University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The superintendency in a California school district: preparation, recruitment, and career longevity

(USC Thesis Other)

The superintendency in a California school district: preparation, recruitment, and career longevity

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 1

THE SUPERINTENDENCY IN A CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICT:
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND CAREER LONGEVITY
by
Roxanna Noemi Hernandez
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2018
Copyright 2018 Roxanna Noemi Hernandez
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 2
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my daughter, Gabriela Noemi Hernandez (born July 27,
2016). Gabriela, hija mia, you are my inspiration, and as your abuela Ofelia would say,“eres un
pedazo de cielo que Dios me dio.” I love you.
My mother, Blanca Noemi Beltran, you have been instrumental through this process.
Your support and loving care over my daughter has given me the peace of mind necessary to
concentrate on this work.
Adam, my dear husband, your love is kind, your love is patient, and your love is not self-
seeking (1 Corinthians 13:4-8). Thank you for standing behind, beside, and in front of me.
Whichever way I was leaning you, kept me standing tall and moving forward. You are my rock!
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my sincerest thanks to the many loved ones who have motivated,
encouraged, and supported me throughout the dissertation process. I especially thank my parents,
Carlos and Blanca Beltran. The values that they instilled in me guide my daily walk.
Thanks to my committee chair, Dr. Michael Escalante. His guidance, insight, and
patience are deeply appreciated. Thanks to committee members Dr. Alan Green and Dr. Charles
Hinman, who provided clear and valuable feedback. I am humbled to have the guidance from
such great leaders in education. I also thank my patient and positively meticulous editor, Phyllis
Parmet.
I thank the superintendents, school board members, and executive search firm consultants
who participated in this study and gave of their valuable time. I am thankful that they graciously
agreed to be interviewed at length and candidly talked about their personal and professional
experiences with the superintendency.
I thank my dissertation group members, Anthony Bull, Malcohm Heron, Lucy Salazar,
Ron Tanimura, Erika Torres, Dave Rynkiewicz, and Kenya Williams, for making the process
much more enjoyable. Their contributions to the group have been uniquely important and invalu-
able. In the process we have seen our families grow, celebrated promotions, and shared many
dear moments and talks about future aspirations and goals. I hope to continue to march alongside
all of them as we strive toward the betterment of education for all students.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 10
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 12
Research Questions 12
Importance of the Study 13
Limitations of the Study 13
Delimitations of the Study 14
Definition of Terms 14
Organization of the Dissertation 16
Chapter 2: Literature Review 17
History of the Superintendency 17
First-Time Superintendents 21
Superintendent Preparation 22
University Training Programs 22
Nonuniversity Training Programs 25
Mentoring and Preparation 28
Superintendent Recruitment 29
Traditional Superintendent 30
Nontraditional Superintendent 31
Executive Search Firms 32
Superintendent-School Board Relationships 34
Superintendent Retention 36
Entry Plan 38
Conceptual Framework 40
Four-Frame Model of Leadership 41
Good to Great: Level 5 Leadership 43
Marzano and Waters 44
Chapter Summary 47
Chapter 3: Methodology 50
Research Questions 50
Research Design and Method 50
Quantitative Methodology 51
Qualitative Methodology 52
Population and Sampling 52
Instrumentation 53
Data Collection Protocols 55
Data Analysis 55
Ethical Considerations 56
Chapter Summary 56
Chapter 4: Findings 57
Purpose 57
Participants and Response Rate 58
Qualitative Data Collection 58
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 5
Additional Data 60
Research Question 1: Preparation 61
Importance of Preparation Programs 61
Importance of Professional Experience and On-the-Job Training 63
Discussion 66
Research Question 2: Recruitment 67
Career Paths to the Superintendency 67
Professional Relationships (Mentoring/Networking) 71
Entry Plan 75
Discussion 78
Research Question 3: Retention 79
School Board Relationships 79
Leadership Styles: Strategies and Skills 84
Personal Motivation 87
Discussion 91
Summary of Emerging Themes 93
Research Question 1 93
Research Question 2 94
Research Question 3 96
Chapter 5: Implications and Recommendations 99
Statement of the Problem 100
Purpose of the Study 100
Research Questions 101
Summary of Findings 101
Research Question 1 101
Research Question 2 102
Research Question 3 103
Limitations of the Study 105
Implications for Practice 105
Recommendations for Future Study 106
Concluding Remarks 106
References 108
Appendices
Appendix A: Research Participant Invitation E-Mail 119
Appendix B: Superintendent Survey 121
Appendix C: School Board Member Survey 128
Appendix D: Superintendent Interview Guide 131
Appendix E: School Board Member Interview Guide 132
Appendix F: Executive Search Firm Interview Guide 134
Appendix G: Question Alignment Matrix 136
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Surveys, Participants, and Response Rates 54
Table 2: Descriptors of the Interviewed Superintendents 59
Table 3: Descriptors of the Interviewed School Board Members 60
Table 4: First-Time Superintendents’ Perceptions of the Importance of Mentoring
and/or a Networking Relationship to Being Recruited as a Superintendent 71
Table 5: First-time Superintendents’ Perceptions of the Importance of Mentoring and/or
a Networking Relationship to Being Recruited as a Superintendent 73
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 7
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Superintendent leadership framework 41
Figure 2: Descriptors of the districts served by the interviewed superintendents 59
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 8
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to understand the strategies, skills, and experiences that
support the preparation, recruitment, and retention of first-time superintendents. Three research
questions guided the study:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
This qualitative study relied on interviews with first-time superintendents, school board
members, and an executive search firm consultant as the primary source of information and data
collection. Surveys were distributed via e-mail to superintendents and board members; the
responses were utilized to support the qualitative data. Through triangulation of data, the results
suggest that past professional experiences and on-the-job training serve to prepare first-time
superintendent for the job. Although seen as valuable, training and university programs did not
prepare first-time superintendents for the job. The study revealed that career paths to the super-
intendency are varied; some first-time superintendents had a traditional path, others did not.
More important to the recruitment of a first-time superintendent are his or her professional
relationships with mentors and/or networks. Also highly important to being recruited is
development and submission of an entry plan during the recruitment process. Finally, this study
suggests that a positive relationship with the school board is instrumental to being retained.
Equally important is the ability of a first-time superintendent to demonstrate leadership strategies
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 9
that move the organization forward. Retention of the position also relies heavily on personal
motivation and job satisfaction.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 10
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The current role of the superintendent is replete with high-stakes responsibility, which
makes the search for a highly qualified superintendent of paramount importance. High-quality
education leaders set direction, build collective efficacy, focus on instruction, and make the
organization work (Waters & Marzano, 2006). The job of the superintendent is seen as the most
important and the most difficult job in public education. Superintendents are expected to navi-
gate multiple challenges, such as state accountability, decreasing resources, litigation, union
contentions, and often volatile school boards.
Although there does not appear to be a standard, typical superintendent training program,
this study explored superintendent preparation. Prospective leaders must be prepared for the
demands of the position, which requires knowledge in fiscal management, support services, and
human resources. Also, they must be well versed in a wide array of research-based literature and
equipped with skills and strategies in the areas of organizational development, digital education,
and professional learning communities to meet the needs of the district’s students (Hoyle, 2005).
Literature emphasizes the need for superintendents to have a clear understanding of their moral
purpose, the ability to develop and nurture professional relationships, and most important, the
skills and expertise to develop a culture that can adapt to the continuous cycle of change (Glass,
Björk, & Brunner, 2000; Hoyle, 2005).
Selection of a superintendent is perhaps the most important work of the school board.
The literature describing the role and responsibilities of superintendent clearly identifies the
importance of the superintendent search process. It is important to understand recruitment tech-
niques that are employed and the superintendent search process. The recruitment strategies for
superintendents vary from district to district and are characterized by differences in district size,
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 11
demographics, and needs (Glass et al., 2000). Choosing a person for any position is difficult;
deciding on the most appropriate superintendent candidate has been said to be particularly oner-
ous (Hafer, 2000).
School boards nationwide know how difficult it is to recruit and then retain a high-quality
superintendent. Once a superintendent is appointed to the position, the attempt to earn tenure
follows. The continuity of leadership and longevity is critical to improving student learning and
school advancement (David & Shields, 2001).
This study examined the perceptions of current superintendents, school board members,
and executive search firm consultants regarding the proper preparation, strategies, and tech-
niques for recruitment and the leadership required to maintain the position of superintendent in a
California school district.
Statement of the Problem
The superintendency has become more complex and challenging, with roles, responsibil-
ities, and expectations continually evolving since its inception in the early 1800s (Kowalski,
McCord, Petersen, Young, & Ellerson, 2011; McLaughlin, 2005). Aspiring superintendents must
thoughtfully consider the proper preparation, recruitment strategies, and skillsets for ongoing
retention and success in the position. Preparation programs, such as those offered by universities
and nonuniversity entities, have made attempts to train prospective superintendents to be
recruited and successful in the position, but some may have fallen short in their efforts (Barnett,
2004; Björk, Kowalski, & Browne-Ferrigno, 2005; Levine, 2005; Perry, 2012). Supports for
current superintendents, including networking, mentoring, and coaching, have contributed to
most superintendents’ ongoing success in the position but superintendent turnover still remains
high (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although many superintendents are successful, dismissal from the
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 12
position effectively ends a career in education (Byrd, Drews, & Johnson, 2006; Kowalski et al.,
2011). Disparities in the recruitment and retention of female superintendents and superintendents
of color also exist, which magnifies the problem for these subgroups (Kowalski et al., 2011).
These inadequacies signify an overall problem in superintendent preparation, recruitment, and
retention.
Purpose of the Study
This study serves to inform multiple stakeholders. Aspiring superintendents will be
informed on the preparation, skills, and relationships that will support their transition to the
superintendency. School boards of education will be informed on the insights that will help them
to recruit better candidates into the superintendency and maintain a positive relationship with the
superintendent. Executive search firms will be informed on strategies to recruit candidates for the
position while providing strategies on superintendent retention. Universities and nonuniversity
training programs will be informed on the impact of their programs on training superintendents.
This study will also inform current superintendents about perceptions about what is needed to
achieve success and longevity.
Research Questions
The following research questions were developed to examine the preparation, experi-
ences, and strategies employed to obtain a position as superintendent. This study also examines
strategies for retention and longevity as a successful superintendent.
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 13
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Importance of the Study
The superintendency in the 21st century is more complex, multifaceted, and demanding
than ever before (Fusarelli, Cooper, & Carella, 2002). Superintendents must be prepared to
address all issues that face their districts and boards. This study looks at the preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention of successful superintendents in California school districts. A purpose of this
study was to inform prospective superintendents, school board members, and executive search
firms about training programs, knowledge, skills, and attitudes requisite for the position. The
findings from this study can serve as a resource for local boards of education and executive
search firms as they embark on the search for new superintendents. The findings of this research
will provide district board members, executive search firms, and aspiring superintendents with
greater understanding of the leadership knowledge and skills that superintendents must possess
to be successful.
Limitations of the Study
Even though every measure was taken to ensure reliability and validity of the study, lim-
itations are acknowledged: (a) The results of the study are limited to the participants, (b) the par-
ticipants were located in California due to location constraints of the research team, (c) interview
guide and interview questions were administered to participants who met inclusion criteria, (d)
the study took place over a brief period of time, (e) the study was limited by participants who
responded voluntarily to the study, and (f) the validity of the study was dependent on the relia-
bility of the survey instruments.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 14
Delimitations of the Study
Delimitations of this study were (a) interviews were conducted with and surveys were
distributed only to superintendents, board members, and executive search firms in California; (b)
survey respondents were superintendents, consultants, and board members only; and (c) no uni-
versity staff or preparation program staff members were surveyed or interviewed.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined.
American Association of School Administrators (AASA): An organization of school lead-
ers in the United States and across the world.
Association of California School Administrators (ACSA): An organization of school
leaders in California.
California School Boards Association (CSBA): Nonprofit education association that rep-
resents elected officials that govern public school districts and county offices of education in
California.
Dean’s Superintendent's Advisory Group (DSAG): A group established in 1980 and
comprised of current superintendents who consult with the Dean of the University of Southern
California Rossier School of Education on a variety of current educational issues.
Entry plan: The goals and action plan that a new superintendent develops for the first 100
days in the role; the plan is shared with stakeholders.
Executive search firms: Firms that provide customized services to school boards, school
districts, and candidates in the process of search for and selection of school superintendents.
First-time superintendents: Persons who have not been superintendents.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 15
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC): A program of the Council of
Chief State School Officers that has crafted model standards for school leaders.
Nontraditional superintendent: A person who do not have a typical background in educa-
tion, typically coming from law, business, or the military.
Preparation program: A program designed by a university or professional organization
to provide educators, including superintendents, certification in the area of education of choice.
School board: The body of governance for a local school district that is responsible for all
policies and regulations within the local school district. The board is responsible for hiring and
evaluating the district superintendent.
School district: A local educational agency that operates schools in a local geographic
location.
Strategic plan: The organizational goals and action plans developed collaboratively by
the superintendent, the board, and stakeholders.
Successful superintendents: Superintendents who have been employed in a position for
more than 2 years and are in good standing with their school board.
Superintendency: The office, position, or jurisdiction of a superintendent.
Superintendent preparation: Strategies that an aspiring superintendent uses to be
equipped for the position.
Superintendent recruitment: The process or strategy used by an aspiring superintendent to
gain the first superintendent position.
Superintendent retention: The process or strategy that a superintendent uses to maintain
the current position.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 16
Superintendent: An administrator or manager in charge of public schools or a school
district.
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation proposal is organized into three chapters. Chapter 1 presented the intro-
duction, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions, the sig-
nificance of the study, limitations and delimitations of the study, and definition of terms. Chapter
2 contains a review of the literature focusing on the history of the superintendency, preparation
for the superintendency, recruitment of the superintendent, superintendent-school board relation-
ships, superintendent retention, and conceptual frameworks (the four-frame model of leadership,
Level 5 leadership, Waters and Marzano, 2006). Chapter 3 describes the population, sample, and
used for data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study. Chapter 5
presents a summary of the findings, conclusions, and suggestions for further research.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 17
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter 2 contains a review of the existing literature on various aspects of the superin-
tendency. The superintendency is a complex role. Changing characteristics of the student popu-
lation, reform initiatives, the demand for increased accountability, and new program
requirements are changing the landscape of school leadership (Hoyle, 2005). Many superinten-
dents operate public schools that face unfunded federal and state mandates, financial constraints,
legal issues, and the accountability movement (Brimley & Garfield, 2005). Educational reform
intensifies the demand for superintendent accountability for improved student learning, as well
as knowledge of fiscal matters (Cohn, 2005). First-year superintendents are particularly vulner-
able to the complexities of the job as they navigate the school district culture, new reforms, and
budgets, as well as expectations of the board (Sanaghan & Lytle, 2008). As a result, the recruit-
ment, preparation, and retention of first-time superintendents have become more important than
ever. The areas reviewed and synthesized in this chapter include the history of the superin-
tendency, superintendent preparation programs, recruitment, and retention as it relates to first-
time superintendents. Also reviewed are the superintendent-board relationship and the leadership
frames that contribute to the success and longevity of a superintendent.
History of the Superintendency
The superintendency is a profession with an extended history that reflects the demands
and challenges of an ever-evolving educational system. The role has changed over the years,
consistently increasing demands on the superintendent. The position of school district superin-
tendent was created during the late 1830s. The need for school systems to have a top executive
stemmed from an array of conditions, including development of larger city school districts, con-
solidation of rural school districts, an expanded state curriculum, demands for increased
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 18
accountability, and expectations for efficiency (Kowalski, 2003). To describe the evolution of
the superintendency, the position is best conceptualized under five critical stages in which the
superintendent’s responsibilities have taken a new direction in education (Kowalski et al., 2011):
(a) superintendent as teacher-scholar, (b) superintendent as business manager, (c) superintendent
as statesman, (d) superintendent as applied social scientist, and (e) superintendent as communi-
cator (Callahan, 1966; Kowalski et al., 2011).
One of the first roles of the superintendent documented by education historians is that of
teacher-scholar (Callahan, 1966). This was a prominent role from 1865 until 1910 (Kowalski et
al., 2011). At that time, the primary function of the superintendent was to lead and supervise
teachers. As a teacher-scholar, the district superintendent’s primary role was to oversee imple-
mentation of the curriculum and to serve in a supervisory capacity over classroom teachers.
During this time, superintendents were viewed as pedagogical, curricular, and philosophical
experts in education, thus the use of the term master teachers by historians (Callahan, 1962,
1966; Kowalski, 2003). One of the main responsibilities for superintendents during this period
was to implement curriculum and supervise teachers (Björk & Kowalski, 2005; Sharp & Walter,
2004). As instructional leaders, superintendents championed public education and lobbied for
school funding to support a free public education (Callahan, 1962).
According to Callahan (1962), by the early 1900s the role of superintendent began to
change as a result of an era that had an affinity for business-like values and practices. The
acceptance of business-like practices and values and the fashioning of school organizational
structures led to development of the superintendency as an executive-type leadership position.
Subsequently, superintendent-school board relationships began to develop and become
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 19
increasingly important, especially as superintendents derived their power from school boards. In
this era the superintendent moved from instructional leader to manager of a school system.
As districts began to grow, superintendents were given the additional role of business
leader (Callahan, 1966; Kowalski, 2005; Kowalski et al., 2011). As business leaders, superinten-
dents helped to manage the daily operations of the organization (Hoyle, 2005). Between 1910
and approximately 1940, the superintendent’s primary role was that of a business leader. The
Industrial Revolution had a lasting impact on education. During this time, school boards, espe-
cially those in urban areas, were intent on borrowing from business practices and applying them
to education. Some school boards began to value managerial skills over educational prowess.
Throughout this era, superintendents were expected to be strong goal-oriented leaders (Callahan,
1966).
The superintendency continued to evolve; the 1930s was a period that provided greater
power to the government as a result of the Great Depression (Kowalski et al., 2011). The super-
intendent became a statesman, the central political figure in an educational system. As a states-
man, the superintendent garnered support for education and, more important, for the individual
school district. The superintendent was expected to reach out to those who worked in the district,
the local communities, and the state for support in funding and other resources to meet the
district’s goals (Kowalski, 2005).
By 1930, the role of the school superintendent had moved from the role of scholar and
educator to operating under a business management model (Callahan, 1962). From that point
until the 1950s, the democratic system was emphasized. The superintendent became a negotiator,
cultivating community relations to gain moral and financial support from the community. This
reflected implementation of a business management model in public education. However, along
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 20
the way, external events further changed the role of the superintendent. Brown v. Board of Edu-
cation of Topeka (1954) changed American schools forever (Jackson, 1995). Superintendents
throughout the country who had conducted school business free of any limitations were now
ordered to desegregate and be mindful of social issues (Jackson, 1995). The fundamental princi-
ple of racial equality was nonnegotiable; it had to be addressed. This ruling caused offense, hos-
tility, and violent riots across the country (Jackson, 1995).
Social changes in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s led to dramatic changes in the American
educational system, and the superintendent became a different type of executive: the applied
social scientist (Callahan, 1962; Candoli, 1995). Some of the social issues faced by the superin-
tendent of this era were school desegregation, equal education, and compensatory education. By
the 1950s, democratic leadership began to be viewed as impractical and the popular role for the
superintendent was that of applied social scientist in conjunction with this growing field of study.
Superintendents were expected to respond to the needs of the community and to solve problems
of democracy and multiculturalism, using scientific reasoning. Universities began to focus on
theory and reduced clinical experiences in their superintendent preparation programs (Callahan,
1966).
Most recently, superintendents have added the role of communicator (Björk & Gurley,
2005; Kowalski, 2005; Kowalski et al., 2011). Superintendents must now meet the needs of their
stakeholders and communicate with school boards, district employees, students, and communi-
ties. Since 2001, successful superintendents have embraced the role of effective communicator
(Kowalski, 2005). Collaboration has become the key (Björk & Gurley, 2005) to effective and
reform-minded organizations. A successful superintendent must manage various leadership roles
with increased effectiveness; to do so requires deep understanding of organizational leadership
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 21
theory and what is required to create and lead a great organization (Bolman & Deal, 2003;
Collins, 2005; Hoyle, 2005). Kowalski (2005) posited that the fifth role conceptualization,
superintendent as communicator, has been present since the creation of the superintendency. Yet,
according to the author, the information-laden society, the speed at which events occur, and
overall communication expectations from within and outside the district have rendered the role
of superintendent as communicator absolute. Kowalski et al. (2011) posited that communication
is essential to the superintendent’s repertoire of skills in the management of employees and col-
laboration with various stakeholders. Furthermore, the authors suggested that communication
facilitates understanding and navigation of organizational structures, climates, and cultures.
The additional role of the superintendency, communicator, indicated that leaders at this
level in an organization should be able to work collaboratively with all stakeholders, which
requires effective communication skills. Communicative behavior is shaped by two realities: the
need for superintendents to assume leadership roles in the process of school restructuring and the
need for them to change school culture as a part of the restructuring process (Kowalski &
Brunner, 2005). Current superintendents can be characterized as those who must exercise all five
role conceptualizations and discern the context for their appropriate application.
First-Time Superintendents
According to Glass et al. (2000), once in office, first-time superintendents usually dis-
cover that their new position is quite dissimilar from their previous administrative positions.
First-time superintendents may find themselves unprepared for the multitude of changes and
challenges that come with leading an organization. Every person enters a new position with a
learning curve. First-time superintendents are not only new to their role but may also be new to
the school district, which exacerbates the learning curve (Chapman, 1997). First-time
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 22
superintendents must overcome this learning curve quickly because the reputation that evolves
during the first 12 months of a superintendency is difficult to alter.
Kowalski, Petersen, and Fusarelli (2009) described the typical first-time superintendent
as a male, mid- to late-career professional with experience in teaching and administration (4 or
more years of administration experience) and an advanced graduate degree. The typical
employing district is rural and enrolls fewer than 1,000 students (Kowalski et al., 2009).
Superintendent Preparation
University Training Programs
Throughout the years, the field of education administration has increased in its responsi-
bilities and therefore demands better preparation of future leaders (Cubberley, 1923). Goodman
and Zimmerman (2000) agreed that, in order for meaningful school reform to take place, the
traditional superintendency must be reformed, restructured, or both. School districts are continu-
ously facing new demands and challenges and require leaders who can navigate issues of man-
agement, such as district bureaucracy and union and school board relations, lead change, reinvent
school systems, and develop and implement effective strategic plans of improvement.
According to Farkas, Johnson, and Duffett (2003), several urban superintendents reported
that the average educational administration programs in schools of education are not aligned with
the actualities of what is needed to lead the present-day public school systems efficiently and
effectively. Farkas, Johnson, and Duffett (2003) asserted that nearly one half of the urban super-
intendents who were surveyed stated that altering educational administration programs would be
beneficial to school leadership.
Hess (2003) asserted that professors of education are fixated on linking educational
administration to teaching rather than developing the needed managerial skills to lead school
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 23
districts. Kowalski (2008) also highlighted criticism of university preparation programs, includ-
ing (a) low academic standards for admission and completion, (b) a general indifference toward
instructional leadership, (c) a disjunction between theory and practice, (d) inattention to practice-
based research, and (e) an inadequate knowledge base. Kowalski (2008) also stated that many
institutions continue to treat superintendent preparation as an extension of principal preparation,
even though the two positions have become increasingly dissimilar. “The doctorate in educa-
tional administration frequently has been treated as a de facto preparation program despite the
fact that many doctoral students have been required to complete little or no coursework specif-
ically tailored for the position [of superintendent]” (Kowalski, 2008, p. 252).
Even though the quality and specificity of university leadership programs have been
scrutinized, literature has revealed that the number of superintendents who possessed a doctoral
degree rose in the past 3 decades from 28% in 1982 to 36% in 1992 to more than 45% in 2000.
That number is even higher in large, urban school districts (25,000) where 83% of superinten-
dents possess either a PhD or EdD degree (Glass et al., 2000). A survey by Kowalski et al.
(2011) showed that 78% of 12,600 superintendents were satisfied with their preparation; 85%
had completed pre-superintendent university programs, and 45% held doctoral degrees.
There is research to support the idea that superintendents believe that expertise gained
from their training and experiences is valuable; however, other research supports that a large
number of university preparation programs and credentialing standards are not adequately pre-
paring the caliber of leaders necessary to meet the challenges of today’s educational system.
“Superintendent training, it seems, does little to prepare leaders for the highly ambiguous situa-
