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An assessment of a nonprofit organization’s effort to increase its staff diversity

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Content Running head: NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 1

An Assessment of a Nonprofit Organization’s Effort to Increase Its Staff Diversity
by

Christopher L. Riddick

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2017

Copyright 2017 Christopher L. Riddick

NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 2

DEDICATION
I thank God for granting me grace during far too many times when my decision making
was anything but sound. I thank my ancestors who may not have known the concept of this
milestone, yet prayed for this very moment nonetheless. I thank my mother, Dorothy Riddick-
Saunders, for ushering me into this world against daunting challenges and loving me
unconditionally even through some of the most difficult times of my life. I thank my father,
Linwood Riddick, Jr., for instilling in me the importance of faith at an early age. I thank my
family and friends from North Carolina and beyond and I am particularly grateful for my
beloved hometown of Gates. I thank my mother-in-law, Sharon Propst-Southerland, whose
valiant fight against cancer puts my journey into perspective.
This dissertation is dedicated to my brother, Maurice, who would have turned 50 this
year. Maurice, I am proud to honor you through this achievement.
To my daughter, Skylar, who was born during my pursuit of this degree, thank you for
the joy that you bring to our family, for the wisdom that I already see in your eyes, and the
remarkable life that you have ahead of you.
To my son, Gavin, thank you for your genuineness and positive spirit. Your presence has
provided calm and assurance in more ways than you can understand. When I see you, I see my
most authentic self—I aspire to become that one day.
And to my wife, Lauren, you have been my absolute rock throughout this journey. You
have been the best partner that I can ever have in life. Thank you for your intelligence, strength,
and beauty. You continue to inspire me and I look forward to writing even more chapters
together with you in our book of life. I love you.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you immensely to my dissertation chair, Dr. Helena Seli, for your guidance and
support. My path was certainly filled with twists and turns but I am grateful for your patience
and understanding throughout the process.
Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Renee Smith-Maddox and Dr. Mark Pearson,
for your investment in my success. Dr. Smith-Maddox, our chance meeting during my second
year in the program proved to be the beginning of a fantastic academic journey that I hope
continues past this milestone. Dr. Pearson, from the first evening of your diversity class I knew
that I found a kindred spirit who would be an integral part of my experience.
Thank to you to Ms. Felicia Pratt and the USC Washington, DC Central Office for
providing much needed office space that enabled me to get my dissertation to the finish line.
Thank you to my Alpha Phi Alpha brother, Jermaine Hatley, who never hesitated to
provide accommodations to me during my cross-country trips to Los Angeles. Thank you to my
friends, Dr. Matthew Shaw and Dr. Shonda Goward, for your words of encouragement and for
personally understanding the impact that this journey would have on my life.
To my colleagues in OCL Cohort 2, thanks for sharing your lives with me. We laughed
and cried together as life continued to move, sometimes in the fiercest of ways. Special thanks
to my Tuesday Trojans—Rosanne Cameron, Stephanie George, Erika Maldonado, Arvind
Ramakrishnand, Annie Rinaldi, Melissa Singh, and Andy Surber—for personifying Rossier’s
mission. There is truly beauty in diversity and I’m thankful to call all of you my friends.
And special thanks to my Fab 5 family—Vanessa Gonzalez, Andrekka Lanier, Guillermo
Munoz, and Juliet Reed—for understanding in deeply personal ways what our journey together
symbolizes for our ancestors, families, and generations to come. Fight On!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 3
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 9
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... 10
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 12
Introduction of the Problem of Practice ................................................................................ 12
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................... 13
Organizational Performance Status ....................................................................................... 13
Opportunity Trailblazers’ Staff Diversity Goal .................................................................... 15
Importance of the Promising Practice Study ........................................................................ 16
Description of Stakeholder Groups ....................................................................................... 17
Stakeholder Group for the Study .......................................................................................... 17
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ...................................................................... 18
Methodological Framework .................................................................................................. 19
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................ 21
Barriers to Staff Diversity in Nonprofit Organizations ......................................................... 21
Changing Demographics ................................................................................................... 22
The Impact of Boards on Nonprofit Organizations’ Organizational Effectiveness .......... 23
Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Framework .......................................................................... 24
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Key Influences Impacting Opportunity Trailblazers’ Human Capital Team ........................ 26
Assumed Knowledge Influences ....................................................................................... 26
General theory ............................................................................................................... 26
Knowledge types ........................................................................................................... 26
Human resources practices ........................................................................................... 27
Recruiting practices .................................................................................................. 28
Retention strategies ................................................................................................... 29
Unconscious bias .......................................................................................................... 30
Assumed Motivation Influences ....................................................................................... 32
General theory ............................................................................................................... 32
Attributions ................................................................................................................... 32
The Human Capital Team’s belief about effort ........................................................ 33
Expectancy value .......................................................................................................... 34
The Human Capital Team’s value of improving staff diversity ................................ 35
Assumed Organizational Influences ................................................................................. 37
Cultural models ............................................................................................................. 38
Cultural settings ............................................................................................................ 38
Representational issues ............................................................................................. 38
Interactional issues ................................................................................................... 39
Workplace environment practices ............................................................................. 40
Opportunity Trailblazers’ organizational commitment to diversity ............................. 41
The impact of leadership in institutionalizing diversity as an organizational value ..... 42
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................... 45
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Summary ............................................................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 49
Sample ................................................................................................................................... 50
Data Collection and Instrumentation .................................................................................... 50
Interviews .......................................................................................................................... 51
Content Analysis ............................................................................................................... 53
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 53
Trustworthiness and Credibility ............................................................................................ 54
Ethics ..................................................................................................................................... 55
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................................... 56
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS ........................................................................ 58
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences .................................................................. 58
Procedural Knowledge ...................................................................................................... 59
Recruiting strategies ...................................................................................................... 59
Retention strategies ....................................................................................................... 60
Metacognitive Knowledge ................................................................................................ 61
Unconscious bias .......................................................................................................... 61
Results and Findings for Motivation Influences ................................................................... 62
Attributions ....................................................................................................................... 62
The Human Capital Team’s belief about effort ............................................................ 63
Expectancy Value ............................................................................................................. 63
The Human Capital Team’s value of improving staff diversity ................................... 64
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Results and Findings for Organizational Influences ............................................................. 64
Cultural Settings................................................................................................................ 65
Representational issues ................................................................................................. 65
Interactional issues ........................................................................................................ 66
Workplace environment practices ................................................................................. 66
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 67
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND THE INTEGRATED IMPLEMENTATION
AND EVALUATION PLAN ....................................................................................................... 69
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ............................................... 69
Knowledge Recommendations ......................................................................................... 69
Procedural knowledge solutions ................................................................................... 70
Metacognitive knowledge solutions ............................................................................. 71
Motivation Recommendations .......................................................................................... 72
Attribution motivation solutions ................................................................................... 73
Expectancy value motivation solutions ........................................................................ 74
Organizational Recommendations .................................................................................... 75
Cultural setting solutions .............................................................................................. 76
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ................................................................... 77
The New World Kirkpatrick Model ...................................................................................... 78
Level 4: Results ................................................................................................................. 79
Leading indicators ......................................................................................................... 80
Level 3: Behavior .............................................................................................................. 81
Critical behaviors .......................................................................................................... 81
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Required drivers ............................................................................................................ 82
Level 2: Learning .............................................................................................................. 84
Learning goals ............................................................................................................... 85
Components of learning ................................................................................................ 85
Level 1: Reaction .............................................................................................................. 86
Evaluation Tools ............................................................................................................... 87
Immediately following the program implementation ................................................... 87
Delayed for a period after the program implementation ............................................... 88
Data Analysis and Reporting ............................................................................................ 88
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approaches ...................................................................... 89
Future Research .................................................................................................................... 91
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 91
References ..................................................................................................................................... 93

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Opportunity Trailblazers' FY2015 Diversity and Inclusion Goals ................................ 14
Table 2. Assumed Knowledge Influences on the Human Capital Team ..................................... 31
Table 3. Assumed Motivation Influences on the Human Capital Team ...................................... 36
Table 4. Assumed Organizational Influences on the Human Capital Team ................................ 43
Table 5. Summary of Assumed Influences Related to Increasing Opportunity Trailblazers' Staff
Diversity ................................................................................................................................ 44
Table 6. Interview Participant Comments Regarding Recruiting Strategies ............................... 59
Table 7. Interview Participant Comments Regarding Retention Strategies ................................ 60
Table 8. Interview Participant Comments Regarding Unconscious Bias .................................... 61
Table 9. Interview Participant Comments Regarding Their Belief About Effort ........................ 63
Table 10. Interview Participant Comments Regarding Their Value of Improving Staff Diversity
............................................................................................................................................... 64
Table 11. Summary of Knowledge Assets and Recommendations ............................................. 69
Table 12. Summary of Motivation Assets and Recommendations .............................................. 72
Table 13. Summary of Organizational Assets, Needs, and Recommendations ........................... 75
Table 14. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for Internal Outcomes ............................................ 80
Table 15. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................. 82
Table 16. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors .......................................................... 83
Table 17. Components of Learning for the Training Program .................................................... 86
Table 18. Components to Measure Reactions to the Training Program ...................................... 87

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Gap analysis process. Adapted from Clark and Estes (2008) ..................................... 25
Figure 2. The interaction of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on
Opportunity Trailblazers' Human Capital Team ................................................................... 46
Figure 3. The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). ..................... 79
Figure 4. Notional examples of people graphs indicating year to year changes in staff data ...... 89

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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to assess a nonprofit organization’s performance in relation to the
larger problem of practice of increasing staff diversity in nonprofit organizations. Demographic
trends indicate a continuous increase in the racial and ethnic diversity of the United States’
population; however, these trends are not mirrored by nonprofit organizations. Several external
and internal challenges create barriers in nonprofit organizations’ efforts to increase staff
diversity. Guided by Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework, interviews were
conducted with staff members of a nonprofit organization in order to assess knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences impacting the efforts of the organization to increase
the racial and ethnic diversity of its staff and to identify knowledge, motivation, and
organizational assets that could be appropriate for addressing the problem of practice at other
nonprofit organizations. Results found that the organization possessed several knowledge,
motivation, and organizational assets which could inform the larger problem of practice. It is
important for nonprofit organizations to reflect the growing diversity of the communities that
they serve in order to more effectively meet their stakeholders’ needs.

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An Assessment of a Nonprofit Organization’s Effort to Increase Its Staff Diversity
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Nonprofit organizations serve a unique purpose in impacting short-, near-, and long-term
outcomes for the stakeholders whom they serve. Daley (2002) stated that the value that
nonprofit organizations offer includes securing basic needs, such as educational support and
housing for groups in need, and rallying behind causes to “pursue social, economic, and political
justice” for “oppressed groups” (p. 34). Oppressed groups generally include racial and ethnic
minorities (Freire, 1993). However, over 70% of nonprofit organizations surveyed by Nonprofit
HR identified racial and ethnic diversity as one of their most significant staffing challenges
(Nonprofit HR, 2014). While diversity can be defined several ways, for the purpose of this
study, the term diversity refers to racial and ethnic diversity. In addition, the terms “diverse” and
“of color” are used interchangeably to refer to racial and ethnic minorities.
Demographic trends indicate a significant and continuous increase in the diversity of the
United States’ population; however, these trends are not found in nonprofit organizations
(Halpern, 2006; Virgil, Wyatt, & Brennan, 2015; Weisinger, Borges-Mendez, & Milofsky, 2016;
Weitzman, Jalandoni, Lampkin, & Pollack, 2002). As demographic trends confirm an
increasingly more diverse nation, research contends that nonprofit organizations should reflect
the growing diversity of the communities that they serve (Weisinger & Salipante, 2007).
However, a variety of external and internal challenges create barriers in nonprofit organizations’
efforts to increase staff diversity (Bond, Haynes, Toof, Holmberg, & Quinteros, 2013). These
challenges are important to address because staff diversity impacts nonprofit organizations’
ability to effectively serve their stakeholders (Brown, 2002).
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Organizational Context and Mission
Opportunity Trailblazers (OT) is a nonprofit organization headquartered in Northern
California (note: the name of the organization has been anonymized for the purpose of this
study). Since its founding in 2003, OT has expanded to twenty cities across the United States.
As the organization’s website states, the mission of the organization is to improve educational
access and outcomes for kindergarten through twelfth grade (K–12) students with a focus on
students of color and low-income students. While offering a variety of professional services, the
core of OT’s programs is focused on identifying professional talent from nontraditional
educational sectors including law, business, and public policy and matching talent with a variety
of education partner organizations including K–12 public schools, charter management
organizations, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies. According to the
organization’s website, the organization partners with over 200 education organizations across
the country. OT currently employs approximately 58 staff members nationwide.
Organizational Performance Status
In 2014, OT’s leadership established a diversity and inclusion (D&I) workgroup to define
organization wide D&I goals, success metrics, and activities for OT’s 2015 fiscal year (FY). As
a result of their work, the D&I workgroup identified five FY2015 D&I goals including: 1)
customizing OT’s D&I vision and strategy; 2) focusing on D&I impacts and metrics; 3) focusing
on D&I recruiting and selection practices; 4) investing in leadership development to retain high
performers; and 5) ensuring ongoing discussions regarding D&I. Success metrics and activities
for each goal were established to enable the measurement and evaluation of OT’s performance
towards its FY2015 D&I goals. Table 1 provides a summary of OT’s 2015 D&I goals, success
metrics, and activities presented by the D&I workgroup in January 2015.
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Table 1
Opportunity Trailblazers’ FY2015 Diversity and Inclusion Goals
D&I goal Success metric Activity Timeline

Customize vision
and strategy

Finalize OT’s definition of
diversity and inclusion

Create OT D&I Council
Create explicit and more
accessible definition of
diversity and inclusion
April 2015

Create proposed plan for
D&I Council to launch in
FY16
April 2015

Focus on impacts
and metrics

Establish an evaluation
system for monitoring and
sharing progress on D&I
work

Create a D&I dashboard to
be shared on a quarterly
basis
Create D&I dashboard April 2015

Develop collection systems
to track D&I data
April 2015

Implement D&I climate
survey
March 2015

Focus on recruiting
and selection
practices
Increase percentage of
candidates of color
advancing to second round
interviews

Create a system to capture
talent pipeline for full-time
roles with a focus on race
and ethnicity
Implement talent
cultivation strategy with all
FY15 Fellows
September
2015

Create system to capture
full-time talent cultivation
efforts
April 2015

Gather hiring
benchmarking data to
inform second round
interview metric
April 2015

Identify partner(s) for D&I
training for all hiring
managers
February
2015

Invest in leadership
development to
retain high
performers
Disaggregated Net
Promoter Score for
race/ethnicity to establish a
baseline

Implement D&I climate
survey
March 2015

Hold career conversations
with all team members
March 2015

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D&I goal Success metric Activity Timeline
Finalize a climate survey
question related to D&I to
establish a baseline
Begin to create a scope and
sequence for cultural
competence development
April 2015

Identify partner(s) to create
OT rubric to measure
cultural competence
April 2015

Ensure ongoing
discussion
Meaningful conversations
amongst all OT teams
regarding OT’s
commitment to D&I
Share progress on D&I
progress at all Town Hall
meetings
Ongoing

Create a guide for team
conversations for
remainder of FY15
March 2015

All D&I team members are
trained to facilitate race
and class conversations
May 2015

As part of the D&I workgroup’s recommended success metrics, a climate survey question
regarding D&I was included in a May 2015 OT staff survey. Survey results indicated that OT’s
staff members believed that staff diversity was a significant organizational challenge, specifically
in the areas of recruitment, retention, and leadership development. Furthermore, staff members
indicated a desire for more intentional discussions regarding race and class. In response to the
survey results, a diversity, equity, and inclusion strategy was initiated with the goal of increasing
OT’s staff diversity and improving OT’s diversity climate.
Opportunity Trailblazers’ Staff Diversity Goal
As a component of OT’s diversity, equity, and inclusion strategy, OT established a staff
diversity goal to reach an organizational staff make-up of 40% staff of color by October 2017.
This goal was established by OT in August 2015, following several preliminary activities,
including the aforementioned January 2015 workgroup presentation on D&I success metrics and
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May 2015 staff survey. Progress towards OT’s staff diversity goal was measured by analyzing
OT’s FY2016 (10/1/15 – 9/30/16) and FY2017 (10/1/16 – 9/30/17) staff data. OT successfully
achieved its staff diversity goal by February 2017, eight months ahead of its initial October 2017
target. Their success provides a potential model which could inform other nonprofit
organizations’ staff diversity efforts. Thus, this dissertation was designed as a promising
practice study.
Importance of the Promising Practice Study
It is important to examine OT’s performance in relationship to their staff diversity goal
for a variety of reasons. Examining OT’s performance provides more explicit and focused
practice for OT itself, enabling OT to further institutionalize its staff diversity practices.
Addressing staff diversity also has several internal and external implications for nonprofit
organizations. Internally, increased staff diversity better enables organizations to attract and
retain additional diverse talent (Schwartz, Weinberg, Hagenbuch, & Scott, 2011) and institute
internal policies that more effectively consider the needs of diverse staff members (Hyde &
Hopkins, 2004). Externally, increased staff diversity strengthens organizations’ ability to make
program and policy decisions that are more reflective of their stakeholders’ interests (Brown,
2002). According to Swanson (2013), stakeholders are more likely to engage with nonprofit
organizations when they believe the organizations provide value to their community. Among
key stakeholders served by nonprofit organizations are students of color.
Students of color account for 48% of the country’s student population (Center for
American Progress, 2014). Organizations that are more diverse, equitable, and inclusive are
more effective in influencing positive outcomes for students (Padamsee & Crowe, 2017). As
OT’s mission is focused on improving educational outcomes for students nationwide, with an
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emphasis on the outcomes of students of color and low-income students, increasing staff
diversity improves OT’s and similar organizations’ organizational effectiveness in
accomplishing this mission. Failure to address this challenge impacts organizations’
effectiveness in meeting this mission, which could ultimately impede the socio-economic
progress of some of our country’s most vulnerable populations.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are many factors that influence an organization’s ability to successfully achieve its
goals. Achieving organizational goals often impacts organizational processes and staff
members’ responsibilities. Individuals who have vested interests in the outcomes of goal
achievement, whether as sponsors or benefactors, are known as stakeholders (Lewis, 2011).
There are several stakeholder groups instrumental to the successful achievement of OT’s staff
diversity goal, including OT’s Board of Directors, Executive Team, and Human Capital Team.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While a comprehensive assessment could include OT’s Board of Directors and Executive
Team, for this study, OT’s Human Capital Team was the focal stakeholder group for this study.
The Human Capital Team was a five-member group led by OT’s Vice President of Human
Capital and is the stakeholder group most directly responsible for designing, implementing, and
managing strategies to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. The impact of the Human Capital
Team’s leadership was manifested through what Northouse (2016) defined as technical skill.
The technical skill approach to leadership focuses on the possession of knowledge and
competencies in a specific area of expertise (Northouse, 2016). As OT’s primary resource group
focused on strategic human capital matters, the Human Capital Team was an essential leader in
achieving the success of OT’s staff diversity goal.
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Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to assess OT’s Human Capital Team’s performance related
to a larger problem of practice: staff diversity in nonprofit organizations. The assessment
focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets enabling OT’s Human Capital
Team to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal to reach an organizational staff make up of 40% staff
of color by October 2017. Astin (2002) has contended that assessments, particularly for
education focused organizations, are important in building the capacity of the organizations’
leaders as well as the students in which they serve. Thus, it is important to study underlying
causes, assets, and needs and recommend strategies that might help nonprofit organizations
address staff diversity challenges. Otherwise, nonprofit organizations risk not having staffs that
proportionately reflect the communities they serve, impacting their ability to develop and
implement effective strategies that meet their communities’ needs.
As such, the following questions guided this study:
1. What is Opportunity Trailblazers’ Human Capital Team’s knowledge and motivation
related to achieving Opportunity Trailblazers’ staff diversity goal of reaching an
organizational staff make up of 40% staff of color by October 2017?
2. What is the interaction between Opportunity Trailblazers’ organizational culture and
context and its Human Capital Team’s knowledge and motivation?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for addressing the problem of practice at other nonprofit
organizations?
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Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework, which focuses on identifying,
analyzing, and addressing organizational gaps, was selected for this study’s methodological
framework. This approach enabled an effective examination of the Human Capital Team’s
capacity to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) influences were assessed through a review of relevant literature, a content analysis of
select OT documents, and interviews with members of OT’s Human Capital Team.
Recommendations for the problem of practice were determined in accordance with analysis
findings.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized by five chapters. Chapter One provides readers with an
introduction of the problem of practice and organizational context of OT, including OT’s
mission, stakeholder groups, and staff diversity goal. Chapter One also explains the purpose and
importance of the study, identifies the research questions that guided the study, and provides an
overview of the study’s methodological framework. Chapter Two provides a review of current
literature surrounding the scope of the study, including: demographic trends in the United States
and their relation to nonprofit organizations; the impact of boards on nonprofit organizations’
organizational performance; and KMO influences on the recruitment and retention of diverse
staff members. Chapter Three discusses methodology details, the study sample, and data
collection and analysis procedures. Chapter Four provides results of the data analysis and
identifies KMO assets which may help other nonprofit organizations address similar staff
diversity goals. The study concludes with Chapter Five, which provides recommendations for
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 20

effective practices to increase staff diversity, based on literature and data findings, as well as an
implementation and evaluation plan to provide guidance on implementing the recommendations.

NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 21

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter reviews literature pertinent to staff diversity within nonprofit organizations
for the purpose of: examining OT’s Human Capital Team’s knowledge and motivation related to
achieving OT’s staff diversity goal; understanding the interaction between OT’s organizational
culture and the Human Capital Team’s knowledge and motivation; and identifying
recommendations to address the problem of practice at other nonprofit organizations. The
literature begins with a focus on United States demographic trends and their relation to nonprofit
organizations. The review of literature continues by examining factors impacting the recruitment
and retention of diverse staff members. The chapter concludes by reviewing literature
concentrated on KMO gap analysis dimensions to assess KMO influences impacting the Human
Capital Team’s capacity to recruit and retain diverse staff members. By assessing KMO
influences, assets and recommended practices can be identified for other organizations to address
KMO gaps and improve their capacity to recruit and retain diverse staff members.
Barriers to Staff Diversity in Nonprofit Organizations
While data projects that racial and ethnic minorities will become the majority of the
United States’ demographic population over the next three decades, research indicates that
nonprofit organizations face challenges in mirroring this trend. Among staffing challenges faced
by nonprofit organizations, diversity has been identified as the most significant (Nonprofit HR,
2014). Research indicates that nonprofit organizations’ staff diversity challenges are influenced
by several factors, including: the impact of nonprofit organizations’ boards on their
organizational performance; the possession of adequate knowledge and skills in human resources
(HR) practices, particularly practices focused on staff recruitment and retention; individual and
collective motivation to pursue diversity goals; and organizational models and settings.
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 22

Collectively, these factors impact nonprofit organizations’ ability to effectively attract, recruit,
and retain diverse staff members.
Changing Demographics
Demographic trends indicate a significant and continuous increase in the diversity of the
United States’ population. According to the United States Census Bureau, the United States is
projected to become a predominantly minority country by 2043 (United States Census Bureau,
2012). By 2060, racial and ethnic minority populations are projected to significantly increase,
with the most notable gains being made by Hispanic, African American, and Asian American
populations (United States Census Bureau, 2012). While the United States is becoming
increasingly more diverse, research indicates that nonprofit organizations do not mirror this trend
(Halpern, 2006; Virgil et al., 2015; Weisinger et al., 2016; Weitzman et al., 2002).
In a 2002 study of nonprofit organizations, Weitzman et al. found that, for the
organizations studied, African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans accounted for a
combined total of 16% of the organizations’ staff members while White staff members
accounted for nearly 82%. At the leadership level, Halpern (2006) found that nearly 84% of
nonprofit organizations were led by Whites. In their study of 44 education nonprofit
organizations, Virgil et al. (2015), found that leaders of color accounted for 39% of the
organizations’ directors, 18% of the organizations’ vice-presidents, and 25% of the
organizations’ chief executive officers. Even in populations with high percentages of racial and
ethnic minorities, diverse leadership in nonprofit organizations remains relatively low. For
example, a 2010 study found that, although nearly 70% of Baltimore’s population was comprised
of racial and ethnic minorities, less than 35% of Baltimore’s nonprofit organizations were led by
diverse executives (DeVita & Roeger, 2010). In Washington, D.C., the same study found that
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 23

30% of the city’s nonprofit organizations had diverse leaders although racial and ethnic
minorities accounted for nearly 68% of its population (DeVita & Roeger, 2010). As the United
States becomes increasingly more diverse, research contends that it is essential for nonprofit
organizations to increase their staff diversity to more effectively serve their communities (Hyde,
2003; Metzler, 1998; Weisinger & Salipante, 2007). However, there are multiple factors which
impact nonprofit organizations’ ability to increase their levels of staff diversity, including the
influence of their boards on their organizational performance.
The Impact of Boards on Nonprofit Organizations’ Organizational Effectiveness
While boards have a variety of responsibilities that impact organizational effectiveness,
research focused on nonprofit organizations identifies decision-making and internal control as
two key board responsibilities. These responsibilities are respectively grounded in the
theoretical constructs of group decision-making theory and agency theory (Brown, 2005;
Jaskyte, 2012). Group decision-making theory posits that nonprofit organizations function more
effectively when decision-making authority rests with governance boards as opposed to
individuals (Bainbridge, 2002). Agency theory suggests that nonprofit organizations function
more effectively when boards represent the best interests of their organizations’ stakeholders
(Fama & Jensen, 1983). While both theories may explain boards’ impact on nonprofit
organizations’ organizational effectiveness, diversity levels within boards are significant
influencers on their ability to effectively carry out their responsibilities. However, research
findings indicate gaps when observing diversity at the board level (Ostrower, 2007; Virgil et al.,
2015).
Of the 44 organizations studied by Virgil et al. (2015), African Americans represented
12% of the organizations’ board members while Hispanics and Asian Americans represented 4%
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 24

and 6% respectively. Ostrower’s 2007 study of over 5,100 nonprofit organizations found that
86% of the organizations’ board members were White while African Americans and Hispanics
represented 7% and 3.5% respectively of the organizations’ board members. However, when
controlling for nonprofit organizations whose targeted stakeholders were over 50% African
American or Hispanic, board diversity is even lower. In those cases, Ostrower found that 18% of
the nonprofit boards studied did not include African American board members and 32% did not
include Hispanics. Within group decision-making theory and agency theory constructs, there are
several implications to limited diversity within nonprofit boards.
Nonprofit boards face numerous challenges to their effectiveness when they lack
diversity, such as restricted viewpoints, experiences, and perspectives. These challenges can
impede the ability of boards to draw from multiple perspectives during their decision-making
processes, resulting in the implementation of policies, processes, and procedures that do not
effectively reflect the best interests of their organizations’ stakeholders (Balser & McClusky,
2005; Brown, 2002; Brown, 2005; Fredette & Bradshaw, 2002; Harris, 2014; Jaskyte, 2012).
Ultimately, nonprofit boards’ responsibilities, such as selecting and evaluating the performance
of organizational leaders and evaluating the effectiveness of nonprofit organizations in fulfilling
their missions, are significant organizational influences on nonprofit organizations’ ability to
recruit and retain diverse staff members.
Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework assesses KMO influences on
organizational performance and guides the conceptual framework for this study. Knowledge (K)
influences pertain to factors impacting whether individuals and organizations know how to
accomplish performance goals. Motivation (M) influences focus on the degree to which
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 25

individuals choose to persist and apply mental effort towards accomplishing performance goals.
The category of organizational (O) influences refers to the organizational values, practices,
material resources, and work processes needed to achieve performance goals.
As shown in Figure 1, the gap analysis process entails identifying organizational goals;
assessing whether the organization’s current state enables goal achievement; identifying
performance gaps that may prohibit the achievement of organizational goals; determining the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on the performance gaps; developing and
implementing solutions to address the performance gaps; and evaluating the effectiveness of the
solutions.

Figure 1. Gap analysis process. Adapted from Clark and Estes (2008)
A variety of data gathering and analysis techniques are used within the Clark and Estes
gap analysis framework, including qualitative methods, quantitative methods, and mixed
methods. This study employed qualitative methods, specifically interviews with members of
OT’s Human Capital Team and content reviews of select OT diversity related documents to
identify any KMO influences impacting the Human Capital Team’s ability to recruit and retain
diverse staff members. Recommendations and an implementation and evaluation plan for
promising practice were determined in accordance with gap analysis findings.
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Key Influences Impacting Opportunity Trailblazers’ Human Capital Team
Assumed Knowledge Influences
The following section examines assumed knowledge influences which may impact OT’s
Human Capital Team’s capacity to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. Knowledge types (Rueda,
2011) are identified and defined to provide a deeper understanding of the relationship of
knowledge influences on goal achievement. Assumed knowledge influences, pertinent to the
Human Capital Team, are further examined.
General theory. Understanding stakeholder knowledge influences is important as this
provides organizations with an understanding of what specific knowledge their staff possesses as
well what knowledge gaps exist so that appropriate support can be identified and implemented
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Providing organizational stakeholders with the requisite
knowledge is essential when they believe that innovative problem solving is needed to address
immediate, near-, and long-term organizational challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008). Furthermore,
understanding knowledge gaps enables nonprofit professionals to address them and improves
their efforts to achieve organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). In cases where
organizations do not know how to achieve their goals, knowledge acquired through information,
job aids, or training can provide the guidance needed for organizations to work towards goal
achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008). However, if organizations require more innovative problem
solving approaches, pursuing more in-depth education is recommended (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge types. When knowledge is acquired, learning occurs and is manifested
through behavioral changes (Mayer, 2011). Rueda (2011) indicated that four knowledge types,
identified as factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and
metacognitive knowledge, influence learning. Collectively, factual knowledge and conceptual
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knowledge are also known as declarative knowledge, which is defined as information that a
person already knows (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011). Factual knowledge is the most basic
of the four knowledge types and focuses on what one must know to have a general understanding
of a discipline (Krathwohl, 2002). This understanding includes essentials such as facts,
terminology, and details (Rueda, 2011). Conceptual knowledge builds on factual knowledge and
focuses on how one connects facts, terminology, and details into larger structures, theories,
principles, or models (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Whereas declarative knowledge pertains
to what one knows, procedural knowledge and metacognitive knowledge focuses on more
complex cognitive processes.
Procedural knowledge relates to knowledge of the skills, techniques, and methods
specific to subjects and how one applies this knowledge towards performing tasks (Bruning et al.
2011; Krathwohl, 2002). Furthermore, it pertains to skills, techniques, and methods needed to
accomplish relevant activities and tasks (Rueda, 2011). Metacognitive knowledge focuses on
one’s awareness of their own cognitive processes and their knowledge regarding the process of
acquiring knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). In addition, metacognitive knowledge
pertains to how one knows when to use applicable learning processes to acquire further
knowledge (Mayer, 2011). Conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge influences on
OT’s Human Capital Team are further examined.
Human resources practices. Nigro, Nigro, and Kellough (2007) emphasized the
importance of recruiting and selecting candidates to the success of organizations’ HR programs.
Nigro et al. (2007) contended that organizations’ HR functions should be included in any group
responsible for setting organizational goals and defining organizational missions. To effectively
recruit candidates and retain staff members, Bolman and Deal (2003) emphasized the importance
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 28

of establishing a firm HR foundation, including: implementing an HR philosophy; hiring desired
candidates; investing in employees’ growth and development; and empowering employees. It is
essential to promote diversity within organizational missions and goals to drive effective HR
practices (Bolman & Deal, 2003). The following sections examine the knowledge needed for
nonprofit HR professionals to effectively recruit and retain diverse staff members.
Recruiting practices. From a conceptual and procedural knowledge perspective, this
study sought to assess the Human Capital Team’s effectiveness in understanding and applying
best practices in attracting and hiring diverse candidates. Nonprofit organizations indicate that
they rely significantly on their informal networks to identify, recruit, and hire candidates
(Nonprofit HR, 2014). However, this may pose a challenge if HR practitioners or those with
recruiting responsibilities have limited diverse networks. Limited networks are often identified
as weak ties, due to their lack of regular communication and contact (Granovetter, 1983;
Hargadon, 2003). Likewise, networks that communicate regularly and are readily accessible are
considered strong ties (Granovetter, 1983; Hargadon, 2003). In order for nonprofit HR
professionals to effectively recruit diverse staff members, they must possess knowledge of how
to leverage both strong and weak tie networks to identify potential staff members.
While strong ties advantage recruiting by providing immediate networks, weak ties offer
opportunities to bridge networks (Gelles, Merrick, Derrickson, Otis, Sweeten-Lopez, & Folsom,
2009). Possessing procedural knowledge of idea networking practices can help nonprofit HR
professionals increase their pool of potential candidates. Idea networking, emphasizes building
“a bridge into a different area of knowledge by interacting with someone with
whom…people…typically do not interact” (Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen, 2011, p. 116).
Examples of idea networking practices to expand the diversity of candidate pools include
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 29

attending diversity focused professional conferences or recruiting from historical black colleges
and universities or Hispanic serving institutions. These practices can increase HR professionals’
awareness of recruiting sources that they may have previously overlooked. Incorporating idea
networking practices in recruiting strategies can result in expanded diversity pools which could
better enable the recruitment of diverse candidates (Knowlton, 2001). This study sought to
examine how OT’s Human Capital Team leveraged its networks to more effectively recruit
diverse candidates.
Retention strategies. From an additional conceptual and procedural knowledge
perspective, this study further sought to assess OT’s Human Capital Team’s capacity to
understand and leverage best practices to implement effective staff retention strategies.
Retaining diverse staff members is critical in institutionalizing a more inclusive organizational
culture by making the organization more attractive to potential candidates, allowing for organic
as well as structured support units, and building pipelines for more diverse leadership (The
Denver Foundation, 2003; The Denver Foundation, 2007). Research emphasizes the use of
training and development programs as effective strategies in retaining staff members. Argunis
and Kraiger (2009) defined training as “the systematic approach to affecting individuals’
knowledge, skills, and attitudes in order to improve individual, team, and organizational
effectiveness” (p. 452). Likewise, they defined development as “systematic efforts affecting
individuals’ knowledge or skills for purposes of personal growth or future jobs and/or roles”
(Argunis & Kraiger, 2009, p. 452). While training and development opportunities are often
viewed as practices to improve employees’ knowledge and skills, access to training and
development opportunities also improve employees’ attitudes, motivation, and sense of
connectedness to their organizations (Argunis & Kraiger, 2009; McGee & Johnson, 2015).
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According to Schwartz et al. (2011), staff members of color at nonprofit organizations
routinely express frustration with the lack of professional development opportunities available to
them. Furthermore, Grossman and Salas (2011) stated that supervisory support is one of the
most impactful influencers on employees’ access to training and professional development
opportunities as well as the ability of employees to apply competencies gained from professional
development and training. Inadequate supervisory support can negatively impact employees’
access to professional development and training opportunities. Staff members of color cite
barriers to access to training and professional development opportunities or inadequate training
and professional development opportunities as key reasons why they leave nonprofit
organizations (The Denver Foundation, 2003). This study sought to examine the training and
professional development opportunities available to OT’s staff, particularly OT’s staff members
of color.
Unconscious bias. From a metacognitive knowledge perspective, this study sought to
understand the Human Capital Team’s awareness of the impact of unconscious bias on their
efforts to recruit diverse staff members. Unconscious bias refers to the unintentional influence of
social constructions, prejudices, and stereotypes on behaviors (Moule, 2009). Greenwald and
Pettigrew (2014) discussed the concept of ingroup favoritism, which examines how unconscious
attraction between and towards members of similar demographic groups influences recruiting
and hiring decisions. Due to bias and limited access to networks, HR professionals who are
White may recruit predominantly White staff members without consciously intending to do so.
Even in instances when diverse candidates are considered, nuances such as skin tone can
subconsciously impact bias. Russell, Wilson, and Hall (1992) noted that African Americans with
lighter skin tones tended to be hired and promoted by Whites more often than African Americans
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 31

with darker skin tones. Furthermore, subjectivity on backgrounds influence perceptions of
qualifications, thus impacting opportunities to be interviewed and hired for roles (Appiah &
Gutmann, 1996). The Human Capital Team will be better positioned to successfully achieve
OT’s staff diversity goal by being actively aware of their own perceptions and biases and the
potential impacts that their perceptions and biases have on recruiting diverse staff members. A
summary of the assumed knowledge influences is presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Influences on the Human Capital Team
Assumed knowledge influence Knowledge type Assessment method

Understanding and applying
knowledge of recruiting and
retaining diverse candidates and
staff members
Conceptual knowledge

Procedural knowledge
Conceptual and procedural
knowledge themed interview
questions with members of the
Human Capital Team

Sample interview questions:
“Please tell me about the
strategies you use to recruit
candidates of color.”

“Please tell me about the
strategies you use to retain
staff members of color.”

Self-reflection on perceptions
and biases and their impact on
recruiting diverse staff
members
Metacognitive knowledge Metacognitive knowledge
themed interview questions
with members of the Human
Capital Team

Sample interview question:
“Do you actively consider
your own identity,
perceptions, and biases in
relation to your work?”

NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 32

Assumed Motivation Influences
The following section examines assumed motivation influences which may impact OT’s
Human Capital Team’s capacity to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. While knowledge
influences guide individuals on how to accomplish their goals, Rueda (2011) highlighted that it
cannot be assumed that individuals will have the desire to pursue goals. Thus, understanding
motivation influences is essential in determining how to maximize performance and effort
towards the accomplishment of organizational goals.
General theory. Mayer (2011) indicated that there are four components of motivation.
First, motivation is personal and occurs within individuals. Second, motivation is activating,
which means that it prompts behavior. Next, motivation is energizing, which means that it
cultivates tenacity. Lastly, motivation is directed, which means that it is focused towards
achieving a goal. Even when gaps do not exist between goals and performance, understanding
and increasing employees’ motivation provides valuable benefits to an organization (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes (2008) stated that motivation can be measured in terms of active
choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice focuses on individuals’ decisions to pursue
goals. Persistence focuses on the degree of commitment to pursue goals in the face of
distractions. Mental effort focuses on the mental practices that individuals follow to enable the
achievement of goals. While several theories examine underlying motivational constructs that
influence active choice, persistence, and mental effort, attribution theory and expectancy value
motivational theory will be examined in relation to OT’s Human Capital Team.
Attributions. Studied by scholar Bernard Weiner, attribution theory examines
individuals’ beliefs about their success or failure at a task and their degree of control in
influencing the outcome (Rueda, 2011). Rueda explained that attributions are examined along
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 33

three dimensions: stability, locus, and control. Stability pertains to the degree of permanence of
an attribution. Locus pertains to whether an attribution is related to internal or external factors.
Control focuses on the degree that an individual can control an attribution. An individual’s
motivation to complete a task is influenced by their belief that the effort that they put towards the
task, as opposed to their ability or other external factors, will result in the expected outcome
(Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Mayer, 2011). Thus, from an attributions perspective,
individuals are inclined to work harder towards completing tasks if they believe that their level
of effort will be successful (Mayer, 2009).
The Human Capital Team’s belief about effort. OT’s Human Capital Team must
believe that their success in achieving OT’s staff diversity goal is contingent on their individual
and collective efforts in pursuing the goal rather than external, uncontrollable factors such as a
lack of available candidates. In their study of nonprofit organization staff members, Wells,
Feinberg, Alexander, and Ward (2009) examined the relationship between staff members’ level
of effort and their perceptions of the impact that their organizations make to their target
communities. Wells et al. (2009) defined staff members’ level of effort in terms of training
attendance, active participation in staff meetings, time spent in meetings, and time spent towards
work outside of meetings. Study results found that meeting participation and time spent outside
of meetings positively influenced staff members’ perceptions of organizational impact. Wells et
al. (2009) asserted that staff members’ perceptions of impact, based on their level of effort, was
important because it influenced their continued degree of effort. As members of OT’s Human
Capital Team examine their individual and collective motivation towards achieving OT’s staff
diversity goal, they must believe this goal is achievable via internal, controllable factors rather
than external, uncontrollable ones.
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Expectancy value. Studied by scholar Jacquelynne Eccles, expectancy value motivation
theory examines two key questions regarding motivation: “Can I complete the task?” and “Do I
want to complete the task?” The question of “Can I complete the task?” relates closely to the
concept of self-efficacy which, Bandura (1986) defined as “people’s judgments of their
capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to attain designated levels of
performances” (p. 391). According to Bandura (2000), “unless people believe that they can
produce desired effects…by their actions, they have little incentive to act” (p. 75). Expectancy
value is nuanced from attributions. For example, while Anderman and Anderman (2009)
focused on expected outcomes as motivating factors for individuals to complete tasks, Eccles
(2009) emphasized individuals’ belief that they could complete tasks independent of outcomes.
The question of “Do I want to complete the task?” considers values as motivation
influences. Values are significant avenues in which individuals express their beliefs on what will
stimulate and sustain their effectiveness within their organizations (Clark & Estes, 2008). Values
also indicate what motivates individuals to persist towards accomplishing goals (Clark & Estes,
2008). Values are examined along four dimensions: attainment value, intrinsic value, utility
value, and cost value (Eccles, 2009; Rueda, 2011). Attainment value pertains to the degree of
importance individuals ascribe to successfully completing tasks (Rueda, 2011). Intrinsic value
relates to the degree of enjoyment individuals feel from completing tasks as well as expected
enjoyment while in the process of completing tasks (Eccles, 2009; Rueda, 2011). Utility value
refers to the perception held of how useful accomplishing tasks are in achieving future goals
(Rueda, 2011). Cost value refers to individuals perceived costs (measured by factors such as
effort or time) in pursuing tasks (Rueda, 2011). Collectively, from an expectancy value
perspective, individuals are prone to work harder towards completing tasks if they are confident
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 35

in their ability to complete the tasks at hand as well as if they value the process of and outcomes
from completing those tasks (Eccles, 2009; Mayer, 2011).
The Human Capital Team’s value of improving staff diversity. OT’s Human Capital
Team must believe that they possess the ability to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. One
element that generates confidence, particularly in organizational change efforts, is the concept of
short-term wins (Kotter, 2012). Kotter (2012) has asserted that short-term wins: 1) justify the
costs associated with the effort; 2) increases motivation and builds morale; 3) generates
increased momentum towards the change effort; 4) sustains the support of organizational leaders;
4) reduces resistance; and 5) helps refine strategies towards accomplishing organizational goals.
Kotter (1995) emphasized that short-term wins should be intentionally planned and that failing to
incorporate them into organizational change efforts can result in unsuccessful outcomes.
Organizational leaders are instrumental in communicating short-term successes. Tidwell (2005)
stated that nonprofit stakeholders’ degree of connection to their organizations may increase
based on leaders’ intentional communication of organizational accomplishments. OT’s Human
Capital Team can communicate its success in achieving short-term wins by promoting the
accomplishment of any of its FY2015 success metrics (identified in Table 1).
As staff members of a mission-driven organization, OT’s Human Capital Team may be
motivated along multiple dimensions of value. From an attainment value perspective, the
significance of OT’s mission of improving educational opportunities, particularly for low-
income students and students of color, may serve as a motivation influence. At the same time,
members of the Human Capital Team may be intrinsically motivated to perform their work due
to their belief in OT’s mission. However, despite the intrinsic motivation influence of OT’s
mission, the expectancy value of achieving OT’s staff diversity goal may be more influential.
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 36

Research across multiple sectors indicates numerous benefits associated with staff
diversity. In the for-profit sector, staff diversity can help organizations expand their markets and
increase profitability (Hunt, Layton, & Prince, 2015; Kerby & Burns, 2012; Thomas & Ely,
1996). Businesses that are in the top 25% in staff diversity measures are more likely to produce
profits that are higher than competitors outside of the top 25% (Hunt et al., 2015). More
effective patient care, particularly in racially and ethnically diverse communities, has been
attributed to health care organizations that prioritize staff diversity (Bond et al., 2013).
Furthermore, staff diversity increases organizations’ effectiveness in meeting the needs of their
stakeholders by leveraging the perspectives of staff members that reflect the communities in
which their organizations serve (Bond et al., 2013; Virgil et al., 2015). Clark and Estes (2008)
has asserted that “much of what we do is chosen not because we love it or excel at it, but because
we want the benefits that come when we finish” (p. 96). By valuing the potential benefits that
increased staff diversity may have on OT’s organizational effectiveness, OT’s Human Capital
Team may have more increased persistence and apply more mental effort towards achieving
OT’s staff diversity goal. A summary of the assumed motivation types influencing OT’s Human
Capital Team is presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Assumed Motivation Influences on the Human Capital Team
Assumed motivation influence Indicator Assessment method

Attributions Persistence

Mental effort
Attributions themed
interview questions with
members of the Human
Capital Team

Sample interview questions:
“Do you believe that the
Human Capital team’s level
of effort influences OT’s
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Assumed motivation influence Indicator Assessment method
ability to increase its staff
diversity?

“Do you believe that OT’s
success in increasing staff
diversity is influenced more
by individual and collective
internal efforts or external,
uncontrollable factors (such
as the availability of
candidates)?”

Expectancy value Persistence

Mental effort
Expectancy value themed
interview questions with
members of the Human
Capital Team

Sample interview question:
“Do you see any benefits in
increasing OT’s staff
diversity?”

Assumed Organizational Influences
The following section examines assumed organizational influences which may impact
OT’s Human Capital Team’s capacity to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. Clark and Estes
(2008) state that organizational change within an organization is influenced significantly by the
organization’s culture and structure. Organizational culture is “a way to describe the core values,
goals, beliefs, emotions, and processes learned as people develop over time” (Clark & Estes,
2008, p. 108). While organizational culture provides context to veiled aspects of an
organization, organizational structure provides context to visible characteristics.
Examining an organization’s culture and structure can provide insight on what influences
the effectiveness of the organization’s processes and procedures (Rueda, 2011). While
knowledge and motivation are important factors in achieving organizational goals, goal
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 38

achievement is not possible without culture and structure (Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizational
culture and organizational structure are operationalized as cultural models and cultural settings
respectively, to understand their impact on the achievement of organizational goals (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011).
Cultural models. Cultural models are the shared values, beliefs, and understandings that
are generally invisible within organizations (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). These shared
values, beliefs, and understandings are unconscious and taken for granted by individuals within
their organizations (Schein, 2004). Cultural models define shared values and individuals’ beliefs
in the ideal state of their organizations (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). While cultural models
provide insight on the invisible aspects of organizations, cultural settings provide insight on
organizations’ visible aspects (Rueda, 2011).
Cultural settings. Cultural settings refer to the visible manifestations of cultural models
and “can be seen as the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the routines which constitute
everyday life” within organizations (Rueda, 2011, p. 57). Schein (2004) refers to these visible
manifestations as artifacts. Bond et al. (2013) categorize cultural setting artifacts related to
attracting, recruiting, and retaining diverse staff members as representational issues,
interactional issues, and workplace environment practices.
Representational issues. Representational issues pertain to the influence that an
organization’s degree of staff diversity has on diverse candidates’ decisions to pursue job
opportunities with the organization. Diverse candidates are attracted to organizations that have
significant levels of staff diversity (Weisinger & Salipante, 2005). Schwartz et al. (2011) found
that 71% of the people of color that they surveyed indicated that organizations’ levels of staff
diversity were significant influences in their deliberation process to consider pursuing job
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 39

opportunities with those organizations. Diverse candidates may be hesitant to pursue job
opportunities if they are uncomfortable with organizations’ staff diversity levels (Bond et al.,
2013; The Denver Foundation, 2007; Schwartz et al., 2011). Some candidates may completely
forego opportunities. For example, people of color working in the nonprofit sector in Denver,
Colorado indicated that the lack of organizations’ visible commitment to diversity was one of the
most significant factors dissuading their interest in pursuing employment opportunities with
those organizations (The Denver Foundation, 2007).
Interactional issues. Interactional issues relate to the experiences of diverse staff
members within organizations. Abbott (1988) explained that professional environments often
create stratified work groups, based on demographic characteristics, resulting in differentiated
degrees of power. Nonprofit organizations are not immune to these occurences. Research
indicates that staff members of color within nonprofit organizations often experience feelings of
isolation, tokenism, cultural conflict, or perceptions of racial bias (Bond et al., 2013; Feagin &
Sykes, 1994; Hyde & Hopkins, 2004; The Denver Foundation, 2007). The collection of these
incidences is referred to as microagressions which Sue, Capodilupo, Torino, Bucceri, Holder,
Nadal, and Esquilin (2007) defined as “brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, and
environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile,
derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults to the target person or group” (p. 273). A report
on the experiences of nonprofit organization staff members of color in Denver found that those
staff members often felt singled out to speak for their entire racial or ethnic group (The Denver
Foundation, 2007). While there is value in seeking diverse perspectives, it should not be
assumed that individuals from certain cultures align with the dominant values and beliefs of their
cultures (Clark and Estes, 2008). Unconscious bias may result in limited advancement
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 40

opportunities for staff members of color (Bonilla-Silva, 2003). For example, Feagin and Sykes
(1994) explained that staff members of color often found themselves relegated to roles such as
“community affairs” or “special markets” (p. 158). Interactional issues in the workplace have
several emotional and psychological impacts on people of color.
In his seminal work, The Presentation of Self In Everyday Life, social psychologist
Erving Goffman likened public interactions to stage performances, explaining that individuals
often put on “fronts” to cope with their day to day interactions with others (Goffman, 1959, p.
22). Research indicates that this practice is pervasive amongst staff members of color across
sectors. Staff members of color have noted practices such as changing their hair styles or
manners of speech in efforts to fit in to their professional environments (Feagin & Sykes, 1994;
Hacker, 2003). Over time these microaggressions take significant emotional tolls on staff
members of color (Williams, 2000). Tidwell (2005) found that a sense of belonging and
connectedness to nonprofit organizations positively influenced staff members’ levels of
satisfaction and commitment. However, interactional issues may lead to perceptions of limited
career advancement opportunities, decreased job satisfaction, and turnover (Schwartz et al.,
2011; Virgil et al., 2015). Staff members of color may choose to leave their organizations, thus
directly impacting the representational issues that influence the ability of organizations to recruit
diverse staff members.
Workplace environment practices. Workplace environment practices focus on activities
that influence how diversity is embedded within organizational culture. Practices such as
conducting a diversity climate assessment (Hyde & Hopkins, 2004), incorporating a diversity
focused organizational change initiative (Hyde, 2008), or creating a dedicated diversity
committee (Brown, 2002) can help institutionalize diversity as a priority within organizations.
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 41

However, when nonprofit organizations lack staff diversity, they may be prone to conduct
practices or implement policies that do not meaningfully factor diversity (Brown, 2002; The
Denver Foundation, 2003; The Denver Foundation, 2007; Hyde, 2008; Hyde & Hopkins, 2008).
Berger and Webster, Jr. (2006) contended that staff members’ socialized expectations regarding
racial identities influence organizational practices around diversity. Because of this, diversity as
an organizational value may not become institutionalized (Schwartz et al., 2011; Virgil et al.,
2015). By failing to create a culture that embraces diversity, nonprofit organizations are placed
in challenging positions that perpetuate their efforts to increase staff diversity.
While understanding representational issues, interactional issues, and workplace
environment practices provide nonprofit professionals with useful foundational guidance related
to attracting, recruiting, developing, and retaining diverse staff members, examining strategies
and best practices can improve the ability of professionals to implement effective strategies. An
examination of OT’s organizational model and structure indicates several organizational
influences on the achievement of OT’s staff diversity goal.
Opportunity Trailblazers’ organizational commitment to diversity. According to
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), cultural models exemplify an organization’s expressed values
and ideals. However, contradictions between expressed and demonstrated commitment to
diversity is pervasive within nonprofit organizations (Schwartz et al., 2011; Virgil et al., 2015).
In a study of nonprofit organizations, Virgil et al. (2015) found that, while 98% of the nonprofit
organizations that they surveyed expressed a high commitment to diversity, only 31% of the
nonprofit organizations shared a definition of diversity, while just 33% of the organizations listed
diversity as a core value. Similarly, Schwartz et al. (2011) found that, while nearly 90% of the
employees of the nonprofit organizations that they surveyed believed that their organizations
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 42

valued diversity, over 70% of the employees felt that their organizations did not demonstrate a
commitment to diversity in their organizations’ actual practices.
Among qualitative feedback provided by staff members in OT’s May 2015 staff survey,
one staff member communicated: “We need to recognize our diversity challenges and start
acting with regard to hiring, retention, promotion and leadership opportunities as well as to
make time for real conversations about race and class.” Because the belief in a commitment to
diversity is taken for granted as an assumed organizational value, organizations may
unintentionally perpetuate practices, manifested in cultural settings, that are prohibitive to staff
diversity. While previous data provided valuable insight on OT’s staff members’ concerns
regarding diversity, the passage of time warranted an updated assessment.
The impact of leadership in institutionalizing diversity as an organizational value.
Nonprofit boards as well as organizational leaders (e.g. executive directors or chief executive
officers) have pivotal roles in institutionalizing diversity as an organizational value, which can
result in a more effective vision to improve diversity focused recruitment and retention practices.
A nonprofit organization’s board, particularly one that is comprised of diverse board members,
can provide strategic guidance on the organization’s decision making and is influential in
ensuring that the organization considers their stakeholders’ best interests (Bainbridge, 2002;
Brown, 2002; Brown, 2005; Fama & Jensen, 1983; Harris, 2014; Jaskyte, 2012). In addition,
boards have an important role in selecting organizational leaders and evaluating their
effectiveness in meeting organizational expectations (Brown, 2005).
Schein (2004) has asserted that organizational leaders are the single most important
individuals responsible for establishing and fortifying organizational culture. Leaders’ ability to
effectively communicate their vision has significant impacts on their organizations, including
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motivating staff members, providing staff members context to leaders’ decisions, and
strengthening organizational change efforts (Lipton, 1996). Inversely, ineffective leadership can
lead to several organizational challenges such as staff members’ opposition to or rejection of
organizational goals (Lencioni, 2004). Leaders’ ability to direct efforts to change organizational
climates are instrumental in influencing staff members’ perceptions of what organizations truly
value (Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). Leaders’ prioritization of diversity is recognized as a
key factor influencing organizational culture (Bolman & Deal, 2003; Kezar, 2000). Thus, in
relation to OT’s staff diversity goal, OT’s Board of Directors and Executive Team were vital
stakeholders in communicating their overall vision regarding diversity and institutionalizing
practices which could better enable OT’s Human Capital Team to achieve OT’s staff diversity
goal (Kotter, 2012). A summary of the assumed organizational influences on OT’s Human
Capital Team is presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Assumed Organizational Influences on the Human Capital Team
Assumed organizational
influence
Organizational influence
type
Assessment method

There should be alignment
between OT’s expressed and
demonstrated commitment to
diversity.
Cultural setting Cultural setting themed
interview questions with
members of the Human
Capital Team

Sample interview question:
“How does OT’s Executive
Team demonstrate its
commitment to OT’s staff
diversity goal?”

OT’s Human Capital Team
should practice effective hiring
and retention practices with a
Cultural setting Cultural setting themed
interview questions with
members of the Human
Capital Team
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Assumed organizational
influence
Organizational influence
type
Assessment method
focus on career progression and
leadership opportunities.

Sample interview question:
“What influence does OT’s
current level of diversity have
on recruiting and retaining
staff members of color?”

OT must foster an environment
in which diversity is embraced
as an organizational value
throughout the organization.
Cultural setting Cultural setting themed
interview questions with
members of the Human
Capital Team

Sample interview question:
“How would you describe
OT’s climate in terms of staff
diversity?”

Table 5 presents a summary of the assumed influences related to increasing OT’s staff
diversity.
Table 5
Summary of Assumed Influences Related to Increasing Opportunity Trailblazers’ Staff Diversity
Source Knowledge Motivation Organization

Learning and
motivation
theory
OT’s Human Capital
Team needs to
understand and apply
knowledge on how to
recruit and retain
diverse candidates and
staff members.
OT’s Human Capital
Team must believe that
their success in
achieving OT’s staff
diversity goal is
contingent on their
individual and collective
efforts in pursuing the
organizational goal
rather than external,
uncontrollable factors.
There should be
alignment between OT’s
expressed and
demonstrated
commitment to
diversity.

OT’s Human Capital
Team members need to
self-reflect on their
perceptions and biases
regarding diversity and
OT’s Human Capital
Team must value the
benefit of OT’s staff
diversity goal to persist
towards achieving it.
OT’s Human Capital
Team should practice
effective hiring and
retention practices with
a focus on career
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 45

Source Knowledge Motivation Organization
understand their
potential impacts on
their ability to recruit
diverse staff members.
progression and
leadership opportunities.

OT must foster an
environment in which
staff diversity is
embraced as an
organizational value
throughout the
organization.

Related
literature

Nonprofit organizations
face challenges in
mirroring the United
States’ demographic
trends.

Nonprofit boards have
significant impact on
nonprofit organizations’
capacity to increase
staff diversity.

Conceptual Framework
The following section discusses the conceptual framework which guided this study: the
interaction of OT’s Human Capital Team’s knowledge and motivation and OT’s organizational
context. In order for a research study to be effective, sufficient attention must be placed on the
process of constructing a research design (Maxwell, 2013). According to Maxwell (2013), a
research design includes five components: goals, the conceptual framework, research questions,
methods, and validity. A conceptual framework, also referred to as a theoretical framework,
encompasses the theories, terms, beliefs, and previous research that guide the research design
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A conceptual framework is a manifestation of a
researcher’s perspective and demonstration of how the researcher believes the world operates
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 46

within the context of their research study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A conceptual framework
drives key elements of a research design, applicable to the research study at hand, including the
development of research questions, type of research method (e.g., quantitative, qualitative, or
mixed), sample, and sampling techniques, (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This
section presents the conceptual framework guiding this study.

Figure 2. The interaction of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on
Opportunity Trailblazers' Human Capital Team
As shown in Figure 2, OT’s organizational culture is influenced by its demonstrated
commitment to diversity, capacity to recruit and retain staff members of color, as well as its
capacity to foster an environment in which diversity is embraced as an organizational value.
Conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge, centered on OT’s Human Capital Team’s
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 47

ability to understand and apply knowledge regarding recruiting and retaining diverse staff
members as well as their self-recognition of personal biases regarding diversity, are assumed key
influences impacting OT’s Human Capital Team’s ability to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal.
In addition, attributions and expectancy value motivations, including OT’s Human Capital
Team’s belief in their ability to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal, along with the value that they
place on achieving the goal, are assumed influences. By addressing any KMO gaps that may
exist or possessing valuable KMO assets, OT’s Human Capital Team should be successful in
achieving OT’s staff diversity goal.
Summary
As the United States becomes an ever-increasing diverse country, nonprofit
organizations, particularly those that serve predominantly minority communities, must be
vigilant in their organizational practices to effectively meet their stakeholders’ interests.
Recruiting and retaining diverse staff members improves nonprofit organizations’ effectiveness
by increasing the likelihood that nonprofit organizations will develop and implement policies,
practices, and procedures that more effectively meet the needs of the communities that they
serve. However, staff diversity is a significant challenge faced by nonprofit organizations.
Boards of nonprofit organizations play a significant role in selecting organizational leaders as
well as monitoring and evaluating leaders’ performance to ensure that nonprofit organizations
meet their missions and achieve their organizational goals. Nonprofit organization leaders—
those in positions to manage their organizations towards the achievement of organizational
goals—must: understand the factors that impact the recruitment and retention of people of color;
value the goal of increasing staff diversity; and foster organizational environments that are
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 48

committed to staff diversity. Barriers to these influences may create performance gaps that
impede nonprofit organizations’ efforts to increase staff diversity.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Inquiry, as a concept, spans a myriad of academic and professional disciplines. While the
steps entailed in an inquiry process may vary from circumstance to circumstance, at its core,
inquiry focuses on the process of obtaining and examining data that can lead to previously
unknown information (Malloy, 2011). The research findings uncovered in an inquiry process
can help organizations across multiple sectors improve their effectiveness in meeting
stakeholders’ demands as well as guide the development and implementation of internal
processes and procedures to improve organizational performance (Malloy, 2011). For example,
commercial sector businesses can use inquiry to improve their profitability (Malloy, 2011).
Likewise, nonprofit organizations can use inquiry to improve their effectiveness in developing
community programs (Malloy, 2011).
McEwan and McEwan (2003) have contended that if inquiry is used effectively it is the
most impactful tool in improving student outcomes. Effective application of inquiry methods
can result in the implementation of more effective policies and interventions (Malloy, 2011).
More effective outcomes are perhaps due to a variety of impacts of inquiry. Inquiry can allow
researchers and practitioners to uncover findings that they were oblivious to or control for biases
influenced by one’s own personal experiences (Duke & Martin, 2011). Effective inquiry
requires a well-organized research design and appropriate research methods.
This chapter presents the research design and methods used for the collection and
analysis of data pertinent to the assessment of OT’s Human Capital Team’s performance towards
achieving OT’s staff diversity goal. Details regarding the study sample, data collection
procedures, and instrumentation are provided. The chapter then addresses details regarding
trustworthiness, credibility, ethics, limitations, and delimitations pertinent to the study.
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 50

Sample
Members of OT’s Human Capital Team were selected for one-on-one interviews as they
were primarily responsible for managing the strategic development and tactical implementation
of activities to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. A convenience, total population sampling
design was used to collect data from the Human Capital Team. This is a nonrandom sampling
technique used when sample participants are readily accessible (Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
Because the size of the target population was small, the total population sampling technique was
used, following Johnson and Christensen’s recommendation to use a total population sampling
design when the population to be studied is less than 100 people. This sampling design
eliminated the risk of sampling error because the interview data reflected the total value of the
target population.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
A well-organized research design is essential in ensuring the efficacy of a research study
(Maxwell, 2013). Among key elements of a research design, the conceptual framework is
perhaps the most significant element as it guides important research design components
including the study’s research question(s), the sample(s) and sampling process(es) pertinent to
the study, and the type(s) of research method(s) the study will use (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Research methods include either quantitative methods, qualitative methods, or mixed methods.
Quantitative and qualitative research methods can be viewed as opposite ends of a
spectrum while mixed methods exist between them (Creswell, 2014). Each research method
entails specific data collection procedures (e.g., surveys, interviews, focus groups, observations,
and/or document analyses) and uses specific instruments, such as survey questionnaires and/or
the researchers themselves, to collect data (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; McEwan &
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 51

McEwan, 2003; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Quantitative methods focus on the design of surveys
and/or experiments to collect data (Creswell, 2014). While surveys provide numeric descriptions
of items such as opinions or trends, experiments focus on analyzing how outcomes are impacted
by the application of treatments (Creswell, 2014). On the other end of the spectrum are
qualitative methods. Qualitative methods include a variety of research approaches including
narrative research, in which researchers study peoples’ lives through recording their stories, and
ethnographic research, in which researchers study peoples’ lives through analyzing their social
interactions, languages, and customs (Creswell, 2014). Mixed methods incorporate elements of
both quantitative and qualitative research and are typically used when the inquiry entails both
theoretical frameworks and philosophical assumptions (Creswell, 2014).
Research methods function as channels to answer research questions (Maxwell, 2013).
The research method chosen for a research study is directly dependent on the study’s research
questions, the conditions impacting the ability to conduct research, and the most suitable
approach or approaches needed to obtain data (Maxwell, 2013). Considering the impetus for
OT’s staff diversity goal, the study’s research questions, and convenience of access to the
Human Capital Team, qualitative interviews were the primary data collection procedure used for
this study. In addition, a content analysis of select diversity focused documents was conducted
to supplement the data collected through interviews.
Interviews
As discussed earlier, a convenience, total population sampling process was used to select
and interview all five members of the Human Capital Team. Interviews are effective data
collection procedures when there is interest in examining past events (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Patton (2002) has contended that interviews are particularly important in scenarios such as this
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 52

because feelings and thoughts cannot be observed. Interviews are needed to gain an
understanding of participants’ perspectives. This approach assisted in further understanding staff
diversity concerns identified in previous OT documents, including previously deployed surveys
and scorecards.
While research questions indicate what a researcher wants to understand, interview
questions are used by the researcher to obtain that understanding (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007;
Maxwell, 2013). Directly linked to the study’s conceptual framework, a semi-structured
interview protocol, organized around the Clark and Estes (2008) KMO themes, was used during
the interview process. As discussed by Weiss (1994), in general, qualitative interviews allow for
the fuller development of data by foregoing rigidity in interview protocols. A semi-structured
protocol permits even greater development of data as this type of protocol allows enough
structure to gather specific data while providing the flexibility to probe interview participants’
responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Using a fixed-question-open-response approach (Weiss,
1994), the protocol consisted of fifteen primary questions and additional probing questions
intended to gain more understanding of KMO influences pertinent to OT. Probing questions
were used to follow up for supplementary information or seek additional clarity in interview
participants’ responses when necessary. (The interview protocol is provided in Appendix A.)
Because members of the Human Capital Team resided across the country, interviews
were conducted via telephone. Each member of the Human Capital Team was interviewed once,
totaling five interviews. Although conducting qualitative interviews is often considered a time
intensive process (Weiss, 1994), the relatively small size of the Human Capital Team minimized
time burdens during the data collection process. Interview participants had the flexibility to
participate in the interview wherever they choose on the condition that the location was free from
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 53

outsize distractions. Interviews were audio-recorded to ensure the optimal capture of details for
both the transcription and data analysis processes. (Details regarding informed consent are
discussed in the Ethics section included later in this chapter.)
Content Analysis
Although interviews were the primary data collection procedure used for this study,
additional sources of data were gathered, following a practice recommended by Creswell (2014).
Documents such as organizational reports typically exist prior to the beginning of a research
study and can be used to supplement the data collected from other procedures (Creswell, 2014;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
In addition to the January 2015 D&I workgroup presentation and May 2015 OT staff
survey discussed in Chapter One, an analysis of content from additional diversity focused
documents was conducted to gain greater insight into the Human Capital Team’s previous efforts
towards achieving OT’s staff diversity goal. These documents included: an August 2015 D&I
workgroup presentation (the initial presentation identifying OT’s staff diversity goal); select
periodic 2016 staff surveys; and FY2016 and FY2017 “State of the Organization” scorecards.
Data from the previously deployed surveys were not analyzed; however, their findings were
reviewed to gain additional insight regarding organizational influences. Furthermore, as
emphasized by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the survey documents provided a deeper historical
understanding of staff diversity challenges at OT.
Data Analysis
As recommended by Merriam and Tisdell (2016) data analysis occurred simultaneous to
data collection procedures. During each interview, initial observations and reactions were
documented. Transcripts of each interview were reviewed for more detailed analysis.
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 54

Interviews were transcribed and coded in multiple phases. Coding is an important process that
enables qualitative data to be organized before its analysis (Creswell, 2014). The first phase
entailed open coding which focused on creating coding categories based on what was presented
by the data (Maxwell, 2013). This phase helped to identify linkages to the study’s conceptual
framework. The next phase, axial coding, focused on aggregating the open codes and grouping
them in specific categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Following the axial coding phase, a
preliminary analysis of the data was performed to begin identifying emergent themes. Data
gathered from the content analysis was compared with interview data to further examine
emergent themes in relation to the study’s conceptual framework.
Trustworthiness and Credibility
The trustworthiness of a study is directly associated with the trustworthiness of those
responsible for gathering and analyzing the data associated with the study (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Guided by my prior academic and professional research experiences, coupled with the
rigorous doctoral level research competencies that I developed at the University of Southern
California Rossier School of Education, and validated by the international reputation of the
Rossier School of Education, trustworthiness was exemplified through demonstrating a
meticulous approach in every aspect of the research process and leveraged to establish
trustworthiness of the study. Multiple strategies, including triangulation, extensive field time,
rich data collection, and self-monitoring for researcher bias, were used to build and maintain
credibility of the study (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data was triangulated to build themes around assumed KMO influences related to
achieving OT’s staff diversity goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Triangulation was an effective strategy to increase the credibility of
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 55

the research findings by ensuring that the research findings were not made from a single source
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviewing the entire Human Capital Team enabled sufficient time
in the field to collect rich, detailed data that provided significant insight into OT’s organizational
culture (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Although I was not employed by OT, because of my relationship with OT as an alumni
fellow, it was important for me to be cognizant of reflexivity—my biases and assumptions—
throughout the study (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Glesne (2011)
has indicated that researchers face numerous potential ethical dilemmas when conducting
research studies. Among these dilemmas, researchers may be tempted to advocate for issues in
which they are personally drawn to. I actively remained vigilant of any personal interests in
diversity matters in order not to influence the study.
Ethics
In congruence with Glesne (2011), the study adhered to five ethical principles which
informed the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB)’s review of my
research proposal:
1. Sufficient information was provided to research participants in order for them to make
informed decisions about participating in the study.
2. Research participants had to right to withdraw from the study, at any point, without
penalty.
3. The research study eliminated any unnecessary risks posed to research participants.
4. Any risks posed to research participants were outweighed by the benefits of study
participation to the participant, OT, and greater society.
5. The research study was conducted by a qualified investigator.
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Although I was affiliated with OT, I did not hold an employed position with OT nor have any
personal or professional connection with the study’s research participants. This affiliation status
eliminated any risks pertaining to confusion or conflicts that other researchers, who also hold
leadership or supervisory positions with their organizations, are potentially faced with.
Each research participant was asked to participate in a 60-minute interview, conducted
via telephone. Interviews were audio-recorded with permission of the research participants.
Research participants were informed that they did not have to answer any questions in which
they were uncomfortable answering. They were also given the option for their responses to be
recorded by hand if they did not want to be audio-recorded. Participants were notified that any
identifiable information obtained in connection with the study would remain confidential and
their names would be assigned a pseudonym. The audio-files holding the recordings were
permanently deleted once they were transcribed.
Because this study assessed an initiative that was developed by OT and led by the Human
Capital Team, study participants were not offered monetary incentives for their participation.
However, as Glesne (2011) suggested, the interview process itself provided intrinsic reciprocity
opportunities. The members of the Human Capital Team appreciated having the opportunity to
express their thoughts regarding staff diversity. Likewise, they valued the sense of importance in
their roles in providing key feedback informing the study (Glesne, 2011).
Limitations and Delimitations
A limitation of this study was that the majority of data collected was reliant on self-
reporting from the study’s research participants. Although not possible to assess, self-reporting
risked the potential of social-desirability influences in the study participants’ responses. Because
of the qualitative nature of this study, results cannot be generalized to a larger population;
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 57

however, they can inform practice. The scope of the study was delimited to the organization of
study. While the population studied was relatively small in number, it constituted the entirety of
OT’s Human Capital Team and provided as exhaustive a perspective as possible. Furthermore,
while “diversity,” “equity,” and “inclusion” are related concepts, the scope of this study focused
primarily on OT’s staff diversity goal as a component of its diversity, equity, and inclusion
strategy and did not explore the concepts of equity and inclusion.
Summary
Qualitative research is an effective method in helping to determine explanations for the
state, circumstance, or topic of interest being observed in a research study (McEwan & McEwan,
2003). The data collected from interviews with OT’s Human Capital Team and content analysis
of OT’s diversity focused documents provided insights on the KMO influences and assets
impacting OT’s staff diversity goal to increase its staff diversity. As Creswell (2014) explained,
the results of qualitative studies typically cannot be generalized outside of the specific research
setting being studied. However, study results can inform practice and provide useful guidance
for other organizations faced with similar challenges.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to assess OT’s Human Capital Team’s performance related
to a larger problem of practice, staff diversity in nonprofit organizations. This assessment
focused on KMO influences related to OT’s Human Capital Team’s capacity to achieve a staff
diversity goal of reaching an organizational staff make up of 40% staff of color by October 2017.
OT successfully achieved this goal ahead of schedule, reaching 40% staff of color by February
2017, and, as of October 2017, had an organizational staff make up of 48% staff of color. This
was a 13% increase in staff members of color from October 2016 and a 22% increase in staff
members of color from October 2015. Findings from this study were not only intended to assess
the Human Capital Team’s capacity to reach their organizational goal but also serve to inform
practices at other nonprofit organizations.
OT’s Human Capital Team was the focal stakeholder group for this study due to their
responsibility of developing, implementing, and managing activities pertaining to achieving
OT’s staff diversity goal. One-on-one interviews were conducted via telephone with all five
members of the Human Capital Team, including OT’s Vice-President of Human Capital. Each
interview was semi-structured in nature, using a 15-question protocol organized by knowledge,
motivation, and organizational themes.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences
Four interview questions were asked to assess the degree of knowledge influences on the
Human Capital Team’s capacity to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. The questions “Please tell
me about the strategies you use to recruit staff members of color,” “Please tell me about the
strategies you use to retain staff members of color,” and “What support does OT provide for its
staff to pursue professional development and training opportunities?” were asked to assess
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conceptual and procedural knowledge influences. The question “Do you actively consider your
own identity, perceptions, and biases in relation to your work?” was asked to assess
metacognitive knowledge influences. While study participants were instructed that they did not
have to answer any questions in which they were not comfortable answering, all five members of
the Human Capital Team provided responses, yielding a 100% response rate for each of the
knowledge influence interview questions.
Procedural Knowledge
Recruiting strategies. Interview results indicated that the Human Capital Team
possessed knowledge assets for professional practice. Study participants communicated that they
were cognizant of strategies to recruit a diverse talent pool, recognizing the impact that the
diversity of the Human Capital Team had on the team’s access to networks. As discussed in
Chapter Two, limited networks can impact nonprofit organizations’ ability to effectively recruit.
Access to networks may be impacted by the racial and ethnic diversity of recruiting teams
(Padamsee & Crowe, 2017). However, as pointed out by a member of OT’s Human Capital
Team, the racial and ethnic composition of the team enabled the team to leverage diverse
networks (“Three out of five of us identify as people of color”).
Table 6
Interview Participant Comments Regarding Recruiting Strategies
Interview question Participant comment

Q9: Please tell me about the strategies you
use to recruit staff members of color.
“When it comes to recruitment there’s two parts:
managing your own network…and trying to
figure out that the group is as diverse as you want
it to be.”

“Ensuring that your own network is diverse is
one of the most important (pieces).”

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Interview question Participant comment
“We have been working a lot to do research
around organizations that we can work more
closely with, so we’re recruiting at (Historically
Black Colleges and Universities) and posting
roles in places like that.”

Retention strategies. Interview results indicated additional knowledge assets for
professional practice pertaining to retention strategies. The Human Capital Team recognized the
importance of practicing effective strategies and discussed ways in which they were intentional
about retaining staff members of color, including the implementation of an individual
development plan process as well as a business partner model; both focused on providing goal
focused career development opportunities. However, team members communicated that, while
there was success in increasing staff diversity at the staff level, staff diversity within leadership
and executive roles remained a challenge.
Table 7
Interview Participant Comments Regarding Retention Strategies
Interview question Participant comment

Q10: Please tell me about strategies you
use to retain staff members of color.
“We’ve done a lot of research on what especially
younger generations are looking for. It’s
development. It’s career pathing, engagement,
and (focusing) on building a more diverse staff
pool and keeping them.”

“We have started a process called Individual
Development Plan where managers sit down with
their direct reports and help them figure out what
their goals are for the next six months, a year,
and beyond.”

“Another way is to build community because
personal relationships also strengthen
somebody’s attachment to an
organization…Since we are majority virtual or at
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Interview question Participant comment
least spread out throughout the US…we’ve
created different affinity groups.”

“…this year we rolled out our business partner
model. So now we have basically everybody in the
organization has someone now. A very specific
someone to go to in terms of if they had questions
around their individual development or their
team.”

“(We) focus on ways to get (our staff) what they
need, the tools, the training, expose them to
different opportunities based on (their career
path).”

“(Staff diversity at the leadership level) is the
inherent challenge right now and is a challenge
that other organizations encounter.”

“…we do not have a very diverse executive
(staff)…I do know that is something that is being
actively worked on as we move forward…”

Metacognitive Knowledge
Unconscious bias. Interview results also indicated that the Human Capital Team was
vigilant of their identities. Team members expressed that they actively considered their biases as
they approached their work. Recognizing the impact of biases on working towards OT’s
mission, the Human Capital Team developed and delivered an anti-bias training. This was
highlighted as particularly impactful during each individual interview.
Table 8
Interview Participant Comments Regarding Unconscious Bias
Interview question Participant comment

Q12: Do you actively consider your own
identity, perceptions, and biases in
relation to your work?
“I think in the past two years I’ve reflected on
(my identity) more than I had in my entire life. I
have begun to better understand how I walk
through the world and the biases I bring.”
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Interview question Participant comment

“I do diversity, equity, and inclusion work and so
for others in thinking about and considering their
biases all day so I definitely have to consider my
own.”

“I think I really feel aware of my own biases. I try
to think about maybe so many biases that I may
have…And realizing that the way that I approach
the work is not always the best way, or the only
way.”

Results and Findings for Motivation Influences
The interview protocol included three questions to assess motivation influences. “Do you
see any benefits in increasing staff diversity levels?” was included in the protocol to assess
expectancy value motivation influences while the question “Please discuss level of effort towards
OT’s achievement of increasing its staff diversity levels” was asked to assess attribution
motivation influences. An additional question, “Are there any concerns that you have regarding
OT’s staff diversity goal?” was included to provide study participants an additional opportunity
to provide feedback. All members of the Human Capital Team provided responses to the three
motivation influence themed questions, resulting in a 100% response rate.
Attributions
As discussed in Chapter Two, attributions refer to how individuals ascribe beliefs in the
degree of their success in completing tasks on their degree of control in completing them (Rueda,
2011). Attributions motivate individuals to perform towards completing tasks if they believe that
their own level of effort, not external factors, will result in a successful outcome. The study
sought to assess the Human Capital Team’s belief about its effort.
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The Human Capital Team’s belief about effort. Human Capital Team members were
adamant that OT’s success in achieving its staff diversity goal was contingent on the team’s
effort as opposed to outside factors such as the availability of candidates. During individual
interviews, the work of the team was acknowledged as instrumental in leading OT’s diversity
efforts.
Table 9
Interview Participant Comments Regarding Their Belief About Effort
Interview question Participant comment

Q14: Please discuss level of effort
towards OT’s achievement of increasing
its staff diversity levels.
“I would…definitely attribute it to the work,
almost solely to the work that the (Human Capital
Team) is doing…The (Human Capital Team) is
really the reason we are much more on track with
our (diversity) work than we’ve been in the past.”

“We’ve taken looks and we’ve talked about (how)
not getting a diverse pool usually lays within the
organization. For example, people say ‘Well
there wasn’t a lot of people of color applying.’
(What that really means) is…our failure to reach
the community.”

“I definitely believe it’s due to effort because I
saw when the shift was made to make this a
priority and I’ve seen everything that’s come
from it.”

Expectancy Value
As discussed in Chapter Two, expectancy value focuses on the questions “Can I complete
the task?” and “Do I want to complete the task?” While related to attributions, expectancy value
focuses more on individuals’ beliefs that they can complete tasks without respect to expected
outcomes (Eccles, 2009). From an expectancy value perspective, motivation influences on the
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 64

completion of tasks are categorized as attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost
value. The study sought to assess the Human Capital Team’s value of improving staff diversity.
The Human Capital Team’s value of improving staff diversity. Each member of the
Human Capital Team expressed the value that they placed in increasing staff diversity along
multiple expectancy value dimensions. Team members expressed their belief that increasing
staff diversity improved OT’s internal organizational climate and external service to
stakeholders. Team members also expressed that their work towards OT’s staff diversity goal
provided intrinsic fulfillment in their careers.
Table 10
Interview Participant Comments Regarding Their Value of Improving Staff Diversity
Interview question Participant comment

Q13: Do you see any benefits in
increasing staff diversity levels at OT?
“…increasing the diversity of our staff is super
important in terms of our effectiveness and just
kind of how we learn from each other in the
service of the work we do.”

“We say quite a bit on the (Human Capital Team)
that we know that diverse teams are more
effective teams. And working with diverse people,
to me, is exciting because you get so many
different perspectives and it could only jump your
ability to learn how to communicate with people,
how to interact with people.”

Results and Findings for Organizational Influences
Five organizational influence themed questions were included in the interview protocol to
better understand OT’s cultural setting. The questions included “What is OT's current level of
staff diversity?”; “How does OT’s Executive Team demonstrate its commitment to OT’s staff
diversity goal?”; “What influence does OT’s current level of staff diversity have on recruiting
and retaining staff members of color?”; “How would you describe OT’s climate in terms of staff
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diversity?”; and “Does OT’s Board influence OT’s staff diversity efforts?” There was a 100%
response rate for each of the organizational influence themed questions.
Cultural Settings
As previously discussed, cultural settings are the visible manifestations of organizations’
shared values, beliefs, and understandings (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This study sought
to assess the influence of OT’s cultural setting on the Human Capital Team’s ability to
successfully recruit and retain staff members of color. This was specifically measured by the
three categories of representational issues, interactional issues, and workplace environment
practices (Bond et al., 2013). Representational issues focus on how organizations’ representation
of staff diversity impact attracting potential candidates. Interactional issues focus on the impact
of organizational climate on staff retention. Workplace environment practices focus on how
diversity becomes an institutionalized organizational value. Findings from interviews indicated
several organizational influences, consistent with the literature, that interacted with the Human
Capital Team’s knowledge and motivation.
Representational issues. The Human Capital Team provided various perspectives
regarding the impact of OT’s representation of staff diversity on recruiting staff members of
color. Team members communicated the importance of representing diversity through
marketing materials and OT’s website. One team member communicated that word choice in
job descriptions was also significant in communicating a commitment to diversity and ensuring
that OT attracted the types of candidates that they truly wanted. However, another team member
cautioned on ensuring that marketing materials did not overly exaggerate staff diversity levels to
attract diverse candidates only for them to observe a lower level of staff diversity once joining
OT. An additional insight that came out during interviews focused on the importance of an
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equitable selection process as a complement to recruiting. Selection matters ranged from
observing the number of candidates of color who advanced past first round interviews to
analyzing the nature of the process itself.
Interactional issues. Human Capital Team members communicated that interactions
between staff members improved since their effort towards achieving OT’s staff diversity goal
was initiated. One team member expressed that there once appeared to be siloed interaction
between staff members of color and White staff members. Tatum (1997) asserted that social
separation by race groups is influenced by racial identity development from individuals’
childhood and adolescent years and continued through adulthood. However, the staff member
continued that, while not perfect, interaction between OT’s staff members was noticeably better.
This may be attributed to intentional activities practiced by OT. The previously mentioned anti-
bias training, led by the Human Capital Team, was cited as significant in helping foster difficult
discussions regarding diversity. Human Capital Team members also noted other activities,
including book readings and conferences, that focused on difficult to discuss topics such as
White privilege. OT’s affinity groups were also noted as significant in providing staff members
avenues to express themselves in supportive environments. A particular affinity group to note
was OT’s affinity group for White staff members who sought to be allies for OT’s staff members
of color. Human Capital Team members consistently acknowledged this affinity group
throughout the interviews.
Workplace environment practices. While Human Capital Team members all
emphasized that diversity was a core value of OT, institutionalizing diversity practices
throughout the organization was recognized as a focus area. Team members consistently
communicated that OT’s founder actively expressed his commitment to diversity as an
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organizational value. Furthermore, they acknowledged the significant impact that their work had
on OT, while also acknowledging that their work had been underway for a relatively short period
of time. An additional challenge related to where staff diversity was concentrated. As
acknowledged earlier, while the Human Capital Team led a successful effort to increase OT’s
staff diversity, the organization struggled with diversity within its leadership. In addition, OT’s
board of directors, another influential stakeholder group, also lacked a diverse presence of board
members. As stated by Kotter (2012), leaders are primary influencers in institutionalizing
organizational values. Thus, the absence of diverse leadership can create barriers in
institutionalizing diversity as an organizational value.
Summary
This study sought to: 1) understand OT’s Human Capital Team’s knowledge and
motivation related to achieving OT’s staff diversity goal; 2) understand the interaction between
OT’s organizational culture and the Human Capital Team’s knowledge and motivation; and 3)
identify recommendations to address the problem of practice at other nonprofit organizations.
As discussed in this chapter, the Human Capital Team possessed significant knowledge and
motivation assets which may provide guidance to other nonprofit organizations. The Human
Capital Team understood and applied knowledge regarding effective recruiting, including
leveraging diverse networks, to identify a diverse talent pool. Furthermore, they emphasized the
importance of an equitable selection process. The Human Capital Team was cognizant of
retention influences and actively sought to implement practices, such as a business
partner/mentoring program and affinity groups, to improve OT’s organizational climate.
OT’s leaders communicated an organizational commitment to diversity. While the
Human Capital Team expressed that there were some organizational culture challenges with
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institutionalizing diversity as an organizational value, they recognized focus areas, including
diversity at leadership and board levels, which could influence this outcome. As a result of the
interview findings, recommendations for effective practices to increase and maintain staff
diversity were developed. The recommendations aim to provide a potential action plan for other
organizations to implement staff diversity strategies. These are discussed in greater detail in the
following concluding chapter.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND THE INTEGRATED
IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION PLAN

Chapter Four presented KMO findings pertaining to OT’s Human Capital Team’s
capacity to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal, which was assessed through an analysis of
qualitative data gathered though one-on-one interviews with members of the Human Capital
Team. Results found that, while some organizational gaps were present, the Human Capital
Team possessed KMO assets which were instrumental in achieving OT’s staff diversity goal
ahead of its targeted date. This chapter leverages the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) to present recommendations, based on the Human Capital
Team’s KMO findings, which may provide guidance to other nonprofit organizations.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
In this section, the Human Capital Team’s knowledge assets will be discussed to provide
potential recommendations for practice. Procedural and metacognitive knowledge assets as well
as recommendations for practice are provided in Table 11.
Table 11
Summary of Knowledge Assets and Recommendations
Knowledge asset Principle and citation
Context-specific
recommendation

The Human Capital Team
effectively applied
knowledge of recruiting
and retaining diverse
candidates and staff
members.
(Procedural knowledge).
Idea networking emphasizes
building “a bridge into a
different area of knowledge by
interacting with someone with
whom…people…typically do
not interact” (Dyer et al., 2011,
p. 116).
Nonprofit organizations should
employ idea-networking
strategies to expand their
networks, including attending
diversity focused professional
conferences to build
knowledge, expand
professional networks, and
gain access to additional
sources of diverse talent.

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Knowledge asset Principle and citation
Context-specific
recommendation

Training and professional
development opportunities are
often viewed as a practice to
improve employees’
knowledge and skills. Access
to training and professional
development opportunities also
improve employees’ attitudes,
motivation, and sense of
connectedness to their
organizations (Argunis &
Kraiger, 2009; McGee &
Johnson, 2015).
Nonprofit organizations should
implement professional
development and training
programs, with an emphasis on
leadership development for
staff members of color.

Leadership development
programs are especially
effective in retaining staff
members of color (Virgil et al.,
2015).

Members of the Human
Capital Team self-reflected
on their perceptions and
biases and how their
perceptions and biases
impacted recruiting diverse
staff members
(Metacognitive
knowledge).
While people are aware of the
existence of biases, they view
them mostly in others but not
themselves (Pronin, 2007).

People view those who do not
share their worldview as
uninformed, while viewing
their own perceptions as reality
(Ross & Ward, 1996).
Nonprofit organizations should
invest in implicit bias training,
whether provided through
internal training resources or
an external vendor.

Procedural knowledge solutions. As defined in Chapter Two, procedural knowledge is
knowledge of the skills, techniques, and methods specific to subjects and how people apply this
knowledge towards performing tasks (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011; Krathwohl, 2002). Idea
networking practices (Dyer et al., 2011) can help nonprofit HR professionals (or those with
recruitment responsibilities) increase their pool of potential candidates. As found through the
analysis of data, OT’s Human Capital Team, was vigilant of their own staff diversity (three out
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of five members identified as people of color) and actively leveraged the team’s diversity to seek
diverse sources of talent. To effectively achieve organizational goals related to staff diversity,
organizations must have the ability to apply knowledge on how to recruit diverse candidates and
staff members. Idea networking strategies, including attending diversity oriented professional
conferences, is recommended for practice.
Related to recruiting practices, organizations must also ensure that they implement
effective strategies to retain their staff members of color. As discussed earlier, training and
professional development have been found to be effective retention strategies based on their
ability to improve employee engagement. Argunis and Kraiger (2009) have asserted that training
and development not only provides individuals and teams with benefits such as improved job
performance and improved well-being but benefits organizations as a whole by improving
organizational performance and reducing employee attrition. When developing training and
professional development programs, Virgil et al. (2015) also emphasized the importance of
leadership development, particularly for staff members of color, to improve employee
engagement and build leadership pipelines for staff members of color. OT’s implementation of
an individual development plan process and business partner model are two effective strategies
that nonprofit organizations should consider to develop its staff members of color and build
leadership pipelines.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. Metacognitive knowledge focuses on one’s
awareness of their own cognitive processes and their knowledge regarding the process of
acquiring knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). In addition, metacognitive knowledge
pertains to how one knows when to use applicable learning processes to acquire further
knowledge (Mayer, 2011). While individuals are more prone to consider biases in others, they
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are less observant of their own biases (Schwarz, 2015). The Human Capital Team possessed
metacognitive knowledge assets as demonstrated by their ability to understand their own biases
and perceptions in relation to their work. Furthermore, they considered the impact of biases
throughout the organization. Following the practice of the Human Capital Team, nonprofit
professionals must actively account for their biases. A recommended practice, exemplified by
the Human Capital Team and conducted by many organizations, including the USC Rossier
School of Education, is for organizations to conduct implicit bias trainings to better inform their
staffs of their own biases and perceptions regarding diversity and to develop strategies to address
them. While the Human Capital Team possessed its own resources to conduct this type of
training, organizations should consider the use of an external trainer or consultant if they lack the
capacity to conduct such a training on their own.
Motivation Recommendations
This section discusses the Human Capital Team’s motivation assets to provide potential
recommendations for practice. This study focused on two motivation influences, attributions and
expectancy value, which were prioritized based on OT’s staff diversity goal and the potential
impact that could be made by addressing it. Data indicated that the Human Capital Team
possessed attributions and expectancy value motivation assets. These motivation assets as well
as recommendations for practice are provided in Table 12.
Table 12
Summary of Motivation Assets and Recommendations
Motivation asset Principle and citation
Context-specific
recommendation

The Human Capital Team
believed that their success
in achieving OT’s staff
diversity goal was
An individual’s motivation to
complete a task is influenced
by their belief that the effort
that they put towards the task,
Provide data connecting effort
to outcomes to build and
sustain staff members’ efforts
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Motivation asset Principle and citation
Context-specific
recommendation
contingent on their
individual and collective
efforts in pursuing the
organizational goal rather
than external,
uncontrollable factors.
(Attributions)
as opposed to their ability or
other external factors, will
result in the expected outcome
(Anderman & Anderman,
2009; Mayer, 2011).
towards increasing staff
diversity.

The Human Capital Team
valued the benefit of its
staff diversity goal to
persist towards achieving
it. (Expectancy value)
Individuals are prone to work
harder towards task completion
if they are confident in their
ability to complete the tasks at
hand as well as if they value
the process of and outcomes
from completing those tasks
(Eccles, 2009; Mayer, 2011).
Identify a short-term win that
demonstrates the importance
and value of the task to the
organization, that can be
achieved early in the strategy
implementation process to
build confidence and increase
motivation.

Attribution motivation solutions. As previously defined, attributions pertain to
individuals’ beliefs in their degree of control in influencing the outcomes of the tasks that they
perform (Rueda, 2011). From this perspective, individuals believe that, through their
controllable effort, expected outcomes will be achieved (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Mayer,
2011). As discussed in Chapter Four, the Human Capital Team believed that their success in
achieving OT’s staff diversity goal was contingent on their direct efforts in pursuing the goal
rather than external, uncontrollable factors. The Human Capital Team’s efforts followed best
practices communicated by Schwartz et al. (2011) and Virgil et al. (2015) including: 1)
establishing a clear organizational goal (increasing staff diversity); 2) establishing a measurable
metric (40% staff of color by October 2017); and 3) developing focused recruiting and retention
strategies, including leveraging networks to increase the pool of diverse talent and ensuring that
their interview and hiring practices were equitable. OT’s Human Capital Team’s approach
exemplifies a recommended approach for other nonprofit organizations to pursue.
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Wells, Feinberg, Alexander, and Ward (2009) found that perceptions of level of effort
impacted nonprofit organization staff members’ belief in their degree of impact in achieving
organizational goals. Examining attributions is important because it influences persistence in
staff members’ effort. Observing the Human Capital Team as a promising practice, nonprofit
HR professionals must view the achievement of their organizational goal as an attribution to their
effort, versus external factors, in order to successfully accomplish their goal. To help connect
effort to outcomes in a compelling way, one recommended practice is for HR leaders to provide
quantitative or qualitative data showing what is at stake as result of the effort of their teams. As
discussed earlier, Parambee and Crowe (2017) correlated staff diversity to students’ educational
outcomes. Providing such data may increase and sustain the effort of individuals and teams.
Expectancy value motivation solutions. As defined in Chapter Two, expectancy value
examines: 1) individuals’ beliefs that they can complete tasks and 2) individuals’ motivation to
complete tasks (Eccles, 2009). Individuals are less motivated to complete tasks if they do not
believe that their effort will produce the result that they expect (Bandura, 2000). Moreover, they
are more motivated to persist through completing tasks if they perceive value in their effort
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
OT’s Human Capital Team valued the benefit of OT’s staff diversity goal to persist
towards achieving it. To help build value, identifying and accomplishing short-terms wins is a
suggested strategy (Kotter, 2012). As previously discussed in Chapter Two, according to Kotter
(2012), short-term wins help generate confidence in organizational change efforts by building
morale, increasing confidence, reducing resistance, and sustaining leadership support. Thus, it is
recommended that HR leaders identify short-term win opportunities for their teams that can be
achieved early in the strategy implementation process to build confidence and increase
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motivation. It is essential that these short-term wins demonstrate the importance and value of the
tasks to their respective organizations.
Organizational Recommendations
This section discusses OT’s organizational assets to provide potential recommendations
for practice. Data analysis procedures found that OT possessed organizational assets that
complemented the Human Capital Team’s knowledge and motivation assets and better enabled
the Human Capital Team to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal. At the same time, an important
organizational need was identified. OT’s organizational assets, needs, and recommendations for
practice are provided in Table 13.
Table 13
Summary of Organization Assets, Needs, and Recommendations
Organizational asset/need Principle and citation
Context-specific
recommendation

Asset: OT was vigilant
about the alignment
between its expressed and
demonstrated commitment
to diversity.
Contradictions between
expressed and demonstrated
commitment to diversity is
pervasive within nonprofit
organizations (Schwartz et al.,
2011; Virgil et al., 2015).
Create a diversity committee
focused on institutionalizing
diversity as a value.

Establish a Chief Diversity
Officer position.

Asset: OT fostered an
environment in which
diversity was embraced as
an organizational value
throughout the
organization.
Workplace environment
practices focus on activities
that influence how diversity is
embedded within
organizational culture (Bond et
al., 2013).
Conduct a diversity climate
assessment to better
understand staff perspectives.
Follow diversity climate
assessment with staff focus
groups and create concrete
strategies that reflect feedback
provided by staff.

Need: OT needed to
implement practices to
increase diversity within its
leadership, including its
board.
Diverse leadership is more
effective in providing strategic
guidance on organizations’
decision making and are
influential in ensuring that
organizations consider their
Prioritize hiring people of
color directly into leadership
roles, creating new roles if
necessary.

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Organizational asset/need Principle and citation
Context-specific
recommendation
stakeholders’ best interests
(Bainbridge, 2002; Brown,
2002; Brown, 2005; Fama &
Jensen, 1983; Harris, 2014;
Jaskyte, 2012).
Prioritize board diversity
through expanding recruiting
networks.

Cultural setting solutions. As defined in Chapter Two, cultural settings are visible
artifacts that indicate organizational culture (Rueda, 2011; Schein, 2004). Artifacts pertinent to
this study were categorized as representational issues, interactional issues, and workplace
environment practices (Bond et al., 2013). As indicated in Chapter Four, artifacts for each
category were prevalent at OT. Among artifacts to note, two workplace environment practices
were identified as key organizational assets, including OT’s recognition of the alignment
between its expressed and demonstrated commitment to diversity and OT’s recognition of the
importance to have an organizational environment that fostered intentional discussions regarding
diversity. In addition, one workplace environment practice was identified as an organizational
need: increased diversity within OT’s leadership.
As previously stated, contradictions between an expressed and demonstrated commitment
to diversity is pervasive within nonprofit organizations (Schwartz et al., 2011; Virgil et al.,
2015). However, OT’s Human Capital Team communicated that they were vigilant about how
diversity was presented and communicated through multiple mediums including the
organization’s website, marketing and promotional materials, employment applications, and
internal communications. In addition, OT created a diversity council to focus more specifically
on its diversity matters. This is a recommended practice for other nonprofit organizations. To
further strengthen organizations’ capacities to address diversity matters, establishing and
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empowering a Chief Diversity Officer position—a dedicated staff member focused full time on
diversity related matters—should be considered by organizations without such a role.
Actively collecting staff feedback regarding organizational climate can also guide more
effective practices to embed diversity as an organizational value. OT’s Human Capital Team
collected both qualitative and quantitative feedback from OT staff members on a regular basis.
Thus, another recommended practice for other organizations is to conduct diversity climate
assessments to better understand staff perspectives and experiences. Climate assessments can be
followed up with focus groups to more deeply understand staff members’ concerns and guide the
development of strategies that reflect the feedback provided by staff members.
While OT exemplified important organizational assets, the Human Capital Team
communicated a key organizational need to prioritize diversity within OT’s leadership, including
OT’s board of directors. In addition to the recommendation of developing a leadership pipeline,
through establishing a formal leadership development program, which was stated earlier, it is
also recommended that OT prioritize hiring people of color directly into a leadership roles. The
aforementioned recommended creation of a Chief Diversity Officer position, communicated
above, provides such an opportunity. Regarding board diversity, it is recommended that OT
expand its recruiting networks to seek more diverse board candidates. OT’s organizational needs
are consistent with findings from the literature. The recommendations provided for OT are also
recommended as practice for other nonprofit organizations.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Prior to nonprofit organizations developing implementation and evaluation plans, it is
first important for organizations to have a clear understanding of their as-is states, their desired
future states, the assets present to assist their transitions, and the gaps that need to be addressed
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to achieve their transitions. Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Framework can be used by other
nonprofit organizations to identify KMO influences which may impact their ability to
successfully implement strategies to achieve their organizational goals. Specifically regarding
staff diversity initiatives, Third Sector New England (2010) provided additional guidance for
organizations to implement strategies to increase staff diversity including: 1) preparing to initiate
the strategy; 2) establishing a framework (e.g. Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Framework; 3)
beginning implementation of the strategy; 4) integrating diversity goals with overall
organizational goals; 5) evaluating progress of the strategy; 6) redefining the strategy; and 7)
institutionalizing activities and policies. The following section focuses on two key aspects of the
Third Sector New England approach, implementation and evaluation, and discusses the New
World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) which was leveraged for use as the
implementation and evaluation framework for this study.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model
Based on findings from the analysis of data collected from OT’s Human Capital Team,
an implementation and evaluation plan, using the New World Kirkpatrick Model, was developed
as a tool to help guide other nonprofit organizations seeking to increase their staff diversity. The
New World Kirkpatrick Model is composed of four training evaluation levels focused on
evaluating stakeholders’ application of learning approaches to achieve organizational goals.
These levels are defined as Level 1: Reaction; Level 2: Learning; Level 3: Behavior, and Level 4:
Results. The New World Kirkpatrick Model is illustrated in Figure 3.
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Figure 3. The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). (Figure used
with permission.)
The New World Kirkpatrick Model builds on the original Kirkpatrick Model (which was
designed by Don Kirkpatrick in the 1950s) and examines each training evaluation level
beginning with Level 4 down to Level 1 (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This is the reverse
order of the original Kirkpatrick Model. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, the reverse
order enables practitioners to concentrate mostly on program outcomes accomplished through
the performance of the stakeholders of focus, which Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick believe is the
most important element of training evaluation. The following sections describe the evaluation
and implementation plan in greater detail.
Level 4: Results
Level 4 focuses on the degree to which intended outcomes are achieved through the
application of training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Organizations only have one Level 4
result, which is articulated in the form of a Level 4 result statement. For non-profit
organizations, Level 4 result statements typically focus on their missions. According to
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Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, Level 4 results are often difficult to define at the organizational
level due to competing priorities between organizations as a whole, their departments, and their
individual employees. However, leading indicators can support the collective achievement of
these separate parties towards accomplishing overall organizational results.
Leading indicators. Leading indicators describe the “short-term observations and
measurements that suggest that critical behaviors are on track to create a positive impact on the
desired results” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 60). There are two types of leading
indicators: internal leading indicators and external leading indicators. Internal leading
indicators are observed within organizations and include measurable outcomes such as employee
satisfaction and employee engagement (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). External leading
indicators are related to how those who benefit from the performance of organizations (e.g.
customers or clients) respond to the performance of organizations (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). This study focused primarily on the internal dynamics of Opportunity Trailblazers, thus
Table 14 provides outcomes, metrics, and methods specifically for internal outcomes guiding the
evaluation of Level 4 results for other nonprofit organizations.
Table 14
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric Method
Internal Outcomes
1. Improved number of
recruiting sources
pursued by the
organization
The diversity of recruiting
events and sources pursued
(e.g. diversity focused
professional associations,
Historically Black Colleges
and Universities)
Review HR data from the
organization.
2. Improved professional
development for staff
members of color
The quality of
professional/career
development opportunities
provided
Review HR data from the
organization.
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Outcome Metric Method
implemented by the
organization

Feedback from staff members
regarding professional/career
development offerings
3. Increased diversity
focused training and
programing
implemented by the
organization
The number of training
offerings provided to staff
Review HR data from the
organization.
4. Improved staff
retention
The number of retained staff
members of color (or reduced
attrition rates of staff members
of color)
Review HR data pertaining to
staff retention and/or attrition.
Measure year to year data.
5. Improved leadership
pipeline for staff
members of color
The number of diverse staff
members in management and
leadership level roles
Review HR data pertaining to
staff members of color in
leadership positions. Measure
year to year data.

Level 3: Behavior
Level 3 focuses on how effectively training recipients demonstrate what they have
learned through the training on their jobs. Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick (2016) state that this level
is the most important because of its focus on training recipients’ application of training rather
than focusing on the nature of training itself. Even if training is delivered perfectly, it is only
effective if training recipients are able to demonstrate what they have learned. Level 3 enables
the evaluation of training recipients’ on the job performance, which can be used to hold them
accountable (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In order to successfully perform Level 3
evaluations, it is essential for organizations to define critical behaviors and establish required
drivers of critical behaviors (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Critical behaviors. Critical behaviors pertain to what training recipients must absolutely
demonstrate on the job to achieve intended organizational outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). Critical behaviors must be “specific, observable, and measurable” in order for them to be
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effectively evaluated (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 51). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) state that the first step in defining critical behaviors entails collaborating with supervisors,
managers, and high performers to determine what behaviors will likely lead to Level 4
results. Following this guidance, the evaluation and implementation plan defined three critical
behaviors which are provided in Table 15.
Table 15
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical behavior Metric Method Timing

Review application
process to ensure that
it is designed to
optimize diversity of
candidates.
The number of
candidates of color
who advance to
each round of the
interview process.
Review candidate data,
based on established
measurements (e.g. role,
interview method, race of
candidate, reason for
decision, etc.).
Reviewed ongoing
at the conclusion of
interview cycles

Expand beyond
network to increase
recruiting sources.
The number of new
recruiting sources
pursued.
Identify professional
associations focused on
people of color and
academic programs from
more diverse range of
institutions.
At the beginning of
each recruitment
season and
reviewed
throughout

Implement a training
and professional
development
program that
prepares staff
members of color for
increased leadership
opportunities.
Number of training
and professional
development
offerings provided
to staff.

Review number of
professional development
and training offerings
pursued.
Quarterly

Required drivers. Critical behaviors are influenced by drivers. Required drivers are
those drivers which are absolutely needed to either reinforce, monitor, encourage, and/or reward
critical behaviors (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Required drivers can be manifested in the
form of processes and systems. Required drivers focused on reinforcing, encouraging, and/or
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rewarding behaviors all aim to support training recipients’ on the job performance whereas
required drivers focused on monitoring behaviors focus on accountability (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Training recipients’ on the job performance and demonstration of critical
behaviors are driven by a variety of support and accountability processes and systems. Team
workshops, individual coaching, and the use of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are valuable
support drivers. One-on-ones as well as meetings with leadership are effective accountability
drivers. Required drivers to support the critical behaviors identified in Table 15 are provided in
Table 16.
Table 16
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method Timing Critical behaviors supported
Reinforcing
Team workshops on pertinent
recruitment and retention
topics
Quarterly Reviewing application process

Expanding recruiting
networks

Implementing training and
professional development
programs
Encouraging
Coaching and feedback from
supervisor
Ongoing in real time Reviewing application process

Expanding recruiting
networks

Implementing training and
professional development
programs
Rewarding
Financial award Ongoing in real time; end of
performance year
Reviewing application process

Expanding recruiting
networks

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Method Timing Critical behaviors supported
Implementing training and
professional development
programs
Public recognition Ongoing in real time;
quarterly; annually
Reviewing application process

Expanding recruiting
networks

Implementing training and
professional development
programs
Monitoring
One-on-one meetings with
supervisors to discuss
individual performance
Monthly; in real time as
needed
Reviewing application process

Expanding recruiting
networks

Implementing training and
professional development
programs
Strategy meetings with
leadership to review team
progress towards
organizational goal
Biannually Reviewing application process

Expanding recruiting
networks

Implementing training and
professional development
programs

Level 2: Learning
Level 2 focuses on training recipients’ degree of effectiveness in acquiring the intended
knowledge, skills, and behaviors from training. During this level of training evaluation,
professionals should be guided by learning goals and components of learning. Level 2 training
evaluations can be either formative or summative in nature, although formative evaluations are
more common (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This section provides details for Level 2
evaluation considerations for nonprofit organizations seeking to increase their levels of staff
diversity, based on findings from this study.
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Learning goals. Establishing learning goals are essential in guiding the design and delivery
of a training program. Using this study as a reference, following training, training recipients
should be able to:
1. Apply knowledge of recruiting and retaining diverse candidates and staff members.
(Procedural knowledge)
2. Self-reflect on their perceptions and biases and how their perceptions and biases impact
recruiting diverse staff members. (Metacognitive knowledge)
3. Act based on the belief that their success in achieving its staff diversity goal is contingent
on their individual and collective efforts in pursuing the goal rather than external,
uncontrollable factors. (Attributions)
4. Value the benefit of its staff diversity goal to persist towards achieving it. (Expectancy
value)
5. Create an environment in which diversity is embraced as an organizational value
throughout the organization (Cultural setting)
6. Implement practices to increase diversity within its leadership (Cultural setting)
Components of learning. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) identified five Level 2
learning components as knowledge, skill, attitude, confidence, and commitment. The knowledge
learning component pertains to the degree that training recipients know information (declarative
knowledge). The skill learning component pertains to training recipients' ability to perform tasks
(procedural knowledge). The learning component of attitude pertains to training recipients’
beliefs that it is worth it to them to demonstrate what they have learned from training on their
jobs (value). The learning component of confidence relates to training recipients’ beliefs in
being able to demonstrate what they learned from training on their jobs (self-efficacy). The
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commitment learning component focuses on training recipients’ intent to apply to their training
on their jobs. In relation to organizational efforts to increase staff diversity, a potential training
activity could focus on workshops focused on recruitment and retention practices. Evaluation
activities would focus on evaluating training recipients’ knowledge and skills regarding
understanding and applying recruiting and retention practices. Table 17 provides details
regarding the application of Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s five components of learning to a
training program focused on recruiting and retaining staff members of color.
Table 17
Components of Learning for the Training Program
Method or activity Timing
Declarative knowledge: “I know it.”
Knowledge checks regarding recruiting
sources
During workshops
Knowledge checks regarding effective
retention strategies
During workshops
Procedural skills: “I can do it right now.”
Identification of potential new recruiting
sources
During workshops
Training recipients provide preliminary list of
new recruiting sources
After completion of workshops
Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussions during workshops During workshops
One-on-one coaching with supervisor After completion of workshops
On the job observations by supervisor After completion of workshops
Confidence: “I think I can do it on the job.”
Focus group feedback During workshops
Survey After completion of workshops
Commitment: “I will do it on the job.”
One-on-ones with supervisor After completion of workshops
Individual development plan After completion of workshops

Level 1: Reaction
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Level 1 focuses on the degree to which training recipients are satisfied with the training
that they received as well as how relevant they believed the training was to their jobs. Level 1
reaction components include engagement, training recipients’ level of active involvement;
relevance, the likelihood that training will be applied on the job; and customer satisfaction,
training recipients’ sense of fulfillment from participating in the training (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 18 provides details regarding the components to measure an
organization’s reaction to the training program.
Table 18
Components to Measure Reactions to the Training Program
Method or tool Timing
Engagement
Level of participation by team members During workshops
Completion of workshop activities During workshops
Relevance
Question and answer sessions Periodically during workshops
Workshop evaluation One week following workshops
Customer satisfaction
Workshop evaluation One week following workshops
Supervisor evaluation Biannually

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. During each workshop, trainers
should conduct periodic check-ins with training recipients as part of their Level 1 evaluation.
Training recipients should be asked about their initial degree of satisfaction regarding the
training received as well as the training’s relevance to their jobs. One week following each
workshop, trainers should deploy a brief survey to gather additional feedback for Level 1
evaluation. Level 2 evaluations should also occur during and after workshops. During
workshops, trainers should perform knowledge checks to assess training recipients’ awareness
and application of recruitment and retention strategies. The follow up survey should also include
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 88

Level 2 evaluation questions pertaining to training recipients’ confidence in their ability to
demonstrate the knowledge and skills that they acquired from training on their jobs. Level 2
evaluations should also occur with training recipients’ supervisors (or those who are responsible
for conducting one-on-one coaching, performance assessments, and on the job observations). In
addition, supervisors should work with training recipients to develop individual development
plans that outline expectations for how training recipients will further demonstrate their learning
on the job.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. More extensive evaluation
procedures should occur each quarter following the implementation of training. Surveys should
be conducted to evaluate training recipients’: levels of engagement and satisfaction as well as
their perspectives regarding the relevance of the trainings that they completed (Level 1);
perceptions, motivations, and interests (Level 2); and demonstration of the knowledge and skills
that they acquired through training on their jobs (Level 3). While monitored on an ongoing
basis, internal and external outcomes (Level 4) should be officially evaluated on an annual basis
and used to inform near-, intermediate-, and long-term organizational goal setting and strategic
planning efforts at the beginning of each fiscal year.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Findings can be reported in numerous ways. Periodic survey results, capturing Level 1
and Level 2 items, can be reported by the designated HR lead. In addition, the HR lead can
consolidate Level 1 and Level 2 qualitative data, gathered by supervisors and trainers, to
supplement quantitative data included in quarterly reports. Level 3 data can be collected on an
ongoing basis and reported to HR team members and organizational leads to identify trends as
well as risks. Level 3 data can help inform data collection and analysis procedures for Level 4,
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 89

which can first be reviewed by the HR team and organizational leadership then reported to the
entire organization. Level 4 reporting is essential in demonstrating progress to the entire
workforce as well as building social capital with external stakeholders. People graphs can be
used to visually demonstrate progress on a variety of Level 4 data. Examples are illustrated in
Figure 4 (Note: Figure 4 depicts notional examples. Actual examples would reflect data collected
by the specific organization).

Figure 4. Notional examples of people graphs indicating year to year changes in staff data
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approaches
The Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Framework provided a way to organize the study by
KMO themes which provided focus through the data collection and analysis process. The
interview protocol used for the study was organized based on KMO themes that were easily
understood by the study participants. Furthermore, the approach guided the study’s research
questions and influenced the overall study design. Open and axial coding of interview
transcripts were easily translated into KMO categories and subcategories consistent with the
literature review. However, use of the framework also poses potential risks, including omitting
thematic categories that may fall outside of KMO themes or incorrectly forcing findings into pre-
established KMO categories.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model was developed partially in recognition of the
emergence of nonprofit organizations since the creation of the original Kirkpatrick Four Level
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Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). It was a valuable tool to use for this
study given OT’s status as a nonprofit organization. Composed of four training evaluation
levels, the model begins with Level 4 in order to focus most significantly on achieving
organizational goals. However, the inclusion of each evaluation level enables a progressive
measurement tool for organizations. Through focused activities and effective drivers to support
behaviors as well as hold behaviors accountable, the New World Kirkpatrick Model ensures that
organizations possess the proper degree of knowledge, skills, attitudes, confidence, and
commitment to achieve their organizational goals. However, as indicated by Grossman and
Salas (2011), there are three key factors which should be considered in the transfer and
application of training on the job, including trainee characteristics, training design, and work
environment. Trainees’ desires to participate in training programs are influenced by aspects such
as their cognitive ability, motivation, and perceived value (Grossman & Salas, 2011). The
design of training programs, including physical training environments, also impact the
effectiveness of training. The work environment is significant in providing training recipients
the proper support and opportunities to demonstrate their training on the job. When considering
these factors, the use of the New World Kirkpatrick Model may face challenges from
organization to organization if training recipients’ characteristics, training designs, and work
environments are prohibitive to learning.
For both the Clark and Estes and Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick approaches, it is also
important to consider the capacity of organizations to design, develop, and implement strategies
to address their organizational goals. As is the case with OT, its Human Capital Team consisted
of only five members. While staff diversity was a priority for the organization, the Human
Capital Team was also responsible for managing other key human capital functions. A 2010
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 91

study of Los Angeles County, California based nonprofit organizations indicated that capacity
issues impacting the organizations’ ability to meet their missions were significant concerns (TCC
Group, 2010). Adequate staff levels with the knowledge and skills needed to carry out tasks are
essential to successfully achieve organizational goals.
Future Research
While focused on nonprofit organizations, future research may focus on a variety of
options including:
1. Expanding research to organizations in other sectors (e.g., private, government)
2. Comparing specific organizational types within or between sectors (e.g., nonprofits
versus for profits; hospitals versus community health organizations; private versus public
interest law firms)
As communicated earlier, staff diversity has been found to provide benefits to organizations
across sectors. Comparison research can help better understand whether diversity practices are
either agnostic to or influenced by different organizational types. Research findings can help
guide more effective practices across sectors to address staff diversity challenges.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to assess OT’s Human Capital Team’s performance in
relation to the larger problem of practice of increasing staff diversity in nonprofit organizations.
Recognizing that staff diversity was a concern, based on quantitative and qualitative feedback
gathered from its staff members, OT established a staff diversity goal to achieve an
organizational staff make up of 40% staff members of color by October 2017. As the primary
stakeholder group responsible for addressing OT’s staff diversity matters, the Human Capital
Team was the stakeholder group of focus for this study. This study initially sought to assess
NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 92

assumed KMO influences that could pose potential challenges towards the Human Capital
Team’s capacity to achieve OT’s staff diversity goal.
One-on-one interviews with the entire Human Capital Team were conducted to assess the
degree of KMO influences on the Human Capital Team. OT achieved its staff diversity goal
ahead of schedule and, as of October 2017, had an organizational staff make up of 48% staff of
color. As such, this study found that OT’s Human Capital Team possessed valuable KMO assets
which could provide recommendations for practice. While not perfect (as evidenced by
organizational challenges impacting diversity within OT’s leadership), practices related to
effective recruiting and retention strategies provide guidance for other nonprofit organizations to
potentially pursue and implement.
It is essential that evaluation measures are used in order for organizations to measure the
effectiveness of their approach, make adjustments when necessary, and build polices, practices,
and procedures that eventually permeate throughout the organizations and are embedded within
their cultures. For mission-driven organizations, particularly those focused on student outcomes,
their success in building a diverse workforce, reflecting the communities which they serve, may
enable positive socio-economic outcomes for students, families, and communities across the
country.

NONPROFIT STAFF DIVERSITY 93

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APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol (Page 1)

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APPENDIX A (continued)
Interview Protocol (Page 2)

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Riddick, Christopher L. (author)

Core Title An assessment of a nonprofit organization’s effort to increase its staff diversity

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 12/08/2017

Defense Date 10/23/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Ethnicity,nonprofit organizations,OAI-PMH Harvest,Race,staff diversity

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Seli, Helena (committee chair), Pearson, Mark (committee member), Smith-Maddox, Renee (committee member)

Creator Email christopher.riddick@gmail.com,criddick@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-461066

Unique identifier UC11267440

Identifier etd-RiddickChr-5947.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-461066 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-RiddickChr-5947.pdf

Dmrecord 461066

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Riddick, Christopher L.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA