University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Developing a student athlete mentoring program to improve college readiness at a rural Hawaii public high school

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Developing a student athlete mentoring program to improve college readiness at a rural Hawaii public high school

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Content Running head: STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 1

DEVELOPING A STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM TO IMPROVE
COLLEGE READINESS AT A RURAL HAWAII PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL

by
Kahele John Keawe

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2018

Copyright 2018 Kahele John Keawe

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 2
DEDICATION

To my grandfather John Keawe Jr. who never had the opportunity to receive a high
school and college education.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Pursuing this EdD in Organizational Change and Leadership has been an incredibly
rewarding experience. I wish to thank all who have assisted and supported me throughout this
amazing journey. First, I would like to express gratitude for my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ for
his constant guidance, direction, and for being the central motivating influence in my life.
I express sincere thanks and appreciation to my dissertation chair, Dr. Eugenia Mora-
Flores for her kind encouragement and motivating support. Your detailed and specific feedback
on each of my drafts were most helpful. Thank you for your thoughtful comments and
suggestions throughout the writing process. You are truly an inspiring teacher and mentor. To
my committee members, Dr. Monique Datta and Dr. Frances Martinez-Kellar, many thanks for
your thoughtful and constructive feedback that strengthened my proposal and project design. I
am most grateful for your positive, vibrant energy and the wonderful influence you both have in
the OCL program as course facilitators. Thank you to the Rossier School of Education
administration, faculty, and staff for your unwavering commitment and support of this quality
program and tremendous learning experience. To my colleagues in OCL cohort 4, I am inspired
by your leadership and grateful for the knowledge and insight into other organizations with
national and global perspectives.
Mahalo to the following organizations for their generosity through scholarships and
support of my doctoral education. I express sincere appreciation to the Hawaii Community
Foundation, Kamehameha Schools, and the Ke Ali’i Pauahi Foundation. Finally, mahalo to all
of my ohana past and present for their aloha and support. I have been truly blessed by your
combined prayers, faithfulness, and service. I especially thank my wife Kahanu for her vision,
strength, sacrifice, and encouragement. Your enduring love and faith has sustained me
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 4
throughout this doctoral program. To my children, Meleana, Mikaila, ‘Eleu, and Kakela, I
appreciate your unconditional love, sacrifice, and patience for the many hours I have spent
working on assignments and writing this dissertation. I hope each of you will dream big and get
as much education as possible. Education will open the doors of opportunity, broaden your
horizons, and immeasurably enrich your life.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................3
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................5
LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................................8
LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................9
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................10
Introduction to the Problem of Practice .........................................................................................11
Organizational Context and Mission .............................................................................................12
Importance of Addressing the Problem .........................................................................................14
Purpose of the Project and Questions ............................................................................................15
Organizational Performance Status ................................................................................................15
Organizational Performance Goal ..................................................................................................16
Stakeholder Group of Focus ..........................................................................................................17
Stakeholder Goal ............................................................................................................................17
Review of the Literature ................................................................................................................18
Adolescent Risk and Resilience ................................................................................................18
Risk factors and resilience during adolescence .................................................................18
Adolescent students living in poverty ................................................................................19
Student Athlete Mentoring ........................................................................................................20
Overview of adolescent mentoring ....................................................................................20
High school athletics as a motivational tool to increase school engagement ....................21
Best practices in student athlete mentoring .......................................................................21
College Readiness .....................................................................................................................22
Current shift and focus in secondary education .................................................................22
Closing academic achievement gaps .................................................................................22

Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ...............................................................23
Knowledge Influences ..............................................................................................................24
Motivation Influences ...............................................................................................................25
Organizational Influences .........................................................................................................26
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 6

Interactive Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................31

Data Collection and Instrumentation .............................................................................................31
Interviews ..................................................................................................................................32
Document Analysis ...................................................................................................................34
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................35

Results and findings .......................................................................................................................35

Participating Stakeholders .............................................................................................................36

Findings .........................................................................................................................................36

Research Question 1: What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
necessary for Kuleana High School to develop a student athlete mentoring program to improve
college readiness by fall 2019? ......................................................................................................37
More research and planning needs to be done to develop a student athlete mentoring
program to improve college readiness at KHS ..................................................................37
Barriers to implementation of a KHS sponsored student athlete mentoring program .......39
Lack of alignment with current organizational needs ........................................................39
Lack of knowledge .............................................................................................................41
Synthesis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs ........................................43
Research Question 2: What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational
solutions to those needs? ................................................................................................................44
Focus on improving college and career readiness for all students at KHS ........................44
Increase academic rigor .....................................................................................................45
Help students develop college skills ..................................................................................48
Organizational realignment to promote college going culture ..........................................49
Restructure transitions to college and career course ..........................................................51
College counseling coordination ........................................................................................53
Synthesis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions ...................................54
Discussion .................................................................................................................................55

Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ........................................................56
Knowledge Recommendations .................................................................................................56
Declarative knowledge solutions .......................................................................................59
Procedural knowledge solutions ........................................................................................59
Metacognitive knowledge solutions ..................................................................................60
Motivation Recommendations ..................................................................................................61
Self-Efficacy ......................................................................................................................62
Value ..................................................................................................................................64
Organization Recommendations ...............................................................................................64
Cultural models ..................................................................................................................67
Cultural settings .................................................................................................................68
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................69
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 7

Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Interviews and Focus
Groups ............................................................................................................................................72

Participating Stakeholders .............................................................................................................72
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale ...............................................................................72
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale .............................................................................72
Participating Stakeholders .............................................................................................................74
Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale .........................................................................74
Focus Group Sampling Strategy and Rationale ........................................................................74

Appendix B: Protocols ...................................................................................................................76
Interview Protocol .....................................................................................................................76
Focus Group Protocol ...............................................................................................................79

Appendix C: Credibility and Trustworthiness ...............................................................................81

Appendix D: Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................83

Appendix E: Ethics ........................................................................................................................84

Appendix F: Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan .......................................................86
Implementation and Evaluation Framework .............................................................................86
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations .....................................................................86
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ...................................................................................86
Level 3: Behavior ......................................................................................................................87
Critical behaviors .................................................................................................................87
Required drivers ...................................................................................................................88
Organizational support .........................................................................................................90
Level 2: Learning ......................................................................................................................90
Learning goals ......................................................................................................................90
Program ................................................................................................................................91
Components of learning .......................................................................................................92
Level 1: Reaction ......................................................................................................................93
Evaluation Tools .......................................................................................................................94
Immediately following the program implementation ..........................................................94
Delayed for a period after the program implementation ......................................................95
Data Analysis and Reporting ....................................................................................................96
Summary ...................................................................................................................................96

References ....................................................................................................................................101

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 8
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ..................................................27

Table 2 List of KHS Reports Reviewed for Document Analysis ..................................................34

Table 3 Concerns with Developing a Student Athlete Mentoring Program ..................................38

Table 4 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ............................................57

Table 5 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations .............................................61

Table 6 Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations .........................................65

Table F.1 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ........................86

Table F.2 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for KHS Leadership Team ............87

Table F.3 Required Drivers to Support KHS Leadership Team’s Critical Behaviors ...................89

Table F.4 Components of Learning for the Program .....................................................................92

Table F.5 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program .......................................................94

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework ...................................................................................................31

Figure F.1 KHS Student Athlete Mentoring Program Interest Survey ..........................................98

Figure F.2 KHS Transitions to College Course Survey .................................................................99

Figure F.3 KHS College Counseling Coordination Survey .........................................................100
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 10
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this project was to explore the potential development of a student athlete
mentoring program to increase college readiness at a rural Hawaii public high school. The study
utilizes the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to identify needs from knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences of the KHS leadership team on college readiness and
student athlete program development. This study uses a qualitative design triangulated by
stakeholder interviews, a focus group meeting, and document analysis. The project finds areas to
address in KHS stakeholder interest feedback for student athlete program development,
organizational realignment, and recommendations for best practices in providing programs and
services that will support and improve college access and readiness indicators for all KHS
students. Specifically, soliciting stakeholder engagement, confidence, and commitment in all
organizational change initiatives will be key. The stakeholders in the study are invested in KHS,
value the students’ potential and opportunities, and are committed to preparing all students for
college, career, and citizenship in the 21
st
century.
Keywords: Student athlete mentoring, college readiness, Hawaii public education

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 11

Introduction to Problem of Practice

Children who come from low-income backgrounds often qualify for free and reduced
priced lunch and represent a growing population in our nation’s public schools (National Center
for Education Statistics, 2014). This student demographic is at risk of academic failure, dropping
out of school, and delinquency (Garg & Levin, 2007; Harper & McLanahan, 2004; Rhodes &
Lowe, 2008). Lack of support in the home and environmental risks and obstacles often lead to
poor developmental and academic outcomes for disadvantaged adolescent students (Chaudry &
Wimer, 2016). Low-income families have limited access to college information and resources
and are less likely to encourage their children to plan and prepare for college (McDonough,
2009). Academic achievement gaps and subpar performance on standardized assessments
compound the problem of limiting postsecondary education opportunities (Blank, 2011;
Goldenberg, 2001; Kober, 2001; Murphy, 2009b, Reardon, 2010). Without the proper support,
low-income students will continue to struggle to meet the academic demands of school and may
not be eligible for access to higher education. This is important because low academic
achievement outcomes perpetuate a cycle of limited opportunity for post-secondary education
and economic success. Disadvantaged students who receive additional support with navigating
the application process and test preparation will likely meet college admissions requirements and
be better prepared for the academic, social, and personal demands of a college education. This is
turn will likely lead to increased college graduation rates, better job and career opportunities, and
economic mobility. In the long term, college graduates have better life outcomes as measured by
more career options, improved health, volunteerism, lower reliance on welfare and other social
support programs, and higher lifetime earnings (Klugman & Butler, 2009).
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 12

This problem can be addressed through the use of support personnel to guide students
towards becoming more knowledgeable and prepared for college and career options. One way
this can be accomplished is through mentors. There is a growing trend and need for effective
school-based mentoring programs (Bruce & Bridgeland, 2014; Comeaux, 2010; Dubois et al.,
2011; Karcher, 2008) . Adolescence is a stage where positive adult mentors influence and impact
life trajectories (Meltzer et al., 2016). The need for effective mentoring programs is greater for
adolescents who come from single-parent households or poverty (Cauce et al., 2011; Rhodes &
Lowe, 2008). Moreover, in impoverished communities where resources are minimal, mentoring
programs connect community stakeholders with disadvantaged youth further strengthening
positive adolescent development (Hishinuma et al., 2009).
Organizational Context and Mission

Kuleana High School (KHS, a pseudonym) is a public high school of approximately
1,000 students located in a rural community in the state of Hawaii. The mission of the
organization is to prepare all students for college and careers. KHS is a Hawaii academy school
designed and organized in smaller learning communities (Hawaii Academies, 2017). The school
leadership team is made up of the principal, assistant principals, hui (team) and academy teacher
leaders, counselors, technology coordinator, and the registrar. The principal has established a
clear vision and organizational framework which is communicated to all stakeholders. KHS
supports students in their transition to high school by building relationships and encouraging
participation and involvement in extracurricular activities. By the end of their freshmen year,
students have a solid foundation to build a purposeful high school career of achievement and
contribution. KHS graduates are prepared for post-secondary options including college, military,
job training and trade schools, and responsible citizenship in local and global communities. KHS
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 13

systems and processes support three overarching goals: student success, staff success, and
successful systems of support (Hawaii Department of Education, 2017d).
The school’s student population mirrors the ethnic diversity of Hawaii. Students who are
Native Hawaiian make up 32% of KHS’ population, with 29% White Caucasian, 18% Filipino,
5% Japanese, 4% Hispanic, and 12% identified as other (Hawaii Academies Report, 2017). KHS
is one of 83 public high schools in the state (Hawaii Department of Education, 2018). The
school lost its Title I designation in 2013 when the percentage of students qualifying for free and
reduced lunch dipped below the required 45%. Based on the 2010 U.S Census, the total
population of the school community was 28,821 with a median household income of $57,660.
Additionally, on the island where KHS is located, 86% of adults have a high school diploma and
21% have a bachelor’s or graduate degree (Kapaa High School, 2017b).
Approximately 40% of the student population at KHS participate in an extracurricular
sport (Personal Communication, 2018). Most of these students started playing in community
youth leagues such as AYSO soccer, Pop Warner football, Little League baseball, and County
basketball programs. Given the rural character of the island community, youth sports provide a
purposeful and productive activity for children, youth, and families. The team focus of the
various sports also supports and reinforces the collective nature of the local culture, where there
is an emphasis on relational connections, belonging, and extended family networks. Parents and
families encourage their children to participate in high school athletics, viewing it as a
motivational carrot to keep up grades and achieve academically. There are some student athletes
and families who have an interest in participating at the collegiate level, however there is a
general lack of information or guidance in effectively preparing them to get there. More
importantly, for some in the school community, priorities are skewed and there is a need for a
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 14

program to promote student athlete excellence with an emphasis on academic preparation and
college readiness. In the long term, creating a college ready school culture where student
athletes exercise leadership and give back to the community would have a positive impact for all.
Importance of Addressing the Problem

According to recent data from the NAEP “nation’s report card,” significant achievement
gaps still exist for students of color and those from low-income backgrounds (Boser et al., 2016).
Nationwide, ACT test results have shown that only 40% of all high school students are prepared
for the academic demands of college (Boser et al., 2016). Larimore and Sidhu (2015) found that
there are sizeable performance gaps between student groups based on income, and that many
low-income students lack the academic foundation of knowledge and skills and are unprepared
for the rigors of college. Additionally, gaps in college readiness between lower and higher-
income students signal a need to expand college access and readiness programs to all students
(Larimore and Sidhu, 2015). Furthermore, both Larimore and Sidhu (2015) recommend the
development and implementation of college access and readiness programs for low-income
students that provide advising, guidance, and support to increase postsecondary education
opportunities and college completion rates. Klugman and Butler (2009) on behalf of the
Princeton University Preparatory Program (PUPP) and the Goldman Sachs Foundation, prepared
a white paper with findings that supported the need to increase college access for economically
disadvantaged students. Participants in “a national working forum for leaders striving to increase
college accessibility and success for promising, low-income youth” found that mentoring was an
extremely successful component to achieving this goal (Klugman & Butler, 2009, p. 8). The
findings showed that the greatest impact were on those who came from homes where parents
lacked experiences with college (Klugman & Butler, 2009). Clearly, low-income students in the
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 15

nation’s public schools need additional support in order to close persistent achievement and
college readiness gaps (Boser et al., 2016; Klugman & Butler, 2009; Larimore & Sidhu, 2015).
This innovation study seeks to add to the literature on student athlete mentoring and college
readiness for low-income K-12 secondary students. The subsequent analysis and evaluation of
the proposed mentoring program will inform all stakeholders and provide guidance to key
decision makers.
Purpose of the Project and Questions

The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge and
skill, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to develop a student-athlete mentoring
program for college and career readiness. The analysis began by generating a list of possible
needs and then moved to examining these systematically to focus on actual or validated needs.
While a complete needs analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the
stakeholder of focus in this analysis was the leadership team at Kuleana High School.
As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1.! What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs necessary for Kuleana
High School to develop a student athlete mentoring program to improve college readiness
by fall 2019?
2.! What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those
needs?#
Organizational Performance Status

In order to fulfill its mission of providing an environment that prepares all students for
college and careers, it is imperative that KHS increase college readiness for its disadvantaged
and marginalized student populations. The most recent performance report indicated that close
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 16

to 80% of students from the class of 2017 registered for either 2 and/or 4 year colleges, however
KHS trails other schools statewide in proficiency on math and science standardized assessments
(Hawaii Department of Education, 2017b; Hawaii Department of Education, 2017c). Larimore
and Sidhu (2015) found that most low-income students have postsecondary aspirations. A large
percentage of students at KHS participate in an extracurricular sport (Personal Communication,
2018). Considering the high amount of students participating in athletics and their interest in
college preparation, KHS could benefit from a student athlete mentoring program to increase
college readiness and close academic achievement gaps. A well-designed and effective
mentoring program could increase college readiness by supporting all students with college
planning and preparation. Currently, no such program exists.
Organizational Performance Goal

By fall 2019, Kuleana High School will develop a student athlete mentoring program to
increase college readiness. A focus on closing Native Hawaiian achievement gaps will address
current performance report measures for school progress and improvement (Hawaii Department
of Education, 2017b; Hawaii Department of Education, 2017c); Kapaa High School, 2017b).
This performance goal includes the following areas of emphasis. First, build relationships with
positive adult role models and mentors. Second, improve college preparation and access for
disadvantaged student cohorts. Third, Bouffard and Savitz-Romer (2012) describe a
developmental approach to college and career readiness with an emphasis on self-efficacy, self-
regulation, and mindset that significantly influence student identity and achievement.
Although a mentoring program for all low-income Native Hawaiian students would be
important and necessary to address the achievement gap, for the purposes of this study I will
focus on student athletes. A program emphasis on student athletes is needed for the following
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 17

reasons. First, the majority of KHS student athletes have a desire to pursue post-secondary
education and are motivated by their grades. Second, most KHS student athletes are also
involved in school service clubs and organizations making them more attractive college
applicants. Last and most importantly, a large number of student athletes at KHS are from low-
income, single-parent households where college readiness guidance and support is lacking.
Stakeholder Group of Focus

The stakeholder group of focus for this study was the leadership team at Kuleana High
School. Pseudonyms were used to protect the anonymity of research participants. The group
was comprised of administrators, counselors, and teachers. These individuals had an
understanding of the organizational mission and goal. Additionally, they brought experience,
expertise, and a range of perspectives on addressing the problem of practice. This stakeholder
group has a key role in the development of the proposed innovation. They will provide
information to determine organizational needs to developing the student athlete mentoring
program. They will also be the planning and steering committee of the program should KHS
find the need to make the goal happen in the long run. Knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences were examined through data gathered from qualitative interviews, and
triangulated with parent focus group feedback and document analysis to validate assumed needs
and identify performance solutions and recommendations.
Stakeholder Goal
The KHS leadership team will establish a planning framework by December 2018 to
support the development of a student-athlete mentoring program. The administration team made
up of the principal, assistant principals, financial account clerk, and administrative assistant will
collaborate to develop a funding plan in support of the program. Partnerships with community
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 18

nonprofits or businesses would be a viable option to sustain the program in the long-term.
Lastly, creating a college counselor or student athlete advisor position in connection with an
after-school enrichment program would provide a comprehensive approach to increasing college
access and readiness for the student-athlete population at KHS.
Review of the Literature

The most important protective factor in the development of at-risk youth is a relationship
with at least one caring adult (Jekielek, Moore, & Hair, 2002). Mentoring high school student
athletes is a possible strategy to close academic achievement gaps and improve college readiness
(Comeaux, 2010). For this review, I pulled from three bodies of literature. These three areas of
literature provided insight into the role mentoring plays in supporting adolescent student athletes
and improve college readiness. First, I discussed adolescent risk and resilience from the
perspective of students living in poverty. Second, I discussed youth mentoring in general and
analyze the best practices in mentoring high school student athletes. Third, I examined the
literature on college readiness and the intersection of preparing student athletes for post-
secondary education. Finally, I presented a review of the knowledge, motivation, and
organization literature in the context of KHS and the proposed goal of student athlete mentoring.
This combined literature review in connection with the conceptual framework informed and
provided guidance to my project’s methodology.
Adolescent Risk and Resilience

Risk factors and resilience during adolescence. Resilience to risks that adolescents are
exposed to impact youth development and influence life trajectories (Cauce, Cruz, Corona, &
Conger, 2011; Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005). Socioeconomic background and high-poverty
appear to be factors impacting healthy positive adolescent development including academic
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 19

achievement, college completion, and stable employment (Cauce et al., 2011). Adolescent
vulnerability and exposure to risk is heightened by the general pattern of youth attaining physical
maturation before complete brain development (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005). Furthermore, in a
protective resilience model, competent adult mentors are protective resources that may influence
positive outcomes in the lives of at-risk adolescents (Cauce et al., 2011; Fergus & Zimmerman,
2005). Additionally, adolescent resilience refers to the capacity to overcome the negative
impacts of risk exposure and promote positive life trajectories and healthy development (Cauce
et al., 2011). Developing resilience in at-risk adolescents is a key indicator in promoting healthy
development and may positively alter life outcomes (Cauce et al., 2011; Fergus & Zimmerman,
2005). At-risk adolescents who had a consistent mentoring relationship with a non-parent adult
in the school setting led to higher levels of school attachment, engagement, and achievement
(Black, Grenard, Sussman, & Rohrbach, 2010). It is important for educators to be aware of the
risk factors impacting adolescent growth and development.
Adolescent students living in poverty. Students from high poverty backgrounds may be
exposed to risk and face more challenges that could negatively impact their overall development
and achievement (Meltzer, 2016b). Poverty and low income exerts influence on child and youth
development through material hardships and family stress (Chaudry & Wimer, 2016).
Socioeconomic background influences student learning opportunities in the home and academic
achievement in school (Tucker-Drop & Harden, 2012). Adolescents from high poverty
backgrounds may struggle academically as their focus is often on meeting foundational needs of
survival and security as opposed to self-actualization and achievement (Payne, 2003). Students
who come from high poverty backgrounds face significant challenges that may negatively impact
their academic achievement (Meltzer, 2016b; Payne, 2003). Adolescents from single parent
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 20

households may encounter obstacles in their development which could impact their academic
progress and overall well-being.
Student Athlete Mentoring

Overview of adolescent mentoring. Effective mentoring programs and practices
positively impact adolescent development and may also be a factor in academic progress and
achievement (Bruce & Bridgeland, 2016; Rhodes & Dubois, 2006; Rhodes & Lowe, 2008).
Young people who have a consistent, supportive, and enduring relationship with a caring adult
find greater success in their personal, emotional, and social development. A policy report by
Bruce and Bridgeland (2016) indicated that one in three young people between the ages of 12-18
do not have a caring adult in their life to provide mentoring and guidance in making positive
decisions and encouraging healthy behaviors. Rhodes and Dubois (2006) asserted that consistent
interactions between mentor and mentee that balance structure and support are most effective in
promoting healthy youth development. Furthermore, effective mentors possess key attributes
and qualities that include authenticity, empathy, and an interest in the lives of youth. Other
scholars such as Rhodes and Lowe (2008) explain that the most effective mentoring relationships
persisted for extended periods of time, and that consistent mentoring of at-risk adolescents could
be an influential resource and protective factor in promoting resilience. Researchers found the
following key implications for effective mentoring practice and policy: focus on program quality
practices; use research to strengthen and increase program effectiveness, and promote
collaboration between practitioners and researchers (Bruce & Bridgeland, 2014; Rhodes &
Dubois, 2008; Rhodes & Lowe, 2006). School-based mentoring programs help to promote
healthy adolescent development with a particular emphasis on emotional and social
development, academic achievement, and prevention of risky behavior.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 21

High school athletics as a motivational tool to increase school engagement.
Adolescents who participate on sports teams were associated with higher GPA and improved
academic outcomes (Fox, Barr-Anderson, Neumark-Sztainer, & Wall, 2010; Harrison &
Narayan, 2003). According to the study by Fox et al. (2010), participation on a high school
sports team was associated with higher GPA for adolescent males and females and improved
academic outcomes. Harrison and Narayan (2003) indicated that school sport participation may
lead to physical and mental health benefits among adolescents. Still others may suggest that at-
risk students who are involved in high school athletics gain a sense of belonging that could
counteract the negative impacts from risk exposure in their home and community (Fox et al.,
2010). Furthermore, the research shows that high school athletics can be a motivational tool to
improve academic outcomes for at-risk adolescents (Fox et al., 2010; Harrison & Narayan,
2003). Building academic confidence in student athletes to increase motivation should be a key
priority for educators.
Best practices in student athlete mentoring. Student athletes often find balancing their
academic and athletic lives challenging and stressful (Comeaux, 2010). Pluralistic ignorance
may be contributing to academic underperformance in high school (Levine, Ethchison, &
Oppenheimer, 2014). High school teachers, counselors, and coaches should recognize perceived
norms among student athletes and the influence peer pressure and belonging have in determining
academic behavior and performance (Comeaux, 2010; Harris, Hines, Mayes, Thomas, & Bagley,
2015; Levine et al., 2014). Efforts should be made to teach student athletes high commitment to
both academic and athletic roles (Comeaux, 2010). School mentors and educators should
communicate high expectations to student athletes and their families to promote success in the
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 22

classroom and on the playing field, but also to build a college readiness mindset (Harris et al.,
2015).
College Readiness

Current shift and focus in secondary education. College readiness is the process by
which students are being prepared to successfully manage the academic rigor of college
coursework and effectively navigate the collegiate environment (Harris et al., 2015). Clemens
(2016) describes how the transition from high school to college is often challenging for students
from disadvantaged and marginalized backgrounds. Educators and families should partner in
preparing students for college, however students from disadvantaged backgrounds often have
limited access to college planning resources and information, thus the need for mentors in
school-based settings to help meet this gap (Harris et al., 2015; Karcher, 2008; McDonough,
2009). The College Board National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (2010) identified
eight components of college and career readiness counseling which include academic planning
for college and career readiness, and teaching the skills that help with the transition from high
school graduation to college enrollment. These recommendations provide a framework for
school staff to assist and support students in preparing for college.
Closing academic achievement gaps. Academic achievement gaps based on
socioeconomic background implicate a growing need for intervention strategies that support at-
risk students from high poverty backgrounds (Ferguson, 2010; Reardon, 2011). According a
report by Larimore and Sidhu (2015), performance gaps on standardized assessments between
student groups based on income remain which lead to widening college readiness gaps.
According to recent data from the NAEP “nation’s report card,” significant achievement gaps
still exist for students of color and those from low-income backgrounds (Boser, Baffour, & Vela,
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 23

2016). Less than half of all high school students graduate with the knowledge and skills to
succeed with college-level work (Boser et al., 2016: Larimore & Sidhu, 2015). Implementing
high standards for all students will help to raise academic achievement for students from
economically and ethnic minority backgrounds (Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014). The practice of
rigorous instruction with accommodations for all regardless of ethnicity or socioeconomic
background is one strategy to closing academic achievement gaps (Larimore & Sidhu, 2015;
Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014). Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may lack resources
and exposure to academic supports which could negatively impact achievement in school
(Larimore & Sidhu, 2015). Researchers concur that closing achievement gaps based on
socioeconomic background requires interventions and supports for students who lack resources
(Ferguson, 2010; Larimore & Sidhu, 2015; Reardon, 2011; Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014).
Recommendations include promoting transparency particularly with analyzing disaggregated
data, and investing in high quality curricula and teachers to maximize student learning (Boser,
Baffour, & Vela, 2016). Closing achievement gaps will promote college readiness for all
students.
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences

The study design of this research project was based on Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap
analysis model of assessing assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO)
influences on performance outcomes. This section discussed the assumed KMO influences and
needs at Kuleana High School within the context of developing a student athlete mentoring
program to address performance gaps in student achievement and college readiness. First, I
provided an overview of the assumed knowledge needs of program development. Next, I
analyzed the motivation influences of the KHS staff from the lens of self-efficacy and value
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 24

orientation. Lastly, I evaluated the assumed organizational influences of work processes, culture,
and resource allocation. The combination of this KMO review and the conceptual framework
also guided and informed the research methodology.
Knowledge Influences

Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that closing knowledge and skill gaps may help to solve
organizational performance problems. Once a problem or opportunity is identified, the specific
set of knowledge and skills needed to address gaps must be taught to those individuals who can
influence organizational dynamics to bring about change (Clark & Estes, 2008). They also
described how organizational leaders need advanced education and training to solve future
challenges that require innovative problem-solving strategies.
Adolescents benefit from effective mentoring programs that combine support, structure,
and skill development (Bruce & Bridgeland, 2014; Dubois & Karcher, 2013). Positive role
models influence learning and development through observation and vicarious reinforcement
(Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2006; Mayer, 2011). Furthermore, Denler et al. (2006) suggests the
power of influence is magnified when adopted models share similar backgrounds with intended
learning subjects. Moreover, adolescents that learn self-regulatory strategies such as
organization and goal setting improve performance and develop behaviors that lead to success
(Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Denler et al., 2006). Unfortunately, many young people come from
home environments that lack the structure and support to teach and reinforce self-regulatory
behavior under the guidance of appropriate models (Meltzer, Muir, & Craig, 2016; Rhodes &
Lowe, 2008). Consequently, high school staff that have the knowledge and skills to implement
mentoring practices through formal and informal programs and partnerships fill the gap and
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 25

provide opportunities to increase college access and promote student achievement and enhanced
performance (Dubois & Karcher, 2013).
KHS, could benefit from a student athlete mentoring program that will increase college
readiness. Staff and administration need procedural knowledge of how to implement an effective
student athlete mentoring program. By reviewing the literature on adolescent mentoring and
specifically working with student athletes, KHS staff will identify best practices in the design,
development, and implementation of a successful program. Denler et al. (2006) posit that
modeling to-be-learned strategies or behaviors improves self-efficacy, learning, and
performance. KHS could benefit from the conceptual knowledge of advising strategies and
techniques that work best with adolescent student athletes. Organizing this knowledge will
inform KHS staff of what they know and will influence the learning and application in various
programmatic settings. Furthermore, having a conceptual understanding of adolescent mentoring
best practices and skills will lead to positive outcomes for the student athletes and the overall
development of the program. Researchers assert that to develop mastery, KHS staff must
develop mentoring component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what
they have learned.
Motivation Influences
As KHS staff acquire mentoring program knowledge and skill, they will increase
individual and collective levels of confidence and self-efficacy. Conceptualizing an embedded
student athlete mentoring program aligned with the school organizational goal and mission is
strengthened by an evaluative review of recent research published by the National Mentoring
Partnership (Garringer et al., 2015). In the context of KHS and a proposed student athlete
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 26

mentoring program, it is imperative that key staff receive consistent feedback during training and
professional development to maximize the acquisition of efficacious behavior and beliefs.
Along with family and peer relationships, the school plays a significant role in
developing adolescent self-efficacy (Vieno, Santinello, Pastore, & Perkins, 2007). Vieno et al.
(2007) posits that both social support and self-efficacy impact adolescent adjustment and
development, and that adolescent agency and self-regulatory skills may lead to enhanced self-
efficacy. With this understanding, KHS staff need to recognize the importance of quality
mentoring in a school environment and be confident in their ability to develop a program that
meets the needs of its student athletes. Some researchers assert that youth are most likely to
experience positive development when in the presence of an appropriate environment, caring
adults, and are provided opportunities to acquire life skills (Camire et al., 2009). KHS staff can
develop efficacy as student athlete mentors by recognizing their role as trusted, caring adults in
an educational setting. Pajares (2006) indicates that effective model programs can be observed
and analyzed to build mentor self-efficacy and enhance motivation. The literature also asserts
individuals develop self-efficacy when they see their efforts contributing to the organizational
mission thus leading to enhanced performance (Pajares, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). As KHS staff
observe increased eligibility and admissions rates of student athletes, feedback goal oriented
direction and support by the athletic department will be crucial to increasing motivation and
efficacy.
Organizational Influences
There are organizational factors that lead to performance gaps at Kuleana High School.
In addition to knowledge and motivation barriers which also contribute to performance
problems, Clark and Estes (2008) surmise that performance gaps may continue to fester in
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 27

organizations because of misalignment of work processes with organizational goals,
misappropriated resource allocation, and ineffective cultural dynamics. Aligning organizational
values and goals, with work processes and resource allocation, will lead to improved
performance outputs in addressing gaps and problems of practice (Clark & Estes, 2008).
There is a well-defined system and structure at KHS that impacts work processes (Hawaii
Academies, 2017; Hawaii Department of Education, 2017d). There are established meeting
times built into the school day for teacher collaboration and to facilitate student support
interventions. The school is organized in academies and teams with a clear vision and strong
administrative leadership (Hawaii Academies, 2017). Central to this idea is the importance of
aligning individual staff goals with the larger organizational mission. Additionally, unity of
purpose could extend out beyond the school into the community to build and develop family,
business, and community partnerships to further support and strengthen educational outcomes at
KHS. These influences impact the overall organizational culture. The administration works
proactively with department leaders and community partners to develop a collaborative school
culture (Hawaii Department of Education, 2016). School funding allocations based on student
enrollment are supplemented by grant and additional matching funds, in connection with
business and nonprofit foundation goals and objectives (Hawaii Department of Education,
2017a). The following table shows the organizational mission and global goal of Kuleana High
School. The stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and the
associated methods of assessment that will be investigated are also specified.
Table 1
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences

Organizational Mission
KHS prepares all students for college, career, and citizenship in the 21
st
century.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 28

Organizational Global Goal
By Fall 2019, Kuleana High School will develop a student athlete mentoring program to
increase college readiness.
Stakeholder Goal
The KHS leadership team will establish a planning framework by December 2018 to
support the development of a student athlete mentoring program.
Assumed Knowledge Influence Knowledge Influence Assessment
Declarative
KHS staff need to know about college
preparation, admissions requirements,
and student athlete eligibility policies.
Using interviews to ask staff to identify the
college preparation requirements of student
athletes.
Declarative
KHS staff need knowledge of student
athlete academic advising strategies.
Using interviews to ask staff to list the
academic eligibility requirements of
collegiate participation.
Declarative
KHS staff need to know the techniques of
effective adolescent mentoring practices.
Using interviews to ask staff about student
mentoring experiences.

Procedural
KHS staff need knowledge of adolescent
student athlete mentoring programs and
how to effectively implement them.
Using interviews to ask staff to describe
their familiarity with student athlete
mentoring programs, services, and
processes.
Metacognitive
KHS staff need to know how to reflect on
their effectiveness in mentoring student
athletes for academic and athletic
achievement.
Using interviews to ask staff to reflect on
their experiences and effectiveness in
mentoring student athletes academically and/
or athletically.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivation Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy
KHS staff need to be confident in their
ability to develop an effective student
athlete mentoring program that will
increase college preparation, eligibility,
and admissions acceptance rates.
Using interviews to ask staff about their
interest and confidence in developing a
student athlete mentoring program at KHS.

Utility Value
KHS staff need to see value in a student
athlete mentoring program that will
increase college preparation and
eligibility for graduating seniors.
Using interviews to ask staff about the need
for student athlete mentoring at KHS.

Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model
Developing a college going culture at
KHS is a priority for the administration
and key staff.
Using staff interviews and parent focus
group questions to ask about KHS’ ability to
prepare students for college.

Cultural Model Using staff interviews and parent focus
group questions to ask about parents’
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 29

There is a lack of understanding
regarding student athlete college
preparation in the larger school
community.
knowledge and confidence in preparing
students for college.

Cultural Model
KHS faculty and staff need to understand
the needs of low SES and Native
Hawaiian students within the context of
the KHS strategic plan in order to address
those needs.
Using interviews to ask staff about the the
achievement and unique needs of Native
Hawaiian students and those from low SES
backgrounds.

Cultural Setting
There is no college counselor or student
athlete advisor on staff.
Using staff interviews and parent focus
group questions to ask about counselors’
role and responsibilities in preparing
students for college.
Cultural Setting
Faculty have numerous teaching and non-
teaching responsibilities and this keeps
them from mentoring and providing
guidance for student athletes to
adequately prepare them for college
eligibility, admissions, and participation.
Using interviews to ask staff about daily
responsibilities.
Cultural Setting
KHS Hui and Academy leaders need to
utilize achievement data and align
collaborative leadership practices with
organizational mission.
Using staff interviews and parent focus
group questions to ask about KHS
organizational structure and processes.

Cultural Setting
KHS needs to develop and expand a
college readiness framework to increase
% of students accepted to four-year
colleges and universities without need of
remediation.
Using staff interviews and parent focus
group questions to ask about KHS and
efforts to promote college readiness.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 30

Interactive Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework in this study is supported by the Clark and Estes’ (2008)
research on performance gap analysis. The foundation of the framework are the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and needs at Kuleana High School. This
project will align with an innovation design model where KMO needs and influences are
analyzed and validated by qualitative interviews, document analysis, and a review of the relevant
research. Figure 1 below represents the conceptual framework for this study. The green circle
represents Kuleana High School and includes the organizational influences of resources,
performance goals, mission, and core values. The gray circle shows the leadership team within
the KHS organization. The KHS leadership team work within the school and need knowledge,
skill and motivation to accomplish the goal. The assumed knowledge influences in this study
include declarative, procedural, and metacognitive constructs. The assumed motivation
influences of the leadership team are centered around self-efficacy and value. The design of
embedding the two ovals represent the symbiotic relationship between the organization and the
stakeholder group of focus. Each influences the other in terms of knowledge and motivation,
works toward accomplishing the organizational mission, and determines movement toward the
stakeholder goal. The organizational influences, determined by cultural models and settings, on
the leadership team will determine stakeholder goal accomplishment. The blue rectangle
represents the global stakeholder goal and focus of this project. The red arrow indicates the
direction of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and their overall impact on the
stakeholder goal.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 31

Figure 1. Conceptual framework

Data Collection and Instrumentation

This research project included qualitative stakeholder and focus group interviews,
observations and document analysis. I interviewed eight members of the Kuleana High School
staff to better understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and needs
regarding the potential development of a student athlete mentoring program to improve college
readiness by fall 2019. Through a semi-structured, informal interview protocol, I gathered
insights and knowledge about the organization, regarding its strengths and areas of improvement.
The timing of this project aligned with the internal WASC mid-term accreditation review process
and the need to address several recommendations for improvement (Kapaa High School, 2017b).
Additionally, I conducted a focus group interview with six parents of KHS student athletes. The
added perspective of this stakeholder group strengthened my study and enriched the data with a
Kuleana High School
Resources, Performance Goals,
Organizational Mission, Core Values

KHS Leadership Team
Knowledge: Declarative, Procedural, Metacognitive
Motivation: Self-Efficacy, Value
Establish a planning framework to
support the development of a student
athlete mentoring program to
improve college readiness at KHS.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 32

wider range of perspectives. I also analyzed digital public documents that described and
explained data related to the research questions and conceptual framework. The triangulation of
data from these three sources clarified and validated prioritized knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on the stakeholder of focus within the context of the organization.
Interviews

The stakeholder group of focus was the leadership team at Kuleana High School. These
participants were made up of administrators, counselors, and teachers. I conducted interviews
with eight KHS staff members each lasting for about an hour. Seven of the eight staff members
were on the leadership team. Follow up interviews were made with four participants. The
interviews were informal and were conducted in classrooms and offices on the campus. I used a
semi-structured protocol with predetermined questions and prompts to frame and guide the
discussion. This was an appropriate approach to the data collection because I had already built
trust and rapport with each of the participants. The question guide was useful in providing
structure, yet allow for a relaxed back and forth discussion that was culturally relevant and
comfortable for all involved. I also organized a parent focus group meeting with six participants.
Each parent had a child who was or currently is a student athlete at KHS, having participated in
athletics for at least two years. Five were parents and one was a grandparent. Four of the six
participants had a child who graduated from KHS within the last three years and is currently
attending a college or university in the continental United States. Two of the parents currently
have a child participating in collegiate athletics in the PAC-12 and Northwest conferences
respectively. The objective of this additional focus group was to gather additional insights on
college access, readiness and the development of a student-athlete mentoring program at KHS
from a different stakeholder perspective, and to validate findings from the leadership team.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 33

Merriam and Tisdell (2016) describe the importance of purposeful sampling of research
participants to the effectiveness of study. This thinking is based on the assumption that a depth
of understanding and insights about the issues related to the inquiry study are most important.
My approach to the interviewing strategy was to purposefully select key staff members and
administrators at KHS who could provide insights and perspectives based on their professional
responsibilities and experiences. Moreover, the strategy to selecting the parent participants was
to understand the knowledge and motivation of KHS student-athletes’ college preparation,
overall experiences with KHS, and the proposed development of a student-athlete mentoring
program to increase college readiness.
The following interview questions represented a few of the protocol that I used to collect
data which addressed the research questions guiding the study. During the opening of the
interview, I ask the participants to describe their role and responsibility at KHS. This question
helped to establish a positive discussion and got the participant to share about their experiences
and contributions to the school. Additionally, it built contextual background based on Patton’s
(2009) chart of question types. Another introductory question was about the leadership team.
This elicited information about the cultural setting and model at KHS and uncovered potential
organizational needs based on assumed influences. I also asked, “could you walk me through a
typical day for you at school?” which allowed participants to freely share their perspective and
insight on their daily work and uncovered knowledge and motivational needs based on assumed
influences in connection with the research questions and conceptual framework. The full list of
questions in the interview and focus group protocols are found in Appendix (B).

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 34

Document Analysis
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) identify six types of documents and artifacts. They are
public records, personal documents, popular culture documents, visual documents, physical
material and artifacts, and researcher-generated documents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this
study, I focused on publicly available reports and researcher generated documents and artifacts.
These documents and artifacts included the following: 2017-2018 Kuleana High School
academic and financial plan, Kuleana High School WASC mid-cycle progress report, Strive Hi
KHS school performance report, Hawaii P-20 Partnerships for Education college and career
readiness indicators report on Kuleana High School, Early college course results from the local
community college in partnership with Kuleana High School, the transition to college course
schedule and syllabus, and SAT/ ACT assessment data found in the Hawaii Department of
Education longitudinal data system.
Table 2
List of KHS Reports Reviewed for Document Analysis
Report Title Target Area Description
2017-2018 KHS Academic
and Financial Plans
Organizational
resources
Annual plans submitted to the district indicating
academic goals and priorities, allocation of resources,
and accountability measures.
2017 WASC Mid-cycle
Progress Report for Kuleana
High School
Organizational
accountability
Identification of strengths and growth areas for KHS
as determined by the visiting committee from the
Western Association of Schools and Colleges.
2017 Strive High Hawaii KHS
annual school growth report
Organizational
accountability
Annual school growth report administered by state
central office.
2017 P-20 College and Career
Readiness Report on KHS
Organizational
mission
Annual report on academic achievement, college
enrollment and year one persistence, and early
college dual-credit course growth.
KHS student early college
dual-credit enrollment and
grades and in partnership KCC
College
readiness
Three year record of KHS student enrollment and
performance in KCC early college dual-credit
courses.
Transitions to College Course
Schedule
Organization
Curriculum
Google Drive folder containing course schedule,
curriculum guide, and other resource documents

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 35

Most of these documents were publicly available. I received administrative permission to
review confidential records and reports. I strategically researched the information in connection
with the interviews. I also gathered data for analysis and evaluation pertinent to the study.
These documents provided factual data to help understand the knowledge and organizational
needs and assumed influences at KHS. Analysis of the documents were viewed through the lens
of the conceptual framework within the context of the guiding research questions.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began with the KHS staff interviews and parent focus group meeting. I
wrote analytic memos after each interview and kept a researcher log. I documented my thoughts,
concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to my conceptual framework and
research questions. Once I finished the interviews and parent meeting, I transcribed and coded
the research material. In the first phase of analysis, I used open coding, looking for empirical
codes, and applying a priori codes from the conceptual framework. During the second phase of
analysis, I aggregated the initial findings into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data
analysis, I identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual
framework and research study questions. Lastly, I analyzed the relevant documents for evidence
consistent with the concepts in the conceptual framework and in alignment with the themes and
patterns that surfaced from the data.
Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge and
skill, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to develop a student-athlete mentoring
program to improve college readiness at a rural Hawaii public high school. Eight members of
the KHS staff were interviewed using a semi-structured open-ended interview protocol. A focus
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 36

group meeting of six parents was also held to solicit feedback on their child’s educational
experiences at KHS. An analysis of pertinent documents related to KHS’ organizational
mission, achievement, and performance were also examined.
Participating Stakeholders
Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight members of the KHS
staff. Seven were members of the KHS leadership team, three held administrative positions, two
were counselors, and three were teachers. Each of the KHS interview participants had been
employed by the Hawaii Department of Education for more than five years and has had
experience teaching and working in a leadership capacity at the K-12 secondary level. Follow up
interviews were conducted with four of the KHS participants to gain further insights related to
the research questions. Compelling information shared in their initial interviews warranted a
second meeting to probe for additional evidence and data.
A focus group meeting was held with six parents of KHS student athletes. Criteria
included being a parent of a student athlete who had participated in high school athletics for at
least two years. Five of the participants were parents of KHS student athletes and one was a
grandparent. Four of the six parents had an additional child who had recently graduated from
KHS as student athletes and were currently attending a college or university in the continental
United States. Two parent participants had a former KHS student athlete currently participating
in NCAA Division I and Division III athletic programs in the PAC-12 and Northwest
Conferences respectively.
Findings
The story that emerged from the data based on knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) needs and analysis revealed that more research and planning needs to be done to develop
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 37

a student athlete mentoring program to improve college readiness at KHS. Barriers to
implementation included a lack of knowledge, motivation, and alignment with current
organizational needs. The recommended KMO solutions were that KHS focus on improving
college and career readiness for all students in alignment with the organizational mission.
Specific to this need would be to increase college readiness indicators and an organizational
realignment or resources and services to promote a college going culture.
This section will present the findings organized by the research questions and conceptual
framework that guided the study. Each research question is presented by broader themes that
emerged from the data. Pseudonyms were created for the school, faculty, and parent group
participants to protect the identities of all involved. Given the rural, inter-connected character of
the small island community, information is generalized to the fullest extent possible to protect
the privacy and confidentiality of all involved in the study.
Research Question 1: What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
necessary for Kuleana High School to develop a student athlete mentoring program to
improve college readiness by fall 2019?
More research and planning needs to be done to develop a student athlete
mentoring program to improve college readiness at KHS. From the KHS leadership team
interviews and parent focus group meeting, it was apparent that more research and planning
needs to be done to develop a student athlete mentoring program to improve college readiness at
KHS. All of the faculty participants believed that there are several unknown factors that need to
be examined and that planning and analysis are essential before moving forward with the
development of a student athlete mentoring program.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 38

Table 3

Concerns with Developing a Student Athlete Mentoring Program at Kuleana High School

Research
Participants
Theme Primary Concerns
KHS faculty Strained
organizational
resources
•! Teachers and counselors don’t have time to work
specifically with student athletes
•! Counselors have more expectations and responsibilities
•! Questions about mentor roles, interest, and investment
•! Limited school funding
Need for
stakeholder
feedback
•! Need to assess other student athlete high school
programs
•! Questions about student interest
•! Need to get feedback from faculty, parents, and
community

Need for more
planning and
analysis
•! Lack of sound feedback pose challenges to new
initiatives
•! Limited evaluative data on nonprofit partner supported
KHS after-school student athlete program (2004-2014)
Parent focus
group
Lack of
information
•! Most parents don’t understand student athlete recruiting
process
•! Lack of awareness of eligibility requirements
•! Some parents hire recruiters to fill knowledge gap
Misaligned
priorities
•! Some stakeholders have unrealistic athletic
expectations of students
•! Some stakeholders prioritize sports over academics
•! Lack of coach support and investment
Emphasize
academics
•! Parents rather see resources going to support general
college preparation
•! Parents want more challenging curriculum especially
for students on college track
•! Parents more concerned with students developing
positive academic behavior skill sets

Malia’s concern was that student athletes are “a group that I don’t get to at all.” One of
the reasons is that the work load of the senior counselor is such that very little time is available
for individualized counseling with students. She mentioned that, “we prepare more, we give out
a lot more information, there is more stuff now.” Student athletes that are looking at playing
sports in college “could use someone sitting with them to help them with stuff,” but “I don’t have
time for that.” Val asked, “who would they [student athletes] be mentored by?” In follow up
correspondence with Pohaku, recommendations of getting student feedback and assessing “other
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 39

high schools’ student athlete mentoring programs to understand the pluses and deltas” were
offered. He added, “challenges arise when initiatives are not planned out based on sound
feedback.” This suggested that more research needs to be done to determine interest, value, and
capacity to create “a good understanding of the purpose, roles, [along with] feedback from
students, faculty, and community.” Thus, consistent with Rhodes and Dubois’ (2006) findings,
mentoring programs that are planned to provide structure and support are most effective.
Current practices at KHS make it difficult for staff to give specific guidance to student athletes,
signaling a need to research, plan, and pursue resources outside the organization.
Barriers to implementation of a KHS sponsored student athlete mentoring program.
The interviews and focus group meeting revealed that there are barriers to developing a KHS
sponsored student athlete mentoring program. These included a lack of alignment with current
organizational needs and a knowledge gap of preparing student athletes for college.
Lack of alignment with current organizational needs. A common theme that arose
from interviews with the leadership team was the concern of program alignment with the
organization and the allocation of resources that conflicted with current needs and priorities.
During his interview, Alex stated:
I think based on the fact that counselors are smashed. They cannot sit with these students
and do this athletic stuff too often…I think this is more than just a one-person job to tell
you the truth. I don’t think one person can do this…you’re talking about one hundred
kids, a good ten percent of our population. I almost think there would have to be a class
[where they] can research things and find out about requirements. There needs to be
somebody to do the paperwork with the kids. The teacher cannot sit down with a
hundred guys in the room at a time.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 40

I don’t think money wise, it will allow for another teacher position. He [our
principal] wants everything aligned. He wants everything aligned with a career pathway
so I don’t know where this is going to fit. Would this be some kind of transitions class?
What would it be? Where would it fit? [I think] there might be some questions regarding
equity. We might have parents saying “I want my kid to sit down and do the FAFSA.”
And you guys are only doing that with athletes.
In another interview, Val expressed a lack of clarity on the structure of the program and
whether the assigned staff member would have a vested interest in the mentoring role. She
stated:
I don’t think it’s a teacher, unless they’re very vested in doing it. It has to be someone
who says I want to do that…I don’t know if it’s a teaching line, I’m not sure. But they
have to want to do that and follow up.
In another interview with Malia, concerns about adding more responsibility to an
overburdened counseling staff surfaced as discussion centered on which KHS staff member
could take on the role of mentoring student athletes.
[The counselor] could get swamped. Kids who are looking at being student-athletes, I
don’t know if that person should do everything…that could be nuts. [It could] become a big
stuff [and] I don’t know on that one.
In all of the interviews, the participants stated that the senior counselor had a tremendous
load of responsibility and that resource support was needed to effectively fulfill their
responsibilities to help prepare students for college. All of them extended their thoughts by
adding perspective on the organizational need to coordinate services and support for all students
who were applying to college and meeting required tasks and requirements. This idea aligned
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 41

with research finding that performance increases when all activity in an organization is aligned
with furthering the vision and mission (Walters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2003). The mission of
KHS is to prepare all students for college, career, and citizenship in the 21
st
century.
Lack of knowledge. A consistent theme that came out of the interviews and the parent
focus group meeting was the general lack of knowledge and information to help student athletes
prepare for college. Two of the eight KHS faculty members participated in collegiate athletics
and were familiar with the NCAA eligibility requirements, one adding that some students come
to ask about playing a sport in college, but that he does not have the time to sit for hours going
through the application and admission tasks. Both acknowledged that putting the burden of
assisting student athletes on the senior counselor was a lot to ask, and that some type of class
would be needed to communicate and follow up on important information. One interview
participant mentioned that the responsibility to assist student athletes is with the coaches. All but
one of the parent participants expressed a lack of knowledge regarding student athletes and the
requirements for college admission and participation.
Alex explained that counselors are already overwhelmed with assisting students with
college applications, and that student athletes desiring to go on to college have different
requirements. He expressed,
I don’t know if the knowledge is truly there. It’s not their forte. Doing the regular
applications for school, counselors are great at that stuff. The [athletic] stuff is
different…as far as being in touch with coaches and doing the questionnaire. Making
sure their eligibility is good.
In an interview with Kekai, discussion led to coaches and their responsibility to assist
student athletes with thinking about college. He stated, “I think coaches at our school need [to
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 42

be] proactive [in] getting these kids to think of college in high school.” He added, “I think
coaches are in a very good position because [they] have played [in]college [and] have access that
some of these students [and] parents don’t have access to.” To further emphasize his point, he
continued, “so [as coaches] we should help these kids prepare themselves.”
Two of the parents in the focus group meeting shared that they hired a recruiter to assist
their child and family with seeking opportunities for continued participation in collegiate
athletics. Five of the six participants expressed their general lack of knowledge of the student
athlete college preparation process. In the focus group meeting, Lisa shared, “we had no
understanding without the recruiter.” Nani added, “I had no understanding at all [about the
college preparation process].” In a follow up to the focus group meeting, Kalei captured the
sentiment of many parents in the community by saying,
There needs to be more opportunities to teach the parents how to start the process. I’ve
had so many parents ask me where they should begin. The whole college idea can be
very overwhelming and I’ve heard many parents say how frustrated they are because they
didn’t have to go through the same thing “back in the day.”
According to Pajares (2006), a lack of knowledge and understanding may impact self-
efficacy and the motivation to accomplish a task. For some of the KHS leadership team
members and most of the parent participants, the gap in understanding the student athlete
preparation and admission process for college is problematic and a potential barrier to the
development of a school sponsored student athlete mentoring program. Furthermore, the
consensus of the parent focus group participants was that college preparation in general can be
stressful and that support and guidance are needed by many in the school community. Given the
knowledge gap with most parents in the community, KHS should not overlook the need to
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 43

provide families and students with information about student athlete college preparation.
Although not a priority for the school right now, it is a need that should be addressed in the
future.
Synthesis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs. The knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs of KHS, taken together, within the context of the
conceptual framework and stakeholder goal, depicted gaps in knowledge and alignment among
stakeholders and throughout the organization. Overall, there was a general lack of knowledge
amongst the parent group and key staff regarding student athlete college preparation. The gap in
knowledge stemmed from the lack of experience with the recruiting process, not being connected
with peer model individuals and schools, and the KHS team coaches’ lack of involvement and
investment in the college preparatory process.
The knowledge gap created a lack of self-efficacy amongst KHS faculty and the parent
focus group participants. Denler et al. (2006) found that peer modeling may improve motivation
and organizational performance. Without knowledge from effective peer individuals and
organizations, the stakeholders in this study lacked the confidence and commitment to move
forward in developing a student athlete mentoring program. Interestingly, both the KHS staff
participants and parent focus group valued and expressed interest in further exploration in
analyzing potential program designs and models to address the need for more student athlete
guidance for college preparation.
Ultimately, the lack of alignment with the KHS academy pathways is a critical
organizational gap. The data showed that limited resources should be directed to initiatives that
would lead to school-wide college readiness growth and progress for all students. In line with
this direction and recognizing the need in the community, feedback from all KHS stakeholders
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 44

should be sought and analyzed before moving forward with any type of student athlete mentoring
program development.
Research Question 2: What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and
organizational solutions to those needs?
Focus on improving college and career readiness for all students at KHS. A
consistent theme that emerged from the leadership team interviews and parent focus group was
the need to improve the college readiness indicators for all students and to realign programs and
services within the organization in an effort to further build a college going culture. Two
specific recommendations connected with college readiness that surfaced from the interviews
and parent meeting were the need to challenge students academically and help them develop
study skills and mindsets that would help with the high school to college transition. This finding
is consistent with Harris et al. (2015), who found that college readiness is defined as the process
of preparing students for the academic rigor of college coursework and how to successfully
navigate the collegiate environment.
In his interview, Pohaku clearly identified the school mission and focus by stating, “here
at Kuleana High we’re talking about preparing students for college and careers…we’re preparing
them for what’s happening in the years to come.” He continued to express a belief and desire to
educate and prepare all students for college and career regardless of background or ability, “how
are we going to support all kids?” There was a clear vision within the organization and a well-
designed framework in place to build upon. Alex extended the idea of college readiness further
by saying, “I think many of the students are not ready for college.” He elaborated by stating,
“we need to prepare them better and they need to get used to what it is like [in college].”
In the parent meeting, Kalei offered this reflective statement,
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 45

There needs to be some kind of system in place to help students get to the next level, and
I don’t know what that would look like…to identify weaknesses in students’ [academic
behaviors] … [be it] time management, writing, and then be able to help them excel with
that.
Lisa explained that according to her child, who is a junior attending a school in the
Pacific Northwest, “time management is really important in college.” She added, “I think the
time management in classes [at KHS], would help if they [KHS teachers] would give them more
work, if they [the students] are done, give them more work.” Melissa shared how the AVID
class offered at the middle school really helped to teach her child how to organize her thoughts,
by creating bullets and summaries, and how to take Cornell notes. She continued by saying, “It
taught her responsibility.” She emphasized that, “they teach them [the kids] in the AVID class
the things that they should be teaching them in the high school…and it should be taught to every
single student.” All of the parents believed that a similar course that helped to prepare the
students socially and academically would be beneficial to students if offered at KHS.
Referring to research by McKillip et al. (2012), reasons why students are better prepared
for college include building college knowledge, encouraging the development of positive
academic behaviors, and having access to rigorous courses. Therefore, the consistent message
from all the interview and focus group participants was that the priority at KHS is to improve the
college and career readiness of all students, and that there were specific recommendations to
meet this need.
Increase academic rigor. In this study, concerns regarding the lack of academic rigor at
KHS surfaced to some extent in four of the eight interviews with the staff, and five of the parent
focus group members. Kaina and Alex provided strong evidence that more rigor is needed.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 46

Their perspective and experience shed light on a need to challenge students more academically,
especially those who are college bound. This finding is consistent with the work of McKillip et
al. (2012), who found that research strongly supports the idea that students benefit from having
access to a rigorous curriculum.
Kaina expressed this sentiment by stating, “I don’t know if the curriculum is rigorous
enough…they [the students] need to be challenged, they need to work harder.” There are
numerous seniors [students] that are taking one or two classes per semester and that’s not
preparing them for the rigors of college next year. They are hardly doing anything,
they’re not working hard, they’re not carrying a full load of classes.
He continued by sharing his own experience as a former student athlete at Kuleana High School
and the difficult transition of going to college.
I think about my own experience going from Kuleana High School to college. It was a
bit of a transition. Learning how to be a college student and how rigorous it was, you
would show up to class for an hour and have three hours of study and work, and reading
to do. I think a lot of our students have that same kind of experience where high school is
easy and then they make this big jump where college is hard. I think high school ought to
be a little harder. I think it will prepare them. Having to do hard things is a good thing.
Alex echoed this idea of increasing academic rigor. He shared,
I think we need to hold them [the students] a little more accountable. For their learning
and the things that they do. All of our teachers do an excellent job bending over
backwards [making] sure they’re going to pass, but when you get to college, it’s sit down,
listen, this is what you need to do, and when it is due, get it done. I think we need to
slowly move in that direction.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 47

Three of the parent focus group participants reflected on their own children’s experiences
at KHS and their transition to college. Each of the parents were very supportive and involved in
their child’s education. Their children are or were also honor students in the top 10% of their
class. Kalei offered this reflection,
[For my child] it came easy academically. I think they [the teachers] are doing just
enough… and could push the students [those on the honors and college track] harder.
[My child] would never have homework. We already discussed the need for more
rigorous courses for the students. This is critical. Also, [a] more writing intensive
curriculum would help them. [My child] wrote over three dozen variations of essays for
college entrance examinations and scholarships. [My child] now has to write on average
4-5 papers a week for classes. I’ve found there is not a lot of emphasis on writing at
Kuleana High and this is a major issue. All [my child] does is write essays now.
Lisa explained how her child did not feel challenged academically while in high school.
Some of the comments made were, “I’m bored, can they give me more stuff…we [got to] wait to
get the class moving along, I don’t have anything to do.” Her child, now a college junior, shared
that [there is] an exam paper due every single day, and that time management is the most
important [skill]. Kim reinforced the need for more academic rigor. She added, “[my child]
never has homework. [There needs to be] more challenge in academics.”
Giving students access to rigorous coursework in high school will help with college
readiness. This is supported by McKillip et al. (2012) who discussed how critical rigorous
coursework is to student academic success. For these interview and focus group participants,
increasing academic rigor at KHS would likely lead to improved college readiness and
preparation.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 48

Help students develop college skills. Another consistent finding that came out of the
interviews with the KHS leadership team members and three of the parent focus group
participants was the need for an emphasis of helping the students develop college skills. These
would include critical-thinking, self-regulation and advocating, organizing time and resources,
and general study skills. Schools that emphasize college readiness should identify and teach
specific skills that will lead to smoother transitions to post-secondary educational opportunities.
This finding is supported by research discussed in McKillip et al. (2012), which found that
schools with college-going cultures had staff that helped students build and develop positive
academic behaviors and skills such as self-regulation, help-seeking behaviors, time management,
and study skills.
Kaina echoed this need for building college-ready skills by offering the following
perspective, “I think there are kids here who could do better in their simple, basic skills,
communication, speaking, critical thinking, their writing.” Alex added,
[Many of these students need something] like study skills, something to teach them how
to study. I don’t think many of them [students] know how to sit, read, study, write a
paper so they go to college shell-shocked. Many of them don’t know how…some of our
top students, they are struggling in their first year of college. They don’t know how to
study, they don’t know how to take notes, they can’t sit for an hour and listen to a
lecture…we need to prepare them better and they need to get used to what it is like…the
students need to learn the basics of time management, study skills. I think those are
things that we are missing.
Ioane suggested that there be a focus on teaching standardized test-taking strategies. This
skill is essential to the college application process, and is also vital to college success.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 49

All colleges, 90% of colleges require some sort of standardized testing. I think we can do
a better job of teaching standardized test-taking strategies and teaching what is on the
test, whether it be the ACT, or SAT, or even the ASVAB. I think all three of those need
to be integrated into instruction in all classes, regardless of subject matter… [we need to]
help students with standardized testing and methods of being successful on them.
Parent participants also expressed a desire to see more college skill development in
students as they graduated high school. Focus group participant Kalei commented, “We need to
have some kind of program in place to have them look at time management, study skills, etc.”
Keoni added additional perspective, “[Students need to] practice how to take tests more
effectively. They [need to] know how to study, how to manage their time.” Lisa also mentioned
the importance of time management being “the most important skill” that her child had to learn
for success in college.
Both the KHS leadership team and parent focus group participants found evidence that
students could benefit from more positive academic behavior skill development. Thus,
consistent with McKillip et al.’s (2012) findings, students that develop college ready skills such
as time management, test-taking, and communication are prepared for the transition to college.
To fulfill its mission of preparing all students for college and career, it is recommended that KHS
focus on providing opportunities for students to build and develop these essential skills and
behaviors.
Organizational realignment to promote college going culture. Fullan (2004) found
that leadership is a key factor in driving systemic change in educational organizations. KHS is
an organization with a clear vision and mission to prepare all students for college and career in
the 21
st
century. A well-organized structure and framework has been implemented and a
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 50

foundation for future growth has been established (Hawaii Department of Education, 2016).
Feedback from all interview and focus group participants supported this finding. Furthermore,
two specific recommendations that surfaced from the data include the following: restructuring
the transitions to college course, and coordinating resources and support for the counseling staff.
The evidence from the stakeholder interviews and document analysis showed that these priorities
will continue to promote and build a college going culture at KHS. Alex offered this reflection,
“I think in preparing these guys for college [and] for the workforce, every student should be
taking courses that lead to a certificate or certification…[and for those] on the college route, it
[the school] needs to be aligned with a college environment.
A review of the KHS documents revealed that there has been a steady increase in
students graduating from Kuleana High School and finding admission to two and four-year
colleges/ universities (Hawaii P-20 Partnerships for Education, 2017). Additionally, the early
college program at KHS in partnership with the local community college has seen exponential
growth over the past three years (Kapaa High School, 2017a). This evidence confirmed the need
for more coordinated support of the counseling staff. It also validated the feedback of the
leadership team participants who described the increased load placed on the counselor working
with the senior class. Ioane offered this recommendation that would improve the college
planning and preparation process at KHS. He said,
I think number one; we need a dedicated college counselor who only handles college
affairs…this would be a person who fills out the college counselor report…the person
who tracks students’ progress on the application. Reminds them [students] to send their
transcripts…get those recommendations. I think they [the students] need at least two
adults handling [the college application] tasks.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 51

Maile explained how the lack of a transitions course curriculum binder made it difficult
for teachers to be consistent and unified in their instruction. She said, “having that [transitions
course] binder provides a reference…everything [the curriculum] is only online…and they
haven’t really improved the curriculum [since first implementing the course in the fall of 2015].
Furthermore, reviewing the master teaching line schedules over the past three years led to the
discovery that teacher turnover was high in the transitions to college course lines, and that this
past fall semester, none of the original teachers who assisted in creating the content were still
teaching the transition classes (Hawaii Department of Education, 2017d). McKillip et al. (2012)
found that building a college-going culture in a school should focus on both academic instruction
and supportive practices. To further develop and promote a college preparatory environment at
KHS, realignment of services and programs are essential to ensure continual growth toward
achieving the organizational mission.
Restructure transitions to college and career course. A key theme that surfaced in
every interview and meeting with all stakeholder representatives was the need to revisit and
restructure the transitions to college course. This finding is consistent with McKillip et al.’s
(2012) findings, that having a structured course centered around college talk, tasks, and
assignments lead to success in building a college-going culture. Students benefit from the
content knowledge on college preparation and requirements and are motivated to pursue
postsecondary plans and goals.
Every interview participant on the KHS leadership team acknowledged that the
transitions to college course needs revision and restructuring within the organization. The course
originally started as a pilot in the fall of 2015 with all senior students graduating in 2016 taking
the required course designed to assist students with their college application tasks and
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 52

requirements. All participants offered reflective comments suggesting that the course should be
revamped. Kaina said, “course could be beefed up…a lot of wasted time.” Pohaku commented,
“I think that’s one area that we looked at [and] we have to revisit that [transitions to college
course].” Alex offered this perspective,
I don’t think it’s [transition to college course] done with much fidelity. I don’t think the
students and teachers are into it because it’s spread out [and] everyone does their own
thing… [The students] don’t feel the importance of it. We really need to revamp and take
a look at what we are doing.
Malia added, “we [need] to evaluate this [and] brainstorm…everyone needs to be on the
same page…we [have] to make this better…we have to tighten the transitions to college course.”
Maile offered additional reflection by saying, “[selected] teachers need to be more consistent and
invested in [the] course.”
The current design and implementation of the transitions to college course didn’t fulfill
its intended goal of preparing students for college and career. Opportunities for mentoring and
assisting students with college application tasks and requirements were being squandered
because of poor planning and lack of teacher choice and investment. Evidence from the
transitions course content schedule, located in the course folder on Google Drive, showed that
lessons, activities, and assignments had not been updated or evaluated for effectiveness (Kapaa
High School, 2017c; Kapaa High School, 2017d). Unfortunately, elements of the course have
not kept pace as college entrance requirements have evolved. Alex perceptively said, “I know
there is a curriculum and a plan…but [the] transitions [course] is by the wayside.” According to
Eccles (2006), active choice and task value can increase motivation. Identifying KHS staff who
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 53

value the course and actively choose to take ownership of its design and implementation may
lead to growth and success in developing student college readiness.
College counseling coordination. A common thread that came out of both the
leadership team interviews and parent focus group meeting was the need for more support and
coordination of college counseling responsibilities. KHS has four counselors, one for each grade
level. The counselor follows the students from 9
th
through 12
th
grade. The senior counselor had
the primary responsibility for ensuring that students graduate and successfully obtain admission
to postsecondary programs. As KHS continues to show growth in preparing students for college
and career, more resources should be allocated to support the coordination of college counseling
tasks and responsibilities for the senior counselor. Describing a need in the school community,
Kalei shared a general consensus of the group by stating,
I think a lot of parents are frustrated [and] lack the gumption to search out information on
their own…there almost needs to be more opportunities to teach parents how to start the
process [and maybe] a college counselor that can guide them through the
process…[perhaps] some step-by-step guidelines to help them.
Both Pohaku and Alex expressed a desire to “get the right people in the right seats,”
referring to a tighter alignment of courses and instructors in support of the KHS vision and
mission. Malia described that the increase in early college dual credit course offerings require “a
better plan in place” and “a coordinator [with a clearly defined role and responsibilities].” Ioane
commented that “our counselors do a great job, but a senior counselor’s job is one the most
tasking, tiring jobs on this campus.” This leadership team member suggested there be a person
who “could work together with the counseling staff” that could assist students with the many
“moving parts” of the college application process. Kekai added that schools that have one
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 54

person dedicated to college counseling lead the state in the amount of college scholarship money
awarded annually. It helps to have “somebody there to monitor all of that [college coordination]
in one place.” This participant continued by saying,
[senior counselors] doing the college [and] career stuff, they sometimes don’t have
enough time to do counseling…I think if you take all the college stuff off counselors,
[they] could just focus on counseling students…I see our school focusing on the whole
child.
Realigning the college counseling responsibilities by analyzing staff and resource
allocation would support the school mission of preparing all students for college and career.
Thus, consistent with McKillip et al. (2012), schools that structurally and organizationally align
their programs and services with their mission find greater student success particularly when
combined with research-based instructional and social engagement practices. For the KHS
leadership team, it was clear that resources and support for the counselor would go a long way to
preparing more students for college and career.
Synthesis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions. The
aforementioned knowledge, motivation, and organizational recommendations would close gaps
and lead to increased organizational performance at Kuleana High School. First, the leadership
team at KHS needs to identify opportunities to teach students positive academic behavior skill
sets that would prepare them for college success. Next, the faculty and staff need to find value in
the transitions to college course and allocate planning time and resources to strengthen that
course offering. Furthermore, clear lines of coordination and a more effective distribution of
college counseling responsibilities would help to close a glaring gap and address critical student
and parent needs for student college access and preparation.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 55

Discussion
Participants in this study expressed interest in developing some type of program or
partnership to support student athletes’ college preparation. However, they lacked the
knowledge and confidence to even begin the planning process. Given the feedback from the
KHS staff and parent focus group, it was determined that more data from all stakeholders was
needed to identify and verify interest, value, and capacity of developing a student athlete
mentoring program. Interestingly, two systemic gaps surfaced from data collection which were
subsequently validated by a review of the relevant documents. These gaps took precedence over
the interest and further exploration of a potential student athlete program or service that would
help to increase college readiness. Revamping the transition to college course and allocating
resources and support for the senior counselor are two significant needs at KHS in achieving the
organizational mission of preparing all students for college and career. Although not a current
priority or need for the school, student athlete guidance and college preparation is a need in the
community that should be explored in the future.
Surprisingly, the systemic gaps mentioned previously are the result of KHS’ success in
increasing the on-time graduation and college registration rates identified in a recent Hawaii
college and career readiness report (Hawaii P-20 Partnerships for Education, 2017).
Additionally, the growth of the early college dual-credit program with the local community
college has been another positive by-product that continues to show promise going forward
(Kapaa High School, 2017a). However, the KHS staff and parents reported that many of the
students going on to college are not adequately prepared for the rigor of college coursework and
how to successfully navigate the collegiate environment. Given these findings, an investigation
of the root causes revealed areas of growth that include a realignment of college preparation
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 56

services and programs that will strengthen KHS’ educational offerings and better prepare
students for postsecondary opportunities.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
This section will now address the knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
close the identified gaps in performance. A review of the assumed and validated influences will
be analyzed within the context of the relevant literature. Recommendations are presented backed
by theoretical principles and the prior research. Following an introductory overview of each
KMO construct, summary tables of the influences and recommendations will then lead into a
discussion of contextual implications and the connection between closing and meeting KMO
gaps and needs respectively.
Knowledge Recommendations
Clark and Estes (2008) assert that knowledge and skill development are needed to
achieve performance goals. The four knowledge types are declarative, conceptual, procedural,
and meta-cognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). The knowledge influences in Table 4 represent the
complete list of assumed knowledge influences and those that were validated based on the most
frequently mentioned knowledge influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during staff
interviews, parent focus group discussions, and supported by the literature review. As such,
some of the validated influences have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal of
developing a planning framework to support development of a student athlete mentoring
program. The KHS leadership team needs to close knowledge gaps in the following three areas:
soliciting stakeholder information on the interest, need, value, and capacity of developing a
student athlete mentoring program; improving the design, content, and implementation of the
transition to college course; and the realignment of college counseling services for greater
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 57

effectiveness. for Table 4 below shows the validated knowledge influences for the KHS
leadership team with specific recommendations for knowledge development based on theoretical
principles.
Table 4
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
KHS staff do not know the
student athlete college
preparation and eligibility
requirements. (D)
N N *not a priority
KHS staff do not understand
the cause of college access
and readiness gaps. (D)
N N How individuals organize
knowledge influences how
they learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
*not a priority
KHS staff need knowledge
of the academic
achievement and
performance data for
disadvantaged student
athletes. (D)
N N *not a priority
KHS staff need to
understand how to reflect on
their effectiveness in
preparing disadvantaged
students for college. (M)
N N The use of metacognitive
strategies facilitates learning
(Baker, 2006).

Performance levels increase
with increased self-
regulation skills (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
*not a priority
KHS staff need knowledge
of research-based college
transitions course
curriculum. (D)
V Y How individuals organize
knowledge influences how
they learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Facilitating transfer
promotes learning (Mayer,
2011).
Provide a job aid that
shows the key
components and
curriculum of an
effective college
preparation course.
KHS staff need knowledge
of existing K12 student
athlete mentoring programs
and how to effectively
implement them. (D & P)
V Y Modeling to-be-learned
strategies or behaviors
improves self-efficacy,
learning, and performance
Identify peer model
schools that have
existing student athlete
mentoring programs
that have produced an
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 58

(Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009).

Modeled behavior
is more likely to be adopted
if the model is credible,
similar, and the behavior
has functional value (Denler
et al., 2009).
increase in college
admission and
participation rates.
There is a lack of
understanding regarding
student athlete college
preparation in the larger
school community.
(P)
V Y Break down complex tasks
and encourage individuals
to think about content in
strategic ways (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

To develop mastery,
individuals must acquire
component skills, practice
integrating them, and know
when to apply what they
have learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Seek stakeholder
feedback to address
knowledge gap and
interest in developing
program to meet
community need.
KHS staff need knowledge
of how to effectively
differentiate instruction to
prepare students for college.
(P)
V Y Self-regulatory strategies,
including goal setting,
enhance learning and
performance (APA, 2015;
Dembo & Eaton, 2000;
Denler et al., 2009).

Procedural knowledge
increases when declarative
knowledge required to
perform the skill is available
or known. (Clark et al.,
2008).

Feedback that is private,
specific, and timely
enhances performance
(Shute, 2008).
Provide professional
development in
differentiation
strategies to increase
academic rigor for
college bound
students.

Teacher coaching and
mentoring to embed
training with
consistent feedback
and support to increase
self-efficacy.
KHS staff need knowledge
of existing public high
school college counseling
services and how to
effectively implement them.
(P)
V Y Modeling to-be-learned
strategies or behaviors
improves self-efficacy,
learning, and performance
(Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009).

Modeled behavior is more
likely to be adopted if the
model is credible, similar,
and the behavior has
functional value (Denler et
al., 2009).
Visit Hawaii Academy
schools with
successful CTE
pathway/ early college
alignment to increase
self-efficacy and
identify KHS
coordination of college
counseling
implementation steps.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 59

KHS staff need to
understand how to reflect on
their effectiveness in
preparing all students for
college and careers. (M)
V Y The use of metacognitive
strategies facilitates learning
(Baker, 2006).

Performance levels increase
with increased self-
regulation skills (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Identify peer models
who have a record of
effectively preparing
students for the
academic rigor of
college.
*(D)eclarative; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive
Declarative knowledge solutions. Declarative knowledge is knowledge about the basic
elements within a larger structure (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The data showed that KHS
staff lacked declarative knowledge of research-based college transitions course curriculum.
According to Mayer (2011), facilitating transfer promotes learning. Additionally, the
organization of knowledge influences learning and application (Schraw & McCruden, 2006).
The recommendation is that KHS staff identify a job aid that shows the key components and
curriculum of an effective college preparation course.
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), research has shown that making
connections among different knowledge elements lead to optimal learning. Access to
information may be the first step to closing declarative knowledge gaps. Key elements of
college readiness are the students’ ability to effectively manage the academic rigor of college
coursework and successfully navigate the collegiate environment (Harris et al., 2015).
According to Karcher (2008) and McDonough (2009), having access to college planning
resources and information is a critical component in preparing students for college.
Additionally, The College Board National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (2010)
emphasizes the need for academic planning to improve college and career readiness.
Procedural knowledge solutions. Procedural knowledge is knowledge about how to do
something (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The data showed that KHS staff lacked knowledge
of how to effectively differentiate instruction to prepare students for college. According to
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 60

Denler et al (2009), modeling to-be-learned strategies or behaviors, improves self-efficacy,
learning, and performance. Clark and Estes (2008) assert that training provides guided practice
and is the best way to develop “how-to” knowledge. The recommendation is that Training of
KHS staff focus on differentiation strategies to increase academic rigor for college bound
students.
According to some researchers, less than half of all high school students graduate with
the knowledge to succeed with college-level work (Boser, Barffour, & Vela, 2016; Larimore &
Sidhu, 2015). Differentiation includes the practice of rigorous instruction with accommodations
for all student learners regardless of background, and is also a strategy to close academic
achievement gaps (Larimore & Sidhu, 2015; Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014). Some educators need
support in understanding student needs and which instructional practices and curricula best meet
those needs (Boser et al., 2016).
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. Research suggests that metacognitive knowledge
promotes self-regulation and success in learning. According to Clark and Estes (2008),
performance levels improve with increased self-regulation skills. The data showed that KHS
staff lacked metacognitive knowledge of how to reflect on their effectiveness in preparing all
students for college and careers. According to Baker (2006), the use of metacognitive strategies
facilitates learning. Peer models with a record of successfully preparing students for the
academic rigor of college, should share best practices to promote consistency among the entire
KHS staff.
According to Baker (2006), modeling one’s own metacognitive process by talking out
loud and assessing strengths and weaknesses is a strategy to promote metacognition. One tool
KHS staff could use to identify internal metacognitive influences is the Schraw and Dennison
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 61

(1994) Metacognitive Awareness Inventory. According to Mayer (2011), having KHS staff
identify and reflect on prior knowledge before a learning task may promote metacognition and
increase levels of performance. Moreover, researchers suggest providing opportunities for
learners to debrief and collaborate with peer models to accelerate knowledge acquisition and
implementation (Baker, 2006; Denler et al., 2009). Furthermore, research has shown that the
quality and collaboration of a school-based professional learning community leads to increased
staff performance and improved student achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2014).
Motivation Recommendations
Organizational performance is improved when motivational influences are understood
and appropriately addressed (Rueda, 2011). The following table represents the complete list of
assumed motivation influences and those validated based stakeholder interviews and supported
by the relevant research and the review of motivation theory. Clark and Estes (2008) suggested
that there are three indicators of motivation in task performance – choice, persistence and mental
effort. Choice is going beyond intention to start something. Persistence is continuing to pursue a
goal in the face of distractions, and mental effort is seeking and applying new knowledge to
solve a novel program or perform a new task (Clark & Estes, 2008). Among the KHS staff, the
assumed needs appeared to suggest that choice, persistence, and mental effort may be lacking to
some degree at the instructional level in individual classrooms and within the counseling
department. The data from this study did show motivation gaps, particularly in the areas of value
and self-efficacy. Table 5 depicts the motivational influences and includes recommendations for
these influences based on theoretical principles.
Table 5
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 62

Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
KHS staff need to be
confident in their ability to
develop an effective student
athlete mentoring program
that will increase college
preparation, eligibility, and
admissions rates.
(self-efficacy)
N N *not a priority
KHS staff need to be
confident in their ability to
effectively differentiate
instruction to prepare
students for college and
careers.
(self-efficacy)
V Y Effective observational
learning is achieved by first
organizing and rehearsing
modeled behaviors, then
enacting it overtly (Mayer,
2011).

Self-efficacy is increased as
individuals succeed in a task
(Bandura, 1997).
Provide Training in
which instructional
leaders and teacher
coaches model
effective
differentiation
strategies that reach all
learners in a
classroom.
KHS staff need to see other
successful public high
school college counseling
services to clarify goals and
expected outcomes.
(goal orientation)
V Y Modeling to-be-learned
strategies or behaviors
improves self-efficacy,
learning, and performance
(Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009).

Modeled behavior is more
likely to be adopted if the
model is credible, similar
(e.g., culturally appropriate),
and the behavior has
functional value (Denler et
al., 2009)..
Provide opportunities
for KHS staff to visit
and learn from
successful Hawaii
Academy schools
effectively
implementing college
readiness programs
and services.

Collaborate with peer
models to develop
implementation steps.
KHS staff need to see value
in designing and delivering
quality research-based
transitions to college course
curriculum.
(value)
V Y Individuals are more likely
to engage in an activity
when it provides value to
them. (Eccles, 2009).

Learning and motivation are
enhanced if the learner
values the task (Eccles,
2006).

Provide opportunities
for KHS staff to design
and instruct the
transitions to college
course.

Provide regular
collaboration time for
ongoing professional
development and peer
learning.
KHS staff need to see value
in a student athlete
mentoring program that will
increase college preparation
and eligibility for graduating
seniors.
(value)
N N *not a priority
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 63

Self-Efficacy. KHS staff need to be confident in their ability to effectively differentiate
instruction to prepare students for college and careers. Bandura (1997) found that self-efficacy is
increased as individuals succeed in a task. Mayer (2011) added that effective observational
learning is achieved by organizing and rehearsing modeled behaviors, then enacting it overtly.
This would suggest that providing teachers with lesson demonstrations by highly qualified peer
coaches, opportunities to model instruction, and specific feedback would likely increase their
self-efficacy. Pajares (2006) suggests providing instructional support early on, building in
multiple opportunities for practice, then gradually remove the supports. The recommendation
then is for the organization to provide training in which instructional leaders and coaches model
effective differentiation strategies that reach all learners in the classroom. This would then lead
to guided practice, feedback, and then full implementation and application of the differentiation
principles.
Clark and Estes (2008) found that “belief is everything” and that creating an expectation
of success is key to high level performance. Modeling to-be-learned strategies or behaviors
improves self-efficacy, learning, and performance (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2009). Pajares
(2006) and Pintrich (2003) found that individuals develop self-efficacy when they see their
efforts contributing to the organizational mission. Rueda (2011) found that tasks should be
designed to offer opportunities to be successful, while also providing clear and accurate feedback
regarding competence focusing on the development of expertise and skill. Lazowski and
Hulleman (2016) identified a study that found effort feedback to be more effective in developing
self-efficacy among individuals learning a skill. From a theoretical perspective, it would appear
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 64

that increasing self-efficacy in teachers’ ability to differentiate instruction would lead to
improved teaching practice and benefit those students preparing for college.
Value. KHS staff need to see value in designing and delivering quality research-based
transitions to college course curriculum. Eccles (2009) found that individuals are more likely to
engage in an activity when it provides value to them. This would suggest that KHS staff should
be given the opportunity to choose instructing the transitions to college course, and also have
input in the design and delivery of the course content. The recommendations for the
organization are to open the design and delivery of the transition to college course to interested
KHS staff and to provide regular collaboration time for ongoing professional development and
peer learning.
Eccles (2006) asserts that activating personal interest through opportunities for choice
and control can increase motivation. Rueda (2011) found that relevance and importance of the
task or program to the learner will increase intrinsic motivation. The author also noted that
motivation increases when individuals see a strong connection between their learning task and
consistent positive outcomes. In a meta-analysis study by Lazowski and Hulleman (2016),
researchers found that the relevance of the task had an effect on the learner’s expectancy of
success. Based on these findings, it would appear that increasing the relevance of the transitions
to college course along with obtaining KHS staff investment and buy-in would increase the
quality of the program and delivery of that course offering. These steps would also lead to
achieving the organizational mission.
Organization Recommendations
Clark and Estes (2008) suggested that organization and stakeholder goals are often not
achieved due to a lack of resources, most often time and money, and stakeholder goals that are
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 65

not aligned with the organization’s mission and goals. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001)
proposed two constructs about culture – cultural models or the observable beliefs and values
shared by individuals in groups, and cultural settings, or the system and activities in which
performance occurs. Thus, both resources and processes and cultural models and settings must
align throughout the organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals. Subsequently, as
indicated in Table 5, some organizational influences were validated and have a high priority for
achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Data from the KHS staff, parent participants, and document
review validated assumed organizational influences related to cultural models and settings.
Table 6 also shows the recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles.
Table 6
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Developing a college going
culture at KHS is a priority
for the administration and
key staff. (cultural model)
V Y Focusing the work on the
school’s vision was
correlated with
improvements in student
learning outcomes (Walters,
Marzano, & McNulty,
2003).

Organizational performance
increases when processes
and resources are aligned
with goals established
collaboratively (Clark &
Estes, 2008)

School leadership is an
important factor in building
capacity and student
achievement (Waters,
Marzano, & McNulty,
2003).
Consistently align
current Hui and
Academy practices
with the organizational
vision and mission.

Communicate the
growth of early
college and its
alignment with the
organizational vision
and mission to all
stakeholders.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 66

There is a lack of
understanding regarding
student athlete college
preparation in the larger
school community.
(cultural model)
V Y Break down complex tasks
and encourage individuals
to think about content in
strategic ways (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

To develop mastery,
individuals must acquire
component skills, practice
integrating them, and know
when to apply what they
have learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
*knowledge influence

Seek stakeholder
feedback to address
knowledge gap and
interest in developing
program to meet
community need.
KHS Hui and Academy
leaders need to utilize
achievement data and align
collaborative leadership
practices with organizational
mission.
(cultural model)
N N *not a priority
KHS faculty and staff need
to understand the needs of
low SES and Native
Hawaiian students within
the context of the KHS
strategic plan in order to
address those needs.
(cultural model)
N N *not a priority
KHS needs to develop and
expand a college readiness
framework to increase % of
students accepted to four-
year colleges and
universities without need of
remediation.
(cultural model)
Y Y Allocate resources and align
processes with the
organizational mission and
vision (Clark & Estes,
2008).

Organizational performance
increases when individuals
communicate constantly and
candidly to others about
plans and processes (Clark
& Estes, 2008)
Evaluate current staff
positions and funding
sources to improve
resource allocation in
alignment with the
organization’s needs
and priorities.

There is no college
counselor or student athlete
advisor on staff.
(cultural setting)
V Y Organizational performance
increases when individuals
communicate constantly and
candidly to others about
plans and processes (Clark
& Estes, 2008)

Evaluate current staff
positions and funding
sources to improve
resource allocation in
alignment with the
organization’s needs
and priorities.

Faculty have numerous
teaching and non-teaching
responsibilities and this
keeps them from mentoring
and providing guidance for
student athletes to
adequately prepare them for
V N *not a priority
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 67

college eligibility,
admissions, and
participation.
(cultural setting)
The college preparation
process involving the
transitions to college course
at KHS needs to be revised.
(cultural setting)
V Y Allocate resources and align
processes with the
organizational mission and
vision (Clark & Estes,
2008).

Organizational performance
increases when individuals
communicate constantly and
candidly to others about
plans and processes (Clark
& Estes, 2008)

Design of incentive
structure and use of
incentives are more
important than the types of
incentives used (Elmore,
2002).
Bring interested and
invested stakeholders
together to revamp the
transitions to college
course to align the
organization's goals.

Provide incentives
such as recognition
and other tangible
benefits and rewards
to promote investment
and sustainability.
*(C)ultural (M)odel; (C)ultural (S)etting
Cultural models. Developing a school culture of preparing all students for college and
career is a priority for the KHS leadership team. Walters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) found
that focusing the work on the school’s vision was correlated with improved student learning
outcomes. Furthermore, Clark and Estes (2008) stated that organizational performance increased
when processes and resources were aligned with goals established collaboratively. This
suggested that consistently aligning current Hui and Academy practices with the organizational
vision and mission will lead to improved student performance outcomes and achievement.
McKillip et al. (2013) identified characteristics of schools with a college-going culture.
The authors found that staff helped all students to access rigorous courses, built college
knowledge, and encouraged the development of positive academic behaviors. Additionally,
McDonough (2009) found that clearly defined goals and expectations related to college
preparation should be ingrained in the school culture and that all stakeholders should understand
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 68

their individual and collective roles. The author also stated that the school faculty had an
essential responsibility in creating and maintaining a college-going culture. As such, it appears
that the literature would support the priority of building a college-going culture at KHS for the
benefit of students and their aspirations for post-secondary education.
Cultural settings. There needs to be improved coordination of services and resources
related to preparing students for college at KHS. A tighter and more consistent alignment
between the work of counselors and the transitions to college course objectives would address
this need. Clark and Estes (2008) found that organizational performance increased when
individuals communicate constantly and candidly to others about plans and processes.
Additionally, the authors identified the importance of allocating resources and aligning processes
with the organizational vision and mission. Elmore (2002) stated that the design of the incentive
structure and use of incentives were more important than types of incentives used. This
suggested the need to evaluate current staff positions and funding sources to improve resource
allocation in alignment with the organization’s needs and priorities. Bringing interested and
invested stakeholders together to revamp the transitions to college course in concert with the
organization’s goals and providing incentives like recognition and other tangible benefits and
rewards, would promote greater investment and sustainability over the long term.
The research suggested that gains in preparing students for college stemmed from a
combined effort to increase access to rigorous curriculum and increased levels of individualized
social support, guidance, and mentoring (McKillip et al., 2013; Radcliffe & Bos, 2011). In the
case of fostering better alignment of staff support at KHS, McKillip et al. (2013) found that
students’ academic achievement and college aspirations were largely determined by the
consistency and quality of supportive relationships with school staff. Redesigning the transitions
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 69

to college course to include dedicated instructors who were invested in preparing students for
college would lend evidence to this finding. Consequently, it appears that the literature would
support every effort made by the organization to effectively align human and other resources to
provide increased support to students in their college preparation.
Specifically, there are three initial steps planned to implement the proposed
recommendations. First, meeting with the KHS administration team to share and discuss the
findings will initiate an important dialogue going forward. Central to the discussion will be the
need to realign services and allocate resources to bolster the counseling department and help to
close the gap in college counseling support of students with postsecondary aspirations.
Additionally, identifying an interested and invested staff member willing to take ownership of
the transitions to college course will be another key outcome of the meeting. Second,
stakeholder feedback should be gathered in regard to a potential student athlete program in
connection with addressing a community need uncovered in the study. Third, investigating the
college transition experiences of former KHS student graduates would lend additional
perspective to addressing the college readiness needs of current KHS students. Thus, gathering
qualitative and quantitative feedback from all KHS stakeholders as indicated would further
clarify organizational needs and priorities in alignment with KHS’ mission. These essential steps
would serve as initial benchmark indicators of KHS’ plan for continual growth and progress.
Conclusion
The purpose of this project was to explore a potential innovation that would address the
problem of closing college access and readiness gaps specifically for high school student
athletes. Assumed influences were subsequently analyzed through qualitative data collection and
a review of pertinent organizational documents. The stakeholder of focus in this study was the
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 70

leadership team of administrators, counselors, and teacher leaders at Kuleana High School. Data
was triangulated by analyzing information gathered from KHS staff, parent group members, and
publicized reports. Although, the development of a student athlete mentoring program at KHS
was found to be a non-priority at the present time, specific improvements in the coordination and
delivery of college counseling services and instructional offerings at KHS will likely lead to
more students admitted to colleges who are prepared academically and who persist to degree
completion without the need for remediation. The analysis of this study revealed several KHS
strengths. The administration and leadership team have transformed the culture of the school
and laid a solid foundation and organizational framework to prepare students for college and
career in the 21
st
century (Hawaii Academies, 2017; Hawaii Department of Education, 2016).
Based on publicized reports, the school has made significant strides in recent years becoming a
“bright spot” school in the Hawaii Department of Education especially in the areas of 9
th
grade
transition, increasing attendance and on-time graduation indicators, and by lowering overall
failure and retention rates schoolwide (Hawaii Department of Education, 2016). Emphasizing
increased student accountability and challenging students academically remain key priorities
moving forward. Instructionally, the focus should be on finding the right balance between
increased academic rigor and student support. Systemically, the allocation of resources should
be evaluated in the context of alignment with the organizational mission, vision, and global goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Hawaii Department of Education, 2017a).
The findings from this project can help public high schools understand the college access
and readiness needs of students and provide guidance on the development of programs and
services designed to meet this need. The project findings supported prior research by McKillip
et al. (2013) that academic rigor and positive academic behavior development are two of the
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 71

most important college readiness components in any college preparatory program. Evidence of
the early college dual-credit course movement occurring locally and nationally depicts a well-
designed initiative funded by business and community partners who have an interest in raising
the college admission and completion rates (Ndiaye & Wolfe, 2016). Additionally, this project
informs public high schools of the need in the surrounding community to address parental
knowledge gaps in the ever-evolving college application process and student readiness and
preparation needs. Ultimately, it confirms the need to solicit stakeholder feedback and input in
any planned initiative or program to ensure alignment of goals, needs, and values.
An integrated implementation and evaluation plan located in Appendix F outlines a
detailed process for KHS to follow in carrying out the identified recommendations. The plan
utilizes the New World Kirkpatrick Model as a framework (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Working from the “backward mapping” approach, consistent alignment with the organizational
mission, values, and goals ensure strategic and incremental progress toward achieving optimal
organizational performance and achievement. This approach delivers what stakeholders need to
drive and implement organizational change for optimum performance and effectiveness.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 72

Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders with Sampling
Criteria for Interviews and Focus Group

Participating Stakeholders

The participants in this study consisted of teachers, counselors, administration, and
parents of Kuleana High School. As a key stakeholder, the KHS leadership team is instrumental
in ensuring alignment of programs and services with the organizational mission. Parent
stakeholders provided needed feedback and help to ensure organizational accountability in
meeting students’ needs.

Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale

Criterion 1. Participant was a Kuleana High School staff member with knowledge of the
organizational mission.
Criterion 2. Participant had more than five years of experience in the Hawaii
Department of Education.
Criterion 3. Participant had some experience teaching and working in a leadership
capacity at the K-12 secondary level.
The rationale for the specific sampling criteria in this study reflected the research
questions and the need for information-rich data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants were
selected for their knowledge, expertise, and influence within the organization. As a KHS staff
member, each participant had a vested interest in KHS. The five-year benchmark of experience
in the Hawaii Department of Education ensured a seasoned perspective and understanding of the
ebb and flow of departmental, state, and federal initiatives and its impact at the school level.
Furthermore, each participant had some experience teaching and working in a leadership
capacity at the K-12 secondary level.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 73

Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale

The recruitment strategy for this study was based on purposeful sampling where the most
information and insight could be learned from those with specific skills, experiences, and
knowledge pertinent to the project framework (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I recruited potential
project participants by sending out an email asking for volunteers. I then followed up with
personal contact and communication. There were two research questions guiding this study.
The first was reflective of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs and influences at
KHS in connection with developing a student athlete mentoring program to increase college
readiness. The second determined what was needed to implement the innovation. Interviewing
key staff at KHS provided the depth of information needed to effectively analyze and address
organizational gaps. Furthermore, recommendations were offered based on validated KMO
influences and needs.
The selected research participants were compared to consultants who had expertise that
provided rich data and a depth of understanding the problem of practice (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As a member of the KHS leadership team, I had previously
developed professional and collegial relationships with each KHS staff interview participant and
this helped to facilitate the study (Maxwell, 2013). I recognized that key informant bias may
have been problematic in this particular study because of the small number of informants whose
views and perspectives were likely seen as atypical and not representative of the average
educator. The decision to select experienced and exemplary education leaders who provide
dilluminative insights about the research questions outweighed the alternative to conduct
maximum variation sampling with a larger number of participants that could have possibly
increased the range of perspectives on the problem of practice.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 74

Participating Stakeholders

I held a focus group meeting with six parents of KHS student athletes. Five were parents
and one was a grandparent. Four participants had a child that graduated from KHS in the last
three years. Two of those four had a child currently participating in NCAA Division I and III
collegiate athletics in the PAC-12 and Northwest Conferences respectively.

Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale

Criterion 1. Participant was a parent/ guardian of a KHS student athlete.
Criterion 2. Participant was a parent/ guardian of a KHS student athlete with a
minimum of two years’ participation in high school athletics.
The rationale for the specific sampling criteria in this study reflected the research
questions and the need for information-rich data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants were
invited to participate in focus group to provide knowledge and perspective as a parent of a KHS
student athlete. Each participant had an interest in their child’s education and participation in
high school athletics. Focus group participants had an interest in college access and readiness for
their student athlete child.
Focus Group Sampling Strategy and Rationale

The recruitment strategy for this study was based on purposeful sampling where the most
information and insight was learned from those with specific skills, experiences, and knowledge
pertinent to the project framework (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I asked for volunteers from a
pool of potential focus group participants by sending out an email to a predetermined list of
qualified candidates based on the sampling criteria. I followed up with personal contact and
communication. The goal was to get a commitment of four to six parents to participate in the
focus group interview. Six parents agreed to participate in the study. I chose participants who
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 75

came from diverse backgrounds to increase the range of perspectives on the focus group topic
and questions. The meeting was held on a weeknight in an empty meeting room at Kuleana High
School.
Two research questions guided the study. The first was reflective of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs and influences at KHS in connection with developing a
student athlete mentoring program to increase college readiness. The second question probed for
possible solutions to meeting KMO needs and gaps. Parent participants provided needed
perspective of knowledge and motivation influences and helped to ensure an effective analysis of
KHS staff and document data.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 76

Appendix B: Protocols

Interview Protocol
Introduction

Thank you for your willingness to participate in this study. The purpose of this research
project is to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs of Kuleana High
School in the development of a student athlete mentoring program to improve college readiness.
I selected you as a research participant because of the experience, expertise, and professional
perspective you bring to the project.
Your responses will be confidential. I will ensure anonymity of individuals and use
pseudonyms for the organization in my writing and the reporting of data. I will follow all ethical
and legal guidelines regarding qualitative research throughout the duration of the project. I
would like to record our interview today to assist in the accuracy and transcription of information
shared. I will provide you with an overview of my initial findings for review to ensure your
thoughts are captured accurately. This first interview will take approximately one hour. If
needed, I would like conduct a second follow up interview at a later time for a total of two hours’
interview time. Do you have any questions or concerns before we get started? Let’s begin.

Question Route Placement KMO Influence Patton Category
Please tell me your name and
how long you have been working
at Kuleana High School?
Opening Organization Background
Could you tell me about your role
and responsibilities here at
Kuleana High School?
Opening Organization/
Knowledge
Background
Tell me about the smaller
learning community design at
Kuleana High School?
Introductory Organization Knowledge
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 77

Could you walk me through the
process of a student’s high school
experience from 9
th
to 12
th
grade
at Kuleana High School?
Introductory Organization/
Knowledge
Knowledge
Tell me about the leadership team
at Kuleana High School?
Introductory Organization Knowledge
What are your thoughts about
Kuleana High School regarding
college readiness?
Introductory Organization Opinion
Could you walk me through the
academic requirements of playing
a sport in college?
Transition Knowledge Knowledge
Could you walk me through the
last time a student from Kuleana
High School was recruited to play
a Division I sport?
Probe Knowledge Knowledge
Can you tell me more about the
student? Background,
characteristics, academic ability,
athletic experience, school and
community involvement?
Follow up probe Knowledge Opinion
What do you know about the
college readiness data at Kuleana
High School?
Follow up probe Knowledge Knowledge
What does the current WASC
accreditation report say about
student achievement and college
readiness?
Follow up probe Knowledge Knowledge
How is Kuleana High School
doing in preparing Native
Hawaiian students for college?
Introductory Organization Opinion
What do you think are the
barriers to college access for
Native Hawaiian students?
Follow up probe Organization Knowledge
Could you walk me through a
typical day for you at school?
Transition Knowledge Behavior
Tell me about your experience
with parents in their
understanding of the college
preparation process?
Key question Knowledge Knowledge
Tell me about your experiences
with helping students prepare for
college?
Follow up probe Knowledge Knowledge
From your perspective, how
important is student athlete
college readiness for overall
Key question Motivation Value
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 78

achievement at Kuleana High
School?
How do you feel about
developing a student athlete
mentoring program at Kuleana
High School?
Key question Motivation Value
Could you describe the current
college preparation process for
students at Kuleana High School?
Follow up probe Knowledge Knowledge
How do you feel about mentoring
as a strategy to improve student
athlete college readiness at
Kuleana High School?
Follow up probe Motivation Feeling
Could you describe the
characteristics of a successful
student athlete at Kuleana High
School?
Key question Organization Opinion
What might be needed to develop
a mentoring program?
Key question Organization Knowledge
What challenges might we
encounter to make this happen?
Key question Organization Knowledge
What do we need to know to start
a mentoring program?
Key question Knowledge Knowledge
What would need to be in place? Follow up probe Organization Opinion
What areas should the program
address?
Follow up probe Knowledge Opinion
What is your understanding of a
positive mentoring relationship?
Key question Motivation Value
What do you know about
mentorship?
Follow up probe Knowledge Knowledge
What should be covered in a
mentoring program designed to
increase college readiness?
Key question Knowledge Opinion
Who would benefit most from a
mentoring program, why?
Follow up probe Organization Value
What things, if any, do you like
about Kuleana High School?
Closing question Organization Opinion
What recommendations do you
have with regard to student
athlete mentoring at Kuleana
High School?
Ending question Organization Opinion

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 79

Focus Group Protocol
Introduction
Thank you for your willingness to participate in this study. The purpose of this research
project is to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs of Kuleana High
School in the development of a student athlete mentoring program to improve college readiness.
I selected you to participate in this focus group because of the perspectives you bring to the
project as parents of KHS student athletes. Your responses will be confidential. I will ensure
anonymity of individuals and use pseudonyms for the organization in my writing and the
reporting of data. I will follow all ethical and legal guidelines regarding qualitative research
throughout the duration of the project. I would like to record our focus group session today to
assist in the accuracy and transcription of information shared. I will provide you with an
overview of my initial findings for review to ensure your thoughts are captured accurately. The
session will take approximately two hours. Do you have any questions or concerns before we
get started? Before we begin the focus group interview, let’s go around and introduce ourselves.
Thank you. Let’s begin.
Question Route Placement KMO Influence Patton Category
Could you tell me about your
child’s experience as a student
athlete at Kuleana High School?
Opening Organization/
Knowledge
Background
What sport or sports does your
child play at KHS?
Follow up probe Knowledge Background
How long has your child been
playing the sport(s)?
Follow up probe Knowledge Background
What are your thoughts about
Kuleana High School regarding
its efforts to prepare students for
college?
Introductory Organization Opinion
What do you know about the
academic requirements of playing
a sport in college?
Transition Knowledge Knowledge
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 80

What is your understanding of the
college preparation process for
student athletes?
Key question Knowledge Knowledge
As a parent, what are the
challenges you face in preparing
your child for college?
Follow up probe Knowledge Knowledge
For those who have a child in
college, would you mind sharing
your thoughts on college
preparation best practices?
Follow up probe Knowledge Knowledge
How do you feel about
developing a student athlete
mentoring program at Kuleana
High School
Key question Motivation Value
Could you describe your
understanding of the current
college preparation process for
students at KHS?
Follow up probe Knowledge Knowledge
How do you feel about mentoring
as a strategy to improve student
athlete college readiness at
Kuleana High School?
Follow up probe Motivation Value
What might be needed to develop
a successful mentoring program?
Key question Organization Knowledge
What challenges might KHS
encounter in trying to make this
happen?
Follow up probe Organization Knowledge
What areas should the program
address?
Follow up probe Knowledge Opinion
What should be covered in a
mentoring program designed to
increase college readiness?
Key question Knowledge Opinion
Who would benefit most from a
mentoring program, why?
Follow up probe Organization Value
What strengths do you see at
Kuleana High School?
Closing question Organization Opinion
What areas of improvement does
KHS need to focus on?
Follow up probe Organization Opinion
What recommendations do you
have with regard to student
athlete mentoring at Kuleana
High School?
Ending question Organization Opinion

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 81

Appendix C: Credibility and Trustworthiness

I had a comprehensive approach to establish and maintain credibility and trustworthiness
throughout the duration of the project. Initially, I was mindful of my own researcher biases
based on my background and close familiarity with the staff and parents of Kuleana High
School. I am a leadership team member, teacher, and coach at KHS with a significant amount of
connections and influence in the school and surrounding community. I also had experience
mentoring KHS student athletes in previous years with college admissions, coaching contacts
and other recruiting requirements. My background and positionality could have caused bias and
been problematic during the research project. Despite these concerns, I did not allow my
background and personal interest to influence the interview and focus group responses. I
earnestly maintained a professional stance of objectivity in the collection and interpretation of
the data. I also ensured that the themes and evidence selected truly represented the data that
surfaced in the interviews, parent meeting, and document analysis. I made every effort to clearly
depict KHS through an accurate and objective lens, within the context of the research questions,
in an attempt to accurately report the findings and provide valuable recommendations for future
growth.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) assert that the trustworthiness of a study is determined by the
ethics and values of the researcher. Maxwell (2013) found that researcher bias is impossible to
eliminate. I used the following strategies to establish trust as a researcher throughout my project.
First, I kept a researcher journal to track biases and to reflect on my position and relationship to
the study that could have impacted and skewed the investigation. Second, I had ongoing
discussions with colleagues regarding the process of the study and took initial findings and
interpretations back to interview and focus group participants for validation and peer review
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 82

(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, I was concerned about reactivity and
the influence I may have had on the stakeholders in the study. To help mitigate this concern, I
avoided leading questions to minimize the effect of reflexivity. Although it was unrealistic to
completely eliminate my influence on the stakeholder participants, I honestly acknowledged this
dynamic and used it purposefully (Maxwell, 2013). I kept careful notes and was critically self-
reflective during the data collection phase in an effort to increase my level of transparency. In
the data analysis phase, I used detailed descriptions to help readers understand the context of the
study and its impact on the overall findings. Through these approaches and strategies, I hope to
have established my credibility as a researcher and ensured the reliability of the data and validity
of the study.

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 83

Appendix D: Validity and Reliability
Salkind (2017) describes how research instruments are more reliable if they have been
pilot tested over a period of time. The research also indicates that existing tools may be more
reliable because of consistent effectiveness over an extended period of time (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016, Salkind, 2017). I maintained consistency in my qualitative interview, parent focus group
and document analysis protocols. I established set time periods for the interviews and parent
meeting, and provided participants with the same information regarding the framework and
context of the project. I also developed a methodical and consistent approach to examining and
evaluating the selected research documents. These actions helped to increase the validity of the
project findings.
I found several limitations to a potential quantitative data collection protocol in this
project. First, there was a small window of time given to administer the survey, collect
responses, and analyze the results. Second, the participant pool was small which may have
affected the response rate and also not be large enough to effectively implement measurements
of scale to achieve accurate results. Third, there was inherent researcher bias in the question
development and as the lead investigator in the project and a key member of the organization, it
was highly likely that responses to the protocol would be biased favorably because of the close
familiarity and trust that I have built over time with colleagues. Given these limitations, it was
highly unlikely that objective responses and accurate results would be achieved using a
quantitative data collection and instrumentation protocol in the project. For those reasons, I
focused on qualitative data collection through interviews and document analysis.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 84

Appendix E: Ethics
The ethics, values, and integrity of the researcher determines the reliability and validity
of a research study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study was based on a qualitative research
design. I had two stakeholder groups of focus involving human subjects. The first consisted of
KHS staff made up of teachers, counselors, and administrators. The second were KHS parents of
current and former student athletes. The principles found in Rubin and Rubin (2012) guided my
research design and methods protocol. Prior to data collection, I informed the participants of the
research project by addressing the research questions and details pertinent to their role as
stakeholders. Participants were aware of any risks associated with the project and were not
coerced or forced to participate. All understood the voluntary participation and confidentiality
guidelines. I used pseudonyms for the organization, staff, and parents to protect their
confidentiality. In keeping with this agreement, I generalized the information as much as
possible to ensure privacy and potential identifiers. I openly discussed and explained my research
topic, study design, and goal with all participants and allowed everyone to make informed
decisions regarding their participation. I was honest and transparent with all participants before,
during, and after the data collection.
The University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved this
study. I followed all rules and guidelines set forth by the (IRB) regarding the protection and
welfare of the research participants. Each participant was given a form regarding confidentiality,
voluntary participation, and the ability to discontinue participation at any time. Each participant
granted permission to be recorded and understood my data collection, analysis, and storage plan.
None of the participants selected for the interviews or parent focus group asked to be removed
from the project.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 85

Appendix F: Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model that informed this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), based on the original Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model suggests that
evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backwards and that, by doing
so, the “leading indicators” that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals are
both easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals. Further, this “reverse
order” of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other actions: a) first,
the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors, b) next, the
identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and c) finally, the
emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
strategies. Designing the implementation and evaluation plan in this manner forces connections
between the immediate solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal “buy in” to ensure
success (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The mission of KHS is to prepare all students for college, career, and citizenship in the
21st century. This project examined the knowledge and skills, motivational and organizational
needs to developing a student athlete mentoring program by 2019 to improve college readiness,
particularly for students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Although student athlete mentoring
would support a specific demographic within the organization and make progress in achieving its
vision and mission, the KHS leadership team identified a broader goal and need to improve
college readiness for all students. Proposed solutions include gathering stakeholder feedback on
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 86

the interest, need, and value of student athlete mentoring at KHS. Redesign the transition to
college for increased engagement and effectiveness. Finally, the redistribution of college
counseling responsibilities along with greater support and resources will lead KHS toward
greater organizational performance and achievement. These initiatives should produce the
desired outcomes- a systemic and embedded college-going culture at KHS with an increase in
the number of students prepared for and thriving in post-secondary educational institutions
following graduation from high school.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table F.1 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for KHS. If the internal
outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training and organizational support for
realignment of programs, services, and resources for increased college readiness, then the
external outcomes should also be realized.
Table F.1

Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)

Leading Indicator External Outcomes
1. KHS will increase college
going rate on annual strive HI
performance report.
1. 85% of graduating seniors going to
college or university, military, and
technical or trade schools.
1. Solicit data, i.e., number of students
in college and thriving freshman year
from P20 Initiative database.
2. KCC will increase its KHS
dual-credit early college
student enrollment.
2. The number of KHS students
enrolled in dual-credit early college
courses with KCC will increase by
50%.
2. Solicit semester data from KCC.
3. KHS will increase
community perception of
academic rigor.
3. 95% of students earning B+ or
higher in dual-credit early college
courses.
3. Solicit semester data from KCC.
Leading Indicator Internal Outcomes: The KHS leadership team will establish a planning framework to
consider the development of a student athlete mentoring program
4. KHS leadership team will
identify a staff member to
explore the feasibility of
4. 75% of student athlete mentoring
program interest surveys have
favorable results.
4. Aggregate data from stakeholder
survey on student athlete mentoring
program to address interest, need,
value, and capacity.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 87

developing a student athlete
mentoring program.
5. KHS leadership team will
increase transitions to college
course effectiveness.
5. 75% of student and teacher surveys
have favorable results.
5. Aggregate data from transitions to
college course instructors on course
engagement, satisfaction, and
effectiveness.
6. KHS leadership team will
increase counselor morale/ job
satisfaction
6. 75% positive feedback from
counselors in 1:1 conversations with
administration.
6. Set aside regular times for 1:1
conversations between counselors and
administration to offer support, review
progress, and promote greater
effectiveness.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the KHS leadership team. The first
critical behavior is that the KHS leadership team will identify a staff member to explore the
feasibility of developing a student athlete mentoring program. The second critical behavior is
that the KHS leadership team will restructure the transitions to college course. The third critical
behavior is that the KHS leadership team will reorganize the coordination of college counseling.
The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appears in Table
F.2.
Table F.2

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for KHS Leadership Team
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. KHS leadership team
will identify a staff
member to explore the
feasibility of developing a
student athlete mentoring
program.
The percentage (75%+) of
favorable results on KHS
stakeholder surveys
(students, staff, parents) to
assess need, value, and
capacity.

1a. Identify a KHS staff
member who will survey
students, staff, and
community stakeholders.
1a. Fall semester 2018
(August-December)
1b. KHS staff member will
research potential community
partners and grant
opportunities to support
development of an after-
school student athlete
mentoring program.
1b. Spring semester
2019 (January-May)
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 88

2. KHS leadership team
will restructure the
transitions to college
course.
The percentage (75%+) of
student and teachers with
favorable results on
transitions to college
course surveys.

1a. Identify a KHS staff
member who will take
ownership of the transitions
to college and career course
for design, development, and
implementation.

1a. During Term 1
(August-October) of fall
2018 semester.

Administration will
create teaching line(s)
for transitions courses
and provide planning
time for curriculum
development.
1b. Transitions to college and
career course will address
student college and career
readiness needs.
1b. Pilot test transitions
course in Term 3 of
Spring semester
(January-March) 2019.
3. KHS leadership team
will reorganize the
coordination of college
counseling at KHS.
The level of counselor
morale as determined by
1:1 conversation with
administration and
informal observations.

The percentage (75%+) of
favorable results on the
college counseling
coordination surveys.
2a. Identify a KHS staff
member who will work with
the counseling department to
coordinate and manage
student college application
tasks and requirements.
2a. During Term 1
(August-October) of fall
2018 semester.

Administration will
create coordinator
position within the
counseling department
for management of
student college
preparation tasks and
requirements.
2b. College counseling
coordinator will work jointly
with senior counselor to
manage the majority of
senior students’ college
application tasks and
requirements.
2b. Pilot test transition
of college counseling
responsibilities in Term
3 (January-March) of
spring semester 2019.

Required drivers. The KHS leadership team requires the support of the administration
and community stakeholders to restructure and align KHS programs and services that will
support the organizational mission of preparing all students for college and career. The
allocation of resources in the counseling department and transitions to college program will
reinforce the priority and importance that KHS places on college and career readiness. Rewards
should be established for achievement of performance goals to enhance the organizational
support of the KHS leadership team. Table F.3 shows the recommended drivers to support
critical behaviors of new reviewers.
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 89

Table F.3
Required Drivers to Support KHS Leadership Team’s Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aid including map of transitions
to college course objectives and
program components.
Ongoing 2, 3
Job Aid including checklist of
college counseling tasks and
application requirements.
Ongoing 2, 3
Team meetings with identified staff
who will take the lead on student
athlete mentoring program survey,
transitions to college course and
college counseling coordination to
establish goals and time frames.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
KHS leadership team meeting to
troubleshoot collaboratively and for
additional support.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Collaboration and peer modeling
with bright spot schools.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from peer
model schools.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Performance incentive for transition
to college course instructors.
Semester 2, 3
Performance incentive for senior
counselor and college coordinator
for increase in senior college going
rate.
Semester 2, 3

Monitoring
Principal can create opportunities at
faculty and school community
council meetings to share success
stories
Semester 1, 2, 3
Principal can ask transitions to
college students to self-report their
confidence and self-efficacy in
college application tasks and
requirements;
Semester after implementation 2, 3
KHS leadership team can assess the
performance of transitions to college
students through evaluative data.
Annually 2
KHS leadership team can assess the
performance of transitions to college
students through evaluative data.
Frequent, quick checks can help the
Monthly 2
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 90

organization monitor progress and
make adjustments if results do not
match expectations at that time.

Organizational support. The organization will support the stakeholders’ critical
behaviors by creating opportunities to share success stories, soliciting student feedback, and
provide frequent progress monitoring and make adjustments as needed. Resource allocation will
support critical behaviors and the required drivers. Planning time and collaboration with peer
model individuals and organizations will provide needed reinforcement.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, the stakeholders
will be able to:
1. Classify and interpret the main components and curricular objectives of the redesigned
transitions to college course, (D)
2. Recognize the details of the student college application tasks and requirements
annually, (D)
3. Solicit stakeholder feedback on interest, need, value, and capacity of developing a
student athlete mentoring program. (P)
4. Map out redesigned transitions to college course with timeline and key benchmark
indicators, (P)
5. Coordinate support and resources for completion of students’ college application tasks
and requirements annually, (P)
6. Create an appropriate timeline for redesigned transitions to college course, (P)
7. Plan and monitor the transitions to college course implementation. (P)
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 91

8. Indicate confidence that the transitions to college course will be restructured for
greater effectiveness and within the prescribed time limits. (Confidence)
9. Value the impact of the transitions to college course on instructors’ engagement,
satisfaction, and effectiveness. (Value)
10. Value the restructuring and coordination of college counseling at KHS based on
stakeholder feedback. (Value)

Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section, will be achieved with KHS
leadership team planning and coordination meetings. The initial focus of the planning will center
on staff identification and the delegation of responsibilities. The three restructuring components
include research and data-gathering for an after-school student athlete mentoring program,
revamping the transitions to college course, and more effective college counseling coordination.
The total time for implementation of these initiatives is one school year.
The first component is to research and gather information about the interest, value, and
capacity of developing an after-school student athlete mentoring program at KHS. Surveys with
key stakeholders along with assessing similar programs at other high schools will provide
analytical data and assist with organizational planning. Based on stakeholder feedback,
additional research of nonprofit community partners and grant opportunities will provide
direction for resource allocation and other forms of support.
The second component is to redesign the structure, curriculum, and implementation of the
transitions to college course. The first step will be to identify a KHS staff member with a vested
interest in the course to take ownership of its redesign and development. KHS administration
team will create teaching line(s) for transitions courses and provide planning time for curriculum
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 92

development during the fall semester of school year 2018-2019. The revamped transition course
will be implemented with 11th grade students starting in January of 2019.
The third component is to realign the coordination of college counseling within KHS for
greater efficiency, effectiveness, and positive impact. The initial step will be to identify a KHS
staff member, within the organization or to create a new position, who will work with the
counseling department to coordinate and manage the many tasks and requirements for 12th grade
student college applications. Administration will analyze current staff member roles and
responsibilities and identify potential overlap in work and any transition points that can be
streamlined. The new coordinator will work jointly with the senior counselor and pilot test a
transition of duties and responsibilities starting in January of 2019.
Components of learning. Demonstrating declarative knowledge is often necessary as a
precursor to applying the knowledge to solve problems. Thus, it is important to evaluate learning
for both declarative and procedural knowledge being taught. It is also important that learners
value the training as a prerequisite to using their newly learned knowledge and skills on the job.
However, they must also be confident that they can succeed in applying their knowledge and
skills and be committed to using them on the job. As such, Table F.4 lists the evaluation methods
and timing for these components of learning.
Table F.4
Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Gauge stakeholder interest in developing
student athlete mentoring program through use
of online surveys.
Fall 2018 (August-October)
Transitions to college course team lead will
share curricular objectives with KHS
leadership team.
Fall 2018 (August- October)
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 93

Identified college coordinator will share details
of college application tasks and requirements
with KHS leadership team.
Fall 2018 (August- October)
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Based on stakeholder feedback, identified lead
will research community partnership and grant
support for developing student athlete
mentoring program and share findings in a
document with KHS leadership team.
December 2018
Transitions to college course team lead will
share course schedule, timeline, and key
benchmark indicators in a document with KHS
leadership team.
December 2018
College coordinator will create schedule of
support and services using Microsoft Office
tools for college application task management.
December 2018
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Student athlete mentoring program survey
using scaled items
Fall semester 2018 (August-December)
Transitions to college course students and
instructor(s) share feedback on course value
and confidence in college preparation.
Faculty meeting in Fall 2019
Stakeholder survey on college counseling at
KHS using scaled items.
End of school year 2018-2019
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions following transitions to college
course presentation with KHS leadership team.
After KHS leadership team meetings
Discussions between counseling staff and KHS
leadership team.
During KHS leadership team meetings
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Decision made on student athlete mentoring
program development.
KHS leadership team meeting (May 2019)
Transitions to college course implemented in
spring semester of school calendar year

Pilot course implementation spring semester
2019 (January-May)
College coordinator support counseling staff Transition of responsibilities during spring
semester 2019 (January-May)

Level 1: Reaction
Table F.5 below lists the methods or tools that will be used to gauge Level 1 reaction.
Specific indicators will measure engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction of the three
proposed initiatives at KHS. The leadership team will gather and evaluate data throughout the
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 94

the duration of 2018-2019 school year. Timing of each method or tool will indicate program
alignment and prioritized need.
Table F.5
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Completion of online surveys for proposed
after-school student athlete mentoring
program.
Ongoing during 2018 Fall semester
Observation by KHS leadership of transitions
to college course team lead sharing curricular
objectives, course schedule, and key
benchmarks.
Ongoing KHS leadership team meetings
(August-December 2018)
Observation by KHS leadership team of
college coordinator sharing schedule of college
application task management.
Ongoing KHS leadership team meetings
(August-December 2018)
Piloted transitions to college course evaluation End of 2018 Spring semester
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with KHS students and staff
via survey (online) and discussion (ongoing)
regarding proposed after-school student athlete
mentoring program.
2018 Fall semester (August-December 2018)

Piloted transitions to college course evaluation End of 2019 Spring semester
Customer Satisfaction
Informal discussion and observation (ongoing)
of KHS stakeholders regarding decision to
move forward with after-school student athlete
mentoring program development.
2019 Spring semester (January-May 2019)
Brief pulse-check with KHS college
coordinator and counseling staff via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing) regarding
roles, responsibilities, and progress.
2019 Spring semester (January-May 2019
Piloted transitions to college course evaluation End of 2019 Spring semester

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. During the 2018 fall semester,
data for the three KHS realignment components will be gathered through surveys, observations,
discussions, and presentations. These data will indicate stakeholder engagement with the
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 95

proposed recommendations. The data collection tools will also indicate relevance and overall
satisfaction of KHS stakeholders with the direction of the school pertaining to the realignment of
programs and services in response to the identified gap analysis needs.
For Level 1, during the 2018 fall semester, the KHS leadership team will conduct
periodic brief pulse-checks by asking stakeholders including staff, students, and parents about
the relevance of the three proposed school initiatives. Additionally, an initial survey to gauge
interest, need, value, and capacity for a student athlete mentoring program will be administered
to all KHS stakeholders. Level 2 will include presentations by identified program leads on the
status and ongoing progress of the three KHS realigned program components: survey feedback
on interest, need, value, and capacity of student athlete mentoring program, the planning and
development of the redesigned transitions to college course and the overall college counseling
coordination.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. At the end of the 2019
spring semester, the KHS leadership team will administer a survey containing open and scaled
items using the Blended Evaluation approach to measure, from the instructor’s perspective,
satisfaction and relevance of the transitions to college course (Level 1), confidence and value of
the college readiness curriculum in the course (Level 2), application of the course curriculum to
the college application process and the support students received from the college coordinator
and counseling staff (Level 3), and the extent to which students’ preparation for college and
career has become more evident as determined by college acceptance and year 1 persistence rates
as indicated in the annual Hawaii P20 College and Career readiness data report (Level 4).

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 96

Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of developing a student athlete mentoring program by fall 2019 is
measured by the stakeholders’ recognition of need based on interest, value, and capacity.
Throughout the 2018-2019 school year, feedback and data from all stakeholders concerning the
development of a student athlete mentoring program will determine the direction KHS takes and
provide goals, objectives, and benchmarks for implementation. A threshold of 75% favorability
on survey responses would indicate stakeholder confidence, relevance, and satisfaction in
pressing forward with program planning and development. Strong stakeholder support would
encourage the KHS leadership team and identify prioritized needs in the school and community.
Specific questions on interest in after-school program models that partner with community
nonprofits would provide additional feedback and guidance. Stakeholder feedback will also
determine the direction of program design, the need for community partnership(s), grant
solicitation opportunities, the coordination of KHS staff, and the allocation of resources.
Concurrently, the piloted transitions to college course in the 2019 spring semester will
indicate progress in helping all KHS students, including student athletes be college ready. The
KHS leadership team will track the number of student college applications and acceptance rates
starting in the fall of 2019. Using Microsoft Office tools, identified program leads will report
data on these measures as a monitoring and accountability strategy. Similar documents will be
created to monitor Levels 1, 2, and 3.
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model is used to plan, implement, and evaluate the
recommendations for Kuleana High School to optimize achieving the stakeholder goal and the
organizational goal. Three key data analysis questions include the following: Do the three
STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 97

components of the KHS restructuring initiative meet organizational expectations? If not, why
not? If so, why? Stakeholder responses to those questions along with formative feedback to
Levels 1-4 data analysis questions provide the necessary information to validate the
recommendations to support KHS’ mission to prepare all students for college and career in the
21st century.
During the 2018-2019 school year, data analysis will provide direction for monitoring
and accountability. Barriers to implementation of recommended initiatives may arise and it will
be key to identify root causes and provide recommended interventions, or course corrections in
alignment with organizational needs, values, and goals. Successful application of the
recommendations may also lead to success, including progress in achievement and performance.
In this case, finding ways to expand, recognize, and celebrate positive results will provide the
impetus and leverage to maximize organizational outcomes, and provide tools and a framework
for future “mission-critical initiatives” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p.126).

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 98

Figure F.1 KHS Student Athlete Mentoring Program Interest Survey
KHS Student Athlete Mentoring Program Interest Survey
Context: This survey is designed to gauge the interest and value of developing a student athlete mentoring
program at Kuleana High School. Feedback from key stakeholders including students, parents, and staff will
inform the KHS student athlete program planning team of the direction to take and whether to support program
development in the future. To be administered in the fall of 2018 (October-December).

Statements Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Agree
1. It is important for KHS to develop a student athlete
mentoring program.
! ! ! ! !
2. An after-school program design would be best.
! ! ! ! !
3. KHS needs a student athlete mentoring program.
! ! ! ! !
4. I support the development of student athlete
mentoring program.
! ! ! ! !
5. I believe that student athlete mentoring is needed in
our community.
! ! ! ! !
6. KHS student athletes need guidance with the
college recruiting process.
! ! ! ! !
7. Developing a program for student athletes will help
KHS achieve its organizational mission.
! ! ! ! !
8. Developing a student athlete mentoring program
will promote excellence in academics and athletics.
! ! ! ! !

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 99

Figure F.2 KHS Transitions to College Course Instructor Survey
KHS Transitions to College Course Instructor Survey
Context: This survey is designed to gauge the engagement and confidence of instructors facilitating the
transitions to college course. Responses will provide feedback on instructor reaction, learning, and commitment
to helping students prepare for college and career. To be administered after the completion of the piloted revision
of the transitions to college course during the 2019 spring semester (January-May).

Statements Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Agree
1. I enjoy teaching this course.
! ! ! ! !
2. This course is relevant to student needs.
! ! ! ! !
3. I feel the content of the course is preparing students
for college and career.
! ! ! ! !
4. I received support with course facilitation
throughout the semester.
! ! ! ! !
5. Students are gaining valuable knowledge to help
them with their academic and professional goals after
high school.
! ! ! ! !
6. I feel that students can successfully navigate the
college application process.
! ! ! ! !
7. I feel confident in my ability as an instructor.
! ! ! ! !
8. I am committed to facilitating this course and
helping students prepare for college and career.
! ! ! ! !

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 100

Figure F.3 KHS College Counseling Coordination Survey
KHS College Counseling Coordination Survey
Context: This survey is designed to gauge the reaction, learning, confidence, and commitment of KHS
counselors after the realignment of college counseling responsibilities. Responses will provide feedback on
counselor engagement, satisfaction, morale, and effectiveness in preparing KHS students for college. To be
administered in December of 2019.

Statements Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Agree
1. My job is more manageable.
! ! ! ! !
2. I am happy with the process of college counseling
and coordination at KHS.
! ! ! ! !
3. I am able to do my counseling job with more
effectiveness.
! ! ! ! !
4. I feel supported by the KHS administration and
staff.
! ! ! ! !
5. I am seeing positive results with student college
acceptance rates.
! ! ! ! !
6. I have more time to meet with students
individually.
! ! ! ! !
7. The realignment of services has positively
impacted the KHS counseling department.
! ! ! ! !
8. I feel that I am making a positive impact on the
organization as a whole.
! ! ! ! !
9. My work is contributing to the mission of KHS.
! ! ! ! !
10. Counselor morale has improved since the
restructuring of responsibilities.
! ! ! ! !

STUDENT ATHLETE MENTORING PROGRAM 101

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Creator Keawe, Kahele John (author)

Core Title Developing a student athlete mentoring program to improve college readiness at a rural Hawaii public high school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 07/03/2018

Defense Date 04/27/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college readiness,Hawaii public education,OAI-PMH Harvest,student athlete mentoring

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Martinez-Kellar, Frances (committee member)

Creator Email keawe@usc.edu,kkeawe@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-508311

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