tions they are about to enter, in which political skill and calculation are as important as expertise
about instruction” (Fullan, 2003, p. 57). As stated earlier, the quality of these programs and their
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 24
relevance to the actual position of superintendent have arguably not been synchronized and
require further research (Cooper et al., 2002; Orr, 2006).
Peterson, Fusarelli, and Kowalski’s (2008) study of first-time superintendents identified
three general areas of superintendent preparation program coursework that were perceived as the
most beneficial. The first was coursework in the practical aspects of the superintendency, such as
finance, law, and personnel management. The respondents recognized finance in particular as an
important subject but had mixed feelings about the quality of the courses. The second area was
practical experience, such as internships and opportunities to interact with school boards, and the
third area was the instructor’s ability to combine coursework with real-world problem solving.
The survey respondents cited theory, lack of instructor experience, and not enough real-world
projects as the primary weaknesses in their preparation (Peterson et al., 2008).
Sanaghan and Lytle (2008) noted that first-time superintendents must adequately prepare
themselves for the challenges that await them as they assume the job. University preparation
programs may not have prepared aspiring superintendents for complex variables such as board
politics and increased accountability measures, so first-time superintendents must carefully
negotiate their contract and develop a clear picture of the strengths and weaknesses of the district
(Sanaghan & Lytle, 2008).
Overall, preparation programs are failing to prepare systems leaders adequately, and
researchers are looking closely at programs that are introducing new ideas into the leadership
development schema (Childress, Elmore, & Grossman, 2006; Dembo & Marsh, 2007; Fordham
Institute & The Broad Foundation, 2003; Murphy & Vriesenga, 2006; Quinn, 2007; Shulman,
Golde, Bueschel, & Garabedian, 2006; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and
Secondary Education, 2004; Walker, Hallinger, & Qian, 2007). Research has identified
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 25
weaknesses in the connection between curriculum and practice and the lack of hands-on experi-
ence for program participants and has fueled the need to reform the models currently utilized in
urban school leadership preparation programs (Björk et al., 2005; Murphy & Vriesenga, 2006).
Nonuniversity Training Programs
Superintendent preparation and support programs are an essential component of educa-
tion transformation. However, few superintendent preparation programs exist, and the majority
of those programs center on preparation of principals and education administrators in general.
Generally speaking, educational leadership preparation programs focus on such topics as school
governance, education law, personnel management, and instructional leadership (Cooper,
Fusarelli, Jackson, & Poster, 2002; Levine, 2005). Cooper et al. (2002) called for targeted prepa-
ration programs to prepare aspiring superintendents closer to the time when they assume the role
and specialized professional development to sustain seated superintendents throughout their
careers. Teitel (2005) identified the following nonuniversity training programs for superintendent
preparation: (a) national, state, and regional superintendent membership organizations (e.g.,
AASA, Project Leadership, Washington Association of School Administrators); (b) foundations
(e.g., Gates Foundation/Washington State, The Broad Foundation); and (c) for-profit companies
(e.g., Educational Research Development Institute).
One example of privately funded leadership foundations is the Fordham Institute and The
Broad Foundation (2003). This foundation has argued that a broader, more talented pool of can-
didates must be tapped—candidates who do not necessarily have academic backgrounds or expe-
rience in education. In 2001 The Broad Foundation created The Broad Center, a national
executive leadership development program to “raise student achievement, by recruiting and sup-
porting executive leadership talent from across America to become the next generation of urban
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 26
school district leaders” (The Broad Center, 2011, para. 1). The purpose of the academy is to
identify and prepare successful executives from large organizations and place them in large
urban school districts to improve the quality of education. The training exposes participants to
best practices in public school systems and addresses the following topics specific to urban
school district leadership: (a) instructional alignment, (b) operational excellence, (c) stakeholder
engagement, (d) organizational leadership, (e) interpersonal leadership, and (f) management.
Currently, the academy has graduates serving in the capacity of superintendent in 37 cities (The
Broad Center, 2011).
Several organizations have developed standards for educational leadership. These
standards were formulated in an effort to establish a foundation for leadership preparation
programs, as well as to support practicing school leaders. At the forefront of this movement, the
AASA commissioned Professional Standards for the Superintendency (Hoyle, 1993). The spe-
cific AASA professional standards for the superintendency are as follows: (a) leadership and
district culture, (b) policy and governance, (c) communications and community relations, (d)
organizational management, (e) curriculum planning and development, (f) instructional man-
agement, (g) human resources management, and (h) values and ethics of leadership (Hoyle,
1993). Unlike other education leadership standards, the AASA standards were developed with a
specific focus on the practicing school district leader. Hoyle (1993) contended that using the
AASA professional standards would improve the superintendency in three areas: (a) by provid-
ing a clear focus for the selection, preparation, and licensure of superintendents; (b) by promot-
ing greater respect for the position of superintendent; and (c) by developing board members who
are better informed about the role and responsibilities of the superintendent.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 27
The ISLLC, a program of the Council of Chief State School Officers in collaboration
with a panel of experts in education and the National Policy Board for Educational Administra-
tion (NPBEA), also created a set of standards (Murphy, 2005). The ISLLC Standards, as they
have come to be known, were recently revised.
1. An education leader promotes the success of every student by facilitating the develop-
ment, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a vision of learning that is shared
and supported by the community
2. An education leader promotes the success of every student by advocating, nurturing,
and sustaining a school culture and instructional program conducive to student learning
and staff professional growth.
3. An education leader promotes the success of every student by ensuring management of
the organization, operation, and resources for a safe, efficient, and effective learning
environment.
4. An education leader promotes the success of every student by collaborating with
faculty and community members, responding to diverse community interests and needs,
and mobilizing community resources.
5. An education leader promotes the success of every student by acting with integrity,
fairness, and in an ethical manner.
6. An education leader promotes the success of every student by understanding,
responding to, and influencing the political, social, economic, legal, and cultural context.
(Murphy, 2005, pp. 157-158)
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 28
Both ISLLC and AASA standards were developed in an attempt to improve the quality of
preservice preparation programs for school leaders and to provide criteria for performance evalu-
ations.
Mentoring and Preparation
The term mentor refers to one who acts as a guardian, a trusted counselor, or a teacher
(Beem, 2007). Carter and Cunningham (1997) stressed the importance of providing support in
the early years of the superintendency. Mentoring in the workplace has come to the forefront in
recent decades as an important element in helping people to achieve personal and professional
goals (Beem, 2007). Glass et al. (2000) noted that mentoring has served as a powerful developer
of human potential throughout the centuries. Björk (2000) contended that mentoring relation-
ships provide structure and support for developing skills in those who are learning to lead. A
mentoring or training program can provide valuable assistance and guidance for all new super-
intendents. According to a study by Bova and Phillips (1982), protégés gain the following from
having mentors: (a) risk-taking behaviors, (b) communication skills, and (c) survival in the
organization. Recognizing this area of need, some states have developed and implemented new
superintendent mentoring programs.
In California there are mentoring programs that focus their training efforts on internship
programs for students enrolled in graduate school administrative programs. The Urban Superin-
tendents Program, for example, is a 6-month internship program in which urban superintendents
mentor new colleagues (Furger, 2005). An intern is provided an opportunity to shadow a school
district superintendent. In addition, organizations such as the California Latino Superintendents
Association (CALSA) offer mentoring programs in an effort to meet the mentoring needs of a
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 29
new generation of Latina and Latino educational leaders. Formal mentoring programs play a vital
role in the administrative preparation and retention of new superintendents.
Superintendent Recruitment
The responsibility of recruiting qualified personnel to fill superintendent vacancies is one
of the most important administrative challenges that educational leaders such as school board
members face (Winter, Rinehart, Keedy, & Björk, 2007). According to Kowalski et al (2011),
there is no one selection process used to select and employ a superintendent. There is also no one
road to the superintendency. Traditionally, superintendents start in the classroom and then
become vice principals, principals, assistant superintendents, and superintendents (Callan &
Levinson, 2011). Nontraditional superintendents typically do not have a background in education
and come with a law, business, or military background (Callan & Levinson, 2011).
Regardless of the path, superintendents must have certain skills. Today’s superintendent
must be a communicator and an instructional leader (Kowalski et al., 2011). The 2010 AASA
study collected data from superintendents about why they were selected for their position by the
local school board. In that survey, 33.5% responded that it was their personal characteristics,
24.9% stated that it was the potential to be a change agent, and 20% cited the ability to be an
instructional leader (Kowalski et al., 2011). The ability to make change was also the number one
skill cited in the 2006 AASA survey; other skills noted in the 2006 study were the abilities to
build a team and address challenges (Glass & Franceschini, 2006). Superintendents need a
network to discuss the unpredictable aspects of the position, raise questions that do not have
ready answers, and find solace with other leaders who work in the sometimes isolated position
while maintaining a positive relationship with the board (Orr, 2006; Teitel, 2005).
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 30
Traditional Superintendent
Kowalski (2003) found that most superintendents enter the position via the traditional
route of moving through a district’s organizational hierarchy. The pathway to the superin-
tendency has historically been teacher, principal, and superintendent (Glass, 1992). The 1992
study by Glass showed that 37.7% of the respondents had followed this track and 30% had fol-
lowed the track of teacher, principal, central office administrator, and superintendent. A much
earlier study by Ortiz (1982) showed that 17% of the superintendents held a central office posi-
tion prior to obtaining the job as superintendent. The larger the district, the greater the percent-
age of those who had held central office positions prior to employment as a superintendent. A
career stop at the central office provides administrators much-needed training and experience for
the superintendency (Ortiz, 1982).
Gaertner (1981) reported a study of three mobility patterns for administrative advance-
ment, two of which led directly to the superintendency. The first pathway included the positions
of specialist, administrator of instruction (supervisor), assistant superintendent, and superinten-
dent. The second pathway included the positions of assistant secondary school principal, sec-
ondary school principal, assistant/associate superintendent, and superintendent. The third
pathway seldom led to the superintendency; it included the positions of assistant elementary
principal, elementary principal, and superintendent.
In a national study cited by Winter et al. (2007), 52.6% of newly hired superintendents
possessed prior experience as superintendent and only about one third had prior experience as an
assistant superintendent. However, by contrast, the study showed that 97.9% of newly hired
superintendents had prior experience as a principal at a high school (49.3%), middle school
(24.3%), or elementary school (24.3%; Winter et al., 2007). Kowalski et al. (2011) supported the
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 31
notion that those who had served as high school principals were most likely to be hired as
superintendents. Most superintendents come from a middle or high school backgrounds
(Kowalski et al. 2011). Studies are showing that these cited routes are the traditional and most
common routes to the superintendency; however, that does not mean that the most qualified and
prepared candidates are attracted to the position.
In taking this traditional route, most superintendents have completed preparation
programs that confer a state license or credential to practice education administration. Strengths
in these programs are found in the professors, course content, and attention to issues of instruc-
tion and testing; weaknesses in these programs center on the lack of hands-on application and
linking of content to practice (Orr, 2006).
Nontraditional Superintendent
A new type of educational administrator, the professional with knowledge outside the
field of education, known as a nontraditional superintendent, is being tapped to lead many of the
nation’s largest and most challenging school systems (Sanchez, 2008). In the middle 1990s,
during the era of educational reform, nontraditional superintendents began to appear in the edu-
cational arena (Cuban, 2001). A nontraditional superintendent can be defined as a school district
chief whose expertise comes from outside the field of education and who lacks professional
experience in the field of education (Mathews, 2001). Nontraditional superintendents come from
diverse sectors outside the field of public education, such as from the government, military,
business, nonprofit organizations, and the legal profession.
Many urban school districts are among the larger employers, enabling school boards to
search for professionals who have served successfully as chief executive officers (Sanchez,
2008). The logic behind this development is that, if the school district is achieving only minimal
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 32
academic improvement under the leadership of a traditional superintendent, perhaps it is time to
employ someone with a different set of leadership skills (Cuban & Usdan, 2003). According to
Cuban and Usdan, these individuals often have budgetary expertise and come from a background
of leading large corporations.
According to Tom Quinn (2007), managing director of The Broad Foundation Superin-
tendent Academy, nontraditional superintendents, who are accomplished leaders in other arenas,
bring critically needed strengths and experiences to the job:
• Experience managing large, complex, diverse operations;
• Experience leading large-scale systems change and culture changes;
• Skills in strategic visioning, planning and accountability;
• Expertise in financial management; and
• Skills in systems and operational management. (p. 2)
The perception is that nontraditional superintendents personify change and therefore are hired to
be change agents for the district (Wong & Shen, 2003).
Executive Search Firms
The superintendent plays a key leadership role in the operation of a school district and in
essence dictates the success of that district (Glass et al., 2000). For that reason, the most
important administrative challenges faced by leaders in education such as school board members
is recruiting qualified personnel to fill superintendent vacancies in public schools (Winter et al.,
2007).
According to research by Glass (1993), the average tenure of superintendents nationwide
is approximately 6 years, and the level of professional interest in serving in the position of
superintendent has fluctuated within recent years. Petracco (2002) found that, nationwide, 80%
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 33
of superintendents were at or near the age of retirement (over 50 years old) and that nearly 11%
were age 60 or older. Petracco also found that it took an average of 14 months to fill a superin-
tendent vacancy.
Glass et al. (2000) found that superintendent turnover in 2000 was 6 to 7 years. Campbell
(2001) noted that superintendent executive search firms in California had indicated that,
depending on the district, an open superintendency attracted roughly 40% of the applicants that it
would have attracted in the early 1990s. This is important information, given that most literature
agrees that the initial selection of the superintendent is the key to establishing organizational
stability, which is constantly strained by community politics and reform mandates (Castallo,
2003).
According to Glass et al. (2000), a superintendent is selected using several schemes, with
the most prevalent being school boards forming their own search committee. Another system
would be districts hiring a private executive search firm or agency, such as the state school
boards association, to assist in the selection process. Because of an increased number of super-
intendent retirements and a decreasing pool of “willing” candidates, search consultants have
been in greater demand (Riede, 2003). Former retired superintendents and sometimes professors
of educational administration work as consultants for these firms (Glass et al., 2000). Recruit-
ment for superintendent positions can be accomplished through several means: flyers, brochures,
the web, professional journals, universities, and newspapers. Depending on the size of the search,
advertising can be achieved on the local, state, regional, or national level (Glass et al., 2000).
Kamler (2009) noted that educational reform, changing demographics, and societal and
political pressures heighten the need for school boards to select a district leader who will be able
to spearhead, facilitate, and manage educational improvement while mediating the needs of
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 34
students, the goals and financial ability of the community, and the demands of the faculty and
staff. Researchers have noted that boards seek candidates who have the ability to “collaborate
with families and community as well as influence the larger political, social, legal, and cultural
context” (Kamler, 2009, p. 133). These findings concurred with those of Glass (2001), who
reported that, in districts where there was high board satisfaction with the candidate of choice,
the finalists were strong in communication, community relations, and leadership.
Superintendent-School Board Relationships
Beverage (2003) posited many factors that can potentially affect a new superintendent’s
leadership. Factors such as clarity in roles, expectations, and the scope of the superintendent's
authority can lead to disagreements between the superintendent and school board. The relation-
ship between the superintendent and the school board makes the superintendency unique among
leadership positions; it can also inhibit a first-time superintendent’s leadership. Kowalski et al.
(2011) found that 97% of superintendents surveyed reported that they maintained a positive rela-
tionship with their school board members. However, superintendent-school board relationships
are not devoid of conflict.
The majority of school boards are elected and in turn appoint the majority of superinten-
dents. Together, school boards and superintendents play vital roles in improving student
achievement. Thus, the success of a school district is determined by the positive relationship
between the school board and the superintendent (Kowalski et al., 2011). Superintendents work
to increase and sustain student achievement. However, in order to do so, they must begin by
building relationships and active collaboration and cooperation with the school board. Many
school board members lack in-depth knowledge about education and educational policy and
therefore can be easily influenced by politics, the community, or external interest groups.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 35
Norton, Webb, Dlugosh, and Sybouts (1996) identified an overlap in the relationship
between the superintendent and school board. Policymaking, staff and administrator evaluation,
and fiscal management were identified as areas where superintendents and school board often
clash. Sharing these roles is generally acceptable. However, problems arise when the superinten-
dent, a trained educational professional, and members of the board, who may or may not be pro-
fessionally trained as educators or board members, share differences of opinions and beliefs
concerning school issues (Thomas, 2001). These differences in opinion often lead to a situation
that fosters inhibiting factors for a superintendent. The school board may disagree with the
superintendent’s recommendations, override decisions, and implement strategies of their own
(Thomas, 2001; Trotter & Downey, 1989). Such situations often lead to power struggles between
the superintendent and the school board and eventually to early departure or termination of the
superintendent by the board (Norton et al., 1996).
Glass et al. (2000) identified factors that inhibit superintendent leadership. Research data
from the 2000 AASA study of superintendents suggest areas of concern among superintendents
about the factors that were identified by the survey as inhibitors. Although superintendents stated
that they were effective in their positions, the majority viewed school finance, too many insig-
nificant demands placed on them by the board, the staff, the community, and compliance with
state-mandated reforms as the most important issues and challenges facing them.
Glass (2001) suggested that, in a district in which the superintendent knows that the
school board will support his or her decisions, the superintendent is willing to take more risks
toward organizational reform. The superintendent who does not feel secure about school board
responses to controversial issues will be unwilling to take risks to bring about needed changes
(Glass, 2001). Therefore, superintendents must not only establish positive relationships with their
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 36
school board; they must also act to maintain the cohesiveness of the school board. The school
board both supervises the superintendent and sets policy for the school district. If a superinten-
dent wants to accomplish any reform or maintain success, he or she must make sure that the
board is involved (Callan & Levinson, 201l).
Historically, the superintendent and school board have held the responsibility of operat-
ing the nation’s public schools (Smoley, 1999). The stability of this team is an important factor,
in determining not only the success and tenure of the superintendent (National School Boards
Association [NSBA], 1996) but the effectiveness of an entire school district (McCurdy, 1992).
Many boards and superintendents enjoy cooperative and collaborative relationships, but building
and maintaining these bonds is crucial. Unsatisfactory relationships can shatter the community’s
confidence, lead to the dismissal of the superintendent, and seriously affect the effectiveness of
the school (McCurdy, 1992). Relationships between school boards and superintendents begin
with the selection of the superintendent. It is necessary that board members perform a well-
planned and thorough superintendent search process to ensure that a healthy and positive rela-
tionship ensues (NSBA, 1996). “Once a superintendent is hired, the personal and working
relationship that develops between the board and the superintendent sets the tone for much of the
district’s operations” (Glass & Franceschini, 2007, p. 67).
Superintendent Retention
School boards know how difficult it is to recruit and then retain a high-quality superin-
tendent. Superintendent vacancies are occurring at an increasing rate (Berryhill, 2009) and the
superintendency is often portrayed as a revolving-door profession (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
Glass et al. (2000) posited that successful reform requires 5 or more years of a superintendent’s
attention. David and Shields (2001) asserted that continuity of leadership is critical to improving
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 37
student learning and school advancement. Frequent turnover should be avoided if possible, since
the price of superintendent turnover can be great, both financially and organizationally. There-
fore, longevity of the superintendent is imperative if change or reform is to be implemented suc-
cessfully. The continuity of leadership is critical to improving student learning and school
advancement.
According to M. B. Roberts, Hanna, and Womack (2012), the superintendent-board rela-
tionship is an important part of retention and dismissal. Other factors, such as student achieve-
ment, knowledge of finances, and demands and mandates unsupported by resources, can also
determine a superintendent’s retention. In the 2000 Study of the American Superintendency,
superintendent respondents indicated that the prime reason for leaving a school district was to
move to a larger district (Glass et al., 2000). The second most frequently reported answer that
superintendent respondents gave for leaving a district was conflict with the school board (Glass
et al., 2000). The status of the relationship between the school board and superintendent has been
more likely to influence turnover in the superintendent position than any other factor. However,
the literature on the relationships between superintendents and school boards has not generally
been characterized in a positive light (Mountford, 2004).
Cooper et al. (2002) offered some recommendations for finding and retaining a superin-
tendent. First, they recommended better matchmaking in terms of assessing the district’s needs
and recruiting accordingly. One reason that superintendent turnover is high in some districts is
that school boards seldom know what they are looking for. Second, they recommended raising
homegrown contenders. School boards must identify talented younger leaders and nurture them
into the job. Research demonstrates the effectiveness of this approach, as locally hired superin-
tendents (insiders) have longer tenures than outsiders, who may be unfamiliar with the school
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 38
district’s culture and politics and enjoy a feeling of being recognized. Third, they recommended
improving the payoff. Research has shown that the wages of superintendents have not kept pace
with salary increases within and outside education. Fourth, they recommended recognition of
good work. Research shows the need among superintendents for more school board support, less
micromanagement, and greater rewards for their accomplishments. School boards are quick to
criticize superintendents when the “going gets rough,” while seldom rewarding them for
improvements.
Entry Plan
An entry plan is an action plan to be executed upon assuming a position; it is essential to
the success of a superintendent (Neff & Citrin, 2005; Watkins, 2003). Most researchers agree
that having a solid entry plan contributes to the success of any superintendent’s effort (Citrin &
Neff, 2005; Watkins, 2003). Entry plans enable superintendents to learn about their new organi-
zation, learn about themselves, and collectively learn about the organization as a whole (Jentz &
Murphy, 2005).
Watkins (2003) developed a framework that serves as a blueprint for successful superin-
tendent leadership during the transition period. Watkins posited that meeting the following core
challenges would lead to a successful transition into a leadership role.
Promote yourself – make the mental break from your old job
Accelerate your learning – be systematic and focused
Match strategy to situation – diagnose situations and clarify challenge
Secure early wins – create value, improve results, get to the breakeven point rapidly
Negotiate success – gain consensus on your entry plan
Achieve alignment – bring structure into alignment with its strategy
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 39
Build your team – evaluate/restructure to better meet demands
Create coalitions – identify supporters, get them on your side
Keep your balance – use an advice/counsel network as a resource
Expedite everyone – accelerate everyone’s transition, communicate (Watkins, 2003,
p. 12)
An abundance of research supports Watkins’s (2003) framework for a transitional leader. The
concepts of components such as negotiating success, team building, and securing early wins are
discussed in other literature (Collins, 2001a, 2001b; Marzano & Waters, 2009).
Jentz and Murphy (2005) recommended that an entry plan be site specific. They sug-
gested five steps in developing and implementing an entry plan according: (a) designing an entry
plan—thinking about objectives and when to go public with the methodology of the plan;
meeting with board members, principals, and other stakeholders; matching people and dates to
activities; establishing a moratorium on making changes; (b) seeking feedback—requesting
feedback on the entry plan draft from the school board and other stakeholders, listening to
feedback, and making revisions; (c) Getting the word out—providing a context and rationale for
the entry plan communicating and disseminating the entry plan to all stakeholders; (d) conduct-
ing interviews and site visits—learning more about the organization, data collection; and (e)
convening sense-making meetings—reflecting on the implementation of the entry plan, reporting
current status to the school board, and instituting a collaborative problem-solving approach.
While they are time consuming and complex, entry plans can provide an alternative to a
“haphazard and troubled entry” by a superintendent (Jentz & Murphy, 2005, p. 744). According
to the authors, entry plans potentially allow new superintendents to (a) transform natural confu-
sion into a resource for personal and organizational learning; (b) gain new knowledge, trust, and
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 40
credibility by collaborating with other stakeholders; and (c) establish an approach to leadership
that is both top down and bottom up. Watkins (2003) emphasized the importance not only of
entry plans but also of the entry period. The entry period involves careful analysis and strategy.
Whether the superintendent is a novice or experienced, entry plans and entry periods are
determinants of success or failure. Superintendents are often pressured to act quickly, to “hit the
ground running.” However, as Jentz and Murphy (2005) suggested, “hit[ting] the ground
learning” (p. 738) is perhaps the best course of action.
Conceptual Framework
A successful superintendent is incorporates the four frames of Bolman and Deal (2003) ,
the Level 5 leadership of Collins (2001a, 2001b), and School District Leadership That Works of
Waters and Marzano (2006). The three theoretical frame works utilized by a successful superin-
tendent are illustrated in Figure 1. Successful superintendents strategically exercise Bolman and
Deal’s four frames with the various relationships within the organization. The use of each frame
depends on the circumstances of various relationships and the context of the organization. A
successful superintendent also develops and implements strategies from Waters and Marzano’s
(2006) School District Leadership That Works. By developing and implementing these strate-
gies, a successful superintendent focuses the school district and board on nonnegotiable goals
that are collaboratively set. Finally, a successful superintendent adopts the posture of Collins’s
(2001b) Level 5 leadership when reacting to his or her own successes and failures in the position.
This includes reflecting praises from success back to the organization’s people and absorbing
criticism regarding failures back to himself or herself. Depending on the situation, a successful
superintendent acts within these three theoretical frameworks in unison or in a continuum. These
theoretical frameworks are critical for the success of a superintendent.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 41

Figure 1. Superintendent leadership framework. Sources: (a) Reframing Organizations: Artistry,
Choice, and Leadership (3rd ed.), by L. Bolman & T. Deal, 2003, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass; (b) Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve, by J. Collins, 2001,
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press; (c) School District Leadership That Works: The
Effect of Superintendent Leadership on Student Achievement, by T. J. Waters & R. J. Marzano,
2006, Denver, CO: Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning.

Four-Frame Model of Leadership
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) work on management and leadership is centralized around a
four frame model: structural, political, symbolic, and human resource. This model represents the
frames from which leaders operate within their organizations. The frames allow an organization
to be viewed from various aspects that affect its effectiveness.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 42
According to Bolman and Deal (2003), the structural frame “champions a pattern of well-
thought out roles and relationships . . . that can accommodate both collective goals and indi-
vidual differences” (p. 45). The structural frame emphasizes goals and specific roles of individu-
als within the organization. This frame looks beyond individuals and focuses on the social
architecture of the organization. Policies, procedures, and rules fall under the structural frame.
The structural frame is focused on the organization, expectations, and purpose of an enterprise.
This frame considers how work is allocated and roles and responsibilities are defined. Among
other items, it encompasses rules, regulations, organizational charts, goals, and standards.
Bolman and Deal found that effectiveness in an organization is based on an alignment between
the structure and these parameters or dimensions.
The human resource frame “centers on how characteristics of organizations and people
shape what they do for one another” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 57). The human resource frame
focuses on people as the key components of the organization. Viewing the organization from a
human resource perspective means seeing individuals as investments. Interpersonal skills are
critical in the human resources frame. An organization’s human resource philosophy is one of
mutual benefits. Effective leaders value staff members by recognizing their needs as important in
gaining commitment and loyalty. Leaders have a responsibility to be rigorous and selective in
their hiring practices, establish both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, maintain open
communication, empower employees, and foster a climate of respect for diversity. Employees
have a responsibility to be partners in the relationship, contributing their talents and ideas to the
success of the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
The political frame, as defined by Bolman and Deal (2003), is “the realistic process of
making decisions and allocating resources in a context of scarcity and divergent interests”
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 43
(p. 181). The authors viewed organizational politics as both positive and negative. Effective
leaders leverage political power and balance the competing needs of the organization with the
interests of the employees and customers. Bolman and Deal (2003) described these leaders as
able to “mobilize strength, courage, and willingness to fight as hard and long as necessary to
fulfill their mission” (p. 2). Under the political frame, an organization exercises agenda setting,
mapping of political terrain, networking and forming coalitions, and bargaining and negotiating
(Bolman & Deal, 2003). The political frame is rooted in politics, bargaining, and negotiating are
key notions of this frame.
The lens of Bolman and Deal’s symbolic frame (2003) allows a leader to consider the
importance and cultural meaning of the organization’s activities and events. It explains organi-
zational history, rituals, and ceremonies and their role in defining the organization. Under the
symbolic frame there are symbols that represent the organization’s goals and philosophy.
Bolman and Deal (2003) contended that each of these frames is essential to improving
organizations. Their work defines the role of a leader by synthesizing the body of knowledge on
effective leadership research and organizing it into a four-frame model. The frames acknowledge
and explain the intricacies of organizations and the demands that these place on leadership. Their
provides a practical framework of effective leadership.
Good to Great: Level 5 Leadership
Collins (2001b) developed a hierarchy of leadership: highly capable individual, contrib-
uting team member, competent manager, effective leader, and Level 5 executive. Collins defined
the Level 5 leader as one who “builds enduring greatness through a paradoxical blend of per-
sonal humility and personal will” (p. 20). Level 5 leaders demonstrate self-effacing
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 44
characteristics, balance personal humility with professional will, resolve to put the company first,
and demonstrate modesty, humility, and fearlessness.
Collins (2001b) identified six characteristics of the Level 5 leader that transform organi-
zations from good status to great status. Good-to-great companies emphasize the philosophy of
being diligent in hiring the right people, placing those people in the correct positions, and elimi-
nating the wrong people. After placing an emphasis on the right people, successful companies
discuss and debate brutal facts and areas for growth. By addressing the problems of the organi-
zation, no matter how deeply rooted, and then choosing to do what is right to address the issue, a
productive management procedure is set into place. Great organizations develop a laser-like
focus describing what the company could do the best. Maintaining a culture of discipline in a
company fosters a sense of accountability for the work that must be accomplished and thus
eliminates restricting controls and embracing a culture of engagement through the system
framework (Collins, 2001b).
Marzano and Waters
According to Marzano and Waters (2009), effective superintendents focus their energies
on creating goal-oriented districts and schools. The researchers identified six district-level
responsibilities of the superintendent that demonstrated a statistically significant correlation to
student achievement.
The first responsibility is collaborative goal-setting. Effective superintendents include all
stakeholders, district office staff, school site administrators, and elected board members in
developing nonnegotiable goals for the district. This collaboration does not imply that a consen-
sus must be reached but that all stakeholders agree to support the goals. The identified practices
are (a) developing a shared vision; (b) implementing a goal-setting process to develop collective
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 45
goals; (c) developing goals that support involvement by all stakeholders, focusing on student
achievement, and challenging the status quo; and (e) communicating clear expectations with all
members of the organization (Marzano & Waters, 2009).
The second responsibility is to establish nonnegotiable goals for student achievement.
Successful superintendents ensure that the collaborative goal process results in nonnegotiable
goals that focus on student achievement and classroom instruction. Relevant practices utilized by
superintendents include (a) modeling understanding of instructional design, (b) establishing clear
priorities among the instructional goals and objectives, (c) incorporating a variety of instructional
strategies that allow for various learning styles, (d) adopting a 5-year nonnegotiable plan for
achievement and instruction, and (e) ensuring that preferred instructional strategies are imple-
mented proficiently (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
The third responsibility is board alignment and support of district goals. Superintendents
ensure that the local board of education is aligned with and supportive of the nonnegotiable goals
for the continuous improvement of instruction and student achievement. Effective practices used
by superintendents include (a) establishing agreement with the board president on the district
goals and on the type and nature of conflict in the district, (b) establishing an understanding with
the board president on the nature of teaching and learning strategies to be used in the district, (c)
providing professional development for the board members, and (d) establishing standards with
the board president on how to measure the effectiveness of board trainings (Waters & Marzano,
2006).
The fourth responsibility is to monitor goals for achievement and instruction. Effective
superintendents consistently monitor district progress toward instructional and student achieve-
ment goals to ensure that these goals remain the driving force behind every action taken by the
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 46
organization as a unit and by individual members. Successful practices applied by superinten-
dents include (a) using an instructional evaluation program, (b) monitoring achievement through
feedback from the instructional evaluation program, (c) annually evaluating principals, (d)
reporting the data to the board on a regular basis, (e) ensuring that the curricular needs of all
student populations are met; (f) observing classrooms during school visits, and (g) coordinating
efforts within the organization to increase reliability of the system (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
The fifth responsibility is to use resources to support the goals for achievement and
instruction. Effective superintendents ensure that the necessary resources, including time, money,
personnel, and materials, are allocated to accomplish the district’s goals. A firm commitment to
professional development builds on the knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to accom-
plish district goals. Successful superintendents implement the following practices: (a) providing
extensive teacher and principal professional development, (b) training all instructional staff in a
common but flexible instructional model, (c) controlling resource allocation, and (d) adopting an
instructional and resource management system supporting the instructional philosophy of the
district (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
The sixth responsibility is defined autonomy. Successful superintendents set clear,
nonnegotiable goals for student learning and instruction but allow principals and their leadership
teams the responsibility to develop a plan of action to meet these objectives. Some of the
leadership practices associated with this responsibility are (a) developing a shared vision and
understanding of defined autonomy; (b) using standards for content and instruction as the basic
design principles; (c) committing the district and schools to continuous improvement, (d)
screening, interviewing, and selecting teachers and principals; (e) establishing teacher evalua-
tions as a priority for principals; (f) establishing strong agreed-upon principles and values that
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 47
direct the actions of people; (g) ensuring that schools have clear missions focused on school per-
formance; (h) ensuring that school practices are characterized by opportunity for all; (i) main-
taining high expectations for school performance; (j) expecting principals to fulfill instructional
leadership responsibilities; (k) developing principals’ awareness of district goals and actions
directed at goal accomplishment; and (l) ensuring that homogeneous ability groupings in class-
rooms do not segregate students into racial or other inappropriate groups (Waters & Marzano,
2006).
These findings presented by Waters and Marzano (2006) indicated that, when focused on
effective classroom, school, and district practices, appropriate achievement and instructional
goals, and effective leadership responsibilities, it is clear that district leadership matters.
Chapter Summary
This study focused on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents.
Preparation programs were explored to identify the existing university and nonuniversity
programs available to aspiring superintendents. The overall finding in the area of preparation was
summed up by K. Roberts and Hernandez (2012):
Leadership preparation programs need to produce leaders who can improve and
transform schools to higher levels of achievement. To meet this challenge, universities
must redesign or innovate programs to better prepare future leaders with the appropriate
skill sets to create high-achieving schools through quality and effective leadership. (p.
150)
A growing body of empirical evidence demonstrates that the quality of leadership provided by
first-time and seasoned superintendents as educational leaders is highly dependent on the quality
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 48
of their preparation experiences and their relationship with the school board (K. Roberts & Her-
nandez, 2012, p. 150).
The recruitment of superintendents was researched to identify how traditional and non-
traditional superintendents attain the position. The literature shows that public education is con-
stantly changing and evolving. According to Kowalski et al. (2011), change, innovation, and
reform, both in academic practices and in the students and staff who populate the schools, have
included school leaders such as superintendents, who have been charged with navigating this sea
of change. “The face of America’s school superintendents is changing, as well, becoming more
diverse and representative of the schools they lead” (Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 31).
The literature review showed that, once a first-time superintendent is appointed to the
position, the challenge becomes to retain the position. Factors such as clarity in roles, expecta-
tions, and the relationship between the superintendent and the school board are crucial to the
retention of first-time superintendent. According to Eller and Carlson (2008), the position of
superintendent will likely be the most difficult position of an educator’s career. An entry plan
can help the new superintendent to work with the board and stakeholders on enacting an action
plan that can help to move the district forward. According to Land (2002), superintendent reten-
tion depends heavily on the types of relations created and maintained with staff, parents, the
community, and the school board. In order to work together as a governance team, it is
imperative that the board and the superintendent develop and maintain good relationships with
each other.
Also pivotal to the success and longevity of a first-time superintendent is the ability to
lead an organization. Research suggests that successful superintendents incorporate three models
into their leadership practices. The conceptual framework cited in the literature review
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 49
demonstrates that successful superintendents exercise Bolman and Deal’s four frames, adopt
Collins’s Level 5 leadership when reacting to successes and failures, and develop and implement
Waters and Marzano’s strategies for school district leadership that work.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 50
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the research design, sampling, instrumentation, and methodology
for data collection and analysis that were employed in this study. The purpose of this study was
to describe and analyze the preparation, recruitment, and retention of successful superintendents
in California school districts. It was expected that findings would suggest a set of useful
strategies that may inform the work and hiring of district superintendents and those organizations
that seek to prepare, recruit, and retain them. The methodology employed for this study was a
qualitative approach.. Surveys of superintendents, board members, and executive search firm
consultants were designed and distributed via e-mail to support the qualitative interviews that
were conducted with these groups to gather first-hand information about recruiting and retaining
superintendents. This approach allowed participants to share their experiences and knowledge,
constructed by their experiences in their ascent to the superintendency or their involvement in
hiring a superintendent.
Research Questions
The following research questions were developed to guide the study:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Research Design and Method
To address the research questions, a qualitative methods approach was used in collecting,
analyzing, and reporting data for this study. This allowed the researcher to collect data as
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 51
comprehensively and completely as possible. According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996), this
approach in a research study allows for triangulation of data and expansion of the breadth and
depth of the study. Surveys were administered to validate the qualitative findings. The surveys
were sent to current California superintendents and elected board members in California public
schools. Although interviews were conducted during the same period of time in which surveys
were distributed, they were analyzed separately and are the focal data informing the study.
Quantitative Methodology
Although this was not a mixed-methods study, the researcher found value in utilizing
survey data to affirm/confirm qualitative findings. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) found that
this approach to research provides answers to a much broader and comprehensive range of
research questions because the study is not limited to interviews. “Qualitative and quantitative
research used together produces more complete knowledge necessary to inform theory and
practice” (p. 21). In this study, data were collected in two stages: (a) Surveys were sent to
superintendents and school board members, and (b) interviews were conducted with the same
groups, including executive search firm consultants, to gather first-hand data for understanding
the participants’ beliefs and experiences regarding superintendent preparation, recruitment, and
retention. Research participants received an invitation email (Appendix A) requesting their par-
ticipation.
Surveys were developed and administered to address the research questions. A survey
was designed for each specific group: superintendents (Appendix B) and school board members
(Appendix C). The data were utilized to generalize from a sample to a population so that infer-
ences could be made about the participants’ beliefs and perceptions on the preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention of California superintendents. The surveys provided a quantitative
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 52
description and led to ratings that were pivotal in supporting the findings of this study. Each
survey was sent electronically; it was estimated that the participant would require 15 minutes to
complete the survey. The participants were promised confidentiality.
Qualitative Methodology
Interviews of superintendents, board members, and executive search firms were con-
ducted to elicit information regarding superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention.
During the interviews, participants were asked questions related to but not limited to the follow-
ing: (a) preparation needed to become a superintendent, (b) the processes and strategies that a
candidate uses to ascend to the superintendency, and (c) the processes and strategies that are
employed by a superintendent to ensure career longevity. The protocol and specific questions
were administered consistently to all participants (Appendices D-F). The goal of the qualitative
research interview, as suggested by King (1994), is to see the research topic from the perspective
of the interviewee and to understand how and why he or she comes to have this particular per-
spective.
Population and Sampling
This study focused on interviewing and surveying superintendents and school board
members in California; executive search firms were not necessarily based in California but had
provided services in recruiting and placing superintendent in California. Surveys were sent to
superintendents via Association of California School Administrators (ACSA) distribution data-
base and a subsampling of superintendents was surveyed via Dean’s Superintendent's Advisory
Group (DSAG) distribution database. School board members were surveyed via the CSBA
distribution database. The sample for this study was selected through purposeful sampling
(Patton, 2002). The criteria for the study were established and the sample was selected based on
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 53
the identified criteria and research questions. The superintendent sampling for instance consisted
of participants from rural, suburban, and urban school districts, ethnically diverse members of
ACSA, and persons connected to the University of Southern California (USC) through DSAG.
According to Merriam (2009), a researcher must select a sample from which the most learning
can be uncovered, especially when the goal is to discover, understand, and gain insight.
Purposeful sampling was utilized to select superintendents, board members, and executive search
firm consultants.
The populations for this study were superintendents, board members, and executive
search firms. Participant selection was collaborative, deliberate, and purposeful (see invitation
email in Appendix A). Interviews and surveys were confined to school districts in California. All
surveys were sent electronically to current and active superintendents and board members. Most
interviews with superintendents and board members took place at their respective district offices
or in a public location. Interviews with executive search firm consultants were conducted in
public locations. Table 1 depicts the surveys, participants, and response rates.
Instrumentation
The researcher conducted interviews utilizing a structured interview protocol. Three
interview guides were developed for the participant groups: superintendents (Appendix D),
school board members (Appendix E), and executive search firms (Appendix F). Patton (2002)
emphasized four essential components of interviews that were addressed in this part of the study:
(a) The interview protocol was available for inspection by the research team, (b) variation among
interviewers was minimized as several interviews are analyzed, (c) the interview protocol
structured the interview to allow for efficient use of the interviewee’s time, and (d) analysis was
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 54
Table 1

Surveys, Participants, and Response Rates

Survey recipients Sample (N) Responses (n) Response rate (%)

ACSA superintendents 350 61 17.42
DSAG superintendents 61 12 19.67
CSBA board members 300 29 9.70

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators, DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent's Advisory Group, University of Southern California Rossier School of Education, CSBA =
California School Boards Association.

was facilitated by making responses easy to code and correlate. Interviews were delimited to
California superintendents, board members, and executive search firm consultants.
The qualitative instrument ensured consistency and reliability through a standardized
structured interview protocol. According to Patton (2002), the standardized structured interview
protocol consists of a set of questions carefully crafted and arranged with the intent of maintain-
ing consistency by taking respondents through a structured sequence of questions with the same
wording.
The quantitative instrument used to collect data was an electronic survey was developed
specifically for each participant group. The survey items were designed based on the research
questions. The items were carefully developed around the topics of superintendent preparation,
recruitment, and retention. This approach allowed the researcher to report on each particular
category and topic, as well as make correlations between categories and topics. Survey items
were presented using a 4-point Likert-type response scale (4 = Strongly Agree, 3 = Agree, 2 =
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 55
Disagree, 1 = Strongly Disagree, and 0 = Don’t Know or N/A). All survey items were aligned to
the research questions and conceptual frameworks in the study.
Data Collection Protocols
Each prospective respondent was sent an email (Appendix A) that invited participation in
the study. Interviews were structured to enable the researcher to interpret the data in a systematic
and uniform manner. Qualitative data were collected via interviews; quantitative data were
collected via electronic surveys from superintendents and board members. Structured interviews
gave the researcher the opportunity to elicit information from the participants (Patton, 2002). The
interviews included a series of appropriate questions; the interviews began on time and were
electronically recorded. Prior to the interview, each participant was asked for permission to
record the interview for later data analysis (Merriam, 2009). Once the researcher had obtained
consent, the interviews proceeded with specific questions and continued with structured
questions to yield descriptive data (Merriam, 2009). The researcher consistently stated the
purpose of the research and the participants were acknowledged for their contribution to the
study.
Data Analysis
Responses to the electronic surveys were reviewed using computer adaptive software for
quantitative analysis. After the review inferences were made, further research questions were
developed. The qualitative data obtained from the interviews were evaluated through categorical
and interpretational analysis and coded by themes and categories. Both qualitative and quantita-
tive data were analyzed utilizing the Question Alignment Matrix (Appendix G). The goal was to
cross-reference the emerging findings through triangulation of the date in order to ensure that the
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 56
research questions had been addressed. Based on analysis of the data, findings, conclusions, and
suggestions for further research are reported.
Ethical Considerations
According to Merriam (2009), ethical practice is based on the individual researcher and
his or her values and ethics that he or she brings to the study. Members of the research team par-
ticipated in the Institutional Review Board (IRB) process, which included completing the Col-
laborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI), an online component that trains researchers to consider
the ethical implications of research. Safeguards were put in place to guarantee participant
anonymity. To ensure that the study would do no physical or emotional harm to the participants,
the following safeguards were utilized (Creswell, 2009): (a) Research objectives were clearly
articulated, (b) participants were informed of all data collection devices (recorders) and activi-
ties, (c) participants’ rights and anonymity were respected when analyzing and reporting data
findings, and (d) participation was entirely voluntary.
Chapter Summary
This chapter presents a description of the qualitative research approach used to address
the research questions. The questions are addressed based on data collected interviews. Accord-
ing to Maxwell (2013), triangulation allows the researcher to examine consistencies in data. The
literature review, interviews, and surveys provided the researcher an opportunity to triangulate
the data regarding preparation, recruitment, and career longevity of the superintendency in Cali-
fornia. The population consisted of California superintendents, school board members, and exec-
utive search firm consultants.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 57
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
Purpose Restated
The purpose of this study was to inform multiple stakeholders. Aspiring superintendents
will be informed on the preparation, skills, and relationships that will support their transition to
the superintendency. School boards of education will be informed on the insights that will help
them to recruit better candidates into the superintendency and maintain a positive relationship
with the superintendent. Executive search firms will be informed on strategies to recruit
candidates for the position while providing strategies on superintendent retention. Universities
and nonuniversity training programs will be informed on the impact of their programs on training
superintendents. This study will also inform current superintendents about perceptions about
what is needed to achieve success and longevity. To achieve this purpose three research
questions were developed to guide the research:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
This chapter presents the results of the analyses performed to address the three research
questions. The chapter is organized into the following sections: a description of the study
participants, a description of the protocol used to collect data, a description of how the data were
analyzed, and a discussion of the important themes that emerged from the data based on each
research question. The themes that emerged included but are not limited to the following: (a)
superintendent preparation (public and university training programs) and past professional work
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 58
experience and on-the-job training (Research Question 1); (b) career paths to the
superintendency, professional relationships (mentoring/networking), and entry plans to support
recruitment (Research Question 2); and (c) school board relationships, leadership strategies, and
personal motivation as factors that support retention (Research Question 3).
Participants and Response Rate
Once the study received IRB approval, the team of eight researchers interviewed 25
superintendents, 18 board members, and 8 executive search firm consultants. However, for the
purpose of this study, this researcher focused on interviews with first-time superintendents.
Interviews were conducted with board members who were currently in a district with a first-time
superintendent. Also, to inform this study, surveys were sent to superintendents affiliated with
the ACSA and superintendents associated with the DSAG. An additional survey was sent to
school board members affiliated with the CSBA.
Qualitative Data Collection
Interviews with the superintendents, board members, and executive search firm
consultants were conducted in person and were recorded with an audio device. All respondents
were guaranteed anonymity to allow them to freely respond. Table 2 outlines the characteristics
of the first-time superintendents who were interviewed.
Superintendent 1 (S1) was from District 1 (D1) a K–12 school district in an urban area.
Superintendent 2 (S2) was from District 2 (D2), a Union High School District (Grades 7–12),
also in an urban geographical area. Superintendent 3 (S3) was from District 3 (D3), an urban K–
12 school district. The 2017 data for all the urban school districts are presented in Figure 2. The
executive search firm consultant who was interviewed in this study has provided services in
recruiting and placing superintendents in California public schools. School board members
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 59
Table 2

Descriptors of the Interviewed Superintendents

Highest Pathway to the Years in Years as a
Superintendent education superintendency education superintendent

S1 EdD Traditional 20 3
S2 Master’s Nontraditional 25 4
S3 PhD Traditional 23 3

Figure 2. Descriptors of the districts served by the interviewed superintendents. SES =
socioeconomic status. Adapted from DataQuest, by California Department of Education, 2013,
retrieved from https://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 60
members who were interviewed currently worked with a first-time superintendent; they are
herein referred to as Board Member 1 (B1) and Board Member 2 (B2). Both board members
serve a secondary education school district (Grades 7–12). Table 3 outlines board member
descriptors.

Table 3

Descriptors of the Interviewed School Board Members

Member Gender Board position Year appointed

B1 Male Assistant Clerk 2013
B2 Female Member 2012

Additional Data
Of the 350 superintendents who received the sample disseminated through ACSA, 61
responded, for a response rate of 17.42%, and 42 stated that they were serving as superintendent
for the first time, for a response rate of 12.00%. Among the 42 responding first-time
superintendents, 20 reported holding a Doctor of Education degree, 20 reported holding a
master’s degree, and 2 reported other educational attainment. The 42 responding first-time
superintendents reported their years of experience in the education profession: 2 reported 1-10
years, 2 reported 11-20 years, 20 reported 20 years, and 18 reported 30 or more years.
An additional survey was sent to superintendents affiliated with the USC DSAG.
Thirteen of these 61 superintendents responded to the survey, for a response rate of 19.67%,
including 7 who reported serving as first-time superintendents, for a response rate of 11.47%.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 61
A survey was sent to 300 CSBA board members through the CSBA distribution list; 29
responded, for a response rate of 9.7%.
Research Question 1: Preparation
Research Question 1 asked, How have training programs and experience prepared
superintendents to manage the complexities and challenges of the superintendency? The findings
related to this question are reported in this section.
Importance of Preparation Programs
The superintendency is a profession that is demanding and filled with challenges of an
ever-evolving educational system. Superintendent preparation and support programs are,
therefore, an essential component of educational transformation. However, few superintendent
preparation programs exist. Some research supports the idea that superintendents consider that
their expertise was gained from their training programs and that experiences is valuable.
However, other research supports that a large number of university preparation programs and
credentialing standards are not adequately preparing the caliber of leaders necessary to meet the
challenges of today’s educational system.
Leadership preparation programs need to produce leaders who can improve and
transform schools to higher levels of achievement. To meet this challenge, universities
must redesign or innovate programs to better prepare future leaders with the appropriate
skill sets to create high-achieving schools through quality and effective leadership. (K.
Roberts & Hernandez, 2012, p. 150)
The interviews revealed that the participating first-time superintendents agreed that no set
training or courses had prepared them for the job.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 62
With respect to university programs, I’ll tell you that by and large, there was not any
specific set of courses or training that I was enrolled in, or participated in that prepared
me for the superintendency. (S3, interview, October 20, 2017)
S2 had not received any formal training from the university or other programs
specifically designed for superintendents. S1 stated that university training programs were
important but acknowledged that they do not offer adequate preparation for the position:
Along the way whether it’s your credentials, your Master’s program, your doctoral
program, those can only help . . . strengthen your preparation for the position. But, those
programs alone would not guarantee preparing you for the [complexities] of the
superintendency, let alone guarantee a successful superintendency. (S1, interview,
October 18, 2017)
ACSA survey data in this study supported the qualitative data and revealed that, when
asked whether university programs provided the training and experience that was important in
preparing to become a superintendent, 23% of the first-time superintendent respondents Disagree
and only 16% responded Strongly Agree. Also, when asked whether nontraditional training
programs (such as the Broad Academy) are important in preparing for the position of
superintendent, 58% of the first-time superintendents responded that they did not know. DSAG
superintendent survey data were comparable: 71% of the first-time superintendents responded
that they did not know whether nontraditional training programs are important in preparing for
the position of superintendent.
These results indicate that many of the first-time superintendents did not agree that
superintendent training and support programs had prepared them for the superintendency. Some
research supports the idea that superintendents consider expertise gained from their training
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 63
programs to be valuable; however, other research supports that a large number of university and
training programs are not relevant to the actual position of superintendent (Cooper et al., 2006;
Orr, 2006).
Importance of Professional Experience and On-the-Job Training
First-time superintendents must prepare themselves for the challenges that await them as
they assume the new role. They will need to tap into their professional work experience and tacit
knowledge to navigate the complexities and challenges of the superintendency. According to
Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001), tacit knowledge is critical for success as a superintendent. Tacit
knowledge refers to experiential knowledge or action-oriented knowledge that allows one to
adapt, select, and shape one’s environments in ways that enable one to achieve one’s goals
(Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001). ACSA survey data indicated that 93% of the first-time
superintendent respondents responded Strongly Agree or Agree that prior work experience was
more important than university training experience in preparing them for the position of
superintendent. All of the DSAG first-time superintendents responded Strongly Agree or Agree
that their prior work experience was more important than university training experience. In
addition, 92% of the ACSA first-time superintendent respondents Strongly Agreed or Agreed and
86% of the DSAG first-time superintendents Strongly Agreed or Agreed that having experience
as a principal is a crucial element in preparing for the position as a superintendent. This
information supports the interview responses.
The real training . . . came from being a site leader for 10 years. Then transitioning to the
Education Center of a District office and working as an associate superintendent. The
knowledge I was able to access as part of my experience as an associate superintendent
dealt with working with the board, understanding the importance of governance and
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 64
being mindful of initiatives in the district. Making sure that from the boardroom to the
classroom there has been clear communication. (S3, interview, October 20, 2017)
S2 stated that informal training and real experiences dealing with real problems, such as
human resources, budgeting, and educational instruction, provided the most effective training
and experience needed for the job:
The informal experience that I’ve had . . . has been very helpful. My own job rising from
a teacher to overseeing the BITSA program, which at its height had 160 participants.
Then morphing into a district administration position overseeing grants. Having been an
elected official and looking through the lens of a board . . . . Having spent 9 years as a
board of trustee [member] . . . was probably the strongest experience I had in preparing
me for a superintendency. (S2, interview, October 26, 2017)
When asked where the most effective experience and training was received that helped to
enter the superintendency, S1 shared,
It is an accumulation of just my own personal upbringing, and my 20 years at the time in
education that really enforced the skills that I believe have become the most useful in
obtaining the superintendency. (interview, October 18, 2017)
The executive search firm interviewee stated that the type of experience that
superintendents need to prepare for the superintendency focuses on obtaining knowledge through
experience in the areas of educational services, human resources, budgeting, and facilities.
The superintendency, as you know, is kind of a unique position, because you are the
combination of a few expertise roles. You are basically the Chief Executive Officer for a
district. You’re also, in essence, the chief politician of the district and cheerleader and
several other roles. Each one of those requires a certain amount of knowledge and that’s
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 65
what I’m getting to, the type of training that you need. It’s a complex organization that
we divide into different departments. From educational services to human resources to
budget operations, facilities and so forth. Anyone of those is important to know. The
more you know about each one of those, the better. But I strongly suggest, it’s very, very,
advisable to be an expert or close to an expert in at least one of those, but be familiar with
all. As I said, you are in charge of running a complex organization. (interview, October
25, 2017)
Interviews conducted with the board members (B1 and B2) revealed that experience with
the district and district initiatives, classroom experience, educational knowledge, outside work
within education, and being service oriented provided the first-time superintendent with the
experience needed to manage the complexities of the superintendency. Responses to the CSBA
survey supported the statements made by the board members. Data results for the surveyed
school board members revealed that 93.88% Strongly Agreed or Agreed that the superintendent’s
prior work experience was more important than his or her university training experience to
prepare for the current position.
The first-time superintendents agreed that on-the-job training provided the most effective
training and experience for the job. S1 noted that much of what superintendents do is learned on
the job. “A lot of the day-to-day operations you’ll learn are on the job” (interview, October 18,
2017). S2 shared that the best training comes from immersing oneself in the job.
It’s real-life situations that offer the best training. We are leading in a lot of various areas
so it is important to learn by surrounding yourself with people that constantly are
reflective. Building this model of continuous learning and improvement you build and
create those important systems to help move forward. I’m getting the most bang for the
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 66
buck by surrounding myself by people at all levels and get advice, and a lot of input to
help move the district forward. (interview, October 26, 2017)
S2 contended that on-the-job training was obtained by immersing in the job but also by
receiving authentic feedback and advice from the team at the district office. He stated that
“decisional capital allows for one to learn from people that are highly competent and well versed
in their area” (interview, October 26, 2017).
S1 stated that “a lot that superintendents do will be learned on the job . . . a lot of the day-
to-day operations, you’ll learn on the job by responding to scenarios” (interview, October 18,
2017). This response was echoed by S3, who said, “The route I took [to the superintendency]
was learning by doing, falling on your face, and realizing okay, I have to get better.” S3
continued, “You learn while you’re going through scenarios” (interview, October 20, 2017).
Although these superintendents agreed that the best training and preparation for the job
came from educational work experience and “learning by doing,” the executive search consultant
noted that, although expertise and on-the-job training are critical, extensive training received
prior to becoming a superintendent is also valuable. “It’s much harder to start to attend trainings
once you become a superintendent. . . . The more you build on your repertoire of experience and
training will assist you in becoming a more effective leader” (interview, October 25, 2017).
Discussion
The importance of preparation programs emerged from the data related to Research
Question 1. First-time superintendents who were interviewed for this study stated that training
programs, such as university programs and/or nontraditional training programs, had not prepared
them for the position of superintendent. Their responses aligned with the research that supports
that expertise gained from training programs is valuable. However, the stronger sentiment among
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 67
the interviewees aligned with research that states that university and training programs are not
relevant to the actual position of superintendent (Cooper et al., 2006; Orr, 2006).
The second emergent theme that related to Research Question 1 was the importance of
professional experience and on-the-job training. The superintendents’ perceptions were that real
training comes from experience in site leadership. Many of the superintendents who were
interviewed stated that informal training and real experiences with real people and day-to-day
scenarios provide the most effective training and experience for the job of superintendent. School
board members stated that experience with the district and district initiatives was critical in
preparing for the position. School board members noted that classroom experience, educational
knowledge, and being service oriented make for a good candidate. The executive search
consultant noted that most of the training will be learned on the job but emphasized that
knowledge through experience, coupled with professional training programs, will result in a
more effective leader. It was apparent that tacit knowledge is critical for success of a
superintendent, who will need to tap into professional work experiences to navigate the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency (Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001).
Research Question 2: Recruitment
Research Question 2 asked, What are the perceptions of current successful
superintendents regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or
her position? The findings related to this question are reported in this section.
Career Paths to the Superintendency
Kowalski (2003) reported that most superintendents enter the position via the traditional
route of moving through the district’s organizational hierarchy of teacher, principal, and
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 68
superintendent. The executive search firm consultant stated that the career path to the
superintendency is usually a typical path:
The introduction to education, in most cases is as teacher and as a teacher you become
more exposed. You start accepting more responsibilities, getting more training and you
start advancing into areas that are pseudo-administrative. Then you eventually get into
administration. In most cases the progression would be teacher, a coordinator, resource
teacher, director, principal. Sometimes a principal first, sometimes a director first.
interview, October 25, 2017)
First-time superintendent S3 shared the career path that had contributed to becoming a
superintendent:
My particular career path is a little varied . . . compared to others. I spent 10 years as a
site principal. I was an elementary principal for 2 years, a middle school principal for 4
years, and a high school principal for 4 years. Following my last year as a high school
principal, I became an assistant superintendent and then an associate superintendent.
Ultimately, I was selected and hired for my first superintendency following 2 years as a
central office executive. (interview, October 20, 2017)
First-time superintendent S1 had a similar career path:
I started off as a middle school teacher. . . . I obtained an emergency credential and was
placed in a eighth-grade class with 49 kids my first year, who were learning English as a
second language. Three years after obtaining my teaching credential, I joined an
administrative program. So, I became an instructional coach my 4th year and soon after I
became an assistant principal and I spent 2 years in that position. I then became an
elementary principal. A year and a half later, I became a high school principal of a
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 69
traditional high school, then I became a principal of alternative education. From there, I
became Director of Student Services and after that I was promoted as Assistant
Superintendent of Education Programs. After my third year as assistant superintendent, I
became a superintendent. (interview, October 18, 2017)
The ACSA superintendent survey data supported the qualitative data and indicated that,
when asked to select all that applied regarding prior educational experiences as a school site
administrator, 89 responses from first-time superintendents showed that their educational
experience as school site administrators had included assistant principal (elementary, middle,
and/or high school), principal (elementary, middle, and/or high school), and dean of students.
Also, 65 responses from first-time superintendents regarding experience as a district-level
administrator indicated that their experience had included coordinator, specialist, director,
assistant superintendent, and chief financial business officer.
These results align with studies that have shown that the pathway to the superintendency
position is typically that of specialist, administrator, assistant principal, secondary principal,
assistant/associate superintendent, and superintendent (Gaertner, 1981). However, this does not
mean that there are no alternative career pathways to the superintendency. According to Cuban
(2001), nontraditional superintendents began to appear in the educational arena during the era of
educational reform in the mid-1990s. Nontraditional superintendents come from diverse sectors.
According to the executive search consultant,
There is no one best career path. The best career path is the one that allows you to be a
successful superintendent that is supporting the education of our students and running a
complex organization that makes sure that students become productive and happy future
citizens. (interview, October 25, 2017)
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 70
S2 shared, “I had an unorthodox route. I did not receive any formal training from the
University or other programs specifically designed for superintendents.” S2 continued:
I was never a principal, never an assistant principal, never a district level cabinet
member. I moved up to the superintendency because my career is pretty much all in one
district. My rise to the superintendency was built on trust. They trusted my decision
making. I’ve always been a servant leader in this district. (interview, October 26, 2017)
According to Quinn (2002), nontraditional superintendents bring critically needed
strengths and experiences such as skills in strategic visioning, planning and accountability. Wong
and Shen (2003) stated that the perception has been that nontraditional superintendents personify
change.
It’s really important that people don’t look at a superintendent in a traditional way as
before. A lot of people said that because our superintendent did not hold a principal job
that it might not work out for him as a superintendent. I’ve heard those arguments and I
would challenge that. I would challenge people to really look outside the box, in terms of
what the [aspiring superintendent’s] goals are and what their aim is and where their heart
is in education, instead of just looking at the traditional trajectory of having to be a
principal, then you have to become an assistant superintendent to make a good
superintendent, because in our case I would disagree. (B2, interview, November 15,
2017)
Based on the research, although the most common route to the superintendency includes
moving from specialist to, administrator, assistant principal, secondary principal, assistant/
associate superintendent, and then superintendent, some districts have looked for change in that
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 71
trajectory (Gaertner, 1981). Some districts have leaned toward hiring nontraditional
superintendents in an effort to effect transformational change (Wong & Shen, 2003).
Professional Relationships (Mentoring/Networking)
Beem (2007) contended that mentoring in the workplace has come to the forefront as an
important element in helping people to achieve personal and professional goals. Mentoring
relationships and professional networks can provide structure, valuable assistance, and guidance
for those who are learning to lead (Björk, 2000). Table 4 shows which professional relationships
first-time superintendents cited as important processes or strategies to being recruited to the
superintendency. The results shown in Table 4 came from ACSA survey respondents who self-
identified as first-time superintendents.

Table 4

First-Time Superintendents’ Perceptions of the Importance of Mentoring and/or a Networking
Relationship to Being Recruited as a Superintendent

Strongly Strongly Don’t Know
Item Agree Agree Disagree Disagree or NA

Mentors 38% 36% 14% 7% 5%
Professional Networks
(e.g., ACSA, AASA) 17% 36% 36% 7% 5%
School Board Members 14% 38% 31% 10% 7%
Executive Search Firm 19% 26% 19% 21% 14%

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators, AASA = American Association
of School Administrators. NA = not applicable.

The ACSA superintendent survey data supported the qualitative data findings by
demonstrating that a greater majority of first-time superintendents (74%) Strongly Agreed or
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 72
Agreed that having a mentor(s) was an important process or strategy to being recruited. Of the
same respondents, however, only 53% Strongly Agreed or Agreed that being a part of a
professional networks was important to being recruited. The data also revealed that 45% of first-
time superintendent respondents Strongly Agreed or Agreed that networking with an executive
search firm was an important process to reaching the superintendency. In terms of the
importance of networking with school board members, 52% Strongly Agreed or Agreed that it
was an important process or strategy to recruitment into the current position as superintendent.
The DSAG superintendent survey data revealed that mentors were the most important
relationships to being recruited as a superintendent, with 86% of first-time superintendents
Strongly Agreeing or Agreeing that having mentor(s) was an important process or strategy to
being recruited. Table 5 summarizes these results.
The survey data supported the qualitative data; S3 agreed that having mentors who were
acting or former superintendents was important to attaining the position of superintendent.
Although S3 stated that not actively being in search of a superintendent position, once it was
decided that the pursuit of the superintendency was a viable option, S3 reached out to mentors.
S3 described the support, assistance, and guidance received from having mentors:
Because of my relationship with my mentors I was able to request letters of support. I
was able to go and say, “Hey, tell me what your process was like.” For me it was
[important] to have access to the “file cabinet” of what to expect and how to prepare for
the first round [of superintendency interviews]. And understand what the second round
interviews were going to look like if, if I had the opportunity to get there. [During the
recruitment process] if the board wants to come to my district and visit as part of their
decision-making process, what does that look like? My mentors were people that I had
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 73
worked with previously and [they] were really helpful [to me being recruited into my
current position]. (interview, October 20, 2017)

Table 5

First-time Superintendents’ Perceptions of the Importance of Mentoring and/or a Networking
Relationship to Being Recruited as a Superintendent

Strongly Strongly Don’t Know
Item Agree Agree Disagree Disagree or NA

Mentors 57% 29% 14% 0% 0%
Professional Networks
(e.g., ACSA, AASA) 0% 43% 43% 0% 0%
School Board Members 0% 43% 57% 0% 0%
Executive Search Firm 14% 14% 43% 29% 0%

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators, AASA = American Association
of School Administrators. NA = not applicable.

S2 stated that he had utilized professional relationships with mentors to support his
attainment of his current appointment of superintendent. When asked, “Did you strategically use
professional relationships to attain your current position, S2 responded:
Yes, I do not think anything happens in isolation. I think it’s really important to [seek the
support] of mentors. When it came down to it, I had [mentors] that I could practice with
on what some questions might be and they would give me really concrete feedback. I
sought [mentors] to inform me not only on the technical areas of running a district, but
also the political pieces too. I still rely on my mentors, these are folks that I have a high
level of trust with and I bounce off ideas or initiatives. (interview, October 26, 2017)
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 74
S1 agreed that mentors were important but commented that being a part of professional
networks was just as important in attaining the position of superintendent:
Networking with other superintendents [was important]. I became involved in CALSA,
California Association for Latino Superintendents and Administrators. It was the
exposure that I believe provided, additional supports and guidance in pursuing the
superintendency. Those [professional networks] that I was able to be a part of at the time,
I believe were instrumental in my development and pursuit of the superintendency.
(interview, October 18, 2017)
B2 stated that mentors had helped the superintendent in her district become the educator
and “servant leader” that he is. B1 briefly stated that his superintendent had strategically utilized
relationships only to a certain extent, such as mentors or networking to attain the position. The
CSBA school board survey supported the statements made by the board members. Data results of
the surveyed school board members revealed that 81.63% of the board members Strongly Agreed
or Agreed that having mentors was instrumental in preparing their superintendent for his or her
current position.
The executive search consultant’s perception of the importance of strategically utilizing
professional relationships such as mentors and networks was that aspiring superintendent are
usually more successful at attaining the superintendency if they have good mentors:
No matter how much we tell them [aspiring superintendents] . . . I mean we as mentors or
we as research consultants or retired superintendents, whatever you want to call us, “Feel
free to call us. If you have questions, if you need help, feel free to call.” And a lot of them
don’t. Like I said earlier, becoming a superintendent is very unique and you have to learn
how to navigate through political, budgetary, school improvement, and community
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 75
waters. And those of us who have been in those positions can really help guide new
[superintendents] coming up. I think the mentoring is very important. (interview, October
25, 2017)
In terms of professional networks, the executive search consultant said that associations
such as the California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators [CALSA] can
help to train and prepare prospective superintendents to be recruited into the position.
Even law firms like AALRR [Atkinson, Andelson, Loya, Ruud & Romo, Law
Corporation] are now instrumental in training [prospective superintendents] to become
very well versed not just as leaders but in the area of legal issues that affect student
learning and running a school district. (interview, October 25, 2017)
In addition to professional relationships as vehicles to support aspiring superintendents to
attain the position, researchers have found that throughout the centuries mentoring has served as
a powerful developer of human potential (Glass et al., 2000). Those who are supported either via
a mentor or through professional networks within associations gain risk-taking behaviors,
communication skills, and ability to survive in their organization (Bova & Phillips, 1982).
Entry Plan
An entry plan is an action plan to be executed upon assuming a position. According to
some researchers, an entry plan is not only essential to obtaining the position but is essential to
the success of a superintendent (Neff & Citrin, 2005; Watkins, 2003). Developing an entry plan
enables the aspiring superintendent to learn about the organization and learn about himself or
herself (Jentz & Murphy, 2005). When asked whether they had created an entry plan when being
recruited for the position of superintendent, all three superintendents stated that they had done so.
S3 stated, “Absolutely, I created an entry plan, a 100-day entry plan” (interview, October 20,
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 76
2017). S2 stated, “Yeah, it’s pretty common, I think” (interview, October 26, 2017). S1
responded, “Yes, I did create a 90-day entry plan” (interview, October 18, 2017). S3 continued,
“Creating an entry plan was really about the listening, the learning, and the leading that I would
be doing over that 100 days” (interview, October 20, 2017). S2 shared that a 100-day entry plan
“provides some sort of legitimacy for what you intend to do, and . . . that [helps] to build
confidence with the board” (interview, October 26, 2017) to support their selection. Although S1
agreed that having a 90-day plan may be “a good management idea,” S1 continued by stating, “It
can be very eye opening to see that the needs of the community, during those 90 days are very
different from what [you] had in mind” (interview, October 18, 2017). For this reason, Watkins
(2003) emphasized the importance not only of the entry plan but also of the entry period.
Board members B1 and B2 shared that, during the recruitment process, their current
superintendent had presented an entry plan when pursuing the position.
That was a requirement that we asked for. It helped the [superintendent get hired]
because he excelled at it, probably because he knew what the challenges were within the
district and what needed to be corrected. He presented a good vision, based on the
educational setting within the [district] itself. Having an entry plan helped him . . . . he
presented a plan which current board members who sat on the board appreciated and
identified [with]. (B1, interview, November 15, 2017)
With similar sentiments B2 shared why an entry plan had helped the current
superintendent to attain the position:
I think it helped some of the board members see his vision. The first 100-day entry plan
was key for the board members to understand what his vision was for the district and how
he was really going to implement it. It’s one thing to say, “Uh, I have all of these ideas
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 77
and great plans,” but to put them in a 100-day written plan helped us [the board] to follow
what he planned on doing step by step, and I thought that was really important. None of
the other candidates had done that. They had ideas and they had vision, but none of the
other applicants actually put that together to present to the board [as a written plan].
(interview, November 14, 2017)
The CSBA school board survey supported the statements made by the board members.
Data results of the surveyed school board members revealed that 77.5% of the board members
Strongly Agreed or Agree that having a formal written strategic plan supports the
superintendent’s success.
The executive search consultant stated that presenting an entry plan is a good idea when
being recruited into the position:
Some aspiring superintendents [when being recruited] present a 90-day or a 100-day
plan. Some do and some don’t. In general it’s a very good idea to present an [entry plan],
especially in consultation with the research consultant, because we are the ones that have
a really good understanding of what the strengths and weaknesses are of the district.
Some [aspiring superintendents] don’t want to do that [present an entry plan] and those
that don’t tend not to go very far. Those that do have a very good idea of the strengths
and weaknesses of the district, the direction of the board, the vision of the board, those
types of things. That knowledge comes out in their 90-day or 100-day plan. If aspiring
superintendents could articulate it and write it down, then have a road map to work with,
and it is presented to the board, it’s even better [for their chances of obtaining the
position of superintendent]. So, I think it’s a really good idea to have an entry plan.
(interview, October 25, 2017)
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 78
The data revealed that the school board members and executive research consultant
supporting the hiring process looked favorably on creating an entry plan when being recruited
into the position of superintendent.
Discussion
Superintendent career paths were an important theme in this study. The results of this
research align with studies that have shown that the pathway to the superintendency is typically
that of a specialist, administrator, assistant principal, secondary principal, assistant or associate
superintendent, and superintendent (Gaertner, 1981). However, a nontraditional path to the
superintendency is also a valid possibility. Of the three superintendents who were interviewed,
two had attained their position through a traditional pathway. However, board members who
were interviewed expressed that candidates who did not have site-level administrative experience
were not looked down on or excluded, because what matters is that the candidate demonstrates
knowledge of the district and community and has the heart to serve. The executive search
consultant also stated that there is no one best career path. The best career path is the one that
prepares a superintendent to support the education of all students to ensure that they become
productive future citizens, as well as one that enables that person to run a complex organization.
The second theme related to Research Question 2 was the importance and value of
professional relationships (such as mentors and professional networks) in helping to be recruited
into the position of superintendent. All three superintendents strongly agreed that professional
relationships with mentors had helped to support their appointments as superintendent. Most also
agreed that professional networks were important to being recruited. These positions were
supported through the data collected from first-time superintendents via the ACSA and DSAG
surveys. Seventy-four percent of first-time superintendents surveyed through ACSA Strongly
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 79
Agreed or Agreed and 86% of DSAG first-time superintendents Strongly Agreed or Agreed that
having mentors was important to attaining the position of superintendent.
The third emerging theme related to Research Question 2 was the importance of an entry
plan in being recruited. All three superintendents stated that they had submitted an entry plan
during the hiring process. Both school board members stated that an entry plan was expected and
had helped to determine which candidate they would hire. The executive search consultant
shared that, in general, it is a very good idea to present an entry plan, especially in consultation
with the research consultant, who understands the strengths and weaknesses of the hiring district.
Thus, the research shows that creating an entry plan is a valuable strategy to being recruited into
the position of superintendent.
Research Question 3: Retention
Research Question 3 asked, What are the perceived strategies that support the retention
of superintendents? The findings related to this question are reported in this section.
School Board Relationships
A board of education is a policy-making body that directs the superintendent to
implement specified policies. The board is responsible for oversight of the district, hiring
superintendents, and making policies to improve student achievement (Hess, 2003). Together,
school boards and superintendents are charged with attempting to fulfill the educational promise
to all children in America. The success of a school district is determined by the positive
relationship between the school board and the superintendent (Kowalski et al., 2011).
The ACSA superintendent survey revealed that 95% of first-time superintendent
respondents Strongly Agreed or Agreed that the relationship with their board of education had
determined their success in retaining the position. This was supported by 95% of DSAG first-
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 80
time superintendents responding that they Strongly Agreed or Agreed that the relationship with
their board had determined their retention. In addition, 95% of ACSA first-time superintendents
and 95% of DSAG first-time superintendents agreed that the relationship with their school board
had determined their desire to continue in their current position as superintendent. The data
revealed that positive relationships between the superintendent and the school board support the
retention of superintendents and their desire to continue in the position.
The CSBA school board survey aligned with the data results of the superintendent
survey. The CSBA survey revealed that 85.71% of the school board members Strongly Agreed or
Agreed that the relationship that their superintendent has with the board determines his/her
success in retaining the current position. The survey also revealed that 75.51% Strongly Agreed
or Agreed that the board-superintendent protocol (relationship) workshops have been an
important process and strategy for the superintendent’s effort to build relationships with the
board.
S1 shared strategies that had been used with the board to support retention:
I make sure that I communicate with the board on a regular basis. That I am transparent
with them. That they are on the front end of information and decisions that are being
made. That they are not having to react to situations nor that they find information out
from a second or third party. Holistic communication is key. It is important to be
transparent in order to build and strengthen their confidence in me. Being able to follow
through in things the governance team has agreed upon that we are going to do. Follow
through on the things that we agree or say the we are going to do as a district, as a board,
or me as, a superintendent are important to my retention, So, it’s about keeping those
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 81
open lines of communication, that transparency, that will help strengthen and to continue
to nurture the [school boards] trust in me as a leader. (interview, October 18, 2017)
S2 also stated that communication is an important strategy that supports retention in the
position:
Communication is vital. Number one the board needs to know what you know. Now, the
communication depends on knowing the board as individuals. You need to know each of
them individually and have individual relationships with them. Communication is vital
because you have to be able to frontload the board. You’ve got to start frontloading on
any future decisions. There should be no surprises. Number two, is to definitely treat
everybody as a professional and with kindness. And sometimes, that’s not easy to do,
because the politics and sometime the intra-board conflict can get in the way, but you
don’t want to get caught in that crossfire. (interview, October 26, 2017)
S3 stated that “honest communication with all [of the school board members] is number
one” in supporting retention:
Being overt about where we want to go as a district, that our LCAP [Local Control and
Accountability Plan], district goals, and our work all align. Our actions as a governance
team, our services, that’s something that I think is really important for our district.
(interview, October 20, 2017)
The executive search consultant validated that a positive relationship with the board is
vital to retention of a superintendent:
Treat them all obviously the same. Try not to have favorites. Provide the same
information to all [board members]. Treat them all with respect. Validate what they’re
saying. Each one is going to have different issues, know what those issues are and make
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 82
sure, that you address those issues that each board member has. I like to see the
superintendent and the board see themselves as a team. In other words, rather than a five-
member board, it’s really a six-member board, but that doesn’t always happen, but I like
the idea. You have to treat people with respect and validating them. A superintendent
must be a real good listener. You have to be of the mindset that it’s not about “me, me,”
you know? You want to make the board feel important and they are important, you
know? I think it’s important to help train the board through . . . say, for example, CSBA. I
think maintaining constant communication with the board is important. Definitely,
sending out weekly letters are important, but I’d even go beyond that. You know, it’s
important that you email [the board] or call them. It is also a good idea to meet them one
on one every once in a while for a cup of coffee or something once a week or once a
month even. Probably the more you meet with your board the better; just to get to know
them better. I think it is very, very critical as a new superintendent to right away have a
retreat or an advance, as some of us call it, to establish positive relationships between
each board member and with the board and the superintendent. Develop protocols before
you even start school. So, everybody has a good understanding of what the protocols are.
The board needs to understand that board meetings are the school’s business in public.
You have to make sure that you’re training the board in a positive way for all these
things, so when they’re ready for their first board meeting with the public, they know
how to react with each other and how to react when there’s problems and how to be civil
with each other, even though you know they’re all going to have different ideas.
(interview, October 25, 2017)
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 83
The school board members agreed that honest communication and follow through are
important and support superintendent retention. B1 commented, “It is about making sure that
there’s a strong relationship [between the superintendent and the board], there has to be follow
through [on the superintendent’s part]” (interview, November 15, 2017). B2 agreed that
communication between the superintendent and the board is crucial to the success of the district
and the retention of the superintendent: “Communication is second to none, the communication
with the board must be there” (interview, November 14, 2017). B2 commented that the current
relationship between the board and the first-time superintendents is effective because the
superintendent keeps the board informed: “If there is something [the board] needs to know right
away, [they] get an immediate phone call” (interview, November 14, 2017). B2 continued by
stating that communication about the direction in which the district is headed, the vision, even if
it is 3 years out, is important for the board to know.
M. B. Roberts et al. (2012) confirmed that the superintendent-board relationship is an
important part of retention and dismissal. In a study conducted by Glass et al. (2000), the second
most frequently reported reason reported for leaving a district was conflict between the
superintendent and the board. Therefore, the relationship between the school board and the
superintendent is very important in the retention and longevity of a superintendent. Researchers
have noted that boards seek to retain superintendents who have the ability to collaborate,
communicate, and maintain strong relationships (Glass, 2001). Once a superintendent is hired,
the personal and working relationship that develops between the board and the superintendent
will dictate the success of the organization and the longevity of the superintendent (Glass &
Franceschini, 2007).
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 84
Leadership Styles: Strategies and Skills
Strategies that support superintendent retention, according to Marzano and Waters
(2009), include the practices of (a) developing a shared vision, (b) implementing a goal-setting
process to develop collective goals, (c) developing goals that support involvement by all
stakeholders, and (e) communicating clear expectations to all members of the organization.
When asked, “What strategies or skills do you believe a superintendent should use to be
successful in his/her role?” S1 said,
You have to engage the stakeholders and my firm belief; my strategy for just about
everything we are doing as a district is to engage the teachers in every committee
possible because they are the ones who are being asked and told and expected to
implement many things. But often times they do not have a voice at the decision making
stage of the process. And so, the strategy for me has always been, and will always be,
getting to include those impacted by the decisions being made by the district, and often
times, of course is the teacher. The relationship with all stakeholders is important. Not to
minimize the parents because everything really starts at home. The relationship with
parents, having a forum to be able to have them express their needs and concerns and
being able to listen. Of course classified staff support is also critical, as is your
administrative unit and of course the board. Holistic communication! Following through
on the things that are agreed upon and keeping open lines of communication, that
transparency is what will continue to nurture their trust in me as a leader. (interview,
October 18, 2017)
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 85
In response to the same question, S2 said that decisional capital and receiving authentic
feedback from people at all levels help to move the district forward and, therefore, hiring highly
competent people is a strategy that supports retention:
It starts with our cabinet. You have to have highly competent people that you can trust,
that are loyal to the district and to you as a superintendent, to me it is one and the same.
You need to be able to practice inclusive leadership. They are my peers and no one talks
down to anyone. And from there, you can start building, and you get them to build their
own teams, on the business side, educations side, HR [Human Resources] side. Fullan
talks about leadership from the middle, for us it’s the district to the sites to the teachers.
We only go as far as our principals, in terms of their alignment, and systemness. If we do
not have that, that culture that we are trying to build at our level at the district and cabinet
level, it is not going to permeate throughout. (interview, October 26, 2017)
According to S3, strategies that are sometimes overlooked but are crucial to retention
include being able to be a “leader builder.”
With respect to strategies, one of the key pieces that is often overlooked but is so
essential to being able to carry the work forward is, you have to be a leader builder. You
have got to be a leader builder! You have got to develop leadership in your system to
address the different needs. Whether it be at the school level, the business level, the
maintenance level, if you don’t have a good cadre, a strong cadre of people [you will
have a hard time moving the district vision forward]. They may not all have all the
answers but they are the grinders. They will work and come to you with solutions that
they have identified. The team you have to build as a superintendent is often overlooked,
because the work of a superintendent isn’t just a person and a board. Part of the work is
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 86
how can you accomplish the district vision and goals through other people. From a
strategy perspective, or from a skill perspective, being able to hire the majority of my
leaders, was like walking into an organization that was a blank canvas. Knowing how to
hire high quality people that are about kids, and that will do the work and that are
unafraid. (interview, October 20, 2017)
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) work on management and leadership is based on a four-frame
model: structural, political, symbolic, and human resource. The executive search consultant
stated that being able to build strong relationships is a key strategy to retaining the position of
superintendent. According to Bolman and Deal (2003), the structural frame “champions a pattern
of well thought out roles and relationships . . . that can accommodate both collective goals and
individual differences” (p. 45). The human resource frame emphasizes that the most important
resource is people (Bolman & Deal, 2003). A mutually beneficial relationship exists when the
right people are in place. The executive search consultant stated that the strategies or skills that a
superintendent should use to be successful include the following:
Those soft skills are very important, building relationships, team building, someone who
is able to build leaders, someone who is humble. It’s about how to motivate others to
accomplish the vision and mission of the district. It’s about how you actively engage the
staff and the community to feel like they are part of the solution. That they are part of the
program. Someone that is able to build this idea of community learning, where students
feel it’s not just all about academics, but the school district really cares about them as
individuals. All of those soft skills are really, really, important. (interview, October 25,
2017)
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 87
B1 also stated that, to be a successful superintendent requires building relationships. B2
said that a successful superintendent must be a servant leader, a great communicator, and a
listener with follow through. According to Collins (2001), the Level 5 leader demonstrates self-
effacing characteristics, balances personal humility with professional will, resolves to put the
company first, and demonstrates modesty, humility, and fearlessness. S3 noted that fearlessness
is also important for retention in the position of superintendent:
The reality of this job is that you have to be fearless, you have to stand tall. You have to
be the person that is going to be willing to take the criticism and take the challenges that
come with the job. Standing tall and is being able to move the organization forward
regardless of the blowback. Too often we peel back and we get entrenched in taking the
easier path and all that does is create greater issues down the line. (interview, October 20,
2017)
The ability to maintain longevity as a superintendent includes implementing various
strategies and holding specific leadership skills. According to data collected via interviews, the
longevity of first-time superintendents included being able to engage stakeholders and building
relationships, holistic communication, and transparency, ability to build leaders and establish
decisional capital, and follow through and fearlessness. Superintendent retention depends heavily
on the skill and strategies mentioned above. Also based on the literature, successful
superintendents strategically focus on nonnegotiable goals that are collaboratively set and
maintain open lines of communication (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
Personal Motivation
Research Question 3 was focused on superintendent retention and longevity in the
position. Qualitative participants were asked to describe the “factors that motivate a
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 88
superintendents ongoing retention in the position.” S1 stated that “smiles, the kids’ smiles”
served as motivation for the work being done:
As I see the kids smile, while they are enjoying the learning process, as I see smiles on
the faces of staff, of teachers because we are going in a very different but positive
direction, the inspiration that has been communicated to me by administration, that in
turn inspires me and reinforces that I am doing right, and it motivates me to remain in my
position. My job is to make every classroom full of energy, full of the desire to learn. . . .
I want to create a school climate in every classroom, in every school that resembles
kindergarten because when you think of school, the word itself, it’s original meaning,
means to learn in leisure. Which means, it was intended to be fun just like in
kindergarten. But we take away the fun out of learning because of standards we need to
meet, or expectations that are really adult-driven more than what’s in the best interest of
kids. (interview, October 18, 2017)
S2 reported being motivated to remain in the position of superintendent to have a greater
influence in advocating for the role and purpose of education. In alignment with the board, S2
stated that public schools are agencies of democracy:
Leaders are predicting job loss based on globalization and artificial intelligence and as a
district we are helping craft an emphasis on the 5Cs (collaboration, communication,
critical thinking, creativity, and character) as a driver for this district, which has
differentiated us from most other outside districts. Our emphasis from moving from
college readiness to college and career success that’s really what the transformation has
been in this district. We’ve been able to bring the district, the board, and many
stakeholders together with a focus on two things, privatization and the threat of that to
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 89
our district, and the coming job crisis, the lack of alignment with traditional K12 and
what that problem is. This work [motivates my on-going retention]. (interview, October
26, 2017)
S3 stated that the profession is fulfilling and motivates S3’s retention as a superintendent:
I enjoy the work. Professionally it is fulfilling. Personally it is life changing. At the
district it is about the stories of how we can contribute to improve to benefit others. My
interest is to continue as a superintendent for many years and part of this is because I find
the work to be satisfying. I find it to be challenging. I find that it completely engrossed
me. I think the other piece too, is that it provided me with the opportunity to develop
other leaders. And for me that is important. (interview, October 20, 2017)
The superintendents who were interviewed had personal motivations for wanting to
remain in the position. Ranging from wanting to inspire students, teachers, and staff to engage in
the learning process, wanting to build leaders, and wanting to continue in the transformational
work taking place in the district, all of the motivating factors revolved around Waters and
Marzano’s sixth district-level responsibility recommended for focus by successful
superintendents. Water and Marzano (2006) identified the following practices utilized by
effective superintendents, including developing goals that support involvement by stakeholders,
focusing on student achievement, and challenging the status quo. The superintendents’
motivations are also practices of effective superintendents.
The board members and the executive search consultant were asked, “What factors do
you believe motivate your superintendent’s ongoing retention in the position?” The executive
search consultant stated,
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 90
In general, I think they all have different reasons. There are some that are just there,
because it’s a promotion. It maybe more money. It’s a status symbol. The really good
superintendents are those that are really passionate about students. They are there because
they want to make decisions in the best interest of all students, and they really have a
strong belief that public education is probably or definitely one of the most important
aspects of a country, state, city, and/or of a district. I personally believe that it is.
Someone that believes that children are our most valuable resource, you know public
education is a way to promote democracy. The superintendent should be motivated by the
fact that he or she is in charge to make sure that we have quality education for all
students. (interview, October 25, 2017)
B1 stated that motivating factor that retained the superintendent in his district was seeing
the job as a challenge:
The superintendent loves education and he believed that education is what’s going to help
our future generations. In terms of public education itself, he strongly feels that
strengthening public education is how we can strengthen democracy. He completely
believes in what he is doing and accomplishing, he really lives, breathes that every day.
So that motivates him. He’s not the type of person looking for, you know, higher pay, or
looking for accolades, He just wants to get things done to benefit our community and our
district. (interview, November 15, 2017)
B2 stated,
Our superintendent has a connection with the district. He’s made his career here. He
hasn’t come up the ranks as some folks that envision to be a superintendent have. So
because, his rise to the position has been organic it means more to him and it weighs with
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 91
him more. It’s about his goals, his aim, and his heart in education. (interview, November
14, 2017)
Factors that motivate current first-time superintendents to remain in the position may
appear to be unique to the person. However, being able to make decisions in the best interest of
children and strengthening education as a form of strengthening democracy appear to be
common motivating factors to retain the position of superintendent.
Discussion
A theme that emerged from the data related to Research Question 3 was the importance
of superintendent and school board relationships. The school board members in this study agreed
that honest communication and follow through contribute to the superintendent’s retention.
Board members agreed that the superintendent must keep the board informed at all times. M. B.
Roberts et al. (2012) confirmed that the superintendent-board relationship is an important part of
retention of a superintendent. The first-time superintendents stated that they maintained an open
line of communication with their board members and treated all members as professionals.
Respondents to the DSAG and ACSA surveys agreed that a positive relationship with the board
determines the retention and the desire to remain in the position of superintendent. Glass et al.
(2000) stated that the second most frequently reported reason for leaving a district was conflict
between the superintendent and the board. The relationship between the school board and the
superintendent is very important in the retention and longevity of a superintendent. School
boards seek to retain superintendents with the ability to collaborate, communicate, and build and
retain relationships (Glass, 2001). Once a superintendent is hired, the personal and working
relationship that develops between the board and the superintendent will dictate the success of
the organization and the longevity of the superintendent (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 92
The second theme that emerged related to Research Question 3 was that important
leadership strategies and skills support superintendent retention. According to Marzano and
Waters (2009), developing a shared vision, implementing a goal-setting process to develop
collective goals, developing goals that support involvement by all stakeholders, and
communicating clear expectations with all members of the organization are strategies and skills
that an effective superintendent must hold.
The ability to maintain longevity as a superintendent includes implementing various
strategies and holding specific leadership skills. According to data collected via interviews, first-
time superintendents have found their success and longevity through engaging stakeholders and
building relationships, holistic communication and transparency, building leaders and
establishing decisional capital, and following through with collective goals and demonstrating
fearlessness. Superintendent retention depends on focusing strategically on nonnegotiable goals
that are collaboratively set and maintaining open lines of communication (Waters & Marzano,
2006). The board members stated that a successful superintendent must build relationships. A
successful superintendent must be a servant leader, a great communicator, and a listener who
follows through. According to Collins (2001), the Level 5 leader demonstrates self-effacing
characteristics, balances personal humility with professional will, resolves to put the company
first, and demonstrates modesty, humility, and fearlessness. The executive search consultant
shared that soft skills are very important to retention of the position. The consultant also shared
that building relationships, team building, developing leaders, and demonstrating humility are
strategies and skills that will create an effective leader and lead to retention.
The third emergent theme related to Research Question 3 focused on the first-time
superintendent’s personal motivation as a contributing factor to supporting retention. The
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 93
superintendents who were interviewed had personal motivations for wanting to remain in the
position. All desired to inspire students, teachers, and staff to engage in the learning process.
They stated that it was important to build leaders and they reported a longing to work toward
transforming their district and education at large. All of the motivating factors shared by the
three first-time superintendents related to Waters and Marzano’s (2006), sixth district-level
responsibilities, including the desire to develop goals that support stakeholder involvement,
improve student achievement, and challenge the status quo. Factors that motivate current first-
time superintendents to remain in the position may appear to be unique to the person. However,
being able to make decisions in the best interest of children and strengthening education as a
form of strengthening democracy were common motivating factors to remain in the position of
superintendent.
Summary of Emerging Themes
Themes emerged from the analysis, review, and triangulation of the data gathered via
interviews with superintendents, board members, and an executive search consultant. Most of the
data were supported and validated by survey responses from first-time superintendent and board
members.
Research Question 1
Two themes emerged related to Research Question 1, How have training programs and
experience prepared superintendents to manage the complexities and challenges of the
superintendency? The themes were (a) importance of preparation programs, and (b) professional
experience and on-the-job training.
Importance of preparation programs. Research shows that expertise gained through
training programs and university training programs, although valuable to some, has not been
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 94
shown to be relevant in preparing first-time superintendents for the position. First-time
superintendents who were interviewed for this study did not agree that training programs, such as
university programs or nontraditional training programs, had prepared them for the position of
superintendent.
Professional experience and on-the-job training. These superintendents’ perception
was that real training came from experience on the job and school site leaders. They stated that
informal training and real experiences with real people and day-to-day scenarios provided the
most effective training and experience for the responsibilities of the superintendent. School
board members and the executive search consultant agreed that most of the training will occur on
the job. However, the executive search consultant emphasized that the knowledge gained through
training programs was also valuable. It became apparent that critical for the success of a
superintendent is the need to tap into professional work experiences to navigate the complexities
and challenges of the superintendency (Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001).
Research Question 2
Three themes emerged related to Research Question 2, What are the perceptions of
current successful superintendents and school boards regarding the strategies used to help the
current superintendent to attain his or her position? The themes were (a) career paths to the
superintendency, (b) professional relationships (mentoring/networking), and (c) entry plans to
support recruitment.
Career paths to the superintendency. The results from this study align with findings
from studies that have shown that the pathway to the superintendency is typically a traditional
path from specialist to administrator, assistant principal, secondary principal, assistant or
associate superintendent, and finally superintendent (Gaertner, 1981). However, a nontraditional
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 95
path to the superintendency is also a viable option. Two of the three superintendents who were
interviewed reported that they had attained their positions through a traditional pathway. The one
who had not gone the traditional route had extensive work experience in education both within
the district and outside the district through policy and advocacy. The board members who were
interviewed expressed that, when looking at potential candidates, knowledge of the district and
community was more important than site-level administrative experience. The executive search
consultant stated that there is no one best career path to the superintendency, specifying that the
best career path is the one that prepares a superintendent to run a complex organization, meet the
demands of the board, and transform education for the betterment of all students.
Professional relationships (mentoring/networking). The superintendents who were
interviewed for this study agreed that professional relationships by first-time superintendents are
important. Seventy-four percent of the first-time superintendents who were surveyed via ACSA
Strongly Agreed or Agreed and 86% of DSAG first-time superintendents Strongly Agreed or
Agreed that having mentors was important to attaining the position of superintendent. The
research also indicated that professional relationships can serve as vehicles to support aspiring
superintendents in attaining the position. Throughout the centuries, mentoring has served as a
powerful developer of human potential (Glass et al., 2000). Those who are supported either via a
mentor or through professional networks in associations gain skills and learn strategies that
support their arrival and survival in their organization (Bova & Phillips, 1982).
Entry plans to support recruitment. The first-time superintendents who were
interviewed for this study stated that they had submitted an entry plan during the hiring process
for their current position. They considered that the strategy had helped them to attain the position
because it had provided the board with a written plan and vision that they were able to articulate.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 96
The school board members stated that an entry plan had helped to determine which candidate
they would hire. The entry plan helped the board to understand the candidate’s knowledge of the
district, district initiatives, and the community. The executive search consultant shared that, in
general, it is a very good idea for a prospective superintendent to present an entry plan. Overall,
the research indicated that creating an entry plan is a valuable strategy to being recruited into the
position of superintendent.
Research Question 3
Three themes emerged related to Research Question 3, What are the perceived strategies
that support the retention of superintendents? The themes were (a) school board relationships,
(b) leadership strategies and skills, and (c) personal motivation as factors to support
superintendent retention.
School board relationships. School board members in this study stated that honest
communication and follow through contribute to a superintendent’s retention. Board members
stated that the superintendent must keep the board informed at all times. M. B. Roberts et al.
(2012) confirmed that the superintendent-board relationship is an important part of retention of a
superintendent. In addition, first-time superintendents stated that they maintained an open line of
communication with their board and treated all members of the board with respect. They agreed
that a positive relationship with the board determines retention and the desire to remain in the
position of superintendent. Glass et al. (2000) stated that the second most frequently reported
reason for leaving a district was conflict between the superintendent and the board. School
boards seek to retain superintendents with the ability to collaborate, communicate, and build and
retain relationships (Glass, 2001). Once a superintendent is hired, the personal and working
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 97
relationships that develop between board members and the superintendent will dictate the
success of the organization and the longevity of the superintendent (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
Leadership styles: Strategies and skills. According to Marzano and Waters (2009),
developing a shared vision, implementing a goal-setting process to develop collective goals,
developing goals that support involvement by all stakeholders, and communicating clear
expectations with all members of the organization are strategies and skills that an effective
superintendent must hold to retain the position. The ability to maintain longevity as a
superintendent includes implementing various strategies and holding specific leadership skills.
According to data collected via interviews, first-time superintendents had found their success and
longevity through engaging stakeholders and building relationships, holistic communication and
transparency, building leaders and establishing decisional capital, following through with
collective goals, and demonstrating fearlessness. Superintendent retention depends on
strategically focusing on nonnegotiable goals that are collaboratively set and maintaining open
lines of communication (Waters & Marzano, 2006). According to the participating board
members, a successful superintendent must be a servant leader, a great communicator, and a
listener who follows through. Collins (2001) stated that Level 5 leaders demonstrate self-effacing
characteristics, balance personal humility with professional will, resolve to put the company first,
and demonstrate modesty, humility, and fearlessness. The executive search consultant shared that
soft skills are important, including building relationships, team building, developing leaders, and
demonstrating humility. Superintendents, board members, and the executive search consultant
agreed that strategies and skills that will create an effective leader and lead to retention revolve
around communication, team building, fearlessness, and humility.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 98
Personal motivation. Personal motivation contributes to supporting superintendent
retention. The superintendents who were interviewed shared personal motivations for wanting to
remain in the position, involving students, building leadership, and achieving transformational
leadership. The motivating factors shared by the three first-time superintendents included the
desire to develop goals that support stakeholder involvement, improve student achievement, and
challenge the status quo. They described their work as challenging and satisfying. They stated
that they worked to make decisions in the best interest of children, seeking through education to
strengthen democracy.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 99
CHAPTER 5: IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The job of the superintendent is seen as the most important and the most difficult job in
public education. Superintendents contribute to the advancement of students and the future
generation of global citizens. Therefore, aspiring superintendents must be prepared for the
demands of the position and be well versed in a wide array of skills and strategies in the areas of
organizational development, digital education, and professional learning communities to meet
the needs of the district’s students (Hoyle, 2005). Literature emphasizes the need for
superintendents to have a clear understanding of their moral purpose, the ability to develop and
nurture professional relationships, and most important, the skills and expertise to develop a
culture that can adapt to the continuous cycle of change (Glass et al., 2000; Hoyle, 2005).
The literature describing the role and responsibilities of superintendent clearly identifies
the importance of the superintendent search process. It is important to understand recruitment
techniques that are employed in the superintendent search process (Glass et al., 2000). School
boards nationwide know how difficult it is to recruit and then retain a high-quality
superintendent. Once a superintendent is appointed to the position, the attempt to earn tenure
follows. The continuity of leadership and longevity is critical to improving student learning and
school advancement (David & Shields, 2001).
This study examined the perceptions of current first-time superintendents, school board
members, and an executive search firm consultant regarding the preparation, strategies, and
techniques for recruitment and the leadership required to maintain the position of superintendent
in a California school district.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 100
Statement of the Problem
The superintendency has become more complex and challenging, with roles,
responsibilities, and expectations continually evolving since its inception in the early 1800s
(Kowalski et al., 2011; McLaughlin, 2005). Aspiring superintendents must consider thoughtfully
the proper preparation, recruitment strategies, and skill sets for ongoing retention and success in
the position. Preparation programs, such as those offered by universities and nonuniversity
entities, have made attempts to train prospective superintendents to be recruited and successful in
the position but some may have fallen short in their efforts (Barnett, 2004; Björk et al., 2005;
Levine, 2005; Perry, 2012). Supports for current superintendents, including networking,
mentoring, and coaching, have contributed to most superintendents’ ongoing success in the
position but superintendent turnover still remains high (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although many
superintendents are successful, dismissal from the position effectively ends a career in education
(Byrd et al., 2006; Kowalski et al., 2011). There are also disparities in the recruitment and
retention of female superintendents and superintendents of color, which magnifies the problem
for these subgroups (Kowalski et al., 2011). These inadequacies signify an overall problem in
superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Purpose of the Study
This study serves to inform multiple stakeholders. Aspiring superintendents will be
informed on the preparation, skills, and relationships that will support their transition to the
superintendency. School boards of education will be informed on the insights that will help them
to recruit better candidates into the superintendency and maintain a positive relationship with the
superintendent. Executive search firms will be informed on strategies to recruit candidates for the
position while providing strategies on superintendent retention. Universities and nonuniversity
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 101
training programs will be informed on the impact of their programs on training superintendents.
This study will also inform current superintendents regarding perceptions of what is needed to
achieve success and longevity.
Research Questions
This study was designed to identify strategies used by first-time superintendents in their
preparation, their experiences, and the strategies that they employed to obtain a position as
superintendent. Also examined were strategies for retention and longevity as a successful first-
time superintendent. Three research questions guided this study:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents regarding the strategies
used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Summary of Findings
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, How have training programs and experience prepared
superintendents to manage the complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
Importance of preparation programs. Data indicated that first-time superintendents
and those who hire them did not agree that knowledge gained through commercial and university
training programs was necessary in preparing them for the superintendency. Although they
agreed that there is some value in such training programs, they did not attribute the hiring or
retention of a superintendent to knowledge obtained from those programs.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 102
Past professional experience and on-the-job training. Data indicated that real training
did not come from university programs but from on-the-job and school site leadership
experience. The superintendents stated that informal training and real experiences with real
people provided the most effective training. Also, they stated that grappling with real day-to-day
scenarios provides experience needed to manage the complexities and challenges of the
superintendency. On-the-job training, according to school board members and the executive
search consultant, is where a first-time superintendent will become prepared for the job. The data
indicated that critical to the success of a superintendent is the need to tap into professional work
experiences and be surrounded by experienced members of the organization.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What are the perceptions of current successful
superintendents and school boards regarding the strategies used to help the current
superintendent to attain his or her position?
Career paths to the superintendency. The data indicated that the pathway to the
superintendency is typically moving from specialist, to administrator, assistant principal,
secondary principal, assistant/associate superintendent, and finally superintendent (Gaertner,
1981). A nontraditional path to the superintendency is also a viable option. The board members
who were interviewed expressed that, when assessing a candidate, they valued the aspiring
superintendent’s knowledge of the district, community, and the education profession more than
university training and more than the trajectory to the position. The data indicated that there is no
one best career path to the superintendency. The best career path, according to the executive
search consultant, is the one that prepares a superintendent to manage a complex organization.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 103
Professional relationships (mentoring/networking). The data indicated that
professional relationships, such as with mentors, were important to attaining the position of
superintendent. These professional relationships serve as vehicles to support aspiring
superintendents to attain the position. Mentors and/or professional networks help aspiring
superintendents to gain skills and learn strategies that can support their arrival and survival as
superintendent.
Entry plans to support recruitment. The data indicated that first-time superintendents
agreed that submitting an entry plan during the hiring process helped them to attain their current
position. An entry plan was said to provide the hiring board with a written plan and vision as
articulated by the candidate. School board members stated that an entry plan is expected from
any qualified candidate. An entry plan gives the board a better understanding of the candidate’s
knowledge of the district and of the community. Overall, the research shows that creating an
entry plan is important for being considered for the superintendency.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, What are the perceived strategies that support the retention
of superintendents?
School board relationships. The findings indicated that school board members agreed
that honest communication and follow through contribute to the superintendent’s retention.
Keeping the board informed at all times is paramount. Superintendent-board relationship is an
important part of retention of a superintendent, especially that of a first-time superintendent.
First-time superintendents in this study stated that they maintained open lines of communication
with their boards at all time. A positive relationship between a superintendent and board
determines retention and enhances the superintendent’s desire to remain in the position. Research
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 104
has shown that the second most frequently reported reason for leaving a district was conflict
between the superintendent and the board. School boards seek to retain superintendents who are
collaborative and have the ability to build and retain relationships (Glass, 2001). The longevity
of the superintendent is determined by the ability to communicate effectively and to build
personal and working relationships that will move the organization forward.
Leadership styles: Strategies and skills. The results indicated that developing a shared
vision, collective goal setting, and communicating clear expectations with all members of the
organization are strategies and skills that an effective superintendent must master to retain the
position. The success and retention of first-time superintendents has come through (a) engaging
stakeholders, (b) building relationships, (c) communicating effectively, (d) being transparent, (e)
building leaders, (f) establishing decisional capital, (g) following through with collective goals,
and (h) demonstrating fearlessness. The retention of the superintendency depends on focusing
strategically on nonnegotiable goals that have been collaboratively set and maintaining open
lines of communication at all times (Waters & Marzano, 2006). The participating board members
agreed that servant leadership and communication are key traits of a successful superintendent.
According to Collins (2001a), Level 5 leaders put the company first and demonstrate modesty,
humility, and fearlessness. The executive search consultant shared that soft skills (team building
and humility) are important. Overall, strategies and skills that will create an effective leader and
lead to retention focus on communication, team building, fearlessness and humility.
Personal motivation. The results indicated that personal motivation contributes to
superintendent retention. The superintendent’s personal motivation for remaining in the position
varied from superintendent to superintendent. However, similar motivations focused on students,
building leadership, transformational leadership, and self-satisfaction. The motivating factors
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 105
shared by the superintendents in this study included the desire to develop goals that support
stakeholder involvement, improving student achievement, and challenging the status quo. All
stated that they work to make decisions in the best interest of children.
Limitations of the Study
A major limitation of this study was the number of first-time superintendents who were
interviewed and surveyed. Although the three superintendents provided insight into the strategies
and skills needed to prepare, obtain, and retain their superintendency, the results cannot be
generalized to all aspiring first-time superintendents. The second limitation is that all interviewed
and surveyed superintendents, school board members, and executive search firms were in
California. The findings of the study may not be applicable to superintendent preparation,
recruitment, and retention in other areas of the country.
Implications for Practice
This study makes significant contributions to the research base on the perspectives of
superintendents, school board members, and executive search firms on the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of successful superintendents in California school districts. The
findings inform prospective superintendents, school board members, and executive search firms
about training programs, knowledge, skills, and strategies requisite for the position of
superintendent. The findings are a resource for local boards of education and executive search
firms as they embark on the search for new superintendents. The findings provide district board
members, executive search firms, and aspiring first-time superintendents with understanding of
the leadership knowledge and skills that superintendents must possess to be successful.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 106
Recommendations for Future Study
This study explored the preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents using
qualitative data and personal perceptions of those who were interviewed. In pursuit of depth and
richness in data, the researcher recommends that the following be considered for future study:
1. Researchers might consider exploring the concepts of preparation, recruitment, and
retention of superintendents by using measures that go beyond qualitative data.
2. Researchers should consider the use of qualitative data collection in the forms of
participant observation and focus groups to analyze some of the findings of this study in more
depth. Much of the research devoted to preparation of school leaders is based on self-reported
data. Qualitative studies that attempt to explore the effectiveness of superintendents beyond self-
reported data would add to the body of professional literature.
3. There is a need to replicate this study in other states to validate the data and to find a
variety of strategies that can be presented as a toolbox to aspiring superintendents, as well as
districts and executive firms in search of superintendents.
Concluding Remarks
The leadership required to fulfill the promise to educate all students lies heavily on the
shoulders of the superintendent. The charge of the superintendent to build and grow democracy
by educating future citizens epitomizes servant leadership. In order to prepare, attain, and sustain
such a role, it is critical that the prospective superintendent proactively build on work experience,
establish strong relationships, utilize the strengths of mentors and networks, and embody the
leadership qualities needed to meet the many demands and challenges of the position. Finally, it
is important that a superintendent (first-time or continuing) be a reflective leader and have a
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 107
personal motivation that is deeply rooted in leading the important charge of fulfilling the
American promise of education.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 108
REFERENCES
Barnett, D. (2004). School leadership preparation programs: Are they preparing tomorrow's
leaders? Education, 125(1), 121-129.
Beem, K. (2007). Superintendent mentoring the state way. School Administrator, 64(4), 10-17.
Benson, S. M. (2008). The similarities and differences in the ways superintendents with and
without prior experience as superintendents work during their first year in a new district
(Doctoral dissertation). University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Berryhill, K. S. (2009). Superintendent turnover in Texas, Connecticut, Kentucky, and Oregon
public school districts: Contributing factors and trends. Corpus Christie, TX: Texas
A&M University Corpus Christi.
Beverage , L. H . (2003). Inhibiting factors to effectiveness and the adaptability of new superin-
tendents in Virginia (Doctoral dissertation). University of Virginia, Charlottesville.
Björk, L. G. (2000). Women in the superintendency: Advances in research and theory. Educa-
tional Administration Quarterly, 36, 5-17.
Björk, L. G., & Gurley, D. K. (2005). Superintendent as educational statesman and political
strategist. In L. G. Björk & T. Kowalski (Eds.), The contemporary superintendent:
Preparation, practice, and development (pp. 163-185). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Press.
Björk, L. G., & Kowalski, T. J. (Eds.). (2005). The contemporary superintendent: Preparation,
practice, and development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 109
Björk, L. G., Kowalski, T. J., & Browne-Ferrigno, T. (2005). Learning theory and research: A
framework for changing superintendent preparation and development. In L. G. Björk &
T. J. Kowalski (Eds.), The contemporary superintendent: Preparation, practice, and
development (pp. 71–106). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Bolman, L., & Deal, T. (2003). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership (3rd
ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bova, B. M., & Phillips, R. R. (1982, November). The mentoring relationship as an educational
experience. Paper presented at the National Conference of the Adult Education Associa-
tion of the U.S.A., San Antonio, TX.
The Broad Center. (2011). The Broad Superintendent Academy. Retrieved from http://www
.broadacademy.org/
Brimley V., Jr., & Garfield, R. R. (2005). Education: A state function. Financing Education in a
Climate of Change, 1, 171-209.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483.
Byrd, J. K., Drews, C., & Johnson, J. (2006). Factors impacting superintendent turnover: Lessons
from the field [online]. NCPEA Education Leadership Review, 7(2), 2-3.
Callahan, R. (1962). Education and the cult of efficiency. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press.
Callahan, R. (1966). The superintendent of schools: A historical analysis (U.S. Office of Educa-
tion Report S-212). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare.
Callan, M., & Levinson, W. (2011). Achieving success for new and aspiring superintendents: A
practical guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 110
Campbell, R. P. (2001). Aspiring to the superintendency: Factors that influence the
decision (Doctoral dissertation). University of Maine, Orono.
Candoli, C. (1995). The superintendency: Its history and role. Journal of Personnel Evaluation
in Education, 9, 335-350.
Carter, G. R., & Cunningham, W. G. (1997). The American school superintendent: Leading in an
age of pressure. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Castallo, R. T. (2003). Focused leadership: School boards and superintendents working
together. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
Chapman, C. H. (Ed.). (1997). Becoming a superintendent: Challenges of school district leader-
ship. New York, NY: Prentice-Hall.
Childress, S., Elmore, R., & Grossman, A. (2006). How to manage urban school districts.
Harvard Business Review, 84, 55-68.
Citrin, J., & Neff, T. (2005). You’re in charge—now what? New York, NY: Crow Business.
Cohn, C. A. (2005). NCLB implementation challenges: The local superintendent's
view. Peabody Journal of Education, 80(2), 156-169.
Collins, J. C. (2001a). Good to great: Why some companies make the leap . . . and others don't.
New York, NY: Random House.
Collins, J. (2001b). Level 5 leadership: The triumph of humility and fierce resolve. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business School Press.
Collins, J. C. (2005). Level 5 leadership: The triumph of humility and fierce resolve. Harvard
Business Review, 83(7), 136-146.
Cooper, B., Fusarelli, L., Jackson, B., & Poster, J. (2002). Is “superintendent preparation” an
oxymoron? Leadership and Policy in Schools, 1, 242-255. doi:10.1076/lpos.1.3.242.7888
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 111
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Cuban, L. (2001). Leadership for student learning: Urban school leadership—Different in kind
and degree. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership.
Cuban, L., & Usdan, M. D. (Eds.). (2003). Powerful reforms with shallow roots: Improving
America’s urban schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Cubberley, E. P. (1923). The principal and the principalship. Elementary School Journal, 23,
342-352.
David, J. L., & Shields, P. M. (2001). When theory hits reality: Standards-based reform in urban
districts. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
Dembo, M. H., & Marsh, D. D. (2007). Developing a new Ed. D. program in the Rossier School
of Education at the University of Southern California. Unpublished manuscript.
Eller, J., & Carlson, H. C. (2008). So now you’re the superintendent! Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin.
Farkas, S., Johnson, J., & Duffett, A. (2003). Rolling up their sleeves: Superintendents and prin-
cipals talk about what’s needed to fix public schools. New York, NY: Public Agenda.
Fordham Institute, & The Broad Foundation. (2003). Better leaders for America’s schools: A
manifesto. Retrieved from http://edex.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/publication/pdfs/
manifesto_8.pdf
Fullan, M. (2003). The moral imperative of school leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Furger, R. (2005). Highschool.com: The virtual classroom redefines education. Retrieved from
http://www.edutopia.org/print/1270
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 112
Fusarelli, L. D., Cooper, B. S., & Carella, V. A. (2002). Dilemmas of the modern superin-
tendency. In B. S. Cooper & L. D. Fusarelli (Eds.), The promises and perils facing
today’s school superintendent (pp. 5-20). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
Gaertner, K. N. (1981). Administrative careers in public school organizations. In P. Schmuck,
W. Charters, & R. Carlson (Eds.), Educational policy and management: Sex differentials
(pp. 199-217). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An introduction. Harlow,
UK: Longman.
Glass, T. E. (1993). Through the looking glass. In D. S. G. Carter, T. E. Glass, & S. M. Hord
(Eds.), Selecting, preparing, and developing the school district superintendent (pp. 20-
36). Washington, DC: Falmer.
Glass, T. E. (2001). Superintendent leaders look at the superintendency, school boards and
reform. New York, NY: Education Commission of the States.
Glass, T. E., Björk, L., & Brunner, C. (2000). A study of the American school superintendency,
2000: A look at the superintendent of education in the new millennium. Arlington, VA:
American Association of School Administrators.
Glass, T. E., & Franceschini, L. A. (2007). The state of the American school superintendency: A
mid-decade study. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Goodman, R. H., & Zimmerman, W. G., Jr. (2000). Thinking differently: Recommendations for
21st-century school board/superintendent leadership—Governance and teamwork for
high student achievement. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service and New
England School Development Council.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 113
Hafer, A. (2000). Prisoners of the paradigm: What school board members, legislators, and
community leaders must know to reform American public education. Boulder, CO: FalCo
Books.
Hess, F. M. (2003). A license to lead? A new leadership agenda for America’s schools. Wash-
ington, DC: Progressive Policy Institute.
Hoyle, J. R. (1993). Professional standards for the superintendency. New York, NY: R&L Edu-
cation.
Hoyle, J. R. (2005). The good news about the preparation of school leaders: A professor’s
view. School Leadership Review, 1(1), 2-19.
Jackson, B. L. (1995). Balancing act: The political role of the urban school superintendent. New
York, NY: University Press of America.
Jentz, B. C., & Murphy, J. T. (2005). Starting confused: How leaders start when they don’t know
where to start. Phi Delta Kappan, 86, 736-744.
Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed-methods research: A research paradigm
whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26.
Kamler, E. (2009). Decade of difference (1995–2005): An examination of the superintendent
search consultants’ process on Long Island. Educational Administration Quarterly, 45(1),
115-144.
King, N. (1994). The qualitative research interview. In C. Cassell & G. Symon (Eds.), Qualita-
tive methods in organizational research: A practical guide (pp. 14-36). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Kowalski, T. J. (2003). Superintendent shortage: The wrong problem and wrong solutions.
Journal of School Leadership, 13, 288-303.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 114
Kowalski, T. J. (2005). The school superintendent: Theory, practice, and cases. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Kowalski, T. J. (2008). Preparing and licensing superintendents in three contiguous states.
Planning and Changing, 39(3/4), 240-261.
Kowalski, T. J., & Brunner, C. C. (2005). The school superintendent: Roles, challenges, and
issues. In F. W. English (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of educational leadership: Advances
in theory, research and practice (pp. 142–167). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kowalski, T., McCord, R., Petersen, G., Young, I., & Ellerson, N. (2011). The American school
superintendent: 2010 decennial study. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
Kowalski, T. J., Petersen, G. J., & Fusarelli, L. D. (2009). Novice superintendents and the effi-
cacy of professional preparation. AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice, 5(4), 16-26.
Land, D. (2002). Local school boards under review: Their role and effectiveness in relation to
students' academic achievement (Report No. CRESPAR-R-56). Retrieved from ERIC
database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED462512)
Levine, A. (2005). Educating school leaders. Retrieved from http://www.edschools.org/
pdf/Final313.pdf
Marzano, R., & Waters, T. (2009). District leadership that works: Striking the right balance.
Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
Mathews, J. (2001). Nontraditional thinking in the central office. The School Administrator,
58(6), 6-11.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research: A guide to design implementation. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 115
McCurdy, J. (1992). Building better school boards. Arlington, VA: American Association of
School Administrators.
McLaughlin, M. (2005). Superintendent/principal recruitment strategies in small, rural school
districts in northern California. Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California.
Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mountford, M. (2004). Motives and power of school board members: Implications for school
board-superintendent relationships. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40, 704-741.
Murphy, J. (2005). Unpacking the foundations of ISLLC standards and addressing concerns in
the academic community. Educational Administration Quarterly, 41(1), 154-191.
Murphy, J., & Vriesenga, M. (2006). Research on leadership preparation in the United States: An
analysis. School Leadership and Management, 26(2), 183-195
National School Boards Association. (1996). Becoming a better school board member: A guide
to effective school board service. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Nestor-Baker, N. S., & Hoy, W. K. (2001). Tacit knowledge of school superintendents: Its
nature, meaning, and content. Educational Administration Quarterly, 37(1), 86-129.
Norton, M. S., Webb, L. D., Dlugosh, L. L., & Sybouts, W. (1996). The school superintendency:
New responsibilities, new leadership. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Orr, M. T. (2006). Mapping innovation in leadership preparation in our nation’s schools of edu-
cation. Phi Delta Kappan, 87, 492-499.
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Perry, J. A. (2012, September). To Ed.D. or not to Ed.D.? Kappan Magazine, pp. 41-44.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 116
Petersen, G. J., Fusarelli, L. D., & Kowalski, T. J. (2008). Novice superintendent perceptions of
preparation adequacy and problems of practice. Journal of Research on Leadership Edu-
cation, 3(2), 1-22.
Petracco, P. A. (2002). No Child Left Behind Elementary and Secondary Education Act 2001.
Retrieved from http://www.njsba.org/NCLB/NCLB_Introduction.html
Quinn, T. (2007). Preparing non-educators for the superintendency. School Administrator, 64(7),
22-29.
Riede, P. (2003). The hard business of searching. Arlington, VA: American Association of
School Administrators.
Roberts, K., Hanna, S. L., & Womack, S. T. (2012). The first-year experiences of successful
superintendents. New York, NY: R&L Education.
Roberts, M. B., & Hernandez, R. (2012). Superintendents’ perspectives of a principal preparation
program for leaders of predominantly Hispanic schools in south Texas. Journal of His-
panic Higher Education, 11(2), 149-163.
Sanaghan, P., & Lytle, J. H. (2008). Creating a transition map for a new superintendency: 7
powerful strategies. AASA New Superintendents E-Journal.
Sanchez, M. S. (2008). A case study of the experiences of five former and current urban non-
traditional superintendents. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University.
Sharp, W. L., & Walter, J. K. (2004). The school superintendent: The profession and the person.
New York, NY: R&L Education.
Shulman, L. S., Golde, C. M., Bueschel, A. C., & Garabedian, K. J. (2006). Reclaiming educa-
tion’s doctorates: A critique and a proposal. Educational Researcher, 35(3), 25-32.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 117
Smoley, E. R., Jr. (1999). Effective school boards: strategies for improving board performance.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Teitel, L. (2005). Supporting school system leaders: The state of effective training programs for
school superintendents. Retrieved from http://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-
center/Pages/Supporting-School-System-Leaders.aspx
Thomas, J. Y. (2001). The public school superintendency in the twenty-first century: The quest to
define effective leadership. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center on the
Education of Students Placed at Risk.
Trotter, A., & Downey, G. W. (1989). Many superintendents privately contend school board
“meddling” is more like it. American School Board Journal, 176(6), 21-25.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education. (2004). No Child
Left Behind: A desktop reference. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,
Office of the Undersecretary.
Walker, A., Hallinger, P., & Qian, H. (2007). Leadership development for school effectiveness
and improvement in East Asia. In T. Townsend (Ed.), International handbook of school
effectiveness and improvement (pp. 659-678). New York, NY: Springer.
Waters, T. J., & Marzano, R. J. (2006). School district leadership that works: The effect of
superintendent leadership on student achievement. Denver, CO: Mid-Continent Research
for Education and Learning (McREL).
Watkins, M. (2003). The first 90 days: Critical success strategies for new leaders at all levels.
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 118
Winter, P. A., Rinehart, J. S., Keedy, J. L., & Björk, L. G. (2007). Superintendent recruitment: A
statewide assessment of principal attraction to the job. Planning and Changing, 38, 35-
59.
Wong, K. K., & Shen, F. X. (2003). Big-city mayors and school governance reform: The case of
school district takeover. Peabody Journal of Education, 78(1), 5-32.
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 119
APPENDIX A
RESEARCH PARTICIPANT INVITATION E-MAIL

Dear___(stakeholder group role),

I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California and a ________ (role) in the ________________________ Unified School District. I
would like to invite you to participate in a research study that will investigate the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of successful superintendents.

You are asked to participate only if you are currently employed as a superintendent for at least 2
years. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a survey; estimated time for
completion is approximately 20 minutes. University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board has approved this research study (IRB #APP-17-02065).

Your participation is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate after reading this
email, you can access the survey via the following link: ____________

I value your input and hope that you will consider participating in this study. Please email me at
___________________ if you have any questions. Thank you in advance for your time.

Thank you in advance for your time.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Candidate Researcher
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 120
Informed Consent Form

Date: _____________________
Dear ________________________,

My name is __________________ and I am a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School of
Education. I am conducting a research study under the guidance and direction of Dr. Michael F.
Escalante. The purpose of my mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of school district superintendents in California. I will interview and survey
superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants.

You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that will shed light on the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents. The results of this study will inform
multiple stakeholders, including aspiring superintendents, school boards, and executive search
firms. It is my hope that this study will serve as a valuable resource.

Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw at any
time. The information collected will be kept confidential and anonymous by the researcher and
members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a manner that will ensure that
no individual or district can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may contact
me at _____________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California:
mescalante@usc.edu

Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.

Sincerely,

_______________, Researcher Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Dissertation Chair
[email address] mescalan@usc.edu
(xxx) xxx-xxxx (818) 802-4769

( ) I have read this form and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent to my
participation in the research described above.

Participant’s Signature: _____________________________ Date: __________

Participant’s Printed Name: __________________________

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 121
APPENDIX B
SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY
The purpose of this mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of California superintendent of schools. Since this position is critical to student
achievement, it is important to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relationships that
superintendents need to be successful. The goal of this brief, 15-minute survey is to quantify
your perceptions on superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention. Your participation
in this survey is anonymous. Thank you for your participation.

Personal Background
1. Gender
o Male
o Female
2. Ethnicity (check all that apply)
o Asian
o Black
o Latina/o
o Native American
o Pacific Islander
o White
o Multiple
o Other
o Decline to state
3. Age range:
o 30-35
o 36-40
o 41-45
o 46-50
o 51-55
o 56-60
o 61-65
o 65+
4. Highest university degree earned:
o Ed.D.
o Ph.D.
o Master’s
o Other
 Please specify
5. What university do you identify with professionally?

6. How many years in the education profession?
o 1-10
o 11-20
o 21-30
o 30 or more
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 122
7. How many years as a superintendent?
o 1 year or less
o 1-5
o 6-10
o 11-15
o 16 or more
8. This is my _________ time serving as a superintendent.
o 1st
o 2nd
o 3rd
o 4th
9. Did you come from within the district or outside the district to the position?
o Within
o Outside
10. Past experiences (check all that apply):
 School site positions:
 Elementary school teacher
 Middle school teacher
 High school teacher
 Counselor (any level)
 College/university instructor
 Community college instructor
 Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA)
 Other ______________________
 School site administrator positions:
 Elementary School Assistant Principal
 Middle School Assistant Principal
 High School Assistant Principal
 Elementary Principal
 Middle School Principal
 High School Principal
 Dean of Students
 District-level positions:
 Coordinator
 Specialist
 Director of Curriculum and Instruction
 Director of Research and Planning
 Director of Human Resources
 Director of Student Support Services
 Director: Other ____________________
 Assistant Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction
 Assistant Superintendent of Human Resources
 Assistant Superintendent of Business/Chief Business Officer (CBO)
 Assistant Superintendent: Other _____________________
 Other than education
 Please specify: ______________
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 123
11. Base Salary Range (approximate):
o Less than $100,000
o $100,000-140,000
o $140,001-160,000
o $160,001-180,000
o $180,001-200,000
o $200,001-220,000
o $220,001-240,000
o $240,001-260,000
o $260,001-280,000
o $280,001-300,000
o $300,001-320,000
o $320,001-340,000
o $340,001-360,000
o $360,001+
12. Total Compensation Range (approximate):
o Less than $100,000
o $100,000-140,000
o $140,001-160,000
o $160,001-180,000
o $180,001-200,000
o $200,001-220,000
o $220,001-240,000
o $240,001-260,000
o $260,001-280,000
o $280,001-300,000
o $300,001-320,000
o $320,001-340,000
o $340,001-360,000
o $360,001+

School District
13. Type of district:
o Urban
o Urban/suburban
o Suburban
o Rural
14. District student enrollment :
o Less than 1,000
o 1,001-5,000
o 5,001-10,000
o 10,001-15,000
o 15,001-20,000
o 20,001-25,000
o 25,001-35,000
o 35,001-50,000
o 50,001-75,000
o 75,000-100,000
o More than 100,000
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 124
Based on your perception of your preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree (SA) to Strongly Disagree (SD)

Statement
Strongly
Agree
4
Agree
3
Disagree
3
Strongly
Disagree
1
Don’t
know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps you took prior to taking on your first
superintendent position.
Preparation
1. University programs provided training and experience that
was important in preparing to become a superintendent.

2. My prior work experience was more important than my
university training experience to prepare me for my
position as a superintendent.

3. Holding a doctoral degree was important in preparation for
my position as a superintendent.

4. Nontraditional training programs (such as The Broad
Academy) were important in preparing me for my position
as a superintendent.

5. Holding certification and/or licensure from organizations
(such as ISLLC, AASA/USC, ACSA) was important in
preparing me for my position as a superintendent.

6. Having mentors was instrumental in preparing me for the
superintendent position.

7. A professional network of support (such as AASA, ACSA,
or through a university) was important in preparing me for
my position as a superintendent.

8. Informal networks of support (such as professional
colleagues) were important in preparing me for my
position as a superintendent.

9. Networks with university professors were important in
preparing me for my position as a superintendent.

10. Planning my career was important in preparing me for my
position as a superintendent.

11. My university training program provided intentional
supports or resources to prepare females to enter the
superintendent position.

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 125
12. My university training program provided intentional
supports or resources to prepare people of color to enter
the superintendent position.

13. Having experience as a principal is a crucial element in
preparing me for the position as superintendent.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruitment:
Recruitment is the process/strategy you used to gain your first superintendent position.
Recruitment
14. Having a mentor(s) was an important process/strategy for
being recruited into my current position as a
superintendent.

15. My university experience was an important process/
strategy for helping me to be recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.

16. Being part of professional networks (such as AASA,
ACSA, university alumni associations) was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.

17. Networking with an executive search firm was an
important process/strategy for being recruited into my
current position as a superintendent.

18. Holding a doctoral degree was an important process/
strategy for being recruited into my current position as a
superintendent.

19. Presenting at conferences and/or publishing in professional
journals was an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superintendent.

20. Networking with board members was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.

21. My prior experience outside of education was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.

22. Creating a “First 100-Day Entry Plan” was important for
being recruited into my current position as a
superintendent.

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 126

23. Gender is an important factor for being recruited into the
superintendent position.

24. Race and ethnicity are important factors for being
recruited into the superintendent position.

25. The demographic composition of a board of education
(such as gender, race, and ethnicity) is an important factor
for being recruited into the superintendent position.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention:
Retention is the process/strategy you used to maintain your current superintendent position.
Retention
26. My university training program provided me with
processes/strategies that currently support my success in
retaining my position as a superintendent.

27. Professional networks (such as AASA, ACSA, university
networks) provided me with processes/strategies that
currently support my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.

28. Having a mentor(s) provided me with processes/strategies
that support my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.

29. Having a district-provided executive coach currently
supports my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.

30. The relationship with my board of education determines
my success in retaining my position as a superintendent.

31. The relationship with my board determines my desire to
continue in my position as superintendent.

32. Board/superintendent protocol (relationship) workshops
have been an important process/strategy for building our
relationship.

33. My relationship with my board is more important than my
compensation.

34. My compensation determines my desire to continue in my
position as a superintendent in my district.

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 127

35. Negotiating additional compensation jeopardizes my
relationship with the board.

36. Having a formal, written strategic plan supports my
success in retaining my position as a superintendent.

37. Receiving on-the-job professional development training
(such as conference attendance) is a process/strategy that
supports my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.

38. District stakeholders hold female superintendents to
different standards for their ongoing job retention.

39. My race and ethnicity may influence the expectations that
district stakeholders have of me in my position as a
superintendent.

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 128
APPENDIX C
SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

Statement
Strongly
Agree
4
Agree
3
Disagree
3
Strongly
Disagree
1
Don’t
know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that your superintendent took prior to taking on
his/her superintendent position.
Preparation
1. My superintendent’s prior work experience was more
important than his/her university training experience to
prepare him/her for his/her current position.

2. Holding a doctoral degree was important for my
superintendent’s preparation.

3. Nontraditional training programs (such as The Broad
Academy) were important in preparing my superin-
tendent for his/her current position.

4. Having mentors was instrumental in preparing my
superintendent for his/her current position.

5. A professional network of support (such as AASA,
ACSA, or through a university) was important for
preparing my superintendent for his/her current position.

6. Informal networks (such as professional colleagues) were
important in preparing my superintendent for his/her
current position.

7. I believe that university training programs provide
intentional supports or resources to prepare females to
enter into the superintendent position.

8. I believe that university training programs provide
intentional supports or resources to prepare people of
color to enter into the superintendent position.

Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s recruitment experience to be a
superintendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 129
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruitment:
Recruitment is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to gain his/her superintendent
position.
Recruitment
9. It was an important process/strategy my superintendent to
have a mentor(s) to being recruited into his/her current
position.

10. Networking with an executive search firm was an
important process/strategy for my superintendent to being
recruited into his/her current position.

11. Networking with us, as board members, was an important
process/strategy for my superintendent to being recruited
into his/her current position.

12. My superintendent’s prior experience outside of educa-
tion was an important process/strategy for him/her to
being recruited into his/her current position.

13. Gender is an important factor to being recruited into the
superintendent position.

14. Race and ethnicity are important factors to being
recruited into the superintendent position.

15. The demographic composition of a board of education
(such as gender, race, and ethnicity) is an important
factor to being recruited into the superintendent position.

Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s current retention experience in being a
superintendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:

For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention: Retention
is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to maintain his/her current superintendent
position.
Retention
16. The university training program provided my super-
intendent with processes/strategies that support his/her
success in retaining his/her current position.

17. Professional networks (such as AASA, ACSA, and
university networks) provided my superintendent with
processes/strategies that support his/her success in
retaining his/her current position.

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 130
18. Having a mentor(s) provided my superintendent with
processes/strategies that support his/her success in
retaining his/her current position.

19. The relationship that my superintendent has with our
board determines his/her success in retaining his/her
current position.

20. Board/superintendent protocol (relationship) workshops
have been an important process/strategy for my super-
intendent to build our relationship.

21. My superintendent’s compensation determines his/her
desire to continue in his/her current position.

22. Having a formal, written strategic plan supports my
superintendent’s success in retaining his/her position.

23. District stakeholders hold female superintendents to a
different standard for their ongoing job retention.

24. My superintendent’s race and ethnicity may influence the
expectations that district stakeholders have of him/her in
his/her current position.

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 131
APPENDIX D
SUPERINTENDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE

Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared
superintendents to manage
the complexities and chal-
lenges of the superinten-
dency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superin-
tendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used
to help the current
superintendent to attain his
or her position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the
retention of superintendents?
Themes Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training have
you attended that prepared
you for the superintendency?
 1a. Where did you
receive your most effec-
tive training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that
the best training was on the
job. What is your opinion
about that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your retention as
a superintendent?
9a. What types of training
support your retention?
9b. What strategies support
your retention?
Experience
2. Describe your career path
to the superintendency.
 2a. Which professional
experiences leading up to
becoming the superinten-
dent were the most bene-
ficial? Why?
6. What prior experiences did
you have that made you most
favorable to hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use
to be successful in his/her
role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most
important professional rela-
tionships that helped you to
prepare for the superinten-
dent position?
 3a. How were they
important?
7. Did you strategically use
professional relationships
(mentoring/networking) to
attain your current position?
If so, how?
11. What professional rela-
tionships support your
retention?
11a. What strategies do you
use with your board to
support your retention as
a superintendent?
Career
Planning
4. When did you know that
you wanted to be a superin-
tendent?
 4a. What proactive steps
did you take to get there?
8. Did you create an “Entry
Plan” when being recruited
into the position?
 8a. If so, how did it help
you get recruited?
 8b.If not, how could it
have helped you?
12. Do you utilize a formal,
written strategic plan outside
of the LCAP?
 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
 12b. If so, how does it
enhance your retention?
13. What factors have moti-
vated your ongoing retention
in the position?
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 132
APPENDIX E
SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER INTERVIEW GUIDE

Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training pro-
grams and experience pre-
pared superintendents to
manage the complexities
and challenges of the
superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superin-
tendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used
to help the current
superintendent to attain his
or her position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the
retention of superinten-
dents?
Themes
Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training did
your superintendent attend
that prepared him/her for
the superintendency?
1a. Where did he/she
receive the most effec-
tive training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your superin-
tendent’s retention in
his/her position?
9a. What types of training
support your superin-
tendent’s retention?
9b. What strategies did
your superintendent
acquire that support
his/her retention?
Experience
2. Describe your superinten-
dent’s career path to the
superintendency.
2a. Which experiences that
your superintendent had
leading up to becoming
the superintendent were
the most beneficial?
Why?
6. What prior experiences did
your superintendent have that
made him/her most favorable
to hire?
10. What strategies or
skills should a superinten-
dent use to be successful in
his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most
important professional rela-
tionships that your
superintendent had that
helped him/her to prepare
for the position?
3a. How were they
important?
7. Did your superintendent
strategically use professional
relationships (mentoring/
networking) to attain his/her
current position? If so, how?
11. What professional
relationships support your
superintendent’s retention?
11a. What strategies do
you value the most
when interacting with
your superintendent?
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 133

Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did
your superintendent take to
get to his/her position?
8. Did your superintendent
present an “Entry Plan” when
being recruited position?
8a. If so, how do you believe
that helped your superin-
tendent to be recruited?
8.1. How important is it for a
prospective superintendent to
have an entry plan when
being recruited?
12. Does your superinten-
dent utilize a formal, writ-
ten strategic plan outside
of the LCAP?
12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?

13. What factors motivate
your superintendent’s
ongoing retention in the
position?

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 134
APPENDIX F
EXECUTIVE SEARCH FIRM INTERVIEW GUIDE

Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared
superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of
the superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superin-
tendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used
to help the current
superintendent to attain his or
her position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support
the retention of
superintendents?
Themes
Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training was
attended by superintendent(s)
whom you recommended
that prepared him/her for the
superintendency?
1a. Where did he/she receive
the most effective training?
Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How does ongoing
training support the
retention of superinten-
dents whom you have
recommended?
9a. What types of train-
ing support a superin-
tendent’s retention?
9b. What strategies has
your superintendent
acquired that support
his/her retention?
Experience
2. Describe your superinten-
dent’s career path to the
superintendency.
2a. Which professional expe-
riences that your superin-
tendent had leading up to
becoming the superinten-
dent were the most benefi-
cial? Why?
6. What prior experiences did
the superintendents whom you
recommended have that made
them most favorable to hire?
10. What strategies or
skills should a superin-
tendent use to be suc-
cessful in his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who are important pro-
fessional relational supports
that prepare a prospective
superintendent for the posi-
tion?
3a. How are they important?
7. Did superintendents whom
you recommended strategi-
cally use professional rela-
tionships (mentoring/net-
working) to attain their current
position? If so, how?
11. What professional
relationships support a
superintendent’s reten-
tion?
11a. What strategies
should a superinten-
dent use when inter-
acting with the board?
SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 135

Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did a
superintendent whom you
placed take to get to the
superintendency prior to
coming to you?
8. Do superintendents whom
you recommend present an
“Entry Plan” when being
recruited into the position?
8a. If so, how does that help
the superintendent to be
recruited?
8.1. How important is it for
a prospective superinten-
dent to have an entry plan
when being recruited?
12. Do superintendents
whom you placed utilize a
formal, written strategic
plan outside of the LCAP?
12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?

13. What factors motivate
your superintendent’s
ongoing retention in the
position?

SUPERINTENDENCY IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS 136
APPENDIX G
QUESTION ALIGNMENT MATRIX
Instrument
RQ1
How have training
programs and ex-
perience prepared
superintendents to
manage the complexi-
ties and challenges of
the superintendency?
RQ2
What are the percep-
tions of current suc-
cessful superintendents
and school boards
regarding the strategies
used to help the current
superintendent to
attain his or her
position?
RQ3
What are the perceived
strategies that support
the retention of super-
intendents?
Superintendent
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
Superintendent
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
School Board
Member Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
School Board
Member Inter-
view Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
Executive
Search Firm
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
Executive
Search Firm
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to understand the strategies, skills, and experiences that support the preparation, recruitment, and retention of first-time superintendents. Three research questions guided the study: ❧ 1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the complexities and challenges of the superintendency? 2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards regarding strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position? 3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents? ❧ This qualitative study relied on interviews with first-time superintendents, school board members, and an executive search firm consultant as the primary source of information and data collection. Surveys were distributed via e-mail to superintendents and board members

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The preparation, recruitment, and retention of California schoool district superintendents

PDF

Perception of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of California school district superintendents

PDF

High-performing school district superintendents: preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

Educational leadership: a comprehensive analysis of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district superintendents

PDF

The obscurity inside the margins: the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents

PDF

Understanding the pathway leading to the recruitment, support, and retention of superintendents from multiple lenses

PDF

School leadership: preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals

PDF

K-12 public school district principals in California: strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

The preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals in southern California

PDF

Superintendents' entry periods: strategies and behaviors that successful superintendents use to build strong relationships and trust with their school boards during their entry period

PDF

Developing longevity in the K-12 principal position: strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

School board and superintendent relationships and how they promote student achievement in California’s urban districts

PDF

Influence of formalized school board training on California school districts

PDF

The preparation, recruitment, and retention of California K-12 principals

PDF

Public school district principals in California: preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

Influence of teacher recruitment, retention, training, working conditions, and improvement of district support of 21st-century teaching and learning

PDF

Superintendent strategies and behaviors: building and promoting trust and strong relationships during the entry period in California

PDF

Leadership characteristics, practices and board perceptions that support superintendent longevity in suburban school districts: a case study

PDF

The 21st-century principal: the recruitment, mentoring, and retention of principals

PDF

Leadership characteristics, practices and board perceptions that support superintendent longevity in urban school districts: a case study

Asset Metadata

Creator Hernandez, Roxanna Noemi (author)

Core Title The superintendency in a California school district: preparation, recruitment, and career longevity

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/14/2018

Defense Date 03/01/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag first-time superintendent,OAI-PMH Harvest,superintendency,superintendent,superintendent and school board,superintendent preparation,superintendent recruitment,superintendent retention

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee member), Hinman, Charles (committee member)

Creator Email rnbeltra@usc.edu,rnbeltran@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-485305

Unique identifier UC11266984

Identifier etd-HernandezR-6111.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-485305 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HernandezR-6111.pdf

Dmrecord 485305

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hernandez, Roxanna Noemi

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA