . 130). So
Rosemary, d e sp e ra te , b e a te n , humble, begs him to marry h e r, even sinkirig
to her knees in a p i t i f u l parody of th e o ld -fash io n ed custom, and
d e c la re s , ”0h, God'. P lease m arry me, Howard. P lease . . . P lease •
• • P le ase ” (p . 130)• In her se x u al f r u s tr a tio n and f e a r of being
alo n e, Rosemary s a c r if ic e s h e r p rid e to her p a ssio n .
And, f i n a l l y , Inge shows th e waning p assio n s o f th e ageing. W e
have alread y seen how M rs. P o tts i s made to f e e l lik e a g i r l again by
H a l's p resen ce.
Thus i t can be seen th a t P ic n ic i s a p lay d e a lin g w ith th e trium ph
of th e sex u al impulse in human b e in g s, be th ey a d o le sc e n ts, young
a d u lts , th e nearly-m iddle-aged, o r th e a g ein g . But i s th e re an
a ttitu d e d is c e rn ib le in the p re s e n ta tio n , and i f so , i s i t a negative
a ttitu d e ? The a ttitu d e would seem to be one of " th is i s th e way l i f e
i s , f o r b e tte r o r f o r w orse. P e o p le 's liv e s are going to be shaped by
th e ir sex u al im pulses, and th e re is nothing to be done about i t . ” At
th e play* s end, when F lo , w atching Madge go o f f on h e r way to H ai, asks
Mrs. P o tts , "H elen, could I stop her?1 ” M rs. P o tts answ ers, "Could
anyone have stopped you, Flo?” Then, Inge sa y s, "F lo gives Mrs. P o tts
a look of r e a liz a tio n " (p . 167)* T his i s how i t i s , Inge seems to
be saying, and our w ise st choice i s to accept i t and to be content
w ith our l o t .
7S
I f there i s a n egative a ttitu d e h e r e, i t would seem to be im p lic it
rath er than e x p l i c i t . To say th a t man i s in flu en ced by h is sex u a l
p a ssio n s i s to make a statem ent th a t i s no doubt tr u e . But to im ply
th a t th ere i s no checking t h is im pulse, th a t a l l rem onstrances o f
reason must go unheeded, i s a p p a llin g . Most a d u lts, and e s p e c ia lly
th ose who are p aren ts or tea ch ers, have seen the sexu al im pulse sweep
young p eop le o f f th e ir f e e t . But th e se people have a lso seen reason
and the w ise ad vice o f o ld er and more experienced persons become
e f f e c t iv e weapons in a id in g a young person in checking th e o fte n s e l f
d e str u c tiv e sex u a l in s t in c t . And th e y have a lso seen the young p eop le
them selves u sin g th e ir reason t o counterbalance th e ir em otions. I
m y self, as a tea ch er, have counseled a t le a s t one tee n -a g er who had
t h is kind o f problem. This person was a fra id o f b ein g ca rried away
by th e sex u a l in p u lse j u s t as Madge w as. But t h is person, through
stren g th of ch aracter and su b lim ation , stood o f f th e se tremendous
em otional p r essu re s, fin is h e d c o lle g e , and now fin d s the v is t a s o f l i f e
much broader than th ey might have been had t h is person surrendered to
d e s ir e . I t i s , th er efo r e , f a ls e and n eg a tiv e to im ply, as Inge seems
to do, th at human beings are always a t the mercy o f t h e ir em otion s.
Man has more than an em otional n atu re. He a lso has r a tio n a l and
s p ir it u a l n a tu res, and th ey , to o , can be mighty fo r c e s in h is l i f e , as
even Blanche i n A S treetca r Named D esire seems to r e a liz e . These
natures Inge ( in a l l h is p la y s, i t seems) apparently knows n othing o f
or chooses to ig n o r e . And t h is a t tit u d e , i t would seem, i s a n eg a tiv e
one. Popular i t c e r ta in ly i s , to judge by the emphasis on man1s
em otional l i f e found in p resen t-d ay lite r a tu r e ; but f a ls e and n e g a tiv e
76
i t i s , to o , as can be a tte s te d to by th e liv e s of c o u n tless people
from th e obscure, such as th e person I counseled, to th e famous, such
as A lb ert Schw eitzer and Helen K eller*
I t must be no ted , however, th a t t h is n e g ativ e a ttitu d e i s only
im plied by P ic n ic ; i t i s nowhere d ir e c tly sta te d * N ev erth eless, i t
/
i s , I b e lie v e , t h is im p lic a tio n th a t man liv e s h is l i f e in only one
dimension th a t leav es the th o u g h tfu l re a d e r w ith th e f e e lin g of disqiue;
spoken of above. Madge and Hal can never f u l f i l l t h e i r d e s tin ie s as
human beings i f th ey liv e by emotions only* As F lo warns h e r daughter,
Hal w i l l t i r e of h e r, When t h a t happens, Madge w i l l become lik e her
e a rn e st but in e f f e c tu a l m other— »a t i r e d , d is illu s io n e d woman. This
p o s s ib ility , which must c ro ss th e mind o f th e th o u g h tfu l re a d e r, i s
what f i n a l ly gives th e p la y th e e lu siv e n eg ativ e overtones th a t i t
p o sse sse s. And emphasis on th e sexual im pulse, to th e ex clu sio n o f th e
o th e r n a tu re s in th e human c h a ra c te r, i s the fo rce th a t in je c ts t h is
p o s s ib ility , a r t f u l ly and p o w erfu lly , in to th e p la y .
CHAPTER V
NEG ATIVE ATTITUDES IN T H E T E A H O U SE O F T H E AU G U ST M O O N 1
The Teahouse of th e August Moon i s th e only comedy among th e p lay s
being examined in t h is d is s e r ta tio n . That i s , i t i s th e only p la y
under c o n sid e ra tio n " in which th e c h a ra c te rs undergo embarrassm ents or
d isco m fitu res which are on th e whole so managed th a t th ey i n te r e s t and
amuse us w ithout engaging our profoundest sympathy, and in which th e
a c tio n tu rn s o u t w e ll f o r th e c h ie f c h a r a c t e r s . S i n c e The Teahouse
of the August Moon is a comedy, one would expect to fin d very few
n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s , and i t has indeed only one. Moreover, i t s negative
a ttitu d e i s d if f e r e n t in kind from th e negative a ttitu d e s found in th e
o th er p lay s we have examined. Those in the o th e r p lay s re v e a l no
humor in t h e i r p re s e n ta tio n ; they re v e a l a se rio u sn ess o f purpose de
void of humor and c o n ta in in g an a ttitu d e of p ity or even b itte r n e s s .
The n eg ativ e a ttitu d e in The Teahouse of th e August Moon, on th e o th er
hand, i s p resen ted as what perhaps i s d escrib ed b e st as H oratian
s a t i r e , t h a t i s , s a t ir e which "undertakes to evoke a sm ile a t th e f o i
b le s of men" fo r th e purpose of "amusement ra th e r than in d ig n a tio n ." ^
^By John P a tric k (New York: G. P . Putnam’ s Sons, 1955)• T his p lay
i s based on the novel o f th e same t i t l e by Vern S neider (New York:
G. P. Putnam 's Sons, 1951) •
A
M. H. Abrams, A G lossary of L ite ra ry Terms (New York: R inehart
and Company, I n c ., 1959), p . 13*
3Abrams, p . 86. 77
78
The men in The Teahouse of the August Moon whose f o ib le s are exposed
are members of the United S ta te s Army. Both p lo t and ch aracter are
used to s a t ir iz e them. W e s h a ll b egin w ith the p lo t.
The a ctio n o f the p lay tak es p la ce on Okinawa and concerns the
occupation o f th e isla n d by the U nited S ta te s Army. C olonel Purdy
sends Captain F isb y , an o f f ic e r who i s c o n tin u a lly b ein g tra n sferred
from p o st to p o st because o f h is penchant f o r g e ttin g in to tro u b le , to
the v illa g e o f T obiki to " reh a b ilita te" and "Americanize" i t . W ith
F isb y , C olonel Purdy sends S a k in i, a s ly , in t e llig e n t Okinawan
in te r p r e te r . A fter many v ic is s it u d e s , F isb y and S ak in i reach T obiki,
and F isby s e t s about p u ttin g the Arm y* s "Plan B" in to o p era tio n . He
im m ediately runs in to tro u b le when a Mr. Sumata p resen ts him w ith th e
g i f t o f a geish a g i r l , Lotus Blossom , who i n s i s t s on becoming F isb y1 s
serv a n t. Then, when F isb y b egin s to e r e c t the Pentagon-shaped sch o o l-’
house c a lle d fo r in "Plan B," he i s thwarted by the v illa g e r s , who,
by th e "democratic" method taught them by F isb y , have decided th a t they
want a teahouse in stea d of a sch oolh ou se. The men want the teahouse
so th a t th ey can have a p la ce to r e la x ; th e women want i t so th a t th ey
can have a p la ce in which t o lea rn from L otus Blossom how t o become
g eish a g i r l s . F isb y , se e in g th a t he has been o u tw itted , g iv e s h is
co n sen t.
Meanwhile, C olonel Purdy, h earing dark rep o rts from T obiki con
cern in g th e harassed Captain F isb y , sends Captain McLean, a p sych ia
t r i s t , to the v illa g e to in v e s tig a te F isb y . But when McLean a r r iv e s
a t T ob ik i, Fisby fin d s th a t he i s a s e lf - s t y le d a g r ic u ltu r a l exp ert
and puts McLean to work on th e a g r ic u ltu r a l program, much to McLean* s j
79
s a tis fa c tio n * F isby has been tr y in g to develop the v illa g e ’ s economy,
but the d e lic a te ly -c a r v e d a r t o b je c ts which the v illa g e r s have made
to s e l l to the occupation troops are not purchased. The discouraged
v illa g e r s , deprived of th e ir expected income, d ecid e to , as Sakini
sa y s, ’’get drunk.” When F isb y asks what they drink, Sakini t e l l s him
that th ey make brandy out of sweet p o ta to e s. T his f a c t g iv es F isb y
an id e a . He t e s t s the brandy on a goat, Lady A stor, and when i t has
no i l l - e f f e c t s on her he d ecid es to have the v illa g e r s mass-produce
i t fo r s a le to the tro o p s. The brandy begins s e llin g extrem ely w e ll,
and the v illa g e r s begin to accumulate so much money th a t Army
I n te llig e n c e becomes su sp ic io u s.
As a r e s u lt o f th ese su sp ic io n s, and because he has not been
g e ttin g F isb y ’ s p rogress re p o rts, C olonel Purely d ecid es to v i s i t th e
v i l l a g e . He walks in a t F isb y’ s birthday c e le b r a tio n in the new
Teahouse o f th e August Moon ju s t when Captains F isb y and McLean are
sin g in g ’’Deep in the Heart o f Texas” fo r the v illa g e r s . Outraged a t
the sig h t and then scan d alized when he fin d s out what Fisby has been
doing to r e h a b ilita te th e v i l l a g e , Purdy orders th e brandy-making
s t i l l s destroyed and the teahouse torn down. These orders are appar
e n tly ca rried o u t. Then th e C olonel lea rn s th at through a misunder
stan d in g Tobiki i s b ein g p resen ted to Congress as a model p r o je c t and
that a C ongressional Committee i s f ly in g over to study F isb y ’s m ethods.
Purdy th in k s the s itu a tio n i s h o p eless u n t il Sakini inform s him th a t
the s o ld ie r s who were to d estro y the s t i l l s were given w ater b a rrels to
d estro y a fte r th ey had f i r s t been made drunk by brandy given them by
the v illa g e r s . S ak in i a lso announces th a t th e teahouse i s s a fe , i t
80
having been c a re fu lly dism antled by th e v i ll a g e r s , who th e n h id th e
p a r t s . Purdy, who hopes to be made a b rig a d ie r g e n eral, i s overjoyed*
So are F isby and th e v illa g e r s , fo r th e form er has f i n a l ly c a rrie d out
an assignm ent s u c c e ss fu lly , and th e l a t t e r have t h e i r teahouse ag ain .
The negative a ttitu d e th u s rev ealed in th e p lo t i s th a t Amy
p e rso n n el, e s p e c ia lly o f f ic e r s , are sim p leto n s. The o f f ic e rs in
W ashington, D. C ., who drew up w Plan Bn were so ig n o ra n t of th e b a sic
ru le s of school a rc h ite c tu re o r so dazzled by th e ir h ead q u arters
b u ild in g th a t they decreed th a t schools b u i l t in occupied a re a s should
be Pentagon-shaped. When C aptain Fisby p a sse s t h i s in fo rm atio n on to
th e v illa g e r s , th ey t e l l him in a l l innocence th a t th e v illa g e co n tain s
no fiv e -s id e d c h ild re n (p . 5 6 ). The f a c t th a t C olonel Purdy i s on
Okinawa a ls o re v e a ls th e bungling o f th e Army p erso n n el in W ashington,
f o r Purdy had been ta u g h t French by th e Amy in p re p a ra tio n f o r th e
in v asio n of Europe, and then had been s e n t to th e P a c ific (p . 1 1 ),
Purdy him self is made to look fo o lis h toward th e end of the play when
he o rd ers the brandy s t i l l s and th e teahouse d estro y ed , only to
d isc o v er th a t a C ongressional Committee i s on i t s way to in sp e c t th e
v illa g e and is ex p ectin g to observe th e b u sin e ss e n te rp ris e o f th e
v illa g e r s as w e ll as the f r u i t s o f th a t e n te rp ris e * C aptain Fisby i s
shown to be S ak in i1 s dupe when he allow s h im self to be ta lk e d in to
ta k in g an old lad y , her d aughter, th e daughter* s th re e c h ild re n , and
a goat w ith him in h is jeep when he lea v es f o r Tobiki (p . 3 7 ). F u rth e r
more, he i s shown to be th e dupe o f h is p assengers when he allow s them
to ta lk him in to so many sid e t r i p s th a t what would norm ally be le s s
than a one-day t r i p to Tobiki i s s tre tc h e d in to a ten-day t r i p . And
81
f i n a l l y , Fisby i s shown to be th e dupe of th e v illa g e r s when he allow s
them to ta lk him in to b u ild in g a teahouse in ste a d o f a schoolhouse
(p . 99) . Army e n lis te d men are a ls o shown to be dupes when th e
Okinawans get S ergeant Gregovich and h is men drunk and th en give them
w ater b a rre ls to smash in p lace of th e brandy s t i l l s (p . 177),
The same n eg ativ e a t t i tu d e , th a t Army p erso n n el are sim p leto n s,
i s a ls o rev e ale d by th e c h a ra c te rs in The Teahouse of th e August Moon,
C olonel Purdy i s th e man who b ears th e b ru n t of th e s a t i r e . He i s
shown to be a man o f lo w e r-c lass ta s te s by th e f a c t th a t h is f a v o r ite
read in g m a te ria l i s Adventure Magazine, S a k in i, commenting on th e
C o lo n el's l a t e s t is s u e , sa y s, "Cover has p ic tu re of p ir a te w ith black
p atch over eye" (p , 1 0), Furtherm ore, th e Colonel cannot keep th e
magazine out of the hands of S ergeant Gregovich, even though he h id es
i t under h is desk, f o r Gregovich o u t-th in k s Purdy and d isco v ers th e
h id in g p lac e (p , 1 0 ), Purdy a lso re v e a ls h is lac k of a l i b e r a l
education when, in a co n v ersatio n w ith F isb y , he a ttr ib u te s A T ale of
, 3ko C itie s to V icto r Hugo, When F isby answ ers, " I s n 't th a t D ickens,
s ir? " P u rd y 's re p ly re v e a ls h is addleheadednessj he sa y s, " I guess
I was th in k in g of th e movie" (p . 2 8 ),
Purdy a lso has many id io s y n c ra s ie s which make him look f o o lis h .
Every morning he p ro p h esies t h a t i t w i l l not r a in th a t day. "Of
co u rse," says S a k in i, "n o t r a in here t h is tim e o f year i n whole h isto ry
of Okinawa, But Colonel Purdy not make m istake" (p . 11), Purdy a lso
has a penchant f o r p o s tin g s ig n s , A sig n rea d in g "T hinkl" i s p o ste d
on the w a ll of h is o f f ic e , one read in g " O ffic e rs' Laundry Only" hangs
from h is c lo th e s l in e , and he in s tr u c ts Gregovich to p o s t one in th e
82
re c re a tio n h a ll read in g "S ergeants Are Forbidden to Dance w ith
P riv a te s" (p . 17)• Another o f P u rd y 's id io s y n c ra s ie s i s rev ealed when
he becomes angry w ith S a k in i; he "c lo se s h is eyes and counts to te n
in vehement French" (pp. 11-12). He a ls o has some unusual id ea s about
th e re la tio n s h ip between th e conquerors and the conquered. When Fisby
o ffe rs to t r y to le a rn th e d ia le c t of th e Okinawans, Purdy answ ers,
"No need. W e won the war" (p . 2 6 ). And o f h is r e s p o n s ib ility toward
th e p eo p le, he sa y s, "My job i s to tea ch th e se n a tiv e s th e meaning
of democracy, and they' re going to le a rn democracy i f I have to shoot
every one of them" (p . 2 3 ). Yet a l l the tim e t h a t Colonel Purdy i s
making a fo o l of h im self, h is speech and a c tio n s are so p a te n tly
innocent th a t th e s a t ir e i s seen to be humorous in a good-natured
r a th e r th an b i t t e r way.
C aptains McLean and F isb y are a lso given id io s y n c ra s ie s which
allow them to be s a t ir i z e d . McLean co n sid ers h im self to be an a g ri
c u ltu r a l ex p ert and has a mania f o r what he c a lls "organic" gardening
(p . 112). Fisby has come to P urdy's command a f t e r being moved from
o u t f i t to o u t f i t because o f h is bungling. His most s e rio u s bungle
occurred when he was in charge o f a com putation machine in th e
Paym aster G en eral's o f f ic e . F isby allowed the machine to make a
q u a rte r-o f-a -m illio n -d o lla r e r r o r in fav o r of th e tro o p s on a p a y ro ll
com putation and th e tro o p s were p a id b efo re F isby caught th e e rro r
(p . 2 2 ). Furtherm ore, though F isby was an a sso c ia te p ro fe s so r of
hum anities before th e w ar, he has a d i f f i c u l t tim e ex p ressin g him self
to th e people of th e v illa g e he i s p u t i n charge o f . For example, he
e x p la in s democracy to them as "th e r ig h t to make th e wrong choice"
83
(p . £7)• He a ls o has tro u b le s as a le a d e r. I n f a c t , in s te a d of
lea d in g the v illa g e r s , he fo llo w s them; he d isc a rd s h is uniform in
fav o r of a bathrobe and straw sun h a t, follow s th e custom o f catching
a good-luck c r ic k e t, and tak es h is en te rta in m e n t a t th e teahouse.
B ut, as i t i s on Colonel Purdy, th e s a t ir e on th e two c a p ta in s i s
humorous and good-natured r a th e r than b i t t e r . F isb y , in f a c t , i s
given th e honor of being th e hero o f th e p la y .
Thus we see th a t The Teahouse of th e August Moon, though i t con
ta in s a n eg ativ e a ttitu d e , p re se n ts t h i s a ttitu d e not b i t t e r l y or
even s e rio u s ly , but in s a t i r e th a t i s good-natured and humorous.
Furtherm ore, th e p lay e x to ls th e Okinawans f o r having th e v ir tu e s of
s e lf - r e lia n c e , f r ie n d lin e s s , and a d a p ta b ility ; whereas i t shows th a t
th e Americans, f o r a l l t h e ir id io s y n c ra c ie s , have the v irtu e s of
magnanimity, f r ie n d lin e s s , and re s o u rc e fu ln e ss . This com bination o f
humor and optimism concerning th e v ir tu e s in human n atu re p la c e s th e
p lay very clo se to the o p tim istic end of th e o p tim is tic -p e s s im is tic
continuum.
CH A PTER VI
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES IN CAT O N A H O T TIN ROCF1
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, lik e A S tre e tc a r Named D esire, Death of
a Salesman, or The S h rik e, i s a p lay made somber by the n eg ativ e
a ttitu d e s expressed by i t s p l o t, s e ttin g , and c h a ra c te rs . I t , lik e
those th re e p la y s , i s n e a re r th e p e s s im is tic th an th e o p tim is tic end
of th e o p tim is tic -p e s s im is tic continuum.
There are fo u r im portant n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s in Cat on a Hot Tin
Roof: ( l ) most people are greedy, e g o c e n tric , mendacious h y p o c rite s;
(2) most people liv e in a world of I llu s io n s ; (3) most people are
crude and c ru e l; (U) most people cannot communicate w ith one a n o th e r.
These n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s are conveyed by p l o t, s e ttin g , and c h a ra c te r.
W e s h a ll begin w ith th e p lo t.
The a c tio n of W illiam s1 s p lay i s continuous; th a t i s , i t encom
p asses as much time in the liv e s of th e c h a ra c te rs as i t takes to
perform , excluding in te rm is sio n s. The e n tir e a c tio n takes p lac e in
the ”b e d -sittin g -ro o m ” of M argaret and B rick in th e M iss issip p i-D e lta
^By Tennessee W illiam s (New York: New D ire c tio n s, 1955)* The
e d itio n being used has two th ir d a c ts , th e one W illiam s p re f e rs and
the one E lia Kazan (th e d ire c to r of th e p lay ) persuaded him to w rite
f o r th e Broadway p ro d u ctio n . Since th e p lay th a t won th e P u litz e r
P riz e contained the l a t t e r v e rs io n , i t i s th is v e rsio n which we s h a ll
examine in th is c h a p te r. For W illiam s’ s 1 1 Note of E xplanation” as to
why th e ’’Kazan v e rsio n ” was w r itte n , see pp. 12U-125.
8 1 *
85
p la n ta tio n home belonging to B rick’ s fa th e r , B ig Daddy P o l l i t t . The
o cca sio n i s the c e le b r a tio n o f B ig Daddy’ s s i x t y - f i f t h b irth d ay.
During the course o f the f i r s t a c t, which i s dominated by argu
ments between Brick and M argaret, we lea rn th a t Brick i s an a lc o h o lic
whose l a t e s t spree has caused him to break an a n k le, so th a t he i s on
cru tch es. W e a ls o lea rn th a t Big Daddy i s dying o f cancer and th a t
Brick’ s b roth er, Gooper, a law yer, and Gooper’ s w ife , Mae, are
attem pting to see to i t th a t B rick does not in h e r it Big Daddy’ s v a st
e s t a t e . Margaret i s attem pting to thwart them, both by try in g to make
Brick stop d rinking and by hoping to become pregnant so th a t she and
B rick w i l l have an h e ir to o f f s e t the f iv e ch ild ren of Gooper and Mae.
But Margaret cannot become pregnant because Brick w i l l not sle e p w ith
h er. Though she lo v e s him d ea rly , B rick d esp ises Margaret because
he f e e l s th at she caused h is b e st fr ie n d , Skipper, to drink h im self to
death by accu sin g Skipper of b ein g a homosexual who d esired her husband.
But Margaret swears to win B rick’ s lo v e , sa y in g th a t she i s lik e a ca t
on a h ot t in ro o f th a t w i l l not g ive in by junping o f f .
In Act Two B ig Daddy appears w ith Gooper, Mae, Reverend Tooker,
and Big Mama. He has come to Brick and M argaret’ s room to celeb ra te
because i t i s d i f f i c u l t fo r B rick to come d ow n stairs. Everyone i s
v ig o ro u sly co n g ra tu la tin g B ig Daddy, d e sp ite th e f a c t th a t a l l o f them
except B ig M ama know th a t he i s doomed by h is in cu rab le cancer. Both
B ig Mama and B ig Daddy have been to ld th a t h is p ain i s caused by a
sp a s tic colon , and she i s r e lie v e d and happy, d esp ite th e f a c t th a t
B ig Daddy i s co n sta n tly h u m ilia tin g h er. As Act One was dominated by
a scene between B rick and M argaret, so Act Two i s dominated by a scene
86
between B rick and B ig Daddy. Demanding t o be l e f t alone w ith B rick ,
B ig Daddy then demands o f B rick why he w i l l not sleep w ith Margaret
and why he drinks so much. B rick evades answering h is fa th e r and
th e con versation meanders from su b ject to su b je c t as both men fin d
i t hard to communicate. F in a lly B ig Daddy mentions th a t Gooper and
Mae have suggested th a t the r e la tio n s h ip between B rick and Skipper was
n ot norm al. Brick i s incensed by t h is r e v e la tio n , fo r he now r e a liz e s
th at everyone b e lie v e s th a t he i s a homosexual. He t r i e s t o defend
h im self a g a in st the charge, but B ig Daddy r e fu se s to a ccep t h is
ex p la n a tio n , and so , in a ra g e, Brick in a d v erten tly says enough t o
make B ig Daddy r e a liz e th a t he has been lie d to and th a t he i s dying
o f can cer. Brick t r i e s to say he i s so rry , but B ig Daddy goes out
cu rsin g v io le n t ly as the a ct ends.
Act Three b egin s as th e other ch aracters e n te r . Doctor Baugh i s
now w ith them, and he t e l l s B ig M am a th e tr u th about B ig Daddy’ s
co n d itio n — th at he has term in al can cer. Big M ama becomes h y s te r ic a l
and i n s i s t s on going to B rick , whom she r e fe r s to a s her ’’only so n .”
Gooper, se e in g the way th a t th in g s are going, admits th a t he d is lik e s
B ig Daddy as much as B ig Daddy d is lik e s him and shows B rick , M argaret,
and Big Mama a dummy tr u ste e sh ip which he and another law yer have
drawn up in order "to p r o te c t th e b ig g e st e s ta te in th e D elta from
ir r e s p o n s ib ilit y .” Big Mama a s s a ils Gooper fo r h is in s e n s ib ilit y and
t e l l s Margaret th a t B ig Daddy’ s dream i s th a t she and Brick have a son.;
B ig Daddy then comes in , and Margaret announces th at she i s pregnant,
sa y in g th a t her pregnancy i s her birthday g i f t t o B ig Daddy. He
b e lie v e s her and le a v e s , sa y in g th a t he i s going up to the roof to look;
87
over h is lan d . A fter Big M am a fo llo w s her husband, Gooper and Mae
accuse M argaret o f ly in g and le a v e . L eft alone w ith B rick , Margaret
throws a l l o f h is liq u o r b o ttle s o f f the verandah and t e l l s him he
w i l l get no more u n t il he s le e p s w ith h er. The p la y ends as B rick
s i t s on th e bed and in d ic a te s th a t he w i l l comply, sa y in g , "I admire
you, M aggie.”
One o f the most obvious n egative a ttitu d e s in t h is p lo t i s th e
a ttitu d e th a t most people are greedy, e g o c e n tr ic , mendacious hypocrites^
The p lo t turns on greed, s e lf-c e n te r e d n e ss , and d e c e it . B rick deceives
h im self regarding h is r e la tio n sh ip w ith Skipper and thus causes a crisis;
in h is marriage in order to p ro tect h is ego. His a ctio n lea d s to
M argaret's ly in g about t h e ir r e la tio n sh ip fo r her own s e lf i s h ends.
Big Daddy must fin d out about h is co n d itio n by a ccid en t because
M argaret, Reverend Tooker, Gooper, and Mae keep i t from him and
a c tu a lly encourage him to b e lie v e he i s p h y sic a lly sound in order to
fu rth er th e ir own d e s ir e s .
The p lo t a lso turns on th e n eg a tiv e a ttitu d e th a t most peop le l i v e
in a world o f il l u s i o n s . I f Brick could fa c e th e tr u th about h im se lf,
he and Margaret would have a b e tte r chance o f s o lv in g th e ir em otional
problem s. I f B ig Daddy could fa c e the tr u th con fron tin g him, h is
r e la tio n sh ip w ith h is whole fa m ily and p a r tic u la r ly w ith B ig Mama,
would be more seren e, and he could come t o terms w ith r e a l i t y . I f Mae
and Gooper could fa c e the tru th about them selves they could rep la ce
th e ir v u lg a r ity w ith d ig n ity .
The s e t t in g o f Gat on a Hot Tin Roof both m itig a te s th e se n egative
a ttitu d e s and r e in fo r c e s them. In h is "Notes fo r the D esigner,"
88
W illiam s says:
I once saw a reproduction o f a faded photograph o f th e verandah
of Robert Louis S teven son 's home on th at Samoan Islan d where he
spent h is l a s t y e a r s, and th ere was a q u a lity o f ten d er lig h t on
weathered wood, such as porch fu rn itu re made o f bamboo and w ick er,
exposed to tr o p ic a l suns and tr o p ic a l r a in s, which came t o mind
when I thought about th e s e t f o r t h is p la y , b rin gin g a ls o to mind
the grace and com fort o f l i g h t , th e reassurance i t g iv e s , on a
la te and f a ir afternoon in summer, the way th at no m atter what,
even dread o f death, i s g en tly touched and soothed by i t . For
the s e t i s the background fo r a p la y th a t d ea ls w ith human
e x tr e m itie s o f em otion, and i t needs th a t so ftn e ss behind i t
(p . x i i i ) .
Thus th e s e t serv es t o m itig a te the pow erful em otions m anifested in
th e in te r p la y o f greed, egotism , m endacity, and cru eln ess which
b e d e v ils the ch a ra cters.
But th e s e t a ls o r e in fo r c e s th e n eg a tiv e a ttitu d e th a t most
people l i v e in a world o f il l u s i o n s . W illiam s w r ite s in "Notes fo r
the D esigner":
. . . a g a in st th e w a ll space between th e two huge double doors
upstage j T s / a monumental m on strosity p ec u lia r to our tim e s, a
huge con sole com bination o f radio-phonograph . . . T V s e t and
liq u o r ca b in et. . . . This p ie c e o f fu rn itu re (? '.), t h is mon
ument, i s a very com plete and compact l i t t l e sh rin e to v ir t u a lly
a l l th e com forts and illu s io n s behind which we hide from such
th in g s as the ch aracters in th e p la y are faced w ith (p . x i v ) •
T his con sole thus becomes a symbol p o in tin g out to u s th e n eg a tiv e
a ttitu d e th a t most people l i v e in a world o f ill u s i o n s .
F in a lly , W illiam s u ses two other sc e n ic d ev ices to r e in fo r c e the
em otional im pact caused by th e ch aracters' greed, egotism , m endacity,
cru eln ess, and f a ilu r e t o communicate. In Act Two, ju s t as the ten se
scene between B rick and Big Daddy i s b egin n in g, th ere i s seen through
the windows a b r illia n t d isp la y o f firew ork s s e t o f f to honor B ig Daddy
on h is b irth d ay. The b r i l l i a n t f la s h e s o f colored lig h t are sym bolic
89
of th e em otional p y ro tech n ics th a t a re going on in th e bedroom, and
they continue from tim e to tim e throughout th e scene*
Then, in Act Three, as th e greed, egotism , m endacity, and c ru e l
ness of th e c h a ra c te rs break in a f ie r c e em otional storm upon t h e i r
own heads, a n a tu ra l storm rages outside* When Gooper openly makes
known h is d is lik e f o r B rick and Big Daddy and then demands ”a square
d e a l” in a speech which he ends w ith the ominous words, ” 1 know how to
p ro te c t my own i n t e r e s t s ,” W illiam s notes in th e stag e d ire c tio n s ,
’ ’Rumble of d is ta n t thunder” (p . 178)* Then, as th e em otional storm
r is e s to a crescendo, i t i s sym bolized by the c rash in g of th u n d er, the
sound of wind r is in g , the dimming of lig h t s , and th e movement of storm
clouds a cro ss the sky, Ihe storm , lik e th e fire w o rk s, is used as a
symbol of the em otional storm s s e t o ff by th e greed, egotism , mendacity,
and c ru e ln e ss of th e c h a ra c te rs .
Thus we see th a t both th e p lo t and th e s e ttin g of Cat on a Hot
Tin Roof express neg ativ e a tt i tu d e s . But, as in the o th er p lay s
examined in t h i s d is s e r ta tio n , th e p ro fo u n d est negativism is found in
the c h a ra c te rs . An exam ination of them re v e a ls the a ttitu d e s noted
above—th a t m ost people are greedy, e g o c e n tric , mendacious h y p o crites
who liv e in a w orld of illu s io n s ; and a ls o th a t most people a re c ru e l
and crude and unable to communicate w ith one an o th e r.
T hat most people are greedy, e g o c e n tric , mendacious h y p o c rites
i s rev ealed by most of the c h a ra c te rs in v a rio u s d eg rees. Mae and
Gooper re v e a l t h e ir greed over and over a g a in . They have foregone
th e i r re g u la r summer v a c a tio n to spend th e tim e w ith Big Daddy, who
they know i s dying. Ihey have come, not out o f c o n sid e ra tio n f o r him,
90
b u t to tr y to im press him so th a t they w i l l get a la r g e r share of h is
e s t a t e . And to re in fo rc e th e ir claim they c o n tin u a lly h u rl innuendoes
concerning B rick’ s d rin k in g . Speaking of Big Daddy’ s can cer, M argaret
t e l l s Bricks
I recognized th e symptoms soon’s we got here l a s t sp rin g and I ’m
w illin ’ to b e t you th a t B rother Man /Gooper^ and h is w ife were
p r e tty sure of i t , to o . That more th an lik e ly e x p la in s why th e ir
u su a l summer m ig ratio n to the coolness of the G reat Smokies was
passed up t h i s summer in fa v o r o f—h u s tlin ’ down here ev’ ry
w h ip stitc h w ith t h e i r whole scream in’ t r ib e ’ . And why so many
a llu s io n s have been made to Rainbow H ill l a t e l y . You know what
Rainbow H ill is ? P lace th a t’ s famous fo r t r e a ti n ’ a lc o h o lic s
an’ dope fie n d s in th e m oviesl (p . 5)
Mae and Gooper’ s greed f i n a l l y reach es i t s clim ax in Act Three when
Gooper, seconded by h is w ife , tu rn s on h is f a th e r and b ro th e r and
demands what he c a lls ”a square d e a l” reg ard in g Big Daddy’ s e s ta te ,
even though Big Daddy i s s t i l l a liv e (p . 177).
T h eir h y p o c ritic a l m endacity i s a lso re v e a le d in t h i s scene, f o r
throughout th e p lay th ey have been unscrupulously attem p tin g to f l a t t e r
Big Daddy, e s p e c ia lly through t h e i r fiv e c h ild re n , whom th ey have
reh earsed in a gauche b irth d a y song which i s perform ed f o r him and to
which Big Daddy re a c ts w ith d isg u st (pp. 52, 9 2 ). Now i n t h is scene
i n Act Three Gooper i s fo rced to admit th a t he has no love f o r Big
Daddy b u t i s in te r e s te d only i n o b ta in in g as la rg e a share of the
in h e rita n c e as he can.
Big Daddy i s him self greedy and m endacious, though not so h y p o c rit
i c a l as h is son and d au g h te r-in -law . When B rick b rin g s up th e su b je c t
of m endacity, Big Daddy adm its th a t he p ra c tic e s i t , sayings
What do you know about t h i s m endacity thing? H e lli I could w rite
a book on i t ’ . . . . Think o f a l l th e l i e s I got to p u t up w ith’ . —
P re te n se s’ . Ain’ t th a t m endacity? Having to p rete n d s t u f f you
91
don11 th in k o r f e e l or have any id ea of? Having f o r in sta n c e
to a c t lik e I care f o r Big Mama1 , —I h a v e n 't been ab le to stand
th e s ig h t, sound, or sm ell of th a t woman f o r f o r ty y e ars nowV—
even when X la id h er'.—re g u la r as a p is to n . . . . P retend to love
th a t son of a b itc h of a Gooper and h is w ife Mae and those fiv e
same screech ers out th e re lik e p a rro ts in a ju n g le? Jesus*. Can’t
stand to look a t 1 em'.
Church’ . —i t bores th e Bejesus out of me b u t I goi—I go an*
s i t th e re and l i s t e n to th e f o o l p reach eri
C lubsl—E lks’ . Masons'. R o tary i— c ra p i . . .
I ’ve liv e d w ith m endacity’ . —Why c a n 't you liv e w ith i t ?
H e ll, you got to liv e w ith i t , t h e r e 's nothing e ls e to liv e w ith
except m endacity, i s th e re ? (p p . 92- 93)»
Big Daddy i s a lso greedy and he has a hunger f o r women. B efore he
kndws th a t he i s dying he e x u lts because he th in k s the e x p lo ra to ry
o p e ra tio n proved he does not have can cer. To Big M ama he says:
I q u it school a t te n y e a rs old and went to work lik e a n ig g er
i n the f i e l d s . And I ro se to be ov erseer of the Straw and
O ehello p la n ta tio n . And old Straw d ied and I was O ch ello 's
p a rtn e r and th e p la c e got b ig g er and b ig g er and b ig g e r and b ig g er
and bigger*. I did a l l th a t m yself w ith no goddam help from you,
and now you th in k you' re ju s t about to tak e o ver. W ell, I am
ju s t about to t e l l you t h a t you a re not ju s t about to take over
. . . I s th a t c le a r t o you, Ida? . . . I s th a t understood
com pletely? (p . 6l)
I n a d d itio n to hungering f o r land and power, Big Daddy a ls o i s greedy
where money i s concerned. To B rick he say s, speaking of th e s ta rv in g
Spanish c h ild re n he had seen on h is t r i p to Europe:
Y1 know I could feed th a t country? I got money enough to fe e d th a t
goddam country, b u t th e human anim al i s a s e l f is h b e a st and I
d o n 't reckon the money I passed out th e re to those howling
c h ild re n i n th e h i l l s around B arcelona would more th a n u p h o lster
one of th e c h a irs in t h i s room . . .
H e ll, I threw them money lik e you'd s c a tte r fe e d corn f o r
chickens, I threw money a t them ju s t to g e t r id of them long
enough to clim b back in to t h ’ car and—d riv e away. . . . (p . 71)
And a ls o to B rick , speaking o f h is sex u al greed, he says:
I ’ m going to p ic k me a choice one, I don’ t care how much she c o sts,
I ' l l sm other h e r in —minks*. Ha ha*. . . . I ' l l s t r i p h e r naked
and choke her w ith diamonds and sm other h e r w ith minks and hump
92
her from h e l l to b re a k fa s t (p . 80) ,
Thus Big Daddy, though he i s not so h y p o c ritic a l as most of th e o th er
c h a ra c te rs , i s shown to be greedy, e g o c e n tric , and mendacious*
M argaret and B rick a lso i l l u s t r a t e th e se weaknesses o f c h a ra c te r.
She i s greedy f o r money because h e r p a re n ts were p o o r, and she has
learn ed to d e te s t p o v e rty . She t e l l s Bricks
So th a t 1 s why I ’m lik e a c a t on a hot t i n ro o fi . . . You can be
young w ithout money but you can’ t be old w ithout i t . You've got
to be o ld w ith money because to be o ld w ith o u t i t i s j u s t to o
awful . . T T p . 3 8 ).
To g et money M argaret has become m endacious, though she i s n o t so
h y p o c ritic a l a s Mae and Gooper. She goes along w ith th e l i e th a t Big
Daddy i s not s e rio u s ly i l l (p . 53) > a id she p reten d s not to know what
B ric k 's b irth d a y g i f t to Big Daddy i s , though she bought i t h e rs e lf
because she knew th a t B rick would not b o th e r (p . $U). Then, when she
i s caught i n her l i e by Mae, who has found out th a t th e g i f t was
purchased hy M argaret, she b razen ly t r i e s to l i e her way out of i t
(p* 55)• F in a lly , she t e l l s her b ig g e s t l i e near th e end o f th e play
when she t e l l s Big Daddy t h a t she i s pregnant (p . 190).
B rick i s n o t greedy lik e h is w ife , b u t he i s s e lf-c e n te re d , and
he p r a c tic e s th e th in g he says he d e te s ts most—m endacity—to p ro te c t
h is ego. He l i e s to him self by re fu s in g to adm it th a t he had abnormal
sexual d e s ire s f o r h is frie n d S k ipper. When Big Daddy co n fro n ts him
w ith th e f a c t , B rick lo se s h is temper and attem pts to p u t th e blame
on M argaret, saying th a t she made Skipper b e lie v e th a t th e two of
them were homosexuals (p . 107)* But B ig Daddy i s not s a t is f ie d and
fo rc e s B rick to admit th a t he l e f t som ething o u t. B rick says to him:
93
'‘Yes',—I l e f t out a lo n g -d ista n c e c a l l which I had from S kipper, in
which he made a drunken co n fessio n to me and on which I hung up l u
(p« 108) Big Daddy r e p lie s :
Anyhow now’ *—we have tra c k e d down the l i e w ith which you’ re
d isg u ste d and which you are d rin k in g to k i l l your d is g u s t.w ith ,
B rick . You been p a ssin g th e buck. T his d isg u st w ith m endacity
i s d isg u st w ith y o u rs e lf. You’ . —dug th e grave of your frie n d
and kicked him in i t i —before you’ d face th e tr u th w ith him I
( p . 108)
And, f i n a l l y , B rick l i e s ag ain when he covers up f o r M argaret when
she comes under a tta c k from Gooper and Mae f o r ly in g to Big Daddy
about being pregnant (p . 1910*
And l a s t l y th e re i s Reverend Tooker, who i s so h y p o c ritic a l a
c h a ra c te r th a t he i s n o t a c h a ra c te r a t a l l b u t a c a r ic a tu r e .
W illiam s d e sc rib e s him as fo llo w s:
Suddenly Reverend Tooker appears i n th e g a lle ry d o o rs, h is head
s lig h tly , p la y fu lly , fa tu o u s ly cocked, w ith a p ra c tic e d clerg y
man’ s sm ile, s in c e re as a b i r d - c a ll blown on a h u n te r’ s w h is tle ,
th e liv in g embodiment of th e p io u s, co n ventional l i e (p . 100) .
Almost e v ery th in g Reverend Tooker says or does smacks of hypocrisy.
Supposedly a man o f God whose duty i t i s to m in is te r to th e s p i r i tu a l
needs of people, Reverend Tooker, lik e th e f a t Roman C ath o lic p r ie s ts
whom Big Daddy saw in Spain (p . 7 1 ), seams to be in te r e s te d only in
h is own m a te ria l needs. His co n v ersatio n i s m ainly given over t o t a l k
of memorials in the form of s ta in e d -g la s s windows, b ap tism al f o n ts ,
and p a rish -h o u ses (pp. k7«U8). Such ta lk , of course, makes him appear
a gauche f o o l, and he i s a ls o p o rtray e d as cowardly, f o r j u s t when he
i s most needed—r i g h t a f te r B ig Mama has been to ld th e tr u th about
Big Daddy’ s co n d itio n —he cravenly decides t o , in h is own words, ’’s lip
away” (p . 170).
Many of th e c h a ra c te rs in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof a ls o re v e a l th e
n eg ativ e a ttitu d e t h a t most people liv e i n a w orld of i ll u s i o n s . They
refu se to face the tr u th of lif e * Big Mama liv e s w ith the i ll u s i o n
th a t Big Daddy loves h e r, d e sp ite h is h ardness, even a f t e r he c ru e lly
renounces her (pp* 59-62), And Big Daddy liv e s w ith th e i l l u s i o n th a t
Big Mama does not love him u n t i l , ir o n ic a lly , in c a s tin g her o ff he
d isc o v ers h er lo v e, though a f t e r she proclaim s i t he can only m utter
to h im se lf, ’ ’ Wouldn’ t i t be funny i f th a t was tru e* • • •” (p* 62)
Big Daddy a ls o has an ill u s i o n about h is i l l n e s s , which B rick d isp e ls
w ith o u t q u ite meaning to (pp* 109- 112) ,
B rick him self s u ffe rs from h is r e f u s a l (o r i n a b ility ) to fac e
the t r u th about h is and Skipper1 s hom osexuality. And because he w ill
n o t o r cannot fac e t h i s t r u th , he a lie n a te s h is w ife and p a re n ts ,
M argaret made the m istake of b e lie v in g th a t she could d e stro y th e
re la tio n s h ip between B rick and Skipper and th u s draw her husband back
to h e r, but even though Skipper d ie d , she only succeeded i n em bittering!
2
B rick and in tu rn in g him even more a g a in st h e r.
A t h ir d negative a ttitu d e rev ealed by the c h a ra c te rs of Cat on
a Hot Tin Roof i s th a t most people a re crude and c ru e l. Almost a l l
o f the c h a ra c te rs are foul-m outhed. Big Mama uses th e ex p ressio n s
”h e ll” and "crap 1 1 (p . 181), Gooper uses such expressions as ’ ’goddam'1
o
In th e v e rsio n o f Act Three th a t W illiam s p r e f e r s , i t appears
th a t M argaret’ s hope of ever w inning B rick back i s a ls o an i llu s io n ,
sin c e he i s so em otionally p a raly zed th a t even a t th e p la y ’ s end he
has n o t given in to her p le a s f o r a ff e c tio n (p . 150). In th e Broadway
v e rs io n , however, th is em otional p a ra ly s is seems to be weakening so
t h a t B rick does consent t o make love to M argaret and th u s proves her
hopes to be v a lid (p . 197).
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(p . 177) and "God damn i t ” (p . 191), and B rick says "E rig Mae and
Gooper" (p . 10U), “ goddam” (p . 9 7 ), and “C h rist” (p . 101). But th e
two people w ith th e f o u le s t mouths are M argaret and Big Daddy.
M argaret speaks o f her "boobs" (p . 7 ), c a lls B rick "an ass-ach in g
P u ritan " when he say's, "That kind of t a l k i s d isg u stin g " (p . 7 ), and
uses such expressions as ”S o n -o f-a -b itc h " and "Goddam" (pp. 5 -6 ).
Big Daddy1s speech is punctuated by such e x p re ssio n s, u su a lly shouted,
a s , "crap" (p . U7), "Turn th e damn th in g o f f ’ ." (p . 1*9), "H ell" (p . 58) 5
"goddam" (pp. 59, 6 0 ), and " C h rist—damn—a l l - l y i n g sons o f—ly in g
b itc h e s" (p . 112). He a lso y e ll s "Rut th e goddam p reach er’ ." a t Big
Mama (p . 6 0 ), and, w hile q u estio n in g B rick i n fro n t of th e o th ers
about h is broken a n k le , he asks:
Was i t jumping o r humping th a t you were doing out th ere? What
were you doing out th e re a t th re e A. M., la y in ’ a woman on th a t
cin d er track ? . . . I a s t you, B rick , i f you was c u ttin ’ you’ s e l f
a p ie c e o’ poon-tang l a s t n ig h t on t h a t c in d e r track? I thought
maybe you were ch asin ’ poon-tang on th a t tra c k an’ trip p e d over
som ething i n th e h e a t o f th e chase—* s th a t i t ? (pp. 57- 58)
And i n a d d itio n to h is c u rsin g , sw earing, and v u lg a r e x p re ssio n s, Big
Daddy a ls o t e l l s the n o to rio u sly crude "elep h an t joke" to th e r e s t of
the fam ily (pp. 187- 188) .
The crude remarks of the c h a ra c te rs a re o fte n supplemented by
crude a c tio n s . The b o o rish Big Mama, who e n te rs rooms " lik e a charging
rhino" (p . U 9) and who has a " rio to u s voice" and a "booming laugh"
(p . 5 0 ), p u lls Reverend Tooker onto h e r lap as a p r a c tic a l jo k e . Mae
attem p ts to l i s t e n in on th e long co n v ersatio n between B rick and
Big Daddy (p . 66) , B rick h u rls h is c ru tc h a t M argaret (p . kh) > and
Gooper c ra s s ly t r i e s to fo rce Big Mama, j u s t a f t e r she has lea rn ed th a t
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Big Daddy has term in a l can cer, to l i s t e n to h is p la n f o r d iv id in g th e
e s ta te (p . 180) .
In a d d itio n to b e in g crude, th e c h a ra c te rs a re a ls o c ru e l. Even
D ix ie, one of th e daughters of Mae and Gooper, i s c ru e l. When
M argaret y e ll s a t her f o r f i r i n g h e r cap p i s t o l in th e room, D ix ie,
"w ith a precocious i n s t i n c t fo r th e c ru e le s t th in g ," say s, "Y ou're
je a lo u s ’ . —You* re ju s t je a lo u s because you c a n 't have b a b ie s!" Then
she s tic k s her tongue out a t M argaret and leav es (p . h5)» As f o r Mae
and M argaret, whenever th ey speak, sparks f l y . In Act One Mae rebukes
M argaret f o r lea v in g h er archery bow where th e c h ild re n can get i t ,
and M argaret r e t o r t s , mimicking Mae, " ' Nawmal rid -b lo o d e d c h ild re n
a ttr a c te d t ' weapons' ought t ' be tau g h t to keep t h e i r hands o ff th in g s
th a t d o n 't belong t o them" (p . 2 0 ). Mae re b u ffs her by spying,
"Maggie, honey, i f you had c h ild re n o f your own y o u 'd know how funry
th a t is " (p . 2 0 ). Mae then s t a r ts bragging about h e r c h ild re n —
B u ste r, Sonny, D ix ie, and T rix ie —and M argaret asks h e r, "Why did y’
give dawgs' names to a l l your k id d ies?" (p . 21) Then in Act Two they
do v e rb a l b a ttle again when M argaret gives Big Daddy h is b irth d a y
p re s e n t from B rick . M argaret a c ts s u rp rise d t h a t th e g i f t i s a
b e a u tif u l cashmere ro b e, b u t Mae has a c c id e n ta lly found o u t th a t
M argaret bought th e robe h e r s e lf and exposes h e r; whereupon M argaret
r e t o r t s , "Your ta le n ts a re w asted a s a housewife and m other, you r e a lly
ought to be w ith th e FBI . . (p . 5S0«
B rick a c ts c ru e lly toward M argaret by ig n o rin g h er o r by speaking
to h er in "a tone of p o lite ly feig n ed i n t e r e s t , masking in d iffe re n c e "
(p . 1 )• When he does pay a tte n tio n to h e r, i t i s to h u rl one of h is
97
cru tch es a t h e r (p . I 4 J 4) or t o t e l l h e r to tak e a lo v er (p , 2ii) • But
perhaps h is c ru e le s t a c t i s when, a f t e r M argaret t e l l s him i t is her
time by th e calendar to conceive, he rem arks, "But how in h e ll on
e a rth do you im agine—th a t you’ re going to have a c h ild by a man th a t
can’t stand you'?" (p , I|6)
Even Big Mama shows a stre a k of c ru e lty . During th e course o f a
d isc u ssio n w ith M argaret about B rick she sa y s, "Some sin g le men stop
d rin k in ’ when they g et m arried and o th e rs s t a r t i B rick never touched
liq u o r b efo re he—’ ," But she i s in te rru p te d by M a rg a re t's cry in g o u t,
"That* s n o t f a i r ’ ," Whereupon Big Mama goes on, " F a ir o r not f a i r I
want to ask you a q u e stio n , one q u estio n : D ’you make B rick happy in
bed?" Then she p o in ts to th e bed and goes on, "When a m arriage goes
on th e ro ck s, th e rocks are th e re , r ig h t th e re ’ ," (pp, 31-32) And Big
Mama i s a lso c ru e l toward Gooper when she re fu s e s to recognize him
as h er son by c a llin g B rick h er "only son" (p . 169)•
Big Daddy, who i s tr e a te d so c ra s s ly by Gooper, Mae, and
M argaret, i s , ir o n ic a lly , perhaps th e c ru e le s t o f a l l th e ch aracters*
Of h is trea tm e n t o f Big Mama, W illiam s says:
B ig Daddy i s famous f o r h is jokes a t Big Mama’ s expense, and
nobody laughs lo u d er a t these jokes th an Big Mama h e r s e lf , though
sometimes th e y ' re p r e tty c ru e l and Big Mama has to pick up or
fu s s w ith som ething to cover the h u rt th a t th e loud laugh doesn’ t
q u ite cover (p , it9) .
Being s e lf-c e n te re d , Big Daddy a ls o i n s i s t s on having h is own way, and
so he i s c o n sta n tly y e llin g a t th e o th er c h a ra c te rs and o rd erin g them
to do h is b id d in g . He d e te s ts Gooper and Mae and l e t s them know i t
(pp. 66, 8 0)j he in s u lts Reverend Tooker in f r o n t o f the o th ers
(p , £6) ; and he even b e ra te s B rick, who i s one of th e few people he
98
lik e s (pp* 108-109)*
F in a lly , Cat on a Hot Tin Roof re v e a ls th e n eg ativ e a ttitu d e ,
so common in modern l i t e r a t u r e , t h a t people cannot communicate.
W illiam s, in a p refa ce which he e n t i t l e s '’Person—to —P e rso n ,” say s,
speaking o f ’’em otions th a t s t i r * . * /o n e / deeply enough to demand
ex p ressio n ” :
I t i s a lo n e ly id e a , a lo n ely c o n d itio n , so t e r r i f y in g to th in k
of th a t we u s u a lly don’ t . And so we ta lk to each o th e r, w rite
and w ire each o th e r, c a l l each o th e r sh o rt and long d ista n c e
acro ss land and se a , c la sp hands w ith each o th er a t m eeting and
a t p a rtin g , f ig h t each o th e r and even d e stro y each o th e r because
of t h is always somewhat thw arted e f f o r t to break through w a lls
to each o th e r. As a c h a ra c te r in a p lay once s a id , ”We’ re a l l of
us sentenced to s o lita r y confinem ent in s id e our own sk in s”
(p . v i ) .
W illiam s’ s c h a ra c te rs bear o u t h is b e lie f s . Big M ama cannot communi
c a te her love to Big Daddy even when she exclaim s, ’’And I d id , I did
so much, I d id love you I —I even loved your h a te and your h ardness,
Big Daddy'.” f o r he can only counter by saying to h im se lf, "Wouldn* t
i t be funny i f th a t was tr u e . . . (p . 62)
But B rick i s th e c h a ra c te r who fin d s communication most d i f f i c u l t
and w ith whom i t i s most d i f f i c u l t to communicate. Both M argaret and
Big Daddy t r y to g e t through to him, b u t both la rg e ly f a i l in th e ir
a tte m p ts. M argaret t r i e s to t e l l him th a t because of h e r love f o r him
she understands th e re la tio n s h ip he had w ith S k ip p er, but she cannot
communicate and must exclaim , "Then you h a v e n 't been l is te n i n ’ , n o t
understood what I ’m spying'.'’ (p . l±2) Big Daddy a ls o f a i l s to coifmuni-
c a te w ith B rick in h is attem pt to make Brick fa c e r e a l i t y , and in h is
f r u s tr a tio n he b u rsts out w ith , "Why i s i t so damn hard f o r people to
t a l k ?” (p . 69) Nor can B rick make known h is anguish or need to be
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understood. To h is f a th e r he sa y s, " Communication i s —aw ful hard
between people . . ." (p . 7h)• In f a c t , had i t not been f o r th e
in flu e n ce of E lia Kazan, who d ire c te d the p la y , th e th ir d a c t would
have made even more ap p aren t W illia m s's b e lie f th a t people cannot
communicate. In "Note of E x p lan atio n ," which concerns th e reasons
f o r the re w ritin g o f Act Three, W illiam s say s, concerning B rick , " I
d o n 't b e lie v e t h a t a c o n v ersa tio n , however re v e la to ry , ev er e f f e c ts
so immediate a change in th e h e a rt or even conduct of a p erso n in
B rick’ s s t a te of s p i r i t u a l d is re p a ir" (p . 1$2). And even a t th e end
o f th e Broadway v e rsio n of Act Three B rick i s s t i l l groping. He has
reached out te n ta tiv e ly toward M argaret, but he i s s t i l l b e se t by
pow erful problems which c u t him o ff from h is fello w human b ein g s.
Thus we see th a t th e c h a ra c te rs of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, as
w e ll as the p lo t and th e s e ttin g , re v e a l th e negative a ttitu d e s o f
th e a u th o r. And, ta k in g the a ttitu d e s rev ealed by th e p l o t , s e ttin g ,
and c h a ra c te rs and e v a lu a tin g them as we have done, we see th a t th e
p lay stan d s much n e arer the p e s s im is tic end o f th e o p tim is tic -
p e s s im is tic continuum than th e o p tim is tic end.
CH A PTER VII
NEG ATIVE ATTITUDES IN T H E DIART O F A N N E FR A N K 1
The D iary of Anne Frank i s a tr a g ic p la y ; i t recounts a d esp erate
tw o-year p erio d In th e liv e s of e ig h t Jews who were fo rced in to h id in g
in .Amsterdam out of f e a r of the N azis, and i t ends w ith th e re v e la tio n
th a t a l l of them were d isco v ered , cap tu red , and se n t to Nazi concen
t r a tio n camps, from whence only one of them retu rn e d a liv e . Yet the
p lay i s a ls o in s p ir in g . This l a s t statem en t m ight lead one to ask ,
"How can such a tr a g ic sto ry be in sp irin g ? " The answer to t h is
q u estio n l i e s in th e ex p lan atio n of th e paradox which m otivates th e
a c tio n of th e p la y . This paradox i s contained in the id e a th a t e v il
can b rin g f o r th good, and such an a ttitu d e i s o p tim is tic ; hence th e re
i s l i t t l e negativism in The D iary o f Anne F rank.
T his i s not to say th a t th e c h a ra c te rs are p o rtray e d as f a u ltle s s .
They a re shown to possess th e shortcom ings one expects to fin d in
human b e in g s, e s p e c ia lly when they are su b je cted to th e kind of
abnormal l i f e to which th e e ig h t people in th e play were su b je c te d .
Yet the au th o rs of th e p la y , both through t h e i r p lo t and through th e ir
1By Frances Goodrich and A lbert H ackett (New Yorks Random House,
1956) • The p lay i s based upon the book, Anne Franks D iary of a Young
G irl, tr a n s . B. M. M oqyaart-Doubleday ( Garden C ity , New Yorks Doubleday
and Co., I n c ., 1956)—h e re a fte r c ite d as Anne Frank. A ll p a re n th e tic a l
page numbers r e f e r to th e e d itio n of th e p la y c ite d above.
100
101
c h a ra c te riz a tio n s , show th a t th e se people were a b le , f o r th e most p a r t,
to surmount t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s , and th a t one c h a ra c te r, Mr, Frank, was
forged by th e r e f in e r ’ s f i r e of th e group’ s predicam ent in to a s e lf le s s ,
able le a d e r, w hile another c h a ra c te r, Mr* Frank’ s daughter Anne, was
able to win a tremendous s p i r i t u a l v ic to ry over cynicism and d e sp a ir
i n s p ite of th e hideous circum stances which surrounded h e r. L et us
f i r s t review th e p lo t, in order th a t we may b e tte r see how the au th o rs
co n stru cted i t so as to re v e a l an o p tim is tic p o in t o f view .
The f i r s t scene of th e p lay i s r e a lly p a r t o f th e ep ilo g u e. I t
i s 19lt5; World War Two i s over, and Mr, Frank has re tu rn e d to th e
fa c to ry l o f t where he and h is fam ily and fo u r of th e ir frie n d s h id
from the Nazis fo r over two y e a rs . As he looks around, Miep, th e
Dutch g i r l who aided th e group du rin g t h e i r s ta y in th e l o f t , gives
him a notebook she found a f t e r the group had been a rre s te d by th e
p o lic e . I t i s th e d ia ry o f h is daughter Anne, He begins to read i t
aloud, but soon h is voice d ie s away and we hear the v o ice of Anne
read in g . As th e read in g c o n tin u es, th e stag e lig h ts dim.
When th e lig h ts a re turned up ag ain , we see the l o f t as i t looked
in 19U2. Mr. and M rs. Van Daan and t h e i r son, P e te r , who i s s ix te e n ,
are w a itin g f o r th e F ranks, P re se n tly th e Franks a re brought up by
Miep and Mr. K ra le r, th e man who owns the b u ild in g . The fam ily consists
of Mr. and M rs. Frank, M argot, who i s e ig h te e n , and Anne, who i s
th ir te e n . A fter Miep and Mr. K raler le a v e , Mr. Frank e x p lain s to th e
group th a t because of t h e i r p re c a rio u s s itu a tio n , they must be extreme^
c a u tio u s. During th e tim e between e ig h t o’ clock in th e morning and
s ix o’ clock in th e evening, they w i l l have to move only when necessary
102
and speak only in w h isp ers. Furtherm ore, they w i l l not be able to
draw any w ater or to flu s h th e t o i l e t . H r. Frank then a ssig n s rooms
and beds to th e members of the two fa m ilie s . To Anne, who he knows
w i l l be r e s t l e s s , he gives a d ia ry and h is fo u n ta in pen.
As th e months p ass, th e group s e t t l e s in to th e ro u tin e of th e ir
abnormal e x is te n c e . Mr. Frank in s tr u c ts P e te r, Anne, and M argot in
v a rio u s school s u b je c ts , and in th e ir spare tim e P e te r p la y s w ith h is
c a t and Anne te a se s P e te r and Mr; Van Daan. E v en tu ally c e r ta in in d i
v id u a ls begin to g e t on one another* s n erv es. Mr. and Mrs. Van Daan
q u a rre l o c c a sio n a lly , and M rs. Van Daan f l i r t s w ith Mr. Frank, who
ig n o res her a tte n tio n s . The f i r s t c r i s i s occurs when Mr. K raler asks
Mr. Frank i f th e group w i l l take in another person—a Jew ish d e n tis t
named D ussel. Mr, Van Daan o b je c ts , saying th a t th e re i s n o t enough
food as i t i s , b u t Mr. Frank i n s i s t s on ta k in g D ussel i n , and he i s
accepted and asked to share A nne's sm all bedroom. M argot, who had been
in th e room w ith Anne, moves in to th e main room w ith h e r p a re n ts .
Mr. D ussel i s extrem ely th a n k fu l a t f i r s t f o r being tak en in , but as
th e months go by, Anne* s high s p i r i t s annoy him and make him i r r i t a b l e .
Furtherm ore, he i s a lle r g ic to c a ts and i s bothered by P e te r ’ s p e t.
The s t r a in of liv in g such an abnormal l i f e a ls o begins to t e l l on
some of th e o th e rs . Anne, though she now gets along w e ll w ith P e te r
and even tak es a rom antic i n te r e s t in him, begins to s u f f e r from
nightm ares. Mr. Van Daan*s hunger d riv e s him to begin s te a lin g from
th e group* s meager food supply.
N ev erth eless, th e group shows a rem arkable a b i l i t y to liv e n e arly
normal liv e s under d e p re ssin g ly abnormal circum stances. They even
103
c e le b ra te Hanukkah, the Jew ish F e a st of th e D ed icatio n . I t i s during
the c e le b ra tio n th a t the second c r i s i s o ccu rs. As th ey f in is h singing
th e Hanukkah song they hear a c rash in the fa c to ry below. In h is haste
to tu rn o ff a heavy lamp, P e te r u p sets i t , and i t crash es to the f lo o r .
There i s s ile n c e , then th e sound from below of a person running. A fte r
the group* s t e r r o r has subsided, Mr. Frank goes down to in v e s tig a te .
He fin d s t h a t th e cash box and th e ra d io are gone. He a ls o fin d s th e
s t r e e t door wide open. Mr, D ussel says th a t th e in tru d e r was a th ie f
and p re d ic ts t h a t when he i s a rre s te d f o r some o th e r b u rg lary he w i l l
make a b arg ain w ith th e Germans and o ffe r to exchange inform ation
about th e h id in g p lace of some Jews f o r h is freedom .
But th e days and months continue to p a ss w ithout th e group’ s
h id in g p lace being d isco v ered . The Van Daans* q u a rre ls grow more
fre q u e n t, Mr. D ussel becomes more i r r i t a b l e , and Anne f e e ls more and
more stro n g ly th a t her mother does not understand h e r. But th e group,
ste a d ie d by th e equanim ity of Mr. Frank, continues to m aintain i t s
stran g e s o c ie ty . Then th e th ir d c r i s i s o ccu rs. Mr. K ra le r re p o rts
th a t one of h is workmen has asked about th e F ranks, asked i f th e re was
not a door going up to the l o f t , and then asked f o r a r a is e in pay.
Mr. K raler says t h a t he b e lie v e s t h a t th e workman was th e th ie f who
took th e ra d io and th e cash box and t h a t, as he probably heard the
noise made by th e f a l l e n lamp and has guessed th a t the l o f t i s
in h a b ite d by Jew s, he i s tr y in g to blackm ail them . A fter some d isc u s
sio n , th e group decides th a t the man should be o ffe re d h a lf of what he
has asked, sin ce h is re q u e st was f o r a nominal sum. The workman is
given the r a i s e , and he says nothing more about Mr. Frank.
ioa
The fo u rth c r i s i s occurs se v e ra l weeks l a t e r when M rs. Frank
catches Mr. Van Daan in th e a c t of s te a lin g food. M rs. Frank and
Mr. D ussel i n s i s t th a t th e Van Daans leave the h id in g p la c e , and the
group i s on th e verge of breaking up when Miep a rriv e s w ith th e news
th a t th e A llie d A m ies have landed on th e c o a s t of Normandy. This
news e la te s the group, and Mr. Van Daan i s fo rg iv e n .
But s e v e ra l weeks l a t e r , a f t e r th e group d isc o v ers th a t th e
workman who asked f o r a ra is e knows n o th in g , the end comes. The
Germans cap tu re th e th ie f who s to le th e ra d io and th e cash box. J u s t
as Mr. D ussel p re d ic te d , he o ffe rs them in fo rm atio n about th e h id in g
p lace of some Jews in re tu rn f o r h is freedom . The Germans accept th e
o f f e r , and th e group is cap tu red .
The l a s t scene of th e play com pletes th e e p ilo g u e. I t begins
where the f i r s t scene ended. Mr. Frank c lo ses Anne*s d ia ry and t e l l s
Miep and Mr. K raler th a t he i s the only su rv iv o r of th e group, th e
r e s t having p e rish e d in German c o n c e n tra tio n camps. He then opens
the d ia ry again and reads th e passage where Anne has w ritte n , "In sp ite
o f e v ery th in g , I s t i l l b e liev e th a t people are r e a lly good a t h e a rt* H
C losing th e d ia ry ag ain , Mr. Frank say s, "She p u ts me to shame," and
the c u rta in c lo s e s .
Now, th e p o in t may be made th a t th e p lo t had to be co n stru cted
as i t was because the p lay i s based on th e events in th e liv e s of
a c tu a l people as s e t down in the d ia ry k e p t by one of them, Anne Frank.
But Mr. Brooks A tkinson w rite s in h is "Foreword" to the play:
. . . d ia r ie s are d iffu s e and c h a o tic . . . /b u t 7 p lay s need
themes and form s. . . . Mr. and M rs. H ackett have had to c re a te
105
a p la y th a t tak e s an o b je c tiv e p o in t of view toward a group of
people of whom Anne i s only one. . . . Mr. and M rs. H ackett have
had to f in d concrete d evices fo r ex p la in in g t r a i t s of c h a ra c te r
th a t are only d escrib ed i n th e d ia ry . They have had to concentrates
in ta n g ib le movement in to s p e c ific dram atic a c ts . They have had
to p u t the d ia ry i n p e rsp e c tiv e a g a in st the events o f h is to ry
t h a t occurred a f t e r th e p o lic e ra id e d th e a t t i c in 19UU* Most
of a l l , th ey had to provide a beginning, middle and end (p . x ) .
In o th er words, th e au th o rs had to c re a te c h a ra c te rs and a p lo t from
th e e n tr ie s in Anne Frank* s d ia ry ; they could not m erely tran sp o se
in to dialogue and stag e d ire c tio n s what Anne rep o rte d in h e r d ia ry .
That th e y did c re a te c h a ra c te rs and a p lo t i s q u ite e v id en t to one who
has read Anne’ s d ia ry . Mr. D ussel, f o r example, i s a ty p e -c h a ra c te r
in the p la y —th e s e lf-c e n te re d , c h ild -lo a th in g b ach elo r—though in
a c tu a lity he was m arried b u t came to the l o f t alone because h is w ife
was out o f th e country when th e war began, and he could not leave to
2
jo in h e r. In h e r d ia ry , Anne makes no m ention of th e f ts of food by
Mr. Van Daan. Nor does she m ention any Hanukkah c e le b ra tio n . And
though she does m ention se v e ra l b u rg la rie s , no m ention i s made o f a
ra d io being s to le n . Nor i s anyone su re , to t h is day, how th e p o lic e
discovered th e group* s h id in g p la c e .^ T herefore, as Mr. A tkinson
p o in ts o u t, **the p lay i s v i r tu a ll y an independent work'* (p . x ).
Im p lic it in th e id ea of c re a tin g an ’ ’independent work,*’ th a t i s ,
a se rio u s work of l i t e r a t u r e , i s th e f a c t t h a t c e rta in a ttitu d e s must
Anne Frank, p . 60. ’’Dussel'* i s a f i c t i t i o u s name, as are the
names of the o th er persons m entioned in th e p ublished v e rsio n o f Anne* s
d ia ry . The holograph, of co u rse, c o n ta in s th e r e a l names. The
f i c t i t i o u s names were drawn up by Anne because she hoped someday to
p u b lis h her d ia ry . See E rn st Schnabel, Anne Frank: A P o r tr a it in
Courage, tr a n s . R ichard and C lara W inston (New York: H arcourt, Brace
and C o., 1958), p . 18.
^Schnabel, p . 11*8
106
a lso be re v e a le d . Thus, th e a ttitu d e s i n The D iary of Anne Frank,
though c e r ta in ly in flu e n ce d by the e n tr ie s in Anne* s d ia ry , a re the
a ttitu d e s of th e H ack etts. And th e se a ttitu d e s seem to be, f i r s t ,
th a t human b e in g s, though am bivalent, are more good than bad and more
hopeful than d e sp a irin g and, second, th a t out of e v il, good may come.
These are obviously o p tim is tic a tt i tu d e s .
This optimism of the authors i s seen in th e c o n stru c tio n o f th e
p l o t. The H acketts arrange the p lo t so th a t a f t e r th e most im portant
c ris e s th e c h a ra c te rs g e n e ra lly have something ta n g ib le to be o p tim is
t i c ab o u t. When Anne frig h te n s and u p sets everyone w ith one of her
w orst nightm ares and then d ish e a rte n s h e r m other by re fu sin g
Mrs. Frank1 s sympathy and c a llin g f o r Mr. Frank, th e authors follow th e
in c id e n t by having Anne re p o rt th a t th e a i r ra id s are g e ttin g worse
(which means th a t th e B r itis h and th e Americans a re gaining th e ascend
ancy over the Germans in th e a ir ) and th a t Miep has to ld them th a t th e
A llie s have landed in A frica (p p . 82 -8 3 ). When th e th ie f in te r r u p ts
the group1s Hanukkah c e le b ra tio n and plunges them a l l in to d e sp a ir,
Mr. Frank admonishes them to remember to be th an k fu l th a t they a re
a liv e and s a fe , and then he continues the se rv ic e and conducts i t to
i t s end, the r e s t of the group p a r tic ip a tin g and ta k in g hope and
in s p ir a tio n from th e c e le b ra tio n (pp. 1 0 7 ff.)« A fter Mr. K ra le r t e l l s
the group about the workman who asked f o r a pay r a i s e , and they become
discouraged, P e te r and Anne, drawn to g e th e r in t h is a d v e rsity because
of the nearness of t h e i r ages, f i n a l ly become good frie n d s and confide
i n one an o th er (pp. 1 2 8 f f .) . When Mr. Van Daan i s caught s te a lin g
food, and tem pers and th e p re ssu re s caused by p e rs o n a lity d iffe re n c e s
107
th re a te n to d e stro y th e group, Miep a rriv e s a t th e h e ig h t o f the
d isp u te and announces th a t the A llie d Armies have landed on the c o a st
o f Normandy (p p . 157-159). This news causes f i r s t ju b ila tio n , then
rem orse (on Mr. Van Daan1 s p a r t because he has acted so s e lf is h ly ,
and on th e p a rts of th e o th e rs because they have been so u n c h a rita b le ).
And f i n a l l y th e s p i r i t of b ro th e rly love p r e v a ils , and the group i s
kept from d is in te g ra tio n . Then, when the p o lic e break in to th e fa c to ry
below, and th e end comes f o r th e group, Mr. Frank i s made to say, "For
th e p a s t two y ears we have liv e d in f e a r . Now we can liv e in hope”
(p . 170). And A nne's l a s t a c t i s to w rite in her d ia ry th a t she hopes
Miep or Mr. K raler w i l l fin d the d ia ry and keep i t sa fe f o r h e r. The
l a s t word we hear h er say i s , "hope . . . " (p . 171). F in a lly , th e
au th o rs arrange the p lo t in such a way th a t the p lay ends w ith
Mr. Frank read in g from th e s e c tio n of the d ia ry where Anne w ro te, "In
spite of e v ery th in g , I s t i l l b e lie v e th a t people are r e a lly good a t
h e a r t," and th en say in g , "She p u ts me to shame" (p . 1 7 ^).
One may argue th a t th e p lo t was c o n stru cted th e way i t was, not
to re v e a l an o p tim is tic a t t i t u d e , b u t f o r dram atic rea so n s, and th e re
i s no doubt th a t th e autho rs gave a good d e al of thought to th e
dram atic im pact a scene would have as th e y w rote i t and r e la te d i t to
th e o th e r scenes. But j u s t as much dram atic impact of an o th er kind
might have been achieved by an author who had an iro n ic or c y n ic a l
a ttitu d e toward hum anity. Such an a u th o r, fo r example, m ight have
rev e rse d the in c id e n ts in th e scene where Mr. Van Daan i s discovered
s te a lin g food and Miep announces th e Normandy lan d in g s. Thus, a f te r
a g re a t e v en t, the p e ttin e s s and se lf-c e n te re d n e ss o f people would be
108
emphasized, r a th e r th an the quickness of people to fo rg iv e one another
in tim es of jo y . Or, a p e ssim is tic a u th o r, in s te a d of having Mr. Frank
read the passage from Anne’ s d ia ry quoted above, might have had him
read another passage j u s t a s d ram atic, b u t ex p ressiv e of q u ite a
d if f e r e n t p o in t of view about people—the one in which Anne d e c la re s:
Shere’ s in people sim ply an urge to d e stro y , an urge to k i l l , to
murder and ra g e , and u n t il a l l mankind, w ith o u t ex cep tio n , under
goes a g re a t change, wars w i l l be waged, e v ery th in g th a t has been
b u i l t up, c u ltiv a te d , and grown w i l l be destro y ed and d is fig u re d ,
a f t e r which mankind w i l l have to begin a l l over a g ain .^
The f a c t th a t the au th o rs ignored th is passage and emphasized th e one
about human goodness quoted above i t , and the f a c t t h a t they arranged
th e scenes as they d id , shows th a t th e y were in te re s te d in more than
dram atic im pact. They were a ls o in te re s te d in ex p ressin g th e a ttitu d e
th a t human b e in g s, though am bivalent, are more good than bad and more
hopeful than d e sp a irin g .
But th e authors are aware th a t not a l l people a re more good than
bad. To make the re a d e r (o r member o f th e audience) aware of t h i s
f a c t , they make use of sound e ff e c ts and have news brought in from th e
o u tsid e by Miep, Mr. K ra le r, and, when he jo in s the group, Mr. D ussel.
The t e r r o r and e v il of th e Nazi regime are rev ealed by such sounds as
the tram ping f e e t of s o ld ie r s (p . 1 5 ), M an autom obile coming to a
screech in g sto p in th e s t r e e t below” (p . 3 6 ), bombing p lan es and guns
f i r i n g a t them (p . 3 9 ), drunken s o ld ie rs sin g in g ”Li31 M arlene” (p . 7U)>
and f i n a l ly by ’ ’v io le n t pounding on a door below ,” German v o ices
y e llin g commands, th e tre a d of boots on s t a i r s , and the ’’thud of gun
^Anne Frank, p . 237.
109
b u tts on th e door” ( p . 170), But i n c o n tra s t to th e se sounds, th e
in h a b ita n ts of th e l o f t a ls o hear a few sounds which re v e a l th e
happier sid e of l i f e , such as the sound of bands (pp* 113 > 166) and
the sound of c h ild re n p lay in g in the s t r e e t s (p . 133)•
The t e r r o r and e v il of th e Nazi regime are a ls o rev ealed by those
who b rin g news from the o u tsid e . When Mr, D ussel becomes p a r t of the
group, Mr. Van Daan t r e a ts him co ld ly because to Van Daan, D ussel i s
only one more mouth to fe e d . To h is coldness D ussel r e p lie s :
You don’t r e a liz e what’ s going on. . . . R ight h ere in Amsterdam
every day hundreds of Jews d isa p p e a r. . . . They surround a
block and search house by house. C hildren come home from school
to fin d t h e i r p a re n ts gone. Hundreds are being deported . . .
people th a t you and I know . . . th e H a lle n ste in s . . . th e
W essels. . . . They g et th e ir c a ll-u p n o tic e . . . come to th e
Jew ish th e a tre on such and such a day and hour . . . b rin g only
what you can c arry in a rucksack. And i f you re fu se th e c a ll-u p
n o tic e , then they come and d rag you from your home and sh ip you
o ff to M authausen. The death campI (pp* 63-66)
L a te r, Mr. K raler b rin g s news of th e workman w anting more money
(p . 123). Miep must inform the group th a t th e people from whom she
obtained th e i l l e g a l r a tio n books have been a rr e s te d , and consequently
th e group w i l l not be ab le to purchase as much food as form erly
(p . 132). Then th e group i s to ld t h a t the A llie d in v asio n i s ’ ’bogged
down,” and th a t th e Gestapo have found th e ra d io th a t was s to le n
(p . 162). Then, a few weeks l a t e r , th e end comes when th e group i s
d isco v ered . Yet th ese th in g s sig n ify in g e v i l —th e sounds and th e bad
news—support th e paradox which i s th e theme of th e p la y , f o r th e se
rem inders of e v il draw th e in d iv id u a ls of the group in to a c lo s e r, more
s e l f le s s r e la tio n s h ip .
The a ttitu d e th a t human beings a re am bivalent but t h a t they are
110
more good th an bad and more hopeful than d e sp a irin g i s a lso rev ealed
by the c h a ra c te rs i n th is p la y . Before th e re a d e r can form h is own
opinion of th e c h a ra c te rs , most o f them are c h a ra c te riz e d f o r him by
the a u th o rs. Thus Mr. Prank i s d escrib ed a s , "a g e n tle , c u ltu re d
European in h is middle y e a rs” (p . k) • Miep i s d escrib ed as a g i r l
whose " a ttitu d e toward Mr. Frank i s p ro te c tiv e , com passionate" (p . k) •
Mrs. Frank i s sa id to be "a young m other, g e n tly b red, reserved"
(p . 10); Margot " b e a u tifu l, q u ie t, shy" (p . 10); and Anne "quick in
h er movements, in te r e s te d in e v ery th in g , m ercu rial in her emotions"
(p . l l ) . Mr. K raler i s d escrib ed a s, "dependable, kindly" (p . 10);
M rs. Van Daan a s, "a p r e tty woman in her e a rly f o r tie s " (p . 9 ). Only
Mr. Van Daan, h is son P e te r, and Mr. D ussel are not d escrib ed in
fr ie n d ly term s, and only D ussel i s d escrib ed in uncomplimentary term s,
being c a lle d "m eticulous" and "fin ic k y " (p . 6 l ) • Mr. Van Daan i s
m a tte r-o f-fa c tly d escrib ed as "a t a l l , p o rtly man i n h is la te f o r t i e s ,"
w hile P e te r i s sa id to be "a shy, awkward boy o f six te e n " (p . 9)«
I f we judge th e c h a ra c te rs i n the play on th e b a s is of th e ir
speech and a c tio n s , we fin d th a t o f th e ten c h a ra c te rs in the p la y ,
fo u r are p o rtray e d as b ein g more s e l f le s s than s e lf is h and more hopeful
than d e sp a irin g ; th re e a re p o rtray ed as w avering back and f o r th between
hope and d e sp a ir; and th re e are p o rtray e d as more s e lf is h th an s e lf le s s
and more d e sp a irin g th an h o p efu l.
Ttoo of th e s e lf le s s and hopeful c h a ra c te rs are not members of
th e group o f Jews i n h id in g . They are Miep and Mr. K ra le r, two Dutch
c itiz e n s who have o ffe re d to supply th e Jews w ith food, c lo th in g , and
o th er n e c e s s itie s , n o t f o r money but out of frie n d s h ip . They are
Ill
h e ro ic and s e l f le s s , though they re fu s e to adm it i t (p . 6 3 ). They
know th a t i f they are caught th e y w i l l s u ffe r th e same f a te as th e
Jews; y e t they p e r s i s t . Not only do they supply n e c e s s itie s ; they
a lso attem pt to keep the m orale of the Jews high by b rin g in g them news
and by doing th e l i t t l e th in g s th a t show th e Jews someone is in te re s te d
in th e ir w e lfa re . Miep, f o r example, bakes a cake f o r th e group, th en
both she and Mr. K raler re fu se p ie c e s so th a t th e Jews w i l l have more
f o r them selves (pp. llJh-115, 121). They a re both minor c h a ra c te rs , b u t
a l l th a t they do or sa y , and a l l th a t we hear of them, r e f l e c t s t h e i r
s e lf le s s n e s s .
W ithin th e group of Jews th e re are th re e s e lf is h and d e sp a irin g
c h a ra c te rs . They are D ussel and Mr. and M rs. Van Daan. D ussel i s
s e lf-c e n te re d and p e s s im is tic . When Anne awakens scream ing because
of a nightm are, D ussel, who sh ares the bedroom w ith h e r, th in k s only
o f him self and com plains th a t Anne keeps him awake (p . 76)• When
M rs. Van Daan say s, ” 1 thought someone was m urdering her,'* D ussel
r e t o r t s , ’’U n fo rtu n ately , ho” (p . 77). He a lso grows sh o rt-te n d e re d
w ith Anne whenever he f e e ls th a t she i s d e lib e ra te ly keeping him from
’’h is ’1 bedroom (pp. 133, 138) • His se lf-c e n te re d n e ss a ls o makes him
short-tem pered w ith the o th e rs . He claim s t h a t P e te r w i l l be respon
s ib le f o r the group’ s cap tu re by th e p o lic e because he knocked down a
lamp and rev ealed th e ir presence to the th ie f (pp. 105, 126). And
when Mr. Van Daan is discovered s te a lin g food, D ussel a tta c k s him
both p h y sic a lly and v e rb a lly . He t r i e s to stra n g le Van Daan w h ile
c a llin g him, ’ ’d ir ty th ie f • . . good-for-nothing . . . greedy, s e lf is h
. . • (p . 150) His pessim ism is rev ealed by h is h arp in g on the
112
danger th a t th e group i s i n , e s p e c ia lly a f t e r the t h ie f i s frig h te n e d
away during th e Hanukkah c e le b ra tio n (pp. 105-106).
The Van Daans, though not so p e s s im is tic as D ussel, are ju s t as
s e lf-c e n te re d . M rs. Van Daan lo se s her temper w ith Anne when th e g i r l
a c c id e n ta lly s p i l l s m ilk on M rs. Van Daan*s f u r coat (pp. 51-52). On
th re e occasions she q u a rre ls w ith D ussel, once when he accuses her of
c u ttin g a b ig g er p iece of cake f o r her husband than f o r anyone e ls e
(p . 116), once when she accuses him of ta k in g th e b ig g e st p o tato es
(p . 157), and again when D ussel a tta c k s her husband a f t e r Van Daan has
been caught s te a lin g food (p . V$h) . In each case she v io le n tly t r i e s
to p ro te c t h e r own i n t e r e s t s . She i s a lso v a in , as i s i l l u s t r a t e d
when she t e l l s Mr. Frank how a ttr a c tiv e and popular she was as a g i r l
(p . U3)• Both she and h er husband are s e l f is h , as i s rev ealed by
th e ir q u a rre ls . She t r i e s to keep h e r husband from s e llin g her f u r
c o a t, even though they need th e money and th e c o a t is of no use to her
w hile she i s in h id in g . He, on th e o th e r hand, wants to s e l l i t
p rim a rily to g e t money f o r c ig a re tte s (p . 120). L a te r they q u a rre l
when she accuses him of w ishing her dead, and he r e t o r t s th a t i t i s
her f a u l t th a t th ey did not escape to S w itzerland (p . 166). Mr.Van Daar.
a lso re v e a ls h is se lf-c e n te re d n e ss when he opposes th e adm ittance of
D ussel to the group (pp. 58-59), when he t r i e s to keep Margot from
g e ttin g a p iec e of cake (p . 115)> when he t r i e s t o e a t A nne's p iece
(p . 127), and when he i s caught s te a lin g food (p . Uj.9). He i s a lso
bad-tem pered and alm ost a tta c k s D ussel w ith a k n ife when the l a t t e r
su ggests th a t M rs. Van Daan always gives her husband more food than
she gives anyone e ls e (p . 117).
113
These th ree c h a ra c te rs are the weakest people in th e p la y . They
are capable of being hopeful and of perform ing s e lf le s s a c tio n s (we
are to ld , f o r example, t h a t Mr. Van Daan helped Mr. Frank get s ta r te d
in bu sin ess when th e l a t t e r came from Germany, p . 1 7 ), b u t when th ey
are su b je cted to th e p re ssu re s which weigh on a group liv in g so c lo s e ly
to g e th e r w ith so l i t t l e and in such f e a r , th e i r m oral f ib r e lo se s i t s
firm n ess and becomes fla b b y . Thus, such negativism as the p la y
c o n ta in s i s found p rim a rily in th e sounds and news from the o u tsid e
th a t suggest th e te r r o r of th e Nazi regime and in th e se th re e charac
te r s who are unable to contend su c c e ss fu lly w ith the s itu a tio n in which,
they f in d them selves.
Of th e rem aining c h a ra c te rs , M rs. Frank, M argot, and P e te r re v e a l
more hopefulness and s e lf le s s n e s s th a n th e th re e people d iscu ssed
above, b u t n o t so much as Anne or Mr. Frank, P e te r, a t f i r s t d isg usted
by Anne1 s ex h ib itio n ism , grows to lik e h e r, and when she rebukes th e
a d u lts f o r not having f a i t h i n th e fu tu re , P e te r warmly c o n g ra tu la te s
her (p . 128). A lso, when h is f a th e r d isp la y s h is s e lfis h n e s s and h is
mother h er v a n ity , P e te r i s h u m iliated (pp. h3, 65). But P e te r, despite
the way he c o n g ra tu la te s Anne, has l i t t l e hope. At th e beginning of
the p la y he expresses h is b itte r n e s s about th e s ta te of the w orld
(p . 22), and toward the end o f th e p lay he makes i t c le a r th a t two
y e a rs in h id in g have not changed h is fe e lin g s (p . 168)•
Mrs. Frank re v e a ls more hopefulness and s e lf le s s n e s s than
M rs. Van Daan but n o t so much as her husband. Mrs. Frank i s extrem ely
h o sp ita b le to th e Van Daans. For example, a f t e r Anne antagonizes
Mr. and Mrs. Van Daan, M rs. Frank rem inds h er daughter th a t th e
1 1 k I
Van Daans are th e ir g u ests and are to be shown "th e g re a te s t co u rtesy ”
(p . 5 2 ). Then she d isc o v ers Mr* Van Daan s te a lin g food, lo se s her
s e lf - c o n tr o l, and i n s i s t s th a t th e Van Daans leave th e h id in g p la c e
im m ediately. N o one, not even her husband, can p a c ify h e r, and only
Miep’ s a r r iv a l w ith th e news of th e Normandy landings saves the group
from disbanding (pp. 151 f f . ) . But as soon as she h ears th e news,
M rs. Frank i s f u l l of fo rg iv en e ss and hope.
Margot has a rem arkable equanim ity o f tem peram ent, b u t she lack s
Anne's buoyant s p i r i t . U nlike Anne, she is courteous to D ussel and
the Van Daans but never fa m ilia r (p . 5 2 ). She i s a ls o always thought
f u l of h er m other, as when she com forts M rs. Frank a f t e r Anne has
re je c te d h er and asked f o r her f a th e r (p . 7 9 ). But Margot is a lso
sometimes given to d e sp a ir, as when she says h o p e le ssly , "Sometimes
I w ish th e end would come . . . w hatever i t i s ” (p . 126).
Thus we see th a t th ese th re e c h a ra c te rs , though n o t so stro n g as
Anne or Mr. Frank, a re stro n g e r th an D ussel o r e ith e r of the Van Daans,
the main d is tin c tio n among the groups being t h a t Anne and h er fa th e r
in s p ir e and le a d ; Mrs. Frank, M argot, and P e te r e ith e r help th e group
o r do very l i t t l e to h in d er i t ; and D ussel and th e Van Daans do more
to d e stro y the s o lid a r ity of th e group th an th ey do to b u ild i t .
Anne and her f a th e r , though th ey are th e two f i n e s t people in the
group, are adm irable fo r d if f e r e n t re a so n s. Mr. Frank is adm irable
because he i s alm ost com pletely s e l f le s s ; Anne i s rem arkable because
she re fu s e s to d e sp air o r become b i t t e r . Mr, Frank always t r i e s to
p u t the b e s t c o n stru c tio n on e v ery th in g . He t e l l s Anne th a t liv in g in
th e l o f t w ill have c e rta in advantages f o r h e r; she w i l l n e ith e r have
115
to wear overshoes nor p r a c tic e on th e piano (p . 2 6 ). He i s a ls o
generous w ith the Van Daans, allow ing them to have the u p s ta irs
bedroom even though th is means th a t he and M rs, Frank must sle ep in
the main room which a lso serv es as the d in in g room, liv in g room, and
k itc h e n (pp. 16-17). When Mr. Van Daan has tro u b le in s tr u c tin g P e te r
in h is school s u b je c ts , Mr. Frank v o lu n te e rs to teach the boy (p . hS)•
A lso, when Mr, Van Daan i s caught s te a lin g food, Mr. Frank in te rc e d e s
f o r him by a ssu rin g th e r e s t of th e group th a t i t w i l l never happen
again (p . 152). And, of course, he i s th o u g h tfu l toward h is own
fa m ily . Knowing th a t Anne w ill be r e s t le s s in th e l o f t , he gives her
a d ia ry and h is fo u n ta in pen (pp. 2U-25). When Anne r e je c ts her mother,
Mr. Frank com forts h is w ife (p . 7 9 ). He a lso i s quick to ex p ress h is
g ra titu d e to Miep and Mr. K ra le r, saying to th e form er, H I know what
you went through, you and Mr. K ra le r. I ' l l remember i t as long as I
liv e 1 ' (p , 6 ). Nor does Mr. Frank su rren d er to d e s p a ir. Even when
the p o lic e have come fo r them, he can say to the r e s t of th e group,
"For th e p a s t two y e a rs we have liv e d in f e a r . Now we can liv e in
hope" (p . 170). Indeed, i t i s Mr. Frank who gives th e group the
s t a b i l i t y i t needs to liv e to g e th e r. He makes th e im portant d e c isio n s,
i n s tr u c ts th e young people i n th e ir school work, com forts th e weak and
d ish e a rte n e d , and lead s the group in such m o ra le -ra isin g a c t i v i t i e s as
the Hanukkah c e le b ra tio n . The paradox th a t e v il may b rin g f o r th good
i s rev ealed in th e c h a ra c te r of Mr. Frank. He was a r a th e r ord in ary
and unheroic man who, d riv en by the e v il i n th e world in to a new r o le ,
ro se to meet th e challenge and became a courageous, com passionate, and
able le a d e r.
116
The paradox i s a ls o rev e a le d in th e c h a ra c te r of Anne, who i s
fo rced by e v il circum stances over which she has no c o n tro l to grow up
q u ick ly , th in k s e rio u s ly about th e g re a t problems co n fro n tin g h er and
h er p eo p le, and make a judgment reg ard in g the w orld. Faced w ith many
a lte r n a tiv e s —pessim ism , cynicism , and d e sp a ir, to name s e v e ra l—she
summons up th e courage to choose to b e lie v e th a t “people a re really-
good a t h e a rt” (pp. 168, 1710. Not th a t Anne does not have f a u l t s .
She i s a m ischievous y o u n g ster, as i s rev ealed by the d e lig h t she takes
in te a s in g P e te r (pp. 30, 36, 38) and Mr. Van Daan (p . 1*9) • She shows
fla s h e s of temper (pp. 53> 127) , and she wounds h e r m other by
disobeying her (p . 136) and by say in g th a t she loves only h er fa th e r
(p . 8 l ) . But near th e end of the p lay she asks her m other’ s fo rg iv e
ness (p . 161), and she h e rs e lf i s fo rg iv in g enough to help Mr. Van Daar,
to the bathroom a f t e r he has been caught s te a lin g food (p . l£ 2 ). Her
g e n ero sity i s shown when she p re s e n ts each member of the group w ith a
Hanukkah p re s e n t, most of which she went to g re a t le n g th s to make or
o b tain (pp. 8 8 f f .) . But th e b r ig h te s t th in g about her i s h e r optimism
—her a b il i ty to see th e b e st in th in g s . When she and P e te r are
ta lk in g about the yellow s ta r s which th e Jews have been made to wear
and P e te r i s speaking of burning h is , Anne sa y s, “ I t ’ s funny, I can’ t
throw mine away. . . . I t i s th e S ta r of David, i s n 't i t ? ” (p . 22)
And, of course, she a ls o se es the b e s t in peo p le, so th a t i t i s
a p p ro p ria te th a t her l a s t word should be ’ ’hope” (p . 171).
In the f i n a l a n a ly s is , i t is the p o rtra y a l of Anne and h e r fa th e r
which makes the p lay o p tim is tic . T hat the group survived i n ta c t and
w ith i t s sa n ity u n t i l th e end came is rem arkable, b u t i t i s do u b tfu l
117
th a t th e group could have gone on w ith o u t th e le a d e rsh ip o f Mr. Frank.
That some of the o th e r members of th e group sometimes rev e ale d s e lf le s s
a ttitu d e s i s tr u e , but th ese in sta n c e s are counterbalanced by tim es
when s e lfis h n e s s p re v a ile d . That Miep and Mr. K raler showed fla w le ss
courage and s e lfle s s n e s s i s tru e , but th ey are very minor c h a ra c te rs
in the p la y . I t i s Anne and h e r fa th e r whose c h a ra c te rs redeem th e
h o rro r and e v il of th a t in san e, Nazi-dom inated w orld beyond th e door
of the l o f t j i t i s i n them th a t the paradox, "o u t o f e v il , good may
come,-” i s seen to o p e ra te .
W e have shown how Mr. Frank1 s s e lf le s s n e s s , in te g r ity , and courage
su sta in e d the group. I t rem ains to show how he re a c te d a t th e end of
the p la y to the knowledge th a t every o th e r person in the group died in
German death-cam ps. I n th e f i r s t scene o f the p lay , which tak es p lace
in 19h^> Mr. Frank t e l l s Miep, " I ’m a b i t t e r old man" (p . £) . Ihen he
begins to read Anne1 s d ia ry , and when he c lo se s i t , we have reached
th e l a s t scene in th e p la y . He i s a changed man. The stag e d ire c tio n s
t e l l u s, "He i s calm now, His b itte r n e s s i s gone" (p . 172). The memory
of Anne has re s to re d h is f a i t h I n hum anity, and now he rea d s again th e
se c tio n where Anne has w ritte n , " In s p ite of ev ery th in g , I s t i l l be
lie v e th a t people a re r e a lly good a t h e a rt" (p . T7h)• Then he sa y s,
"She p u ts me to shame," f o r he now f e e ls th a t Anne i s r ig h t and th a t
h is b itte r n e s s has been wrong. This i s c e rta in ly an o p tim istic ending.
I have known only one Jew who su ffe re d p e rse c u tio n a t th e hands
of the N azis. He d id not experience th e h o rro rs of a c o n ce n tra tio n
camp because he managed to f le e Germany b efore th e mass a r r e s ts began,
but he d id lo se a l l of h is p ro p e rty and most of h is money and c h a tte ls ,
118
and he had been, lik e Mr. F rank, a r a th e r w ealthy man. When I knew
him, a few y e ars a f t e r th e w ar, he was an im poverished, b i t t e r old
man w orking a t th e m enial job o f chinaware packer in a departm ent
s to r e . But he had managed to save him self and h is fam ily from th e gas
chambers. His f a v o rite comment, u tte re d on many occasions in answer
to many kinds of q u estio n s from me was, "A lles b e sch issen , Tedj a lle s
beschissenl*1 Mr. Frank undoubtedly su ffe re d more and was deprived of
more than was th e man I knew, and so i t i s rem arkable th a t he i s shown,
a f t e r rea d in g Anne* s d e c la ra tio n o f f a i t h in hum anity, as fe e lin g
g u ilty about h is form er b itte r n e s s . He has become a f in e r human being,
and t h i s i s the good th a t has come from the unthinkable e v il th a t
engulfed him, h is fam ily , and m illio n s o f people from a l l over the
w orld. I t may seem a l i t t l e th in g , a minute th in g , t h is change i n a
s in g le , already-good man, but who can say how fa r-re a c h in g th e r e s u lts
of th is change may be? Perhaps such a change, m u ltip lie d many
thousands of tim es, i s th e co rn ersto n e of th e new n a tio n o f I s r a e l .
Thus, th is p la y , even though i t d e a ls w ith some of th e most
u n fo rtu n ate members of an u n fo rtu n ate ra c e , and w ith one o f th e most
e v il p e rio d s in human h is to r y , i s p a ra d o x ic a lly o p tim is tic r a th e r
than p e s s im is tic , because i t shows th a t even from m isfortune and e v il ,
good can come. And th is f a c t makes th e p lay not only o p tim is tic , but
in s p ir in g , a ls o .
CH A PTER V III
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES IN LO N G D A Y ' S JOURNEY INTO NIGHT1
Long Day1 s Journey in to N ight, lik e A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire ,
Death of a Salesman, The S h rik e, o r Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, i s a p la y
made somber by the neg ativ e a ttitu d e s found in i t s p lo t, s e ttin g , and
c h a ra c te rs . I t , lik e them, is n e arer the p e s s im is tic th a n th e o p tim is
t i c end of th e o p tim is tic -p e s s im is tic continuum.
There a re two im p o rtan t n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s in Long Day1 s Journey
in to N ights ( l ) people a re f e a r f u lj and (2) t h e ir f e a r d riv e s them
to d e sp a ir and is o la tio n . These neg ativ e a ttitu d e s a re conveyed by
p l o t, s e ttin g , and c h a ra c te r. W e s h a ll begin w ith the p lo t.
The a c tio n of O' N e ill’ s p lay tak es p lac e w e ll w ith in the span of
tw enty-four hours; the f i r s t a c t begins " around 8:30n on an August
morning (pp. 11-12), and th e l a s t a c t begins "around m idnight"
(p . 125) of the same day and l a s t s le s s than an hour. The e n tir e
a c tio n tak es p lace in th e liv in g room of the Tyrone summer home. There
are only fiv e c h a ra c te rs in the p la y . They are C athleen, th e maid,
whose p a r t i s in s ig n if ic a n t, and th e fo u r members of th e Tyrone fam ily:
Jam es, a popular and w ealthy a c to r, who i s s ix ty - f iv e ; Mary, h is w ife,
who i s f i f ty - f o u r ; t h e ir son Jam ie, who i s th ir ty - th r e e ; and th e ir son
Edmund, who i s tw e n ty -th re e .
■ ^ B y Eugene O ’ N e ill (New Haven: Yale U n iv e rsity , 1956).
119
120
During th e course of the p la y we see th e Tyrone fam ily go from
hope and companionship to d e sp air and is o la tio n from one another*
Mary has re c e n tly re tu rn e d from a sanatorium f o r n a rc o tic a d d ic ts , and
h e r husband and sons are doing th e ir b e s t to h elp her to t r y to a d ju st
to a normal fam ily l i f e and to avoid using dru g s. They hope fo r th e
b e s t, but s e c re tly they a re a fra id th a t she w i l l succumb to th e t r e
mendous tem ptation to begin ta k in g drugs a g a in . As a r e s u l t of t h i s
f e a r , the fam ily begin to get on one another* s nerves* Mary and the
boys a tta c k lyrone f o r h is m is e rlin e s s , and h e, i n tu rn , a tta c k s th e
boys f o r making fu n of him and accusing him of m is e rlin e s s . He accuses
Jam ie of being a c y n ic a l drunkard and whoremonger who cannot earn h is
own liv in g , and he r e v ile s Edmund f o r rea d in g p e s s im is tic au th o rs such
as Schopenhauer, N ietzsche, B audelaire, Swinburne, and Dowson.
F u rth e r com plicating m atters i s th e fa m ily 's su sp icio n th a t
Edmund has c o n tra c te d tu b e rc u lo s is . Edmund, h is f a th e r , and Jam ie are
try in g to keep Mary from w orrying about i t , and she t r i e s to make
h e rs e lf b e lie v e th a t Edmund has only a s lig h t summer c o ld . She i s
d istu rb e d by her su sp ic io n , however, and her nervousness i s fu r th e r
in cre ased by the knowledge th a t Tyrone i s going to send Edmund to
Doctor Hardy, an incom petent. The r e s t o f th e fam ily know th a t Mary
s le p t in th e spare bedroom most o f the n ig h t, and th e y recognize th is
a c t as a sig n th a t she i s about to begin ta k in g drugs a g ain . Thus when
Tyrone and Jam ie go out to do some work i n th e y ard and Mary t e l l s
Edmund th a t she would lik e to go u p s ta irs to ‘ ’l i e down u n t i l lunch
tim e ," Edmund i s re lu c ta n t to l e t h e r go b u t a ls o re lu c ta n t to stop
h e r, because he knows th a t any sig n of d is tr u s t w ill in c re a se her
_ _ _ _ _ (
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a n x ie ty and h asten h er re tu rn to drugs, and so he goes o u ts id e , leav in g
Mary to make the choice of w hether o r not to go u p s ta ir s .
Scene One of Act Two ta k e s p lace '’around q u a rte r to one" (p . 5l)«
Edmund i s by him self in th e liv in g room, Mary having decided to go
u p s ta ir s . P re se n tly Jam ie comes in and, fin d in g out about Mary,
b e ra te s Edmund f o r l e t t in g h er go u p s ta ir s . But as th e y arg u e, Mary
appears, seem ingly norm al except th a t "h er eyes a re b rig h te r" and she
a c ts "a l i t t l e withdrawn" (p . 58). Jam ie i s th e f i r s t to n o tic e the
change in h er and recognize i t as a sig n th a t she has tak en d ru g s.
Edmund th en r e a liz e s what has happened, and when Tyrone comes in he,
I
to o , becomes aware of what Mary has done. D is illu s io n e d , th e th re e
men begin d rin k in g , though Jam ie and Tyrone h a lf-h e a rte d ly tr y to keep
Edmund from having any w hiskey. When Mary fin d s o u t th a t Jam ie and
Tyrone have l e t Edmund d rin k , she b e ra te s them and w hile doing so
re v e a ls th a t she su sp ects th a t Edmund has tu b e rc u lo s is . Tyrone r e to r ts
th a t he has been "a God-damned fo o l" to b eliev e in her and th en pours
him self a b ig d rin k . Mary says she does not know what he means and
stubbornly re fu se s to adm it th a t she has begun to use n a rc o tic s ag ain .
Scene Two of Act Two tak es p la c e "about a h a lf hour la te r " (p . 71)..
As th e fam ily come in from lunch, Tyrone i s seen to be weary and
re sig n e d , Jamie d e fe n siv e ly c y n ic a l, Edmund h e a rts ic k as w e ll as
p h y s ic a lly i l l , and Mary " t e r r i b ly nervous" (p . 7 1). Tyrone telephones
Doctor Hardy and makes a fo u r o' clock appointm ent f o r Edmund. This
a c tio n b rin g s a v io le n t tir a d e a g a in st d o cto rs from Mary, who th en says
q u ite calm ly th a t she i s going u p s ta irs and leav es the room. Jamie
says c y n ic a lly th a t th e re i s no cure f o r n a rc o tic a d d ic ts , and Edmund
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rebukes him. Tyrone v e rb a lly a tta c k s them b o th , they r e t o r t , and th e
th re e of them argue u n t i l Edmund lea v es the room. Tyrone th en t e l l s
Jamie th a t Doctor Hardy has confirm ed as c o rre c t the su sp ic io n th a t
Edmund has tu b e rc u lo s is . Jamie th e n i n s i s t s t h a t h is f a th e r send
Edmund to a good sanatorium , and th ey argue u n t il Mary re tu rn s . Jamie
then le a v e s, and Tyrone and Mary argue about h is m ise rlin e ss u n t i l
Mary begins to rem in isce . Edmund th en re tu rn s d ressed fo r h is v i s i t
to the d o c to r. When Tyrone gives Edmund te n d o lla rs another argument
ensues because Edmund c y n ic a lly rem arks th a t such g e n ero sity must mean
th a t h is f a th e r expects him to d ie , and Mary rebukes her son fo r such
m orbidness. Tyrone then le a v e s. Edmund urges h is mother to t r y to
r e f r a in from u sin g drugs, but she re fu se s to adm it th a t she has been
using them and urges him to s ta y home w ith her in ste a d of going to
the d o c to r. Edmund ex p lain s th a t he must go and le a v e s . Mary, l e f t
alone, adm its to h e rs e lf th a t she i s glad her fam ily a re gone but th en
i s overcome by a f e e lin g of lo n e lin e s s .
Act Three tak es p lace ’ ’around h a lf p a s t s ix in the evening”
(p . 9 7 ). Mary i s ta lk in g w ith C athleen, th e m aid, and i t i s apparent
th a t she has taken more d ru g s. She i s tr e a tin g Cathleen to Tyrone’ s
bourbon in o rd er to keep th e g i r l w ith her to help overcome her
lo n e lin e s s . As Mary ta lk s , she s lip s back in to the p a s t ag ain , b o rin g
C athleen so th a t she f i n a l ly goes back to th e k itc h e n . Alone, Mary
w ishes f o r her l o s t re lig io u s f a i t h . Tyrone and Edmund th en re tu rn
home. They both have been d rin k in g and now begin again when they see
th a t Mary has taken more n a rc o tic s . Her mind d r i f t s back in to the
p a s t a g ain , and she begins speaking about h er convent schooling and th e
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e a rly days of h er and Tyrone* s m arriage* This to p ic b rin g s her back
to h is d rin k in g and m is e rlin e ss , and th e y q u a rre l a g ain . Tyrone th en
leav es to get more w hiskey, and Edmund t e l l s h is mother th a t he has
tu b e rc u lo s is and must go to a sanatorium . She re fu s e s to b e liev e him,
saying th a t Doctor Hardy i s a " ly in g old quack" (p . 118). They quarrel,
and he c a lls h er a "dope fien d " (p . 120). Then, seein g th a t he has
h u rt h e r, he asks her fo rg iv e n e ss and le a v e s. Tyrone re tu rn s w ith th e
whiskey and t r i e s to com fort h is w ife , b u t when she says she does not
want any supper, he accuses her of w anting to go u p s ta irs to tak e more
n a rc o tic s . She denies h is charge and t e l l s him he has drunk to o much.
Act Four tak e s place "around m idnight" (p . 125). Tyrone i s
s i t t i n g in th e liv in g room p lay in g s o l i t a i r e and i s drunk. P re se n tly
Edmund comes in from h is walk in the fo g , a lso drunk. He bumps h is
knee in th e dark h a ll and accuses Tyrone of being m iserly about u sin g
e le c t r i c l ig h t s . They arg u e, then begin d rin k in g to g e th e r, and Edmund
begins to quote p e s s im is tic poems by Dowson and B a u d elaire. He accuses
h is f a th e r of being resp o n sib le f o r h is mother* s drug a d d ic tio n , and
then upbraids Tyrone f o r w anting to send him to a m ediocre s ta te
i n s t it u t io n f o r treatm en t of h is tu b e rc u lo s is in ste a d of sending him
to a good, but expensive, p riv a te i n s t i t u t i o n . They q u a rre l, and
Tyrone ag rees to l e t Edmund go to a b e tte r , b u t s t i l l not f i r s t - r a t e ,
sanatorium . Tyrone th en begins to rem inisce about th e hard l i f e he
had as a boy and uses t h is p a s t to j u s t i f y h is fe a r of p o v e rty . Edmund
in tu rn t e l l s h is f a th e r about th e moments of e x a lta tio n in h is l i f e ,
a l l of them connected w ith th e se a . P re se n tly he and h is f a th e r hear
Jam ie, who comes in very drunk. Tyrone leav es r a th e r than face him.
1 2 U
Jamie t e l l s Edmund about h is evening, which he spent in a house of
p r o s titu tio n . He th en confesses to Edmund th a t he has hated him ever
sin ce Edmund’s b ir th and d e lib e r a te ly made, as he p u ts i t , a ’ ’bum”
out of Edmund so th a t he would not succeed in l i f e and make Jam ie look
|
lik e a f a i l u r e . Jam ie then c o lla p s e s , and Tyrone comes back in to th e
room and t e l l s Edmund he heard what Jamie sa id to him. Jam ie awakens
b r ie f ly and b a its h is f a th e r , then c o lla p se s a g ain . As he does, th e
sound o f piano music ccmes from th e fro n t p a r lo r . P re se n tly Mary comes
i n . She i s c a rry in g her wedding d ress and has obviously taken a la rg e
q u a n tity of n a rc o tic s . She begins mumbling about th e p a s t a g ain , and
Jamie begins r e c itin g from Sw inburne's "A L eav e-tak in g ,” but Mary does
not respond? she continues to mumble about th e p a s t to her drunken
fam ily , and th e p lay ends as she t e l l s of how her dreams of becoming
a nun were ended by her m arriage to James Tyrone.
That people are f e a r f u l and th a t t h e i r fe a r d riv e s them to despair
and is o la tio n i s apparent from t h i s b r ie f summary of the p l o t. I t i s
iro n ic th a t T yrone's f e a r of lo s in g h is s e c u rity i s th e th in g th a t
helps cause the f e a rs of th e o th er members of th e fam ily and lead s to
t h e i r lo s s of s e c u rity , fe e lin g s of d e sp a ir, and is o la tio n from one
an o th e r. Because Tyrone i s a fra id of re v e rtin g to th e kind o f p o v erty
he knew as a boy, he becomes m ise rly . Because he becomes m iserly he
re fu s e s to c a l l a competent (and th u s , to h is mind, expensive)
p h y sic ia n when h is w ife becomes i l l a f te r Edmund's b i r th . As a r e s u lt
of being tr e a te d by an incom petent d o c to r, Mary becomes a d d icted to
drugs and comes to h ate and f e a r d o c to rs. She a lso comes to f e a r l i f e
i t s e l f , w ith i t s t e r r i b l e p a in and lo n g in g s, and so she withdraws in to
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the p a s t w ith th e help of n a rc o tic s , thus is o la tin g h e rs e lf from her
fam ily . Jam ie, because he i s in te llig e n t and s e n s itiv e , has been made
in to a cynic by h is f a th e r ’ s c a llo u s s a c r if ic e of h is m other’s health*
His cynicism f a i l s to k i l l h is s e n s itiv e n e s s , and so he t r i e s to take
refuge in drunkenness and lech ero u sn ess. Once s ta r te d down t h is p a th ,
he cannot sto p , and h is momentum plunges him in to one f a i l u r e a f te r
another u n t il he must depend f o r h is liv e lih o o d on h is hated f a th e r .
His cynicism covers h is d e sp a ir, b u t i t cannot cover h is d esp erate
f e a r th a t he w ill be a companionless f a i l u r e . He th e re fo re becomes
je a lo u s of h is b ro th e r, Edmund, and d e lib e ra te ly e n tic e s him along
th e same p a th he has tak en so th a t he w ill have company in f a i l u r e .
Edmund i s in n o cen tly le d by Jam ie in to a world of d e sp a ir and debauch
ery u n t il i t breaks h is h e a lth and he takes refuge from th e r e a l
world in the decadent beauty and f i n de s ie c le w orld-w eariness found
in so much of th e l i t e r a t u r e produced in the c lo sin g y e a rs of the
n in e te e n th cen tu ry .
The p lay begins on a note of hope when Mary and Tyrone e n te r
sm ilin g and happy, he w ith h is arm around h e r w a is t. Then th e boys
come i n , and th ey , to o , a re f u l l of hope. But soon we see th a t th e
fam ily are h o p elessly entangled in th e wreckage of th e ir liv e s and
w i l l never be able to craw l o u t o f i t . lyrone’ s f a ilu r e to overcome
h is f e a r of p o verty, even w hile earn in g $1 * 0,000 a y e a r, has had the
same e f f e c t on the fam ily as p u llin g th e keystone would have on an
arehj the whole s tru c tu re of fam ily l i f e has c o llap sed , so th a t when
th e p lay ends, th e whole fam ily have l o s t hope and have f e a r f u lly
withdrawn from r e a l i t y and from one an o th e r. Mary i s very much under
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th e in flu e n ce of drugs and i s ram bling about the p a s t. She has
drugged h e rs e lf so h e av ily th a t Tyrone i s moved to say , " I 1 ve never
known h e r to drown h e rs e lf in i t as deep as t h i s ” (p , 17l±). And then*
having no b e tte r s o lu tio n to the fam ily 1 s problem s, he pours him self
a d rin k , and h is two sons do the same. Thus th e play ends w ith th e
th ree men drunk and Mary i n a n a rc o tic stu p o r.
The s e ttin g of Long Day* s Journey in to Night a lso re v e a ls th e
n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s th a t people a re f e a r f u l and th a t th is f e a r d riv es
them to d e sp a ir and is o la tio n . The f e a r , d e s p a ir, and is o la tio n which
encompass th e c h a ra c te rs and shut them o ff not only from the w orld
but a lso from one another are sym bolized by the n ig h t and th e fo g , and
th e coming of the fog i s sym bolized by the foghorn. When th e p lay
begins i t i s 8s30 A.M., and O ’ N e ill t e l l s us th a t ’ ’Sunshine comes
through the windows a t r i g h t ” (p . 1 2 ). T his morning f u l l of sunshine
i s a ls o , s ig n if ic a n tly , th e tim e when the members of th e fam ily are
h a p p ie st. Tyrone t e l l s h is w ife how happy she has made him by a c tin g
lik e her old s e lf again and then say s, ”So keep up th e good work,
M ary.” She answ ers, ” 1 w i l l, d e a r,” goes to th e window, looks o u t,
and say s, ’ ’Thank heavens, th e fog i s gone” (p . 1 7 ). And so i t i s , from
t h e i r liv e s , to o , i n t h is happy hour. But i t i s gone only b r i e f l y .
Before th e a c t i s over, f e a r and d e sp a ir have caused b i t t e r q u a rre ls
among the members o f th e fam ily , and t h e i r happiness i s beginning to
fad e lik e the s u n lig h t. Tyrone, however, s t i l l has hopes th a t the
fam ily can be re u n ite d in lo v e, and h is hopes a re re f le c te d in h is
a ttitu d e toward the w eather. To h is w ife he says, ”Yes, i t 1 s too fin e
a morning to w aste indoors arg u in g . Take a look out th e window, Mary.
1 2 ?
There* s no fo g in th e h a rb o r. I'm sure th e s p e ll of i t w e've had i s
over now" (p . 1*0). But Mary is more p e s s im is tic about th e fa m ily 's
chances of liv in g to g e th e r i n harmony, and t h i s pessim ism i s r e f le c te d
in her a ttitu d e toward the w eather and toward the foghorn. She t e l l s
Tyrone and Jamie th a t th ey had b e tte r go out and work on th e hedge.
"I mean," she say s, "tak e advantage of th e sunshine b efore th e fog
comes back." Then she adds, om inously, "Because I know i t w ill"
(p . 1*1). And of th e foghorn she sa y s, " I do f e e l out of s o r ts th is
m orning. I wasn* t ab le to g e t much sleep w ith th a t awful foghorn
going a l l n ig h t long" (p . 17) .
Her f e a r of being overcome by f e a r , d e sp a ir, and is o la tio n proves
j u s t i f i e d . As th e fam ily q u a rre ls become more b i t t e r , the w eather
becomes w orse. About 1:15 in th e a ftern o o n , a f t e r th e fam ily have
eaten lunch, Mary goes to th e window ag ain , and t h i s tim e she sa y s,
"You' re not much of a w eather p ro p h et, d e a r. See how hazy i t ’ s g e ttin g ,
I can h a rd ly see th e o th e r shore" (p . 8 2 ). Tyrone, " try in g to speak
n a tu ra lly " ( f o r he a lso senses th e symbolism of th e fo g ), r e p lie s ,
"Yes, I spoke to o soon. W e're in f o r an o th er n ig h t of fo g , I'm a fra id "
(p . 82).
Then, a t th e beginning of Act Three, by which time fe a r and des
p a ir have d riv en sharp wedges among the members of th e fam ily and a l l
b u t is o la te d them from one an o th er, th e w eather and th e tim e of day
a re again used sym bolically to help e s ta b lis h th e mood of estrangem ent.
I t i s "around h a lf p a s t s ix in th e evening," and, O 'N e ill t e l l s u s,
"Dusk i s g a th e rin g in th e liv in g room, an e a rly dusk due to th e fog
which has ro lle d in from the Sound and i s lik e a w hite c u rta in drawn
128
down o u tsid e th e windows” (p« 97)•
As th e evening wears on, the darkness continues to deepen and the
fo g become th ic k e r, n o t only a c tu a lly , but a ls o sym bolically fo r the
fam ily . By m idnight "th e w a ll of fo g ” o u tsid e th e windows, i t s
dom ination of the n ig h t proclaim ed by a m ournful foghorn, ’ ’appears
denser than ev er” (p . 125), and th e members o f th e Tyrone fam ily are
com pletely is o la te d from one a n o th er. Mary i s u p s ta ir s , and is i n a
n a rc o tic stu p o r. Tyrone i s s i t t i n g in th e liv in g room ( iro n ic term l)
w ith a b o ttle of whiskey a s h is companion. He i s drunk and i s p lay in g ,
s ig n if ic a n tly enough, a game of s o l i t a i r e . Jam ie i s g e ttin g drunk at
a lo c a l house of p r o s titu tio n . Edmund, who i s a lso drunk, has gone
f o r a walk in th e fo g . Each member of th e fam ily i s is o la te d from the
o th er members by p h y sic a l d istan c e and by h is re sp e c tiv e lo n ely a c t i v i
t y , And when a l l do come to g e th e r a t th e end of the p la y , they a re
to g e th e r only p h y s ic a lly . Mary i s liv in g i n a p a s t she has re c a lle d
w ith the a id of n a rc o tic s , and the o th ers are a l l but unconscious from
liq u o r. The fam ily have gone from the sunny morning of hope to th e
foggy n ig h t of f e a r , d e s p a ir, and is o la tio n . I t has been f o r them,
indeed, a ’’long day’ s journey in to n ig h t.”
O ’ N e ill’ s negativism i s pow erfully d isp lay ed in the p lay ’ s
s e ttin g , b u t t h is negativism i s even more a p p aren t i n the speech and
a c tio n s of the members of th e Tyrone fam ily . A ll of them a re b e set by
f e a r or d e sp air or b o th . Tyrone's g re a t f e a r , as s ta te d b e fo re , i s th a t
he w i l l lo se h is money and re v e rt to the p o v e rty -stric k e n co n d itio n
he knew as a boy (pp. 1U7-1U8). To p rev en t th is from happening, he
hoards h is money g re e d ily , and, sin ce he comes from a land-poor I r i s h
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fam ily which has an alm ost w o rsh ip fu l a ttitu d e toward the power of
la n d , he in v e s ts a good p ercen tag e of h is earnings in r e a l e s t a t e . In
o rd er to have more money to in v e s t, he r u th le s s ly c u ts out n e a rly a l l
lu x u rie s and begrudges spending money even on n e c e s s itie s . Thus, he
i s a shabby d re s s e r, f o r , as we a re to ld in the stag e d ir e c tio n s , "He
b e lie v e s in w earing h is c lo th e s to th e lim it of u sefu ln ess" (p . 13)*
He i s a b a rg ain -h u n ter and p rid e s h im self on fin d in g th in g s which
are good buys, such as c ig a rs , of which he b rag s, " . . . t h i s new l o t
have the r ig h t mellow f la v o r . T hey're a g re a t b arg ain , to o . I got therr
dead cheap" (p . 1 5 ). Most of h is "bargains" are not good in v estm en ts,
however. Though he owns p ro p e rty valued a t a q u a rte r of a m illio n
d o lla r s (p . litli), he buys h is w ife a secondhand c ar and h ire s a
garageman to d riv e i t , ra th e r than buy her a new c a r and h ir e a
ch au ffeu r. Mary understands h is compulsion to tr y to save money, but
she a lso sees th a t h is d esp erate d e s ire f o r barg ain s lead s to h is being
sw indled. When he whines about having to keep a c h au ffeu r, she t e l l s
him:
You sh o u ld n 't have bought a secondhand autom obile. You were
sw indled again as you always a re , because you i n s i s t on secondhand
barg ain s in ev ery th in g . . . . I t was another w aste to h ire Smythe,
who was only a h elp er in a garage and had never been a c h au ffeu r.
Oh, I r e a liz e h is wages are le s s than a r e a l c h a u ffe u r's , b u t he
more than makes up f o r th a t, I ’ m s u re , by the g r a f t he g ets from
th e garage on re p a ir b i l l s . Something i s always wrong. Smythe
sees to th a t, I'm a fra id (p . 81*).
He a ls o re fu se s to pay f o r r e a lly good se rv a n ts and thus g e ts people
who do not r e a lly c a re , and who give poor se rv ic e (p . 6l ) . During th e
to u rin g season when he i s tra v e lin g w ith th e play he has purchased, he
liv e s in seco n d -rate h o te ls (p . 6 1 ). The summer home, to o , he has had
130
b u i l t " in th e cheapest way," so th a t h is w ife i s ashamed of i t (p . hh) •
In l i t t l e th in g s as w e ll as b ig he i s n e e d le ssly fru g al* He refu ses
to use th e e le c tr ic lig h ts except when i t i s a b so lu te ly n ecessary ,
much to th e i r r i t a t i o n of h is fa m ily . When Edmund bumps h is knee in
th e dark h a ll , he tu rn s on th e h a ll lig h t and leav es i t on when he
comes in to the liv in g room. His f a th e r re a c ts sh a rp ly , saying to him
i r r i t a b l y , "I to ld you to tu rn out th a t l ig h t l We1re n o t g iving a
b a l l . There1 s no reason to have th e house ablaze w ith e l e c t r i c i t y a t
t h is time of n ig h t, burning up money’ ." (p . 126) Edmund re a c ts a n g rily ,
saying to h is f a th e r , ’’Ablaze w ith e l e c t r i c i t y ’ . One bulb’ . H e ll,
everyone keeps a l i g h t on in the f r o n t h a ll u n t i l they go to bed.
• • . D on't be such a cheap sk ate’ . I ’ ve proved by fig u re s i f you l e f t
th e lig h t bulb on a l l n ig h t i t w o u ld n 't be as much as one drink’ ."
(p . 126)
Tyrone a lie n a te s h is fam ily because he i s so n e e d le ssly fru g a l in
m atters of housing, tr a n s p o rta tio n , h ire d h e lp , and e l e c t r i c i t y , but
th e fam ily’ s tra g ic d is in te g r a tio n has i t s ro o ts in s t i l l another of
Tyrone’ s f r u g a l i t i e s — -h is r e f u s a l t o engage a competent p h y sic ia n when
a member of th e fam ily i s i l l . And here again he i s sw indled, fo r
in ste a d of saving a few d o lla rs in fe e s , he buys en d less m isery f o r the
whole fam ily when an incom petent d o cto r in a d v e rte n tly makes a n a rc o tic
a d d ic t of Mary. When Tyrone h u m iliates Mary by reco u n tin g how she once
ra n out of the house in her n ig h td re ss scream ing f o r n a rc o tic s , she
r e t o r t s , " I was so h e a lth y before Edmund was born. . . . /B u t/ I was
so sic k a fte rw ard s, and th a t ig n o ra n t quack o f a cheap h o te l d o c to r--
a l l he knew was I was i n p a in . I t was easy f o r him to sto p th e pain"
131
(p . 87) . The f a c t th a t Tyrone was thus in d ir e c tly re sp o n sib le f o r
Mary’ s a d d ic tio n i s what makes h is sons d esp ise himj y e t when Edmund
becomes i l l w ith tu b e rc u lo s is , Tyrone, ever a v a ric io u s, f i r s t re fu se s
to send him to a p h y sic ia n who i s a s p e c i a li s t in tu b e rc u lo s is , and
then re fu se s to send him to a good sanatorium (pp. 30» 3lj.3-3l4i)* T his
crassn ess f u r th e r e m b itte rs h is sons and c o n trib u te s to th e fam ily ’ s
estrangem ent from one a n o th er.
Tyrone him self pays fo r h is hunger f o r money, both in h is p ro fe s
sio n a l l i f e and in h is fam ily l i f e . E arly in h is a c tin g c a re e r he
acquired very in ex p en siv ely th e r ig h ts to a p lay which became a great
f in a n c ia l su ccess, b u t i t made a slav e of him and ru in ed him as an
a c to r. He t e l l s Edmund:
That God-damned play I bought fo r a song and made such a g re a t
success in —a g re a t money su ccess—i t ru in ed me w ith i t s prom ise
of an easy fo rtu n e . I didn’ t want to do anything e ls e , and by
the time I woke up to the f a c t I ’d become a slav e to th e damned
th in g and d id tr y o th er p la y s , i t was too l a t e . They had
id e n tif ie d me w ith t h a t one p a r t, and d i d n 't want me in anything
e ls e . They were r ig h t, to o . I ’ d l o s t th e g rea t t a l e n t I once
had through y e a rs of easy r e p e titio n , never le a rn in g a new p a r t ,
never r e a lly working h ard . T h irty -fiv e to f o r ty thousand d o lla rs
n e t p r o f i t a season lik e snapping your fin g e rs'. I t was too g rea t
a te m p tatio n . Yet b efo re I bought th e damned th in g I was
considered one o f th e th re e or fo u r young a c to rs w ith the g re a te s t
a r t i s t i c prom ise in America. . . . I could have been a g reat
Shakespearian a c to r. . . . I n l87it when Edwin Booth cane to th e
th e a te r in Chicago where I was lead in g man, I played Cassius to
h is B rutus one n ig h t, Brutus to h is C assius the n ex t, O th ello to
h is Iago, and so on. The f i r s t n ig h t I played O th ello , he sa id
to our manager, "That young man i s p lay in g O thello b e tte r th a n I
ev er d id '.” (Proudly) T hat from Booth, th e g re a te s t a c to r of h is
day o r any o th e r I And i t was tru e '. . . . But a few y ears l a t e r
my good bad luck made me f in d the b ig money maker. . . . What
th e h e ll was i t I wanted to buy, I wonder, th a t was worth—W ell,
no m atter* I t ' s a l a t e day fo r re g r e ts (p p . Ii4 . 9~l$0) •
His p e rso n a l l i f e w ith in the fam ily i s a ls o destroyed by greed.
His penny-pinching has re s u lte d in h is o n c e -b e a u tifu l and -charm ing
1 3 2
w ife becoming only a s h e ll of a woman liv in g i n the p a s t. For t h i s ,
and f o r h is greed, h is sons d esp ise him. He i s cu t o ff by them and
l e f t to d r i f t alo n e. By th e end of th e th ir d a c t he i s , as O 'N e ill
t e l l s u s, "a sad, bew ildered, broken old man" (p . 123), and in Act
Four he i s d escrib ed a s , "a sad, d efeated old man, possessed by
hopeless re sig n a tio n " (p . 125). Fear has made him thus-*-fear of
p o v erty th a t drove him to th e m ise rlin e ss which ru in ed and a lie n a te d
h is fa m ily .
But i f Tyrone i s sad, d e fe ate d , and possessed by a hopeless
re s ig n a tio n , Mary i s even worse o f f , f o r she has been turned in to , as
Edmund sa y s, "a ghost haunting th e p a st" (p . 137)• Under th e in flu e n c e
of drugs she i s c o n sta n tly w ithdraw ing from h er fam ily and th e r e a l
w orld in to a p a s t which i s m ostly i ll u s i o n a l. She knows th a t th e l i f e
she wanted i s ir r e tr ie v a b ly lo s t to h e r, and she f e a r s , w ith good
reaso n , th e l i f e she has, f i l l e d as i t i s w ith p h y sic a l p a in , f a ilu r e
to overcome her a d d ic tio n , lo n e lin e s s , and d e sp a ir over what h er
husband and sons have become. She t e l l s Edmund:
None o f us can help th e th in g s l i f e has done to u s. They're done
b efo re you r e a liz e i t , and once th e y 'r e done they make you do
o th er th in g s u n t i l a t l a s t ev ery th in g comes between you and what
y o u 'd lik e to b e, and you've l o s t your tru e s e lf fo re v e r (p . 61).
But Mary i s c o n tin u a lly going back in to th e p a s t in o rd er to t r y to
recover h e r " tru e s e l f ." When Tyrone p lead s w ith h e r, "Mary*. For God's
sake, fo rg e t the p a st'." she r e p lie s , "Why? How can I? The p a s t i s
the p re s e n t, i s n 't i t ? I t ' s the f u tu r e , to o . W e a l l t r y to l i e out
of th a t but l i f e w on't l e t us" (p . 87) .
R e tre a tin g in to the p a s t is f o r Mary what saving money and d rin k in g
133
i s f o r Tyrone, whoring and d rin k in g i s f o r Jam ie, and w alking in th e
fo g , d rin k in g , and reading decadent l i t e r a t u r e i s f o r Edmund. I t is
a refuge from the world she f e a r s , and she begins to r e ly on i t more
and more o fte n as she becomes more and more c e r ta in th a t Edmund, her
fa v o r ite son, has tu b e rc u lo s is . Her husband and Jamie she endures,
b u t f o r Edmund she had g re a t hopes, a p p aren tly dashed now, f o r she i s
haunted by th e sp e c te r of h e r f a th e r , who d ie d of tu b e rc u lo sis
(pp. 67-68). She begins to r e t r e a t in to th e p a s t by sle e p in g in the
spare bedroom, usin g as a p r e te x t her i n a b i l it y to sle ep in Tyrone’ s
room because of th e foghorn and h is snoring (p . 1*7) • Her fam ily
know th a t t h is i s a sig n th a t she i s about to begin ta k in g drugs again,
and th is knowledge d ish e a rte n s them and c o n trib u te s to t h e i r own
d e sp a ir and is o la tio n .
I t i s not t h a t Mary does not t r y to avoid ta k in g d ru g s. D espite
the p a in (caused by her rheumatism as w e ll as by h e r craving fo r
d ru g s), d e sp ite th e lo n e lin e ss ( ’’Your f a t h e r ,” she t e l l s Edmund, ”. . .
meets h is frie n d s in barrooms or a t the Club. You and Jamie have th e
boys you know. . . . But I am a lo n e. I 'v e always been a lo n e ,” p . lj.6) ,
d e sp ite even the knowledge th a t Edmund has tu b e rc u lo s is (which she
t r i e s d e sp e ra te ly to keep h e rs e lf from b e lie v in g ), Mary b a ttle s a g a in st
her a d d ic tio n . At the end o f Act One, when Tyrone and Jamie a re in
the y ard , and Edmund goes to jo in them, le a v in g Mary alo n e, 0 * N e ill
t e l l s us in the stag e d ire c tio n s :
. . . M e /Edmund7 gees out on the porch and d isap p ears down the
s te p s . Her /jKary* sy f i r s t re a c tio n i f one o f r e l i e f . She appears
to re la x . She sin k s down in one of th e w icker arm -chairs a t r e a r
o f ta b le and lea n s h er head back, c lo sin g her ey es. But suddenly
she grows te r r i b ly tense a g ain . Her eyes open and she s tr a in s
13k
forw ard, se ize d by a f i t of nervous p a n ic . She begins a d e sp era te
b a ttle w ith h e r s e lf . Her long f in g e r s , warped and k n o tted by
rheum atism , drum on th e arms of th e c h a ir, d riven by an in s i s t e n t
l i f e of t h e i r own, w ithout her consent (p . U9)•
When she reap p ears in Scene One of Act IWo, Edmund and Jamie a re in
th e liv in g room, and the l a t t e r r e a liz e s a f t e r one glance in to h is
m o th er's p e c u lia rly b rig h t eyes th a t she has l o s t her b a tt l e w ith
h e r s e lf . O 'N e ill t e l l s us th a t Jam ie’ s "eyes f a l l to s ta r e a t th e
f lo o r , h is face s e ts in an ex p ressio n of e m b ittered , defensive
cynicism " (p . 8£ ).
From t h is p o in t on, th e fam ily move more ra p id ly toward is o la tio h
from one a n o th e r. Edmund and Jam ie alm ost come to blows because Edmunc.
n a iv e ly th in k s th a t Jamie i s u n ju s tly accusing Mary of ta k in g n a rc o tic s
(pp. 63- 61*), and Tyrone lo se s a l l h is illu s io n s when he d isc o v ers what
Mary has done. When Mary says to him p le a d in g ly , I'You d o n 't under -
stand'." (p . 68) he, "w ith d u ll a n g e r," r e p l i e s , " I understand th a t
I 'v e been a God-damned fo o l to b e lie v e in you'." Then he "walks away
from h er to pour him self a big drink" (p . 6 9 ). Mary then beg in s to
take refu g e in the p a s t and thus to c u t h e rs e lf o ff from h er fam ily*
When Mary withdraws in to th e p a s t, she c a lls up one or more of
s ix memories, most of which, according to Tyrone, are exaggerated
(p p . 137-138). A ll of her memories except one are happy. The exception
i s th e memory of th e death of h e r baby son, Eugene, whose b ir th
occurred between Ja m ie 's and Edmund's, Eugene d ied of th e m easles, anc
Mary f e e ls th a t the th en -sev e n -y e a r-o ld Jam ie d e lib e ra te ly went in to
the b a b y 's room and gave Eugene th e d ise a se because he was je a lo u s of
him. But Mary blames h e rs e lf , to o , because in ste a d of s ta y in g home
135
w ith th e baby, she was w ith Tyrone on the road when Eugene died (pp.
87- 88).
I t i s s ig n ific a n t th a t only one memory d a te s from a f t e r her
m arriage to Tyrone and i t i s unhappy. The r e s t o f h e r memories concern
her g irlh o o d , c e n te r m ainly on her l i f e a t a convent sch o o l, and are
happy. She remembers th a t a t the convent she had many frie n d s from
good homes (p . 86) , and t h a t they were envious of her when her fa th e r
w rote to t e l l h er th a t he and James Tyrone, th e g re a t m atinee id o l,
had become good frie n d s (p . 105). She a lso r e c a l l s the tim e she f i r s t
saw Tyrone on th e sta g e , was introduced to him afterw ard , and f e l l
in love w ith him (p . 105). Another memory from h er convent-school
days concerns h e r love of p lay in g th e p ian o . She remembers h e rs e lf
as th e most ta le n te d stu d e n t the music tea ch e r had ever had. Of her
two dreams, one was to become a concert p ia n i s t (pp. 103-101:). Her
o th er dream was to become a nun, and to t h i s memory she a ls o re tu rn s
(p , 102). Coupled w ith t h is memory i s the re c o lle c tio n of h e r great
re lig io u s f a i t h , which she has now l o s t and which she longs to re g a in .
She t e l l s Edmund:
. . . some day, d e ar, I w ill fin d i t /h e r soul7 ag ain —some day
when you’ re a l l w e ll, and I see you h e a lth y and happy and
su c c e ssfu l, and I d o n 't have to f e e l g u ilty any more—some day
when the B lessed V irg in Mary fo rg iv e s me and gives me back the
f a i t h in Her love and p ity I used to have in my convent days,
and I can pray to her again—when She sees no one in the world
can b e liev e in me even f o r a moment any more, then She w ill
b eliev e in me, and w ith Her help i t w ill be so easy. I w ill hear
m yself scream w ith agony, and at th e same tim e I w i l l laugh
because I w ill be so sure of m yself (p . 93-91:) •
Then, l a t e r , when she i s a lo n e , she says to h e r s e lf , longingly:
I f I could only fin d th e f a i t h I l o s t , so I could pray again’ .
136
. . .-“H a il, Mary, f u l l of grace’ . ” . . . You expect th e B lessed
F irg in to be fo o led by a ly in g dope fie n d r e c itin g words*. You
c a n 't hide from her*, (p . 107)
M ary's o th e r happy memory i s of h e r wedding to Tyrone. She remembers
how h e r f a th e r indulged h er by l e t t i n g her buy th e b e st of e v ery th in g ,
and how b e a u tifu l she was in her lo v e ly wedding gown (pp. lli± -115> ) •
A ll of these happy memories Mary g ath ers to g e th e r in th e f i n a l
scene and u se s, ir o n ic a lly , as a w a ll to cu t h e rs e lf o ff from h er
drunken fam ily . The scene begins w ith h e r p lay in g a Chopin w altz on
the piano in the o th e r room. Then she comes in to the liv in g room,
where Tyrone and th e two boys have been d rin k in g h e a v ily . She h e rs e lf
i s com pletely under the in flu e n ce of n a rc o tic s and i s c arry in g h er
o ld -fash io n ed wedding gown over one arm (p . 170) . She begins h e r long
ex cu rsio n in to memory by com plaining th a t she i s out of p ra c tic e and
w ill get a sco ld in g from S is te r T heresa, her music te a c h e r (p . 171).
When Tyrone asks f o r her wedding gown beeause she i s t r a i l i n g i t on
th e f lo o r , she gives i t to him w ithout reco g n izin g i t as hers and sa y s,
" I found i t in the a t t i c hidden in a tru n k . But I don’ t know what X
wanted i t f o r . I'm going to be a nun—th a t i s , i f I can only fin d —”
(p . 172). Then she begins looking around the room f o r h e r r e lig io u s
f a i t h , as i f i t were a ta n g ib le o b je c t which she had tem p o rarily
m isplaced. Of i t she sa y s, "Something I need t e r r i b l y . I remember
when I had i t I was never lo n ely nor a f r a id . I can’ t have lo s t i t
fo re v e r, I would d ie i f I thought t h a t . Because th en th e re would be
no hope” (p . 173). She th en r e c a lls h e r ta lk w ith Mother E liz a b e th
about her becoming a nun. Mother E liza b e th shocks h er by su g g estin g
th a t she t e s t h e rs e lf reg ard in g h e r v o catio n by w aitin g a y ear o r two,
137
but she agrees and goes out to pray to th e B lessed V irg in , She says;
. . . so I went to th e sh rin e and prayed to th e B lessed V irg in and
found peace again because I knew she heard my p rayer and would
always love me and see no harm ever came to me so long as I never
lo s t my f a i t h in h e r, . . . That was in the w in te r of se n io r y e a r.
Then in th e sp rin g som ething happened to me. Yes, I remember,
I f e l l in love w ith James Tyrone and was so happy f o r aw hile
(pp. 175-176).
Thus the play ends w ith Mary having l o s t her b a ttle w ith h e r s e lf j f e a r
of th e r e a l i t i e s of th e p re s e n t have fo rced her to take n a rc o tic s so
th a t she can withdraw from r e a l i t y in to th e mrmories of a hap p ier tim e.
She has become "a ghost hau n tin g th e p a s t” who has c u t h e rs e lf o ff from
her fam ily w hile they s i t i n drunken stu p o rs w atching h e r.
Like h is mother and f a th e r , Jamie i s a lso b ed ev iled by f e a r — the
fe a r of being a com panionless f a i l u r e . His sh a tte re d l i f e i s a ls o the
r e s u l t , to a g re a t e x te n t, o f h is father* s f e a r of p o v erty , f o r i t i s
Tyrone* s f e a r o f poverty th a t lead s him to engage the incom petent
p h y sic ia n who p u ts Mary on drugs, and i t i s th e s a c r if ic e of Mary’ s
h e a lth to Tyrone*s m is e rlin e ss which e m b itte rs Jamie and makes of him
a c y n ic a l drunkard and customer of w hores. His cynicism gives him an
"I-don* t-c a re " a ttitu d e , and he f a i l s a t one th in g a f t e r another u n t i l
he must re ly on Tyrone. His f e a r th a t Edmund w ill succeed w h ile he
f a i l s lead s him d e lib e ra te ly to e n tic e Edmund to im ita te him so th a t
the younger b ro th er w i l l be a companion in f a ilu r e f o r the o ld e r.
Tyrone recognizes th is d a sta rd ly in c lin a tio n of Jam ie’s , and rebukes
him, say in g , "The le s s sa id about Edmund’ s sic k n ess, -the b e tte r fo r
your conscience’ . You* re more resp o n sib le than anyone*." (p . 3k) When
Jamie r e t o r t s ’’T h at's a l i e ! ” Tyrone says;
I t ’ s th e tr u th ! You’ ve been th e w orst in flu e n ce f o r him. He
138
grew up adm iring you as a h e ro l A f in e example you s e t him’ . I f
you ever gave him advice except in the ways of ro tte n n e s s , P ve
never heard of i t 1 . You made him old b efo re h is tim e, pumping
him f u l l of what you consider w orldly wisdom, when he was to o
young to see th a t your mind was so poisoned by your own f a ilu r e
in l i f e , you wanted to b e lie v e every man was a knave w ith h is
so u l f o r s a le , and every woman who wasn' t a whore was a fo o ll
(p . 3U)
Mary a lso sees Jamie as a menace to Edmund. She t e l l s her husband in
th e presence of Edmund:
I'm a fra id Jan ie has been l o s t to us f o r a long tim e, d e ar. • • •
But we m u stn 't allow him to drag Edmund down w ith him, as h e 's
lik e to do. H e's je a lo u s because Edmund has always been the
baby—ju s t as he used to be of Eugene. H e 'll never be content
u n t il he makes Edmund as hopeless a f a i l u r e as he i s (p . 109).
Edmund, however, re fu s e s to share h is p a re n ts' opinion of Jamie u n t i l
Jamie him self t e l l s him th e t r u th . In Act Four Jamie re tu rn s home
drunk and re v e a ls t o Edmund th a t beneath h is cynicism he had hoped
d e sp e ra te ly th a t Mary had been cured of the n a rc o tic h a b it. He then
breaks down and begins to c ry (p . 162). Then, a f te r a ssu rin g Edmund
th a t th e two of them are " p a ls ," he adm its th a t he has been ly in g and
t e l l s Edmund th e tr u th , sayings
L is te n , Kid, you' 11 be going away. May n o t g et another chance to
t a l k . Or m ight not be drunk enough to t e l l you tr u th . . . .
Want to warn you—a g a in st me. Mama and Papa a re r i g h t . I 'v e
been r o tte n bad in flu e n c e . . . . Did i t on purpose to make a bum
of you. Or p a rt of me d id . A b ig p a r t . That p a r t t h a t 's been
dead so long. That h a te s l i f e . M y p u ttin g you w ise so you'd
le a rn from my m istak es. B elieved th a t m yself a t tim e s, b u t i t ' s
a jo k e . Made my m istakes look good. . . . Never wanted you
succeed and make me look even worse by com parison. Wanted you to
f a i l . Always je a lo u s of you. Mamh's baby, P a p a 's p e t . • . And
i t was your being born t h a t s ta r te d Mama on dope. I know t h a t ’ s
not your f a u l t , b u t a l l th e same, God damn you, I c a n 't help
h a tin g your g u ts—’ . (pp. 165- 166)
Jamie th en t e l l s Edmund th a t he loves him more than he h a te s him, b u t
th a t he w i l l do ev ery th in g he can to make Edmund f a i l . He sgys, "The
139
dead p a r t of me hopes you w o n 't get w e ll. Maybe h e 's even glad the
game has got to Mama again1 . He wants company, he d o e s n 't want to be
th e only corpse around th e house'." (p . 166) Thus he re v e a ls the
t e r r i b l e fe a r which d riv e s him to h ate h is fam ily , p a r tic u la r ly h is
b ro th e r, and which works to is o la te him from them.
At th e f a r end of th e chain o f c a u se -a n d -e ffe c t re a c tio n s begun
by T yrone's m is e rlin e ss i s Edmund's c o n d itio n . T yrone's fe a r of
poverty d estro y s M ary's h ealth ? Jam ie, se e in g t h i s , becomes c y n ical
and em bittered? as a r e s u lt he i s a f a i l u r e , and fe a rin g to f a i l alo n e,
he draws Edmund a f t e r him. Thus, Edmund a ls o becomes c y n ic a l and
follow s Jamie in to a world of d e sp a ir and debauchery which breaks h is
h e a lth . In sp ire d by h is b ro th e r, he ta k e s refuge from th e r e a l i t i e s
of l i f e in decadent lite r a tu r e ^ ( to which Jamie has in troduced him ),
in the fo g , and in liq u o r.
In the l a s t a c t, a f t e r re tu rn in g from a walk i n th e fo g and
w hile ta lk in g to h is f a th e r , Edmund quotes a number of f i n de s ie c le
decadent poems. Among them a re Dowson's "V itae Summa .. . " ("They are
not long, the weeping and th e la u g h te r," p . 130), Symons' tr a n s la tio n
of B a u d e la ire 's prose poem beginning, "Be always drunken" (p . 132),
Symons' tra n s la tio n of B a u d e la ire 's "Epilogue" ("W ith h e a rt a t r e s t
I clim bed the c i t a d e l 's / Steep h e ig h t ..." pp. 133-13U), and th e
second sta n za of Dowson's "Non Sum . . . Cynarae" ("A ll n ig h t upon
2
Decadent q u a litie s , according to A rthur Symons, as quoted in
W illiam F l i n t T h rall and Addison H ibbard, A Handbook to L ite r a tu r e ,
re v . and e n l. ed. by C. Hugh Holman (New York: Odyssey P re s s , I9 6 0 ),
p . 131, in clu d e "an in te n se se lf-c o n sc io u sn e ss" and "a s p i r i t u a l and
m oral p e rv e rs ity ."
lUo
mine h e a rt I f e l t h e r warm h e a rt b e a t," p . 13U). And when h is fa th e r
rebukes him f o r h is choice of p o ets and quotes The Tempest* s Prospero
to prove th a t Shakespeare could u t t e r th e same sentim ents more
p o e tic a lly , Edmund parapharases the lin e s , say in g , " T h a t's b e a u tifu l.
But I w a sn 't try in g to say th a t. W e are such s tu f f as manure is made
on, so l e t 's d rin k up and fo rg e t i t " (p . 131). His whole a ttitu d e
toward l i f e , in f a c t , seems to be summed up when he quotes y e t another
n in etee n th century l i t e r a r y fig u re —N ietzsche. E a r lie r in th e p lay ,
w hile arguing w ith h is fa th e r about r e lig io n , he speaks the famous
lin e from Thus Spake Z a ra th u stra — »"God i s dead: of His p i ty fo r man
h ath God died" (p . 78). And so , f o r Edmund, l i f e i s m eaningless.
And because l i f e i s m eaningless (and thus t e r r i f y in g ) , Edmund
tak e s refuge i n th e fo g , which fo r him assumes th e c h a ra c te r of a
haven. Upon re tu rn in g from h is walk he speaks to h is f a th e r:
The fo g was where I wanted to b e. Halfway down the p a th you
c a n 't see t h i s house. You'd never know i t was h e re . . . . I
c o u ld n 't see but a few. f e e t ahead. X d id n 't see a so u l. Every
th in g looked and sounded u n re a l. Nothing was what i t i s . T h a t's
what I wanted—to be alone w ith m yself in another world where
tru th i s untrue and l i f e can hide from i t s e l f (p . 131) .
So d esp erate i s Edmund to escape from th e r e a l i t i e s of h is
e x iste n ce th a t he has even sought th e u ltim a te is o la tio n by attem pting
s u ic id e . The attem pt was made, a p p ro p ria te ly enough, in a saloon
(p . Iii7 ), f o r Edmund, lik e h is f a th e r and h is b ro th e r, a ls o uses
liq u o r as an escape d e v ic e . In f a c t , so d esp erate i s he to escape
th a t he d rin k s even a f t e r he knows th a t he has tu b e rc u lo sis and has
been warned by the d o cto r to sto p . His l a s t a c t, in f a c t , lik e those
of Tyrone and Jam ie, i s to pour him self a d rin k , even though he, lik e
1 U 1
them, i s alread y in a drunken stu p o r (p . 175)*
Thus we see th a t Long Day1 s Journey in to N ight, through i t s p lo t,
s e ttin g , and c h a ra c te rs , s ta te s pow erfully th e negative concept th a t
people are f e a r f u l and th a t f e a r d riv e s them to d esp air and is o la tio n ,
O’ N e ill’ s p la y , in f a c t , i s th e most p e s s im is tic one examined in th is
d is s e r ta tio n , W illy Loman in Death of a Salesman does a more d esp erate
th in g th an any of th e Tyrones, b u t in no o th e r p la y are a l l major
c h a ra c te rs so overcome by fe a r th a t they is o la te them selves in a
p riv a te w orld co n stru cted by d e sp a ir and n a rc o tic s or w hiskey. The
a p p a llin g l a s t scene, where th e fo u r Tyrones are p h y sic a lly to g e th e r
but m entally and s p i r i tu a l ly is o la te d in th e n ig h t and fo g of t h e i r
own d e v isin g , th re e of them near c o llap se from whiskey, and th e o th er
w andering in a n a rc o tic dream, i s th e most negative in a l l the plays
and h elp s p lac e Long Day1 s Journey in to ' N ight c lo se r to th e p e ssim is tic
end of th e o p tim is tic -p e s s im is tic continuum than i s any of th e o th e r
works examined in th is p ap er.
CONCLUSION- 1
The purpose of t h i s d is s e r ta tio n i s , in th e words of the
In tro d u c tio n , " to d isco v er th e techniques ( i f any) by which and the
e x te n ts ( i f any) to which they /th e p la y s / re v e a l n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s "
(p . v ) . "Techniques" and "ex te n t" were th en defined (p . v ) ,
"Techniques" in clu d ed development of p lo t, s e ttin g , and c h arac ter
through the use of d ialo g u e, stag e d ire c tio n s , and s p e c ia l explanatory
m a te ria l such as d e s c rip tio n s of c h a ra c te rs , s e t s , m usic, costumes,
and s p e c ia l e ff e c ts (such as firew orks and s t r e e t noises)*
The p lo ts of th e e ig h t p lay s lead to one or more of fiv e kinds
of conclusions: ( 1) d eath , caused e ith e r by one’ s s e l f or by th e o v ert
a c tio n of o th e rs , of a p r in c ip a l c h a ra c te r or c h a ra c te rs ( s e l f -
in f li c t e d in Death of a Salesman, caused by the o v e rt a c tio n of o th ers
in The D iary of Anne Frank) ; (2) estrangem ent, fo rced or unforced, of a
p r in c ip a l c h a ra c te r or c h a ra c te rs (fo rce d in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire
and The D iary of Anne Frank, unforced in P ic n ic and Long Day* s J ourney
in to N ig h t); (3) re c o n c ilia tio n , forced or unforced, of p rin c ip a l
c h a ra c te rs (fo rce d in The S h rik e, unforced, though w ith overtones of
fo rc e , in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof; in The D iary of Anne Frank, Mr* Frank
i s re c o n c ile d w ith h im se lf)j (U) b rin g in g to g e th e r of p rin c ip a l
^The p a re n th e tic a l page numbers in t h is s e c tio n r e f e r to pages in
th e d is s e r ta tio n .
H|2
1U 3
c h a ra c te rs , form erly unknown to one a n o th er, in to a close union
(P ic n ic ) ; and (5>) com pletion of a predeterm ined task by p rin c ip a l
c h a ra c te rs ( The Teahouse of th e August Moon) • Of these co n clu sio n s,
two, th e conclusion in The Teahouse of th e August Moon and th e conclu
sio n in The D iary o f Anne Frank, are o p tim istic * The conclusion of
P ic n ic has p e s s im is tic o v erto n es. The conclusion of Cat on a Hot
Tin Roof re v e a ls some optimism but i s p rim a rily p e s s im is tic . The
conclusions of th e o th er fo u r p lay s are o v e rtly p e s s im is tic .
D escrip tio n s o f s e t s , m usic, tim es o f day, costum es, w eather, and
firew o rk s a re used in s ix of the p lay s to e s ta b lis h n eg ativ e a t t i t u d e s
D e sc rip tio n s of s e ts are used in A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire , Death of a
Salesman, The S h rik e , and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. D escrip tio n s of
music are used in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire and Death of a Salesman.
D e sc rip tio n s of tim es of day are used in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire and
Long Day1 s Journey in to N ight. D e sc rip tio n s of costumes are used in
A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire. D escrip tio n s of w eather are used in Cat on
a Hot Tin Roof and Long Day1 s Journey in to N ight. D escrip tio n s of
firew orks are used in Cat on a Hot T in Roof.
But the most in te r e s tin g method of re v e a lin g negative a ttitu d e s
in th e plays i s the development of c h a ra c te rs . Ten types of "negative"
c h a ra c te rs a re p re v a le n t: ( 1) the l o s t l i t t l e person who indulges in
w ish fu l th in k in g (Blanche in A S tre e tc a r Mamed D e sire , W illy , B if f ,
and Happy in Death of a Salesman, and Hal and Madge in P ic n ic ) ; (2)
th e person who i s sic k e it h e r p h y sic a lly or m entally (p h y sic a lly sic k
c h a ra c te rs in clu d e Big Daddy in Cat on a Hot T in Roof and Edmund and
Mary in Long Day1 s Journey in to N ight; m entally sic k c h a ra c te rs include
Blanche in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire and Ann in The S h rik e )j (3) the
wanderer (Blanche in A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire , B iff i n Death of a
Salesman3 Hal in P ic n ic , and Edmund in Long Day* s Journey in to N ig h t);
(Ij.) th e person who w ithdraw s in to th e p a s t (Blanche in A S tre e tc a r
Named D e sire, W illy in Death of a Salesman, and Mary i n Long Day1 s
Journey in to N ight) ; (5) th e heavy d rin k e r (Blanche i n A S tre e tc a r
Named D esire, B rick in Cat on a Hot T in Roof and Tyrone, Jam ie, and
Edmund in Long D ay's Journey in to Night) ; ( 6) the person of l i t t l e
s e n s itiv ity (S tan ley i n A S tre e tc a r Named D esire, Happy i n Death of a
Salesman, Ann in The S h rik e , Big Daddy, Gooper, Mae, and Reverend
Tooker in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, D ussel and Van Daan in The D iary of
Anne Frank,' and Tyrone in Long Day*s Journey in to N ig h t); (7) th e
person whose l i f e i s ru in ed when he i s young, e ith e r by some p e rso n al
weakness, by circum stances over which he had no c o n tro l, or by a
com bination of th e two (Blanche in A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire , B iff in
Death o f a Salesman, Hal in P ic n ic , B rick in Cat on a Hot T in Roof,
Anne ip The D iary of Anne Frank, and Jamie and Edmund in Long Day*s
J ourney in to N ight) ; (8) the p erson out to g e t what he w ants, by
w hatever means (S tan ley in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire, Ann in The S h rik e,
M argaret, Gooper, and Mae in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, Jam ie in Long Day1 s
Journey in to N ight) j (9) the p erso n who i s trapped (Blanche in A
S tre e tc a r Named D esire, Jim in The S h rik e , th e ^ ig h t Jews in The D iary
of Anne Frank, Mary, Jam ie,and Edmund in Long Day* s J ourney in to N ight)
(10) th e person who i s co arse, e it h e r in speech, in a c tio n , or in both
( a l l th e p rin c ip a l and su p p o rtin g c h a ra c te rs in A S tre e tc a r Named
D e sire , W illy , B iff , and Happy i n Death of a Salesman, H al, Howard, and
lh$
Rosemary in P ic n ic , Big Mama, Big Daddy, M argaret, B rick, Gooper, and
Mae i n Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, ly ro n e, Ja m ie ,vand Edmund in Long Day1 s
Journey in to N ight) . In c o n tra s t to th is long l i s t , th e re is a d is
t i n c t p a u c ity of c h a ra c te rs and types of c h a ra c te rs w ith stro n g y e t
s e n s itiv e and a l t r u i s t i c n a tu re s, Mr. Frank being the only p rin c ip a l
c h a ra c te r who could be so ty p ed . There i s a lso a p a u city of c h a ra c te rs
whose f a te s are happy, the group in The Teahouse of th e August Moon
stan d in g alone in th is re s p e c t. Thus we see th a t in th e overwhelming
m ajo rity of p la y s, th e development o f c h a ra c te r i s used to re v e a l
negative a ttitu d e s .
Because th e techniques used to develop p lo t, s e ttin g , and
c h a ra c te rs lead so fre q u e n tly to th e e s ta b lis h in g of negative a ttitu d e ^
we conclude th a t as a group the plays a re f a r more negative than
p o s itiv e . But to what e x te n t does an in d iv id u a l p lay re v e a l negative
a ttitu d e s ? In th e s e c tio n o f th e In tro d u c tio n d e alin g w ith th is te r n
" e x te n t," the follow ing statem ent was made:
. . . a h y p o th e tic a l continuum ranging fro m ''"o p tim istic" to
" p e s s im is tic ," th a t i s , from a com pletely hopeful view of l i f e to
a com pletely d e sp airin g view of l i f e . The problem i s , where along
th e continuum does apy one play belong? Is i t com pletely fr e e
of n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s and th u s o p tim istic ? ' Or, i f i t has n eg ativ e
a ttitu d e s , how many are th e re , how a re they expressed, and how
w eighty are they in term s of p lac in g th e play on the continuum?
The answers to these q u estio n s w ill in d ic a te th e e x te n t of th e
p la y ’ s n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s (p . v ) .
None of the p lsy s examined i s com pletely fre e of n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s ,
though two—The Teahouse of th e August Moon and The D iary o f Anne
Frank—have alm ost no negativism . On the o th e r hand, fo u r of th e
p la y s— A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire, Death of a Salesman, The S h rik e, and
Long Day1 s Journey in to N ight—come close to re v e a lin g a com pletely
1 U 6
d e sp a irin g view of l i f e . Of the th re e questio ns posed in reg a rd to
neg ativ e a ttitu d e s —"How many are th ere ? How are they expressed? H ow
w eighty are they in term s of p la c in g th e play on th e continuum?”—
th e second has been answered above, leav in g th e f i r s t and t h ir d to be
answered below.
The answer to th e q u estio n '’How mapy negative a ttitu d e s are
expressed in the play?" helps to p lace th e p lay on th e continuum, but
i t cannot be used as th e so le judge of th e play* s negativism . The
p lay s of Tennessee W illiam s c o n ta in th e most negative a ttitu d e s (fiv e
in A S tre e tc a r Named D esire and fo u r in Cat on a Hot T in Roof) 5 b u t
they are n o t more n eg ativ e j u s t because of th is f a c t , th an , say,
O ’ N e ill’ s p la y , which co n tain s only two. Nor can th e number of ways
in which an author expresses n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s be used as so le
c r i t e r i o n of a p la y ’ s negativism , though, as w ith number of a ttitu d e s ,
th e number of ways may be h e lp fu l i n one’ s judging o f a p la y . I t w ill
be u s e fu l, th e re fo re , to note the number of negative a ttitu d e s found
in each p la y . A S tre e tc a r Named D esire has f iv e (p . l ) , Death of a
Salesman th re e (p . 2 2 ), The S hrike th re e (p . 1±2), P ic n ic one (p . 75) ,
The Teahouse of th e August Moon one (p . 8 0 ), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof
fo u r (p . 81+), The D iary of Anne Frank two (p . 113), and Long Day’ s
Journey in to Night two (p . 119)•
But the b e st way to e s ta b lis h a p lay ’ s p o s itio n on the continuum
i s by answering th e th ir d q u estio n —"How weighty / t h a t i s , how
s e r io u s / a r© they /th e n eg ativ e a tt i tu d e s / ? ’ ’ Because of the s a t i r i c ,
lig h t-h e a rte d way in which i t i s p resen te d , the negative a ttitu d e in
The Teahouse of the August Moon ( th a t Army personnel are sim pletons)
Hi?
i s l e a s t serious* The r e s t of th e p lay s p re s e n t more se rio u s a ttitu d e s ,
The themes of these p lay s attem pt to answer one or more of th ree
q u estio n s: (1) What i s man? (2) Who or w hat, i f anybody or anything,
ru le s m an's world? (3) What e f f e c t has th e modern w orld on man? A ll
of th e se qu estio n s are se rio u s ones which have engaged th e g re a te s t
minds of every age. The conclusions o f th ese minds s e t th e temper
of the age. Thus, when lead in g p h ilo so p h e rs, th eo lo g ian s, s c i e n t i s t s ,
and w rite rs of the e ig h tee n th century concluded th a t man i s a p e r f e c t
ib le being watched over by a benevolent God who has placed him in "th e
b e st of a l l p o ssib le w o rld s," th ey e s ta b lis h e d an o p tim istic temper
which became c h a r a c te r is tic of th a t age. L et us see how the w rite rs
whose p lay s we have examined answer these th re e momentous q u e stio n s.
The au th o rs of s ix of th e e ig h t p lay s have p u t in to th e ir dramas
im p lic it a ttitu d e s which answer the q u e stio n , "What i s man?" The only
o p tim istic a ttitu d e i s found in The D iary o f Anne Frank, where
Goodrich and H ackett seem to be saying th a t man i s a c re a tu re who can,
s p i r i tu a l ly i f n o t p h y s ic a lly , overcome e v i l and who can, fu rth erm o re,
overcome and d is c ip lin e h is b aser n a tu re . The o th e r fiv e authors have
a considerably more somber view of man. In P ic n ic , Inge seems to be
saying th a t man i s a c re a tu re who i s a t the mercy of h is em otions.
M ille r , in Death of a Salesman, sees man as a f u t i l e dream er, W illiam s,
in A S tre e tc a r Named D e sire , sees man as b a s ic a lly no good o r, a t b e s t,
weak and enslaved by h is passions* In Cat on a Hot Tin Roof he p o rtra y s
man as an e g o c e n tric , fo o lis h , and c ru e l c re a tu re who cannot communi
cate w ith h is fe llo w s . And O 'N e ill, in Long D ay's Journey in to N ight,
sees man as a c re a tu re who i s a t th e mercy of f e a r —a c re a tu re driven
by f e a r to d e sp air and thence in to is o la tio n from h is fe llo w s .
The au th o rs of fo u r of th e p lay s give im p lic it answers to th e
second q u estio n ; "Who or w hat, i f anybody or anything, ru le s man’ s
world?" Again, only Goodrich and H ackett in The D iary of Anne Frank
are o p tim is tic . They seem to acknowledge, through Anne and, her f a th e r ,
th e e x iste n ce of a Divine Being, and though they adm it th a t e v il may
become a ru lin g fo rc e , th ey b e lie v e t h a t e v il i s r e s is ta b le and
conquerable. The o th e r th re e a u th o rs are .considerably more negative*
Kramm, in The S h rik e, im p lies th a t our world i s a to p sy -tu rv y p lace
where the sane, th e w ise , and th e good people are ru le d by th e in sa n e,
the f o o lis h , and th e e v il p eo p le. W illiam s, in A S tre e tc a r Named
D e sire , im p lies th a t h o s t i l i t y i s in h e re n t in w hatever nameless fo rc e
or fo rc e s ru le men. And O ' N e ill, i n Long Day’ s Journey in to N ight, r e
v e a ls the a ttitu d e th a t man e x is ts in an i r r a tio n a l u n iv e rse , and th is
a ttitu d e i s perhaps the most n eg ativ e of a l l ( fo r even th e idea o f e v il
ru lin g im plies th a t th ere i s some kind of order in the u n iv e rse ), and
O ’ N e ill sees only m indless chaos.
F in a lly , the authors of two of th e p lay s deal w ith the q u estio n ,
"What e f f e c t has th e modern w orld on man?" Both au th o rs take a somber
view . M ille r, in Death of a Salesman, sees th e modern world as a place
which p u ts so much p ressu re on the l i t t l e man th a t i t warps h is sense
of v a lu e s, s t r i p s him of h is d ig n ity , and d riv e s him in to im m orality.
Kramm, in The S h rik e, sees th e modern w orld as a place ru led by in sa n e,
f o o lis h , and e v il people who fo rc e o th ers to bend to t h e i r w i l ls . The
choice modern man has i s to re fu s e to bend and to go insane as the
r e s u lt of h is r e fu s a l; or to bend and in so doing to give up h is m oral
Hi9
sta n d ard s.
Now, in th e lig h t of th e conclusions we have drawn about the e ig h t
p la y s, how would they stand in r e la tio n to one another on the
o p tim is tic -p e s s im is tic continuum? The Teahouse of th e August Moon
would be n e a re st the o p tim istic end of th e continuum, f o r the p lay
tak es p lace in a world which excludes any concept of se rio u s e v i l . As
a r e s u l t, th e p lay i s gay and has a happy ending. The n ext most
o p tim istic p lay would be The D iary o f Anne Frank, f o r though i t admits
th a t th e re i s e v il in the w orld and th a t t h is e v il can c o n tro l th e
w orld, i t a lso im p lies th a t a Divine Being e x is ts , th a t e v il i s thus
r e s is ta b le and conquerable, and th a t man is a c re a tu re who can overcome
and d is c ip lin e h is baser n a tu re . These are the only two plays which
would be c lo s e r to the o p tim is tic end of th e continuum than to the
p e s s im is tic end.
Of th e p e ssim is tic p la y s , P ic n ic i s probably l e a s t p e s s im is tic ,
fo r i t expresses only one n eg ativ e a ttitu d e , and though th is a ttitu d e
i s somber, i t i s not as somber as th e a ttitu d e s found in th e o th er fiv e
p la y s . Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, though i t expresses some extrem ely
negative a ttitu d e s about th e n atu re of man, would follow P ic n ic , fo r
th e re i s a glimmer o f hope in i t s conclusionj but i t would be c lo s e r
to the o th er p e ssim is tic p lay s than to P ic n ic . Three o f th e l a s t fo u r
p lay s a re very hard to p la c e , a l l o f them being extrem ely p e ssim is tic
because of th e n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s they e x p re ss. The id eas of the
world and of man th a t a re found in Death of a Salesman are te r r if y in g ,
b u t perhaps le s s so th a n th e ideas found i n The S hrike o r A S tre e tc a r
Named D esire. A lso, in Death of a Salesman th e re are c h a ra c te rs who
1 5 0
»
are wholesome, u n s e lfis h , and su c c e ssfu l; whereas n e ith e r The Shrike
nor A S tr e e tc a r Named D esire co n tain s such c h a ra c te rs , and so Death cf
a Salesman would follow Gat on a Hot Tin Roof, Next would come
The S h rik e, which i s not so imbued w ith negativism as A S tre e tc a r
Named D e sire ; and, f i n a l ly , f a r down th e continuum near th e p e ssim is tic
end (though th e l a s t fiv e p lay s mentioned would be c lo se ly grouped
together), would be Long Day* s Journey in to N ight, p re d ic a te d as i t i s
on th e id ea of an i r r a t io n a l u n iv erse and re v e a lin g as i t does through
the uncompromising d e s tru c tio n of th e whole Tyrone fam ily th e n eg ativ e
a ttitu d e th a t man is a f e a r f u l, d e sp a irin g , and is o la te d c re a tu re fo r
whom th e re i s no hope.
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Salvors it y of Southern California;

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