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Utilizing school counselors to increase the number of rural high achieving low-income students at selective colleges: an evaluation study

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Utilizing school counselors to increase the number of rural high achieving low-income students at selective colleges: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 1

Utilizing school counselors to increase the number of rural high achieving low-income students
at selective colleges: an evaluation study
by
Laura A. Rogers

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Laura A. Rogers

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 2
Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my former students. You inspired me to fight for you, so that
you and your siblings would have access to a quality education. You continue to inspire me
every day to make sure your story is heard and that all students, no matter where they come
from, can follow their dreams.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 3
Acknowledgements

I thank my committee, Dr. Mora-Flores, Dr. Stowe, and Dr. Castro, my professors, my
classmates, my family, and my friends for your advice and support throughout my research.
Thank you “Border School District” for allowing me to study your organization and its people.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 4
Table of Contents
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ 11
Table of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 14
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Introduction to the Problem of Practice .................................................................................... 21
Organizational Context and Mission ........................................................................................ 22
Importance of Addressing the Problem .................................................................................... 23
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................................... 24
Organizational Performance Status ........................................................................................... 25
Organizational Performance Goals ........................................................................................... 25
Stakeholder Group of Focus ..................................................................................................... 26
Review of the Literature ........................................................................................................... 27
Factors Contributing to Undermatching ............................................................................... 28
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Impacting School Counselors ...... 31
Knowledge influences ....................................................................................................... 33
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 5
General lack of training on college advising ................................................................ 36
Predisposition ................................................................................................................ 37
College Search and Choice ........................................................................................... 39
Motivation Influences ....................................................................................................... 41
Attribution and Control Beliefs .................................................................................... 42
Utility Value.................................................................................................................. 44
Organizational Influences ................................................................................................. 46
High student to counselor ratios ................................................................................... 47
Unclear counselor roles and responsibilities................................................................. 48
School District and Community Culture....................................................................... 49
Financial and External Support ..................................................................................... 52
Interactive Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 54
Methodological Approach and Rationale ................................................................................. 56
Data Collection and Instrumentation ........................................................................................ 57
Surveys .................................................................................................................................. 58
Interviews .............................................................................................................................. 59
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 6
Documents ............................................................................................................................ 61
Results and Findings ................................................................................................................. 61
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 62
Knowledge Results and Findings.......................................................................................... 63
General Training ............................................................................................................... 66
Predisposition .................................................................................................................... 67
College Search. ................................................................................................................. 78
College Choice .................................................................................................................. 84
Motivation Results and Findings .......................................................................................... 95
Control Beliefs .................................................................................................................. 96
Utility Value...................................................................................................................... 97
Organizational Results and Findings .................................................................................. 101
Student to Counselor Ratios............................................................................................ 102
Counselor Roles and Responsibilities ............................................................................. 104
School and Community Culture...................................................................................... 113
Financial and External Support ....................................................................................... 126
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 7
Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 128
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ................................................. 131
Organization Recommendations ......................................................................................... 131
Student to Counselor Ratios............................................................................................ 133
Counselor Roles and Responsibilities ............................................................................. 135
School and Community Culture...................................................................................... 136
Access to Financial and External Support ...................................................................... 137
Motivation Recommendations ............................................................................................ 137
Control Beliefs ................................................................................................................ 138
Utility Value.................................................................................................................... 139
Knowledge Recommendations ........................................................................................... 140
Creating college application lists comprised of safety, target, and reach schools .......... 149
Recommendations for Other Organizations............................................................................ 154
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 156
References ................................................................................................................................... 157
Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Survey and Interviews .... 171
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 8
Participating Stakeholders ...................................................................................................... 171
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale............................................................................. 171
Criterion 1 ....................................................................................................................... 171
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale .................................................... 172
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale......................................................................... 172
Criterion 1 ....................................................................................................................... 172
Criterion 2 ....................................................................................................................... 173
Criterion 3 ....................................................................................................................... 173
Criterion 4 ....................................................................................................................... 173
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale ................................................ 173
Action Research Team Selection ........................................................................................ 174
Appendix B: Survey Protocol ..................................................................................................... 175
Appendix C: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 190
Appendix D: Credibility and Trustworthiness ............................................................................ 192
Appendix E: Validity and Reliability ......................................................................................... 193
Appendix F: Ethics ..................................................................................................................... 194
Appendix G: Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ................................................... 196
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..................................................................... 196
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 9
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ....................................................................... 196
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations ................................................................ 197
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ............................................................................. 198
Level 3: Behavior ................................................................................................................ 200
Critical behaviors ............................................................................................................ 200
Required drivers .............................................................................................................. 202
Organizational support .................................................................................................... 204
Level 2: Learning ................................................................................................................ 204
Learning goals ................................................................................................................. 204
Program ........................................................................................................................... 206
Evaluation of the Components of learning ..................................................................... 209
Level 1: Reaction ................................................................................................................ 210
Evaluation Tools ................................................................................................................. 211
Immediately following the program implementation ..................................................... 211
Delayed for a period after the program implementation ................................................. 211
Data Analysis and Reporting .............................................................................................. 211
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 10
Appendix H: Evaluation Tools – Immediately After Implementation ....................................... 213

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 11
List of Tables
Table 1 Clark and Estes (2008) Influence Types and Descriptions .............................................. 32
Table 2 “Border School District” Counselor Knowledge Influences Assessed ........................... 33
Table 3“Border School District” Counselor Motivation Influences Assessed ............................. 42
Table 4 “Border School District” Counselor Organizational Influences Assessed ...................... 46
Table 5 Assessed Knowledge Influences ...................................................................................... 64
Table 6 Training Received by Counselors on College Advising .................................................. 66
Table 7 Counselors' understanding of best practices for pre-exposing middle and high school
students to selective colleges ........................................................................................................ 68
Table 8 Counselors' use of best practices for pre-exposing middle and high school students to
selective colleges .......................................................................................................................... 68
Table 9 Counselors' understanding of best practices for tracking high achieving students into
college-ready courses .................................................................................................................... 71
Table 10 Counselors' use of best practices for tracking high achieving students into college-ready
courses........................................................................................................................................... 71
Table 11 Frequency of Parent and Family Engagement in College Planning .............................. 73
Table 12 High Achieving students take SAT/ACT for the first time ........................................... 83
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 12
Table 13 SAT/ACT and SAT subject test trends for high achieving students at “Border School
District” ......................................................................................................................................... 83
Table 14 Assessed Motivation Influences .................................................................................... 96
Table 15 Counselors' Beliefs about Utility Value of Selective Colleges ..................................... 97
Table 16 Counselors' Perceptions of Community Beliefs about Utility Value of Selective
Colleges....................................................................................................................................... 101
Table 17 Assessed Organizational Influences ............................................................................ 101
Table 18 Number of Students Served by Counselor ................................................................... 102
Table 19 Counselors' Perception of Student Caseload ............................................................... 102
Table 20 College Advising as a Priority for Middle School Counselors .................................... 109
Table 21 College Advising as a Priority for High School Counselors ....................................... 109
Table 22 Top five responsibilities of middle and high school counselors based on percentage of
time spent .................................................................................................................................... 110
Table 23 Time Spent on College Advising Activities ................................................................ 110
Table 24 Annual High School Graduation and Dropout Rates for “Border School District” .... 113
Table 25 Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations .................................... 132
Table 26 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ........................................ 138
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 13
Table 27 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ....................................... 141
Table 28 Metrics and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes .......................................... 198
Table 29 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................. 200
Table 30 Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors .......................................................... 202
Table 31“Border School District” Counselor Learning Program ............................................... 206
Table 32 Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ....................................... 209
Table 33 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ..................................................... 210

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 14
Table of Figures
Figure 1. "The College Program" Pillars from eighth through twelfth grade ............................... 23
Figure 2. Clark and Estes (2008) Conceptual Framework applied to “Border School District”,
showing the knowledge, motivation, and organization influences impacting school counselors. 55
Figure 3. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I understand what pre-requisite courses
are required by most selective colleges”. ...................................................................................... 72
Figure 4. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to parent and family engagement in
college planning. ........................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 5. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to building positive college-going
beliefs in middle and high school students. .................................................................................. 75
Figure 6. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I am aware of external scholarships
available to students starting in middle school, such as the Jack Kent Cooke Scholarship”. ....... 77
Figure 7. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I know how to assist middle school
students with applying for external scholarships”. ....................................................................... 77
Figure 8. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “High achieving middle school students
from the District apply for external college scholarships.” .......................................................... 78
Figure 9. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I know how to guide students to access
information on selective colleges during their college search”. ................................................... 79
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 15
Figure 10. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items tied to helping students created college
application lists comprised of safety, target, and reach schools. .................................................. 79
Figure 11. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items on SAT/ACT requirements and test prep
for admission to selective colleges. .............................................................................................. 81
Figure 12. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “Based on best practices, our district
provides adequate SAT/ACT test prep for high achieving students preparing for admission to
selective colleges”. ........................................................................................................................ 82
Figure 13. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to SAT/ACT and
SAT subject test fee waivers. ........................................................................................................ 84
Figure 14. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to ApplyTexas. .... 85
Figure 15. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to the Common
Application. ................................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 16. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to the Coalition
Application. ................................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 17. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey item: “I believe students
receive adequate support on how to complete the components of college applications”. ............ 87
Figure 18. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey item: “I believe students
receive adequate support on how to write effective college application essays. (for example:
personal statements and creative essays)”. ................................................................................... 87
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 16
Figure 19. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey items related to the Free
Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). ............................................................................ 89
Figure 20. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey items related to the College
Board’s College Scholarship Service (CSS) Profile. .................................................................... 90
Figure 21. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey item: “I believe students and
families receive adequate support on completing financial aid applications”. ............................. 90
Figure 22. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to their
understanding of fee waivers for college and financial aid applications. ..................................... 91
Figure 23. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to their perception of
students’ understanding of fee waivers for college and financial aid applications. ...................... 92
Figure 24. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to their
understanding of how to read and explain financial aid packages to students. ............................ 93
Figure 25. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to their
understanding of external college scholarships. ........................................................................... 94
Figure 26. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey item: “High achieving high school
students from the district apply for external scholarships”. .......................................................... 94
Figure 27. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey item: “I know how to coach high
achieving high school students through perceived cultural fears of leaving home or fitting in at a
selective college”. ......................................................................................................................... 95
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 17
Figure 28. Comparison of 32 counselor responses for survey items tied to attributions and control
beliefs. ........................................................................................................................................... 97
Figure 29. Counselor responses to survey item: “I have enough time in my daily schedule to
provide one-on-one college advising to my students”. ............................................................... 103
Figure 30. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I am clear on my roles and
responsibilities as a school counselor”. ...................................................................................... 105
Figure 31. Counselor responses to survey item: “I am asked to complete non-counseling
responsibilities (e.g. administrative duties)”. .............................................................................. 105
Figure 32. Counselor responses to survey item: “I receive adequate guidance from my school
leaders or district leaders on how to prioritize my responsibilities”. .......................................... 108
Figure 33. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey questions on the college-going culture of
“Border School District” and the broader Rio Grande Valley of South Texas. ......................... 114
Figure 34. Results from actual “Border School District” longitudinal student data on college
enrollment post high school (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017). ...................................... 115
Figure 35. Counselors response (n=32) to survey item: “Of our District’s high achieving students
who choose to stay in state for college, most attend:” ................................................................ 117
Figure 36. Results from actual “Border School District” longitudinal student data on college
enrollment post high school by institution level (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017). ....... 118
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 18
Figure 37. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “Of our District’s high achieving students
who choose to go out of state for college, most attend:” ............................................................ 119
Figure 38. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “On a whole, most of the District’s high
achieving students choose to attend an:” .................................................................................... 120
Figure 39. Results from actual “Border School District” longitudinal student data on college
enrollment post high school by institution location (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017). .. 121
Figure 40. Longitudinal College Persistence data for “Border School District” between 2010-
2015 (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017). ........................................................................... 122
Figure 41. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to taking students on field trips to
visit selective colleges in and out of Texas. ................................................................................ 123
Figure 42. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “Of the students I serve, I have ________
students living in colonias”. ........................................................................................................ 124
Figure 43. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “Of the students I serve, I have ________
students who are migrants”. ........................................................................................................ 125
Figure 44. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I feel there is adequate college advising
programming for our migrant students”. .................................................................................... 125
Figure 45. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to incarceration. ...................... 126
Figure 46. Comparison of counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to Upward Bound
and GEAR UP grant awareness. ................................................................................................. 128
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 19
Figure 47. Comparison of counselor responses (n=32) to survey items on access to external
support......................................................................................................................................... 128

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 20
Abstract
Undermatching is a problem in many low-income school districts, where students apply
to and enroll at colleges below their academic capabilities. Universities have tried to reduce
undermatching in urban areas, but have done less in rural areas; students are too geographically
dispersed for programming to be cost-effective. Because programming is poorly focused on
rural areas, this study analyzed the role of rural school counselors in reducing undermatching.
An evaluation of “Border School District”, a large rural district in the Rio Grande Valley, Texas
was conducted to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors influencing
counselors’ effectiveness. An explanatory mixed methods approach was used to assess these
influences in middle and high school counselors through surveys, interviews, and document
analysis. The study showed that counselors were motivated and had significant knowledge about
college advising but were deficient in knowledge about out-of-state colleges and selective
colleges. The fact that only 2% of students attended colleges out-of-state suggested a potential
relationship between counselor knowledge and student behavior. A review of counselor case
logs revealed less than 1% of their time was dedicated to college advising. This was a result of
high student to counselor ratios, counselors balancing too many responsibilities, and a lack of
guidance from supervisors on how to prioritize responsibilities. The study recommended that the
district’s counseling department re-align its vision and strategic priorities, and eventually align
its organizational structure to maximize counselor effectiveness. A comprehensive counselor
professional development program was also recommended to further improve counselor
knowledge and motivation.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 21
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
High achieving low-income students are not applying to or enrolling in selective colleges
at the same rate as high achieving high-income students. In this study, selective colleges are
defined as the top 100 ranked colleges and universities in U.S. News and World Report’s annual
ranking list. For every high achieving low-income student applying to a selective college, there
are between eight to fifteen high achieving high-income students applying for the same spot
(Hoxby & Avery, 2013). When this disparity was further analyzed, researchers found that there
are almost as many high achieving low-income students as high-income students in America, a
ratio of only one to two, implying that application gaps for low-income students are tied to
students choosing not to apply rather than a lack of qualified students (Hoxby & Avery, 2013).
Low-income students may choose not to apply to selective colleges because they are unaware of
the utility value, such as financial and employment gains (Beattie, 2002). Even when students
understand these gains, some are unsure how to obtain financial aid (Jackson, 2003; Perna,
2006). This can lead to undermatching, where high achieving low-income students choose to
attend a college below their academic capabilities because of perceived financial strain (Smith,
Howell, Pender, & Hurwitz, 2012). If a low-income student receives financial aid from a
selective college, he or she may still choose not to enroll in fear of leaving home or of not fitting
in (Poole & More, 2001). Research and programming has been applied to improve application
and enrollment rates of low-income students from urban areas, but rural students, who are seen
as too geographically dispersed for efforts to be cost-effective, are being left out (Hoxby &
Avery, 2013). Without efforts to reach rural students, the gap between high achieving low-
income and high-income students at selective colleges cannot be closed.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 22
Organizational Context and Mission
“The College Program” was founded in 2011 to address the unmet need of college
readiness programming for high achieving low-income students in the lower Rio Grande Valley,
Texas, a rural isolated region along the Mexico border. The program utilized a cohort model to
follow a pilot group of five high achieving low-income students from eighth grade through high
school graduation with the mission of preparing students academically and culturally for
America’s most selective colleges. Students from the pilot program attended middle and high
schools at “Border School District”, a large district in the Rio Grande Valley serving primarily
Latino, low-income students.
Students from “Border School District” were selected for “The College Program”
through a rigorous application process. The program’s application consisted of an academic
performance review of middle school grades, a review of extracurricular activities, such as
leadership, community outreach, music, and athletic participation, and three 500 word essays.
The essays allowed students the opportunity to show their motivation for participating in the
program along with an opportunity to show how students would creatively solve problems facing
their community. Approximately 50 eighth grade students applied. The five students with the
highest application rubric scores were selected. The number of students in the cohort was kept at
five students so that highly personalized attention could be provided to each student. Figure 1
shows the eighth through twelfth grade programming provided to students in “The College
Program”, which focused on three key program pillars: college, culture, and career.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 23

Figure 1. "The College Program" Pillars from eighth through twelfth grade
The program’s first cohort graduated high school in 2016. All students applied to
multiple selective colleges in their senior year. For students admitted to selective colleges they
continue to be enrolled at the selective college of their choice, with scholarships. For students
who were not admitted to selective colleges, students enrolled at the next best school that
matched their academic capabilities and offered them a scholarship to attend; these students also
continue to be enrolled. Because of the success of the pilot cohort, “The College Program”
wants to expand to more students in the region. However, “The College Program” is challenged
by the geographical dispersion of students and limited staff to provide personalized attention to a
larger number of students. The aim of this dissertation was to determine if school counselors,
using “The College Program” model, could effectively service more students.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Unlike large urban metropolitan areas, rural regions lack college readiness programming
aimed at high achieving low-income students. As shown previously, because students lack
information on the utility value of attending selective colleges (Beattie, 2002), lack financial aid
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 24
options to cover the costs (Jackson, 2003; Perna, 2006), and are afraid of leaving their
communities to attend selective colleges (Poole & More, 2001), undermatching occurs and
students choose colleges below their academic abilities (Smith et al., 2012). This results in a
disproportionate percentage of high-income high achieving students filling selective colleges’
freshman classes (Hoxby & Avery, 2013). Efforts are already in place to help high achieving
low-income students in urban areas, but rural students are being left out because they are too
geographically dispersed for programming to be cost-effective (Hoxby & Avery, 2013). Without
further research on how to reach rural high achieving low-income students, selective colleges
will continue to have disproportionate amounts of high achieving high-income students at their
campuses and rural students will continue to undermatch at colleges below their academic
ability, limiting their potential for future economic and career growth.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
In order to determine if “The College Program” could reach more rural high achieving
low-income students through transferring its model to middle and high school counselors at
“Border School District”, a needs analysis of counselors’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences was conducted. The purpose of this dissertation was to conduct this
needs analysis.
As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What are the counselors’ knowledge and motivation in relation to what would be needed
to manage “The College Program” activities at each of their corresponding grade levels?
2. What is the interaction of organizational culture and context with counselor knowledge
and motivation?
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 25
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions needed
for counselors to use “The College Program” model?
Organizational Performance Status
“Border School District” seeks to promote a culture of college and career ready students.
However, during the 2015-2016 school year, 80 % of the district’s students were designated as
at-risk of dropping out of high school and only 10% of students met minimum college-ready exit
exam criteria. Because the district is geographically isolated, in rural South Texas, students do
not have access to major universities and external college readiness programming is limited.
“The College Program” successfully prepared students from “Border School District” for college
and all students went on to four-year universities. By expanding the program to more students,
the district is more likely to increase its number of college and career ready students.
Organizational Performance Goals
With the broader goal of increasing college readiness programming to high achieving
low-income rural students, the specific goals for expansion of “The College Program” within
“Border School District” were to:
1. Increase the “Border School District” student cohort size from five to 30 students
starting in Fall 2019, with a total of 150 students in the program, concurrently, by Fall
2023
a. The first expanded group of 30 students would be admitted to the program as
eighth graders in Fall 2019 and would continue through high school
graduation in 2023
b. Each year following 2019, another group of 30 eighth graders would be
admitted to the program, so that by 2023, there would be a cohort of 30
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 26
students in each grade level (eighth through twelfth grade) and a total of 150
students in the program concurrently at any given time.
2. Transition program governance of “The College Program” from an independent
nonprofit to “Border School District” counseling department
3. Transition program advising services of “The College Program” from an independent
nonprofit to “Border School District” eighth through twelfth grade school counselors
The needs analysis from this study informed “Border School District” counselors’
readiness for expansion and transition. Because there were gaps found in counselor readiness,
the timelines on these performance goals may be adjusted. This will allow the district time to
first implement the recommended solutions to close existing knowledge, motivation, or
organizational gaps.
Stakeholder Group of Focus
School counselors are the single highest influence on low-income students’ college going
behaviors (McDonough, 2005) and the gatekeepers of students’ access to information about
college (Balesco, 2013; Gonzalez, Stoner, & Jovel, 2003). Counselors can either serve as an
agent of social cultural capital or an agent of institutional neglect based on how they work with
their students (Gonzalez, et al., 2003). “The College Program” aims to partner with “Border
School District” counselors so that they can serve as agents of social cultural capital, expanding
the program’s reach to more students and ultimately increasing the number of high achieving
students at selective colleges. Although research indicates that counselors are the most effective
source for influencing students, there are also potential gaps in counselor knowledge, motivation,
or organizational barriers that could impede their success. This study focused on identifying
those gaps and recommended solutions to help counselors reach the desired performance goals.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 27
“Border School District” sixth through twelfth grade counselors were included in this
study. Although “The College Program” focuses on eighth through twelfth grade, sixth and
seventh grade counselors at “Border School District” were also studied. This is because at
“Border School District” counselors follow their students from sixth through eighth grade. Even
if a counselor is not currently counseling eighth grade, they will eventually rotate back to serving
eighth grade students, and therefore were included in the study. There are approximately 60
counselors at “Border School District” who serve sixth to twelfth grade students.
Review of the Literature
Many high achieving low-income students are choosing not to apply to or enroll in
America’s most selective colleges, leading to undermatching, where students choose to attend
colleges below their academic capabilities. The primary factors contributing to undermatching
are: (1) lack of awareness of selective colleges and their utility value for students throughout
their lifetime, (2) lack of education on financial aid opportunities available to pay for selective
colleges, (3) cultural stigmas about leaving the community to attend selective colleges, and (4)
lack of adequate advising from school counselors or external programming that predispose
students to selective colleges early and assist students in selecting, applying for, and choosing to
enroll in selective colleges. Combined, these primary factors relate back to a student’s social and
cultural capital, knowledge and resources developed through one’s social and cultural networks
(Bourdieu, 1980), which can either negatively or positively influence a student’s college
opportunities (Gonzaeles et al., 2003; Perna, 2006).
Several researchers have utilized social cultural capital theory to frame the problem of
undermatching. Perna (2006) utilized a conceptual framework which looks at student’s capital
through four layers: beginning internally with the student’s habitus or self-perception derived
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 28
primarily from social and cultural relationships, the context of the school and community where
the student resides, the student’s access to colleges and universities, and finally public policies
impacting the student. Gonzalez and colleagues (2003) focused specifically on how the school
and its personnel either serve as agents of social and cultural capital or agents of institutional
neglect for Latino students in California, resulting in positive or negative college-going identities
in students. Martinez and Welton (2014) conducted a similar study in South and Central Texas.
The study assessed the role of school counselors, teachers, and curriculum in shaping high
poverty Latino and Black high school students’ college opportunities. This dissertation built
onto Martinez and Welton’s (2014) study, focusing even more narrowly on school counselors in
South Texas. McDonough (2005) found school counselors to be the single highest influence on
students’ college going behaviors. However, data from South Texas high schools indicated that
counselors are not able to provide students the guidance they need (Martinez & Welton, 2014).
This dissertation assessed the knowledge, motivation, and organizational contexts that create the
social and cultural capital school counselors need to successfully build this capital in students.
The initial literature review focused less on school counselor needs and more on the
broader factors contributing to undermatching. Where possible, social cultural capital theory
was integrated. Following the broader literature review, the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting school counselors were addressed in detail.
Factors Contributing to Undermatching
High achieving low-income students are often unaware of selective colleges and the
utility value of attending these types of colleges. School counselors may not have or may not be
sharing information about these colleges (Gonzalez, Stoner, & Jovel, 2003). Rural students are
rarely visited by admissions officers from selective colleges (Journal of Blacks in Higher
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 29
Education, 2008) because students are too geographically dispersed for admissions counselors to
make cost-effective visits (Hoxby & Avery, 2013); this further limits students’ access to
information. Additionally, because rural students are generally not as exposed to selective
colleges in their communities, students are unaware of the long-term utility value of attending
one of these colleges, such as employment and financial gains throughout life (Beattie, 2002).
Because students lack information and social cultural capital (Gonzalez et al., 2003), they often
choose not to apply to selective colleges and instead apply to colleges below their academic
capabilities, leading to undermatching (Smith et al., 2012). Regrettably, for over 50% of Latino
students, undermatching results in students attending community colleges, with less than 20% of
students transferring to four-year universities (Zarate & Berciaga, 2010).
Even when students are provided information on selective colleges, if financial aid
education is not provided, students will choose not to apply due to cost. There has been a 300%
rise in the cost of college over the past 30 years, while only a 3% rise in the average earnings of
low-income families (Lynch, Engle, & Cruz, 2011). Low-income students and their families
often see the price of selective colleges and perceive the schools to be unattainable (Perna,
2006). Most selective colleges dropped tuition costs to zero dollars for students with total
household incomes under $40,000 per year, however enrollments have not increased (Journal of
Blacks in Higher Education, 2008). Although selective colleges are offering free or reduced
tuition, many low-income students are not informed about these options, resulting in fewer
applications and lower enrollment at selective colleges (Jackson, 2003). A study of America’s
30 highest ranked selective colleges analyzed enrollment levels of high achieving low-income
students from the 1980s to early 2000s: only 11 schools increased enrollment of high achieving
low-income students; of Ivy League schools, only two showed any increase in enrollment, while
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 30
the remainder actually showed decreases in enrollment (Journal of Blacks in Higher Education,
2006).
When students are choosing to not enroll in selective colleges, when utility value and
financial aid options are presented, the cause for lack of enrollment often stems from cultural
perceptions, especially in isolated rural regions. Because students have generally been less
exposed to other communities, they are often afraid to travel outside of their neighborhood to
attend a selective college (Poole & More, 2001). Similarly, students from low-income
communities, especially those from rural areas, lack family or peer level role models or social
cultural networks showing that leaving the community can be a positive experience (Nelson,
2016; Shamah, 2011). With a lack of role models and a lack of exposure to communities outside
their own, high achieving low-income students have a fear of not fitting in at a selective college,
which can prevent students from enrolling even if admitted and provided a strong financial aid
package (Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2008).
Students are positively influenced when they receive guidance from a school counselor
on utility value, financial aid, and methods for fitting in at a selective college. This guidance is
particularly important in low-income communities, where counselors are generally the sole
source of information on colleges (Balesco, 2013; Gonzalez et al., 2003; McDonough, 2005).
Because of this, school counselors have the single highest influence on low-income students’
college-going decisions and development of social cultural capital about colleges (McDonough,
2005). When proper guidance is not received either on purpose through institutional neglect
(Gonzalez et al., 2003) or because of reasons outside of counselors’ control, students and their
families can develop a self-perception or “habitus” that college is unattainable (Bourdieu &
Passeron, 1977; Perna, 2006).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 31
College readiness programs run by school counselors may be most effective at helping
students and families when the programs begin at the middle school level, or predisposition
phase, and are sustained through high school. Students develop college-going identities through
three distinct phases: predisposition, college search, and college choice (Hossler, Braxton, &
Coopersmith, 1989). Although predisposition begins as early as elementary school, it is most
significant in middle school when students are typically tracked into prerequisite college courses
(McDonough, 2004) and when self-identities are forming (Gibbons & Borders, 2010). In the
middle school years, counselors have the unique opportunity to build students’ self-efficacy and
self-identities, helping students develop beliefs that they are capable of going to selective
colleges and can visualize themselves there (Gibbons & Borders, 2010). High impact programs
sustained through the middle and high school years typically offer personalized attention to
students, mentoring from role models, significant information and resources about colleges,
academic support, small group advising, and opportunities for students to experience and
imagine themselves at colleges (Fashola & Slavin, 2001). Effective programs also educate
parents on college planning and financial aid, which in turn helps students who will often seek
support and guidance from their parents (Contreras 2011; Fashola & Slavin, 2001; Ibañez,
Kuperminc, Jurkovic, & Perilla, 2004; Reyes & Nora, 2012). Ultimately, programming serves to
build increased social and cultural capital in students and parents to positively influence the
college-going culture of the community.
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Impacting School Counselors
Although long-term college readiness programs are shown to be most effective for
students, many counselors in low-income communities face knowledge, motivation, or
organizational barriers to providing these programs to their students. Rural school counselors are
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 32
particularly at a disadvantage because they have less external support to lean on than urban
school counselors when feeling overwhelmed (Hoxby & Avery, 2013). This section of the
literature review applies the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework to
assess the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences most impacting “Border School
District” middle and high school counselors. Table 1 below describes Clark and Estes’ influence
types in detail.
Table 1
Clark and Estes (2008) Influence Types and Descriptions
Influence Type Description
Knowledge The counselors’ knowledge and skills required to achieve the goal; when a
gap exists, essential knowledge or skills are missing
Motivation The counselors’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to reach the goal; when a
gap exists, either intrinsic, extrinsic, or both types of motivation are missing
Organization The processes, policies, procedures, material resources, and cultural norms
required for counselors and the district to achieve the goal; when gaps exist,
organizational influences can serve as additional barriers to knowledge and
motivation
Each influence type was addressed in relation to “Border School District” counselors.
For knowledge, general lack of training in college readiness and knowledge of the three key
phases of the college planning process – predisposition, college search, and college choice –
were assessed. For motivation, counselors control beliefs and beliefs about utility value of
selective colleges were assessed. Finally, for organizational influences, high student to
counselor ratios, unclear counselor roles and responsibilities, school and community culture, and
financial and external supports were assessed.
Although Clark and Estes recommend analyzing knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences separately for gaps, the model also recommends looking at all three
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 33
influences holistically to determine if gaps in one area could be causing gaps in another area.
For example, counselors may have the proper knowledge to utilize “The College Program”
model and are motivated towards the goal, but because of inefficient work processes and cultural
barriers, counselors may be unable to persist towards the goal. This can in turn, have an impact
on motivation, eventually decreasing motivation because counselors may not feel they can
achieve the goal, no matter how much effort they exert.
Knowledge influences. Table 2 shows the specific knowledge influences assessed in
“Border School District” counselors to determine the District’s readiness to adopt “The College
Program” model for an expanded number of students. The influences described in the table are
derived from research-based best practices for school counselor college advising as well as from
best practices of “The College Program” model. Best practices, in the context of this study,
referred to strategies that could be used by counselors to achieve desired outcomes with students
and/or families.
Table 2
“Border School District” Counselor Knowledge Influences Assessed
Organizational Mission
The mission of “The College Program” is to prepare rural high achieving low-income students
for America’s most selective colleges through college, culture, and career experiences from
eighth through twelfth grade.

The mission of “Border School District” is to provide students with an excellent education
based on academic rigor, the building of collaborative relationships, and the teachings of
personal responsibility. The district seeks to promote a culture of college and career ready
students.
Organizational Global Goals
1. Increase “The College Program” student cohort size from five to 30 students starting in
Fall 2019, with a total of 150 students in the program, concurrently, by Fall 2023.
2. Transition “The College Program” governance to “Border School District” counseling
department and program advising services to “Border School District” eighth through
twelfth grade counselors.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 34
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Predisposition
Factual knowledge on selective colleges, such as locations, rank,
admissions requirements, financial aid eligibility, application
requirements, and special programming for high achieving low-
income students
Survey Item
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for predisposing high
achieving middle school students to selective colleges
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for predisposing high
achieving middle school students to college-ready course
tracking
Survey Item
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for exposing high
achieving high school students to selective colleges
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for high school course
tracking for high achieving high school students preparing for
admission to selective colleges
Survey Item
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for engaging parents
and families in college planning
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Metacognitive knowledge of how to build positive college going
self-identities in middle school students
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Metacognitive knowledge of how to build positive college going
self-identities in high school students
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
College Search
Procedural Knowledge on how to guide students to access
information on selective colleges during their college search
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Procedural Knowledge on how to assist students in creating a
college application list comprised of safety, target, and reach
schools that match with students’ academic capabilities
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Conceptual Knowledge on best practices for ACT and SAT
Testing for high achieving school students preparing for
admission to selective colleges, including fee waivers
Survey Item
College Choice
Factual Knowledge on components of college applications such
as the Common Application, Texas Common Application, and
Locker
Survey Item
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 35
Procedural Knowledge on how to assist students with
completing college applications such as the Common
Application, ApplyTexas, and the Coalition Application
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview (Essays)
Factual Knowledge on components of financial aid applications
such as the FAFSA and CSS Profile
Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to assist students and families
with completing financial aid applications such as the FAFSA
and CSS Profile
Survey Item
Factual Knowledge about Waivers for College Application Fees,
and Financial Aid Application Fees
Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to help students obtain Fee
Waivers for their applications
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Factual Knowledge about external scholarships available to high
achieving low-income students such as Questbridge, Jack Kent
Cooke, etc.
Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to assist high achieving students
with completing applications for external scholarships, such as
Questbridge, Jack Kent Cooke, etc.
Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to read financial aid packages Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to explain financial aid packages
to students
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Metacognitive Knowledge on how to coach students through
perceived cultural fears of leaving home and fitting in at a
selective college
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview

Each knowledge influence listed in Table 2 was grouped under one of the three major
college process stages students follow from middle to high school: predisposition, college search,
and college choice (Hossler, Braxton, & Coopersmith,1989). Within each process stage, the
knowledge influences were further categorized by specific knowledge types. Krathwohl (2002)
defines four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Factual
knowledge is basic knowledge, often referring to facts or terminology required for basic
understanding of certain subject matter or disciplines. This factual knowledge serves as the prior
knowledge needed for higher levels of understanding and learning. Conceptual knowledge refers
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 36
to concepts, theories, or classifications in a certain area; for instance, understanding the
differences between public and private universities. Procedural knowledge is categorized as
knowing how to perform a particular set of tasks or steps, for example, completing a financial aid
application. Finally, metacognitive knowledge refers to one’s own cognitive awareness in the
thought process, for example, determining how to advise a student on college planning, based on
the particular situation or context.
It was important to categorize the knowledge influences for “Border School District”
school counselors into these specific knowledge types because there are different methods for
addressing gaps in each type of knowledge (Clark & Estes, 2008). For example, a lack of
procedural knowledge might be addressed with a specific training. However, a lack of
metacognitive knowledge may be more challenging to teach directly and may require several
observations or simulations for counselors to adapt their thinking and response styles to
challenging scenarios.
General lack of training on college advising. Although counselors should have the
college advising knowledge listed in Table 2, many may lack training in this area. Savitz-Romer
(2012) found college advising coursework to be missing from many school counselor university
training programs. Less than 10% of school counselor training programs offer practical
experiences or coursework in college planning, admissions, or financial aid (Clinedinst, Hurley,
& Hawkins, 2011). McDonough (2005) found that the lack of training many counselors receive
makes counseling more challenging because counselors have to seek out information
individually. In some cases, counselors must ask students to search for the information on their
own, because the counselors are unequipped with information (Hoxby & Avery, 2013).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 37
This general lack of knowledge among school counselors poses a significant problem for
high achieving low-income students. Because many of these students lack family members who
have attended college, or other forms of social cultural capital, school counselors are often their
sole source of college information (Balesco, 2013). School counselors have been shown to be
the most important influence on a low-income student’s decision to apply to and enroll in college
(McDonough, 2005). Without proper guidance, students and their families may develop a
perceived habitus, or self-concept, of what is attainable for colleges, often far below a student’s
capabilities, resulting in under matching (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977; Smith et al., 2012).
Predisposition. The development of a student’s self-efficacy and self-concept related to
college is developed first at the middle school level, when effective counselors predispose
students to college-going beliefs. Although students can begin learning about colleges as early
as elementary school, their beliefs about their own identity and capabilities, or self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1997), is formed in middle school (Gibbons & Borders, 2010). Counselors need
appropriate metacognitive knowledge to help develop these positive college-going self-identities
in middle schoolers. Counselors should develop these positive college-going self-identities over
a long period of time, presumably extending from the beginning of middle school through high
school (Contreras, 2011; National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). There may be different
developmental conceptual and metacognitive knowledge required for counselors building self-
identities in middle school students as opposed to high school students; for example, high
schoolers begin to focus significantly on peer groups (Erikson, 1985), which counselors would
need to incorporate into their advising.
In addition to building positive college-going self-identities, during the predisposition
phase it is also important for counselors to help students choose the appropriate prerequisite
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 38
college-ready courses that will prepare them academically for selective colleges. This is
particularly important in “Border School District” where 99% of students are Latino.
Universally, Latinos account for only 4% of students in gifted and talented or advanced
placement programs, meaning a large majority of Latino students are not accessing these college-
ready courses (Contreras, 2011; Nevarez & Rico, 2007). When analyzing enrollment of Latino
students in higher level mathematics courses, a strong indicator of college enrollment, only one
third of Latino students had been placed in these courses (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2012). When counselors are equipped with knowledge about college preparatory
coursework, they can better predispose their middle school students into college-ready courses
(McDonough, 2004).
Not only do “Border School District” counselors need to advise students on appropriate
perquisite coursework, counselors must also engage parents and families. In the Latino culture,
the family has a large influence on student beliefs and decision making (Ibañez et al., 2004).
Less than 20% of adults in the Rio Grande Valley have a college degree (Ed Excelencia, 2016),
making many parents unaware of the appropriate courses and paths their students should be
following in middle and high school to be college-ready (Tornatzky, Cutler, & Lee, 2002).
Effective school counselors engage parents early on with information on selective colleges,
prerequisite course planning, and information on financial aid, so that parents can guide their
students at home (Contreras 2011; Fashola & Slavin, 2001; Ibañez et al., 2004; Reyes & Nora,
2012). Engaging parents early may also help prevent some high achieving students from
“Border School District” from dropping out of school, which is common for low-income Latino
students who are asked to work to support their families instead of finishing school (Contreras,
2011; Passel, Cohn, & Lopez, 2011; Sum, Khatiwada, Mclaughlin, & Palma, 2009).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 39
College Search and Choice. Strong college readiness programming run by school
counselors provides guidance during predisposition as well as significant personalized coaching
during college search and college choice. Hoxby and Avery (2013) found that expert counselors
utilize a process of defining safety, target, and reach schools with their students in a way that is
specifically matched to each student’s academic capabilities and preferences. Safety schools are
colleges that a student will likely be admitted to, based on the student’s profile (e.g. grades, test
scores, extracurricular activities). A target school is one in which the student’s profile is the
average. A reach school is one in which the student’s profile is either below the average or one
where the college is highly selective, admitting only a small percentage of highly qualified
students each year.
Although counselors should be following this process, there are large disparities between
counselors operating in high-income communities compared to low-income communities.
Hoxby and Avery (2013) found that the majority of counselors serving high-income high
achieving students follow this expert process, but that counselors serving low-income high
achieving students do not. When reviewing the most selective colleges applied to by high
achieving low-income students, Hoxby and Avery (2013) found that more than 40% of students
selected colleges with average test scores more than 80 points below their own. The highest
ranked schools most high achieving low-income students apply to are more in line with where a
student should be applying as a safety school, not a reach school. In contrast, high-income
students in the same study submitted reach school applications, on average, to schools within 10
points of the student’s test scores, in line with where students should be for target and selective
reach schools. Hoxby and Avery (2013) also analyzed the overall application patterns of low-
income high achieving students compared to high-income high achieving students. For low-
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 40
income high achieving students, there was no strategic pattern to where students applied - most
students were aiming blindly at schools not matched to their capabilities. For rural low-income
communities, like “Border School District”, this often means high achieving students matriculate
at less selective colleges and often community colleges (Smith et al., 2012; Zarate & Burciaga,
2010).
In order to increase the number of rural high achieving low-income students choosing to
apply to and enroll in selective colleges, students need more guidance and information from their
counselors on what colleges would best match their student profile. Hoxby and Turner (2013)
designed an intervention called the Expanding College Opportunities (ECO) project, in which a
treatment group of high achieving low-income students were provided personalized advising
with information on colleges that matched their profile, costs of these colleges, student body and
instructional resources data, along with application fee waivers. In a follow up study, Hoxby and
Turner (2015), found that the treatment group applied to 48% more schools in general than the
control group, and 56% more target and reach schools. Treated students were 78% more likely
to be admitted to target schools than the control group. Although the treatment showed
substantial results, survey data collected from students revealed there were still gaps in
knowledge that students have about selective colleges, particularly about liberal arts colleges.
Most students in open-ended responses did not understand the concept of a liberal arts college,
some actually thinking it had to do with being a liberal or being an artist. This is important,
given several liberal arts colleges are considered selective colleges and would actually match
many of these student’s profiles if they were properly guided on the meaning of liberal arts.
Additionally, the study found that many high achieving low-income students surveyed chose not
to apply to flagship state colleges because they felt the schools were too sports or party focused
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 41
and not concentrated on academics. This information is also important for further research and
for counselors providing coaching to these students. The study showed that when students felt
this way and they did not receive personalized coaching, many students chose smaller schools,
but actually applied to colleges much less selective then their state’s flagship university and
schools much less academically resourced to meet their needs. School counselors in “Border
School District” must have the factual and procedural knowledge to guide students through all
phases of the college search and choice process.
During the college selection and choice process, school counselors also must spend
significant time coaching students on financial aid. For high achieving low-income students,
choosing to apply to certain colleges is highly influenced by the cost of the colleges (Heller,
1999; Kane, 2001). For many rural students the perceived cost is too high (Gelber, 2017).
However, the cost of a selective college on its website is not always the actual net cost for a high
achieving low-income student (Hoxby & Turner, 2015). The majority of selective colleges offer
zero cost tuition to students whose families earn less than $40,000 a year (Journal of Blacks in
Higher Education, 2008). Counselors must have this factual knowledge about financial aid
options for their high achieving low-income students and coach their students on how to retrieve
this information about the schools they are interested in applying. Many counselors provide
brochures, but the counselors who are most effective give personalized assistance in informing
students about the process of obtaining appropriate financial aid (Nelson, 2016), including
external scholarships.
Motivation Influences. In addition to counselor knowledge on predisposition, college
search and college choice, counselor motivation can also influence their effectiveness. Even
when counselors are fully equipped with the knowledge and skills to be successful, motivation or
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 42
lack of motivation can determine how the counselor chooses to utilize those skills and the impact
they can make with students. Table 3 below describes the motivational influences assessed in
“Border School District” counselors. The key motivational influences discussed are counselors’
control beliefs in their abilities to influence students and counselors’ beliefs in the utility of
selective colleges.
Table 3“
Border School District” Counselor Motivation Influences Assessed
Organizational Mission
The mission of “The College Program” is to prepare rural high achieving low-income
students for America’s most selective colleges through college, culture, and career
experiences from eighth through twelfth grade.

The mission of “Border School District” is to provide students with an excellent
education based on academic rigor, the building of collaborative relationships, and the
teachings of personal responsibility. The district seeks to promote a culture of college and
career ready students.
Organizational Global Goals
1. Increase “The College Program” student cohort size from five to 30 students
starting in Fall 2019, with a total of 150 students in the program, concurrently, by
Fall 2023.
2. Transition “The College Program” governance to “Border School District”
counseling department and program advising services to “Border School District”
eighth through twelfth grade counselors.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Control Beliefs: School counselors must
believe it is in their control to positively
influence students’ attributions, such as
their college-going self-identity or
academic ability.
Survey Item
Utility Value: School counselors must
believe the utility value of high achieving
low-income students attending selective
colleges is higher than students attending
colleges under matched to students’
academic capabilities.
Survey Item, Follow Up Interview
Attribution and Control Beliefs. To be effective at developing positive college-going
self-identities in students, counselors must believe it is in their control to positively influence
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 43
students’ attributions, such as their college-going self-identity or academic ability. There are
three possible beliefs a counselor can harbor about a student’s attributes: the student’s attributes
are stable or unstable, the student’s attributes can be influenced by internal or external loci, and
influencing the student’s attributes is in the control of the counselor (Rueda, 2011). When
attributes are believed to be stable, they cannot change. For example, Counselor A may believe
a student’s ability cannot be changed, however, Counselor B may believe that through effort, a
student can increase their abilities in certain areas, making the attribute unstable. Further, locus
refers to the presence of internal or external loci that can influence the student’s attributes. If a
counselor feels a student’s ability is mainly controlled by internal motivators, an internal locus,
the counselor would need to focus on developing intrinsic motivation within the student.
However, if a counselor believes a student’s ability is influenced by external factors, such as
distractions from friends and family, the counselor would need to work to affect those external
interactions. Finally, counselors must not only believe that ability and identity are unstable, they
must believe it is in their control as a counselor to positively affect the ability and identity of
their students, whether or not a student is being influenced by other internal or external loci.
Counselors’ Control Beliefs. When school counselors spend focused time encouraging
students, it increases students’ internal beliefs in their abilities to attend selective colleges.
Balesco (2013) found school counselors to be the primary encourager or discourager of students’
beliefs in their abilities to attend and pay for college. Bryan, Holcomb-McCoy, Moore-Thomas,
and Day-Vines (2009), showed that students’ beliefs in their abilities to attend college actually
increased over time the more students visited encouraging school counselors; school counselors
became agents of social capital (Gonzalez et al., 2003). However, the opposite has also been
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 44
true, when counselors act as a form of institutional neglect by discouraging students college
dreams (Gonzalez et al., 2003).
To increase students’ social capital and build their internal attributes, counselors must
also provide a positive and encouraging environment for students’ families. Kim (2014) found
that counselors play an important role in helping students’ families understand how their cultural
and economic background might hinder their beliefs in their child’s ability to attend college and
have a life-long career. Additionally, a study by Holcomb-McCoy (2010), showed that when
school counselors built strong partnerships with parents, particularly in low-income schools,
providing information about and encouraging college readiness, students were more likely to be
college-ready. For “Border School District” specifically, Yamamura, Martinez, and Saenz
(2010) discussed how school counselors can utilize the “Borderland Cultural Wealth” to bring
students, families, and the community together to positively influence a college-going culture
and belief in “Border School District” students.
Utility Value. Counselors must not only believe they have the power to influence their
students, they must also believe in the utility value of their students attending selective colleges.
Eccles (2006) describes utility value as the perceived potential long-term gains earned through
the completion of a given activity. Eccles also describes the cost of participating in a task with
perceived utility value as either financial or social, such as failure among peers. For example, a
selective college would provide a high utility value to a low-income student over the long-term,
earning the student significantly more money than peers attending less selective colleges (Dale &
Krueger, 2002, 2011). However, depending on the financial aid received and the cultural
perceptions of the student’s community, a degree from a selective college may come at a high
investment or social cost.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 45
Counselors beliefs about the utility value of selective colleges. Counselors may be
inadvertently influencing students against selective colleges due to the counselor’s own beliefs
about utility value. For example, if counselors lack the appropriate knowledge about financial
aid provided by selective colleges, like the zero-cost tuition for students with family incomes less
than $40,000 (Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2008), counselors may advise students
against these schools because they may believe the school to be financially unaffordable for the
student. McDonough and Calderone (2006) conducted interviews and focus groups with 63 high
school counselors in Southern California, finding that counselors encouraged Latino and African
American students to attend lower priced universities because they felt parents of these students
would not want to take out loans to finance school. In a similar study, Perna (2008) found
counselors and teachers discouraged students from applying to universities because they
perceived it would take students their whole life to pay off the debt they would owe to
universities. In follow-up interviews of their students, the negative perception of college
financing created by counselors and teachers made students feel that college was unattainable
because it would be too expensive.
Incorrect advising by counselors may be the cause of limited increases in enrollment of
high achieving low-income students at selective colleges, even though tuition has been reduced
to zero dollars for these students (Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2008). Desjardins and
Toutkoushian (2005) use a case study of a student who was admitted to Harvard, but chose to
attend a community college instead – the student was not educated by their counselor on the
utility value of attending Harvard. The study explained that this student’s choice may seem
irrational. However, for high achieving low-income students who lack complete information on
financial aid and/or the utility value of selective colleges, their decision makes sense.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 46
Counselors in “Border School District” may be at a greater risk of lacking understanding
of the utility value of selective colleges, resulting in potential scenarios like the Harvard example
listed above. The majority of “Border School District” counselors grew up in similar
communities to their students and some counselors chose to attend local colleges because they
too may have lacked information to make an educated college choice. Social cognitive theory
might posit that counselors’ self-perception of what is attainable for their students and the utility
value of selective colleges may be limited by the counselors’ own cultural and social capital
(Bandura, 2011; Bourdieu, 1980). “Border School District” counselors may need more training
on the utility value of selective colleges, the actual net costs for their students, and how to
encourage their students’ college-going identity in an environment where attending selective
colleges is not the cultural norm.
Organizational Influences. Even if school counselors have the knowledge and
motivation to help their high achieving low-income students apply to and enroll in more selective
colleges, organizational challenges can hinder their efforts. Table 4 shows the key
organizational influences impacting school counselors assessed at “Border School District”. The
key influences discussed are high student to counselor ratios, unclear counselor roles and
responsibilities, school and community culture, as well as financial and external support
available for counselors.
Table 4
“Border School District” Counselor Organizational Influences Assessed
Organizational Mission
The mission of “The College Program” is to prepare rural high achieving low-income
students for America’s most selective colleges through college, culture, and career
experiences from eighth through twelfth grade.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 47
The mission of “Border School District” is to provide students with an excellent
education based on academic rigor, the building of collaborative relationships, and the
teachings of personal responsibility. The district seeks to promote a culture of college
and career ready students.
Organizational Global Goals
1. Increase “The College Program” student cohort size from five to 30 students
starting in Fall 2019, with a total of 150 students in the program, concurrently,
by Fall 2023.
2. Transition “The College Program” governance to “Border School District”
counseling department and program advising services to “Border School
District” eighth through twelfth grade counselors.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
High Student to Counselor Ratios Survey Item, Document Analysis of
Counselor Meeting/Case Logs
Unclear Counselor Roles and
Responsibilities
Survey Item, Follow Up Interview,
Document Analysis of Counselor
Meeting/Case Logs
School and Community Culture Survey Item, Follow Up Interview,
Document Analysis of Graduation and
College Enrollment Statistics
Financial and External Support Survey Item, Follow Up Interview

High student to counselor ratios. High student to counselor ratios can hinder
counselor’s ability to effectively advise students during the predisposition, college search, and
college choice phases of the college process. The American School Counselors Association
recommends a ratio of 250 students to one counselor; only three of 50 states have student to
counselor ratios at or below the American School Counselors Association’s recommended levels
(U.S. Department of Education, 2011). In Texas for example, the 2013 state average was 470
students to one counselor, and in California, the ratios were even higher, with an average
counselor caseload of 810 students to one counselor (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).
When ratios are this high, students see the counselor for less time, not allowing counselors to
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 48
spend personalized attention with students that has shown to be most effective for college
planning (Fashola & Slavin, 2001; Hoxby & Avery, 2013; Hoxby & Turner, 2013, 2015).
Although the majority of states have higher than recommended student to counselor
ratios, the problem is disproportionately felt by low-income students of color, like the majority of
Latino low-income students at “Border School District”. Lower socio-economic status (SES)
students and minorities are less likely to receive college counseling as compared to more affluent
students or white peers (Oakes et al., 2006). Many students of color find their counselors to be
inaccessible (Corwin, Venegas, Oliverez, & Colyar, 2004; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Not
surprisingly, counselors at private high schools have 42 % fewer students to advise and 77% of
private high schools have a counselor whose sole responsibility is college advising, as compared
to only 21% of public high schools nationally (NACAC, 2006). In a study of high school
graduates in Michigan, only 16% of graduates had guidance from their counselor on their college
decision (Joyce Ivy Foundation, 2008). The problem of high student to counselor ratios is
compounded when the role of the school counselor is not clearly defined.
Unclear counselor roles and responsibilities. When the role of the counselor is not
clearly defined, competing priorities can inhibit a counselor's ability to focus dedicated time on
college advising, especially when student to counselor ratios are high. Counselors’
responsibilities have diversified over time, beginning in the 1970s with the role of guiding a
small number of students to college and expanding today to include administrative and
behavioral therapist responsibilities (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). Although counselors’
responsibilities have grown, counselors lack guidance on how to prioritize their many
responsibilities, often leading to a lack of time spent on college advising and reduced
effectiveness (McDonough, 2005). For example, a study of South Texas high schools, similar to
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 49
those in “Border School District”, found that counselors did not have enough time to handle all
of their responsibilities – college planning, managing student records, course schedules,
behavioral and emotional support – leaving counselors feeling overwhelmed and students feeling
neglected (Martinez & Welton, 2014). A similar study of Michigan high school counselors
found that, on average, only 29% of counselors’ time was spent on college planning; the majority
of their time was spent between administration, paperwork, and responsive services (Joyce Ivy
Foundation, 2008). Similarly, in Connecticut, school counselors spent a significant amount of
time on non-counseling tasks; 25% of counselors surveyed indicated spending an average 15%-
50% of their time on non-counseling related tasks (Lapan, Whitcomb, & Aleman, 2012). These
are important data because in high schools with high college-going rates, 72% of counselors
listed college advising as their highest priority for time spent with students, as compared to
schools with middle and low college-going rates where only 52% and 32 % of counselors placed
college advising as their top priority (Education Commission of the States, 2014).
School District and Community Culture. Even when counselors are prioritizing their
time with students on college advising, the college-going culture of the school district and the
community can positively or negatively compound counselors’ efforts. “Border School District”
and the lower Rio Grande Valley do not have a strong college-going culture, which makes school
counselor’s role more important and more difficult. Although the mission of “Border School
District” includes creating a college and career ready culture, only 10% of their graduating 2015-
2016 class were college-ready based on state standardized test scores in Math and English and on
ACT and SAT college entrance exams. Less than 20% of adults in the county where “Border
School District” is located have earned a college degree (Ed Excelencia, 2016). There is only
one major four-year university in the lower Rio Grande Valley, a branch campus of The
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 50
University of Texas, one community college, South Texas College, with branch campuses
throughout the Rio Grande Valley, and a handful of small technical colleges, mainly to prepare
students for roles in healthcare. All other major universities or colleges are more than a three-
hour drive from “Border School District”, with the two state flagship universities, University of
Texas at Austin, being a five-hour drive away, and Texas A&M – College Station, being more
than a six-hour drive away. Just for counselors to take students on field trips to visit their state’s
flagship universities, either an overnight stay is required or students will spend nearly half the
day on a bus, commuting to and from the campuses.
In addition to the region being barren of major universities or colleges, the communities
around “Border School District” are equally barren in economic development. There are a
handful of stoplights within the towns “Border School District” serves, one grocery store, and a
few fast food restaurants along a two-lane road that connects the various border towns. One
could drive north for three to four hours without seeing anything along the road but cacti, dust,
and a few ranches scattered between. Some students and their families live in “los colonias”,
unincorporated settlements which lack running water, plumbing systems, garbage pickup, paved
roads, and sometimes even proper electricity (2012 Davies & Holz, 1992; Quinones, Newman, &
Sherwood). In the lower Rio Grande Valley, more than 60% of residences are in colonias,
primarily because residents are too poor to afford any other form of housing (Davies & Holz,
1992).
Not only are students living in these conditions, the region is infiltrated with drug cartels
smuggling drugs from Latin America into the United States. The amount of drugs being
trafficked through this region continues to increase – for example, in 2008 approximately
400,000 pounds of marijuana were seized, by 2011, more than one million pounds were seized
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 51
(Isacson & Mayer, 2013). This has an impact on students who become involved with gangs tied
to drug cartels. Latino youth represent 46% of gang members in the United States (National
Gang Center, 2011). For students already living in poverty gangs can act as a family system that
students lack at home (Moule, Decker, & Pyrooz, 2013; Tellez & Estep, 1997; Vigil, 1988, 1999,
2009). Participating in these gangs also gives students quick access to financial resources and a
sense of power (Arfaniarromo, 2001; Calabrese & Noboa, 1995; Krohn, Schmidt, Lizotte, &
Baldwin, 2011; Nakkula & Toshalis, 2006; Vigil, 2012). When students see these benefits,
especially male students, they stray more from school and into gangs (Huerta, 2015). With gang
membership, the likelihood of incarceration serves as a significant barrier to college (Contreras,
2011).
In addition to the challenging social and environmental contexts already described,
“Border School District” counselors have one additional dimension to consider: migrant
students. Students who are migrants travel with their family who are farmworkers, picking
vegetables and fruits throughout the country – students are often pulled out of school or moved
to different schools throughout the year as their families look for work (Branz-Spall, Rosenthal,
& Wright, 2003). Because of the low wages, students can be asked to work alongside their
parents in the fields. As stated previously, when a student’s family is economically dependent on
their wages, this can influence a student’s college-going behavior, making it all the more
important to have appropriate parent engagement strategies for this group (Contreras, 2011;
Passel et al., 2011; Sum et al., 2009). Additionally, counselors will need to consider how to
provide ongoing long-term college advising to these students who may only be in their schools
for a few months each year.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 52
“Border School District” counselors are operating in a school and community culture
plagued with social and environmental challenges. Even if well trained and motivated,
counselors have significant organizational barriers to overcome in order to create a positive
college-going culture for their students and to provide the personalized advising required to help
all students, but especially their highest achieving students, apply to and enroll in selective
colleges. If counselors can succeed in increasing the number of high achieving students from
this region at selective colleges, students will have a chance at financial and employment
opportunities that simply do not currently exist for them in the Rio Grande Valley. Even further,
if students are equipped with an excellent education from a selective college, students may be
able to bring economic development into the Rio Grande Valley, serving as role models and
agents of change.
Financial and External Support. “Border School District” counselors may be able to
utilize grants from the United States Department of Education and a few local nonprofits to
support their college advising efforts with their students. For example, “Border School District”
is already a recipient of Upward Bound grants from the Department of Education, which
provides funding for college readiness activities for low-income students or students from
families where neither parent holds a bachelor’s degree (U.S. Department of Education,
2017(b)). In addition to these funds, the district is also a recipient of a six-year Gaining Early
Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP) grant through the U.S.
Department of Education. GEAR UP grants can be used by school districts to serve cohorts of
high poverty students that are followed from middle school through high school graduation and
provide college readiness activities throughout their time in the cohort (U.S. Department of
Education, 2017(a)). Given the district’s goals to utilize “The College Program” model which
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 53
would provide ongoing personalized college advising and college readiness activities to cohorts
of eighth through twelfth graders, utilizing funds from their GEAR UP grant may be a viable
option for the expansion of “The College Program”.
With access to federal funding, “Border School District” may also be in a position to
partner with a few local-based nonprofits, to increase their eighth through twelfth grade cohorts’
exposure to careers, college mentors, and cultural experiences that prepare them for selective
colleges. For instance, there is a Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
focused nonprofit in the region that works with schools to introduce students to robotics and
medicine as well as a summer program for seventh through twelfth graders, called Texas
Prefreshman Engineering Program (TexPREP) offered through the University of Texas - Rio
Grande Valley. Additionally, the Puente Project which is well known for its success in
California for improving college readiness of low-income Latino students and increasing transfer
rates of students at community colleges to four-year universities (Gándara & Moreno, 2002)
partnered with the Catch the Next (CTN) organization to pilot its first program in the Rio Grande
Valley in 2012 – the CTN/Puente College Access Project (Catch the Next, 2012). The project
has started with a few initial school districts and community colleges in the region, and although
its focus is not specific to increasing enrollment of high achieving students at selective colleges,
its combination of mentoring, counseling, and cultural instruction, have improved the college
going rates of Latino students in California for the past 30 years (Puente Project, 2017). If the
CTN/Puente College Access Project continues to expand its reach in the area, “Border School
District” counselors may be able to provide students with mentors, cultural curricula, and other
programming, including counselor professional development to support “The College Program”
model. Additional peer mentors may be available through The University of Texas at Austin
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 54
outreach program who is also only partnering with a few school districts in the Rio Grande
Valley, but if contacted, may be another support system available to “Border School District”.
Each of the financial and external resources available to “Border School District” are not
individually enough to provide the infrastructure and programming required to implement “The
College Program” model, nor are any of the programs specifically focused on increasing
enrollment of high achieving students at selective colleges. However, these resources could be
used to support “The College Program” model. For example, potential organizational barriers
like high student to counselor ratios might be reduced through the appropriate application of
GEAR UP funds. Additionally, there may be a lack of career exposure to students in “Border
School District” that counselors cannot solve for independently – bringing in the help of the
STEM organization mentioned or peer mentors from Puente or University of Texas may assist
counselors.
Interactive Conceptual Framework
Figure 2 below represents Clark and Estes (2008) Conceptual Framework applied to
“Border School District” counselors. The figure depicts the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting counselors’ abilities to increase the number of high
achieving students at selective colleges.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 55

Figure 2. Clark and Estes (2008) Conceptual Framework applied to “Border School District”,
showing the knowledge, motivation, and organization influences impacting school counselors.
A solid line with an arrow pointing from organization to school counselors, motivation to
school counselors, and knowledge to school counselors was used to show that each of these
influences can impact school counselors directly. A dashed bidirectional arrow was used
between organization and knowledge, organization and motivation, and knowledge and
motivation to represent that there can be cross dimensional impacts on counselors. For example,
counselors could have the right knowledge, but because they have too high student to counselor
ratios, this might influence their motivation, where they no longer feel it is in their control to
affect students. Finally, a larger box was used to represent the organizational influences because
they were much larger in scope and if unaddressed, would likely overpower the knowledge and
motivation influences. A light blue shadow was used around the Organization box to further
indicate that these influences were not only larger in scope, but that they were out of the school
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 56
counselors’ control, whereas knowledge and motivation influences, although impacted by the
organizational influences, were in the control of school counselors.
Methodological Approach and Rationale
This study used an explanatory sequential mixed method approach for data collection and
analysis of the first two research questions. Creswell (2014) describes mixed method research as
a combination of both quantitative and qualitative data collection, used in collaboration to draw
out the strengths of both methods and further strengthen the study. Quantitative methods of data
collection typically use tests or questionnaires to identify close-ended responses and provide
numerical or statistical data for study (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). Qualitative methods, on
the other hand, tend to utilize interviews, observations, documents and artifacts to make meaning
from open-ended data points, in the form of interview responses, ethnographical observations,
body language, and photos (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). I n the case of this explanatory
sequential study, quantitative data were collected first through questionnaires (with some
standardized qualitative open-ended questions), followed by qualitative data collection through
interviews and document analysis; the qualitative components of the study were used to draw
deeper analysis and meaning from the questionnaire data.
The rationale behind utilizing an explanatory sequential mixed method approach for the
first three research questions was to be able to draw data from a large sample size of middle and
high school counselors anonymously and quickly. Because the sample represented a large
population of counselors across the district, data could be analyzed on knowledge, motivation,
and organizational barriers counselors faced at a broader level and used to develop trends – in
some cases distinguishing middle and high school counselors. The large sample size allowed for
dissection of the data across multiple lenses and through multiple statistical analyses. From
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 57
these data, further analysis of qualitative research questions was used to dive deeper into the
initial trends.
In addition to the explanatory sequential mixed methods approach for research questions
one and two, an action research approach was used for research question three which was
focused on determining recommended solutions for “Border School District”. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) described action research as a method to engage participants in the research
process and foster active participation in problem solving within the community or workplace.
Because middle and high school counselors will eventually have the responsibility of carrying
out “The College Program” to more students, it was important that they were bought in the
process of shaping recommendations for the district. An initial action research committee was
formed of volunteers, representing both middle and high school counselors. These volunteer
counselors reviewed the study’s results and findings and provided their perspective on potential
recommendations which have been included in this study. A more formal action research
committee will be formed in the future, to help implement the recommendations. This
committee will consist of both counselors and district leaders who will meet regularly to discuss
and carry out the implementation plan. They will also serve as change champions to engage all
impacted stakeholders in upcoming changes throughout the district.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This section outlines, in detail, the quantitative and qualitative data methods and
instrumentation used for this study: surveys, interviews, and document analysis. Surveys were
used to collect quantitative data. Interviews collected qualitative data elaborating on topics from
the survey. Documents provided both quantitative and qualitative data for triangulation.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 58
Surveys
Counselors were given designated time off from their counseling responsibilities to
complete the survey at the end of the research project kick off meeting, where all sixth through
twelfth grader counselors were asked to be present. The meeting was scheduled for two hours
and the counselors had the last hour of the meeting to complete the survey, taking breaks if
needed. By providing structured time for counselors to complete the survey, the researcher hoped
to increase participation rates.
Regarding the survey structure, there were a total of 106 items: six demographic items
and 100 items specific to the research questions (29 questions for organization influences, 10 for
motivation, and 61 for knowledge). Questions were proportional to the number of influences
listed in the influencer tables in the literature review. Middle school counselors were only asked
to complete 68 of the 100 items specific to the research questions. High school counselors were
required to complete all 100 questions. The organization and motivation components of the
survey were the same for both middle and high school counselors, but the survey was
differentiated in the knowledge section. Middle school counselors answered general knowledge
questions, questions related to predisposition, and only questions on college search that applied
to the middle school level. The remaining college search and college choice questions were only
answered by high school counselors (e.g. questions about the Common Application, Fee
Waivers). Although some middle school counselors may have known this information it is not
expected for their role and therefore they were excused from these questions. The specific
questions and number of items were decided upon during a review with college readiness and
school culture experts in the field.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 59
Although the number of questions were significant, counselors were provided a full hour,
including breaks, to complete the survey. This was more time than was needed in pilot testing
which showed the full 106 items could be completed in 30-45 minutes. Additionally, because
the survey was administered through the online survey tool, Qualtrics, questions were presented
in formats, such as Likert scale tables, that allowed participants to view questions more
efficiently. The use of this type of tool also made analysis much faster and more consistent for
the researcher.
The survey was a nonprobability sample or a convenience sample (Creswell, 2014). All
sixth through twelfth grade counselors were allowed to participate in the survey, as long as they
provide their consent; there were no additional participation or sampling criteria. During the last
hour of the research kick off meeting, counselors had the option to either take the survey from
their laptops or mobile devices or to work quietly at their desks on email or other prep activities
from their laptops or mobile devices. Even if counselors opted not to participate they were asked
to remain in the room. This reduced visibility into which counselors chose to participate and
which did not, reducing its influence on participation. Additionally, dividers were used to
separate counselors to reduce visibility into what participants were working on. Once the survey
was administered counselors who chose to opt out or who were absent were provided another
opportunity to complete the survey within the same week. An email was provided with
instructions to these counselors.
Interviews
Counselors were selected from the pool of counselors who completed the quantitative
online questionnaire and specified their interest in participating in an interview. Fourteen one-
time interviews were planned– two counselors from each of the seven grade levels (Grades 6-
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 60
12). However, only five interviews were conducted, due to low volunteer rates. Four high school
interviews were completed and one middle school interview. Each interview lasted
approximately one hour, allowing enough time for qualitative data collection while still keeping
the interview short enough to maintain the interviewee’s attention and respect their schedules
(Weiss, 1994). The interviews were all conducted in-person. Each counselor was interviewed in
a conference room provided by the school, where the counselor was free of distractions.
The interviews were semi-structured, where a standard set of questions was used with all
counselors, however there was flexibility with ordering and probing (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Patton (2002) described this as a combined approach, offering the interviewer the benefits of
structured questions making data analysis easier and more consistent, but also allowing for time
during the interview to probe further on unanticipated topics that may offer sound data to answer
the research questions. Additionally, having some open-ended questions were good ways to start
the interviews (Spradley, 1979), helping the counselor feel more comfortable, as if they were just
having a conversation, prior to reaching the more structured questions. For example, the first
question in study’s interview guide: “Would you walk me through your typical day as a
counselor?” allowed the counselor to speak freely about their experiences and for the interviewer
to probe from there and lead into the other questions on the guide. The opening question, also
served the purpose of understanding how the counselor spent their time and what organizational
barriers may have been impacting in how they serviced students. An example of a more
structured question from the guide was “Imagine you are advising a high achieving eighth grader
– what are some ways you would engage that student’s parents or family in the college planning
process?”. This question aimed to understand counselors’ methods for parent engagement
during the predisposition phase of college planning.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 61
Documents
The final type of qualitative data analyzed were documents. Both district level reports
and counselor case reports were analyzed. These documents were already produced
independently of the research and were therefore used as additional data to draw conclusions
from (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). District level reports were provided on high school graduation
and drop-out rates. Additionally, National Student Clearinghouse report data was obtained from
the school district to show longitudinal student data on college matriculation decisions and
college persistence. These data were important to better understand the broader school district
college-going culture in which counselors were operating in. In addition to these records, the
researcher was provided access to a sample of aggregated counselor case reports, logged in the
school district’s online counseling system. Every time a counselor sees a student, a report must
be logged in the system using a reason code, detailing the purpose of the visit, as well as the
length of time spent with the student. Data from these counselor reports helped determine the
most frequent visit types and the average time spent with students by visit type. This also helped
the researcher understand where college advising fell among other counselor duties, and what
organizational challenges, such as high case-loads, might have prevented counselors from doing
more college advising.
Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to conduct a needs analysis of the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences impacting “Border School District” middle and high school
counselors’ as they transition into leading “The College Program”.
As such, the questions that guided this study were:
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 62
1. What are the counselors’ knowledge and motivation in relation to what would be needed
to manage “The College Program” activities at each of their corresponding grade levels?
2. What is the interaction of organizational culture and context with counselor knowledge
and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions needed
for counselors to use “The College Program” model?
The answers to research questions one and two are described in the sections that follow
using the results and findings from the study. An overview of the counselors who participated in
the study is documented first, followed by results and findings for each knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influence impacting “Border School District” counselors. Research question
three was addressed later where recommendations and the implementation and evaluation plan
for those recommendations are discussed.
Participating Stakeholders
To answer the research questions, this study utilized three forms of data collection: a
survey, follow up interviews, and document analysis from school district reports. A kick-off
meeting was held at “Border School District” to inform sixth through twelfth grade school
counselors about the study and the various ways they could participate. Of the approximately 60
counselors serving grades 6 – 12 in the district, 45 counselors showed up for the kick-off
meeting. The survey was administered at the end of the meeting, where 32 of the 45 counselors
fully participated, a 71% participation rate. One counselor began the survey and stopped
partially through. Because only descriptive statistics were utilized in this study, that counselor’s
data was analyzed for the responses completed. Of the counselors surveyed, 17 were high school
counselors and 16 were middle school counselors (with one middle school counselor stopping
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 63
partially through the survey). The majority of counselors, 94%, identified as Latino/a, the main
ethnicity of “Border School District” students, and 88% of counselors grew up in the Rio Grande
Valley, Texas, the region where “Border School District” is located. Counselors’ years of
experience ranged from one to 16 years, with counselors averaging nine years of experience in
their role.
In addition to the survey data collected from the counselors described above, four high
school counselors and one middle school counselor from the survey group also participated in
follow up interviews. Of the high school counselors, two represented traditional comprehensive
high schools and two represented early college high schools. In “Border School District” early
college high schools partner with the local community college and students graduate high school
with their associate’s degree. The data collected from high school counselor interviews was used
to support the survey data. The middle school counselor interview data was not utilized because
the participation rate was too low for meaningful conclusions. Both survey and interview
questions collected data on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. A document
analysis was also conducted on counselor case logs, high school graduation and dropout rates,
and on longitudinal college persistence data. The document analysis only collected data on
organizational influences. The results and findings of the data collected across methods are
presented below and organized by knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Knowledge Results and Findings
Knowledge influences were organized by predisposition, college search, and college
choice, the three major phases of the college planning process. For the predisposition phase,
counselors’ factual knowledge about selective colleges was assessed, along with conceptual
knowledge on pre-exposing middle and high school students to selective colleges, college
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 64
readiness coursework, and parent engagement. Metacognitive knowledge on how to build
positive college-going beliefs in middle and high school students was also assessed. The college
search phase assessed procedural knowledge on how to assist students with searching for college
information and with creating a college selection list comprised of safety, target, and reach
schools. Conceptual knowledge on SAT/ACT test prep and fee waivers were also assessed.
Finally, the college choice phase assessed factual and procedural knowledge on various college
applications, financial aid applications, scholarship applications, and on reading and explaining
financial aid packages. Lastly, metacognitive knowledge on how to coach students through
cultural fears of leaving for college was assessed. The knowledge influences which were
assessed can be seen in Table 5. For each influence assessed, the results and findings are
presented in the sections that follow, along with a narrative to explain potential relationships in
data.
Table 5
Assessed Knowledge Influences
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Predisposition
Factual knowledge on selective colleges, such as locations, rank,
admissions requirements, financial aid eligibility, application
requirements, and special programming for high achieving low-
income students
Survey Item
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for predisposing high
achieving middle school students to selective colleges
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for predisposing high
achieving middle school students to college-ready course
tracking
Survey Item
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for exposing high
achieving high school students to selective colleges
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for high school course
tracking for high achieving high school students preparing for
admission to selective colleges
Survey Item
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 65
Conceptual knowledge on best practices for engaging parents
and families in college planning
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Metacognitive knowledge of how to build positive college going
self-identities in middle school students
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Metacognitive knowledge of how to build positive college going
self-identities in high school students
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
College Search
Procedural Knowledge on how to guide students to access
information on selective colleges during their college search
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Procedural Knowledge on how to assist students in creating a
college application list comprised of safety, target, and reach
schools that match with students’ academic capabilities
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Conceptual Knowledge on best practices for ACT and SAT
Testing for high achieving school students preparing for
admission to selective colleges, including fee waivers
Survey Item
College Choice
Factual Knowledge on components of college applications such
as the Common Application, Texas Common Application, and
Locker
Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to assist students with
completing college applications such as the Common
Application, ApplyTexas, and the Coalition Application
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview (Essays)
Factual Knowledge on components of financial aid applications
such as the FAFSA and CSS Profile
Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to assist students and families
with completing financial aid applications such as the FAFSA
and CSS Profile
Survey Item
Factual Knowledge about Waivers for College Application Fees,
and Financial Aid Application Fees
Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to help students obtain Fee
Waivers for their applications
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Factual Knowledge about external scholarships available to high
achieving low-income students such as Questbridge, Jack Kent
Cooke, etc.
Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to assist high achieving students
with completing applications for external scholarships, such as
Questbridge, Jack Kent Cooke, etc.
Survey Item
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 66
Procedural Knowledge on how to read financial aid packages Survey Item
Procedural Knowledge on how to explain financial aid packages
to students
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview
Metacognitive Knowledge on how to coach students through
perceived cultural fears of leaving home and fitting in at a
selective college
Survey Item and Follow Up
Interview

General Training. Counselors were asked survey questions related to the training they
received either through their Masters in Counseling program or through “Border School District”
directly. The results from counselor responses are shown Table 6.
Table 6
Training Received by Counselors on College Advising
Survey Item
Response Frequency (n=32)
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
My Masters in Counseling Program trained me on
how to provide college advising to the students I
serve.
9.38% 18.75% 50.00% 21.88%
The District trained me on how to provide college
advising to the students I serve.
9.38% 43.75% 40.63% 6.25%
I receive annual professional development
opportunities through the District to improve my
college advising knowledge and skills.
6.25% 43.75% 34.38% 15.63%
I have received training on standard procedures I
can use to determine the best college fit for my
students, based on their academic capabilities.
6.25% 34.38% 46.88% 12.50%

The majority of counselors (>70%) disagreed that their Masters in Counseling program
provided training on college advising. Of the counselors who felt this way, 100% had attended
the University of Texas – Rio Grande Valley (formerly University of Texas Pan American) for
their Masters in Counseling program. The feelings of “Border School District” counselors were
consistent with other research in the field which showed fewer than 10% of Masters in
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 67
Counseling programs offer coursework on college advising skills (Clinedinst, Hurley, and
Hawkins, 2011).
Although counselors felt they received little training from their Masters in Counseling
program, approximately half of school counselors felt they received training from the district,
including annual opportunities to improve their college advising skills. For more specific
training on college planning procedures to use with students, fewer counselors agreed, with only
40% receiving this level of training. Having a baseline understanding of counselors general
training is important when interpreting data on counselors’ specific knowledge and skills related
to the college planning phases of predisposition, college search, and college choice which will be
described next.
Predisposition. The first phase of the college planning process, predisposition, refers to
the activities used to predispose middle and high school students to colleges. This phase is
important because it is when college-going self-identities are forming (Gibbons & Borders,
2010). Both survey and interview data were collected on counselors’ knowledge related to this
phase. The term “pre-expose” was used in survey and interview questions, rather than
“predispose” to ensure understanding of the term.
From the survey data presented in Tables 7 and 8, between 60-70% of counselors
understood best practices for pre-exposing middle and high school students to selective colleges.
Where applicable, approximately two-thirds of counselors were utilizing these best practices at
the middle or high school level.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 68
Table 7
Counselors' understanding of best practices for pre-exposing middle and high school students to
selective colleges
Survey Item
Response Frequency (n=32)
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
I understand best practices for pre-exposing high
achieving middle school students to selective
colleges.
6.25% 53.13% 37.50% 3.13%
I understand best practices for pre-exposing high
achieving high school students to selective
colleges.
9.38% 62.50% 28.13% 0.00%
Table 8
Counselors' use of best practices for pre-exposing middle and high school students to selective
colleges
Survey Item
Response Frequency (n=32)
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Applicable
I am using best practices to pre-
expose my high achieving middle
school students to selective colleges.
6.25% 40.63% 15.63% 3.13% 34.38%
I am using best practices to expose
my high achieving high school
students to selective colleges.
9.38% 37.50% 21.88% 3.13% 28.13%

In follow up interviews, all high school counselors discussed using college field trips as a
pre-exposure strategy, but some high schools were able to take trips more easily than others. For
example, two counselors described taking their students on college trips with ease, as if it was an
expectation for all students. The first counselor, representing grades 9 - 12, said
We also do college trips… we were in Texas A&M College Station and they did a full
tour of the Texas A&M Health Science Center… usually first semester I'll do 11th and
12th grade and then second semester I will take my freshmen and sophomores to
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 69
definitely the local college which is STC and UT RGV and then maybe take them to San
Antonio.
The other counselor, who served grades 9 - 11 responded similarly
…of course we went to STC. We went to [UTRGV] and we went to Brownsville... And
the reason that we did that is because we want the students to know what is available here
for them. And then the following year as 10th graders we started to move out of the
valley and go to UTSA [and] go to Kingsville. And so, and to expose them to that. I
know that this year they were going to go further which was UT Austin [and] College
Station, those universities, and then I believe that for 12th grade they were actually going
to go to Galveston [and] U of H.
A differing perspective was shared by the other two high school counselors interviewed, who
expressed wanting to take the students on trips, but described constraints in doing so. For
example, one counselor serving grades 9-12 said
We haven't had a college trip…for years. But it's I, I just can't find the time to set one up.
I know it doesn't take a lot of time but Texas is so busy with deadlines and everything
else… But I was thinking maybe virtual tours you just set up a date to do a virtual tour…
and there's reps online and they're doing like a chat session with them.
Another counselor also serving grades 9 - 12 described losing the support of an external program
GEAR UP was helping us taking them to college to visit different universities but…this
year we haven't taken anybody. I don't know with the budget or you know so I don't
know if there's enough money for that.
Counselors clearly know field trips are an important way to expose students to colleges, but in
practice, field trips are being taken inconsistently. The counselors interviewed represented two
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 70
early college high schools and two comprehensive high schools. Interestingly, the counselors
who set up field trips with ease represented an early college high school and a comprehensive
high school. The counselors who had more difficulty setting up trips also represented an early
college high school and a comprehensive high school. Based on the inconsistent perspectives, it
seems that there are no clear policies, procedures, or funding in place across the district for
college field trips, not even by high school type.
Outside of college field trips, three of the four high school counselors interviewed cited
the presence of college recruiters on their campuses as another way they pre-expose students to
schools. A counselor serving grades 9 - 11 described “there are representatives that come in and
they'll come in and they'll do presentations to our seniors or to our juniors.” Another counselor
serving grades 9 - 12 responded similarly, “a lot of the recruiters tend to come to my campus and
want to do presentations with my juniors and then definitely my seniors.” From the interviews,
there was consistency in the district’s high schools having university recruiters speak to their
students, especially juniors and seniors.
Although high school counselors believe field trips and talks from recruiters were
important ways to pre-expose their students to colleges, other research in the field would contend
this exposure should be happening earlier, beginning at the middle school level (Gibbons &
Borders, 2010). Although the survey data shows counselors believed they were following best
practices starting in middle school, there were not enough middle school interview participants to
confirm those practices.
In addition to surveying and interviewing counselors on ways they pre-expose students to
selective colleges, the survey also collected data on how students were pre-exposed to college-
ready coursework. Table 9 shows counselor understanding of best practices in college-ready
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 71
course tracking, whereas Table 10 shows whether counselors were using these best practices.
Across both tables, over 80% of counselors understood and were utilizing best practices in
college-ready course tracking. Additionally, more than 70% of counselors understood what pre-
requisite courses were required for selective colleges (See Figure 3).
Table 9
Counselors' understanding of best practices for tracking high achieving students into college-
ready courses
Survey Item
Response Frequency (n=32)
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
I understand best practices to track high
achieving middle school students into college-
ready courses, such as Pre-Advanced Placement
(Pre-AP) and Gifted and Talented (GT).
21.88% 65.63% 12.50% 0.00%
I understand best practices to track high
achieving high school students into college-
ready courses, such as Pre-Advanced Placement
(Pre-AP) and Gifted and Talented (GT).
25.00% 56.25% 15.53% 3.13%

Table 10
Counselors' use of best practices for tracking high achieving students into college-ready courses
Survey Item
Response Frequency (n=32)
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Applicable
I use best practices to track high
achieving middle school students into
college-ready courses, such as Pre-AP
and GT courses.
15.63% 50.00% 6.25% 3.13% 25.00%
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 72
I use best practices to track high
achieving high school students into
college-ready courses, such as Pre-AP
and GT courses.
18.75% 56.25% 9.38% 0.00% 15.63%

Figure 3. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I understand what pre-requisite courses
are required by most selective colleges”.
Outside of college-ready coursework, counselors’ knowledge was also assessed on best
practices for parent and family engagement in college planning. Although approximately 70% of
counselors understood best practices for engagement, the same amount also claimed they were
using these strategies in practice (See Figure 4). However, data from Table 11 shows that 70%
of counselors engaged parents and families only one to two times per year. This data indicates
that counselors may need stronger training on best practices in frequency of engagement with
parents and families related to college planning.
22%
50%
25%
3%
I understand what pre-requisite high school courses are required
by most selective colleges.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 73

Figure 4. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to parent and family engagement in
college planning.
Table 11
Frequency of Parent and Family Engagement in College Planning

Number of Times Counselor Engaged Parents and Family in
College Planning

Response Frequency
(n=32)
0 times per year 9.38%
1 time per year 43.75%
2 times per year 28.13%
3 times per year 6.25%
4 times per year 6.25%
5 or more times per year 6.25%

Follow up interview data on parent and family engagement on college planning showed
that counselors generally engage with parents on special programs, such as the early college high
schools, academies, and summer program opportunities. One counselor described a special
summer program they promoted
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Parent and Family Engagement Best Practices for College
Planning
I understand best practices for engaging parents and families in college planning.
I use best practices for engaging parents and families in college planning.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 74
when we meet every month with students they are really developing…their college
readiness mindset [and] that is when we present ideas, when we present opportunities, for
example, right now I have the summer camp for NASA. …When we present those
opportunities to students you know they take it home. They talk to their parents and
stuff…. So, I speak to the parents, I engage parents. The parents have a lot of questions
and when they have questions they come to me. They come and meet me at my office and
we talk about it.
Another counselor described how parents are engaged about early college high schools
So that's what we also sell to the eighth graders. You know it's a small campus as far as,
you know, student teacher ratio. Look at what you can graduate with an associate's
degree. So basically, just show the successes that we have seen and also let them know
that they will never have to pay any tuition and books. They will not have to pay
anything. So, two years of free college. So, in essence it's a scholarship, a two-year
scholarship at the beginning in high school.
Although parents are being engaged about special programs, no counselors mentioned
any personalized engagement taking place for each student, just more broad engagement for all
parents and the opportunities available. More research should be done on how counselors
engage parents one-on-one on their student’s college planning process.
Similar to understanding how “Border School District” counselors engage parents about
college planning, the study also assessed how counselors built positive college-going mindsets in
their students. Survey data showed approximately 95% of counselors understood how to build
positive college-going mindsets in middle and high school students (See Figure 5).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 75

Figure 5. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to building positive college-going
beliefs in middle and high school students.
Follow up interviews also showed similar understanding at the high school level. One
counselor used an example of how they showed the utility value of earning a college education
rather than starting work right after high school
So, this morning, you know, the conversation that we had, this is [a] migrant coming in,
and you know, he says, you know, when I graduate early, you know, I want to be able to
go work. And my first, you know, comment to him was I don't want [you] to go work.
You know, you should really think about getting a college education. I said, because right
now you're thinking about that now and you're just thinking about earning money. I said,
but you spend a little time and of course, you know, I always start with the basics and
then kind of move up, you know, from there. And so, I told him, I said, you know, if you
get a certificate, I said [a] certificate is sometimes six months, you know. And so…with
the certificate it's better than just having a high school diploma…I said you're one step
ahead. I said, and then after you get your certificate if you want to get an associate's or
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Knows How to Build Positive College-Going Beliefs
I understand how to build positive college-going attitudes and beliefs in middle school students
I understand how to build positive college-going attitudes and beliefs in high school students
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 76
you want to continue going for your bachelor's, you know, and on… then you can move
from there… But don't just go straight into work, I said, because once you go straight into
work, you may never give college a chance.
Similarly, even at the middle school level counselors were trying to help students connect the
dots and take the college planning process one step at a time
Even when we go to the middle schools we tell them, [the] eighth graders, you know,
remember, we have all these classes at the high school level…Teachers are telling…
middle school counselors [and they] are letting the students know that what's available at
high school [so] that they can complete…two hours of college hours for free and they
have access to AP classes.
Three of the four counselors seemed to focus on students understanding the bigger picture of
what is available and help them take it step-by-step in manageable chunks.
Similar to some of the strategies counselors are using to start building a college-going
mindset at the middle school level, the last predisposition knowledge influence assessed was on
external scholarships available to middle schoolers. Approximately 80% of counselors were
unaware of these types of scholarships (See Figure 6). For applicable counselors, about half
knew how to assist students with these applications (See Figure 7), however, more than 70% of
counselors were unsure of how frequently middle schoolers from “Border School District”
applied for external scholarships (See Figure 8). The data show that counselors likely need more
information on external scholarships and how to assist students with applying for these
scholarships.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 77

Figure 6. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I am aware of external scholarships
available to students starting in middle school, such as the Jack Kent Cooke Scholarship”.

Figure 7. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I know how to assist middle school
students with applying for external scholarships”.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
I am aware of external college scholarships available to students
starting in middle school, such as the Jack Kent Cooke
Scholarship
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
45.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree Not Applicable
I know how to assist middle school students with applying for
external scholarships
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 78

Figure 8. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “High achieving middle school students
from the District apply for external college scholarships.”
College Search. The next set of knowledge influences assessed were on counselors’
abilities to assist students with the college search phase of the college planning process.
Approximately 90% of counselors knew how to guide students to access information on selective
colleges during their college search (See Figure 9). However, counselors seemed to have less
understanding of how to help students create college application lists comprised of safety, target,
and reach schools. In Figure 10, there was a bell-curve across all three questions asked on this
topic. About half of counselors had a good understanding conceptually and in practice and the
other half did not. This indicated that “Border School District” needs stronger training in this
area.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
Never Occasionally Often Very Often Not Sure
High achieving middle school students from the District apply
for external college scholarships
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 79

Figure 9. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I know how to guide students to access
information on selective colleges during their college search”.

Figure 10. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items tied to helping students created college
application lists comprised of safety, target, and reach schools.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
I know how to guide students to access information on selective
colleges during their college search
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understanding of Safety, Target, and Reach Schools
I understand the concept of grouping colleges into safety, target, and reach schools.
I understand how to use college websites or The College Board to compare average student profiles of various
colleges to help identify safety, target, and reach schools for students.
I know how to assist students in creating a college application list comprised of safety, target, and reach schools that
match with a student’s profile (e.g. GPA, SAT/ACT range).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 80
In follow up interviews, high school counselors were asked to participate in a role-play
where they were given a fictitious high achieving student who was ranked fifth in their senior
class, was the student government vice president, and on the varsity track team. The counselors
were asked how they would assist that student in creating an application list of safety, target, and
reach schools. Two common themes appeared. First, counselors tried to understand the student’s
interests and help research schools that had programs in their areas of interest. Second,
counselors asked the students how comfortable they were with leaving home for school. For
example, one counselor explained
I think that, first of all, we have to look at what is it that, you know, you're interested in.
Because a lot of the times that would be one thing and then the other is you know does
the student want to go to a big public university? Do they want to go to a private
university? Do they know the difference you know between the private and the public
and the cost? And so, you know do you want to stay close to home? Do you want to go
out, you know, of the valley, like out-of-state? You know, those are things, you know,
that that I would [do] first.
Another counselor said
First of all, what I ask of students is what is it that you want to study?... Then I will let
you know, OK, let's find out for the universities that have that, you know, career.
A third counselor explained their method as
I always, always think it's easier for them to categorize it by: are they willing to relocate?
I think relocation is a big one.
Although counselors were consistent with asking for students interests and whether the
students were willing to leave the valley, none of the counselors provided a process for how they
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 81
would help the student categorize their schools into safety, target, and reach schools, based on
the student’s academic capabilities. These data, along with the survey data, indicate counselors
may need more procedural knowledge on categorizing schools.
Along with helping students categorize schools on their application lists, counselor
knowledge was also assessed on SAT/ACT requirements and test prep offered at the district.
Over 80% of counselors understood SAT/ACT requirements for selective colleges and were
aware of test prep best practices (See Figure 11). However, there seemed to be less clarity on
whether the district was following best practices. More than half of counselors were unsure or
felt the district was not following best practices for SAT/ACT test prep for high achieving
students (See Figure 12).

Figure 11. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items on SAT/ACT requirements and test prep
for admission to selective colleges.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understanding of SAT/ ACT requirements and test prep for
admission to selective colleges
I understand the SAT/ACT admissions requirements for selective colleges.
I am aware of best practices for SAT/ACT test prep for high achieving students preparing for
admission to selective colleges.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 82

Figure 12. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “Based on best practices, our district
provides adequate SAT/ACT test prep for high achieving students preparing for admission to
selective colleges”.
Additional survey items were asked on SAT/ACT trends at the district’s high schools.
However, because of the specificity of the questions, only high school counselors were eligible
to respond to these questions.
Across the district, counselors believed high achieving students typically took their
SAT/ACT tests for the first time in the fall of their junior year (See Table 12). Further questions
were asked on the rate at which students retook their exams and whether or not students took
SAT subject tests. These responses are shown in Table 13. The majority of counselors (76%)
believed high achieving students retook their SAT/ACT test until they received a suitable score
for their colleges of interest. However, most counselors were unsure (47%) if high achieving
students were taking their SAT subject tests. Even more counselors (58%) were unsure if
students who took their SAT subject test did so at the completion of the year the subject was
learned. These data indicate counselors have a good understanding of SAT/ACT practices in
3%
35%
34%
22%
6%
Based on best practices, our district provides adequate SAT/ACT
test prep for high achieving students preparing for admission to
selective colleges
Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 83
their schools, but may lack understanding of SAT subject test practices and could use more
training in this area.
Table 12
High Achieving students take SAT/ACT for the first time
Time of Test Response Frequency (n=17)
Junior Year - Fall 47.06%
Junior Year - Winter 0.00%
Junior Year - Spring 29.41%
Summer between Junior and Senior Year 0.00%
Senior Year - Fall 5.88%
Senior Year - Winter 5.88%
Not Sure 11.76%

Table 13
SAT/ACT and SAT subject test trends for high achieving students at “Border School District”
Survey Item

Response Frequency (n=17)
Agree Not Sure Disagree
Our district’s high achieving
students typically re-take their
SAT/ACT test until they achieve a
score suitable for the colleges they
wish to apply.

76.47% 11.76% 11.76%
Our district’s high achieving
students take SAT Subject Tests
(e.g. physics, chemistry) for the
selective colleges they wish to
apply.

29.41% 47.06% 23.53%
Our district’s high achieving
students typically take their SAT
Subject Tests at the close of the
school year when the subject was
learned (e.g. Biology SAT II
completed at the end of Sophomore
Year Biology class).
5.88% 58.82% 35.29%
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 84

Further questions were asked specifically to high school counselors on their
understanding of fee waivers for SAT/ACT testing. Approximately 90% of counselors
understood fee waivers and felt students and their families also understood the waivers available
(See Figure 13).

Figure 13. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to SAT/ACT and
SAT subject test fee waivers.
College Choice. The next section of the study assessed counselor knowledge and skills
surrounding the college choice phase of the college planning process. This section of the study
was also limited to only high school counselors as middle school counselors would not typically
assist students with these activities. The first set of survey questions assessed counselors’
understanding of the main college applications utilized across the United States. The data
showed 100% of “Border School District” high school counselors understood the components of
ApplyTexas and also how to assist students with the application (See Figure 14). Fewer
counselors, only 40%, understood the components of the Common Application and how to assist
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understanding of SAT/ACT and SAT Subject Test Fee Waivers
I understand the fee waivers low-income students are eligible for to take their SAT/ACT or SAT Subject tests.
I believe students understand the fee waivers they are eligible for to take their SAT/ACT or SAT Subject tests.
I know how to help students obtain the right fee waivers to take their SAT/ACT or SAT Subject tests.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 85
students with it (See Figure 15). For the Coalition Application, only 5% of counselors
understood the application or how to assist students with it (See Figure 16). This is telling
because the Common Application and Coalition Applications are typically utilized by schools
outside of Texas and by many selective colleges. It is clear counselors have a good
understanding of how to help their students apply to colleges in Texas, but the majority are
unclear on how to help students with other types of college applications. If students from
“Border School District” are to apply to more selective colleges, high school counselors will
need more training on the Common and Coalition Applications.

Figure 14. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to ApplyTexas.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understands ApplyTexas
I understand the components of the ApplyTexas application.
I know how to assist students with components of the ApplyTexas application.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 86

Figure 15. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to the Common
Application.

Figure 16. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to the Coalition
Application.
Although there are some knowledge gaps on various college applications, over 75%
“Border School District” high school counselors believed their students were receiving enough
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understands the Common Application
I understand the components of the Common Application.
I know how to assist students with components of the Common Application.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understands the Coalition Application
I understand the components of the Coalition Application.
I know how to assist students with components of the Coalition Application.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 87
guidance on how to complete their college applications (See Figure 17). Similarly, over 70% of
counselors also felt students received enough support on their college essays (See Figure 18).

Figure 17. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey item: “I believe students
receive adequate support on how to complete the components of college applications”.

Figure 18. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey item: “I believe students
receive adequate support on how to write effective college application essays. (for example:
personal statements and creative essays)”.
6%
70%
18%
6%
I believe students receive adequate support on how to complete
the components of college applications
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5.88%
64.71%
17.65%
11.76%
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00%
I believe students receive adequate support on how to write
effective college application essays (for example: personal
statements and creative essays)
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 88
Follow up interviews were conducted to better understand the essay writing support
offered to students. Three of the four counselors interviewed described how English IV teachers
are utilized to help students with their essays – students must write one of the ApplyTexas essays
as a mandatory assignment. For example, one counselor said
It’s a team effort. I mean we cannot do it on our own. Our English IV teachers, we give
them the topics…so the students work on those topics…[and] before submitting they
come to us and they say…please can, you know, [you] give me your input on this.
Another counselor gave a similar response
I know that their English IV teachers who are assisting the counselors in having them
write essays as an assignment. In other words, you know, we're going to write. You're
going to write your college essay in class and I'm going to help you. So, including it as an
assignment. I think that that's an advantage to the student.
From the interview responses there seems to be a consistent process across the district of
utilizing English IV Teachers to help seniors with their ApplyTexas college essays. What is
unclear is what assistance, if any, students receive if they are utilizing the Common or Coalition
Application to apply to schools outside of Texas. More research should be done on this area.
In addition to assessing counselor knowledge and skills related to college applications
and essays, counselors were also assessed on their understanding of financial aid applications.
Over 80% of counselors understood the components of the Free Application for Federal Student
Aid (FAFSA) and how to assist students with this application (See Figure 19). However, fewer
than 20% of counselors understood or knew how to assist students with the College Board’s
College Scholarship Service (CSS) Profile (See Figure 20). This is important because most
selective colleges utilize the CSS Profile to determine financial aid awards for students. Data
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 89
from this section of the survey speaks to prior knowledge gaps regarding the Common and
Coalition Applications. It seems counselors have a good understanding of the college and
financial aid applications to assist students with schools in Texas, but their knowledge on how to
help students both apply to colleges out of Texas and apply for non-federal financial aid is
deficient. Although these knowledge gaps are significant, over 90% of counselors nevertheless
felt that students and families were receiving enough support on financial aid applications (See
Figure 21).

Figure 19. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey items related to the Free
Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA).
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understanding of the Free Application for Federal Student Aid
(FAFSA)
I understand the components of the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) application.
I know how to assist students with the components of the FAFSA application.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 90

Figure 20. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey items related to the College
Board’s College Scholarship Service (CSS) Profile.

Figure 21. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to the survey item: “I believe students and
families receive adequate support on completing financial aid applications”.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understanding of the College Board's College Scholarship
Service (CSS) Profile
I understand the components of the College Board’s College Scholarship Service (CSS) Profile application.
I know how to assist students with the components of the College Board’s College Scholarship Service (CSS) Profile
application.
41.18%
52.94%
5.88%
0.00%
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00%
I believe students and families receive adequate support on
completing financial aid applications
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 91
In addition to counselor knowledge of financial aid applications, counselors’
understanding of fee waivers for college and financial aid applications was assessed, as well as
counselors’ perceptions of students’ understanding of fee waivers.

Figure 22. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to their
understanding of fee waivers for college and financial aid applications.
In Figure 22, data from survey responses show that 70% or more of counselors
understood the fee waivers available for college applications and financial aid applications. The
same percentage understood how to help students obtain these waivers for college applications.
Slightly fewer, approximately 60%, knew how to help students obtain waivers for financial aid
applications. Surprisingly, about 70% of counselors believed students also understood the fee
waivers available to them for college and financial aid applications (See Figure 23).
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Counselor Understanding of Fee Waivers for College and
Financial Aid Applications
I understand the college application fee waivers low-income students are eligible for.
I know how to help students obtain the right fee waivers for their college applications.
I understand the financial aid application fee waivers low-income students are eligible for.
I know how to help students obtain the right fee waivers for their financial aid applications.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 92

Figure 23. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to their perception of
students’ understanding of fee waivers for college and financial aid applications.
Along with an understanding of fee waivers, counselors provided survey responses on
their comfort with reading and explaining financial aid packages. Over 80% of counselors
understood how to read student financial aid packages and knew how to explain those packages
to students (See Figure 24).
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Counselors' Perception of Students' Understanding of Fee
Waivers for College and Financial Aid Applications
I believe students understand the college application fee waivers they are eligible for.
I believe students understand the financial aid application fee waivers they are eligible for.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 93

Figure 24. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to their
understanding of how to read and explain financial aid packages to students.
In addition to assessing knowledge of financial aid packages, counselors were asked
questions about their awareness of and understanding of external college scholarships. More
than 50% of counselors were unaware of external college scholarships and unware how to assist
students with applying for these scholarships (See Figure 25). These data make sense when
looking at the frequency of applications for external scholarships by “Border School District”
high school students (See Figure 26). Approximately 65% of counselors believe students only
apply for external scholarships occasionally. There may be more education needed on the types
of scholarships available to “Border School District” students and the components of each
application.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Counselor Understanding of Financial Aid Packages
When students are admitted to universities, I understand how to read their financial aid package.
When students come to me for support in reading their financial aid package, I know how to explain the
financial aid package to the student.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 94

Figure 25. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey items related to their
understanding of external college scholarships.

Figure 26. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey item: “High achieving high school
students from the district apply for external scholarships”.
The knowledge assessed throughout the college choice section primarily focused on
applications for colleges, financial aid, and scholarships. Additional data collected were on
counselors’ knowledge of how to coach students through cultural fears of leaving home or not
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
45.00%
50.00%
I am aware of external college scholarships available to
low-income high achieving high school students, such as
Questbridge.
I know how to assist low-income high achieving high
school students with completing applications for external
college scholarships, such as Questbridge.
Understanding of External College Scholarships
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
0%
65%
23%
12%
Frequency of high achieving high school students from the
District applying for external college scholarships
Never
Occasionally
Often
Very Often
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 95
fitting in at college. Over 70% of counselors had this knowledge (See Figure 27). This is
important because low-income students who are admitted to college sometimes will choose not
to attend because of these cultural fears (Poole & More, 2001). Having counselors who are
knowledgeable on how to coach students through these fears can help improve college
persistence among students.

Figure 27. High School Counselor responses (n=17) to survey item: “I know how to coach high
achieving high school students through perceived cultural fears of leaving home or fitting in at a
selective college”.
Motivation Results and Findings
The next section will transition from an assessment of counselors’ knowledge to an
assessment of counselors’ motivation. The motivation influences assessed were counselors’
control beliefs of their abilities to influence students’ college-going behavior as well as
counselors’ views on the utility value of selective colleges (See Table 14). The results and
findings on these assessed influences are presented in the sections that follow.
23%
59%
18%
0%
I know how to coach high achieving high school students
through perceived cultural fears of leaving home or fitting in at a
selective college
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 96
Table 14
Assessed Motivation Influences
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Control Beliefs: School counselors must
believe it is in their control to positively
influence students’ attributions, such as their
college-going self-identity or academic
ability.
Survey Item
Utility Value: School counselors must believe
the utility value of high achieving low-income
students attending selective colleges is higher
than students attending colleges under
matched to students’ academic capabilities.
Survey Item, Follow Up Interview

Control Beliefs. Four survey items were utilized to assess counselor control beliefs (See
Figure 28). From the data, 100% of counselors believed in their abilities to influence student
perceptions about selective colleges and believed the more time they spent with students, the
more influence they could have. Over 90% of counselors felt they could help students overcome
fears of not fitting in at a selective college or of leaving the Rio Grande Valley to attend a
selective college. This finding contributes to the knowledge data on the same topic – counselors
have both the knowledge and the belief in their ability to help students overcome these fears.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 97

Figure 28. Comparison of 32 counselor responses for survey items tied to attributions and
control beliefs.
Utility Value. Multiple survey items were also asked to understand counselors’ beliefs
about the utility value of selective colleges. These items and the results are shown in Table 15.
Table 15
Counselors' Beliefs about Utility Value of Selective Colleges
Response Frequency (n=33)
Survey Item
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
High achieving students should attend the
college that best matches their academic
capabilities.
53.13% 37.50% 9.38% 0.00%
I believe high achieving students from the
district have the academic capabilities to
attend selective colleges.
50.00% 50.00% 0.00% 0.00%

A selective college (e.g. Harvard, Stanford,
Rice, Northwestern) will provide a high
achieving student with greater career and
financial growth opportunities than a less
selective college.
15.63% 43.75% 34.38% 6.25%
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Counselors' Attribution and Control Beliefs
I believe I can influence my students’ perception of whether or not they are capable of attending selective
colleges.
I can help my students overcome fears of not fitting in at a selective college.
I can help my students overcome fears of leaving the Rio Grande Valley or Texas to attend selective colleges.
The more one-on-one time I spend on college advising with my students, the greater impact I believe I can
make on my students’ college-going beliefs.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 98
I believe selective colleges are financially
affordable for high achieving students from
the district.
12.50% 28.13% 34.38% 25.00%

Over 90% of “Border School District” counselors believed high achieving students
should attend colleges best matched to the students’ academic capabilities. When counselors
were asked about the high achieving students within “Border School District”, 100% of
counselors felt their students had the academic capabilities to attend selective colleges. This is
positive because school counselors have the greatest influence on low-income students’ college
going beliefs and decisions (McDonough, 2005) and it is clear that “Border School District”
counselors believe in their students.
Although counselors clearly believe in their students’ abilities to attend selective
colleges, counselors’ beliefs about the utility value of these selective colleges were mixed. The
majority (over 90%) felt that students should attend schools matching their academic
capabilities, but only approximately 60% of counselors felt that a selective college would
provide their students with greater career and financial growth than a less selective college (See
Table 15). This was consistent with other field research in rural regions, where communities are
often isolated from selective colleges and unaware of the long-term utility value of attending
these types of schools (Beattie, 2002). Counselors’ beliefs about utility value may also be tied to
the cost associated with selective colleges - more than half of the district’s counselors felt
selective colleges were unaffordable for their students.
Counselors were interviewed in a role-play scenario to better understand their perceptions
of the utility value of selective colleges. In the scenario the counselor needed to advise a student
who was considering applying to several selective colleges but was scared they would not
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 99
receive enough financial aid. All counselors utilized financial aid education to help the student.
For example, one counselor said
You know, we talk to them, we educate the parents also on the student loans. You know,
the unsubsidized, subsidize, the parent PLUS loans, all sorts of loans. And explain to
them you know the difference between the federal loans versus the private loans. And let
the student know you can pool loans and, you know, as long as you're keeping up with
your coursework, you have a good GPA… you will not have to pay these back until you
stop going to school. There's a grace period of six months.
Another counselor described a method they use with their students
And so, then there's something called an EFC, which is how much the family can actually
contribute. And so, based on your parent's income you know you'll be able to know like
how much money you're going to get awarded there. And then of course what is the
family contribution …for you financially…And so that gives the student…just hope
that…you know I'm going to get money to pay for my education.
Outside of financial aid education, three of the four counselors also discussed various scholarship
opportunities the student could apply for. For instance, one counselor described how they
educated students
[I] basically educate them, also letting them know that, you know, they can visit the Go
Center to apply for scholarships. Visit the school's website for scholarships….and
work… with the English teacher or myself for revisions.
A second counselor offered similar advice
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 100
And then of course if they…know that your university has some type of scholarship
available … [or is] based on merit. Some, you know, [offer] outrageous amounts of
money, like a four-year scholarship.
A third counselor described helping students get some of these major scholarships
Me personally, I have had five of my students that I helped get that…scholarship. And I
have had five that I got accepted. That got a million-dollar scholarship. I'm there. I'm
familiar with the process.
It is clear from the interviews that “Border School District” counselors have a good
understanding of the financial aid process and potential scholarships available to their students.
However, what was unclear is if they realized their students would qualify for full tuition
scholarships directly through most selective colleges rather than students needing to apply for
external scholarships. One counselor mentioned this, but other counselors did not bring this up,
meaning they may not have this knowledge. Most selective colleges will offer admitted students
zero cost tuition if their annual family income is less than $40,000 (Journal of Blacks in Higher
Education, 2008).
In addition to collecting data on counselors’ beliefs about the utility value of selective
colleges, survey data was also collected on counselor’s perceptions of the community’s
perspective (See Table 16). Counselors’ perception of the community showed similar results to
the counselors’ beliefs on affordability, with approximately 60% believing the community feels
selective colleges are unaffordable. Because these results are so similar, it is unclear whether
their perception of the community is accurate or simply a reflection of the counselors’ own
beliefs. There were distinct differences, however, in counselors’ perceptions of how strongly the
community believed in its students’ academic capabilities. Compared to counselors, where over
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 101
90% felt their students had the academic willpower to handle a selective college, only about 60%
believed the community felt the same. This is important because it indicates that although
counselors in the district believe in their students, community influences may serve as a
significant barrier to their success with students.
Table 16
Counselors' Perceptions of Community Beliefs about Utility Value of Selective Colleges
Survey Item
Response Frequency (n=33)
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Community members believe selective
colleges are academically attainable for high
achieving students from the Rio Grande
Valley.
9.38% 53.13% 25.00% 12.50%
Community members believe selective
colleges are affordable for high achieving
students from the Rio Grande Valley.
12.50% 28.13% 43.75% 15.63%

Organizational Results and Findings
The following sub-sections discuss the results on the organizational influences assessed
in this study: student to counselor ratios, counselor roles and responsibilities, school and
community culture, and financial and external support (See Table 17). Because the first two
influences, ratios and responsibilities, may differ between middle and high school counselors, the
data were separated to show the comparison.
Table 17
Assessed Organizational Influences
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 102
High Student to Counselor Ratios Survey Item, Document Analysis of Counselor
Meeting/Case Logs
Unclear Counselor Roles and
Responsibilities
Survey Item, Follow Up Interview, Document
Analysis of Counselor Meeting/Case Logs
School and Community Culture Survey Item, Follow Up Interview, Document
Analysis of Graduation and College Enrollment
Statistics
Financial and External Support Survey Item, Follow Up Interview

Student to Counselor Ratios. The first influences assessed was the number of students
each counselor served at the middle and high school levels and counselors’ perception of their
student caseload (See Tables 18 and 19).
Table 18
Number of Students Served by Counselor
Number of Students Served
Counselor Type Mean Median Mode
Standard
Deviation
High School Counselors
(n=17)
412 400 400 76
Middle School
Counselors (n=16)
295 300 300 29
Table 19
Counselors' Perception of Student Caseload

Perception
Counselor Type Too High Just Right Too Low
High School Counselors (n=17)
70.58% 29.41% 0.00%
Middle School Counselors
(n=16)
31.25% 68.75% 6.25%

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 103
Middle school counselors at “Border School District” served approximately 100 fewer
students per counselor than high school counselors. That difference in 100 students seemed to be
correlated with counselors’ perceptions of their caseloads. More than two-thirds of middle
school counselors felt their caseload was “just right”. Whereas, the opposite was true for high
school counselors, where more than two-thirds of counselors felt their caseloads were “too high”.
Interestingly, four of the five high school counselors who felt their caseload was “just right”
served approximately 300 students each, more aligned with the middle school counselors. It
makes sense that counselors with caseloads around 300 students feel more comfortable, as it is
just over the American School Counselor Association’s recommended ratio of 250 students to
one counselor (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). Although “Border School District” high
school counselors feel their caseloads are too high, on a whole, the district has lower student to
counselor ratios than the Texas state average of 470 students to one counselor (U.S. Department
of Education, 2013).

Figure 29. Counselor responses to survey item: “I have enough time in my daily schedule to
provide one-on-one college advising to my students”.
0.00%
23.50%
41.17%
35.29%
0.00%
18.75%
43.75%
37.50%
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Enough One-on-One Time
for College Advising
High School Counselors (n=17) Middle School Counselors (n=16)
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 104
Even though counselors caseloads at “Border School District” are lower than the state
average, more than 75% of their middle and high school counselors felt they did not have enough
time for one-on-one college advising (See Figure 29). This is important because one-on-one
personalized attention with students has been found to be most effective for college advising
(Fashola & Slavin, 2001; Hoxby & Avery, 2013; Hoxby & Turner, 2013, 2015). It is common
for public schools, like “Border School District”, however, to have less time available for one-
on-one advising. Only 21% of public high schools have counselors whose sole responsibility is
college advising, compared to 77% of private high schools (NACAC, 2006). The next section
looks deeper into “Border School District” counselors’ roles and responsibilities, which provided
insight into why counselors may be lacking time for personalized college advising.
Counselor Roles and Responsibilities. The survey data collected from counselors at
“Border School District” showed that 100% of middle school counselors and approximately 95%
of high school counselors understood their roles and responsbilities (see Figure 30). However,
over 90% of middle and high school counselors were being asked to spend time on non-
counseling tasks, with middle school counselors being asked to perform non-counseling tasks at
higher rates than high school counselors (see Figure 31).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 105

Figure 30. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I am clear on my roles and
responsibilities as a school counselor”.

Figure 31. Counselor responses to survey item: “I am asked to complete non-counseling
responsibilities (e.g. administrative duties)”.

In follow up interviews, counselors were asked to describe their typical day. All four of
the high school counselors interviewed described days filled with a wide variety of
responsibilities. For example, a counselor at a comprehensive high school, serving grades 9-12,
said
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Understand Roles & Responsibilities
High School Counselors (n=17) Middle School Counselors (n=15)
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
Never Sometimes Often Very Often
Asked to Spend Time on Non-Counseling Tasks
High School Counselors (n=17) Middle School Counselors (n=15)
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 106
I'm looking at…my calendar and see what are the things that we need to do for that day.
But usually those to do list sometimes go out the window because different things happen
at the high school… Students [come] into my office to talk about the courses, some… are
failing [and] some other students are having problems at home and they just come and
talk about that… You know, I mean problems with relationships of boyfriend girlfriend
relationships. Also doing [duty] during lunch hour and at the same time while doing duty
I'm talking to students during that time. We [also] have classroom guidance every month
so we're trying to meet with all the grade levels. I mean and talking to seniors [when]
they're failing in their target for graduation.
Another counselor at an early college high school, serving grades 9-12, describe their day
I’m at an early college high school. OK. [I’m the] only counselor on campus. So,
everything pretty much has to go through me when it comes through you know to their
credit and applying to the university as an advisor and all of that stuff. So, I'm basically
the Go Center counselor and you know pretty much everything, everything.
Similar sentiments were described by all, with the other early college high school
counselor also being the only counselor for the whole school. They described how being the
only counselor for all grades made juggling their responsibilities even harder. The responses
received were consistent with a similar study of South Texas High Schools which found
counselors had many competing priorities and often felt overwhelmed (Martinez & Welton,
2014).
When “Border School District” high school counselors were asked how they prioritized
their many responsibilities, the responses from each counselor interviewed was different, making
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 107
it clear that counselors were not being given the same direction from the district on how to
prioritize. For example, one counselor prioritized student safety
I prioritize, one of the things, is that student safety is first…If there's a crisis we have to
attend to the crisis. If there's a student that says you know I'm not feeling well, I want to
end my life, we need to attend to the student first...those are our priorities, the well-being
of our students.
Another counselor explained they prioritized directives from central office or the county
I check my email and check to see if there's anything coming in from central office or
from the county department or [any] administrators in the campus. And if there is
something that is sent out to us or to me like I have to prioritize and say OK what am I
going to do?
A third counselor prioritized specific grade levels
I balance a lot of basically what's most important, you know, and I always give a lot of
time to my seniors and my freshmen. I'm a cheerleader for the seniors... And then like …
my freshman need a lot more guidance [in] counseling [to] you know, not to give up. It's
a transition.
The fourth counselor did not have a clear priority and explained direction was often unclear from
their principal
Unfortunately, being the [only] one on campus and, you know, my principal knows
exactly what I'm doing because I thought you know what do I do? [Am I] going to meet
the needs of the seniors and the juniors? Or do you want [me] to help the ninth and tenth
graders?
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 108
Counselor interview responses were somewhat inconsistent with the survey data shown in Figure
32 where 60% of high school counselors and 70% of middle school counselors indicated they
received enough guidance from school and district leaders on how to prioritize their tasks. Given
each counselor interview response was different, it may be that counselors are receiving direction
from school principals, but that direction is inconsistent across the district.

Figure 32. Counselor responses to survey item: “I receive adequate guidance from my school
leaders or district leaders on how to prioritize my responsibilities”.
Although it is unclear where prioritization directives are coming from in each school,
80% of middles school counselors and 100% of high school counselors believe college
advising/planning is a top priority at the district (See Tables 20 and 21). For middle school
counselors, about half felt college advising/planning was their top priority (See Table 20),
whereas more than 80% of high school counselors felt college advising/planning was their top
priority (see Table 21). However, when comparing this to high school counselor interview data,
college advising/planning is not always being prioritized. This is consistent with both middle
school and high school counselor responses to the survey item: “College advising/planning is my
number one priority AND I have enough time to give to this priority among other
responsibilities”. Almost 90% of middle school counselors and 80% of high school counselors
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Enough Guidance Received from School and District Leaders on
How to Prioritize Responsibilities
High School Counselors (n=17) Middle School Counselors (n=15)
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 109
did not have enough time to give to college advising among other responsibilities (See Tables 20
and 21).
Table 20
College Advising as a Priority for Middle School Counselors
Response Frequency (n=15)
Counselor Type
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
College advising/planning is a
top priority at the district.

20.00% 60.00% 20.00% 0.00%
College advising/planning is my
number one priority among my
responsibilities.

6.66% 40.00% 46.66% 6.66%
College advising/planning is my
number one priority AND I have
enough time to give to this
priority among other
responsibilities.
6.66% 6.66% 66.66% 20.00%

Table 21
College Advising as a Priority for High School Counselors

Response Frequency (n=17)
Counselor Type
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
College advising/planning is a
top priority at the district.

35.29% 64.70% 0.00% 0.00%
College advising/planning is my
number one priority among my
responsibilities.

17.64% 64.70% 17.64% 0.00%
College advising/planning is my
number one priority AND I have
enough time to give to this
priority among other
responsibilities.
0.00% 17.64% 58.82% 17.64%
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 110

In addition to survey data, counselor daily logs for the 2017 school year were also
analyzed to understand where counselors were spending their time. Table 22 below shows the
top five areas counselors spent their time: academic concerns, approving courses, responsive
behavior, grad plans, and 504/Individual accommodations. When these top five responsibility
codes were compared to all college advising related responsibility codes, the data were quite
alarming. On average, counselors were spending less than 1% of their overall time on college
advising activities (See Table 23).
Table 22
Top five responsibilities of middle and high school counselors based on percentage of time spent
Responsibility Code Time Spent per responsibility Percentage of Total Time
Spent
Academic Concerns 2,648 hours 21.0%
Approve Course Act 1,665 hours 13.0%
Resp Behavior 1,566 hours 12.5%
P Grad Plan Con 1,343 hours 11.0%
504/Ind Accom 946 hours 8.0%

Table 23
Time Spent on College Advising Activities
Responsibility Code Time Spent per responsibility Percentage of Total Time
Spent
College App Process 49 hours <1.0%
Compl College App 33 hours <1.0%
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 111
FAFSA App 44 hours <1.0%
Scholar App 25 hours <1.0%
Reg Dual/ Con En 142 hours 1.0%
When counselors who were part of the action research committee reviewed these results
they were not surprised, but did indicate there are additional para professionals assisting them in
“Go Centers” that often help students with financial aid applications and how to fill out their
college applications. These Go Centers seem to be set up in the comprehensive high schools
with a computer lab inside and a trained para professional for support. More research should be
done on the role of these paraprofessionals and how they may be supporting counselors.
Nonetheless, high school counselors were still interviewed prior to this action research
committee feedback on how they created one-on-one college advising time for their students as
this has been shown to be the most effective way to engage low-income students in the college
planning process (Fashola & Slavin, 2001). All counselors described using one-on-one or small
group college advising opportunities for their seniors and some for their juniors. Counselors in
comprehensive high schools brought seniors to the cafeteria, followed by small group sessions.
For example, one counselor said
Teachers bring their students to the cafeteria and [counselors] will address them there. As
a general group. And then [if] they have to do any advising they break them up by alpha
… and the counselor sits with, you know, her group of students and then they go over the
grad plans. They go over transcripts. They go over if they're passing or failing, you know,
if they have any questions. They check to see if they've done … financial aid. They also
check to see that they've done the ApplyTexas.
Another counselor at a comprehensive high school followed the same approach
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 112
Counselors focus mainly on the seniors, of course, because they're graduating and so they
need to pull in the seniors or even the juniors to do any kind of guidance, you know, pull
them into the cafeteria.
The early college high schools also focused on seniors, but seemed to have a less structured
approach and more autonomy for students to schedule one-on-one time. For example, one
counselor said
They make appointments with me as well…I'll send them a message to say OK I'm going
to be at this building, in my office…and they know where I'm going to be …And then
with my seniors, you know, I'll send them a screenshot of an application that I came
across to say guys here's this application, you know, this scholarship opportunity. Make
sure you apply. Here's the information.
Each high school type may take a different approach to one-on-one advising because of
school size. The comprehensive high schools had four to five times the number of students of
the early college high schools (approx. 2,500 students compared to 400 students). Irrespective of
the different approaches, counselors were making time for their seniors. What was unclear is
how they were making time for freshman through juniors. Counselors seemed to be more
tactically focused on their seniors and less strategically focused on the predisposition activities
that also should be taking place in middle and high school. These findings are consistent with
the interview responses received earlier on predisposition, where counselors focused on
upperclassman more than underclassman. This is also consistent with previously shown student
to counselor ratios, where 70% of “Border School District” high school counselors felt their
ratios were too high. High ratios could be forcing counselors to only focus on their seniors,
because their needs are immediate. Similarly, counselors have also shown they are juggling
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 113
many priorities, with college advising encompassing less than 1% of their time spent on various
responsibilities. Counselors may simply have too many responsibilities and not enough
consistent guidance from their leadership to prioritize and provide all their students with one-on-
one college advising time.
School and Community Culture. In addition to understanding the organizational
influences impacting counselors directly, such as competing priorities, and student to counselor
ratios, the study also analyzed the broader school and community culture in which counselors’
work. The district’s 2016 -2017 Texas Academic Report was analyzed to first understand the
culture of high school completion. Table 24 shows the annual high school graduation and
dropout rates for “Border School District”.
Table 24
Annual High School Graduation and Dropout Rates for “Border School District”

Class Year
Grades 9-12
2013 - 2014
Class of 2013
2014 - 2015
Class of 2014
2015 - 2016
Class of 2015
2016 - 2017
Class of 2016
Annual Graduation Rate –
diploma earned in 4 years
84.90% 85.60% 85.30% 86.10%
Annual Graduation Rate –
diploma earned in 5 years
88.60% 88.00% 87.70% 87.80%
Annual Dropout Rate 3.00% 2.70% 2.70% 3.10%

Although the majority of “Border School District” high school students are graduating
within four to five years, survey data showed only 30% of counselors believed that most of those
students would go on to college (See Figure 33). Even fewer (only 3%), believed students would
go on to selective colleges. Counselors felt similarly about students across the Rio Grande
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 114
Valley, showing that the college-going culture across the region and within “Border School
District” is low.

Figure 33. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey questions on the college-going culture of
“Border School District” and the broader Rio Grande Valley of South Texas.
Counselors impressions were consistent with a National Student Clearinghouse report,
shown in Figure 34, which tracked the college-going behavior of the district’s seniors from
2010-2017 (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017). In 2010 fewer than 20% of “Border School
District” seniors were enrolled in college the fall immediately after high school. From 2011-
2014, fewer than 3% were enrolled. From 2015 – 2017 there was a steady rise in enrollment,
with 43 – 50% of seniors enrolled (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017), indicating there may
be improved college readiness programming in the district, such as GEAR UP which several
counselors cited in interviews when asked about external support (See “Financial and External
Support”).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 115

Figure 34. Results from actual “Border School District” longitudinal student data on college
enrollment post high school (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017).
When digging deeper into what community factors most influenced students’ college-
going behavior, three of the four high school counselors interviewed felt students are most
influenced by their family and peer network. For example, one counselor said
Most of our students are first time generation students going to college. Unfortunately,
you know, I believe that our kids come from very humble background[s]…[the] first step
for them, it's survival. So, I believe also that another factor that can influence is to see
how others achieve at the high school and seeing the opportunities. And I think parents in
our community really want their children to be educated and just see it happening in
others. I believe that's a main factor in this.
Another counselor described
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 116
They're able to say, OK, I don't want to live, you know, like my parents and work…these
hard labor jobs. You know, and struggle with paying the rent month-to-month, living
month-to-month, or even just week-to-week. You know, sometimes and you know,
ending up maybe their brothers and sisters [did not get] to go to college because they're
first generation, you know. So, they…go. How are we going to get this group of students
to kind of break that cycle? And that's what we're seeing with our program now.
Counselors beliefs about the importance of peer and family networks were in line with
other research in the field on factors most contributing to college-going behaviors in low income
students (Nelson, 2016; Shamah, 2011), particularly in Latino cultures (Ibañez et al., 2004).
However, based on the survey data and real student data, with fewer than 50% of “Border School
District” students persisting to college, peer and family college-going role models are not yet the
majority.
Understanding the unique factors contributing to college-going beliefs in “Border School
District” is important for advancing college readiness programming for all students. This study’s
focus, however, was specifically on high achieving students and their persistance to college.
Now that there is a baseline understanding of the overall college-going behaviors of the district
and the Rio Grande Valley, the remainder of this section focuses on the college-going behaviors
of the district’s highest achieving students.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 117

Figure 35. Counselors response (n=32) to survey item: “Of our District’s high achieving students
who choose to stay in state for college, most attend:”
Survey data was collected on where the district’s high achieving students were going to
college within Texas (See Figure 35). Approximately 75% of counselors from “Border School
District” felt their highest achieving students chose two-year community colleges and then
transferred to a public four-year college within Texas or chose a branch campus of a public
Texas College. Fewer than 25% of counselors felt their highest achieving students were going
on to somewhat selective or selective public Texas colleges. No counselors felt their highest
achieving students went on to somewhat selective or selective private colleges in Texas.
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
Vocational
School
Community
College
2 years
Community
College with
Transfer to
Public 4 Year
College in
Texas
Branch
Campuses of
Public Texas
Colleges (e.g.
UT-RGV)
Somewhat
Selective
Public Texas
Colleges (e.g.
Texas A&M
– College
Station)
Selective
Public Texas
Colleges (e.g.
UT-Austin)
Somewhat
Selective
Private Texas
Colleges (e.g.
Baylor)
Selective
Private Texas
Colleges (e.g.
Rice)
Counselors' Perception of where the district's high achieving
students attend colleges within Texas
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 118

Figure 36. Results from actual “Border School District” longitudinal student data on college
enrollment post high school by institution level (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017).
Counselors’ perceptions of what type of institutions their students attend were somewhat
consistent with National Student Clearinghouse data (see Figure 36), which showed students
atttending two-year and four-year institutaions at equal rates between 2011- 2014 (this was for
all students, not just high achieving), consistent with counselors beliefs. From 2015- 2017,
however, students were primarily enrolled in four-year institutions (National Student
Clearinghouse, 2017), which differed from counselors beliefs.
After understanding counselors’ perceptions of where high achieving students attended
college within Texas, the study also surveyed counselors on where they believed these students
went to college out of Texas (See Figure 37). The majority of counselors (approximately 70%)
felt high achieving students mainly attended less selective public colleges out-of-state. No
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 119
counselors felt students chose to attend private colleges out-of-state, which is consistent with
Figure 35, where no counselors felt students chose private colleges in Texas either.

Figure 37. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “Of our District’s high achieving students
who choose to go out of state for college, most attend:”
On the whole, counselors believed that regardless of the selectivity of the institution,
most of their high achieving students chose to stay in-state for college (See Figure 38).
Counselors beliefs were consistent with the National Student Clearinghouse data in Figure 39,
which showed from 2015 – 2017 the majority of students were enrolled at in-state colleges
(National Student Clearinghouse, 2017).
Once data on college decisions were reviewed, college presistance data were also
analyzed from the National Student Clearinghouse report. Although the district has had
inconsistincies in the number of students entering college as freshman, their students were
persisting through college at a consistent rate (See Figure 40). From 2010 – 2015 persistance
rates remained stable, with 77% of students persisting from freshman to sophomore year of
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
Less Selective
Public Colleges
(e.g. Michigan
State, Oklahoma
State)
Less Selective
Private Colleges
(e.g. Temple
University,
Kalamazoo
College)
Somewhat
Selective Public
Colleges (e.g.
University of
Florida, Arizona
State)
Somewhat
Selective Private
Colleges (e.g.
Tulane University)
Selective Public
Colleges (e.g.
University of
California- Los
Angeles (UCLA))
Selective Private
Colleges (e.g.
Harvard, Brown,
Stanford, Duke,
USC, MIT)
Counselors' Perception of where the district's high-achieving
students attend colleges out-of-state
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 120
college, on average (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017). This is positive for the district
because it means their students who chose to go to college were able to succeed.

Figure 38. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “On a whole, most of the District’s high
achieving students choose to attend an:”

100%
0%
Counselors' Perception of where the district's most high-
acheiving students go to a college
In-State College Out-of-State College
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 121

Figure 39. Results from actual “Border School District” longitudinal student data on college
enrollment post high school by institution location (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 122

Figure 40. Longitudinal College Persistence data for “Border School District” between 2010-
2015 (National Student Clearinghouse, 2017).
In addition to understanding the college-going culture of students at “Border School
District” the study also sought to better understand a few other organizational influences within
the school and community culture that could contibute to counselors’ effectivness. One area
reviewed was the ease of taking field trips to expose students to selective colleges (See Figure
41). More than 85% of counselros found it difficult or very difficult to take their students on
field trips to visit selective colleges in or out of Texas. Almost 80% of counselors found it very
difficult to take students to visit out-of-state selective colleges. This was consistent with
interview data previously discussed in the “Knowledge Results and Findings” section, where
counselors described the challenges of organizing field trips to pre-expose students to colleges.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 123

Figure 41. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to taking students on field trips to
visit selective colleges in and out of Texas.
Another cultural influence studied via survey results was information related to special
population students: those living in colonias, migrants, and students who have been incarcerated.
Because of the district’s close location to the border of Mexico, there are traditionally higher
rates of these student types. The majority (75%) of counselors were serving many students
living in colonias (See Figure 42). Students who live in these communities are living in abject
poverty, often without running water, paved roads, or proper elecriricity (Davies & Holz, 1992;
Quinones, Newman, & Sherwood, 2012). This is higher than the average of 60% of families
living in colonias across the Rio Grande Valley (Davies & Holz, 1992). Conversely, 90% of
counselors were only serving few to some migrant students (See Figure 43). Migrants are
students who are often moved from school to school as their families look for agricultural field
work (Branz-Spall, Rosenthal, & Wright, 2003). Nonetheless, approximately 75% of counselors
believed college readiness programming for migrant students was adequate at “Border School
District” (See Figure 44). Lastly, counselors were surveyed on the impact of drug cartels on the
incarceration rates of their students. In Figure 45, More than 90% of counselors believed the
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
Very Easy Easy Difficult Very Difficult
Taking Students on Field Trips to Visit Selective Colleges
Taking our students on field trips to visit selective colleges in Texas is:
Taking our students on field trips to visit selective colleges out of Texas is:
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 124
presence of drug cartels in the region increased incarceration rates of students. However, over
60% of counselors felt that students who were previousely incarcerated, were still able to go to
college. As shown previously in the “Motivation Results & Findings”, even with these
additional complexities to manage, counselors in “Border School District” believe in their
students and they believe in their abilities as counselors to positively affect their students, which
is remarkable.

Figure 42. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “Of the students I serve, I have ________
students living in colonias”.
3%
22%
75%
Counselors' Perception of the Number of their Students Living in
Colonias
Few Students Some Students Many Students
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 125

Figure 43. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “Of the students I serve, I have ________
students who are migrants”.

Figure 44. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey item: “I feel there is adequate college advising
programming for our migrant students”.
34%
56%
10%
Counselors' Perception of the Number of their Students who are
Migrants
Few Students Some Students Many Students
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Adequate College Advising Programming for Migrant Students
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 126

Figure 45. Counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to incarceration.
Financial and External Support. The final organizational influence assessed was the
financial and external support available to “Border School District” counselors. The district is
already utilizing Upward Bound and Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate
Programs (GEAR UP) grants. Survey data showed that more than 90% of counselors were
unfamiliar with how to utlize Upward Bound grants for college readiness programming.
Whereas, approximately 50% of counselors were aware of how to utilize GEAR UP grants (See
Figure 46).
Survey data was consistent with interview data on financial and external support. All
high school counselors interviewed mentioned the use of GEAR UP by the district. For example
one counselor said, “we have had the GEAR UP in the past and I know that the… Region One
has just been awarded another 21 million, I believe.” Another confirmed this with, “as far as
GEAR UP, the cohort in the last year, we had our seniors last year …and with those seniors they
were exposed to so many universities and colleges and trips and speakers.” However, even
though each counselor cited GEAR UP, some also critiqued the program as holding students’
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Impact of Drug Cartels and Incarceration Rates on College-
Going Behavior
The presence of drug cartels in the region increases incarceration rates of our students.
Students who have been incarcerated are still able to go to college.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 127
hands too much – they believed students did not learn enough independence. For example, one
counselor said
A lot of them were successful but now that when they came back, you know, I'll ask
them, so how is it your first semester in college? [And] they did express that they were
lost because they were so used to us doing everything for them. As far as GEAR UP
catered to them completely… I mean just registering for their classes, doing their
financial aid. GEAR UP, you know, did a lot of that for them. So, when they had to do it
on their own, now they were lost.
Another counselor said
I think we can do too much for them…. it’s like everything was done for them. But I
think we have to give some big responsibility to the students, you know. You know,
like…scholarships searches. I mean they should have a FASFA because they should have
the scholarship and they should be [doing it]. It's not just me giving it to them.
Although GEARP UP seems to be used for multiple cohorts of students at “Border school
District”, the critiques of the program bring into question whether the benefits outweigh the
independence the students seem to lose, which counselors feel is an important skill as students
enter college. More research needs to be done to better assess this program in the district.
Outside of GEARP UP, no other programs were cited consistently by counselors.
However, data from Figure 47 shows the majority of counselors (> 75%) feel they have access to
external supprt for college planning/advising, including professional development opportunities,
peer mentors for students, and speakers/programming that can teach students about various
career paths. Given the district’s rural location, this is positive and shows there may be other
programs available if further research is done in this area.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 128

Figure 46. Comparison of counselor responses (n=32) to survey items related to Upward Bound
and GEAR UP grant awareness.

Figure 47. Comparison of counselor responses (n=32) to survey items on access to external
support.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organization
influences that would impact “Border School District” counselors’ ability to scale “The College
Program”, a five-year college readiness program that followed a cohort of the district’s high
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Awareness of Financial Support
I am aware of how to utilize Upward Bound Grants from the U.S. Department of Education for college
readiness programming.
I am aware of how to utilize Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR
UP) Grants from the U.S. Department of Education for college readiness programming.
0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00%
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Access to External Support
As counselors, we have ways to receive external professional development on college planning/advising.
As counselors, we have ways to bring external peer mentors to help students with college planning/advising.
As counselors, we have ways to bring external speakers/programs to share different careers paths with students.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 129
achieving students from eighth through twelfth grade. The goal of “The College Program” was
to increase the number of high achieving students in the district applying to selective colleges.
Prior to beginning the study, I was unsure if “Border School District” counselors would be
capable of scaling this program. What I learned was counselors at “Border School District” not
only had significant knowledge and skills around college readiness, but they were extremely
motivated to help their students, which was positive to see.
What was alarming to me, however, was how much pressure these counselors were
under. They were motivated and knowledgeable, but were being pulled in too many different
directions by their school leaders. Some activities they were being asked to complete were
important, like graduation plans and helping students in crisis, but there was simply too much on
these counselors’ plates. So much so, that when I reviewed their daily counselor logs, less than
one percent of counselors’ time was being spent on college advising compared to all their other
activities. This organizational finding was important to me because it made me realize that even
if we provide the right professional development to close some of the college readiness
knowledge gaps that do exist, it likely would not be effective. If counselors were only able to
spend less than one percent of their time on college advising, when could they possibly apply
that new knowledge? The organizational gaps that exist within the district need to be addressed
first, so that counselors can have time to share their knowledge and their motivation with
students.
In the sections that follow, my detailed recommendations are presented. First, district
leaders and counselors need to get together and set a clear vision for what counseling at “Border
School District” should look like, not just for college advising, but for each key activity leaders
believe counselors should be focused on. This vision then needs to be reviewed along with the
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 130
current processes, procedures, and resources of the counseling department. In some instances,
particularly at the high school level, a redesign of the counseling department may be required
based on the key responsibilities the district aligns on. For example, instead of one counselor
serving students from grades 9-12 and focusing on all activities, perhaps there are designated
counselors who only focus on college readiness, other counselors that only focus on academic
advising, and others who focus on social and emotional support. There are many combinations
possible, but a restructuring of how counselors job duties are currently outlined may be required
for counselors to maximize their efforts with students. Additionally, there are potential
efficiencies through taking transactional or administrative tasks off counselors’ plates so they can
focus on more strategic one-on-one time with students, whether for college readiness or other
key activities. This could be achieved using paraprofessional support or low-cost, high impact
technology solutions that could automate manual processes.
Once leaders and counselors align on the new vision for the counseling department and
the appropriate organizational structure, processes, and resources are in place to support that
vision, then knowledge and motivation gaps should be addressed. Counselors who have been
aligned to certain roles should receive the appropriate training for how to prioritize their new
responsibilities. For those counselors who will focus on college advising, the knowledge and
motivation recommendations in the next section should be used to develop their professional
development program. Some recommendations provided are focused on practices that will help
all students in the district, not just high achieving students. For example, counselors need
training on how to help students create college application lists comprised of safety, target, and
reach schools. This practice is important so that the culture of the school district encourages all
students to strive for colleges matching their academic potential. Once that broader learning and
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 131
culture is in place, then the specific recommendations focused on building the right college
readiness programming for high achieving students can be applied.
Although “Border School District” might not be ready yet to scale “The College
Program”, it has motivated and knowledgeable counselors who are invested in the success of
their students. If the district can align appropriately on its new vision, its counselors, with the
right support and resources, can take that vision to fruition. Ultimately within a few years, it
should then be ready to expand “The College Program” for its highest achieving students.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
This section details the recommendations for “Border School District” to close any
validated organizational, knowledge, or motivation gaps. Although the Clark and Estes (2008)
KMO model typically begins with knowledge recommendations, because the results and findings
pointed to significant organizational needs, the organizational recommendations are presented
first. For “Border School District” to eventually meet its goals, it must first address its
organizational challenges with a clear vision and then align the right culture, structure, processes
and resources to support that vision. Only from there will efforts to build motivation and
knowledge be successful.
Organization Recommendations
The organizational influences assessed in the study are found in Table 25 below. These
influences consisted of high student to counselor ratios, unclear counselor roles and
responsibilities, school and community culture, and access to external and financial support.
Within the table, the first column lists the influence assessed, the second column shows whether
that influence was validated through the study, the third column provides a research-based
principle in which improvement should be based upon, and the fourth column, if required,
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 132
provides a recommendation for improvement. Each recommendation is then described in more
detail in the narrative following the table.
Table 25
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence

Validated
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
High Student to
Counselor Ratios
Y Y Work Process
barriers can result
from inefficient,
conflicting, or
missing policies
and/or when
necessary resources
are unavailable
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
Counselors need
more time for one-
on-one college
advising. Existing
processes,
procedures, and
resources should be
analyzed to
determine
efficiencies to
create more
available time to
meet goal of
increasing students
at selective
colleges.
Unclear
Counselor Roles
and
Responsibilities
Y Y Structures and
processes within an
organization should
be aligned with goals
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
Leadership and
Counselor
alignment on
college readiness
goals and other key
counseling
activities.

Development of
clear district-level
processes for how
counselors should
prioritize their time
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 133
among each key
counseling activity.
School and
Community
Culture

Y N Problems exist when
organizational goals
conflict with
organizational culture
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
N/A (will be
addressed through
other
organizational,
motivation, and
knowledge
recommendations)
Access to
Financial and
External Support
N N Organizations need
adequate resources to
be successful (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
N/A

Student to Counselor Ratios. The first area “Border School District” needs to focus on
is its student to counselor ratios at its high schools. The results and findings showed counselors
felt their caseloads were too high, limiting the amount of one-on-one college advising time
counselors could spend with students. Additionally, when counselors in the action research
committee were asked to help think through recommendations for this challenge, they believed
part of the problem was counselors were assigned to students in too many different areas to be
efficient. The counselors cited examples of colleagues who often had an alphabetical case load
of students in grades 9-12 and additional caseloads at an academy high school. They described
other counselors who served grade 9-12 alphas and also managed specific programs within their
schools, such as Dual Enrollment. The Early College High Schools each only had one counselor
for the whole campus serving all grade levels and all activities. While ratios across counselors at
the different high schools were fairly consistent, the needs of students across grade levels and
high school types were different, potentially causing inefficiencies for counselors as they switch
tasks between the needs of each student they are seeing. Counselors in the action research
committee also brought up inefficiencies with technology, such as having to spend a week at a
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 134
time doing manual data entry. They also described inconsistencies in available resources across
high schools, such as college planning Go Centers (staffed with para professionals) and social
workers. These additional resources, when provided, seemed to help counselors manage
activities with their students. Clark and Estes (2008) found that when inefficient processes or
policies exist or there is a lack of resources this can impact employees’ abilities to be successful.
Therefore, the recommendation is for the “Border School District” counseling department to
analyze its current policies, processes, and resources to determine where maximum efficiencies
could be gained, so that even if student to counselor ratios remain the same, counselors can
maximize their efforts with the students they serve.
It is important for “Border School District” to address this issue because most of its
students are low-income, making the district’s school counselors likely the student’s sole source
of information about college (Balesco, 2013; Gonzalez et al., 2003). Although the district’s high
school counselor caseloads of 400 students were above the American School Counselor
Association’s recommended average of 250 students (U.S. Department of Education, 2011),
counselors could likely be more efficient, even within these ratios, if task switching were limited
(American Psychological Association, 2006; Rubinstein, Meyer, & Evans, 2001). For example,
by having certain counselors only focus on college advising, while others focus on emotional
support, or by assigning counselors by grade level rather than having them be responsible for all
grades. Additionally, there are several low-cost, high impact technology solutions that were
effective in other districts with high student ratios, such as text message campaigns and bite-
sized video messaging which helped counselors communicate efficiently and meaningfully with
large numbers of students (Castleman & Page, 2013; College Foundation of West Virginia,
2014; Delaware Department of Education, 2014; Minnesota Office of Higher Education, 2014;
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 135
Oreopoulus & Dunn, 2013). If counselors were able to be more efficient, they would also able to
provide more personalized attention to their students, the most effective method to engage
students in the college planning process (Fashola & Slavin, 2001; Hoxby & Avery, 2013; Hoxby
& Turner, 2013, 2015).
Counselor Roles and Responsibilities. In order to address counselor efficiencies,
counselors’ overall roles and responsibilities must be addressed first. The results and findings
showed that counselors were spread too thin by an overwhelming amount of responsibilities and
were not receiving consistent guidance from district leaders on how to prioritize their time. For
example, although college advising was shown to be a top priority at the district, counselors were
spending less than one percent of their time on this activity. Clark and Estes (2008) found that
structures and processes within an organization should be aligned with goals. Therefore, the
recommendation is for district leaders and counselors to align on the organizational vision and
goals for the counseling department, including key activities such as college readiness, social and
emotional support, graduation plans, etc. Once the department is aligned on its vision and goals,
it should then think critically about the right organizational design to achieve those goals; for
example, analyzing ways to restructure the counseling department to limit task switching among
counselors, increasing efficiency around prioritized areas, and analyzing how to utilize low-cost
technology solutions to maximize the impact of each counselor.
It is critical for the counseling department to align its organizational design to its
organizational goals because when counselors lack clarity on how they should prioritize their
time, they are less effective, especially in the area college advising (McDonough, 2005). This
lack of guidance can lead counselors to frequent task switching between various roles and
responsibilities, reducing their productivity (American Psychological Association, 2006;
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 136
Rubinstein, Meyer, & Evans, 2001). Not only does this lack of guidance and subsequent task
switching decrease counselor effectiveness, it also has a negative impact on students who feel
neglected by their counselors when seeking support because the counselors appear to be too busy
or are unavailable (Martinez & Welton, 2014). Alternatively, when counselors are clear about
their priorities, it allows them to spend focused time in that area. For example, of the high
schools with the highest college-going rates, 72% have counselors who prioritize college
advising time with students above their other responsibilities (Education Commission of the
States, 2014). By spending focused energy on aligning the counseling department on its
organizational goals and subsequently designing its organization around those goals, counselors
will be more efficient and effective in their prioritized area. This will lead to more personalized
attention to students in both college advising and other key activities, and will ultimately leave
students feeling supported, rather than neglected, when they seek help from a counselor.
School and Community Culture. Unlike addressing student to counselor ratios and
counselor roles and responsibilities, addressing overall school and community culture was not
designated as a priority area for recommendations. The reasons for this were: (1) when other
organizational, motivational, and knowledge improvements are made, this should result in an
improved college-going culture within the school district, and (2) some of the cultural factors
impacting the district and community are out of counselors’ control, such as the number of
students living in colonias, the presence of drug cartels, and the lack of infrastructure and
development in the community. Although it is important to eventually improve these influences,
they cannot be addressed by the school district or counselors alone. It will need to be a joint
effort with the community over several years, which the district is not ready for yet. First, the
district must prioritize its own organizational challenges, improve the college-going culture of its
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 137
schools, and then it can provide a helping hand with improving the broader college-going culture
of the community.
Access to Financial and External Support. This influence, like school and community
culture, was also not addressed with recommendations. This is because counselors felt they had
access to adequate levels of financial and external support for college readiness and could access
additional support, if needed.
Motivation Recommendations
Once organizational supports are in place for counselors to be more successful in their
roles, motivational gaps should be addressed. As previously stated, “Border School District”
counselors believed in their students and in their ability to influence students’ college-going
behaviors and identities. Where counselors needed more motivational support is around the
utility value of high achieving students attending selective colleges. Counselors believed
students should attend colleges that met the student’s academic capabilities, however counselors’
perception of the utility value of selective colleges over non-selective colleges was mixed. More
than half of counselors felt selective colleges were unaffordable for their students, indicating that
cost may be a factor in how counselors derive utility value. Table 26 below shows each
motivational influence assessed, and the principle based recommendations to close the gaps, such
as with utility value. The narrative following the table provides more detail on each
recommendation.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 138
Table 26
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence

Validated
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Priority
Yes,
No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Control Beliefs:
School counselors
must believe it is in
their control to
positively influence
students’
attributions, such as
their college-going
self-identity or
academic ability
Y N High self-efficacy
can positively
influence motivation
(Pajares, 2006).
Not Required
Utility Value:
School counselors
must believe the
utility value of high
achieving low-
income students
attending selective
colleges is higher
than students
attending colleges
under matched to
students’ academic
capabilities.
N Y Rationales that
include a discussion
of the importance
and utility value of
the work or learning
can help learners
develop positive
values (Eccles, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003).
Open forum for
counselors to
discuss beliefs
about utility value
of selective
colleges. Followed
by presentation of
real world student
stories and the
utility value gained
for students
attending more
selective colleges.
Open discussion for
counselors to talk
about any changes
in their beliefs after
the presentation.

Control Beliefs. School counselors believed they can positively influence their students’
college going beliefs and attitudes, and therefore no recommendation was provided. However,
knowing that “Boarder School District” counselors have these control beliefs is important
because school counselors are the highest predictor of student college-going success in low-
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 139
income neighborhoods (McDonough, 2005). When counselors have high self-efficacy in their
abilities to influence students and have positive beliefs about the self-efficacy of their students it
can increase motivation for both counselors and students (Pajares, 2006). This ultimately can
help more students from “Border School District” go to college.
Utility Value. Even though school counselors believed their students should attend
colleges best matched to their academic capabilities, they seemed to have mixed views on
whether selective colleges actually provide the highest utility value to their students. Eccles
(2006) and Pintrich (2003) found that discussions about utility value can ultimately lead to more
positive views. This suggests that creating an open dialogue for counselors to learn about the
long-term utility value of selective colleges, such as career and financial gains, might help
counselors form a different viewpoint. The recommendation is to hold a counselor forum where
counselors can freely discuss their reasons for believing selective colleges have a higher or lower
utility value. This open forum would then be followed by a presentation of various real-world
student scenarios to compare the short-term and long-term utility value for students who attended
more selective colleges compared to those who attended less selective colleges. Another open
dialogue would follow for counselors to discuss any changes in their beliefs based on the
presentation.
Clark and Estes (2008) showed that utility value beliefs should be derived from an
understanding of the long-term benefits of completing a certain task, even if there were costs
associated with the task. In the case of attending more selective colleges, perceived financial
costs may appear high to counselors; survey results showed more than half of “Border School
District” counselors felt selective colleges were unaffordable for their students. Even though a
selective college may have a high tuition, the long-term utility value in career and financial
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 140
benefits for the student over their lifetime is an example of what Clark and Estes (2008) posit
should determine the selective college’s utility value. However, what is important to point out in
the case of students from “Border School District”, is that most would qualify for zero cost
tuition at a selective college because many of their families earn less than $40,000 per year
(Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2008). Counselors may be unaware of the methods to
reduce the financial cost of a selective college. Through an open dialogue on costs and long-
term benefits of selective colleges, counselors may gain more positive beliefs about the utility
value of their students attending these schools.
Knowledge Recommendations
Following the organizational recommendations and motivation recommendations, the
knowledge recommendations should be taken into consideration when planning counselor
professional development. Table 27 below shows the knowledge influences assessed in the
study along with recommendations, where applicable. Each knowledge influence and
recommendation shown in the table is grouped by the three phases in which students develop
college-going identities: predisposition, college search and college choice (Hossler, Braxton, &
Coopersmith, 1989). Middle and high school counselors require certain knowledge and skills to
assist their students through each of these phases. Of the 22 influences assessed within these
phases, 11 were validated. Within the disposition phase, counselors showed understanding of
tracking students into college-prep coursework and building positive college-going identities in
students. Within the college search phase, counselors showed understanding of how to help
students investigate universities but lacked procedural knowledge on how to help students
identify safety, target, and reach schools aligning with the students’ capabilities. Counselors also
showed understanding of SAT/ACT testing best practices overall, but knowledge on SAT II
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 141
testing was not validated. For the college choice phase, counselors were well versed in helping
students apply for fee waivers and in assisting students and families with reading financial aid
packages. Counselors showed validated knowledge about the FAFSA financial aid application,
however knowledge about the CSS Profile Financial Aid application could not be validated.
Similarly, counselors showed clear knowledge of the ApplyTexas application, but lacked
knowledge about the Common Application and Coalition Application. The non-validated
influences have been ranked in priority of impact, High, Medium, Low (H, M, L). Although it is
important for counselors to acquire knowledge in all non-validated areas, only the highest
priority ranked knowledge influences were addressed with detailed recommendations.
In addition to validating and prioritizing the knowledge influences studied here, Table 27
also labels each influence with Krathwohl’s (2002) knowledge types: declarative, procedural,
and metacognitive. The principles and citations listed represent relevant learning and motivation
literature on strategies to acquire the specific knowledge type listed. Similarly, the
recommendations column is based on the Clark and Estes (2008) model, in which either
information, job aids, training, or education are recommended based on the context of the
knowledge type being acquired, any pre-existing knowledge that could be leveraged, and the
application of the knowledge in a real-world setting. The recommendations listed in the table are
further elaborated on in the narrative for the highest priority non-validated influences.
Table 27
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Validated
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Predisposition
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 142
Factual knowledge on
selective colleges, such
as locations, rank,
admissions
requirements, financial
aid eligibility,
application
requirements, and
special programming
for high achieving low-
income students (D).
Y N To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
N/A

Conceptual knowledge
on best practices for
predisposing high
achieving middle
school students to
selective colleges (D).
N Y, M To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
Information on how
to pre-expose
students to selective
colleges.

Conceptual knowledge
on best practices for
predisposing high
achieving middle
school students to
college-ready course
tracking (D).
Y N To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
N/A
Conceptual knowledge
on best practices for
exposing high
achieving high school
N Y, M To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
Information on how
to pre-expose
students to selective
colleges.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 143
students to selective
colleges (D).
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
Conceptual knowledge
on best practices for
high school course
tracking for high
achieving high school
students preparing for
admission to selective
colleges (D).
Y N To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
N/A
Conceptual knowledge
on best practices for
engaging parents and
families in college
planning (D).
N Y, M To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
Information on best
practices for
engaging parents and
families in the
college planning
process.
Metacognitive
knowledge of how to
build positive college
going self-identities in
middle school students
(M).
Y N The use of
metacognitive
strategies
facilitates
learning (Baker,
2006).
N/A
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 144
Metacognitive
knowledge of how to
build positive college
going self-identities in
high school students
(M).
Y N The use of
metacognitive
strategies
facilitates
learning (Baker,
2006).
N/A
College Search
Procedural Knowledge
on how to guide
students to access
information on
selective colleges
during their college
search (P).
Y N Modeling to-be-
learned strategies
or behaviors
improves self-
efficacy,
learning, and
performance
(Denler, Wolters,
& Benzon,
2009).

Continued
practice
promotes
automaticity and
takes less
capacity in
working memory
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).
N/A
Procedural Knowledge
on how to assist
students in creating a
college application list
comprised of safety,
target, and reach
schools that match with
students’ academic
capabilities (P).
N Y, H Modeling to-be-
learned strategies
or behaviors
improves self-
efficacy,
learning, and
performance
(Denler, Wolters,
& Benzon,
2009).

Continued
practice
promotes
automaticity and
takes less
Training on creating
college application
list comprised of
safety, target, and
reach schools.

Job Aid for
reference, after
training.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 145
capacity in
working memory
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).

Conceptual Knowledge
on best practices for
ACT and SAT Testing
for high achieving
school students
preparing for admission
to selective colleges,
including fee waivers
(D).
N Y, L Information
learned
meaningfully and
connected with
prior knowledge
is stored more
quickly and
remembered
more accurately
because it is
elaborated with
prior learning
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006)

Facilitating
transfer promotes
learning (Mayer,
2011)
Information on SAT
Subject Tests.

Job Aid for
reference.

College Choice
Factual Knowledge on
components of college
applications such as the
Common Application,
ApplyTexas, and the
Coalition Application
(D).
N Y, H Information
learned
meaningfully and
connected with
prior knowledge
is stored more
quickly and
remembered
more accurately
because it is
elaborated with
prior learning
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).

Information on the
Common Application
and the Coalition
Application.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 146
Facilitating
transfer promotes
learning (Mayer,
2011).

Managing
intrinsic load by
segmenting
complex material
into simpler parts
and pre-training,
among other
strategies,
enables learning
to be enhanced
(Kirshner,
Kirshner, &
Paas, 2006).
Procedural Knowledge
on how to assist
students with
completing college
applications such as the
Common Application,
ApplyTexas, and the
Coalition Application
(P).
N Y, H Information
learned
meaningfully and
connected with
prior knowledge
is stored more
quickly and
remembered
more accurately
because it is
elaborated with
prior learning
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).

Facilitating
transfer promotes
learning (Mayer,
2011).
Training on Common
Application and
Coalition
Application.

Job Aid for reference
after training.
Factual Knowledge on
components of
financial aid
application such as the
FAFSA and CSS
Profile (D).
N Y, H Information
learned
meaningfully and
connected with
prior knowledge
is stored more
Information on CSS
Profile.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 147
quickly and
remembered
more accurately
because it is
elaborated with
prior learning
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).
Procedural Knowledge
on how to assist
students and families
with completing
financial aid
applications such as the
FAFSA and CSS
Profile (P).
N Y, H Continued
practice
promotes
automaticity and
takes less
capacity in
working memory
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).

Facilitating
transfer promotes
learning (Mayer,
2011).

Training on CSS
Profile.

Job Aid for reference
after training.
Factual Knowledge
about Waivers for
College Application
Fees, and Financial Aid
Application Fees (D).
Y N To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
N/A
Procedural Knowledge
on how to help students
obtain Fee Waivers for
their applications (P).
Y N Continued
practice
promotes
automaticity and
takes less
capacity in
N/A
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 148
working memory
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).
Factual Knowledge
about external
scholarships available
to high achieving low-
income students such
as Questbridge, Jack
Kent Cooke, etc. (D).
N Y, M To develop
mastery,
individuals must
acquire
component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when
to apply what
they have
learned (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
Information on
external scholarships
available.
Procedural Knowledge
on how to assist high
achieving students with
completing applications
for external
scholarships, such as
Questbridge, Jack Kent
Cooke, etc. (P).
N Y, M Modeling to-be-
learned strategies
or behaviors
improves self-
efficacy,
learning, and
performance
(Denler, Wolters,
& Benzon,
2009).

Continued
practice
promotes
automaticity and
takes less
capacity in
working memory
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).

Increasing
germane
cognitive load by
engaging the
Training on how to
assist students with
external scholarship
applications.

Job Aid for reference
after training.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 149
learner in
meaningful
learning and
schema
construction
facilitates
effective learning
(Kirshner et al.,
2006).

Procedural Knowledge
on how to read
financial aid packages
(P).
Y N Continued
practice
promotes
automaticity and
takes less
capacity in
working memory
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).
N/A
Procedural Knowledge
on how to explain
financial aid packages
to students (P).
Y N Continued
practice
promotes
automaticity and
takes less
capacity in
working memory
(Schraw &
McCrudden,
2006).
N/A
Metacognitive
Knowledge on how to
coach students through
perceived cultural fears
of leaving home and
fitting in at a selective
college (M).
Y N The use of
metacognitive
strategies
facilitates
learning (Baker,
2006).
N/A

Creating college application lists comprised of safety, target, and reach schools.
High school counselors needed procedural knowledge on how to assist students in creating a
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 150
college application list comprised of safety, target, and reach schools that match with students’
academic capabilities. Denler, Wolters, and Benzon (2009) found that modeling to-be-learned
strategies or behaviors improves self-efficacy, learning, and performance. This research suggests
that training counselors using demonstrations and real-world case studies would assist in their
learning of this new process. Additionally, Schraw and McCrudden (2006) showed that when
learners can practice, this promotes automaticity and reduces the working memory required to
complete the procedure. Providing counselors time after they have seen a modeled
demonstration to practice with their peers would help them remember the procedure. Based on
this research, the recommended is for counselors to participate in training where several real-
world case studies of high school students from their community are utilized and the trainer
demonstrates how to help each of the students through their college selection lists. Within this
training counselors will also role-play and practice using the new procedure with each other. A
job aid with the key tips and steps to follow in the exercise will be provided for counselors to
practice with and will serve as a toll can later use at their desks with students.
Hoxby and Avery (2013) found that expert college counselors are utilizing the procedure
of mapping a students’ college application list by safety, target, and reach schools. Their study
found most counselors in high-income communities are following this procedure, but counselors
serving low-income students generally are not. This can lead to undermatching where students
apply to schools below their academic capabilities (Smith et al., 2012). For example, Hoxby and
Avery (2013) found more than 40% of low-income students applied to colleges with average test
scores over 80 points below the students’. However, in a follow-up intervention study, Hoxby
and Turner (2015) showed that when students were provided the appropriate guidance on how to
categorize their school selections, students applied to 56% more target and reach schools. This
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 151
implies if school counselors are effectively trained on the procedure of grouping schools into
target, safety, and reach schools, similar application improvements should be expected in their
students.
Common Application and Coalition Application. High school counselors also needed
declarative knowledge about both the common application and the coalition application to help
their students be successful, especially their highest achieving students. Counselors fully
understood the ApplyTexas application which is very similar to the common and coalition
applications, but is only focused on schools in Texas. Utilizing counselors’ prior knowledge of
the ApplyTexas application when describing the common and coalition applications should help
counselors transfer that knowledge faster (Mayer, 2011; Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Additionally, helping counselors break down applications into their components should further
help with learning (Kirschner, Kirschner, & Paas, 2006). Based on these principles it is
recommended that counselors are provided information packets that compare the common
application and coalition application to the ApplyTexas application. However, because both
these applications are lengthy and complex, each major section of the applications in the
information packet should be broken down into simpler components for counselors to review.
After reviewing the information packets, counselors also need procedural knowledge on
how to assist students with completing each section of the applications. The most effective way
for counselors to learn is through hands-on practice (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Therefore,
the recommendation is for counselors to participate in an instructor led training where counselors
are shown demonstrations of how to complete components of each application and then provided
time for hands-on practice.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 152
Counselors knowledge of the common application and the coalition application is
important because these are the two primary applications used for students to apply to selective
colleges. Unfortunately, low-income students are not applying to selective colleges at the same
rates as high-income students; for every low-income student who applies to a selective college,
there are eight to fifteen high income students applying for the same spot (Hoxby & Avery,
2013). What makes these statistics more startling is that the true ratio of low-income to high-
income students in America is only one out of two (Hoxby & Avery, 2013). There are many
reasons low-income students choose not to complete the common application or coalition
application to apply to selective colleges – such as lack of understanding of utility value,
financial aid options, and even social cultural fears (Beattie, 2002; Jackson, 2003; Perna, 2006;
Poole & More, 2001). However, if counselors, who have been shown to be the most effective
influencer of low-income students (McDonough, 2005), are armed with information and training
on how these applications are utilized by selective colleges, they may be able to influence more
“Border School District” students to apply to selective colleges.
CSS Profile Financial Aid Application. The CSS Profile is equally as important as the
common and coalition applications for counselors to understand because it is the primary
financial aid application used by selective colleges and universities to award scholarships and
grants to students. Like the common and coalition applications, declarative knowledge about the
CSS Profile financial aid application was needed for high school counselors to effectively assist
their students. “Border School District” counselors understood the FAFSA well, so connecting
this prior knowledge with new knowledge about the CSS Profile should help counselors retain
and use this new information efficiently (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). One strategy for helping
counselors learn the CSS Profile is to compare similarities and differences between the CSS
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 153
Profile and FAFSA, explicitly building upon their prior knowledge (Schraw & McCrudden,
2006). To accomplish this, the recommendation is to provide counselors with an information
packet that uses compare and contrast images illustrating key similarities and differences
between the CSS Profile and the FAFSA form.
Once counselors understand the CSS Profile conceptually they will need procedural
knowledge on how to help students and their families complete the application. One way for
counselors to achieve this is through continual practice (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Therefore, the recommendation is for counselors to receive instructor led training on how to
complete the CSS Profile, along with time for hands-on practice. During the practice time, real-
world student and family income scenarios should be used which should help promote transfer of
learning from training to helping students in the real-world (Mayer, 2011).
Counselors understanding of the CSS Profile is important because it is the primary
financial aid application used by selective colleges. It is even more important for “Border
School District” counselors who serve primarily low-income students. Many selective colleges
use the information provided on the CSS Profile to award students with annual household
incomes of less than $40,000 a tuition free scholarship to attend their university (Journal of
Blacks in Higher Education, 2008). Unfortunately, in a study by Oliverez and Tierney (2005)
most high school students receive from zero to three messages a year about financial aid. With
lack of information on their options to receive additional funding through methods such as the
CSS Profile, many low-income students feel the cost of college is unaffordable and simply do
not apply (Jackson, 2003). Providing “Border School District” counselors with more
information and training about extra aid opportunities could help their students better understand
their options to pay for school.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 154
Medium and Lower Priority Knowledge Recommendations. It is recommended that
once “Border School District” provides adequate information and training on the highest priority
knowledge recommendations, it then moves on to the medium and lower priority
recommendations. Medium priority areas include: conceptual and procedural knowledge on
external scholarships available to middle and high school students, conceptual knowledge on
how to pre-expose middle and high school students to selective colleges, and conceptual
knowledge on how to best engage parents and families in the college planning process. Lower
priority areas include conceptual knowledge on the SAT subject tests. Baseline recommendations
for each of these medium and lower priority areas can be found in the last column of Table 27.
These should be incorporated into future professional development for “Border School District”
counselors.
Recommendations for Other Organizations
Although this study was focused specifically on “Border School District”, many of the
results and findings could be applied to other school districts similar in size and region.
Although “Border School District” operates in a rural environment, it serves approximately
30,000 students making it comparable to other large rural school districts and even some urban
school districts. Its low-income, Latino population of students and the social cultural factors
impacting the region are consistent across South Texas, the border regions of Arizona, New
Mexico, and California, as well as California’s Central Valley. One key finding that could be
generalized for future research across these regions is the tendency for counselors to promote in-
state institutions for students applying to college. The “Border School District” study found that
counselors lacked knowledge on out-of-state options for their students, including selective
colleges, and the financial aid available at these institutions. More research should be done on
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 155
why there seems to be a focus on students staying in-state for college, even high achieving
students, and the extent to which similar knowledge gaps exist among counselors in similar rural
regions.
This research is important because it would provide data supplementing Hoxby and
Avery’s (2013) and Hoxby and Turner’s (2013; 2015) studies on undermatching. Those studies
found significant gaps in the number of low-income students applying to colleges matching their
academic capabilities. For example, Hoxby and Avery (2013) found that for every low-income
high achieving student who applied to a selective college, eight to fifteen high achieving high-
income students applied for the same spot. When they studied these gaps further, they found
efforts were already in place to address the problem in urban areas, but rural regions were often
left out because students were too geographically dispersed for programming to be cost-effective
(Hoxby & Avery 2013). If consistent counselor knowledge gaps do exist across these rural
regions, a targeted training program for counselors may help reduce undermatching of rural low-
income students. For instance, Hoxby and Turner (2015) found positive results from an
intervention program they conducted in 2013 called the Expanding College Opportunities (ECO)
Project, where students were given personalized college advising on schools matched to their
academic capabilities, along with financial costs, fee waivers, and information about the
university’s student body and instructional resources. In their 2015 study, where they analyzed
the results of the ECO Project, they found that the treated group of students applied to 56% more
target and reach schools than the control group and 48% more schools in general (Hoxby &
Turner, 2015). Although there are many factors each school district should consider before
designing an intervention program, it is clear from Hoxby and Turner’s (2015) study that when
students are provided more information, it positively impacts their college decision-making
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 156
behavior. In rural and low-income regions, where counselors often serve as the sole source of
information for students (Balesco, 2013), it is important to understand and design interventions
for counselor knowledge gaps so that information can make its way to students.
Conclusion
The “Border School District” counseling department is well positioned for improvement
using the organization, motivation, and knowledge recommendations presented. It has motivated
counselors who believe in their students and believe in their abilities to positively influence
student achievement. It also has counselors who have significant knowledge about the college
planning process. Additionally, the district is already a recipient of a GEAR UP grant, which
could be utilized to help fund improvements in counseling needed to reduce gaps in college
readiness. The district’s largest improvements will be organizational, where leaders and
counselors must align on the vision of the counseling department and then create structures,
processes, and procedures to support that vision. This may include a restructuring of the
counseling department so that counselors can be more efficient and effective with their time,
ultimately leading to more one-on-one advising time with students. Once the counseling
department is able to achieve these efficiencies, then additional improvements can be considered,
such as scaling “The College Program” to reach more of the district’s highest achieving students.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 157
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SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 171
Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Survey and Interviews
Participating Stakeholders
School Counselors were selected as the participating stakeholders for this study because
counselors have the greatest influence on students’ college going behavior (Balesco, 2013;
McDonough, 2005). Additionally, “The College Program” which operated within “Border
School District”, but whose programming was run by outside volunteer nonprofit members,
plans to transition the management of its programming to “Border School District” school
counselors. To ensure success of this organizational transition, the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting school counselors’ abilities to manage the program activities
were assessed.
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Creswell (2014) described the importance of utilizing mixed methods research to draw
out the strengths of quantitative and qualitative data. The first component of the needs analysis
was conducted through an online survey, which collected open and close-ended quantitative data
about school counselors. The survey aimed to gain demographic information as well as data on
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences being evaluated. The information
gathered served as the initial baseline data, prior to more in depth interviews which provided
richer qualitative data.
Criterion 1. Counselors must serve students in grades 6-12.
Although “The College Program” only served grades 8-12, counselors serving grades 6
and 7 were also eligible to be surveyed. In “Border School District”, counselors follow their
students from grade 6 through grade 8, so although counselors may be serving grade 6 currently,
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 172
they will eventually rotate back to grade 8 and therefore should be surveyed. There were no
other survey participation selection criteria for counselors.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
There are many methods for survey sampling, however, because this was a one-time,
cross sectional survey, no random sampling is required (Fink, 2013). All counselors who met the
criteria were eligible to participate in the survey. There were approximately 60 counselors
eligible to be surveyed. The study aimed to have a participation rate of 50%.
Because this study aimed to utilize action research as a means for involving the
stakeholder in the research and solution process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), the recruitment
strategy also included an overall project kickoff. District leadership along with the primary
researcher met with the counselors as part of a research project kick off to engage counselors in
the purpose of the study and their integral role in the success of the project. The last hour of the
kick off meeting was reserved for participants to complete the online survey on their laptops or
mobile devices. If even with encouragement from district leadership and a project kickoff,
participation rates remained low, the primary researcher planned to work directly with the
Superintendent to determine the best method to recruit the necessary survey data from
counselors.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Like the survey criteria and rationale, the interview criteria were comprised of eligibility
factors for selecting counselors.
Criterion 1. Counselors selected for interviews must have been raised in the Rio Grande
Valley, Texas – either through natural born citizenship or through emigrating from Mexico
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 173
during childhood. This was important because it allowed the researcher to understand how the
organizational culture and community culture of the Rio Grande Valley may impact counselor
knowledge and motivation. It was important to understand the viewpoints of counselors who
spent a good part of their life living in this community as they would represent the average
cultural mindset of the community members at large.
Criterion 2. The counselors selected were required to be Latino/a, because 99% of the
community was of this ethnic background. Counselors should be representative of the
community as a whole (Maxwell, 2013). Additionally, there are certain Latino/a cultural
mindsets that could impact counselor knowledge and motivation.
Criterion 3. Counselors selected for interviews must have also been working as a
counselor in “Border School District” for at least two years. It was important for counselors to
have had enough time within the District in their role to understand potential organizational
inefficiencies that could be impacting their abilities to serve students (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Criterion 4. Counselor responded: “If I meet the selection criteria, I would be willing to
participate in an interview” when asked in the online survey. This was an important criterion
because interviews were voluntary; however, having this information collected in advance would
streamline the process for scheduling interviews with willing participants.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Purposeful sampling was used to determine which counselors to interview. Maxwell
(2013) argues that purposeful sampling is more effective than random sampling when sample
size is small because it allows the researcher to best represent the average member of the
population being sampled. Utilizing survey response information, counselors were selected for
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 174
interviewing if they meet the four sampling criteria listed previously. The target sample size was
fourteen counselors, two from each of the seven grade levels.
The recruitment strategy for interview participation took place in the research study kick
off meeting where counselors learned the importance of their role in the study. The goal was to
have counselors be intrinsically motivated to participate, rather than through an extrinsic reward
(Hansen, Smith, & Hanson, 2002). The intrinsic reward would be to work closely with the
Superintendent of schools to improve college readiness and advising services for “Border School
District” students, which was part of the action research model (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Action Research Team Selection
Not previously detailed was the selection criteria for the initial action research team that
reviewed the study’s results and findings and helped the researcher develop recommendations.
This team was selected by counselors who volunteered on an online questionnaire to be part of
the committee. No selection criteria were used other than interest in volunteering. A larger, more
formal action research team will be selected for the implementation phase, comprised of both
counselors and district leaders who will report to the Superintendent and will serve as change
champions for implementation efforts.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 175
Appendix B: Survey Protocol
Demographic
1. For what grade level(s) do you currently serve as a counselor? (Mark all that apply)
a. 6th grade
b. 7th grade
c. 8th grade
d. 9th grade
e. 10th grade
f. 11th grade
g. 12th grade
2. I have worked as a counselor in the District for _____ years (open response)
3. I received my Bachelor’s degree from: (open response)
4. I received my Masters in Counseling degree from: (open response)
5. I grew up in the Rio Grande Valley, Texas
a. Yes
b. No
6. I consider myself Latino/a
a. Yes
b. No
Organization
Construct: High Student to Counselor Ratios (Middle and High School Counselors)
1. As a counselor, on average, how many students do you serve in a given year?
(Open Response)
2. The number of students I serve is:
a. Too Low
b. Just Right
c. Too High
3. I have enough time in my daily schedule to provide one-on-one college advising to my
students.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
Construct: Unclear Counselor Roles and Responsibilities (Middle and High School
Counselors)
4. I am clear on my roles and responsibilities as a school counselor.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
5. I receive adequate guidance from my school leaders or district leaders on how to
prioritize my responsibilities.
a. Strongly Agree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 176
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
6. I am asked to complete non-counseling responsibilities (e.g. administrative duties).
a. Never
b. Sometimes
c. Often
d. Very Often
7. College advising/planning is a top priority at the district.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
8. College advising/planning is my number one priority among my responsibilities.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
9. College advising/planning is my number one priority AND I have enough time to give to
this priority among other responsibilities.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
Construct: School and Community Culture (Middle and High School Counselors)
10. Across the Rio Grande Valley, most high school graduates go on to college.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
11. Across the District, most high school graduates go on to college.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
12. Across the Rio Grande Valley, many students go on to attend selective colleges (e.g.
Harvard, Stanford, Northwestern, Rice).
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
13. Across the District, many students go on to attend selective colleges (e.g. Harvard,
Stanford, Northwestern, Rice).
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 177
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
14. Of our District’s high achieving students who choose to stay in state for college, most
attend:
a. Vocational School
b. Community College
c. 2 years Community College with Transfer to Public 4 Year College in Texas
d. Branch Campuses of Public Texas Colleges (e.g. UT-RGV)
e. Somewhat Selective Public Texas Colleges (e.g. Texas A&M – College Station)
f. Selective Public Texas Colleges (e.g. UT-Austin)
g. Somewhat Selective Private Texas Colleges (e.g. Baylor)
h. Selective Private Texas Colleges (e.g. Rice)
15. Of our District’s high achieving students who choose to go out of state for college, most
attend:
a. Less Selective Public Colleges (e.g. Michigan State, Oklahoma State)
b. Less Selective Private Colleges (e.g. Temple University, Kalamazoo College)
c. Somewhat Selective Public Colleges (e.g. University of Florida, Arizona State)
d. Somewhat Selective Private Colleges (e.g. Tulane University)
e. Selective Public Colleges (e.g. University of California- Los Angeles (UCLA))
f. Selective Private Colleges (e.g. Harvard, Brown, Stanford, Duke, USC, MIT)

16. On a whole, most of the District’s high achieving students choose to attend an:
a. In-State College
b. Out-of-State College

17. Taking our students on field trips to visit selective colleges in Texas is:
a. Very easy
b. Easy
c. Difficult
d. Very Difficult

18. Taking our students on field trips to visit selective colleges out of Texas is
a. Very easy
b. Easy
c. Difficult
d. Very Difficult

19. Of the students I serve, I have ________ students living in colonias.
a. Few
b. Some
c. Many
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 178

20. Of the students I serve, I have ________ students who are migrants.
a. Few
b. Some
c. Many

21. I feel there is adequate college advising programming for our migrant students.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

22. The presence of drug cartels in the region increases incarceration rates of our students.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

23. Students who have been incarcerated are still able to go to college.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

Construct: Financial and External Support
24. I am aware of how to utilize Upward Bound Grants from the U.S. Department of
Education for college readiness programming.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

25. I am aware of how to utilize Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate
Programs (GEAR UP) Grants from the U.S. Department of Education for college
readiness programming.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

26. As counselors, we have ways to bring external speakers/programs to share different
careers paths with students.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 179
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

27. As counselors, we have ways to bring external peer mentors to help students with college
planning/advising.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

28. As counselors, we have ways to receive external professional development on college
planning/advising.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
29. I believe the support we receive from external resources for college planning/advising is:
a. Too little
b. Just right
c. Too much

Motivation
Construct: Utility Value (Middle and High School Counselors)
30. High achieving students should attend the college that best matches their academic
capabilities.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
31. A selective college (e.g. Harvard, Stanford, Rice, Northwestern) will provide a high
achieving student with greater career and financial growth opportunities than a less
selective college.
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree
32. I believe high achieving students from the district have the academic capabilities to
attend selective colleges.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 180
33. I believe selective colleges are financially affordable for high achieving students from the
district.
m. Strongly Agree
n. Agree
o. Disagree
p. Strongly Disagree
34. Community members believe selective colleges are academically attainable for high
achieving students from the Rio Grande Valley.
q. Strongly Agree
r. Agree
s. Disagree
t. Strongly Disagree
35. Community members believe selective colleges are affordable for high achieving
students from the Rio Grande Valley.
u. Strongly Agree
v. Agree
w. Disagree
x. Strongly Disagree
Construct: Attribution and Control Beliefs (Middle and High School Counselors)
36. I believe I can influence my students’ perception of whether or not they are capable of
attending selective colleges.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
37. I can help my students overcome fears of not fitting in at a selective college.
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree
38. I can help my students overcome fears of leaving the Rio Grande Valley or Texas to
attend selective colleges.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree
39. The more one-on-one time I spend on college advising with my students, the greater
impact I believe I can make on my students’ college-going beliefs.
m. Strongly Agree
n. Agree
o. Disagree
p. Strongly Disagree

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 181
Knowledge
General (Middle and High School Counselors)
40. My Masters in Counseling Program trained me on how to provide college advising to the
students I serve.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

41. The District trained me on how to provide college advising to the students I serve.
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree

42. I receive annual professional development opportunities through the District to improve
my college advising knowledge and skills.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree

43. I have received training on standard procedures I can use to determine the best college fit
for my students, based on their academic capabilities.
m. Strongly Agree
n. Agree
o. Disagree
p. Strongly Disagree

Construct: Predisposition (Middle and High School Counselors)
44. I know where to access information on selective colleges, such as: locations, rank,
admissions requirements, financial aid eligibility, application requirements, and special
programming for high achieving low-income students.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
45. I understand best practices for pre-exposing high achieving middle school students to
selective colleges.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 182
46. I am using best practices to pre-expose my high achieving middle school students to
selective colleges.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
e. Not Applicable

47. I understand best practices for exposing high achieving high school students to selective
colleges.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

48. I am using best practices to expose my high achieving high school students to selective
colleges.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
e. Not Applicable

49. I understand best practices to track high achieving middle school students into college-
ready courses, such as Pre-Advanced Placement (Pre-AP) and Gifted and Talented (GT)
courses.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

50. I use best practices to track high achieving middle school students into college-ready
courses, such as Pre-AP and GT courses.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
e. Not Applicable

51. I understand best practices to track high achieving high school students into college-ready
courses, such as Honors, Advanced Placement, and Dual Enrollment courses.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 183
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

52. I use best practices to track high achieving high school students into college-ready
courses, such as Honors, Advanced Placement, and Dual Enrollment courses.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
e. Not Applicable
53. I understand what pre-requisite high school courses are required by most selective
colleges.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
54. I understand best practices for engaging parents and families in college planning.
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree
55. I use best practices for engaging parents and families in college planning.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree
56. For each student I serve, I typically engage their parents or family in college planning
activities:
m. 0 times per year
n. 1 time per year
o. 2 times per year
p. 3 times per year
q. 4 times per year
r. 5 or more times per year
57. I understand how to build positive college-going attitudes and beliefs in middle school
students
s. Strongly Agree
t. Agree
u. Disagree
v. Strongly Disagree
58. I understand how to build positive college-going attitudes and beliefs in high school
students
w. Strongly Agree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 184
x. Agree
y. Disagree
z. Strongly Disagree
59. I am aware of external college scholarships available to student starting in middle
school, such as the Jack Kent Cooke Scholarship?
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
60. I know how to assist middle school students with applying for external
scholarships?
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
e. Not Applicable
61. High achieving middle school students from the District apply for external college
scholarships:
a. Never
b. Occasionally
c. Often
d. Very Often
a. Not Sure

Construct: College Search (BREAKS INTO HIGH SCHOOL ONLY DURING TESTING)
62. I know how to guide students to access information on selective colleges during their
college search.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
63. I understand the concept of grouping colleges into safety, target, and reach schools.
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree
64. I understand how to use college websites or The College Board to compare average
student profiles of various colleges to help identify safety, target, and reach schools for
students.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 185
65. I know how to assist students in creating a college application list comprised of safety,
target, and reach schools that match with a student’s profile (e.g. GPA, SAT/ACT range).
m. Strongly Agree
n. Agree
o. Disagree
p. Strongly Disagree
66. I understand the SAT/ACT admissions requirements for selective colleges.
q. Strongly Agree
r. Agree
s. Disagree
t. Strongly Disagree
67. I am aware of best practices for SAT/ACT test prep for high achieving students preparing
for admission to selective colleges.
u. Strongly Agree
v. Agree
w. Disagree
x. Strongly Disagree
68. Based on best practices, our district provides adequate SAT/ACT test prep for high
achieving students preparing for admission to selective colleges.
y. Strongly Agree
z. Agree
aa. Not Sure
bb. Disagree
cc. Strongly Disagree
---- SURVEY END FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL COUNSELORS---
High school counselors continue with the remaining questions
69. Our district’s high achieving students typically take their SAT/ACT test for the first time:
a. Junior Year – Fall
b. Junior Year – Winter
c. Junior Year – Spring
d. Summer between Junior and Senior Year
e. Senior Year – Fall
f. Senior Year – Winter
g. Not Sure
70. Our district’s high achieving students typically re-take their SAT/ACT test until they
achieve a score suitable for the colleges they wish to apply.
h. Agree
i. Not Sure
j. Disagree
71. Our district’s high achieving students take SAT Subject Tests (e.g. physics, chemistry)
for the selective colleges they wish to apply.
k. Agree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 186
l. Not Sure
m. Disagree
72. Our district’s high achieving students typically take their SAT Subject Tests at the close
of the school year when the subject was learned (e.g. Biology SAT II completed at the
end of Sophomore year Biology class):
n. Agree
o. Not Sure
p. Disagree
73. I understand the fee waivers low-income students are eligible for to take their SAT/ACT
or SAT Subject tests.
q. Strongly Agree
r. Agree
s. Disagree
t. Strongly Disagree
74. I believe students understand the fee waivers they are eligible for to take their SAT/ACT
or SAT Subject tests.
u. Strongly Agree
v. Agree
w. Disagree
x. Strongly Disagree
75. I know how to help students obtain the right fee waivers to take their SAT/ACT or SAT
Subject tests.
y. Strongly Agree
z. Agree
aa. Disagree
bb. Strongly Disagree

Construct: College Choice (High School Counselors Only)
76. I understand the components of the ApplyTexas application.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
77. I know how to assist students with components of the ApplyTexas application.
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree
78. I understand the components of the Common Application.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 187
79. I know how to assist students with components of the Common Application.
m. Strongly Agree
n. Agree
o. Disagree
p. Strongly Disagree
80. I understand the components of the Coalition Application.
q. Strongly Agree
r. Agree
s. Disagree
t. Strongly Disagree
81. I know how to assist students with components of the Coalition application.
u. Strongly Agree
v. Agree
w. Disagree
x. Strongly Disagree

82. I believe students receive adequate support on how to complete the components of
college applications.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
83. I believe students receive adequate support on how to write effective college application
essays. (for example: personal statements and creative essays)
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree
84. I understand the components of the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA)
application.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree
85. I know how to assist students with the components of the FAFSA application.
m. Strongly Agree
n. Agree
o. Disagree
p. Strongly Disagree
86. I understand the components of the College Board’s College Scholarship Service (CSS)
Profile application.
q. Strongly Agree
r. Agree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 188
s. Disagree
t. Strongly Disagree
87. I know how to assist students with the components of the CSS Profile application.
u. Strongly Agree
v. Agree
w. Disagree
x. Strongly Disagree
88. I believe students and families receive adequate support on completing financial aid
applications.
y. Strongly Agree
z. Agree
aa. Disagree
bb. Strongly Disagree
89. I understand the college application fee waivers low-income students are eligible for.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
90. I know how to help students obtain the right fee waivers for their college applications.
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree
91. I understand the financial aid application fee waivers low-income students are eligible
for.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree
92. I know how to help students obtain the right fee waivers for their financial aid
applications.
m. Strongly Agree
n. Agree
o. Disagree
p. Strongly Disagree
93. I believe students understand the college application fee waivers they are eligible for.
q. Strongly Agree
r. Agree
s. Disagree
t. Strongly Disagree
94. I believe students understand the financial aid application fee waivers they are eligible
for.
u. Strongly Agree
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 189
v. Agree
w. Disagree
x. Strongly Disagree
95. I am aware of external college scholarships available to low-income high achieving high
school students, such as Questbridge.
e. Strongly Agree
f. Agree
g. Disagree
h. Strongly Disagree
96. I know how to assist low-income high achieving high school students with completing
applications for external college scholarships, such as Questbridge.
i. Strongly Agree
j. Agree
k. Disagree
l. Strongly Disagree
97. High achieving high school students from the District apply for external college
scholarships:
m. Never
n. Occasionally
o. Often
p. Very Often
98. When students are admitted to universities, I understand how to read their financial aid
package.
q. Strongly Agree
r. Agree
s. Disagree
t. Strongly Disagree
99. When students come to me for support in reading their financial aid package, I know how
to explain the financial aid package to the student.
u. Strongly Agree
v. Agree
w. Disagree
x. Strongly Disagree
100. I know how to coach high achieving high school students through perceived
cultural fears of leaving home or fitting in at a selective college.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 190
Appendix C: Interview Protocol
Interview Protocol
(1 hour interviews)

Organization – Unclear Roles/Responsibilities & High Student to Counselor Ratios

1. Walk me through a typical day for you. (Follow Up: What are some of the various
responsibilities you hold as a counselor? How do you balance these priorities?)
2. What are some of the ways you create one-on-one college advising time with your
students?
Knowledge – Predisposition

1. Would you describe some of the ways you expose your students to various colleges,
including selective colleges? (for example: through field trips)
2. What strategies do you use to build positive college-going beliefs and attitudes in your
students?
3. Imagine you are advising a high achieving eighth grader - what are some ways you would
engage that student’s parents or family in the college planning process?
4. Imagine you are advising a high achieving high school junior – what are some ways you
would engage that student’s parents or family in the college planning process?
Knowledge – College Search

(Simulation – Role Play)
Imagine you are advising that same high school junior to create their college application list
comprised of safety, target, and reach schools. This student is currently ranked 5
th
in their class
with a 4.0 GPA and a competitive SAT score. The student is also student body vice president and
on the varsity track team.

Pretend I am that student in your office with you.

What steps would you take to show me how to put together a college application list of safety,
target, and reach schools, aligned with my profile?

Knowledge – College Choice

1. What types of support do students receive, if any, on how to write effective college
application essays?
2. In what ways would you coach a student who was admitted to Harvard, but was fearful of
attending? (e.g. fear of leaving the valley or not fitting in) Follow up: How would you
engage their family?
3. What are some common misunderstandings students have, if any, when reviewing their
financial aid packages?
Motivation – Utility Value

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 191
(Simulation – Role Play)
Imagine it is fall and you are advising a high school senior preparing to apply to colleges. This
senior comes to you for advice. They are interested in applying to some selective colleges like
Harvard, Rice, Northwestern, and Stanford. They are also planning to apply to UT-Austin, Texas
A&M-College Station, Texas A&M-Kingsville, University of Houston, and UT RGV. They are
scared they might not get enough financial aid from the selective colleges and are not sure if it is
even worth applying.

Pretend I am that student.

How would you counsel me?

Organization – School and Community Culture

1. What community factors do you believe most influence students’ beliefs about college?
(example: family, the valley, gangs)
Organization – External Support

2. Would you describe some of the external college readiness programming students have
access to at the middle and high school levels? (Example: TexPrep, Peer Mentors,
Upward Bound)

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 192
Appendix D: Credibility and Trustworthiness
In order for this research project to be credible and trustworthy, researcher bias and
reactivity were addressed. Maxwell (2013) described research bias as the impact of the
researcher’s beliefs and perceptions on the research study, and reactivity as the influence of the
researcher on the setting or participant’s in the study. The primary researcher for this study had
significant experience working with students from “Border School District”, both as a teacher
and a college advisor, which could inherently present bias in the researcher’s views of
counselors. To reduce this bias the researcher utilized a semi-structured interview guide to keep
questions standard and reduce leading questions. They also record each interview and used a
transcription service to have a direct record of the answers provided. Additionally, survey
questions were vetted by experts in college readiness for question content, by experts in the
Clark and Estes (2008) model for mapping of questions to the conceptual framework, and by
experts in research methods for a review of bias and removal of any leading language.
The researcher also used strategies to address reactivity. Although reactivity is always
present in interviews (Maxwell, 2013), using the interview guide developed by the researcher
reduced this reactivity. When participants understood a standard set of questions is being used in
all interviews, the participants felt less reactive. In addition to using the interview guide, the
researcher also dressed similar to school counselors in the district, to make counselors feel more
comfortable during interviews and also to draw less attention to the researcher as an outsider.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 193
Appendix E: Validity and Reliability
The survey administered not only contained parallel forms of reliability through follow
up one-on-one interviews with counselors, but also contained parallel forms of reliability within
the survey itself. The first two research questions were asked through multiple lenses throughout
106 survey items, creating a high amount of reliability when traced back to three overarching
research questions (Creswell, 2014). Additionally, the large number of survey items and the
potential to survey the entire population of counselors in “Border School District” in one room
made the data received also more reliable (Salkind, 2017). Similarly, because the survey was
administered at the same time, in the same place, and through an online data collection service,
there was less likelihood for skewed or inaccurate data across participants because survey
conditions were consistent and the tracking of responses was automated through a computerized
system, rather than recorded by hand (Creswell, 2014; Salkind, 2017).
In addition to showing reliability, the survey also showed validity through its constructs
and content. Construct validity ensured that each survey item measured a particular construct or
hypothesis (Creswell, 2014). As seen in the survey protocol in Appendix B, every item was
mapped to a particular construct being studied. In addition, the survey items represented content
validity because they had already been pilot tested with experts in the field (Salkind, 2017). An
expert in research design reviewed the items for structure, scales of measurement, and content
mapping to the research questions. Two experts who work with similar populations as the
counselors being studied in the survey, reviewed the content of the survey questions for word
choice and cultural understanding of the region and provided additional questions, where needed,
to retrieve data on various research constructs. Finally, an expert in the Clark and Estes (2008)
“KMO Model” also reviewed the survey for content as it relates to this research model.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 194
Appendix F: Ethics
Ethical guidelines for human subjects was followed for this study. Glesne (2011) lists the
following ethical codes: (1) each participant was provided adequate information about the study
to determine their choice in participation, (2) participants could remove themselves from the
study at any point, (3) risks to the participants were limited, (4) benefits to society and the
participants outweighed risks, and (5) only qualified researchers conducted experiments with the
participants. Each of the five ethical codes listed were followed for this study. For example, all
participants were provided an informed consent form describing the study, their participation,
risks, benefits, and information about the researcher qualifications. In addition to these ethical
codes, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described how to collect and care for research data. For all
data collected, whether through interview, online survey, or documentation, no personally
identifiable information was shared and the study also followed confidentiality guidelines of the
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA). Any raw data, even if aggregate data,
were transmitted through secure file sharing capabilities.
Not only were standard ethical guidelines followed, the primary researcher for this study
also assessed their relationship to the organization being researched and the primary
stakeholders. The researcher was the existing founder and executive director of “The College
Program”, which was being scaled to provide services to more students in “Border School
District”. As both a former teacher in the district and also an outside provider of services, the
researcher could have taken on the role of Intervener/Reformer (Glesne, 2011) – the researcher
could have observed practices that the researcher believed were not right or just, however,
through the use of structured standard interview guides and survey protocols, the researcher was
able to have more neutrality because questions were pre-determined. Additionally, although the
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 195
researcher had worked with the district for many years, servicing students through “The College
Program”, the researcher had only a few personal relationships with school counselors. None of
these counselors participated in the study because they had since moved on to other positions or
retired from their roles.
The researcher’s prior involvement with the district may have also created perceived
biases. For example, some of the students in “The College Program” experienced poor advising
from counselors. Because these biases existed, the researcher utilized strategies to minimize
voicing an opinion during the initial kick off meeting with counselors and in counselor
interviews; for example, neither agreeing nor disagreeing with the statements provided by
interview participants as well as not acting like a teacher informing the participant of best
practices (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). The researcher also relied heavily on standard structures for
surveys and interviews to stay scripted and avoid non-research interactions with counselors.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 196
Appendix G: Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The implementation and evaluation plan described in the sections below utilized the
previously stated recommendations to create an actionable and measurable plan for “Border
School District” to achieve its goals. The plan first details the New World Kirkpatrick Model
and how it was used to design the recommended integrated implementation and evaluation
strategies. Next, the plan details recommendations for each level of the New World Kirkpatrick
model: outcomes, critical behaviors, learning, and reaction (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Lastly, it describes evaluation and analytic tools that should be used to measure the success of
the implemented recommendations.
The plan also utilized input from an action research committee comprised of “Border
School District” counselors who volunteered to review the study’s results and findings and help
craft recommendations that would work best within the district. The committee consisted of
volunteers representing the middle and high school level, including representation from both
comprehensive high schools and early college high schools. Where applicable, suggestions from
this committee of counselors were included.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was utilized to
inform the implementation and evaluation plan for this study. This model first outlines the
organizational outcomes to be achieved, then determines the critical behaviors required to
achieve those outcomes, then indicates any learning needed to support critical behaviors, and
then measures reaction to the implementation program. Typically, other models start in the
reverse order, where only after the program has been implemented are outcomes measured.
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 197
When utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick model, it is more likely that outcomes will be
achieved because every part of the implementation program is designed with those outcomes in
mind (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
“The College Program” was designed to help high achieving students in “Border School
District” prepare for and persist to selective colleges. The program started with a pilot cohort of
eighth grade students in 2011, which have all since graduated high school and persisted to four-
year colleges. The goals of the “The College Program” were to increase its cohort size from five
to 30 students by fall 2019 and eventually have a cohort of 30 students in each grade level
(grades 8 - 12) concurrently by 2023. The program also wanted to transfer its governance and
advising services from an independent nonprofit to the “Border School District” counseling
department. The purpose of this study was to analyze the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs of “Border School District” counselors should “The College Program”
follow through on its expansion goals. The study showed that “Border School District” was not
yet ready to expand “The College Program” until it addresses broader organizational gaps within
its counseling department. The recommended solutions therefore focused on helping the
counseling department first address its organizational needs. This should occur through district
leadership and counselor visioning sessions which should ultimately result in a list of prioritized
key activities counselors should be focused on. The visioning session should be followed by an
organizational design initiative, where current job roles, processes, procedures, and resources are
analyzed against the new vision for the counseling department. Counselors may be re-aligned
into the most efficient and effective organizational structure to meet the district’s vision, while
allowing counselors to maximize efforts with students. Once this organizational structure is in
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 198
place, then the broader outcomes of increasing the college-going culture of the district and
increasing the number of high achieving students applying to and enrolling in selective colleges
should be addressed with the implementation plan below. The plan is comprised of a
comprehensive professional development program for counselors who would be focused on
college advising activities once the counseling department has been restructured.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Level 4: Results and Leading indicators is the first level of the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 28 below shows these results and leading
indicators in the form of external and internal outcomes, and the metrics and methods used to
measure those outcomes. The professional development program proposed should allow
“Border School District” to reach its internal outcomes, which will ultimately allow the district
to achieve its external outcomes.
Table 28
Metrics and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Improved college-
going culture of the
district.
Number of students enrolled in
college the fall following senior
year of high school.
Annual National Student
Clearinghouse Report; ability
to review longitudinal data
once collected over enough
years.
2. Increase in the number
of the district’s high
achieving students
applying to selective
colleges.
Number of applications
submitted to selective colleges
by high achieving seniors.
Annual Report on the district’s
high achieving seniors; ability
to review longitudinal data
once collected over enough
years.
3. Increase in the number
of the district’s high
achieving students
Number of high achieving
seniors enrolled in selective
colleges.
Annual Report on the district’s
high achieving seniors; ability
to review longitudinal data
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 199
enrolled in selective
colleges.
once collected over enough
years.
Internal Outcomes
1. Increased efficiency in
the counseling
department, leading to
more one-on-one time
spent with students on
college advising.
Amount of one-on-one advising
time spent with students on
college advising.

Review of Aggregate
Counselor Logs for one-on-one
time spent with students on
college advising.
2. Increase in number of
the district’s high school
juniors and seniors
utilizing college
application lists
comprised of safety,
target, and reach schools
to apply to college.
2a. Number of application lists
submitted by juniors and
seniors.

2a. Use of standard application
list form for all students. Form
to be submitted by counselors
during fall of junior year and
fall of senior year. Aggregate
review of all application lists
submitted each fall semester.
2b. Number of seniors who
applied to all schools on
application lists.
2b. Follow up in spring of
senior year to check that
students applied to all schools
on their list.
3. Increase in number of
the district’s high
achieving high school
seniors submitting the
common and/or coalition
applications to apply to
colleges.
3a. Number of high achieving
seniors submitting the common
application.

3a. Annual Report on the
district’s high achieving
seniors; ability to review
longitudinal data once collected
over enough years.
3b. Number of high achieving
seniors who submitted the
coalition application.
3b. Annual Report on the
district’s high achieving
seniors; ability to review
longitudinal data once collected
over enough years.
4. Increase in number of
the district’s high
achieving high school
seniors completing the
CSS Profile financial aid
application for private
colleges in and out of
Texas.
Number of high achieving
seniors completing the CSS
Profile financial aid application.
Annual Report on the district’s
high achieving seniors; ability
to review longitudinal data
once collected over enough
years.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 200
Level 3: Behavior
Level 3: Behavior is the next level of the New World Kirkpatrick Model, which focuses
on outlining critical behaviors needed in stakeholders to achieve internal and external outcomes.
These critical behaviors should be specific, measurable, and achievable (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Critical behaviors. There are seven critical behaviors required by counselors to meet the
internal and external outcomes listed in Level 4. These behaviors include: (1) scheduling one-
on-one college advising appointments with middle and high school students, (2) utilizing new
district procedures to prioritize their time on college advising, (3) articulating the utility value of
selective colleges to high achieving students and families, (4) showing all juniors and seniors
how to categorize college application lists into safety, target, and reach schools, (5) showing high
achieving juniors and seniors how to use the common or coalition application to apply to
selective colleges, (6) showing high achieving freshman and sophomores how to build a locker
in the coalition application, and (7) showing high achieving seniors and their families how to use
the CSS Profile to apply for financial aid from selective private colleges in and out of Texas.
Each of these critical behaviors along with the metrics, methods, and timing to measure these
behaviors are listed in Table 29.
Table 29
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Middle and High
School Counselors
are scheduling one-
on-one college
advising
Hours spent on one-
on-one college
advising by
counselor.
Review of monthly
report of counselor time
logs utilizing code for
one-on-one college
advising.
Monthly
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 201
appointments with
students.
2. Middle and High
School Counselors
are using new district
procedure for
prioritizing their time
on college advising.
Time spent on college
advising relative to
other activities by
counselor.
Review of counselor
logs to see increase in
college advising time
relative to other
priorities.
Monthly
3. Middle and High
School Counselors
are articulating the
utility value of
selective colleges to
their high achieving
students and their
families.
3a. Number of college
advising family
engagement meetings
held about selective
colleges.

3b. Student/Parent
understanding of
utility value of
selective colleges.
3a. Review of counselor
meeting log notes for
any college advising
family engagement
meetings held.

3b. Student/Family
Survey
Each Semester
4. Junior and Senior
High School
Counselors are
showing students how
to categorize their
college application
lists into safety,
target, and reach
schools.
4a. Number of college
application lists
submitted per
counselor caseload of
juniors and seniors.

4b. College
application lists
submitted match
student’s academic
capabilities.
Review of application
lists submitted by
juniors and seniors.

Student Survey

Each Fall Semester
5. Junior and Senior
Counselors are
showing high
achieving students
how to use the
common and/or
coalition application
for applying to
selective colleges.

Number of common
and/or coalition
applications
submitted per
counselor caseload of
seniors.
Review of senior
applications submitted.

Student Survey
Each Semester
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 202
6. Freshman and
Sophomore
Counselors are
introducing high
achieving students to
the coalition
application and
guiding students on
how to create a
student locker.
Number of students
who have created a
student locker.
Counselor Self-report
data on student advising
meetings.
Each Semester
7. Senior Counselors
are showing high
achieving students
and parents how to
complete the CSS
Profile financial aid
application for private
selective colleges in
or out of Texas.
Number of CSS
Profile financial aid
applications
submitted per
counselor caseload of
seniors.
Report showing number
of CSS Profiles
completed.

Student/Family Survey
Each Semester

Required drivers. For the critical behaviors listed above to be continually achieved,
certain required drivers need to be in place. These drivers include methods for reinforcing,
encouraging, rewarding, and monitoring behavior. Many of the recommended methods come
from the counselor action research committee based on what they believed would best drive and
influence the behavior of their fellow counselors. Each recommended method, the timing for
when it should take place, along with the critical behaviors it supports are found in Table 30.
Table 30
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aids for counselors to
refer back to (e.g. aid on how
to help students create college
application list comprised of
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 203
safety, reach, and target
schools).
One-on-One coaching time
with supervisor for goal
setting and review of goals.
Monthly` 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Encouraging
Emphasis on supervisors
using positive feedback and
redirecting in a positive way
when meeting with
counselors about
performance.

Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Highlight motivational
student success stories or
overall district outcomes
achieved.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Rewarding
Incentives for counselors who
show continuous drive toward
district goals and who show
achievement in goals (e.g. gift
cards).

Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Appreciation days for
counselors after application
push time frames (e.g. comp
time, extra day off).

Fall and Spring Semesters for
counselors with juniors and
seniors
4, 5, 7
Public acknowledgement of
school teams or individual
counselors exemplifying
achievement of the goals.
Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Monitoring
Supervisor Spot Checks/ In
Person Observations where
counselor can be given
positive feedback or positive
adjustment if not meeting
goals yet.

Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Counselor All Hands
Meetings (all middle and high
school counselors) to discuss
Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 204
success and challenges
together.

Counselors have the
opportunity to self-report how
they are feeling about the
goals, any new procedures in
place to reach the goals, and
their progress.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Organizational support. “Border School District” as an organization needs to support
these drivers through training its assistant principals and principals on the behaviors expected in
counselors. It also needs to train these administrators on how to properly reinforce, encourage,
reward, and monitor these behaviors in the middle and high school counselors they supervise.
Level 2: Learning
For “Border School District” middle and high school counselors to begin behaving in the
recommended ways, these counselors also require their own professional development program
to learn new knowledge and skills. This plan is aligned to the New World Kirkpatrick Model,
Level 2: Learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In the sections that follow, counselors
learning goals are described, along with the recommended program to help counselors achieve
those goals, as well as a plan to evaluate counselors learning.
Learning goals. Following the completion of the recommended solutions, middle school
counselors will be able to:
1. Understand the new organizational structure of the counseling department and its
goals for college advising, (D)
2. Prioritize their responsibilities using the new standardized district procedure, (P)
3. Create a meaningful one-on-one college advising experience for students, (P, M)
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 205
4. Value the potential long-term benefits of high achieving students attending
selective colleges, (Value)
5. Understand how critical behaviors will be tracked and measured in support of
internal and external outcomes (D)
Following the completion of the recommended solutions, high school counselors will be
able to:
1. Understand the new organizational structure of the counseling department and its
goals for college advising, (D)
2. Prioritize their responsibilities using the new standardized district procedure, (P)
3. Create a meaningful one-on-one college advising experience for students, (P, M)
4. Value the potential long-term benefits of high achieving students attending
selective colleges, (Value)
5. Assist students in creating a college application list comprised of safety, target,
and reach schools that match with students’ academic capabilities, (P)
6. Understand the components of the Common Application, (D)
7. Assist students with completing the Common Application, (P)
8. Understand the components of the Coalition Application, (D)
9. Assist students with completing the Coalition Application, (P)
10. Understand the components of the CSS Profile Financial Aid Application, (D)
11. Assist students and their families with completing the CSS Profile Financial Aid
Application, (P)
12. Understand how critical behaviors will be tracked and measured in support of
internal and external outcomes (D)
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 206
Program. The initial professional development program designed for counselors is
based on the learning goals above and was designed with the feedback of the action research
committee. There are nine training courses offered, with different sections offered for middle
and high school counselors, where applicable (where college advising at the middle school and
high school levels requires different knowledge and skills). These courses are shown in Table 31
along with the course duration, delivery method, and required attendees. All courses will be
delivered as live instructor led trainings at the recommendation of the action research committee
who felt counselors needed to be in a live training to receive hands-on practice and also because
counselors are too pressed for time to complete e-Learnings independently. These courses
should be sequenced in the order provided and should be delivered on designated counselor
professional development days, either through the required professional development days in the
summer or during the monthly all-day counselors all-hands meetings. Middle school counselor
training can be completed in 7.5 hours or one full professional development day. High school
counselor training will require 14.5 hours or two full professional development days.
Table 31
“Border School District” Counselor Learning Program
Training Course Duration Delivery Method Attendees
Course 1A: New
Counseling Department
Org Structure & Goals,
Middle School
1 hour Live Instructor Led
Training with Open
Forum for questions
Middle School
Counselors
Course 1B: New
Counseling Department
Org Structure & Goals,
High School

1 hour Live Instructor Led
Training with Open
Forum for questions
High School
Counselors
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 207
Course 2A: Prioritizing
Your Responsibilities,
Middle School

1 hour Live Instructor Led
Training with hands-
on practice for
prioritizing
responsibilities using
new district
procedures
Middle School
Counselors
Course 2B: Prioritizing
Your Responsibilities,
High School

1 hour Live Instructor Led
Training with hands-
on practice for
prioritizing
responsibilities using
new district
procedures
High School
Counselors
Course 3A: Creating a
Meaningful One-on-
One College Advising
Experience, Middle
School
2 hours Live Instructor Led
Training with
demonstration and
role-play practice
scenarios
Middle School
Counselors

Course 3B: Creating a
Meaningful One-on-
One College Advising
Experience, High
Schoolers
2 hours Live Instructor Led
Training with
demonstration and
role-play practice
scenarios
High School
Counselors
Course 4: Utility Value
of Selective Colleges
for High Achieving
Students
2 hours Live Instructor Led
Training utilizing
open discussion
forum and use of
student real-world
stories to promote
debate

Use of practice
scenarios for
counselors to assess
utility value in
differing cost benefit
situations

Application of how to
utilize at middle vs.
high school level

Middle School
Counselors and
High School
Counselors

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 208
Course 5: Creating a
College Application
List: Safety, Target,
and Reach Schools
2 hours Instructor Led
Training with demos
and hands on-practice
using real-world
student scenarios
High School
Counselors

Course 6: The
Common Application
1.5 hours Instructor Led
Training with demos
and hands on-practice
using real-world
student scenarios

High School
Counselors

Course 7: The
Coalition Application
2 hours Instructor Led
Training with demos
and hands on-practice
using real-world
student scenarios

Differentiation on
how to utilize for
freshman/sophomores
vs. juniors/seniors

High School
Counselors

Course 8: CSS Profile
Financial Aid
Application
1.5 hours Instructor Led
Training with demos
and hands on-practice
using real-world
student scenarios
High School
Counselors

Course 9A: Evaluation
of Counselor Critical
Behaviors, Middle
School
1.5 hours Instructor Led
Training with
demonstration of how
counselor critical
behaviors will be
evaluated

Role-Play Scenarios
where counselors will
pretend to be
administrators and
counselors, using
evaluation methods

Middle School
Counselors

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 209
Course 9B: Evaluation
of Counselor Critical
Behaviors, High
School
1.5 hours Instructor Led
Training with
demonstration of how
counselor critical
behaviors will be
evaluated

Role-Play Scenarios
where counselors will
pretend to be
administrators and
counselors, using
evaluation methods
High School
Counselors

Evaluation of the Components of learning. In addition to the learning plan above, an
evaluation plan is also in place to ensure learners’ understanding. Table 32 below shows each
method for assessing learning based on the knowledge type being acquired. For knowledge and
skills, formative and summative assessments are documented, as well as methods to observing
transfer. For attitude, confidence, and commitment, participant observations and surveys are
primarily used for evaluation.
Table 32
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Formative Assessment: Knowledge Checks During the course
Summative Assessment: End of Course
Assessment
End of the course
Transfer: Supervisor observation of participant
on the job
After the course, Ongoing
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Formative Assessment: Participant
Observations during hands-on practice time
During the course
Formative Assessment: Participant
Observations during Role Play Scenarios
During the course
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 210
Summative Assessment: End of Course
Assessment
End of the course
Transfer: Supervisor observation of participant
on the job
After the course, Ongoing
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Participant Observations During the course
Participant Survey (Pulse Check) After the course, Ongoing
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Participant Observations During the course
Participant Survey (Pulse Check) After the course, Ongoing
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Participant Survey (Pulse Check) After the course, Ongoing
Supervisor observation of participant on the
job
After the course, Ongoing

Level 1: Reaction
The final level in the New World Kirkpatrick Model is Level 1: Reaction. This level is
focused on evaluating the three main types of reaction: relevance, engagement, and customer
satisfaction (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The recommended methods to measure program
reactions are shown in Table 33.
Table 33
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observation by instructor During the course
Attendance During the course
Course Evaluation Two weeks after the course
Relevance
Pulse checks with participants via discussion
or quick survey items
During the course
Course Evaluation Two weeks after the course
Customer Satisfaction
Pulse checks with participants via discussion
or quick survey items
During the course
Course Evaluation Two weeks after the course

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 211
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Once the program
implementation is complete, Level 1 reaction should be assessed in the methods previously
stated and in the course evaluation in Appendix H. Level 2 learning should also be assessed as
previously shown through formative and summative assessments within the course, along with
transfer observed by supervisor. Evaluation of attitude, confidence, and commitment should also
be assessed in the course evaluation in Appendix H.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately eight weeks
after the learning program has been completed a blended evaluation tool should be utilized to
measure Kirkpatrick’s Levels 1 – 4. A sample of this blended evaluation tool can be found in
Appendix I.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Similarly, a consistent data analysis and reporting process should be followed to measure
progress towards internal and external outcomes. To do this a standard scorecard using Microsoft
PowerPoint should be used to track progress monthly, each semester, and annually for applicable
outcomes. The scorecard will be shared with counselors, counselors’ supervisors, and district
leadership to continuously build alignment and culture around the district’s organizational goals
and the progress made towards those goals.
These data analysis and reporting methods align with the New World Kirkpatrick
Model’s final stage which is a continuing evaluation of the implementation program and its
ability to achieve the organization’s expected internal and external outcomes (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). After the program has been implemented it is important for “Border School
District” to continually evaluate whether learning is being applied on the job, leading to critical
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 212
behavior changes in counselors. Additionally, the district needs to continuously assess whether
supervisors are supporting counselor critical behaviors through reinforcement, encouragement,
rewards, and monitoring. Finally, using scorecards, the district should also continuously
evaluate if and when internal and external outcomes are being met. If at any point, learning is
not being applied, behaviors are not being supported, and outcomes are not being met, the district
should try to understand why this is happening and redirect the implantation program to address
the unmet needs of the organization

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 213
Appendix H: Evaluation Tools – Immediately After Implementation
Sample Course Evaluation

Level 1:
1. The course content and the instructor who led the course were engaging.
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Agree

2. The course content was relevant to my day-to-day job responsibilities.
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Agree

Level 2:

3. The course content was valuable to my improvement as a counselor.
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Agree

4. I feel confident I can apply the skills I learned in this course to by day-to-day job.
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Agree

5. My time was well spent taking this course.
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Agree

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND RURAL COLLEGE READINESS 214
Appendix I: Evaluation Tools – Delayed After Implementation

Sample Participant Survey

1. In retrospect, my time was well spent on this course.
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Agree

2. I have had the opportunity to apply what I learned in this course to my job.
1 – No application
2 – Minimal application
3 – Some application
4 – Consistent application
5 – Very Consistent application

3. If you answered the previous question with a rating of 1-3, please mark the reasons
below (mark all that apply)
a. __I do not understand how to apply what I learned
b. __I have other priorities preventing me from applying what I learned
c. __I am missing support from my supervisor to apply what I learned
d. __Other (please describe):

4. By applying what I have learned in training, I have seen improvements in
a. __the efficiency of the counseling department
b. __the amount of one-on-one time I can spend with students

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Rogers, Laura A. (author)

Core Title Utilizing school counselors to increase the number of rural high achieving low-income students at selective colleges: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/16/2018

Defense Date 03/16/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college advising,college persistence,college readiness,high achieving students,High School,Latino students,low-income students,middle school,minority students,OAI-PMH Harvest,rural,school counselors,selective colleges,undermatching

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee chair), Castro, Roderick Maurice (committee member), Stowe, Kathy (committee member)

Creator Email lauraaro@usc.edu,lrogers.a@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-492217

Unique identifier UC11267402

Identifier etd-RogersLaur-6240.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-492217 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-RogersLaur-6240.pdf

Dmrecord 492217

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Rogers, Laura A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA