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Addressing the principal shortage: women teachers

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Addressing the principal shortage: women teachers

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Content ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 1

Addressing the Principal Shortage: Women Teachers
by
Mercedes Lovie
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 2
Acknowledgements

“Let us pick up our books and our pens,” I said. “They are our most powerful weapons.
One child, one teacher, one book and one pen can change the world,” (Yousafzai, 2013).
Each day people around the world, particularly women, are denied the opportunity to
learn. I am grateful for the privilege of learning through the Organizational Change and
Leadership program. This journey was carefully guided by my advisor, Dr. Monique Datta, has
been one of discovery and transformation for me. Dr. Datta has been a source of support and
encouragement throughout the process. Her great sense of humor and humility were great
examples to me. I am very grateful for all her support.
My committee has been outstanding in providing thoughtful guidance and insights into
the process of completing the dissertation. Dr. Picus’ attention to detail and ability to clearly
identify solutions to challenges has been amazing. Dr. Robles’ dedication to equity has helped
me understand the privileges I have had and has shaped how I approach leadership. Her example
of how to lead with strength and grace has been important to my development.
One of the greatest gifts I have had is a family who believes in and supports me. My
mother, Mercedes Delaney, told me that it was how one treated others that should be the measure
of greatness. My father, Michael Delaney, insisted that I not shy away from leadership. My
brother, Dr. Sean Delaney, enthusiastically supported my journey and acted as a sounding board
for many ideas. They provided me with the motivation to pursue my education.
A debt of gratitude is also owed to the strong women leaders I have admired and who
have guided me, Dr. Hasmik Danielian, Dr. Joann Merrick, and Dr. Maria Ott. I have grown
because of their example of combining femininity and successful leadership.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 3
Mark Lovie and Mason Metz are everything to me. Thank you for your love and for your
patience with my long hours. We make a great team. I am thankful for your understanding of my
desire to take this journey to move from “Mrs.” to “Dr.” You two are the greatest blessings in my
life.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 4
Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Introduction 8
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 8
Organizational Context and Mission 11
Importance and Significance of the Problem 13
Related Literature 14
Organizational Performance Goal 15
Description of Stakeholder Groups 16
Stakeholder Group for the Study 16
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions 18
Methodological Framework 20
Definition of Terms 21
Organization of the Study 21

Chapter Two: Review of Literature 22
Theory Guiding the Study 22
Knowledge Influences 26
Knowledge and Skills 26
Motivational Influences Faced by those Seeking Principal/Leadership Positions 30
Motivation’s Impact on Human Accomplishment 30
Efficacy’s Impact on Principal Leadership 32
Women’s Responsibilities, Expectations, and Values 35
Organizational Influences 36
Cultural Models and Cultural Settings 36
Impact of Motherhood on Career Aspirations 41
Conflict between Personal and Professional Responsibilities 47
Compensation’s Impact on Teachers’ Aspirations to the Principalship 52
Summary 53
Conceptual Framework 54
Conclusion 57

Chapter Three: Methodology 58
Methodological Framework 58
Assessment of Performance Influences 61
Knowledge Assessment 62
Motivation Assessment 62
Organization/Culture/Context Assessment 63
Participating Stakeholders 63
Data Collection 65
Interview Sampling 65
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 65
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 5
Data Collection and Instrumentation 68
Interview 68
Data Analysis Plan 70
Credibility and Trustworthiness 71
Role of Investigator 71
Ethics 72
Limitations and Delimitations 73
Summary 75

Chapter Four: Findings 76
Participating Stakeholders 77
Findings by Research Question 79
Research Question One 79
Research Question Two 103
Research Question Three 106
Summary and Implications 107

Chapter Five: Solutions and Integrated Implementation/Evaluation 111
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 112
Knowledge Recommendations 112
Motivation Recommendations 118
Organization Recommendations 124
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 127
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 127
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 128
Evaluation Tools 136
Data Analysis and Reporting 137
Limitations and Delimitations 138
Future Research 139
Conclusion 140

References 142

Appendix A: Letter to Principals Requesting Nominations 163
Appendix B: Letter to Nominated Teachers 164
Appendix C: Interview Protocol 165
Appendix D: Codebook 168
Appendix E: Evaluation Tool of Level 1 and Level 2 169
Appendix F: Delayed Evaluation Tool of Levels 3 and 4 171
Appendix G: Blended Evaluation Items: Kirkpatrick Levels 1-4 172
Appendix H: Information Sheet for Exempt Research 174

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 6
List of Tables
Table 1. Organizational Mission and Goal as well as Stakeholder Goal 20
Table 2. Sources of Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 61
Table 3. Assumed Knowledge Influences and Proposed Assessments 62
Table 4. Assumed Motivational Influences and Proposed Assessments 62
Table 5. Assumed Organizational Influences and Proposed Assessments 63
Table 6. Interview Participant Information 67
Table 7. Interview Participant Information (Repeated) 78
Table 8. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 114
Table 9. Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations 119
Table 10. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 124
Table 11. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 129
Table 12. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Women Teachers 130
Table 13. Required Drivers to Support Women Teachers’ Critical Behaviors 131
Table 14. Components of Learning for the Program 134
Table 15. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 135
Table 16. Possible Key Performance Indicators for Internal Reporting 137

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 7
Abstract
This study used a qualitative research design to identify the influences leading to the
underrepresentation of women in the principalship as this contributes to a shortage of principals
to lead schools. Women teachers from a California school district were interviewed to discover
how they made choices about pursuing the principalship. Clark and Estes (2008) framework was
used to assess knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on women teachers’
aspirations to the principalship. The findings of the study indicated that women had limited
knowledge of how the principal impacted student achievement. Furthermore, most women found
the costs of the principalship to be high compared to the benefits. While women teachers felt
they could be effective leaders, having children generally limited their desire to become
principals. The organizational expectations for principals to work long hours and to be available
to all stakeholders were identified barriers for women. The findings of this study suggested that
there was a need for training and mentoring for women teachers to build the skills and
confidence needed to assume principal jobs. Furthermore, needed organizational support for
family life was revealed by the findings. Effectively addressing these influences is likely to result
in more women teachers aspiring to the principalship and the elimination of the shortage of
effective principals to lead schools.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 8
Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
This study addresses the problem of a lack of women teachers aspiring to the
principalship in public schools. This problem of fewer women teachers seeking leadership
positions as principals is important to address for a variety of reasons. Quality principal
leadership is second only to classroom teaching in improving student achievement (Leithwood &
Hopkins, 2008). While having a quality principal is essential, fewer educators are applying for
principal positions due to the challenges of the work (Howley, Andrianaivo, & Perry, 2005).
Women in particular report that they are not interested in the principalship because of perceived
difficulties with the job (Adams & Hambright, 2004). In California all principals must first be
certified as teachers and serve as classroom teachers prior to earning certification to become a
principal (CCTC, 2016) If women teachers, who are the majority of employees in school
districts, do not aspire to the role of principal, the shortage of effective, qualified leaders in our
schools will continue to be a problem. Fewer effective leaders at the principal level will result in
teachers not having the support they need to provide effective instruction and students will not a
be able to reach their highest potential. The impact of limited principal candidates on hard to
staff schools with large numbers of students with low incomes, identified special needs, and
English Learners is especially a concern (Gates & Ringel, 2005).
The focus on women teachers in this study is because men and women are not equally
represented in the teaching force or in the principalship. Nationally, it was reported in 2016 that
during 2011-2012, 76% of public school teachers were women (National Center for Educational
Statistics, 2016). Though an overwhelming majority of teachers are women, they are
underrepresented in the principalship. The National Center for Educational Statistics (2016)
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 9
reported that during the 2011-2012 school year, nationally 52% of all public school principals
were women. The percentage of women teachers in each local district varies. The
underrepresentation of women in the principalship does not correlate with a lack of leadership
skills held by women. Women are effective leaders. When women have been put in leadership
roles (such as a principalship) their skills have been reported to be highly effective (Northouse,
2016). Therefore, developing the human capital of the majority of employees in education, who
happen to be women teachers, is essential
Effective leadership is essential for all organizations to thrive. The principal’s impact
upon schools is well documented in research (Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2008; Leithwood
& Louis, 2012; Leithwood & Mascall, 2008). It is also documented that principal turnover and
shortages in qualified principals are impacting school districts (Hallinger & Heck, 1998), such
shortages and changes in principals are especially detrimental to underserved communities
(Hallinger & Heck, 1998). Principals of schools with the highest numbers of students living in
poverty, students of color, and with lower test scores are the ones most likely to leave the school
and their position (Gates et al., 2005). However, Gates et al. (2005) have reported that when
principals share the same ethnicity as the majority of students who attend their school, they are
less likely to leave. This suggests that increasing women principals would increase the likelihood
that the principal would also stay at the underserved schools. Increasing the pool of women
teachers, who aspire to the principalship, will further the goal of having quality leaders for
schools who will increase student achievement. Therefore, recruiting diverse school leaders,
including women, may help ensure long-term placement of principals at schools with large
numbers of underserved students (Karanxha, Vonzell, & Bellara, 2014) and ensure improved
achievement for students.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 10
Therefore, in order to improve educational outcomes for students, high quality principal
leaders must be in place in all schools. The direct and indirect impact of effective principal
leadership has been found to account for 25% of student achievement results (Leithwood &
Mascall, 2008). Furthermore, in a report commissioned by the Wallace Foundation about costs of
developing principal pipelines, Kaufman, Gates, Harvey, Wang and Barrett (2017) found that the
financial costs of employing a principal from within a district are less than the costs associated
with replacing a principal from outside a district.
Therefore, increasing the pool of potentially effective principals within district is
essential to ensuring a quality education for students and keeping recruitment costs low. As
women teachers are the largest group of people from which principals can be recruited, school
districts need to encourage women and other underrepresented teachers to apply for principal
positions (Whitaker, 2003).
Women teachers report that the greater responsibilities associated with being the
principal of a school, the consequent result of less time with their family, and the increased stress
that comes with the principalship, discourages them from applying for these positions (Adams &
Hambright, 2004). According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2016) in 2011-
2012, 76% of public school teachers are women and of these 19% were races other than white.
When women and minorities avoid the principalship, there are fewer quality applicants for
principal jobs. Myung, Loeb, and Horng (2011) reported being encouraged to be a principal by a
practicing administrator is a key reason teachers choose to become a principal. However, men
teachers are two times more likely to be encouraged to become principals than women teachers
(Myung et al., 2011). Furthermore, it has been shown that women and minority teachers apply
for principal jobs when they are encouraged to do so (Gregg & Weaver, 2000). This suggests that
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 11
understanding the influences upon women teachers’ decisions to become a principal will identify
the kinds of encouragement women teachers need to aspire to the principalship. Increasing the
number of women aspiring to the principalship will result in larger pools of high quality diverse,
applicants for principal jobs, a shift in current conditions that is hoped will have a direct impact
on improving educational outcomes for all students.
Organizational Context and Mission
The specific school district targeted in this study is identified as Newtown Unified School
District (NUSD) a synonym for the actual name of the district to protect the identity of the
organization and stakeholders. NUSD is a public school system comprised of multiple of schools
that serve Kindergarten through 12
th
grade students. In the district there are comprehensive high
schools, middle schools, and elementary schools. The district also has adult education and
preschool programs.
In 2014-2015, NUSD’s enrollment was over 17,000 students. Of these students 21.2%
were English Learners. Furthermore, 79.3% of students were identified as Hispanic or Latino.
The district has 72% of its students identified by the state as needing more support because of
their status as either an English Learner, a child with Foster Parents, or receiving Free/Reduced
Price Meals. Annual revenue in 2013-2014 for NUSD was reported to be over $165,000,000
including both state unrestricted funds and Federal and state restricted funds (NUSD website.
Complete citation withheld to protect identity).
The core mission of Newtown Unified School District (NUSD) is to improve the
educational outcomes for students attending the district through collaboration with local
stakeholders, in order to provide students with academic and social skills which will help
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 12
students be successful in the future which is constantly changing (Paraphrased from district
website to protect identity).
Newtown Unified School District has developed a Local Control Accountability Plan
(LCAP) in partnership with all stakeholders. The LCAP is mandated by the state of California to
guide the actions and services provided by the district to students. Furthermore, California
provides additional funds in addition to base funding to support students who have been
traditionally underserved such as students living with foster families, low income students, and
students who are learning English in addition to their primary language (California Department
of Education, 2016). The plan outlines how funds are to be spent to meet the needs of students.
The LCAP’s six goals are focused on improving student achievement through supporting their
social emotional health at school, providing additional counseling, establishing career pathways,
enhancing course offerings to students in high school, and developing the skills of district
employees. Employees are encouraged to develop their skills and to apply for promotional
opportunities within the district (Paraphrased from district LCAP to protect the district’s
identity).
Ensuring that the district has quality employees is a key goal in the LCAP. The district
believes that high quality employees provide effective and essential services to students.
Students who interact with effective staff members are more likely to achieve academic, social
and emotional success. In order to have quality staff, several actions have been taken by the
district.
The Superintendent of Newtown Unified School District established leadership
development as one of the key goals to be measured in the evaluation of superintendent’s success
by the Board of Education (Paraphrased from Board Meeting Agenda minutes to protect the
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 13
district’s identity). NUSD employees are encouraged to develop their skills and to apply for
promotional opportunities within the district. Furthermore, the superintendent has identified the
need to increase the leadership abilities of all employees as a cornerstone of recommended
actions to improve student outcomes. In order to meet the goal of increased employee
effectiveness, a leadership development program has been implemented to foster the leadership
skills of the teachers and staff in NUSD. Additionally, university courses are offered at the
district office to remove the barrier of travel for employees to attain master’s degrees, doctorate
degrees, and administrative credentials. Classified staff are also provided with targeted
professional training to support their growth as professionals.
Importance and Significance of the Problem
The organizational performance problem central to this study is the high rate of turnover
in the principalship within the organization and the shortage of internal candidates to fill
principal positions. NUSD has 27 principals. Of these ten principals are assigned to secondary
schools and seventeen are assigned to elementary schools. From 2011 to 2017 18.5% of the
principals in NUSD have stayed in the job of principal (NUSD Documents, 2017 Complete
citation withheld to protect anonymity). Furthermore, the percentage of women principals in
NUSD during the 2015-2016 was 49% (Ed-Data, 2016). This is three percentage points below
the national average of 52% women principals (National Center for Educational Statistics,
2016). In 2016, three women principals chose to leave the principalship and return to the
classroom (Review of district documents). Additionally, the median age of principals in NUSD
of 55 years old (NUSD documents), the age at which eligibility for retirement is attained,
suggests that there will be a need for new principals soon. The high rate of principal turnover
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 14
impacts the organizational goal of improving student achievement for students by limiting their
access to high-quality school leadership.
Related Literature
In attempting to understand the reasons why few women teachers seek principal
positions, an examination of the literature about how all potential candidates view the job of
principal is needed.
Earning the certification to be a principal is the first step to becoming a principal.
However, holding a certificate to be a principal does not ensure that teachers will apply for the
position. More teachers hold a principal certification than those who apply for the job. Papa and
Baxter (2005) found that in New York, 7000 school employees held the principal licensure for
the 4500 possible principal openings. While there are educators who hold the certification, 60%
of teachers who earned an administrative credential stopped applying for principal jobs two years
after they earned the credential (Pijanowski et al., 2009). Furthermore, in a study of 435 Ohio
educators who held administrative licenses, Howley, Andrianaivo, and Perry (2005) found that
the stress, complexity of the work, longer work hours, negative impact on family life, and low
salaries deterred credential holders from applying to be a principal. The number of credential
holders is not an indicator of willing candidates. In short, few teachers who have principal
certification seek principal jobs.
The increased demands and workload of the principalship has discouraged candidates
from applying for principal positions. This may seem to indicate that teachers do not desire
leadership roles in schools. However, the research does not support this conventional notion that
teachers do not want to be leaders. While few teachers apply for principal jobs, they also report,
perhaps conversely, a desire for leadership roles in their schools (Stone-Johnson, 2012).
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 15
However, teachers seem to have a preference for a leadership position such as a department chair
rather than that of a principal (Howley et al., 2005). Teachers’ stated reasons for avoiding the
principalship include: increased government mandates, long work hours, stress, and a negative
impact on family life (Stone-Johnson, 2012).
The number of individuals aspiring to the principalship has declined and those principals
who currently serve are often thinking of leaving the job. In a study conducted in Arkansas,
Pijanowski et al. (2009) districts reported that they had 41% fewer applicants for principal
positions in 2009 than in 1994. Additionally, superintendents reported of every ten applicants,
fewer than half were thought to be highly qualified. It is important to note that the
superintendent’s responses may be biased because of a preference to hire principals with
experience who will be successful immediately (Pijanowski et al., 2009). Current principals do
not report a desire to stay in the job long term. Experienced principals state that they do not want
to stay a principal for more than 5-10 years (Spillane & Lee, 2014). The desire to leave the
principalship may make it harder to find experienced principal candidates for openings despite
the desire of superintendents to hire principals with experience. Therefore, it stands to reason that
increasing the quality applicants for principalships starts by encouraging women, who according
to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2016), comprise 76% of teachers in schools, to
apply for principal positions.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June of 2019, Newtown Unified School District will increase the number of women
seeking principal positions. This will be accomplished by identifying the influences upon
women’s desire to become principals. This goal will involve addressing assumed knowledge,
motivational, and organizational barriers women teachers experience when aspiring to leadership
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 16
within the organization. The district hopes to measure the achievement of this goal by having 25
women teachers complete a leadership development program focusing on ensuring teachers have
the knowledge, skills, and confidence to seek leadership positions on a career track to the
principalship.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
In Newtown Unified School District there are three main stakeholders. The students,
parents, and faculty/staff are all major stakeholders in the educational organization. Students are
the targeted recipients of the primary services provided by the school district. The students
contribute to the achievement of the school district, by learning and graduating from high school,
college and career ready. Parents of students have a vested interest in schools being effective so
students experience success in life. Positive attitudes about learning, a calm learning
environment in the home, and encouragement for student effort are all provided by parents.
Furthermore, parents are more likely to be involved in schools where they perceive the principal
as welcoming and inclusive (Saltmarsh, 2014). Staff, including faculty, are the employees of the
district who provide direct services to students.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The targeted stakeholder group in this study is the NUSD faculty, in particular, women
teachers. School faculties are the stakeholders who typically have the longest tenure with the
organization and shape the culture and programs offered to children and families. Staffs who are
fully involved and engaged in leading, teaching, and learning, produce improved learning
outcomes for students. Therefore, the influences upon the faculty’s performance and promotion
aspirations are essential to understand in order to bring about organizational improvement.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 17
The targeted stakeholder subgroup of the study, women teachers, comprise three quarters
of all employees in NUSD at 573 employees (ED-DATA, 2016). Women faculty represent the
largest single group of employees in NUSD and are the key group to study in understanding the
underrepresentation of women in the principalship. Women teachers represent essential human
capital that directly impact student achievement. This dissertation will explore women teacher’s
aspirations to the principalship in Newtown School District (NUSD) located in California. As
women teachers are the largest single stakeholder group in NUSD, identifying the influences
upon their aspiration to the principalship will help increase the number of potential leaders who
can meet the district’s mission of preparing students for adult life.
Master’s degrees are held by 211 teachers in NUSD 155 of these degrees are held by
women teachers (Ed-DATA, 2016). The importance of the master’s degree is linked to
qualifications to serve as a principal. While a master’s degree is not required to become a
principal, certification for administration is needed to serve as a principal in California. While
the master’s degrees held by teachers may not all lead to an administrative certificate, many
teachers hold a master’s degree related to educational administration. While many teachers have
master’s degrees, few seek principal positions. For example, during the 2016 school year there
were two openings for elementary principals in NUSD (Data from NUSD Human Resources)
there were 51 applicants with some of these applicants applied for both openings. Of these
applicants for NUSD principal jobs women comprised 47% of the applicants (Internal
documents NUSD Human Resources Department). Seven women teachers, or 13% of the
applicants for principal were teachers working within NUSD. Upon final selection, one woman
internal candidate and one man from outside the district were selected for the principal
positions. While the selection of one woman and one man for two positions demonstrates a
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 18
50/50 split between women and men being chosen for principal positions, the data shows that
women apply for principal positions at a lower rate than men and in a lower proportion to their
representation in the teaching force.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to determine the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences women teachers experience when aspiring to the principalship in
Newtown Unified School District. There is an underrepresentation of women principals in
relation to the number of staff members working in schools as teachers. Fewer women teachers
than men teachers seek leadership positions preparing them for the principalship. It is important
to study the possible influences upon women’s aspiration to the principalship. When the largest
group of employees in a district, women teachers, do not aspire to the principalship, the pool of
potential candidates to lead schools is reduced and the likelihood of having quality leaders at all
schools is decreased.
This study used a purposeful sampling of women teachers who work at various levels of
education and have diverse years of experience as classroom teachers. Studying teachers is
significant, because all principals in California are required to serve as teachers prior to being
granted a credential to serve as a principal (CCTC, 2016).
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge and
skill, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the organizational performance
goal of reducing the underrepresentation of women aspiring to the principalship and increasing
the available pool of high quality principals. The analysis will begin by generating a list of
possible barriers women may experience in aspiring to leadership, interviewing women teachers
about their perceived needs, and then moved to examining these systematically to focus on actual
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 19
or validated needs. While a complete needs analysis would have focused on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes the stakeholders specifically examined in this study were women teachers.
The questions that guided the needs assessment of the study focused on the skill,
motivation and organizational resources needed by women teachers to ensure they have the
leadership skills/efficacy to lead schools and that organizational cultural models do not create
additional barriers to women teachers seeking principal positions.
As such, the research questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. What are the perceived knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences impacting
women teachers’ aspirations to become principals?
2. How do women teachers’ aspirations to principal leadership change over the course of
their lives?
3. What are some potential solutions to the knowledge, motivational and organizational
barriers perceived by women teachers in the Newtown School District?

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 20
Table 1
Organizational Mission and Goal as well as Stakeholder Goal
Organizational Mission
The core mission of Newtown Unified School District (NUSD) is to improve the educational
outcomes for students attending the district through collaboration with local stakeholders, in
order to provide students with academic and social skills which will help students be successful
in the future which is constantly changing (Paraphrased from district website to protect the
district’s identity).
Organizational Global Goal
By June of 2019, Newtown Unified School District will have systematically identified the
barriers to women teachers aspiring to the principalship. The district will have developed a
program to ensure that the majority of its employees, who are women teachers, will have the
skills, knowledge, and confidence to fill management positions including the principalship. This
will result in an increase of women teachers applying for positions leading to the principalship.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2019, 25 women teaching staff members will participate in a leadership development
program to address the barriers impacting their aspirations to the principalship and enhance their
knowledge and motivation to lead schools as principals.
Methodological Framework
The methodological framework used in this study was based on an examination of the
influences impacting organizational goal attainment as described by Clark and Estes (2008).
Clark and Estes (2008) employ a gap analysis of organizational stakeholders’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational context that lead to inequities between actual performance levels
and the aspirational performance levels of organizations. Assumed influences and the impact
they have upon attaining the targeted outcomes were generated based on an examination of the
field literature and the researcher’s personal experience with the identified problem of practice.
The assumed influences were investigated using a qualitative research design. A case study of a
particular organization and the targeted stakeholders within that organization were conducted in
order to validate the assumed influences. Individual interviews with stakeholders established the
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 21
lived experiences of the stakeholders as it related to their knowledge, motivation, and
organizational constructs tied to their aspirations to leadership.
Definition of Terms
The definition of terms is provided in order to have clarity and consistency in the use of
terms throughout the study.
Aspiration. This is the desire to attain or achieve a particular goal.
Family. These people are related to one another by blood, marriage, or live together single home
because of emotional connections.
High need schools. High need schools are defined as schools with lower test scores, larger
numbers of students of color, and larger percentages of poor students.
Principal. This is a person who is licensed by the state to be an administrator.
Overwork. Working more than 50 hours per week (Cha, 2013).
Teacher. This is a person who is licensed by the state to teach and employed as a teacher.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. The first chapter examined the
importance of the problem, the organization being studied, the stakeholders within the
organization, and a brief overview of the key concepts and terms related to the problem of
practice. Chapter two outlines the relevant literature related to the problem of practice and
potential theories and influences upon women aspiring to the principalship. In Chapter three, the
methodology for the exploration of the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences
related to the problem of practice will be outlined. Chapter four will describe the data collected
and the analysis of the data. Chapter five will outline recommended approaches to address the
problem of practice.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 22
Chapter Two: Review of Literature
Chapter two provides a literature review focusing on the possible influences upon
effective organizational improvement, as well as any barriers which may exist within such a
conceptual structure. This approach will be used to investigate possible links to the assumed
causes of the gaps in organizational performance related to women teachers seeking principal
positions. The aspects of organizational setting that may influence the performance gap of few
women teachers seeking principalships include knowledge, motivation, and organizational
constructs as outlined by Clark and Estes (2008).
Chapter two is divided into three sections. The first section will explore the knowledge
influences on women teachers when considering pursuing principal/leadership roles. The second
section will be focus on motivational influences that are particularly faced by women seeking
principal/leadership positions. And finally, the third section three will look at how organizational
cultures impact women teachers seeking principal/leadership positions in K-12 education.
Theory Guiding the Study
While many teachers hold administrative credentials, there is a low rate of those applying
for the principalship (Papa & Baxter, 2005). The low rate of teachers applying for principal jobs,
even when they hold the certification, is a particular concern for hard to staff schools.
The ongoing trend of fewer applicants for the job of principal, is even more pronounced
in high need schools. High need schools are defined as schools with lower test scores, larger
numbers of students of color, and larger percentages of poor students. High need schools
experience higher rates of principal turnover (Pijanowski & Brady, 2009). Principals of schools
with the highest numbers of students living in poverty, students of color, and lower test scores
are the most likely to leave the school (Gates et al., 2005). In a study conducted in North
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 23
Carolina, after six years at a site, only 21% of principals remained at the same school (Gates et
al., 2005). Even when principals are in place, having them stay in the job long term is difficult
for schools with large numbers of underserved, minority students (Gates et al., 2005). Without
quality principals, the needs of underserved students will not be met. Recruiting women and
other underrepresented people to school leadership may help ensure long-term placement of
principals at schools with large numbers of underserved students (Karanxha, Vonzell, & Bellara,
2014).
Stress related to the principalship is also a deterrent for many teachers who aspire to the
role. Mandates for increasing student achievement and reporting on progress have increased the
stress experienced by principals. Increased accountability and the stress related to it have been
documented for years. For example, in 2003, Whitaker described the adverse effects of
accountability initiatives such as the No Child Left Behind (NCLB). While NCLB is no longer in
affect, current federal government mandates such as the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
continue to increase accountability and stress for principals.
Principals continue to be necessarily concerned about their schools being labeled “low
performing” by educational reforms (Pijanowski et al., 2009). The greater focus on the principal
as part of improvement efforts initially put into place by reform efforts such as NCLB and
continued by ESSA, as well as other local state accountability systems makes attracting principal
candidates to high poverty, lower achieving schools more difficult (Gates et al., 2005). High
poverty schools with large minority populations are more likely to be identified as low
performing and to place additional mandates on the principal (Gates et al., 2005). Even when
principals are in place, having them stay in the job long term is difficult for schools with large
numbers of underserved, minority students (Gates et al., 2005). The frequent turnover of
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 24
principals especially at high need schools increases the demand for quality applicants. It is
critical to note that the consequence of effective principal leadership in high poverty schools
results in increased verifiable gains for students, as opposed to smaller gains from similarly
effective leadership at more affluent school sites (Hallinger & Heck, 1998). Few quality
applicants for principal positions, along with frequent changes in principals due to job attrition,
can lead to less effective leadership at schools and lower student achievement.
Teachers’ concerns about the increase in work hours and demands that come with the
position of principal are not unfounded. Overwork is consistently found in the principalship.
Overwork is defined as working more than 50 hours per week (Cha, 2013). Eighty five percent
of principals report that they work more than 50 hours a week. Twenty eight percent of high
school principals report that they worked more than 64 hours a week (DiPaola & Tschannen-
Morgan, 2003). Current principals also report that the demands of the principalship increase their
desire to retire. Principals in Alabama who were considering retirement reported that the
demands of the job, including: government mandates, challenging parents and community,
stress, and lack of time with family all increased their desire to leave the principalship (Reames,
Kochan, & Zhu, 2013). It is unlikely that these practicing principals do not share the demands of
the job with teachers and thus decrease potential teacher candidates’ desire to be a principal.
Practicing administrators sharing the frustration of long work hours and increased job stress with
teachers has an impact on the candidates’ desire for principal positions. The issue of
discouraging teachers to become principals is prevalent and impacts recruitment of principals.
Gibbs (2008) suggests that a change in marketing the principalship to emphasize the positive
aspects of the position would increase the interest of teachers. Additionally, teachers report that
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 25
the longer work hours and greater responsibility of the principal position is not perceived to be
fairly associated by an increase in pay (Pijanowski et al., 2009).
Over time, the perceived benefits of being a principal have decreased thus leading to
fewer individuals seeking principal positions. In 1983, principals reported that increased income
and greater authority were the two biggest incentives for being a principal. However, in 1998,
principals reported that the pay received was not equal to the responsibilities (Whittaker, 2002).
Some researchers suggest that higher rates of compensation are essential to attract principal
candidates. Gates et al. (2005) have suggested that principals of larger schools are less likely to
leave the school due to the larger salary paid for running larger schools. However, large salaries
are not the norm for principals. In New York state, the average daily salary of a principal with 6-
10 years of experience is less than that of a teacher with 20 years of experience (Pijanowski et
al., 2009). While practicing administrators report that pay was not the key motivator for
becoming a principal, the increasing demands of the principalship as compared to teaching, made
a higher principal salary seem appropriate (Gibbs, 2008). Furthermore, in a study of those
individuals who had never served as an administrator, it was reported that it would take more
than $10,000 in additional pay to motivate them to apply to be a principal (Pijanowski & Brady,
2009).
Clark and Estes (2008) have identified three areas through their research that one can use
to understand the problem of practice. These three areas are knowledge, motivation, and
organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). This section of the literature review is focused on the
knowledge that may be impacting women seeking a position in educational leadership. This
literature review may be thought of as an extended reflection on the literature about the
leadership barriers that women encounter when seeking principal positions.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 26
Knowledge Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Women teachers may be lacking the knowledge about how principals positively impact
schools. Principals are essential in improving school climate, teacher satisfaction, and student
outcomes. The impact of effective principal leadership on positive school outcomes is well
documented by research (Fancera, & Bliss, 2011; Griffith, 2004; Hallinger & Heck, 1998; &
Louis, 2012; Leithwood & Mascall, 2008; Pepper & Thomas, 2002; Quinn, 2002; Sebastian &
Allensworth, 2012). However, fewer female teachers than male teachers seek principal positions
(Joy, 1998). This results in women being underrepresented in educational leadership roles, a
finding which is consistent across organizations (Dowell & Larwin, 2013; Joy, 1998; Nanton,
2015). Joy (1998) reported that when women seek principal positions, the probability of a
woman attaining her goal is one-third less likely than a man applying for the same position. The
smaller number of women seeking principal positions leads to a smaller pool of potentially high-
quality principal leaders being available to lead schools and improve student learning. Women
may be unaware of the impact principals have upon student outcomes and they may be unaware
of the underrepresentation of women as leaders in the principalship, resulting in fewer women
seeking principal positions. Increasing teachers’ knowledge of the impact that principals have
upon student achievement will help women teachers understand how principals positively impact
schools through effective leadership, and possibly inspire them to assume that role.
Factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive are four types of knowledge identified
by Krathwohl (2002). These categories are all facets of the way that one gains understanding and
the ability to transfer knowledge from cognition into practice in diverse settings. Conceptual
knowledge of the skills that principals need is important for women teachers to be able to think
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 27
about their own leadership skills through metacognition. Furthermore, women teachers need to
have factual knowledge about the impact on student achievement that is specific to the role of
principal as contrasted with other leadership positions in schools.
Key leadership strategies positively impact schools. In analyzing the possible
knowledge influences that may be linked to women’s desire to become school principals, it is
important to understand what kinds of knowledge is needed by women leaders. First, women
need more declarative and procedural knowledge of the skills principals use to impact student
achievement. Secondly, women teachers need more than knowledge about leadership strategies,
women teachers need to know how the principalship specifically has a positive impact upon
student achievement.
Effective principals improve student achievement. Women teachers need to have
factual knowledge that principals make an impact on student achievement and have procedural
knowledge of the practices used by effective principals. Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, and
Wahlstrom (2004) in their review of literature, found that the direct and indirect impact of
effective principal leadership accounts for 25% of student achievement results. However, there
seems to be limited factual knowledge among teachers of these key actions used by principals to
improve student achievement. Principals who improve student outcomes use specific strategies
that have been identified across the field literature.
A lack of understanding of interpersonal relationships can lead to principals failing to
improve educational outcomes and being removed from their jobs as principal. In a survey of
California Superintendents about why principals fail, it was reported that a lack of positive
relationships with others led to the dismissal of principals more often than any other reason
(Davis, 1998). As women leaders generally excel in relationship building, they can be seen as
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 28
transformational leaders (Fancera & Bliss, 2011). Principals who displayed high levels of
transformational leadership were better able to motivate teachers to find purpose in their work
(Griffith, 2004). In a study of 4165 teachers, perceptions about the most important areas for
principal leadership, were building trust, creating shared leadership, and supporting school
culture (Whalstrom & Seashore, 2008).
Transformational leadership style used in K-12 schools is linked to improving
organizational climate by increasing teachers’ motivation and purpose in their work (Griffith,
2005). Principals who practice transformational leadership have fewer teachers leave the school
(Griffith, 2004). Leithwood and Louis (2012) in their study of 180 American schools from nine
states found that effective leaders do the following: set direction for the school, develop the skills
of staff, redesign the school, and improve the instructional program. Improving the instructional
program includes providing planning time for teachers, building trust among the adults on
campus, including trust in the principal, and providing professional development (Youngs &
King, 2002). One way principals build trust among the adults on campus is by sharing leadership
with teaching staff (Fancera & Bliss, 2011; Leithwood & Mascall, 2008). Trust is further
enhanced through improving student discipline (Pepper & Thomas, 2002) and providing teachers
with protected instructional time (Fancera & Bliss, 2011). However, the amount of time that
principals can spend on curricular tasks is very limited. Spillane, Camburn, and Pareja (2007)
report in a study of 52 principals in K-12 schools that principals spend 22% of their time
working on curricular tasks and 63.4% of their time on management and 8.7% of their time
fostering relationships. Literature has indicated that women have demonstrated effective
leadership through building collective efficacy and using transformational leadership styles
(Nanton, 2015), which is key for improving student outcomes.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 29
Principal leadership is essential for increasing student achievement. Some factors that
were more predictive of student outcomes than principal leadership were students’ socio-
economic status (Fancera & Bliss, 2011) and teacher quality (Leithwood & Mascall, 2008).
However, when considering that a teacher may only have an impact on 25 students and a
principal typically impacts more than 250 students in a school, an effective principal with 25% of
the impact has more positive results for more students than a single teacher. Furthermore,
effective principal leadership in schools serving low-income students creates even greater
increase in student achievement than when effective leadership is present in schools with higher
income students (Hallinger & Heck, 1998).
Teacher leadership is valued n K-12 education, and recent educational literature has
focused on the importance of teacher leadership to improve student outcomes. (DuFour &
Fullan, 2013; Hattie, 2012; Marzano, 2007). An unintended consequence of the focus on teacher
leadership, has unintentionally resulted in downplaying the equal importance of having a
knowledgeable and quality principal at the helm. Groups such as Wallace foundation have
worked to demonstrate the importance of principal leadership through funding research reports
on the importance of principals on increasing educational outcomes (Wallace Foundation, 2017).
Teachers understand that the influence of the principal upon the school is greater than any other
single person. In a study of 2570 teachers, Leithwood and Mascall (2008) reported that when
teachers were asked to identify the person who had the most impact on the school, it was the
principal, followed by district office personnel. Teacher leaders were not ranked as high for
overall impact on the school as the principal.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 30
Motivational Influences Faced by those Seeking Principal/Leadership Positions
The second section of the literature review will focus on the potential general
motivational influences experienced by teachers aspiring to the principalship and the specific
motivational influences upon women teachers aspiring to the principalship. Teachers need to
believe that they can be effective principals in order for them to choose and persist in school
leadership. In this review of literature, the motivational influences that impact all women will be
examined as well as the motivation that principals need to be successful in their work of
improving student achievement. The nuances of how gender impacts motivation will also be
reviewed (Meece, Glienke, & Burg, 2006; van, d., Vinkhuyzen, Boomsma, & Posthuma, 2010).
Central theories to motivation as it relates to this study are the self-efficacy theory and the
expectancy value theory. Self-efficacy and expectancy value theories are closely linked to
motivation through the concept choice in starting an action. For example, if a person does not
believe that one can be successful in a task or feels that the task will impact ones life in a
negative way, one will not pursue the task. Therefore, in examining the underrepresentation of
women aspiring to the principalship it is important to understand how women may be motivated
or demotivated to seek principal positions.
Motivation’s Impact on Human Accomplishment
Motivation provides the catalyst for people to apply their knowledge and achieve goals.
Motivation has three parts which are interrelated and essential for meetings goals: choice,
persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Choice refers to the starting and directing
of one’s actions to meet goals. Persistence refers to how one sustains effort to meet goals. Finally,
mental effort is the construct that looks at working with sufficient attention and focus to reach a
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 31
goal. If all three facets of motivation are not present, goals will not be reached. As part of the gap
analysis it is essential to discover which areas may be blocking goal attainment.
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy focuses on the belief an individual has about their
ability to successfully reach expectations and goals (Pajares, 2006). Positive self-efficacy is
essential in creating the motivation to choose, persist, and work hard to meet goals. When people
believe they can accomplish something they are often successful in doing so. However, negative
self-efficacy can predict that goals will not be met. Self-efficacy can be general in nature or
change based, depending on the task. Furthermore, efficacy in context specific settings and with
specific groups has also been identified such as: principal self-efficacy (Federici & Skaalvik,
2011; Federici & Skaalvik, 2012), leadership efficacy (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms,
2008), women’s efficacy (Hannah et al., 2008; Cubillo & Brown, 2003), and collective efficacy
(Fancera & Bliss, 2011).
Women’s self-efficacy. Women experience leadership self-efficacy in ways different
from men. Research suggests that women’s self-efficacy in becoming a leader is strongly related
to gender. In a study of 338 men and 497 women aged 18-70 who were part of the Netherlands
Twin Register (Boomsma et al., 2006), participating in an in a larger ongoing study, it was
reported that women were less likely than men to report wanting a management job and more
likely to agree that working towards a goal for a long time would be tiring as compared to male
respondents (van et al., 2010). As the latter study and others have suggested, some fundamental
disconnect between women’s sense of self-efficacy exists, as a result of which they are
disinclined to pursue positions that require extended commitment, and fear that professional
demands may result in personal depletion. However, for women who have self-selected into
educational paths towards leadership greater self-efficacy is reported. In a study of international
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 32
women in a graduate level educational leadership course, women reported that they had high
confidence in their abilities to lead and that their confidence helped them to overcome challenges
presented to them in their work (Cubillo & Brown, 2003). One study suggested that leadership is
another area that is perceived as a masculine skill like math and science (Nanton, 2015). The
perception that leadership is a masculine skill may affect women’s positive self-efficacy about
becoming a leader. However, this may occur due to the reinforcement of gender specific
expectations that are present at home and school (Meece et al., 2006). In Damaske’s (2011)
qualitative study of 80 women in New York it was found that women frame their working life
choices in relation to the impact that those choices have upon their families. The impact of both
the financial gains and time away from family figured prominently in woman’s work decisions.
Therefore, women teacher’s gender expectations about leadership may limit their motivation to
aspire to the principalship.
Efficacy’s Impact on Principal Leadership
Nationally, in 2011-2012 women were reported to be 76% of the public teaching force
(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2016). Improving women teacher’s self- efficacy can
improve overall principal efficacy by increasing the pool of potential principals. Efficacy in
leadership is key to successful organizations. Research points out that positive principal self
efficacy is related to successful schools (Federici & Skaalvik, 2011; Federici & Skaalvik, 2012).
Most notably it is important for principals to have efficacy around instructional leadership,
management of administrative tasks, and school environment. It is unclear if efficacy in these
areas increases principals’ mental effort and persistence in the tasks or if engaging in these tasks
leads to more efficacy (Federici & Skaalvik, 2011). When principals report higher efficacy, the
collective efficacy of the school increases (Bandura, 2000; Fancera & Bliss, 2011; Hattie, 2009).
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 33
Collective leadership is more present in schools with principals with high efficacy (Leithwood &
Mascall, 2008). When principals have higher levels of leadership efficacy they are more likely to
continue to grow as leaders and develop skills and improve student outcomes (Hannah et al.,
2008).
Expectancy value theory. Another theory related to potential influencers upon women’s
aspirations to the principals is the expectancy value theory. Expectancy value theory examines
the motivational construct of cost value and how it is related to choice, persistence and effort
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). In the expectancy value theory people make choices about what
activities they will engage in through a conscious and subconscious process of evaluating what
they believe or expect they will gain by their participation in the activity. Gains from an activity
are the value of the activity. Value is shaped by three categories: attainment, intrinsic, utility, and
cost (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Attainment value is the importance of the activity in shaping an
identity which is closely aligned with the utility value. Utility value is the usefulness or relevance
of the goal or activity. Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest one has in the activity.
The final value construct is cost. Cost refers to the loss of time, difficultly of task, stress, and less
time for other valued activities (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). When people are aware of the value
of an activity, and the cost does not outweigh the value, individuals are more likely to participate
in an activity (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). High costs associated with an activity can reduce the
perceived value of the other three value categories.
In the case of women aspiring to the principalship, costs associate with the principalship
may negatively impact women teachers’ aspirations to the job. Given that women place a high
value on family relationships along with the expectancy of increased time demands of the
principalship, the costs associated with being a principal may impact women teachers’ desire to
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 34
assume principal leadership. The costs associated with principalship have an even greater impact
on deterring women teachers from the principalship when the attainment, utility, and intrinsic
value of the principalship are unknown.
Women’s Responsibilities, Expectations, and Values
In examining the role of women in leadership, the research suggests that women’s
expectations for their lives, and the value they place upon family relationships, impacts their
motivation to seek leadership positions. Samplings of young adults of both genders were asked
about future goals. In this study, women were more likely to express more goals focused on
family than men (Green & Debacker, 2004). In another study, young women reported on average
that they believed that they would reach adult milestones such as marriage and having children
by the age of 25 and that their careers would be interrupted by childrearing for five to ten years.
Conversely males on average reported that they would have children by age 37 and there would
be no interruption in their careers because of children (Greene & Wheatley, 1992). The
expectation that women have for a family early in their lives, and the belief that children will
interrupt their careers, may impact their choice to enter leadership roles. Furthermore, twenty-
eight principals, reported that work and family obligations leave little time for self (Houle,
2006). In a study of teachers promoting into the principalship, it was found that on average men
promoted into educational leadership six years after earning their master’s degree and women
promoted nine years after earning the same degree (Joy, 1998).
In order to improve the motivation of women to become principals using the expectancy
value theory, it is essential that women identify the value that principal leadership brings. In this
effort to motivate women to seek leadership, focusing on attainment value, intrinsic value, and
utility value of the principalship is essential. Focusing on the value of becoming a principal is
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 35
essential to increase motivation. In the expectancy value construct, the two areas most closely
related to increasing value that women teachers place on becoming a principal are focused on
utility value and intrinsic value.
The utility value of the principalship is often undervalued by teachers, staff, parents, and
principals themselves and the cost of the principalship is overemphasized (Gibbs, 2008). Reform
research has identified the key role of the principal in improving student achievement
(Leithwood & Mascall, 2008; Quinn, 2002; Youngs & King, 2002), and as a result the roles and
responsibilities of the principal have expanded (DiPaola & Tschannen-Moran, 2003). In a study
of over 90 schools, teachers at that school report that the person who had the biggest impact on
the school was the principal (Leithwood & Mascall, 2008). Furthermore, Leithwood and Louis
(2012) in their leadership study conducted over five years, found that principals were the ones
who set the direction of the school, built the capacity of the staff, redesigned the organization,
and improved instruction. As women teachers’ value improving student achievement, helping
women teachers to understand the potential principals have for a positive impact upon school
outcomes may improve the value women teachers place on the principalship and increase their
motivation.
Through highlighting the intrinsically valued tasks and leadership actions, women
teachers would be able to enjoy the process of becoming a principal. Gibbs (2008) suggests that
by highlighting the positive aspects of the principalship more women would apply for the job.
These positive tasks that principals participate in include: focusing on the instructional program,
building relationships with students, teachers and parents (Pepper & Thomas, 2002).

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 36
Organizational Influences
This section of the review will focus on examining the potential organizational influences
upon women teachers becoming principals, as identified by the field literature. Successful
organizations have effective organizational processes, and sufficient materials and supplies
(Clark & Estes, 2008). In looking at influences upon the underrepresentation of women as
principals, it is also necessary to review how organizational culture contributes to the influences
impacting women’s aspiration to leadership. Clark and Estes (2008) report that organizational
systems are multi-layered and complex. The influences of organizational culture upon women’s
aspirations to leadership and specifically to the role of principals will be examined in this
section.
Cultural Models and Cultural Settings
Culture can be conceived of as a set of understandings that are shared in common with a
group of people. These understandings are specific to particular groups and vary among people
who belong to different groups. Culture is passed down to new members of groups through overt
and subtle actions by current members of groups (Schein, 2010). Culture drives the conscious
and subconscious actions and thoughts of group members. Two types of culture are outlined by
Rueda (2011), these are identified as cultural models and cultural settings.
Cultural models refer to the internal perspectives that individuals have about the how the
world works or should work and cultural settings refer to the external or visible manifestation of
cultural models. Cultural models and settings are closely linked and influence each other (Erez &
Gati, 2004). The influence of cultural models and settings upon how organizations address their
problems of practice is significant. Clark and Estes (2008) outline that organizations seeking to
understand the influences on problems of practice must recognize the systemic cultural
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 37
underpinnings of the problem. This section will explore the organizational culture impacting
women’s leadership in the role of principal.
Male leadership bias. Like achievement in science and math, leadership is perceived to
be a masculine trait, closely aligned with traditional male attributes (Yeagley, Subich & Tokar,
2010). This may impact women’s aspirations to leadership roles. Women may have negative
expectancies of leadership attainment which take shape early in their lives. In a study of 156
women with an average age of 21 years, found that women perceived negative outcomes related
to leadership. One area of specific concern was breaking social norms of expected behavior for
women (Yeagley et al., 2010).
Male teachers are three times more likely to be selected for principalship then women
teachers (Joy, 1998). In the social role theory, women are seen as less likely to have leadership
strengths than men (Eagley & Karau, 2002). A qualitative study of aspiring women principals
found that while the dominant leadership style they observed was a masculine style, they were
not pressured to adopt the same style (Sperandio, 2009). However, as people model their
behavior on others who are successful, it is likely that women unwittingly adopt a masculine
leadership style. In a review of literature about organizational culture, perceptions that leadership
is unfeminine and that women leaders are less likable than men leaders were identified as
barriers to women’s advancement (Nanton, 2015). A study of 156 women university students
aged 18-49 found that social norms for women’s expected behaviors deter women from aspiring
to elite leadership positions (Yeagley et al., 2010).
In an analysis of the 2010 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey it was reported that
employees thought that there was a disconnect between the leadership opportunities women were
assigned and those that men were assigned. Women managers were overrepresented in Federal
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 38
Agencies that had more limited decision-making abilities compared to the agencies with more
leadership autonomy (Sabharwal, 2013). In a meta-analysis of gender and leadership theories it
was reported that traditional leadership qualities were more closely aligned with perceived
masculine traits, than traits traditionally associated with femininity. Furthermore, women were
perceived more favorably when they spoke in a demure manner, more closely aligned with
expected feminine behaviors, and less favorably when speaking in a more direct manner
commonly associated with male speaking patterns (Eagley & Karau, 2002). Women aged 18-49
reported that perceived negative outcomes about how they would be perceived in leadership
roles, would deter them from aspiring to leadership (Yeagley et al., 2010).
A lack of gender and ethnic sensitivity training can result in bias being unchecked in
organizations (Sperandio, 2009). Bias against women can impact the likelihood of promotions of
women into leadership roles. The rate at which men and women enter the workplace is 50/50.
However, at each promotion point 52% of those promoted will be men (Agars, 2004). Over time
the higher rate of selection of men for promotion reduces the number of women who have the
experience needed to promote into the next leadership role.
The bias in favor of male leadership can be seen in the underrepresentation of women in
principal leadership roles despite equal or more advanced educational attainment. In 2004, 75%
of teachers were reported to be women; however, 60% of all administrators were men (Adams &
Habright, 2004). Improvement in the gender balance of principals has improved since 2004. In
the 2011-2012 school year, public school principals were 48% male and 52% female (National
Center for Educational Statistics, 2016). Between the years of 2004 and 2011 women have also
increased their attainment of higher educational degrees. Women principals during the 2011-
2012 school year held 50% of the master’s degrees earned by all principals (National Center for
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 39
Educational Statistics, 2016). Furthermore, women principals have earned more doctoral degrees
than men principals. According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2016) in 2011-
2012 women held 57% of all doctorate degrees earned by public school principals. Despite
higher levels of degree attainment than men, in 2011-2012 women comprised only 52% of public
school principals (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2016).
Women as caregivers. Women are seen as the primary caregivers in families. In a
review of literature, Nanton (2015) reported that women are seen as natural caregivers and as the
primary caregivers in families. Joy (1998) reported that when there was no bias against women
administrators when family responsibilities were taken out of consideration. However, as women
are viewed culturally as the primary caregivers in families, it is difficult to remove the construct
of families out of selection processes for women administrators.
Women’s orientation towards caregiving has influence upon their leadership style.
Women often report using a collaborative leadership style that is different from the most often
reported leadership style of men. Women are rated higher than men in many leadership
competencies, such as developing others, relationship building, and collaboration (Sahoo &
Lenka, 2016). These skills are closely linked to caregiving. Skills related to caregiving have been
shown to produce effective principals.
Women’s leadership is often described as interactive and encouraging participation
(Trinidad & Normore, 2005). Women’s orientation to be caring can be perceived as both a
positive and negative attribute in the workplace. Women’s orientation towards a relational,
caring leadership style may not always be thought of as effective traits for meeting goals
(Nanton, 2015). However, a relational style of leadership has many attributes similar to those
identified as key transformational leadership strategies. Building positive relationships is seen as
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 40
an essential part of transformational leadership at school sites (Fancera, & Bliss, 2011), which
has been shown to be important in leadership success. However, a relational leadership style
when displayed by women teachers may not increase the likelihood that they are selected for a
principal position.
Women’s commitment to family. Young men and women both report having similar
goals for family and career over their lifetime. However, there are gender differences in the
timeline for achieving the goals. Women report that they expect to reach the adult milestones of
finishing school, getting a job, getting married, and having children by age 27. Men report
expecting to have these things accomplished by age 37 (Green &Wheatley, 1992). The
difference in expected timelines for family and career attainment for men and women can impact
the perception of how committed men and women are to their careers throughout their lives.
Families are important to men and women. However, the impact of having children
differs for male and female workers. Young women tend to put a higher priority on family goals
than men (Greene & Debacker, 2004). Organizational structures may limit success of women
(Trinidad & Normore, 2005). Flexibility in work settings, time, and location have been seen to
support work life balance. However, this flexibility may not be available to women managers or
principals.
Expectancies about future family conflicts impact women’s approach to work.
Traditionally, success at work is defined by a linear upward progression without interruption
(O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005). This is a career path that is in direct opposition to the life path of
people who care for others, such as children and elderly family members. Typically women take
on more family care duties than men throughout their lives. Taking time for family caregiving is
especially acute for women during their childbearing years. Career advancement timelines and
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 41
women’s biological clocks are in conflict (O’Neil, Hopkins, & Bilimoria, 2008). During the time
that workers are expected to be most focused on their careers, women are also thinking about
having children (Greene & Wheatley, 1992). Men do not have the same biological imperative to
have children in early adulthood. Furthermore, men can become fathers in their 20’s and 30’s
without taking time off of work. Mothers have extended leaves from work to recover from labor
and delivery. The leaves typically occur during women’s early careers, thus interrupting the ideal
career projection which is attainable by men or women without children.
Impact of Motherhood on Career Aspirations
Women are perceived to be more committed to family and less committed to leadership
than men (Agars, 2004). There is more than just perception that women focus more on family
than men—women self-report an acute focus on becoming mothers. In a study of 43 young adult
women with an average age of 20, a majority reported wanting to have children by age 27
(Greene & Wheatley, 1992). Birthrate statistics suggest women not only want to have children
by 27 years old, but also have children within that time frame. The National Center for Health
Statistics reported that in 2014, 21.1% of all first-time mothers were aged 30-34 years old and
9.1% of births were to mothers over 35 years old (Mathews & Hamilton, 2016). In 2014, the
average age of first time mothers rose to the highest level on record to 26.3 years old (Mathews
& Hamilton, 2016). Furthermore, women report a belief that their careers would be interrupted
for five to ten years by having children (Greene & Wheatley, 1992). The hyper-focus on children
and motherhood to the exclusion of career goals is encouraged in society (Sperling, 2013) and
reinforces women’s career choices.
As women’s biological clocks and desire for children impacts their family planning, it
also impacts their career aspirations. O’Neil and Bilimoria (2005) outlined three phases in a
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 42
woman’s career. The first phase is the idealistic achievement phase that occurs between 24-34
years old, the next phase is pragmatic endurance phase, 36-45 years old, and the reinventive
contribution phase, 46-60 years old. During the idealistic achievement phase, women 24-34
years old, 91% of women did not have children. However, all respondents reported concerns
about how to manage a career and children (O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005). Furthermore, women in
the pragmatic endurance phase find that their jobs may not be as rewarding as expected. Women
in this phase make career choices based on the needs of their children (O’Neil & Bilimoria,
2005). Women principals aged 35-45 were slightly more likely than men to drop out of the
position than men (Gates et al., 2006). In a longitudinal study of women who earned MBAs,
differences in career attainment were noted by age for both men and women (Schneer &
Reitman, 2002). At an average age of 38 years old 97% of men who earned MBAs were
employed fulltime, 76% of women who earned MBAs were employed fulltime (Schneer &
Reitman, 2002). The trend of highly educated women holding MBA’s being employed at lower
rates than men continues into their 50s. At an average age of 51, 23% more men were employed
fulltime than women with the same educational attainment (Schneer & Reitman, 2002).
The impact of motherhood can change the trajectory of the careers of women teachers.
Women generally entered the principalship at an older age than male principals and left the job
earlier than men (Kruger, van Eck, & Vermeulen, 2005). Among women, the average years of
teaching prior to administration was 9.42 years and among men it was 8.30 years (Barnett &
Shooho, 2010). Generally, attaining 7-8 years of teaching experience has been gained by the time
teachers are 30-34 years old. This coincides with the end of O’Neil and Bilimoria’s (2005) career
phases of idealistic achievement phase and the start of the pragmatic endurance phase. During
these phases, women have reported being focused on the needs of their families.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 43
For women teachers aspiring to become principals, the crossroads of motherhood and
attainment of the principalship are in conflict. This is due to the expectancy of how soon a
teacher typically becomes a principal and the age at which women start to have children. Several
studies have documented the average number of years of teaching experience for first time
principals is on average less than 10 years. In a study about principals in North Carolina it was
found that 62% of new principals had taught fewer than nine years (Hancok, Black, & Bird,
2006). In another study, the average number of years a principal taught before being selected was
7.8 years (Brown-Ferrigno, & Muth, 2008). In Alabama, 86% of principals surveyed had been in
their prior role for less than ten years (Reamses, Kochan, & Zhu, 2013).
Long work hours. Long hours have been shown to impact women across industries.
Long hours have been defined as overwork. Overwork is work in excess of 50 hours per week
(Cha, 2013). Cha (2013) found that in occupations that demanded more than 50 hours of work
per week gender inequality was more pronounced than in occupations where fewer hours were
the norm. In a study of women who held MBA’s it was reported that the 55 hour a week job that
one respondent held prior to having children would not be possible to maintain after children, so
she quit (Hewlett & Luce, 2005). Pijanowski and Brady (2009) found in Arkansas 84% of
principals reported working more than 50 hours a week. In a study of Canadian principals, it was
reported that principals spend on average 59 hours per week at work. This was 14 hours more per
week than was reported by other Canadian managers (Pollock et al., 2015). Despite long work
hours, 87% of principals in the study reported that they did not have enough time to do their
work (Pollock et al., 2015). Long hours were also found to be a primary reason that principals
chose to retire (Reames & Kochan, 2013).
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 44
In education, longer work hours and longer work years are identified, by students in a
Master of Administration program, as barriers to their desire to become an administrator
(Hancok et al., 2006). In interviews with teachers who had taught for 7-15 years, long work
hours of the principal were identified as a reason not to become a principal (Stone-Johnson,
2012). Among currently practicing administrators, long work hours impact the desire of
principals to stay in the job. In a study of 62 new principals it was found that most wanted to
leave the principalship for the district office within ten years (Barnett & Shoho, 2010). Long
work hours may have a negative impact on family life. Conflict about family lives brings
decreased work satisfaction (O’Neil et al., 2008). Women in particular report a disconnect
between leadership roles and family life. There is often conflict about the responsibilities of the
family and work. Barnett and Shoho (2010) in a study of practicing principals found that the only
group of principals who did not report conflict about home and work life were those principals
who were single with no children.
Turnover is common among women and men principals. Male principals aged 55-65
were 39% more likely to leave the principalship than female principals the same age (Gates et
al., 2006). This may be related to O’Neil and Bilimoria’s (2005) theory of women’s career
phases. The reinventive contribution phase, which occurs between 46-60 years old, is marked by
a desire to give back and mentor others (O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005). In education women
generally tend to enter the principalship at a later age than men (Kruger et al., 2005). This
suggests that the principalship may be more attractive to women later in their careers.
Ideal workers. There is an expectation for all executives, of family responsibilities being
taken care of by people other than the executive. Women inherently have more family
responsibilities than men due to childbirth. When women have children they report an
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 45
expectation that they will not be considered for professional success or promotion for five to ten
years after having a child. Men do not report the expectation to have their work impacted by
having children (O’Neil et al., 2008). The impact of families upon women’s career choices is
seen across industries. Hewlett and Luce (2005), in a survey of 2500 professional women, found
that 38% percent of the respondents took a job with fewer responsibilities in order to fulfill home
responsibilities, and another 16% of women reported turning down a promotion because of
concerns about increased work hours. In a research study of women and work patterns, Damaske
and Frech (2016) found that women with children were most likely to take time off from paid
work, decrease their hours at work, or turn down promotions. Furthermore, in this study of
women aged 25-45, women with an average of 35 years worked the fewest hours of the all the
women studied (Damaske & Frech, 2016). As the average age for first time mothers in 2014 was
26.3 years old (Mathews & Hamilton, 2016) and that women believe that their career would be
interrupted for five to ten years by having children (Greene & Wheatley, 1992) the lower number
of hours worked by women aged 35 is not surprising. The desire by mothers to work fewer hours
may be a barrier to seeking jobs that require more hours at work.
Men and women make different career choices when considering family responsibilities.
When men have increased family responsibilities they desire more promotional opportunities,
when women have more family responsibilities they want fewer promotional opportunities (Joy,
1998). There are also differences in earnings between having a spouse who does not work
outside the home and a dual career couples. Men who have a spouse who does not work outside
the home, tend to make more money than men or women in two earner families (Schneer &
Reitman, 2002). One suggested reason for the pay gap between men with stay-at-home spouses
and other employees is that senior managers see men in a traditional family dynamic as the most
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 46
ideal workers, because someone else can take care of family matters (Schneer & Reitman, 2002).
In a review of the literature, O’Neil et al. (2008) found that organizational priorities are male
driven to the point that the expectation is that the best workers have no family obligations and
are always available for work.
This cultural model of the ideal worker having no family responsibilities is also present in
education. In a study of eight women principals aged 33-58 years old it was reported by the
respondents that they believed that the ideal principal had no family obligations (Wrushen &
Sherman, 2009). Furthermore, another contributing force to the notion of a family-free worker as
the ideal was that there were few role models for women principals who successfully managed
family and principal responsibilities (Wrushen & Sherman, 2009). In a study of 62 new
principals it was reported that due to the rigorous demands of the principalship, more support
was needed from spouses and extended family to assist with childcare (Barnett & Shoho, 2010).
In a study of 329 students in a Master of Administration program, potential principals reported
that their families asked them not to become an administrator because of stress on the family
(Hancok et al., 2006).
Bias. Bias impacts women’s aspirations to leadership. In a review of the field literature
from the past 20 years it was found that women and people of color were denied access to
leadership positions in corporate America (Jackson & O’Callaghan, 2009). This is referred to as
the glass ceiling. Furthermore, the reasons for the limited access of women and people of color
for leadership roles, has been attributed to, among other things, organizational policies and
practices that negatively impact women (Jackson & O’Callaghan, 2009). Men and women are
not equally represented in management (Agars, 2004). Jackson and O’Callaghan (2009) have
reported that industries with larger numbers of women employed, had slightly higher rates of
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 47
women leaders. While it is true that in female dominated industries, like education, there are
more women managers than in either male dominated organizations or gender balanced
organizations, women in educational leadership are still underrepresented. For example, in 2014-
2015, women teachers represented 69.3% of all teachers in the Newtown Unified School District
(ED-DATA, 2016). However, only 49% of Newtown Unified School District principals in the
2015-2016 school year were women.
Furthermore, while women and men enter the workforce at an equal rate, the
underrepresentation of women in leadership increases at each point of promotion. For example,
of a group of 100 people eligible for promotion 52% of those promoted will be men (Agars,
2004). After four promotional points 58% of the people eligible for promotion will be men and
42% will be women (Agars, 2004).
The glass cliff refers to the situation when women are selected for leadership positions,
but they are placed in more difficult high-risk circumstances than men (Ryan, Haslam, Hersby,
Kulich, & Atkins, 2007). These high-risk leadership situations are often not fully explained to
the women when they accept the position (Ryan et al., 2007). Sahoo and Lenka (2016) reported
that women are often assigned the most challenging managerial roles and if they fail, are seen as
incompetent. Subtle sexism that treats women as less competent than men supports the concept
of the glass ceiling (Agars, 2004).
Conflict between Personal and Professional Responsibilities
There is limited time for women to pursue their leadership aspirations as they seek to
balance personal and professional responsibilities (Yeagley et al., 2010). Central to personal
responsibilities for women was the role of parent. A cultural norm women face is the modern
expectation for ideal parenting.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 48
Ideal parent. Once women become mothers they are faced with the cultural model of the
“Ideal Parent” norm. Ideal parenting is hallmarked by its material bias, intensive nature, and lack
of active involvement by others including fathers (Sperling, 2013). Full engagement in children’s
learning, leisure, and extracurricular activities is perceived to be the ideal way to parent
(Erdwins, Buffardi, Casper, O’Brien, 2001; Sperling, 2013). Parenting as defined by the ideal
parent cultural model meant that a majority of the women’s time and attention be devoted to their
children (Sperling, 2013). For a woman to be considered a good mother she must be 100%
available to her children. Furthermore, mothers should do a large majority of all childcare while
being intimately involved in the social, emotional, and academic lives of their children. Under
this model, no other caregiver is as important as the mother, not even fathers (Sperling, 2013).
Ideal parenting norms lead mothers to express that careers impact their ability to be effective
mothers and causes stress around role identity (Hauseman, Crow, & Sperry, 2000).
While ideal parenting by mothers is exhausting, the professional responsibilities in the
principalship are significant and time consuming as well. In the principalship long work hours is
the norm across states and levels. Long work hours can be an indicator of a heavy workload.
Heavy workloads impact women seeking the principalship. The heavy workload in many jobs
can disrupt the work life balance. In a national survey of federal employees, a lack of work/life
balance was reported across employees (Sabharwal, 2013). This lack of work/life balance caused
stress to employees. Principals often report a lack of work life balance. Both male and female
principals report the workload of the principalship to be overwhelming. Superintendents in
England, Australia, and the United States, reported that the demands of principalship are
especially overwhelming to new principals (Whitaker, 2003). Spillane and Lee (2013) reported
in a study of 17 principals randomly selected from Chicago public schools, all 17 reported that
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 49
the principalship caused them excessive stress. The source of the excessive was attributed to the
heavy work demands and unpredictable tasks (Spillane & Lee, 2013). The top daily activities
engaged in by principals are managing students and personnel, principals spend 35.7% of their
time daily on these tasks (Spillane & Camburn, 2007). While heavy workloads are reported by
principals, little time is spent in classrooms with students and teachers. Canadian principals
reported spending 59 hours per week at work, but only 12.7% of their time was spent in
classrooms (Pollock, Wang, & Hauseman, 2015). Leithwood and Azah (2014) in a study of 1592
public and Catholic principals in Canada found that the workload of principals was so
overwhelming that it led many principals to ignore their health and go to work even when sick.
Principals in Connecticut reported that work and family demands left little time for self (Houle,
2006).
In Virginia, in a survey of 1542 principals and assistant principals, 86% said that the
long hours expected of principals were deterrents to teachers becoming principals (DiPaola &
Tschannen-Moran, 2003). In another study conducted in Canada, principals reported that the
long work hours were deterrents to teachers becoming principals (Leithwood & Azah, 2014).
Adams and Habright (2004) found in a study of teachers from Ohio, aspiring to the principalship,
that the long work hours demanded by the principalship would be a deterrent to seeking a
principal position.
One could fairly surmise that the heavy workload which is manifested in long hours
worked by principals have not gone unnoticed by teachers. In a study of teachers’ perceptions
about the incentives and disincentives to become principals the most often reported disincentive
was less time with family (Howley, Andrianaivo, & Perry, 2005). The demands placed on
principals is reported to be overwhelming especially to new principals and create a deterrent for
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 50
teachers wanting to be principals (Whitaker, 2003). In a study of teachers with 7-15 years
teaching experience, who are of the typical experience level for first time principals, it was found
that the long hours of the principalship were a barrier to seeking a principal position (Stone-
Johnson, 2012).
Lack of flexible work structures. Women report that organizational culture does not
allow for flexibility in work hours or structures. A lack of flexibility adds to feelings of stress for
women. Furthermore, if workers take advantage of work/life family programs they are seen as
less committed to the organization than those workers who do not use family benefits (O’Neil et
al., 2008). Thirty-four percent of women who had earned advanced degrees had taken time off of
work, of those who took time off work, 44% did so to care for family members. Leaving work to
care for family was the number one reason women left their jobs (Hewlett & Luce, 2005).
Stress is a commonly reported problem for principals. In a survey of 1542 principals and
AP’s 91% of the respondents reported stress as a huge problem. Sixty-one percent of the
principals reported wanting professional development about how to manage stress (DiPaola, &
Tschannen-Moran, 2003). Negative influences upon teachers aspiring to be principals include
increased risk of not having personal needs met and longer work years (Hancok et al., 2006).
There is little time to meet the personal needs of the principal due to the heavy work and family
demands (Houle, 2006).
Women who attain leadership positions are provided with few supports for work-life
balance (Sabharwal, 2013). Secondary principals report that having a family and managing the
duties of the principalship was a challenge (Wrushen & Sherman, 2009). Women make career
choices based on the needs of their children (O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005). Given that principals
report that having a family is a challenge while being a principal many women may want to
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 51
remain in their teaching job rather than becoming a principal. Thirty eight percent of women
with MBAs reported taking a job with fewer responsibilities in order to fulfill their home duties
(Hewlett & Luce, 2005). While 37% of women left work to care for family, 93% wanted to
return to their jobs (Hewlett & Luce, 2005). In looking at incentives and disincentives for
teachers becoming principals from a generational perspective it was found that Gen X teachers
strive for flexibility and balance in work (Stone-Johnson, 2012). Furthermore, principals who
take on the role after their children are grown, report that they could not have done the job when
they had young children (Barnett & Shoho, 2010).
Providing support and flexibility for principals can help with the heavy workload
associated with the principalship. Full-time assistant principals at schools greatly reduced the
workload for principals (Leithwood & Azah, 2014). A supportive district office that was
available to listen and provide release time for principals was a positive influence on principal
workload (Leithwood & Azah, 2014).
Women need flexibility in their work structures to be successful. Family friendly policies
of flextime, telework, and childcare had a positive impact on women in management (Hewlett &
Luce, 2005). In an analysis of the 2010 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey, executive service
employees reported that flextime, telework, and compressed work-weeks assisted them with
performing their leadership duties (Sabharwal, 2013). As teachers typically have fewer work
hours on campus with some work occurring in the home such as lesson planning and correcting
papers, teachers also have fewer work days than principals—180 days compared to 212 days—
and substitutes to cover their work if they are sick or at training. Principals do not have the same
option, and thus it would seem that teaching provides flexible work settings that are more desired
by women while the principalship does not.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 52
Compensation’s Impact on Teachers’ Aspirations to the Principalship
Flexible work, and work/life balance initiatives are important to women in leadership.
However, pay is also part of the equation. Superintendents in the United States, England, and
Australia reported that compensation for principals was not seen as equal to the work demands of
the job (Whitaker, 2003). In Arkansas, 46% of principal respondents to a survey reported that
46% felt that the pay had not kept pace with the work demands (Pijanowski & Brady, 2009).
Furthermore, the gap between experienced teacher pay and principal salaries was only 13%-20%
when computed on a daily rate of pay (Pijanowski & Brady, 2009). Women have been found to
carefully weigh the impact of their work upon their families (Damake, 2011) the limited increase
in pay for the principal may make it less likely that women will seek principal positions.
Public school principal compensation has not increased over time. The combined average
pay for principals in elementary and secondary schools in 1999-2000 was $90,100, in 2011-2012
the combined average pay for public school principals was $89,700 (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2016). Interestingly over this same time frame, women principals are now
the majority at 52% of all principals in the United States (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2016). Perhaps this is a result of the impact of the pay gap between men and women
driving wages down in the principalship as women increase their representation in the role.
A close relationship exists between legal mandates for public school principals and pay.
A reported disincentive to becoming a principal by teachers were increased district and state
mandates (Howley et al., 2005). These mandates do not increase compensation, but do increase
principal workloads. The increase in responsibility and longer work year/work day does not align
with the increase in the pay of principals compared to teachers. Some research suggests that
increased pay would increase interest in the principalship. Adams and Hamabright (2004)
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 53
studied principals in Ohio and suggested that increased salaries for principals would encourage
more teachers to become principals.
Summary
According to the field literature, the influences upon women aspiring to leadership roles
as principals are similar to those factors influencing women entering leadership in general.
However, what stands out is that in educational organizations women are the majority of
employees, and are still underrepresented in leadership roles. Chapter two sought to outline the
major themes and factors that impact women’s aspirations to leadership by identifying the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008) currently present in
organizations that may be causing the underrepresentation of women in principal leadership
roles.
In evaluating the possible influences upon women’s desire to become principals,
knowledge about the impact principals have on student achievement, the self-efficacy (Bandura,
2000) of women and the expectancy value theory (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000), all contribute to the
understanding of the problem. Furthermore, the organizational influences of cultural modeling
(Rueda, 2011), and cultural settings, upon women’s identities as they aspire to leadership are
evident. Assessing women’s needs in order to assume the leadership of schools as a principal
will guide one’s ability to foster diverse and effective educational leadership that will improve
student academic outcomes.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 54
Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is the guiding view of a research study through which the
development of the central concept in the research is developed. The conceptual framework is
uncovered through an examination of the interaction of the research topic, the subjects in the
study, and the organizing theories (Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual frameworks help discover
the interrelationships between the published theories and how those relate to the more informal
theories that subjects have about what occurs (Maxwell, 2013). Analysis about collected data is
framed by the theoretical framework established by the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The framework above outlines the conceptual framework guiding the research study.
Effective leadership is central to the success of any organization. In order for an
organization to have effective leadership, quality candidates for open positions must be identified
and encouraged to take on the responsibilities of leadership. Currently, there is an overall
shortage of quality applicants for principal positions. In 2009 districts had 41% fewer applicants
for principal positions than prior years (Pijanowski, 2009). One way to locate quality candidates
District cultural settings and cultural
models see the ideal principal as being
always availible for all stakeholders,
long hours are expected of principals,
little flexibility in work [and pay for
principalships is not significantly
different than the pay of teachers.
Women teachers factual, proceural
and declaritive knowledge about the
principalship, the self-effeacy and
expecancy value of the principalship
to imporve student achievement and
the impact the principalship has on
the family life of princpals. How
women's age impacts their career
aspirations.
Increase the number and diversity of
effective, high-quality principals to
support imporved student
achievement.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 55
for leadership is in the ranks of current employees. In K-12 education, in 2011-2012 it was
reported that 76% of all public school teachers are women (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2016). Therefore, the largest group of potential principal candidates are women
teachers. However, the underrepresentation of women as principals is consistently identified in
literature (Dowell & Larwin, 2013; Joy, 1998; Nanton, 2015). While most teachers are women,
during the 2011-2011 school year, only 52% of all public school principals were women
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). This indicates that there is a challenge in
identifying, recruiting, and hiring women to be principals.
Potential influences upon women teachers’ aspiration to the principalship may be
contributing to the disproportional number of men in the role of principal related to the total
employment force in K-12 education. Many factors influence the aspirations of women teachers
to become principals. Some of these influences include their knowledge about the impact that
principals have upon student achievement. Women teachers may think that the best way to help
children is as a teacher and may not be knowledgeable about the impact of the principalship upon
student achievement. Quality principal leadership is only second to teacher effectiveness in
determining student outcomes (Leithwood & Hopkins, 2008). Women teacher’s lack of
knowledge about the impact principals have on student achievement may impact their motivation
to become principals.
Organizational cultural models and cultural settings impact all teachers’ aspiration to the
principalship. These models include seeing leadership as a masculine trait, the perception that
women are primarily caregivers, and that ideal workers have no family obligations. Within the
cultural settings of school districts, principals are required to be available to all stakeholders all
the time (Hausman, Crow & Sperry, 2000). In several studies, principals and assistant principals
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 56
in large majorities reported working more than 50 hours a week (DiPaola & Tsnnen-Moran,
2003; Pijanowski, 2009). Occupations that require more than 50 hours per week at work are
more male dominated than occupations that do not have the same expectations for overwork
(Cha, 2012).
Women’s motivation to become a principal may be impacted by the expectancy value
theory. Women perceive that the principalship requires that family life take a back seat to the
principal’s work duties. Furthermore, first time principals are most often selected within 6-8
years of becoming teachers (Brown-Ferrigno & Muth, 2008; Hancok et al., 2006; Reamses,
Kochan, & Zhu, 2013). Women teachers in their first 6-8 years of service are generally also
starting a family. Women with children who would appear to have more family responsibilities,
leave jobs with long hours more often than women without children (Cha, 2013). Therefore, it
stands to reason that women teacher’s desire to become principal changes over time.
Damaske and Frech (2016) described that women’s work is impacted by specific work
and life constraints that occur during different phases of a woman’s life. Mothers are seen as the
preferred caregivers for children in most families (Sperling, 2013). Furthermore, men are likely
to have a family member to take on the majority of family duties than women. Children make it
difficult for a woman to spend a majority of time at work as principals. When women reach their
mid-forties, their children are often grown up and more independent. However, it has been noted
that 60% of teachers who earned an administrative credential stopped applying for principal jobs
two years after they earned the credential (Pijanowski et al., 2009). This may indicate that the
timing of recruiting principals is critical. Research suggests women’s aspirations to leadership
and management changes over their life course (O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005). Therefore, it is
assumed that women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship changes throughout their lives.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 57
Women teachers after several years of teaching and after their children are more independent
may be more interested in becoming principals.
Women teachers later in their careers may aspire to the principalship, but there is little
economic reward for entering the principalship later in one’s career. The pay difference between
a senior teacher with 20 years of experience is not significantly different from that of a new
principal. While the responsibilities of the principalship are greater and demand more on-site
hours of work than those of teachers the compensation for principals does not equal the increased
work load and responsibilities in many teachers’ opinions.
Conclusion
Women teacher’s aspirations to the principalship are influenced by knowledge,
motivation, and organizational circumstances as defined by Clark and Estes (2008). Women in
diverse fields report that leadership and management roles are often undesirable to women who
want to have flexibility in their work lives and who have extensive family responsibilities
without others to help support them. Furthermore, women’s knowledge of the demands of
leadership are shaped by their observations of those who are currently leaders. As leaders and
managers are more likely to be men, women may experience limited self-efficacy when
imagining themselves in the role of leader. The organizational cultural norm of having a male
leader as the principal may impact the self-efficacy of women teachers in becoming principals.
These influences upon women’s aspirations to become principals are important to examine in
order to identify ways to increase applicants for principal positions. By leveraging the human
capital of women teachers who are the largest group of stakeholders in education to become
principals student outcomes can be improved.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 58
Chapter Three: Methodology
This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences upon
women teachers aspiring to the principalship in NUSD, and investigated the lived experiences of
women teachers who may or may not aspire to the principalship. As the research questions seek
to understand the internal processes and personal influences on the participants, an interview
process was used. In Chapter three, the research design, along with the data collection methods
and systems for data analysis is discussed. In this chapter the purpose of the project, the research
questions guiding the study, and the participating stakeholder groups is explained. Furthermore,
the conceptual framework and its relationship to the research questions and the methodical
framework is described.
The following questions guided this study:
1. What are the perceived knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences impacting
women teachers’ aspirations to become principals?
2. How do women teachers’ aspirations to principal leadership change over the course of
their lives?
3. What are some potential solutions to the knowledge, motivational and organizational
barriers perceived by women teachers in the Newtown School District?
Methodological Framework
The methodological framework used in this study is based on an examination of
the influences impacting organizational goal attainment as described by Clark and Estes
(2008). These influences on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are
collectively referred to as KMO guide the evaluation of the potential influences upon and
possible barriers to improved performance. Clark and Estes (2008) employ a gap analysis of
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 59
organizational stakeholders’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational context that lead to
gaps between actual performance levels and the aspirational performance levels of the
organization. Assumed influences and the impact they have upon attaining the targeted
outcomes were developed based on an examination of literature and the researcher’s personal
experience with the identified problem of practice. The assumed influences were investigated
using a qualitative research design. A case study of NUSD and the targeted stakeholders was
conducted in order to validate the assumed influences. Individual interviews with
stakeholders established the lived experiences of the stakeholders as it related to their
knowledge, motivation, and organizational constructs related to their aspirations to leadership
and how leadership impacts the organization.

Source: Adapted from Clark and Estes (2008), p. 22
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 60
In the KMO model of evaluation of performance problems, the researcher identifies
potential influences upon performance and categorizes these influences as knowledge,
motivation, or organizational influencers.
Knowledge influences are categorized by types, some of these types are classified as
factual, procedural, or metacognitive knowledge. Knowledge influences tend to be focused on
what knowledge may be lacking in stakeholder groups creating performance problems.
In the KMO model, “M” represents the motivation of stakeholders. In the Clark and Estes
(2008) model, motivation is not simply evaluated as a positive or negative state. Motivation is
examined though the concept that in order to accomplish something a person must demonstrate
motivation in three phases: choice, persistence, and effort. Choice refers to starting an activity.
Persistence occurs after starting an activity and occurs until the activity stops. Effort in
motivation refers to the vigor that the stakeholder applies to the activity. When all three aspects
of motivation are present then the stakeholder is effectively motivated. When one or more phases
are omitted, then motivation is not present and organizational challenges occur.
Organizational performance influencers as outlined by Clark and Estes (2008) refer to a
systems barrier outside of stakeholders’ direct control. Organizational influencers include
cultural models and cultural settings of organizations. The cultural models of organizations are
often unseen. The cultural models are how things are done in an organization without specific
guidance. The cultural setting of an organization is the overt and written procedures, locations,
and customers of an organization.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO influences upon performance outcomes suggest that the
researcher understand the inner thoughts and attitudes of stakeholders. Understanding the setting
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 61
and experiences of the stakeholders as they work is essential. This study used a qualitative
method case study using one-one-one interviews with targeted stakeholders.
Assessment of Performance Influences
Table 2
Sources of Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences

Assumed Influences on Women’ Teachers
Aspirations to the Principalship
Source Knowledge and Skills Motivation Organizational Barriers
Learning,
Motivation, and
Organizational
Theory
Women teachers do not
know the impact of
principal leadership upon
schools and students.
Women teachers may
find that the costs
associated with
assuming the principal
role are too high.

Women teachers may
lack the personal
efficacy about their
ability to be principals
and also be effective
in their personal lives.
Cultural models of
leadership are often
developed reflecting
masculine styles of
leadership.

Cultural models of
effective managers
reflect employees who
have no responsibilities
outside of work.

Cultural settings in
districts demand long
hours from principals.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 62
Knowledge Assessment
The following table describes the assumed knowledge influences related to women
teachers aspiring to the principalship. The table includes a description of how these assumed
influences were investigated using one-on-one interviews.
Table 3
Assumed Knowledge Influences and Proposed Assessments
Assumed Knowledge Influence Knowledge Influence Assessment
Women teachers do not know the impact of
principal leadership upon schools and students.
Interviews:

Ask about how principals impact schools in the
experience of women teachers.

Motivation Assessment
The following table describes the assumed motivational influences related to women
teachers aspiring to the principalship. The table includes a description of how these assumed
influences were investigated using one-on-one interviews.
Table 4
Assumed Motivational Influences and Proposed Assessments
Assumed Motivation Influence Motivation Influence Assessment
Women teachers may find that the costs
associated with assuming the principal role are
too high.

Interviews:

Ask about the concerns that women teachers
may have considered when thinking about
being a principal. Ask about their family
support for taking on the role of principal.
Women teachers may lack the personal
efficacy about their ability to be principals and
also be effective in their personal lives.
Interviews:

Ask about family responsibilities and roles
currently, in the future and in the past. Ask
about how their family responsibilities impact
their work lives.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 63
Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
The following table describes the assumed organizational culture influences related to
women teachers aspiring to the principalship. The table includes a description of how these
assumed influences were investigated using one-on-one interviews.
Table 5
Assumed Organizational Influences and Proposed Assessments
Assumed Organizational Influence Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural models of leadership are often
developed reflecting masculine styles of
leadership.

Interviews:

Ask women teachers about their preferred
leadership styles. Ask about who their
leadership role models are and how they
provided leadership.
Cultural models of effective mangers reflect
employees who have no responsibilities
outside of work.

Interviews:

Ask women teachers about the principals they
have known and their characteristics. Ask
about how they think principals manage their
work.
Cultural settings in districts demand long hours
from principals.
Interviews:

Ask about some of the challenges they foresee
with becoming a principal.
Participating Stakeholders
Newtown Unified School District (NUSD) is a pseudonym for a K-12 district in
California. In 2014-2015, NUSD’s enrollment was about 17,000 students. Of these students
21.2% were English Learners. Furthermore, 79.3% of students were identified as Hispanic or
Latino. The district has 72% of its students identified by the state as needing more support
because of their status as either an English Learner, a child with Foster Parents, or receiving
Free/Reduced Price Meals. The district has a majority of elementary schools, six middle schools,
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 64
four high schools, a preschool program and two adult school campuses (Reported from Ed-Data
2016 specific citation withheld to protect the identity of the district, 2016).
According to Ed-Data (2016), in 2014-2015 NUSD employed 827 teachers, 710
classified workers, and 81 administrators. Sixty-nine percent of teachers in NUSD are women,
and among all teachers 14 years of service is the average. Annual revenue in 2013-2014 for
NUSD was reported to be over $168,500,000 including both state unrestricted funds and federal
and state restricted funds (Ed-Data, 2016).
Women teachers employed by the Newtown Unified School District during the 2016-
2017 school year were the identified stakeholder group for this study. In recruiting for data
collection, the specific stakeholders that would best be able to answer the research questions and
are women teachers teaching at secondary and elementary schools within NUSD who hold
authorization to become principals in CA (CCTC, 2016). The women who met these criteria
were identified through district records. Teachers are defined in this study as those women who
hold a valid California State Teaching Credential and had taught for at least one year at an
elementary or secondary school site. Furthermore, principals nominated potential participating
teachers for the study because the teacher’s potential for success as principal. There were
approximately 573 women teachers working in the Newtown Unified School District (ED-
DATA, 2016). Women teachers represented 69.3% of all teachers in the Newtown Unified
School District (ED-DATA, 2016) as reported in the most recent available data from the 2014-
2015 school year. A purposeful sample helped to ensure that the subgroups of participants that
would best inform the study would be included in the survey (Fink, 2013). For this reason
women teachers at elementary and secondary schools were part of the purposeful sample for this
study.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 65
Data Collection
Interview Sampling
Criterion 1. Participants were women teachers working in the Newtown Unified School
District during the 2016-2017 school year.
Criterion 2. Participants held authorization to become administrators as defined by the
California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CCTC, 2016).
Criterion 3. Six participants were assigned to work at elementary schools, and four
participants were assigned to secondary schools site in the Newtown Unified School
District. Each participant worked at a different school in NUSD. By selecting participants
from different schools and grade levels diverse perspectives were evaluated to find
patterns among the teachers.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The sampling strategy for this study was a purposeful sample as defined by Merriam and Tisdell
(2016). A purposeful sample ensured that those people who would best answer the research
question will be interviewed. Furthermore, purposeful sampling provided the researcher with the
opportunity to strategically select participants who had insights into the research questions asked
in the study (Maxwell, 2013). Central to this study is to understand the effect that knowledge,
motivation and organizational cultural models have upon women teachers’ aspirations to the
principalship.
Maxwell (2013) outlines how a purposeful sample’s goals include defining the most
important dimensions of the sample population to ensure that the particulars of the targeted
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 66
population are met. Purposeful sampling can be done through snowball sampling. In snowball
sampling initial participants that meet the criteria for the study refer other participants to the
researcher (Maxwell, 2013) A subset of snowball recruitment is defined by Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) as network sampling. Network sampling is used to locate those participants who will be
most likely to provide rich evidence to inform the study. A network sample is similar to the type
of selection process as defined by Cooper (2003) as community nomination. In community
nomination, people with expertise in an area are asked to provide input into selected participants,
so the likelihood that the participants have the characteristics identified in the research criteria is
increased (Cooper, 2003).
In order to identify the most knowledgeable participants for the study from all the women
teachers in NUSD, principals were asked to identify the women teachers on their staff who have
the skills needed to become principals. As principals have expertise in knowing the duties of the
principalship and the characteristics of the teachers with whom they work, principals were able
to refer participants who would best be able to inform the study.
A letter was emailed to all principals in NUSD. The letter asked principals to nominate
women teachers with the leadership potential to become principals for participation in the
interview. The letter outlined that their nominations would be kept confidential and that not all
women teachers nominated would be selected for the study. After the nomination, women
teachers were compared against a list of women teachers who hold authorization to become
administrators. Women teachers who held administration authorization, and who were nominated
by their principals for the study were sent an email inviting them to participate in the interview.
The participants for this study were ten women teachers in Newtown Unified School
District. This case study was of a bounded system. Bound systems for case studies must identify
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 67
the sample for data collection (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Ten women were interviewed to gain
insight from a variety of women teachers at differing ages and school levels. For this study,
teachers are defined as teachers who hold a valid California State Teaching Credential (CCTC,
2016).
Table 6 below outlines the interview participants demographic information.
Table 6
Interview Participant Information
Teacher
(Pseudonym)
Grade Level Children’s Age Participant Age
Holly Secondary <18 32
Grace Secondary <18 39
Stacey Elementary <18 40
Kristine Elementary <18 41
Fran Elementary <18 41
Mary Elementary <18 42
Janet Elementary +18 52
Barb Elementary +18 53
Denise Secondary +18 56
Luanne Elementary +18 57
This study used a qualitative research design to explore the lived experiences of women
teachers. The interview guide was developed and used in all interviews to ensure the participants
are asked about the same or similar concepts across sessions with the researcher (Patton, 2002).
Ten women teachers were interviewed for 40-55 minutes using an interview guide. The semi-
structured interview guide was used to assess the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 68
influences upon women teachers becoming principals. However, if the participants shared
information that could inform the study, the interviewer pursued that line of inquiry. Leading
questions, yes or no questions, and multiple questions asked at the same time were avoided
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The questions used common language and encouraged the
participants to have a conversation with the researcher (Krueger & Casey, 2009). In order to
access the informants’ feelings and experiences, a variety of types of questions were asked about
the demographics, opinions, knowledge, and behaviors (Patton, 2002) related to women’s
leadership.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
In seeking to understand the influences upon women aspiring to the principalship, this
study used a qualitative approach. The methods used for data collection were selected to better
understand the lived experiences of the participants and to gather meaningful and accurate data
about the influences upon women seeking principal positions. One-on-one interviews with
women teachers were conducted using a semi-structured interview process using an interview
guide.
Interview
This study’s research questions focused on the lived experiences of women teachers who
have earned the academic credentials for the principalship. Therefore, a qualitative design for
data collection was used. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) caution that it is essential for the study to
collect data that reflects reality and is measuring the data needed to answer the research
questions. The use of one on one interviews allowed the researcher to gather rich data to
establish findings providing evidence of specific trends (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A semi-
structured interview guide was used during the interview to allow for flexibility in the data
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 69
collection to explore important topics brought forward by the participants. The interview guide
was piloted and peer reviewed by current Ed.D. students to ensure that the questions were
targeted to solicit the answers needed to the research questions and that the questions are not
leading or biased, and avoided creating discomfort for the respondents. The interviews lasted 40-
55 minutes and were conducted in a private location convenient for the participants. The
interview protocol included an information sheet for the participants advising them of their right
to stop participating in the interview at any time.
The interview data was collected via a digital recording device and transcribed. The
transcribed interviews were stored on a computer in a qualitative software program. As a former
teacher and principal, the researcher used personal experience and knowledge to help understand
the information that the participants were sharing and to guide the coding. Coding of the data
was done to establish common ideas among participants. Open coding started the process with
themes emerging from the codes. To increase the credibility and trustworthiness of the study, the
researcher sought divergent evidence and ideas that do not follow typical findings. By
identifying the divergent evidence, the researcher examined how the bias may have impacted the
study (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, a peer review of
the interview data was conducted to ensure credibility and trustworthiness. The data collected
through the interviews included demographic data, information about family structures, inquiry
about the knowledge teachers have about the impact of the principalship, specific motivational
influences in seeking a principalship, organizational and cultural and personal barriers to being a
principal, and the societal benefits principals provide.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 70
Data Analysis Plan
A systematic process data analysis started during the interview process. After each
interview analytic memos were written to capture thoughts, wonderings and initial reactions to
the information gathered in the interview. The conceptual framework and research questions will
guided the reflection on the data and were used in writing the analytic memos. Interviews were
transcribed after each occurred, and open coding began using a priori codes and identifying in
vivo and empirical codes. A second round of coding occurred for each interview where the
empirical and a priori codes were shaped into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data
analysis, themes and patterns related to the conceptual framework and research questions were
categorized from the emerging data. This data was organized in a codebook defining the
meaning of the codes and providing frequency counts of key codes.
After coding, work on findings began. Rich data that demonstrated typicality in in the
responses to the research questions were highlighted in the findings along with atypical
responses. Frequency of coded responses were coded and placed in categories. Appendix D has
an example of the frequency of the codes. Memos were developed and reviewed to guide the
reflection and analysis of the data. Upon completion of all interviews, individual memos were
reviewed and additional memos were generated to identify themes across participants’ responses.
In chapter four, findings are reported. This chapter will state the purpose of the study, the
research questions and the conceptual framework, introduced in chapter two, as it relates to the
findings. The data correlated to the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences will be explored and validated by the data collected.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 71
Credibility and Trustworthiness
This qualitative study seeks to learn about the lived experiences of women teachers who
may or may not aspire to the principalship. As the research questions sought to understand the
internal processes and personal influences on the participants, an interview process was used.
The credibility and trustworthiness of the study was based on the documentation and
transparency of the design of the study.
To increase the credibility and trustworthiness of the study, the researcher sought
divergent evidence and ideas that did follow typical findings. By identifying divergent evidence,
the researcher examined bias that may have impacted the study (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, a peer review of the interview data was conducted to
ensure credibility and trustworthiness.
Role of Investigator
As the principal investigator of the study, the researcher interacted with NUSD on a
regular basis. The researcher had an interest in the organization because improvement in
women’s aspirations to principal leadership will increase quality applicants for open
leadership roles within the organization. The researcher was known to many stakeholders
within the organization, but did not have direct reports who participated in the study. All
participants in the study were teachers who are protected by a collective bargaining agreement
outlining their rights and process for evaluation. Furthermore, neither participants nor the
direct supervisors of the participants, were evaluated by the researcher. Therefore, pressure or
coercion to participate in the study was minimized. The researcher emphasized to the
participants though the information sheet and recruitment letters, that the researcher was
acting as student investigator and not in the researcher’s usual role related to the organization.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 72
Potential researcher biases included sharing gender with the participants, experience as a
public school administrator, and the relationship with the organization being studied. These
circumstances may have influenced the researcher’s evaluation of the data collected and must
be recognized by the researcher, in order to monitor and account for bias throughout the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2009). While commonalities with the participants could result in bias,
they also provided an opportunity for the researcher to more fully become the research
instrument as is part of a qualitative study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2009). In order to minimize the
impact of bias on the findings, the researcher monitored for bias throughout the study.
Ethics
In this research study, the investigator used a qualitative research approach. As the data
collection method involved building rapport and probing into the thoughts of the participants
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) ethical considerations were essential to be considered. Ethical
considerations were bound by the concept of respect for the participants’ lived experiences and
how data was reported (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Glesne (2011) outlines essential ethical
considerations for research as informed consent, role of the researcher, right to privacy, and
reciprocity, which was addressed in a research project design. In order to ensure the wellbeing of
participants, the researcher submitted the study to the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board (IRB) and used their rules and guidelines to protect participants in
this study.
After approval by the IRB the researcher sent an email to all principals in NUSD asking
them to nominate women teachers who had demonstrated leadership potential to be principals.
The principals then sent the names of nominated teachers to the researcher. Then an email was
sent to the nominated women teachers including a recruitment letter defining the demographics
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 73
required for participants in the study, the amount of time needed to participate, contact
information for the researcher, participants rights if they chose to be part of the study, any
possible risks or discomforts that could occur from participation in the study, and a link to an
online form if the teacher was interested in being part of the interview process.
Before starting the interviews, participants permission to audio record their sessions was
be requested. Digital audio files were erased after transcription and the transcribed data was kept
in a password protected computer file. The transcribed data will be kept for three years and then
destroyed. Participants were sent transcripts of the interviews for their review. In order to
provide reciprocity, the researcher listened carefully to the responses of the participants.
Collected data was kept in password-protected files and identifying data was coded using a
pseudonym to ensure confidentiality. All participants were given consent forms to participate in
the study and asked to confirm participation on the audio recording. Consent forms were kept in
a separate file from the coded transcript information. Incentives to participate in the study were
not provided to minimize feelings of pressure to participate. At the end of the study, participants
received a thank you note for participating in the study.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of the study were around the time that participants in the study have available
to be interviewed. Scheduling interviews with women teachers during the summer months was a
challenge. Several women teachers shared that they could not participate because of other family
obligations in the summer when their children were off school. This led the researcher to wonder
if the sample was diverse and represented women who may be struggling with increased time
demands. Furthermore, the detail of the answers women teachers gave may or may not be
complete. While the researcher is confident that the participants were candid, some information
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 74
may have been excluded by the participants either intentionally or unintentionally. Participants
knew the researcher as a management level employee in the district, but not as a direct line
supervisor to them or their bosses. The knowledge of the researcher as an employee of the
district might have impacted the candor with which the participants answered questions. In order
to address any concerns of the participants about the confidentiality of their answers, the
informed consent form indicated that their identities would be held in confidence, that they could
exit the interview at any time, and the role of the researcher was as a student in the interview was
shared prior to the interviews. However, these measures may not have been enough to gain total
honesty in the responses of the participants.
The research questions posed and the literature review guided the data collection design.
The study design established several delimitations in order to better answer the research
questions. The organization being studied is a K-12 school district. The organizational goal of
the school district is to build leadership capacity has guided the focus of the study.
The targeted stakeholder group was selected by the organizational setting. Public school
districts have many stakeholders including staff, teachers, students, managers, and community
members. As women teachers are the largest single stakeholder group in a school district,
increasing their aspiration to leadership positions is essential to meeting the organizational goal
of building leadership. Therefore, only women teachers working in the targeted organization
were included as participants in the study. As participants in the study were all nominated by
practicing administrators for their potential for successful school leadership, results about
positive leadership efficacy may not be attributed to all teachers.
The data collection was framed around the lived experiences influencing women
teacher’s aspirations to the principalship. The conceptual framework outlines the influences upon
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 75
women teachers aspiring to the principalship from their perspective. Therefore, the perspectives
about leadership from the point of view of managers, students, and community members were
not part of the study, nor were the potential influences upon male teachers’ aspirations to the
principalship. The transferability of the study results to organizations and individuals outside the
targeted organization is limited. This limitation is due to the specific focus upon participants
from one organization (Patton, 2002).
Summary
For this study, the assumed influences of knowledge, motivation, and organization upon
women teacher’s aspirations to become principals were grounded in scholarly literature and
theory. The qualitative method of one-on-one interviews with stakeholders from the organization
was used to validate the suspected KMO (Clark & Estes, 2008) influences identified though the
literature review. The findings establish an increased understanding of the barriers women
teachers face in aspiring to the principalship and possible ways to mitigate the negative
influences facing women teachers aspiring to the principalship.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 76

Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to identify the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences upon women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship in Newtown
Unified School District (NUSD). This study was important to conduct to better understand
the underrepresentation of women in the principalship as related to their percentage of the
teaching force. Furthermore, increasing the number of women teachers who aspire to the
principalship will address the principal shortage, thus ensuring that high quality principals
are in place at every school in order to improve student achievement. A complete study
would have included all stakeholders, but in order to understand the influences upon women
teachers, this study focused on a subset of women teachers in Newtown Unified School
District.
The research questions that guided this study are as follows:
1. What are the perceived knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences
impacting women teachers’ aspirations to become principals?
2. How do women teachers’ aspirations to principal leadership change over the course
of their lives?
3. What are some potential solutions to the knowledge, motivational and organizational
barriers perceived by women teachers in the Newtown School District?
The qualitative data collection process used to answer these questions were one-on-
one interviews guided by an interview protocol. Transcripts of the interviews were coded and
analyzed to find themes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This chapter will explore the findings of
the research study as they relate to research questions one, two and recommendations made
by participants in developing solutions for research question three. Chapter five will further
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 77
address research question three and propose potential solutions to the knowledge,
motivational and organizational barriers to the principalship experienced by women teachers.
Participating Stakeholders
The participants in this study were ten women teachers who were employed during
the 2016-2017 school year at the Newtown Unified School District. Six of the participants
were assigned to elementary schools and four were assigned to secondary schools. All
participants worked at different schools in the district and held authorization for
administrative assignments including the principalship. Furthermore, the women were
nominated for the study by practicing administrators in NUSD, because of their potential for
success as a school principal. Having participants from different schools allowed the study to
produce insights about diverse perspectives from across the district and to determine if the
location of the school had an impact on the influences reported by women teachers. While
the findings among teachers from across the district were similar, there were some
differences in the findings between those women teachers who worked at elementary schools
compared to the women teachers assigned to secondary schools. Differences in responses
related to geographic location of the teacher’s assigned school were not evident.
While being a mother was not a criterion for participation in the study, all volunteers
for the study were mothers. By interviewing mothers, the impact of parenting upon career
aspirations could be explored. Four participants had children over the age of 18 and six
participants had children under 18 years. Nine of the ten women teachers were currently
married and one participant was divorced. The participants ranged in age from 32 to 57 years
of age. Four participants were in their 40s, four participants were in their 50s, and two were
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 78
in their 30s. Four women teachers were actively seeking principal positions and of these
women three had children who were over 18 years old.
A cross section of women at different ages was interviewed to gain insight into how
influences upon entering the principalship may change over the course of women’s lifetimes.
The demographics of the participants are included again in Table 7 below for reference.
Table 7 (Repeated)
Interview Participant Information
Teacher
(Pseudonym)
Grade Level Children’s Age Participant Age
Holly Secondary <18 32
Grace Secondary <18 39
Stacey Elementary <18 40
Kristine Elementary <18 41
Fran Elementary <18 41
Mary Elementary <18 42
Janet Elementary +18 52
Barb Elementary +18 53
Denise Secondary +18 56
Luanne Elementary +18 57

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 79
Findings by Research Question
The following section provides the findings of the study and is arranged by research
question and theme. The themes were developed based on the data collection and analysis of
interviews with women teachers in NUSD. The first research question findings are organized
around the Clark and Estes (2008) model of how knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences may impact the attainment of a goal.
In sharing the findings for research question two, the section is organized around the
ages of the participants in the study and how the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences may specifically impact their desire to become principals.
At the end of chapter four, a synthesis of the findings will be provided to help
summarize and explore the significance of the research. Chapter five will further address
research question three by outlining possible solutions to the validated knowledge,
motivation, and organizational barriers experienced by women teachers when considering the
principalship.
Research Question One
The first research question in this study asked what were the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences upon NUSD women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship.
Many of the assumed influences upon women’s aspirations to the principalship were
validated; however, others were not. This section of the study describes influences upon
women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship that were reported by participants without
consideration of their ages. The next section will address research question two and identify
specifically how women teachers of differing ages perceived the influences upon their
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 80
aspirations to the principalship. The themes related to the research questions and of the
general influences upon women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship are as follows:
• Women teachers were aware that principals had an important impact upon the school
and especially upon teachers and school culture, but were less aware of the specific
academic influence principals had upon student achievement.
• While women teachers were confident in their leadership and parenting abilities, they
lacked efficacy around combining both parenting and the principalship.
• Women teachers perceived the costs associated with becoming a principal as unequal
to the benefits.
• Organizational and cultural norms for the ideal worker and the ideal parent to be
completely committed to each role causes women teachers to perceive that they
would not be successful in combining the role of parent and principal.
The Principal’s Impact Upon the School. All participating teachers reported
principals had an important impact on the school. Women teachers participating in the study
reported that they believed the principalship is very important to an effective school. One
teacher, “Mary” who had served under several principals shared, “I think everything they
(principals) do impacts all of that. 100%.” Another teacher, “Fran” shared, “I think that a
school's going to make it or break it (because of the principal).” The finding that principals
are perceived as very important is consistent with research. Leithwood and Mascall (2008)
found that when asked who in the school had the largest impact, teachers reported that
principals had the biggest overall impact of all individuals on the school. Therefore, the
participant’s focus on how the principal impacts teachers demonstrates how a principal’s
actions are foremost in the minds of teachers.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 81
Responses about the impact of the principal were given to an open-ended question of
“How does the principal impact the school?” Participants focused on different aspects of the
principal’s influence on culture and community, including parents, students, and teachers. All
participants made comments about the principal’s impact upon teachers and school culture
specifically. This finding may be attributed to the fact that all respondents were teachers. As
teachers, they focused on how they were impacted by the principal more than how the
principal impacted other areas of the school. In their study of the principalship, Leithwood
and Mascall (2008) found the principal’s influence on increasing teacher’s feelings of
empowerment was a powerful tool to improve student achievement. One participant,
“Stacey”, shared that principals with whom she worked could discourage teachers or, “I've
also worked under a different style of leadership where it was empowering for teachers.”
However, none of the participants made an explicit connection between the principal’s
positive impact on teachers and improved student outcomes.
Although few comments were made about instructional leadership, four of the ten
participant teachers shared specifically about how the principal influenced the instructional
program. This view was reported as separate from the impact on teachers. A veteran middle
school teacher, “Denise” shared, “What I see as a very important role of a principal is to be
that instructional leader with their staff. To be in the classroom giving feedback, positive or
negative.” A few teachers reported that principals were able to shape the instructional
program by their focus on specific actions, tools, and structures in the classroom.
The limited focus on the instructional leadership of the principal is in stark contrast to
how principals are described in literature. Literature consistently describes the importance of
the principal being an instructional leader (Fancera, & Bliss, 2011; Federici & Skaalvik,
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 82
2011). Currently, being an instructional leader is an essential attribute of how principals are
evaluated. Women who were actively seeking a principalship made the few comments about
principal’s impact on instruction. It appeared to the researcher that the comments about
academic leadership were made because this was what was expected for aspiring principals
to say, rather than a reflection of their own thoughts. The comments made about the impact
of the principal on culture and teachers were more detailed and explicit, leading the
researcher to conclude that instructional leadership is not seen by participants as a primary
way that principals impact schools.
Women teachers have declarative knowledge about the principal’s impact on
culture. Participants were most explicit about the impact of the principal on school culture.
The importance of the principal shaping a positive school culture was specifically mentioned
by all ten of the participants. One veteran teacher, “Barb”, shared that she thought the
principal set the overall direction of the school, “… I feel the principal is key for setting
expectations on the way that we speak to children, how we use our time during the day and
just creating, what do (sic) we value.” Another participant, Mary, shared, “The principal is
the guide, the lead. If they have a positive attitude, and they have a hard work ethic…the
community follows...”. Both of these participants echoed the sentiments of the participants as
a whole.
Teachers know the impact of the principal. All ten participants discussed the impact
of the principal on teachers. Some of the respondents discussed how principals had had
particularly negative or positive impacts on them personally and professionally. Principals
are the supervisors of teachers and as such have an important impact on the morale of
employees. Principals who use an inclusive, collaborative leadership style improve the
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 83
experiences of the staff and find more success (Pepper & Thomas, 2002). Teachers
participating in the study shared that the principal’s actions significantly impacted their
feelings of success or failure as teachers.
One participant, Fran, shared that she did not want to be a principal because of a
negative experience with a principal during her first year of teaching fifteen years in the past.
Becoming teary Fran shared,
“I had gone into my principal's office and I asked-- I was in a wedding and
I asked if I could miss a day to go up for the wedding and she just kind of
laid into me, "Teachers get so many-- You have all spring break, you have
all summer… She really laid into me.”
Another participant, “Holly”, shared how the principal created anxiety for staff by how she
handled her supervisory duties.
“…if people were late this particular administrator will wait for that person in
the gate and open it for them. Would walk them into the classroom, rip them
apart and walk out. Then the bell will ring and the kids are (sic) coming. That
created a lot of tension and anxiety for a lot of staff members.”
While this teacher had not directly experienced being reprimanded by the principal, she
indicated that knowing this happened caused her stress. Conversely, several teachers shared
that their principals had been supportive and positive with teachers. One participant,
“Luanne”, specifically shared,
“(Principals) can have a really positive impact on teachers. And maybe walking into
their classrooms with a positive tone rather than a negative tone saying, “Wow your
room’s looking great,” or “I love that all of the kids are on task.” That kind of thing.”
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 84
When talking about principals who influenced them the most, eight participants
discussed their first principal as significantly shaping their ideas about the principalship.
Interestingly, the four teachers participating in the study who were actively seeking a
principal job, shared positive memories of their first principal’s impact upon them as
teachers. This finding suggests that a teacher’s first principal has a significant impact upon
their desire to become principals in the future.
Limited understanding of principal’s influence upon student achievement. Teachers
in the study shared knowledge of the importance of the principal’s influence upon schools,
but only half of respondents talked about how principals impact students. Furthermore, the
comments about the principal’s impact on students were focused on discipline. Fran shared
this when asked about the principal’s impact, “So a principal's administrative style has an
impact on student behavior…” Another participant, Mary, shared, “They (Principals) can
encourage students greatly to do the best or they can discourage students from feeling like
they can do well”. Furthermore, one of the respondents, Barb, who had worked with
principals closely as a teacher coach talked about how principals impact student achievement
as, “…an essential part of being a principal is that you need to know what the academic
needs are of your students and how best to meet them.” This viewpoint of needing to know
about the academic needs of students may stem from Barb’s perspective of working out of
the classroom. She may have been able to observe principals thinking about student
achievement, where other participants may have had fewer interactions with the principal
around student achievement. The limited exposure that classroom teachers have to principals
working to support student achievement may influence their perspective of how principals
impact this area. These findings suggest that the role principals play in impacting student
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 85
achievement is mostly unknown to teachers. This gap in knowledge is present despite
research that suggests that 25% of student achievement results can be attributed to the direct
and indirect impact of the principal (Leithwood et al., 2004).
Efficacy’s impact upon women teachers’ motivation to become principals.
Women teachers have positive leadership self-efficacy. Self-efficacy theory proposes
that an individual’s beliefs about if they will be able to successfully reach their goals and
complete activities are closely aligned to success or failure (Pajares, 2006). Positive self-
efficacy is a predictor of people’s motivation and negative efficacy will deter individuals
from tasks. Furthermore, efficacy can be situational. While people can have overall positive
efficacy, particular situations can trigger either positive or negative efficacy related to that
activity.
Two types of situational efficacy related to the principalship are related to how
women made choices about becoming a principal. Leadership efficacy is a particular type of
efficacy (Hannah et al., 2008) as is principal efficacy (Federici & Skaalvick, 2011; Federici
& Skaalvick, 2012). In general, the women in the study reported overall positive efficacy
around their ability to be leaders. One teacher, Luanne, who was pursuing an administrative
position shared, “I feel like I have the leadership skills to do it. I'm Administrative Designee
at my school site and have been for many years. I know that I have the abilities.” Another
teacher shared that she was considering becoming an administrator. When discussing her
self-confidence about leadership, Holly shared, “I feel more comfortable now, now that I've
been in the profession for seven years. I feel that I have the skill set to be an administrator.”
None of the participants expressed doubts about their ability to be leaders. All the
participants shared that others had identified their leadership skills and encouraged them to
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 86
take on leadership positions. It is important to note that the research design of this study,
which included nomination of participants from practicing administrators who felt the
teachers had “leadership ability” may have impacted this finding.
Women teachers have positive self-efficacy about parenting. All the women
participants were mothers and shared information about their children with the researcher
when asked about their families. Most of the information shared by participants when asked
to “Tell me about your family” was about children and spouses. Information about children
far exceeded that of the spouse. Furthermore, when participants were asked about what
activities they participated in, all the participants talked about parenting. When asked about
what she did outside of teaching, one interviewee, Alex, replied, “You mean like hobbies?
Well, I have two kids.”
Sperling (2013) describes the construct of ideal parenting as parenting being provided
by a mother who extensively involved in all aspects of her children’s lives. While no
participant explicitly stated that they were good parents, they did signal their success in
parenting by sharing about the things they did for their children and about their children’s
successes.
Demonstrating effective parenting, participants shared how they were involved in
their children’s lives. Participants who had children under 18 years shared the many activities
in which their children were involved and that the children were, “just busy”. One mother
talked about how although she knew nothing about soccer she coached two junior soccer
teams, so her children would not miss out on an opportunity to play.
Women teachers expressed pride in their children’s accomplishments regardless of
their ages. Participants shared extensively about their children’s successes with the researcher
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 87
and limited their comments about their own success. Mothers of young children shared how
well their children were doing in extracurricular activities, such as “he's awesome at kicking”
from a mother of an eight-year old. This mother had just completed a graduate degree and
been selected for a leadership position. However, she did not mention this until after the
interview was over. Mothers of adult children shared the career success of their children. For
example, one mother, Luanne, told the researcher, “He (my son) owns a city block in
downtown... He's very successful…my daughter just graduated medical school”. These
comments indicated that women teachers felt proud of their ability to raise successful
children and be good parents. Participants did not share doubts about their success in
parenting or their current state of parenting efficacy while they were working as teachers.
Women teachers have negative self-efficacy when considering being a parent and
principal at the same time. Positive efficacy about leadership and parenting was evident in
all the participants’ responses. However, a change in efficacy was revealed when women
discussed the combining of the principalship and motherhood. Overall, women teachers in
the study reported concerns about managing both the principalship and motherhood. This
concern is supported in literature. Women principals struggle to combine their jobs with
family (Wrushen & Sherman, 2009).
Participants reported that they prioritized their children’s needs and desires in their
lives. This is consistent with research that women think primarily about how their work will
impact their families when making career choices (Damaske, 2011).
Participants who were mothers of adult children discussed how they had made
choices not to become principals when their children were young, because of their belief that
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 88
being a principal and mother would be difficult for their families. One participant, Denise,
who was the mother of adult children shared,
“The idea of being a principal was just impossible to imagine. As it is, I feel like
when I work I'd give that a hundred percent and I always felt like I slighted my kids. I
thought it would be even worse if I were managing a school.”
Putting children’s needs first by mothers and to attend to the developmental success of
children is central to the construct of effective parenting in society (Sperling, 2013).
Participants shared the viewpoint that if they chose to become a principal, there
would be a negative impact on their parenting ability. Participants with children under 18
reported that they could not give their best to both the principalship and motherhood at the
same time. “I know the job of a principal it's huge. It's a huge responsibility and I know that
having a one-year-old, I wouldn't be able to give it my all,” Stacey shared. Another
participant, “Grace”, reported if she was a principal and a mother of young children, that she
would feel like she was “dropping the ball in one area.” Another participant, Mary, summed
it up with “I can’t do both well enough.”
Women make career choices based on what they perceive their children’s needs to be
(O’Neil & Billmora, 2005). Women interviewed validated this notation with a majority of the
women directly relating their career plans to how their choices would impact their children.
As teachers, participants have observed current women principals. Many of the observations
the participants made about the women principals they knew was that women principals had
a very difficult task to be a mother and a principal. One woman, Grace, talked specifically
about women principals’ efforts to manage home and work duties:
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 89
“I've had female principals, they are the ones who are emailing at two o'clock
in the morning…I'm thinking, "Why are you up?" You have a five year old at
home right now. But they probably go home. They probably do the whole
mom thing and cook or whatever. Then, all they have is two o'clock in the
morning to get work done. I don't know if I can do that right now”.
Costs Related to the Principalship are Greater than the Benefits. Expectancy
value theory (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000) explores how people make choices about what
activities they will engage in by evaluating what they believe or expect they will gain by their
participation. Furthermore, the costs associated with an activity are evaluated related to the
expected positive gains. (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Overall the women teachers in this study
perceived the costs related to becoming a principal greater than the benefits.
Long work hours and longer work years for principals were perceived as negative.
Central to the concerns that women teachers expressed about becoming principals were long
hours. All respondents shared that the long hours they observed being worked by principals
were a deterrent to their desire to become principals. Nine out of ten participants said that
long hours had a negative influence upon their desire to be principals. This finding is
consistent with a study by Adams and Habright (2008) of teachers aspiring to the
principalship expressing the long hours demanded deterred them from seeking the job. In this
study one participant, “Kristine”, shared her view, “We know that that job will -- it will take
all of your time if you allow it.”
Women across industries who hold advanced degrees find that long hours and
inflexible work structures are barriers for them entering male dominated professions (Cha,
2012). Participants in the study echoed this idea. Stacey, a mother of two children under
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 90
eighteen, directly related long hours to challenges to her personal life. She shared with her
family, "Listen, this is what it's (being a principal) going to mean, it's going to be long hours
and somebody else basically raising my child. My mom taking care of my child.” The
principalship has traditionally been a male dominated profession requiring long hours spent
on campus. Teaching allows for fewer hours on campus than the principalship. Participants
expressed that teaching was a more attractive job to women because of its shorter hours and
more flexible work structures. Alex shared her perspective of how teaching and principal
work differed:
“Well, when you're a teacher, for the most part, you leave it (school) three, four, or
five. When you leave, you might have a few emails that pop up, but you can leave. I
believe as a principal you are always on. If anything happens to a student at the
school and you're notified, you have to be on call all the time, there's no break when
you're a principal.”
Pay related to workload. Compensation’s impact on the study’s participants seeking
the principalship was varied. While participants shared that making more money was
attractive, they expressed that the increase in salary of the principalship was not equal to the
increase in duties. This finding was echoed in the research by Pijanowsi and Brady (2009) in
their study of why teachers choose to become principals. Furthermore, with one exception,
women teachers stated that the pay difference between the principalship and teaching would
not be enough to motivate them to become principals. Kristine shared, “You work hard and
you want to make more. But I just think that they don't equal each other. The amount of work
as a principal, I don't think that the amount that anyone pays you is equivalent.” A teacher
with over twenty years of service, Grace, shared that as a teacher at the top of the pay scale
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 91
there was little difference in her teaching salary compared to that of an entry level
administrator: “It's not much of a difference anymore, but there's a much bigger impact in
terms of the amount of work and stress.” Holly who was in her 30s shared that she was
motivated to become an administrator to increase her income, “… the benefits of the income
that come with that position also improves our quality of life.” This comment reflects the fact
that there is a greater difference in compensation between a teacher early in her career than
there is for teachers later in their careers in regard to a principal’s income.
Pijanowsi and Brady (2009) found that pay for principals was considered by teachers
when deciding to become a principal. However, what they found is that most aspiring
principals felt that the pay increase did not equal the demands of the job of the principal.
Contrary to the belief that teachers do not want administrators to earn more, one teacher,
Stacey, expressed concern about the pay for principals: “I felt like they (principals) work
long hours and they work 11 months and that's how maybe the compensation could be a little
bit better for them…”
Increased family conflict. Current principals widely report that their job increases
family conflict. Allison (1997) reported that their jobs increased family conflict.
Furthermore, decreased work satisfaction is associated with family conflict (O’Neil et al.,
2008). Central to the conflict for most principals was the loss of time with family because of
work demands. The only principals who did not report work/family conflict were those
principals who were single with no children (Barnett & Shoho, 2010).
Teachers expressed awareness about principals’ conflict related to their family roles.
In Howley et al.’s (2005) study of teachers aspiring to the principalship, the most often
reported disincentive to becoming a principal was reported to be less time with family. Fran
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 92
shared, “I also feel like I know my personality, I want to just give it 100% and I feel like that
might take a lot from me, I feel like that might take away from my family.”
Often women’s families are not supportive of them becoming principals. When one
participant, Fran, was asked about her family’s support for her being a principal, she replied,
“My husband would be supportive of it but (the principalship) would be stressful on our
family and right now our family doesn't need that.” When asked about her family’s support
of her becoming a principal, “Janet” replied, “I will probably say that my husband would say,
“"No."” Another teacher, Mary, shared that her child asked her not to leave teaching, so she
did not apply for a promotional opportunity.
“I have to be really a rock for them (my two kids), and that's what -- unless it holds
me back but that's the choice that I'm making. That's why I can't at this time pursue
any type of principalship.”
These findings reflect research in the area of principal recruitment. In a study of
potential principals in a master's program, many reported that their families asked them not to
become an administrator, because of the potential negative impact on family (Hancok et al.,
2006). Alex shared that if she was principal, “I wouldn't be able to attend after-school
functions with my own family.” Holly predicted if she were to be the principal, “There are
events that have to be held in the evening, and so I'm no longer having dinner with the family
anymore.”
Fifty percent of the participants in this study talked about how their extended families
were currently actively helping with childcare as they worked as teachers. The participants
shared that they expected being a principal would increase that need. This expectation is
validated by research. New principals often reported needing additional support for childcare
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 93
after they took the position (Barnette & Shoho, 2010). One participant, Stacey, talked about
how her parents did not want to have to “pick up her kids from school forever”. This led her
to question if she should become a principal while her children were young.
A lack of peers and heavy workload are barriers for women teachers at the
elementary levels. In NUSD, elementary school sites have only one administrator assigned to
school sites unless the school’s enrollment is more than 750 students. In practice this means
that 90% of all elementary schools in NUSD have just one administrator. This led a majority
of elementary teachers in the study to explain that they were concerned about the loneliness
of being the only administrator at a school site. One elementary level teacher shared that in
her opinion principals need to be very professional with teachers and not share all their
challenges with the teaching staff; therefore, she shared, “I think that an administrative
assistant (Vice Principal), is someone that you could talk to, reflect on your day with, and
even if there's a challenge, and you’re challenged, you can have someone.”
As a principal, participating teachers expressed that they anticipated changed
relationships with peers. “I think my relationships with teachers will change for sure.
Because now they're going to know I'm no longer a co-worker or colleague, now I'm their
boss and they have to just always be careful” shared Kristine. The women teachers who
worked at elementary schools talked about how having an assistant principal would help
them deal with the challenges of the principalship. Workloads of principals are increased
when there is no assistant principal assigned to a school site (Leithwood & Azah, 2014). The
absence of an assistant principal increased the concerns about the principalship for all the
elementary teachers in the study. One participant, Mary, shared what she had observed about
her principal, “Especially my principal doesn't have a vice-principal. The IEP’s, the
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 94
community liaisons, the amount of time after school commitments, board meetings, school
events, you have to be the first one there, the last one out.” She went on to state, “…I think I
would consider being a principal if I could be in a school where I had a vice-principal.” This
is consistent with Pijanowski et al.’s (2009) findings that teachers would consider becoming
a principal if the structure of the principalship changed.
The heavy workload along with fatigue is a barrier to becoming a principal for
women teachers. When talking about the principalship, one participant, Holly, talked about
how currently with teaching she was overwhelmingly tired. It concerned her that being a
principal would even be more tiring. “…sometimes we are so exhausted by the end of the
day, with all the things that we have to deal with, all that thinking and restrain, self-restraint
that you practice throughout the day, you get home exhausted.”
The benefits of the principalship. During the interview process, the participants
initially struggled with identifying the benefits of becoming principals. The researcher had to
give the participants more time to reflect on this topic than on other items. When given time
to reflect, participants shared that higher professional status among the public, “There's a
little more legitimacy in saying you're an administrator...”, personal satisfaction, “feeling
good as a leader”, increased impact of the principalship, “doing good for society”, increased
overall pay, “be part of the upper-middle class”, and retirement enhancements “increase that
basis for retirement” as benefits to the principalship.
The benefits identified by the participants were tempered by their awareness of the
challenges facing principals. Fran shared that she had made a list of the pros and cons of the
principalship and
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 95
“…the pros were like money and feeling good as a leader, that was it, those two”. The
con line had, “you're taking on a job where you can't fire anyone, it’s an impossible
job. You have to make sure they (teachers)-- you will improve the school, improve
instruction and you have to work with what you have…” and “…budget managing two
different groups of staff classified and certificated… and then grounds… kids jumping
the fence, behavior parents mad at you, kids they're mad at you, and teachers are mad
at you, people yell at you all day.”
A majority of the teachers participating in the study suggested that doing a good job
and feeling like they would help others would be a benefit of the principalship. However,
these benefits are not unique to the principalship and are part of the teaching profession.
Furthermore, budgeting and managing adult concerns are not part of the teacher role.
Therefore, few participants perceived increased personal benefits of the principalship as
compared to teaching. This confirms the expectancy value theory that outlines how people
will choose to engage in an activity when the benefit to the activity outweigh the costs
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Organizational and cultural expectations for ideal workers and ideal parents.
Current cultural expectations impact organizational outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Working women experience two specific and competing cultural models in society. These
models are of the “ideal parent” and the “ideal worker”. In both models the ideal is for an
individual to prioritize the role over all others. This notion causes cognitive dissidence for
women teachers who are mothers and who also want to be principals.
The cultural norm of the ideal parent being a mother who does everything for their
children. The first cultural model for women is the notion of the ideal parent. The ideal
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 96
parent in society is female, providing all childcare, and exhaustive in nature (Sperling, 2013).
Under this cultural model, women are expected to do all childrearing and to be highly
involved in children’s social, academic, and emotional needs. Furthermore, under the ideal
parent model, women are expected to subjugate their own desires for those of their children
(Sperling, 2013). Those mothers who do not conform to this model are perceived as poor
mothers (Sperling, 2013). Teaching closely aligns with this cultural model and clashes with
the model of the principalship. Denise shared, “…women are supposed to be the nurturers
and take care of the kids in the classroom. The principal is somewhat the father role who
oversees what's going on in the family of the school.”
During the interviews for the study, the researcher asked about what the women
teachers did when they were not teaching. Most of the participants discussed a few interests
or hobbies and then focused on their time as mothers. One mother, Holly, shared that her
weekends were full of things her son liked to do, “We love to go to taekwondo, and all the
activities that my son likes to have.” The most telling statement came from Alex who was the
mother of two school-aged children: “What do I do when I am not teaching? You mean like
hobbies? Well I have two children…” One teacher, Grace, shared a conversation she had
with a friend who was also a mother: “I asked her, ‘What are your passions?’ and she's like,
‘It's just my kids.’” This suggests that women do not have the time for interests or activities
outside of parenting. The hyper-focus on parenting for women is outlined in literature in the
“Ideal Parent Norm” (Sperling, 2013). A participant shared, “I really do feel that those
children are my responsibility. So yes, I have a support system, but I feel like it's my
responsibility to raise the kids.” Another participant felt that the father of her children would
not be an effective parent to her children and therefore she had to do all parenting herself.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 97
Another participant, Grace, expressed her role in raising her children: “I have to be able to
pick them up after school and take them to their practices. Otherwise who else is going to do
it?” Grace was married but she expressed that her husband’s participation in their children’s
activities was limited by his long hours at work. Participants expressed that teaching and
motherhood seemed not to be compatible. A participant shared, “I have a nine and a 10-year-
old right now… I don't know if I could do both jobs with fidelity. I feel like I would feel like
I was dropping the ball in one area.”
Expectations for principals to be ideal workers. Culturally, ideal workers are
typically viewed as those workers who are able to work long hours and have few
responsibilities outside of work (O’Neil et al., 2008; Williams, 2005). The ideal worker is
linked to the concept of the “ideal principal”. The ideal principal has excellent interpersonal
skills, understands the views of all stakeholders and works hard (Hausman, Crow, & Sperry,
2000). Women in this study expressed their desire to do an excellent job in whatever they
chose to do including the principalship. Mary shared, “I won't give a minimal effort. If I do
something, it's going to be my full effort, and if I know -- if I even think that I cannot do the
best job for that school, I won't consider it.” Nine of the ten participants in the study shared
that they were perfectionists or “type A” personalities. Janet described her work style, as,” I
feel like I need to be perfect.” The expressed desire to be perfect or ideal shaped the
aspirations of the participants. Fran shared, “…when I feel like I'm at a time where I can
really devote my all to it (the principalship), then I think I would do it.” As all the women in
the study had family responsibilities, being an ideal worker who could give 100% to the job
is unattainable for the respondents and negatively impacts aspirations to the principalship.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 98
The ideal worker cultural model is closely aligned with the model of the ideal
principal. The ideal principal needs to be focused on the needs of everyone in their school
and community as well as be able to work long hours (Hausman et al., 2000). Participating
teachers reported themselves to be hard workers, but the work required by the principalship
was beyond what they felt was reasonable. “I am not a lazy person, but the amount of work
and responsibility seems just overwhelming, it just seems overwhelming to me,” shared
Mary. The heavy workload related to the job of principal is documented in literature
(DiPaolo & Tschannen-Moran, 2003; Pijanwoski & Brady, 2009; Stone-Johnson, 2012). In
one Canadian study, principals reported despite spending an average of more than 50 hours
per week at work, 87% percent of those responding still could not get the work done (Pollock
et al., 2015).
In a paper about ideal principals, Hausman et al. (2000) outlined that “good
principals” needed to be aware of themselves, the community, school, and reform efforts.
Furthermore, in the Hausman et al. (2000) article, good principals were advised to have high
emotional intelligence, excellent social skills, and a large capacity to complete work while at
the same time taking care of themselves. The participants in the study gave a similar
description of the ideal principal. Kristine shared that principals need to “… be very present
in everyone's daily life so that they know that they're there to support.” Other participants
shared that principals should also “…be visible to the students…,” “…have an open door for
teachers…”, and be “…in the classrooms observing instruction.” Participants also reported
community and parent involvement to be important, as was having, “(parents) know they can
come in (to the principal’s office).”
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 99
When comparing the role of teaching to the role of the principalship one teacher
talked about how one classroom is manageable to support, but supporting the whole school is
more challenging, if not impossible. Fran said,
“It's different taking care of your little classroom versus all the teachers, all the
students, and some of the parents. They need guidance and support, they need, if
anything, you need to be able to give them a place to go. Maybe you can't help them,
so I think it's a huge undertaking (the principalship).”
Another participant, Kristine, shared, “Knowing that you're responsible for 500 kids could
weigh heavy on your heart...”. Stress of the principalship has been found to reduce the desire
of teachers to become principals (Howley et al., 2005).
Adding to the pressure to be an ideal principal are the teacher’s experiences with
principals themselves. The participants in the study saw principals as good leaders when they
supported teachers with their personal lives. Barb, a woman in her 50’s shared this about her
perceptions of effective principals: “I think when you work for somebody (a principal) who
values your home life and your work life and so if your children are sick, or your parent is ill,
or something, that they care about that as well.” Participants were aware that principals
needed to support teachers both in and out of the classroom to be perceived as successful by
teachers.
Expectations for principals to be available to stakeholders at all times. Related to
the ideal principal cultural norm was the expectation that principals be available to all
stakeholders all the time (Hausman et al., 2000). A recent focus on the importance of parent
involvement on student success combined with the ideal parent norm has increased the time
parents spend at school.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 100
In a study of Canadian principals, Hausman, Pollock & Wang (2017) reported that
two thirds of principals felt that community involvement was valuable, but it increased their
workloads. Principals reported being involved in an average of 4.4 community involvement
activities per year. Unlike teachers, who are not required to volunteer for community
involvement opportunities, principals are expected to be part of all community activities
(Hauseman et al., 2017). “It takes time and it takes a lot of evenings and sometimes
weekends,” shared Holly. Coordination of the community can be a challenge for principals
striving to be ideal. “I feel like the principal has to be prepared when they open that door to
the community,” expressed Stacy. Principals reported spending 11 hours per week on email
(Hauseman et al., 2017). Much of that email was from parents. One teacher shared that
coordinating and attending parent events is now a large part of a principal’s work. Despite a
desire to help others, Janet expressed, “You have your kids that need help, you have your
parents that need help, teachers that need help and I want to help them back. It's just you
can't, it's not rational.”
While being available for stakeholders was noted as an important part of being an
effective principal, less emphasis was placed on the principal’s role in improving instruction.
One veteran teacher, Barb, shared, “But I just feel like so often the things that take a
principal’s time are not related to that (instruction) specifically. It's a lot of paperwork, it's a
lot of dealing with parents and children and discipline.” This statement reflects time survey
research suggesting that only 12.7% of a principal’s time during the week was spent in
classrooms (Pollack et al., 2015). Women teachers also noted that principals were
responsible for improving test scores and this causes stress: “Testing pressure I know is put
on principals for that achievement,” explained Luanne.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 101
Women expressed that they did not know if they would be able to successfully
navigate particular types of conflict in the principalship. Two external sources of
organizational conflict as a principal emerged from the participants. The first source of
conflict was with teachers and the second source of conflict was with district office
leadership. One personal source of conflict was with herself and her role as a caregiver.
Additionally, conflict with family was also a concern.
Challenging staff members, in particular teachers, was an area of concern for teachers
when they thought about the principalship. Some participants reported that managing conflict
with teachers was a major concern for them. Teachers participating in the study reported that
motivating staff members who may not be fully engaged in their work could be a source of
conflict. “How you deal with teachers that maybe don't want to do the right things for kids?”
wondered Grace. Holding teachers accountable could result in conflict. Conflict could be
misinterpreted as the principal having poor relationships with teachers. Teachers are aware
that principals need to have good relationships with school staff in order to keep their jobs.
When asked about the reasons that principals are removed, superintendents have reported the
number one reason principals are let go is because of poor relationships with others (Davis,
1998). Conflict with teachers resulting from principals asking more from teachers was an
area of concern expressed by participants.
Participants shared a second area of expected conflict in the principalship with the
district office. The potential for a lack of alignment between the needs of the school and the
desires of the school district were a source of concern for teachers who were aspiring to the
principalship. Central to this concern was the district office having conflicting priorities
between what the principal wanted to do and what was expected to be done by the district
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 102
office. The participants shared an awareness of a principal’s challenges in managing the
conflict between teachers and the district office. One participant, Fran, who had been in the
district for many years, shared:
“Whatever district goals are, and what my goals are for the school be…(if) classroom
environment is something I have to work on that first year, then that's what we work
on but if the district has a campaign or something and they're going towards it, now I
have to do that too.”
Overall the conflict between work and home life was forefront in the minds of the
study’s participants. One participant shared that a principal she knew missed their own
child’s promotion ceremony, because the principal’s school was having an event at the same
time. In thinking about what happened to the child and principal, the participant, Grace,
shared, “Those are the things that I don’t want to miss. I was able to make it because I was
able to take the day off from work or take the first hour off.” The teacher went on to share
that she did not think that as a principal she could take time off for her own children if it
conflicted with the school’s needs. This idea was echoed by another participant, Mary, who
shared that she was not sure if it would be acceptable for her to go to her own child’s
graduation if it conflicted with an event at a school of which she was principal. “If I'm not
there, they'll (the community) understand, it was my child's graduation?”
The lack of flexibility in the principalship is of special concern to women teachers.
When Stacey was thinking of being a principal she reported,
“If my daughter gets sick or I need to rush her to the hospital, I feel like I wouldn't be
able to do that (as a principal). I feel like the flexibility that I have either as a teacher
or as a TOSA isn't there...”
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 103
Thanks to collective bargaining, teaching is a flexible work environment. Barb said that
principals have, “Really serious matters that need to be dealt with and that goes into the
summer too so I feel there's less of that break between work and home.” Teachers have
substitutes to cover some of their duties when they are gone, they can do some of their work,
like grading, at home, and they are not required to do work past their contract day.
Contrasting this with teacher’s work structures, principals do not have substitutes when they
are out, paperwork is done at the office, and principals are expected to work over eight hours
because they are salaried employees. This structure leads to increased internal conflict for
women seeking principal positions.
Research Question Two
Research question two was developed to uncover how women at differing ages may
have experienced knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences upon their
aspirations to the principalship. Knowledge influences upon women’s aspirations to the
principalship were the same across women teachers of differing ages. However, motivational
and organizational influences differed among women at different ages. This section explores
the findings related to Clark and Estes’ (2008) model related to women of differing age’s
motivational and organizational influences. These findings are as follows:
• There were no differences in the knowledge findings among women of differing ages in
the study.
• Women who are in their 40s find compensation to be the least of their influences while
women in their 30s and 50s report salary is more of a consideration.
• Women in their 30s and 40s report raising children impacts their desire to become
principals.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 104
• Women in their 50s report that they would enjoy the satisfaction of leadership now that
their children were grown up.
Motivation to become a principal changes throughout life: Women in their 30s,
40s, and 50s expressed differing financial incentives to becoming a principal.
Higher salaries created financial improvement for family goals. The one teacher,
Holly, who shared that the salary did motivate her to be a principal was early in her career
and had not yet attained the top pay for teaching. She wanted to purchase a home for her
family and her teaching salary would not allow for her to get a mortgage. Damaske (2011)
found that for women who wanted to provide upward mobility for their families, increasing
salary was a priority. The increased income between the principalship and teaching was
much larger for her as a newer teacher and acted as an incentive for her. Holly shared how
increasing her salary helped her, “But that feels good to just be able to provide a better life
for my family, and I guess that's what motivates me the most.”
Increased retirement earnings were considered. While women in their 50s chose to
be available to their children when they were growing up, later in life the women were faced
with the consequences of their choices when thinking about retirement. In a study of
Canadian women, Berger and Denton (2004) found that women interrupted their work lives
to raise children. The break in work impacted their retirement planning, resulting in increased
awareness of financial matters later in life for women.
“I did it let's say my last 10 years of teaching, then I would increase that basis for
retirement which would be -- what I'd be living on the rest of my life. That's how I see
the compensation. I think that when you're doing it, it's not really worth it, but later
on, it would be worth it,” shared Mary.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 105
The awareness of a need to increase retirement income was shared by participants in their
40s and 50s when they discussed the potential benefits of becoming a principal.
Women in their 30s and 40s had childcare and children’s activities as a priority. All
six women in their 30s and 40s reported that their children were the biggest priority in their
lives. All of these women had children under 18. Fran, who is in her early 40s reported, “I'm
it when he's gone (my husband), I don't have anyone else (to care for the children), his
parents are around, his mom just retired, I could maybe get some support from them.” This
finding supports the idea of women having differing career paths throughout their lives. The
women in their 30s and 40s were primarily in the pragmatic endurance phase (O’Neil &
Ballmora, 2005) of their careers and seeking to have stability for their families.
Women in their 50s feel they have time to be leaders now that their children are
grown. Principals with grown children reported that they could not do the job with young
children (Howley, Andrianavio, & Perry, 2005). One teacher in her 50s, Barb, shared, “I
don't have young children and I'm married to a person who there's not this expectation that
I'm the one who has dinner on the table at 5:00 PM and where are you?” Another woman in
her 50s, Denise, shared that she was currently considering becoming a principal, “(Now) I
feel like my kids’ feet are on the right pathway. Things for them are more settled to where I
could work longer hours or more.” During the interview process, Barb, who is in her 50s,
shared that the experience of participating in the research interview helped her to reconsider
becoming a principal. Furthermore, she might seek opportunities leading to the principalship
now that she was finished with childrearing. This finding reflects that women in the
reinventive contributive life phase during the ages of 46-60 (O’Neil & Billmora, 2005) are
seeking to contribute to a greater good.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 106
Research Question Three
Research question three explored what were some potential solutions to the barriers in
women teachers’ knowledge, motivation, or the organizational structures. In order to inform
the understanding of what women teachers needed to remove barriers to aspiring to the
principalship, they were asked about their ideas of how the organization could remove
barriers. The following section will explore the participants’ suggested solutions to the
organizational barriers they identified in aspiring to the principalship. Research based
solutions and a recommended course of action will be outlined in chapter five.
Several themes about how the principalship could be made more attractive to the
participants emerged from the interviews. Women participants identified quality, free
childcare, and transportation services to be needed for them to consider being principals.
Childcare. All ten participants identified childcare as needed to increase their
likelihood of pursuing the principalship. One participant, Grace shared, “…we have to pay
for the kids to go to the afterschool program.” Grace went on to share that at the middle
school level there was no afterschool childcare available and she was worried about picking
her daughter up from school on time.
Assistant principals. Women in the study shared that being the only administrator on
a site was a negative aspect of being a principal. Seven of the ten participants shared the idea
that a co-administrator would make the work of the principal more attractive. One woman,
Mary, shared that, “I think that an administrative assistant, someone that you could talk to,
reflect on your day with, and even if there's a challenge” would make being a principal a
more attractive career choice.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 107
Mentoring. Participants shared that having a mentor would be helpful to them.
Mentoring would also be helpful with supporting principals in navigating having a family
while being a principal. Research suggests that teachers feel there are few models of
successful principals with families (Wrushen & Sherman, 2009). Mentoring programs would
help to bridge this gap.
“I would definitely want a mentor, I would want to work with a group, I would want
to feel like I'm a part of a group, I want to feel like there's someone I can go to that I
can call and feel comfortable calling,” shared Fran.
Summary and Implications
The influences upon women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship are related to
the knowledge, motivation and organizational contexts as outlined by Clark and Estes (2008).
Themes emerging from the data collected in the interviews crossed into several areas of the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational categories. The interconnections between themes
were expected as lived experiences do not occur in a vacuum. Key findings include limited
knowledge of a principal’s impact on student achievement, an overemphasis on the
principal’s heavy workload, and the negative aspects of combining motherhood and the
principalship. Motivational barriers related to the costs of the principalship outweighing the
benefits were also consistent themes in the study. Cultural models of the ideal worker and the
ideal parent both being 100% committed to that role create a double barrier for women
teachers who are mothers and are also striving to become principals.
In the area of knowledge, women teachers expressed that principals had a significant
impact on schools, but were less likely to provide details about how principals improve
student achievement. The lack of detail about how principals improve student achievement
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 108
suggests a limited declarative knowledge of a principal’s actions to improve instruction.
Furthermore, the teachers reported that their knowledge of the challenges principals face
discouraged them from seeking principal positions.
Women’s motivation to become principals was strongly influenced by the perceived
negative aspects of long work hours, increased stress, and conflict. Few participants were
able to readily identify benefits to the principalship either for the principals themselves or for
student achievement. Effective principals were reported to be essential to a good school
culture and positive teacher morale. However, teachers did not report that these outcomes
would motivate them to become principals.
The cultural models prevalent in society are that of the “ideal worker” and “ideal
parent.” Ideal workers are defined as those who have no demands upon them outside of work
and are thus always available to work long hours (O’Neil et al., 2008; Williams, 2005). Men
are more likely to be seen as ideal workers because of cultural models of women being the
primary caregivers in families (Sperling, 2013). Mothers being the primary and preferred
caregiver for children is the hallmark of the “ideal parent” cultural norm.
Women teachers’ desire to be an ideal parent is central to their self-image. When
faced with striving to be an ideal worker or ideal parent women overwhelmingly choose to be
an ideal parent. As ideal parents are fully engaged in their children’s lives, becoming a
principal when the expectation is for principals to be fully engaged in the school community,
is not a choice that women generally make.
Organizational structures that promote flexible work are more appealing to women
(Sabharwal, 2013). Women participating in the study shared an awareness that as teachers
they enjoyed more work flexibility than they would as principals. This may be attributed to
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 109
two parallel work systems within K-12 educational systems. The first work system is
available to teachers, and supports the ideal parent norm. The ideal parent norm is a feminine
norm. The second work system, available to principals, supports the ideal worker norm. The
ideal worker norm is a masculine norm. The close alignment of gender with the idealized
roles of parent and worker may be increasing the gender inequality in both teaching and the
principalship.
In the teacher work system, flexibility is possible; in the principal work system there
is limited flexibility. In the teacher system, teachers have someone cover their duties when
they are out. Teachers can leave school as soon as children are dismissed. Teachers have
more time off aligned with their children’s vacation. Some teachers can arrange to work part-
time or job-share. The teacher work system supports traditional feminine ideals.
In the principal work system long hours and heavy workloads are expected. Principals
are expected to be available to their school and its stakeholders at all times. There is no
availability of a sub to cover when a principal is out, nor is job sharing possible. This work
structure conforms to the ideal worker cultural model which has been fulfilled traditionally
by men. It is possible to imagine that these organizational models continue to create
circumstances that perpetuate the underrepresentation of women in educational leadership,
especially the principalship.
The underrepresentation of women in the principalship is an under use of human
resources as women are a majority of all employees in schools. Continuing with this current
approach to the principalship, which is perceived as negative by women teachers, will result
in a shortage of quality principals to lead schools. However, if stakeholders work to address
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 110
the barriers to women aspiring to the principalship, the organizational goal of ensuring
quality leadership can be met.
This chapter focused on the findings of the study as they related to research questions
one and two. Chapter five will outline the recommended approach to addressing the
influences which are impacting the organization’s ability to meet its goal.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 111
Chapter Five: Solutions and Integrated Implementation/Evaluation
Chapter four presented the findings from the participants and the first and second
research questions were answered regarding influences upon women teachers aspiring to the
principalship in NUSD. Suggestions for potential supports for principals offered by women
teachers participating in the study were also shared. The results were organized using the
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. Key findings were synthesized leading to themes that resulted in the development
of potential implication for practice. This chapter explores the final research question:
3. What are some potential solutions to the knowledge, motivational and
organizational barriers perceived by women teachers in the Newtown Unified School
District?
This chapter, like chapter two and four, is organized using the Clark and Estes (2008)
framework to guide recommendations for practice. Following context specific
recommendations for addressing the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
there will be an integrated implementation approach to solutions and an evaluation plan
aligned with the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Kirkpatrick (2016) has four levels of planning: results, behavior, learning, and reaction. By
careful planning to address all four levels in the recommended solutions it is more likely that
an effective plan to address the organizational needs will be developed. Chapter five
concludes with strengths and weaknesses of the study, limitations and delimitations, and
recommendations for future study.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 112
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
In this study, ten women teachers employed by NUSD in 2016-2017 were
interviewed about their thoughts and experiences related to the job of principal. Of the
women interviewed, four women reported a desire to become a principal and six reported
that they did not want to be principals currently or in the near future. The review and analysis
of the data from the participants validates what was suggested by the field literature.
Literature suggests that women teachers have specific influences that impact their decision to
become principals (Adams & Hambright, 2004; Cubillo, & Brown, 2003; Dowell & Larwin,
2013). Knowledge, motivational and organizational influences all contributed to NUSD
women teachers’ desire to seek principal positions. Central to deterring the participating
women teachers from seeking principal positions were stress, long work hours, and negative
impact on family life as was reported in previous studies (Howley et al., 2005; Stone-
Johnson, 2012). Those participants who reported a desire to be a principal were also aware of
the potential challenges they would face related to long work hours, stress, and the challenges
to family life, but felt that they would be able to handle these challenges effectively if they
were to become principals.
Knowledge Recommendations
The knowledge influencers upon women teachers aspiring to be principals were
supported by data analysis of the interviews of the ten women teachers in NUSD. After the
literature review, the assumed knowledge influence upon women teachers’ aspirations to the
principalship was that women teachers did not know the full impact that principals have upon
the schools. Of central importance was that women teachers did not know how the principal
positively influenced student achievement. While numerous studies have found that positive
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 113
school outcomes are more likely to be achieved when an effective principal is in place
(Fancera, & Bliss, 2011; Griffith, 2004; Hallinger & Heck, 1998; Leithwood & Louis, 2012;
Leithwood & Mascall, 2008; Pepper & Thomas, 2002; Quinn, 2002; Sebastian &
Allensworth, 2012), this research is not widely discussed or highlighted in NUSD. Field
literature does suggest procedural knowledge supports that could be used to help women
teachers understand what effective principals do to support student achievement. Effective
principals support school culture (Whalstrom & Seashore, 2008), build trust with teachers
and staff (Youngs & King, 2002) and share leadership (Fancera & Bliss, 2011; Leithwood &
Mascall, 2008). Emerging from the collected data in this study, it was found that women
teachers in NUSD were aware that principals impacted teachers and school culture, but did
not connect those impacts to improved student achievement. Furthermore, the women
teachers shared limited procedural knowledge specific to the actions principals used to have a
positive impact on the school.
Krathwohl (2002) defined four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural
and metacognitive. These categories explain the ways that people are able to transfer
knowledge from cognition into practice. In this study, two types of knowledge were assumed
and validated by collected data. First, women teachers need the factual knowledge about the
impact on student achievement that is unique to the role of the principal. Second, the
procedural knowledge of how effective principals impact student achievement is needed by
women teachers to help them understand the role of the principal and perhaps increase their
desire to become a principal.
Through the data collection process, the knowledge influences in Table 3 list the
knowledge influences that were suggested by the literature review and most frequently
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 114
mentioned by participants in the study. The knowledge influences in Table 3 indicate the
highly probable knowledge influences upon women teachers aspiring to the principalship as
validated by the data collection in the study. In their work, Clark and Estes (2008), outline
how the precursor to successful application of knowledge and skills is the ability to describe
something. The ability to describe something is known as having declarative knowledge
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, Table 8 outlines the knowledge influences impacting
women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship as validated through data collection and
recommendations of priority actions to achieve the organizational goal.
Table 8
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability, or
No (V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Women teachers
do not know the
impact principals
have on schools.
(D)
V Y People organize
knowledge
meaningfully (Schraw
& McCrudden, 2006).
As women do have
some knowledge
of the impact that
principals have on
schools, use this
knowledge to share
information about
the influence of
principals.
Women teachers
express a general
knowledge of
principals’ impact
on schools. (D)
V Y Declarative knowledge
is essential to ensure
that stakeholders can
meet goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
A comprehensive
system must attend to
the inputs, processes,
and outcomes that
produce student
learning (Darling-
Hammond, Wilhoit, &
Pittenger, 2014).
Share research
about how
principals impact
student
achievement with
teachers as part of
their leadership
development
program.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 115
Women teachers
report that
principals have a
large impact upon
the culture of the
school. (D)
V N People organize
knowledge
meaningfully (Schraw
& McCrudden, 2006).
Not a priority
Women teachers
express that
principals have an
impact on the work
of teachers. (D)
V N People organize
knowledge
meaningfully (Schraw
& McCrudden, 2006).
Not a priority
Women teachers
rarely reported on
the ways the
principal had an
impact on student
achievement. (D)
V Y Using both auditory
and visual inputs helps
improve working
memory capacity
(Mayer, 2011).
Share data about
the impact of
effective principals
on student
achievement
through a slide
show and through
newsletters
produced by the
NUSD.
Women teachers
are unclear about
the most essential
actions principals
take to improve
schools and
student
achievement. (P)
V Y Behavior is more likely
to be modeled if the
model is similar to the
observer and the
behavior has functional
value (Denler et al.,
2009).
Have women
principals share
their successful
strategies for
improving the
student outcomes
by enhancing
school culture with
women teachers.
*Indicates knowledge type for each influence listed using these abbreviations: (D)eclarative;
(P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive
Declarative knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Participants in
the study frequently reported that the principal was essential to a successful school.
Consistent with the field literature by Leithwood and Mascall (2008), principals were
reported by the participants in this study as having a great impact on the school. Especially
noted by the participants was the impact that the principal had upon teachers. Few
participants discussed how the principal impacted student outcomes. When asked to expand
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 116
upon their first reflections about the impact of the principal, women teachers most frequently
shared that principals impacted teacher’s work and the culture of the school. While it is an
asset that the participants had the declarative knowledge that principals impacted the school,
there is a need to ensure that women teachers are aware of a principal’s impact upon students
and academic achievement. Without knowledge of the importance of the principal in regard
to student achievement, women teachers may perceive the principalship as being removed
from instruction, the thing that attracted women teachers to education in the first place.
Increased focus on teacher leadership to bring about positive student outcomes has
been widely reported (DuFour & Fullan, 2013; Hattie, 2012; Marzano, 2007). However, what
has been left out of the discussion is the need to have an effective principal foster the
conditions that enable teachers to become leaders and thus improve student achievement.
Research has proposed that a quality principal is second only to a high quality teacher in
improving student achievement (Leithwood & Mascall, 2008; Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins,
2008; Leithwood & Hopkins, 2008). However, these findings are not widely known or
shared in NUSD. If women teachers lack declarative knowledge about the specific impact
principals have on student achievement, this may influence their decision to seek a principal
position.
The recommended course of action to bridge the declarative knowledge gaps of
women teachers in NUSD, as uncovered by data collection and analysis, includes a process
to increase the awareness of women teachers about the impact that principals have on
improving student achievement as outlined in Table 3. Central to this effort is providing
frequent targeted information about the impact of effective principals on student
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 117
achievement, supported by literature. This will occur through slideshows and professional
development of aspiring principals.
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Women
teachers need to have procedural knowledge of the key actions used by effective principals to
improve student achievement. Literature refers to effective principals as those principals who
lead schools and are able to improve student outcomes above expected outcomes for students
with similar demographics (Hattie, 2012; Leithwood & Louis, 2012). The specific actions
effective principals use to foster a learning environment which improves student achievement
have been documented.
Key actions and skills employed by effective principals include building trust
(Fancera & Bliss, 2011; Leithwood & Mascall, 2008; Whalstrom & Seashore, 2008; Youngs
& King, 2002). Principals build trust by improving student behavior (Pepper & Thomas,
2002) and creating opportunities for shared leadership (Pepper & Thomas, 2002; Whalstrom
& Seashore, 2008) among the teaching staff at their schools. Supporting school culture
(Whalstrom & Seashore, 2008) and setting the direction of the school (Leithwood & Louis,
2012) are reported to be essential for principals to be successful. Providing professional
development (Youngs & King, 2002), building the skills of school site personnel and
improving the instructional program (Leithwood & Louis, 2012) are key actions for
principals to perform in order to have a positive impact on schools and student achievement.
While these actions are essential for effective principals to implement, few examples were
provided by the participants in the study that reflected these actions. The lack of specific
examples provided by women teachers about the actions that principals took to impact the
school suggests that there is a gap in procedural knowledge about how effective principals
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 118
impact schools.
The recommended course of action to address the procedural knowledge gaps found
in the data collection are outlined in Table 3. The key actions for improving the procedural
knowledge of teachers about what makes an effective principal include professional
development about how to build a successful school and information about how other
principals have created positive student outcomes. District leadership will support the
construct of the importance of principal leadership by highlighting effective principals.
Motivation Recommendations
After analysis of the data collected from interviews of ten women teachers in NUSD,
motivational influences upon women’s aspirations were validated. As a result of the literature
review, the assumed theories explaining the motivational influences upon women teachers’
aspirations to the principalship were the self-efficacy and expectancy value theories. Self-
efficacy theory describes how an individual’s beliefs about how successful they will be in
achieving a task influences if they will choose, persist and put effort into meeting the task
(Pajares, 2006). Expectancy value theory focuses on how people choose to participate in
activities by evaluating the potential benefits and costs associated with a particular task
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Self-efficacy can be general in nature or context specific (Pajares, 2006). Generally,
positive self-efficacy is associated with the ability to meet goals because of increased
motivation to start, persist, and exert sufficient effort. The field literature also describes
context specific types of efficacy such as principal self-efficacy (Federici & Skaalvik, 2011;
Federici & Skaalvik, 2012), women’s efficacy (Cubillo & Brown, 2003; Hannah et al.,
2008), and leadership efficacy (Hannah et al, 2008). The context specific efficacy is
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 119
important to examine for this study as literature suggests that individuals can have a great
deal of positive efficacy in one area but negative efficacy in another. Through data collection
it was uncovered that women’s efficacy varied from task to task and this influenced their
choices about becoming principals.
Prior to data collection, the field literature had suggested that women were
uninterested in the principalship because of the assumed challenges of the job (Adams &
Hambright, 2004). The literature review suggested several motivational influences upon
women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship. The data collection process resulted in
validation of specific motivational influences present in NUSD. Clark and Estes (2008)
propose that motivation is linked to choice, persistence and effort. Table 9 represents a list of
the most likely motivational influences validated by data collection.
Table 9
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No (V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Women teachers report
that they believe
principals deal with
conflict on a regular
basis (Self-efficacy and
expectancy value
theory).
V N When individuals believe
they can be successful in an
activity, they have positive
self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006).
When costs associated with a
task result in less time for
other valued activities,
individuals are unlikely to
pursue the costly tasks
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Provide training in
conflict
management and
resolution.
Women teachers
expected that the
principalship would
negatively impact the
time they had with
family (Expectancy
value theory).
V Y High costs of an activity
reduce the perceived value of
the activity (Wigfield &
Eccles, 2000).
Have current
effective principals
share how the
principalship
impacted their
families.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 120
Women teachers
reported that long
work hours of the
principalship were a
deterrent to being a
principal (Expectancy
value theory).
V Y High costs of an activity
reduce the perceived value
of the activity (Wigfield &
Eccles, 2000).
Provide training
on time
management
Women teachers did
not value the way
principals spent their
time away from
instructional focus.
(Expectancy value
theory).
V Y When individuals find little
personal value in a task they
are unlikely to choose to do
it (Eccles, 2009).
When costs associated with
a task result in less time for
other valued activities
individuals are unlikely to
pursue the costly tasks
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Create
opportunities for
women teachers to
participate with
principals on
instructional tasks.
Women teachers
expressed that they
believed they could be
effective principals
(Self-efficacy).
V N Women who earn graduate
level certifications believe
they can be effective leaders
(Cubillo & Brown, 2003).
When individuals believe
they can be successful in an
activity they have positive
self-efficacy (Pajares,
2006).
Have effective and
well-respected
women principals
share how they
were successful
with teachers
aspiring to the
principalship.
Women teachers
expressed the belief
that they could not
simultaneously be
effective principals
and effective mothers
(Self-efficacy).
V Y The higher self-efficacy one
has in one’s ability to be
successful at a task the more
likely one is to engage in,
persist with, and work hard
at a task (Rueda, 2011).
Self-efficacy can be change
based depending on the task
and circumstance (Pajares,
2006).
Women’s belief in how their
work lives will impact
families is an influencer
upon the work they choose
(Damaske, 2011).
Have effective and
well-respected
women principals
share strategies for
successful
combining of
mothering and
principalship with
teachers aspiring
to the
principalship.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 121
Women teachers
identified few personal
benefits of the
principalship
(Expectancy value
theory).
V N People choose to do tasks
when the reward for doing the
task is of value to the
individual (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Expectancy-value of the task
is evaluated to see what gain
will be attained by individuals
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Create a mentor
program to
highlight the
benefits of the
principalship.
Women teachers
expressed that the
increased pay of the
principalship would not
be equal to the amount
of increased work as
compared to teaching
(Expectancy value
theory).
V N People choose to do tasks
when the reward for doing the
task is of value to the
individual (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Expectancy-value of the task
is evaluated to see what gain
will be attained by individuals
(Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Identify benefits
other than pay for
principals and
highlight how
increased pay can
positively impact
women’s families.
The compensation for
principalship is an
influence upon when
women teachers aspire
to the principalship
(Expectancy value
theory).
V Y Senior managers involvement
in improvement increases
organizational success (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Communicate the
positive financial
aspects related to
the principalship
with women
teachers.

Self-Efficacy. Women teachers interviewed in the study had positive self-efficacy
about parenting and their ability to lead. However, women teachers expressed negative self-
efficacy about their ability to be both an effective principal and a successful parent. This
suggests that women teachers need to feel capable of combining the role of parent and the
role of principal. If women teachers increased their efficacy about combining parenting and
work duties they would be more likely to pursue opportunities to become principals.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 122
Rueda (2011) outlines that the greater self-efficacy an individual has in their own capabilities
the greater the likelihood that they will choose to participate in, continue with, and work hard
at an activity. Therefore, it is recommended to provide women teachers with supports to
increase their self-efficacy around combining motherhood and the principalship. The use of
models and social learning would be key to this approach. Modeling is most effective when
the model is similar to the person who is learning (Denler et al., 2009). Therefore, women
teachers would be paired with well-respected and successful women administrators to
provide models of combining motherhood and leadership. By increasing women teachers’
opportunities to observe similar models they would likely increase their own self-efficacy.
Expectancy Value—Long Hours. Long hours defined by Cha (2012) as overwork is
marked by working more than 50 hours per week. The underrepresentation of women in
occupations that routinely have workers working more than 50 hours per week has been
documented (Cha, 2012). As a majority of principals generally report working more than 50
hours per week (DiPaola & Tschannen-Moran, 2003; Pijanowski, 2009), the fact that women
teachers do not find value in the principalship is not surprising. The cost of long hours is seen
as too high in pursuing the principalship. The recommendation would be to help women
teachers build management time skills that support work practices that reduce long work
hours and to help women teachers identify flexible work structures for principals.
Principal duties are not aligned to instructional outcomes. Focusing on instruction
and improvement in educational outcomes for students was reported as an important value to
teachers. Women teachers shared that the principal had little time for working with teachers
on instruction. They expressed that they felt a majority of the time principals were focused on
resolving personnel and parent conflicts. This suggests that the perceived actual day-to-day
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 123
activities of the principal were not valued by the women teachers. The recommendation
would be to have women teachers work with current principals on instructional tasks. This
would increase their knowledge of the ways the principal supports student achievement and
thus is likely to increase women teachers’ awareness of the benefits that principals generate
for students.
Few increased personal or financial benefits to being a principal versus being a
teacher. Women teachers expressed that the increased compensation for the principalship
was not equal to the increased responsibilities and additional work. However, women were
unaware of the exact difference in the salaries earned by principals compared to teachers.
Furthermore, they tended to underestimate the pay per hour earned by principals above
salaries earned by teachers. Although the exact difference in pay was unknown some women
teachers expressed that the increased compensation as a principal would be important to them
in attaining upward mobility and in enhanced retirement benefits. The recommendation
would be to provide women teachers with workshops about the possible career paths they
could take and how the increase in pay would provide long and short-term benefits.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 124
Organization Recommendations
Table 10 on the following page outlines the organizational influences validated
through the data analysis process. Gaps in performance are likely to occur when
organizational culture, policies and/or resources are out of alignment (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Of primary importance are the notions of cultural models and cultural settings. Cultural
models and cultural settings have an interconnected and complex relationship that drive
organizational policy, structure, and procedures (Rueda, 2011). Table 10 also summarizes the
context-specific recommendations for these influences.
Table 10
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No (V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Leadership is perceived
as a masculine trait.
N N Not a priority.
Motherhood reduces
women teachers’
aspirations to the
principalship because of
the cultural model of the
ideal parent.
V Y When
stakeholders
communicate
their actions and
goals,
organizational
improvement
increases (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Build awareness of
the cultural model of
the ideal parent and
how this influences
women’s career
choices.
There is a cultural
model of ideal workers
having no family
obligations.

V Y Senior
managers’
involvement in
improvement
increases
organizational
success (Clark &
Estes, 2008).

Encourage senior
leaders and
principals to fulfill
family obligations
and share this with
all stakeholders to
provide modeling of
how to combine
motherhood and the
principalship.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 125
The organization has a
cultural expectation for
principals to work long
hours.
V Y Senior
managers’
involvement in
improvement
increases
organizational
success (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Provide training on
delegation and time
management skills.
Women teachers
perceive a glass ceiling
or glass cliff as a barrier
to the principalship.
N N Not a priority.
Women teachers
perceive a lack of
flexible work structures
in the principalship.
V Y Satisfaction in
work increases
when all
stakeholders
share the
mission and
cultural
perspective to
meet goals
(Clark & Estes,
2008)
Encourage principals
to use available
benefits to create a
more flexible work
structure.
Communicate with
all stakeholders the
expectation for
principals to be
healthy and
balanced.
Women teachers report
a lack of assistant
principals is a
disincentive to the
principalship at the
elementary level.
V N Senior
managers’
involvement in
improvement
increases
organizational
success (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Create a plan to
provide co-
administrative
support at
elementary schools.
Cultural model influence 1: Ideal parent. Women teachers described the cultural
model of the ideal parent being a mother who does everything for her children and sacrifices
her own desires. This cultural model demands that mothers be 100% available to their
children’s needs and desires. The ideal parent model creates a barrier for women as they seek
to enter leadership roles as principals which will reduce the time mothers have available for
children. The recommendation is to increase women’s awareness of the cultural model of the
ideal parent and how it may be influencing their career and personal choices.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 126
Cultural model influence 2: Ideal worker. The ideal worker is a cultural model that
proposes that ideal workers have no other obligations outside of work to distract them from
working. In this model someone besides the worker takes care of all responsibilities in the
home. Traditionally ideal workers have been men who had spouses to take care of home
duties while they worked. The ideal worker aligns with the ideal principal cultural model
which was described by women teachers in the data collection of this study. Ideal principals
need to be available for all stakeholders at all times. The recommendation to address this
cultural model is to make women aware of the model and to help them identify how other
women principals have handled this cultural model.
Women who aspire to the principalship are in the crosshairs of two powerful cultural
models. While modern successful mothering is defined as being engaged in all children’s
activities and attentive to intellectual, developmental and social needs (Sperling, 2013),
modern ideal workers are defined as having no personal responsibilities outside the
workplace (Schneer & Reitman, 2002). These two constructs create a set of cultural norms
impacting women in disproportional ways from the impacts on men aspiring to the
principalship.
Cultural setting influence 1: Long hours. Women teachers expressed that the
organization expected principals to spend long hours at school. As long hours can be
managed by improving time management and delegation skills, it is recommended that
training be provided to women teachers about management skills related to reducing time
spent at school
Cultural setting influence 2: Lack of flexible work structures. Women teachers
expressed that as mothers the ability to have flexibility in their work structures was
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 127
important. Teaching provides a flexible work setting that includes having a substitute when
one is out, having peers to share the workload with, the ability to leave campus following
student dismissal, and the ability to take time off for family events. Women teachers did not
believe that these flexible structures would be available to them as principals. This was
particularly true of women teachers who worked at elementary sites with only one
administrator. Women who taught elementary school stated that a lack of an assistant
principal decreased work flexibility for principals. The recommendation would be to help
women identify the flexible work structures they could access as principals.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The implementation model used to develop the recommended solutions outlined in
this section is the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This
four level plan includes: Level One: reaction, Level Two: Learning, Level Three: Behavior,
and Level Four: Results. In the Kirkpatrick (2016) model plans are designed starting with the
results desired by the organization and the users’ reaction to the plan is the last part of the
design. By focusing first on results, organizations are more efficient in their approach to
solving their challenges because changes that have no focus or clear outcomes are avoided.
Furthermore, the model looks for “leading indicators” to demonstrate that the organization is
on the right track in implementing activities which will meet organizational desired results,
change critical behaviors, increase learning, and satisfy participants in planned activity. This
design enables a close alignment between the immediate solutions and the long-term goals
for the organization.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 128
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The mission of Newtown Unified School District (NUSD) is to improve the
educational outcomes for all students and to provide them with academic and social skills,
thus ensuring students are successful in the future (paraphrased from NUSD website). One of
the key factors impacting student success is the effectiveness of the principal (Leithwood &
Louis, 2012). Furthermore, there is an increasing need to identify high quality, effective
people for the principalship as principals leave their positions. Women teachers are the
largest subset of workers from which principals are recruited; ensuring that women teachers
aspire to the principalship is essential to meeting students’ needs for an effective principal.
This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing
to few women teachers seeking principal positions even when they hold the certification
qualifying them for the job. The recommended solutions to this problem include developing
management skills of women teachers who hold administrative authorization, building
mentoring relationships between practicing administrators and women teachers, increasing
awareness of and use of flexible work structures, and providing management skills training.
These efforts would be targeted to all teachers holding authorization to work as
administrators and especially those women teachers during the two years following earning
their administrative authorization. The focus on the first two years following earning
administrative authorization is because people typically stop seeking administrative positions
two years after they earn their principal certification (Pijanowski et al., 2009).

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 129
Level 4: Results and leading indicators. Table 11 shows the proposed Level 4:
Results and Leading Indicators as outcomes, metrics, and methods for both external and
internal outcomes for NUSD. If the internal outcomes are met as a result of the proposed
recommendations for women teachers in NUSD, the external outcomes should be attained.
Table 11
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increased student
achievement.
1a. District performance levels
on annual statewide English
Language Arts assessments.
1a. District will compare year to year
student achievement on statewide
annual assessments of English
Language Arts between those schools
with stable principals and those who
had changes in principals.
1b. District performance levels
on annual statewide Math
assessments.
1b. District will compare year to year
student achievement on statewide
annual assessments of Math between
those schools with stable principals
and those who had changes in
principals.
2. Increased parent
confidence in NUSD
schools.
2a. Satisfaction scores on
parent climate survey
2a. District will survey parents bi-
annually.
2b. Reduced parental requests
for intra district transfers.
2b. District will collect student intra
district permit requests quarterly.
Internal Outcomes
3. Increased number
of quality principal
applicants.
Number of internal, qualified
applicants for principal
positions.
District will track the number and
demographics of internal applicants
for principal jobs.
4. Increased employee
engagement and
satisfaction.
District employee climate
survey results.
District will administer the employee
climate survey bi-annually.
5. Decreased
organizational costs in
hiring and training.
5a. Costs associated with
hiring a principal.
5a. District will track hiring costs
associated with recruiting for the
principalship.
5b. Costs of annual principal
training.
5b. District will collect annual
principal training costs.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 130
Level 3: Behavior.
Critical behaviors. The focus of this study is women teachers who hold authorization
to serve as principals in NUSD. Women teachers must demonstrate critical behaviors to
ensure that the organization is meeting its goal. The first critical behavior is that women will
develop their management and leadership skills past earning administrative authorization.
The second critical behavior is that women teachers work closely with practicing
administrators in a mentoring relationship. The third critical behavior is that women teachers
work with principals on instructional tasks. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for
each of these outcome behaviors appears in Table 12.
Table 12

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Women Teachers
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Women teachers
will develop their
leadership and
management skills.
Number of
professional
development hours
devoted to
management and
leadership skills.
Online and face-to-face
workshops.
Immediately
following earning
administrative
authorization and
continuing for two
years.
2. Women teachers
will work closely with
a practicing
administrator.
Number of women
teachers assigned a
mentor and the
number of hours spent
together.
Formal mentoring
arrangement and
frequency of meetings.
Immediately
following earning
administrative
authorization and
continuing for two
years.
3. Women teachers
will work with
principals on
instructional tasks.
Number of women
teachers involved with
principals in
instructional tasks.
Site and district level
professional learning
communities established
to include women
teachers.
Immediately
following earning
administrative
authorization and
continuing for two
years.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 131
Required drivers. Women teachers need the support of their supervisors and other
administrative members of the district to reinforce their learning and encourage efforts. By
monitoring work, rewards can be given and redirection applied to increase the attainment of
critical drivers. Table 13 shows the recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of
women teachers.
Table 13
Required Drivers to Support Women Teachers
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported 1, 2, 3, etc.
Reinforcing
Training with principal about
instructional leadership.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Use of online tools to reinforce
management skills.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Meetings with mentor to discuss
use of management skills.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
One-on-one time with mentor
modeling principal leadership.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Participation in leadership
conference.
Annually 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from
mentor.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Stipend for participating in
leadership program.
Biannually 1, 2, 3
Public recognition by the school
board for participating in
leadership program.
Annually 1, 2, 3

Monitoring
Tracking participation in
leadership program events.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Observing and logging specific
leadership skills on the job.
Monthly 1, 2, 3

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 132
Organizational support. In order to ensure that women teachers have the support they
need to implement the critical behaviors, the district will prioritize efforts to support
leadership development and enhancement of management skills. The support needed from
the district includes training opportunities for teachers to learn more about management
skills, ensuring that women teachers know what flexible work structures they can use as
principals, and organization of a system of mentoring for women teachers. Furthermore,
financial support or stipends to the mentor and woman teacher would be needed to ensure
that women teachers are able to demonstrate critical behaviors.
Level 2: Learning.
Learning goals. After the completion of the recommended solutions, women teachers
will be able to:
1. Identify the principal’s impact on student achievement. (D)
2. Recognize how the cultural models of ideal worker and ideal parent impact
women’s career progression. (D)
3. Establish healthy expectations for themselves without requiring perfection. (P)
4. Use negotiation and conflict management skills in work and personal settings. (P)
5. Apply effective time management techniques to their work and personal lives. (P)
6. Create a career plan that incorporates ways to manage family and work
responsibilities. (P, M)
7. Express positive self-efficacy around managing work and family responsibilities.
(Confidence)
8. Appreciate the increased compensation provided by the principalship. (Value)
9. Value the impact that principals make on student achievement. (Value)
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 133
10. Value the increased influence the principal has on the school. (Value)

Program. Women teachers upon completion of their authorization for the
principalship will be offered a program to support their understanding of the role of the
principal in student achievement and the skills required to manage the demands of the
principalship. The program will consist of face-to-face workshops (20 hours), online
activities (16 hours), and mentoring (12 hours). The instructional design will used a flipped
classroom method with specific online viewings, readings, and activities to be completed
prior to the in person workshops. Following the workshops, well-respected mentors will
provide one-on-one feedback and guidance to the learners about their personal and
professional growth.
The workshops will provide direct instruction around management skills and provide
time for reflection on personal and professional goals. Learners will be supported in
developing skills and practicing the skills with peers during the professional development
face-to-face sessions. Instructors will collect data about the knowledge, attitude, and
confidence of the learners during the workshop and use this information to improve future
sessions. Mentors will provide a forum for learners to discuss the specific challenges facing
them and to gain insights into how principals manage their time, allocate their energy, and
impact student achievement.
Components of learning. In order to maximize the learning outcomes, participants
will need to demonstrate declarative knowledge and have the ability to apply procedural
knowledge related to the learning goals. Therefore, both declarative and procedural
knowledge will be evaluated. Learners who value training are more likely to use their
knowledge on the job, so evaluating the learner’s attitude about the training is important.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 134
However, having knowledge and enjoying training is not enough to ensure transfer learning
to the workplace. Learners must also feel confident about their ability to use their new
knowledge and skills on the job. Therefore, Table 14 lists the evaluation methods and timing
for these components of learning.
Table 14
Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using “pair share”,
discussion, and individual reflection.
During professional development sessions.
Knowledge checks through online quizzes. Monthly following online and face-to-face
meetings with mentor.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Reflections written by participants about use
of skills in personal life.

During professional development sessions.
Demonstration of skills during role-play. During professional development sessions.
Application of skills and concepts to real
world challenges.
Monthly following online and face-to-face
meetings with mentor.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Retrospective pre-post test of attitudes around
the role of the principal.
At the start of and after the course.
Scaled item survey about the value of
management skills.
After face-to-face meetings.
Reflection on the value of the principal in
improving student achievement.
At the end of the course.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Interview with mentor about confidence in
applying the skill.
Following meetings with mentor.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment of
personal confidence in applying skills.
After the course.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Survey of participants about future plans to
seek principal positions.
After the course.
Creation of a personal career plan. During the professional development.
Reflection about using management skills. After the course.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 135
Level 1: Reaction. Upon completion of the training program, feedback about the
quality of the program and the instructional design is important. The feedback gathered
during the program and upon conclusion can be used to modify the content and pedagogy to
better meet the learners needs. By meeting the learners’ needs there is more likely to be
increased engagement with the material and application to the work environment is more
likely to occur. Table 15 below lists the methods used to evaluate all three components of
Level 1 Reaction: engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction.
Table 15
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
On time completion of assigned work Throughout program
Attendance at mentoring and workshop
meetings
Throughout program
Sustained participation in program Throughout program
Program evaluation Two weeks from end of the program
Course completion Throughout program
Relevance
Brief check-ins with participants. After each mentoring session
Reflection about programs impact on work After each face to face meeting
Program evaluation Two weeks from end of the program
Customer Satisfaction
Brief survey After each face-to-face meeting
Program evaluation Two weeks from end of the program

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 136
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Throughout the face-to-face
professional development the instructor will collect data about the engagement of the
learners. The data will be collected through observation, logs of student participation, group
discussion, survey, and written reflections. This data will inform the instructor about the
Level 1 engagement, relevance and satisfaction experienced by the program participants.
Post-training evaluations will measure the Level 2 learning attained by the participants in the
program. The evaluation tools will include opportunities for participants to exhibit
declarative and procedural knowledge through quizzes, written reflections, surveys, and
demonstration of skills during role-play. Participant’s motivation as indicated by their
attitude and confidence about the learning will be evaluated by using a scaled item survey,
discussion with mentor, and written reflection.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. NUSD will send an
online survey to participants every month following the start of the training and then six
weeks following the end of the program. The survey will include both open-ended and scaled
items. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) will provide the framework and approach to this
survey using the Blended Evaluation Approach. The survey will measure participant’s
retroactive thoughts about the training’s relevance and satisfaction (Level 1) attitude about
training topics (Level 2), how they applied what they learned (Level 3), and their thoughts
about how the application of the training supported the organizational goal. The survey
evaluation instrument for Levels 1 and 2 is attached as Appendix D.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 137
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal for the organization is measured by the increase in high quality
applicants for open positions. The district will track the number of applicants for principal
positions annually, the satisfaction of employees, and decreased hiring and training costs.
These metrics will be displayed on a dashboard as shown in Table 16 below. Dashboards for
Levels 1,2, and 3 will be created in a similar manner.
Table 16
Possible Key Performance Indicators for Internal Reporting
Key Performance
Indicator (KPI)
Metric Frequency Dashboard
Representation
Increased
applications for
principal positions
Number of
applications for each
open job
Annual Table with year to
year data
Increased employee
satisfaction
Employee climate
survey
Biannual Bar graph with year
to year data
Decreased hiring
and training costs
for principals
Budget report Annual Line graph with year
to year data

Summary. The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) guided the development of the
recommendations for Newtown Unified School District to achieve its goal to increase the
number of qualified effective principals available to lead schools in the district. The model is
particularly effective in ensuring that professional development not only satisfies the
participants need for learning and positive experiences during training, but that training also
meets the expectations of the organization for changes in stakeholder behavior. Central to the
effectiveness of the model is data collection focusing on assessing program impact
throughout the program. Through data collection, leading indicators can be analyzed to help
identify adjustments to the program that will maximize the effectiveness of the training
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 138
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Through continuous and strategic evaluation of the
project the achievement of the goal to increase the number of effective quality applicants for
the principalship will be achieved.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study used a qualitative research method using one-on-one interviews of women
teachers in NUSD. Limitations of the study included the design of the study. As women
teachers who participated in the study had to volunteer their time, potential participants may
not have volunteered to participate in the interviews because of a shortage of time available
to participate. This may have limited the diversity of the sample and excluded some women
teachers who could have informed the study. Because the participants knew the principal
investigator was working with the district, this may have limited the candor of the
participants in the study. While the researcher believed the participants were honest in their
answers, there is no way to know for sure if the participants were intentionally or
unintentionally untruthful.
In order to answer the research questions, the study design established delimitations.
These delimitations included the organization being studied, the selection of the targeted
stakeholder group for study, and the data collection method. The studied organization was a
particular K-12 school district and the stakeholder group studied were women teachers
employed by the school district. Furthermore, only women teachers who held authorization
for administrative positions and who were nominated by practicing administrators were
included in the study. As all the participants were nominated by practicing administrators
because of their potential for success as principals, their point of view may not be the same as
those teachers who do not hold the administrative credential and who were not nominated.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 139
This limitation, while necessary to complete the study in a timely manner, impacted the
study. Another limitation of the study is that other teachers such as men and those women
who did not hold administrative credentials were not included in the study. Finally, as this
study was limited to one school district in California, the study’s findings have limited
transferability to other settings. The recommendations could be implemented in other
districts only if they were similar to NUSD. The specific focus upon participants from one
organization creates this limitation (Patton, 2002).
Future Research
Ensuring that all schools have a high quality, effective principal to lead improved
student learning is an important goal for public education. This study approached solving the
problem of a shortage of high quality principals by studying women teachers. Continuing the
inquiry into why teachers pursue administrative certification and then do not pursue the
principalship would help to more fully understand the problem of practice. A study of the
impact working closer to one’s home on work-life balance would be an area of further
research. The delimitation of this study focusing on women teachers did not explore the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on men teacher’s aspirations to the
principalship. Future research about how men teachers view the principalship would allow
for greater diversity of perspective about teachers’ aspirations to the principalship and assist
in developing additional solutions to the challenge of principal shortages. Furthermore, the
educational community would benefit from future research on how organizations
communicate the importance of the principalship to student achievement and create systems
to support work life balance. This is important to study as conflict between home and work
duties was a consistent theme in this study’s findings.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 140
Conclusion
Newtown Unified School District seeks to enhance the leadership of all stakeholders
and to ensure that high quality principals are in place at each school site. Women are
traditionally underrepresented in the principalship compared to their proportion of the
teaching force.
As women teachers are the largest stakeholder group from which principals could be
recruited, this study sought to understand the lived experiences of women teachers as they
considered the principalship as a career goal. Clark and Estes’ (2008) model of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences was used to generate and analyze
influences on women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship. Using the KMO framework,
data was developed into themes about how women view the barriers and benefits of the
principalship. This study’s findings illuminated the internal world of women teachers as they
navigated their careers and thought about becoming principals. An overwhelming majority of
women teachers in the study shared that they felt they would be effective leaders and that
they would consider pursuing the principalship after their children were grown. Women in
their 50’s were more likely to be seeking a principalship.
Furthermore, the findings of this study revealed that women teachers had limited
knowledge of the impact that principals had upon student achievement, but were aware of the
principal’s impact on culture. The long hours, potential for increased interpersonal conflict,
and the lack of efficacy around simultaneously being both a mother and a principal were
found to have a negative impact on women teachers’ motivation to become principals. The
cultural models of the ideal worker and the ideal parent both giving 100% to the role were
also barriers for women in seeking a principalship. Few organizational supports for creating
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 141
work life balance in the principalship were also a concern for women teachers.
Recommendations for addressing the barriers to women teachers aspiring to the principalship
include increased and improved training, establishing mentorships, and building awareness of
available flexible work structures.
The findings of this study will assist the Newtown Unified School District meet their
goal of ensuring increased leadership in the organization. Finding and supporting quality
principals to lead all schools and especially high need schools is a challenge for all school
districts. This study provides insight into how organizations can change the way stakeholders
perceive the role of the principalship and encourage women teachers to take on the role of
principal. Through increasing organizational supports for principals, more teachers, and in
particular more women teachers, will pursue the occupation. If there is an increase in the
number of teachers desiring the principalship, it is likely that all schools will be led by
principals who are able to build a positive school culture, enhance instructional programs,
and improve student achievement.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 142
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ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 163
Appendix A
Letter to Principals Requesting Nominations
Dear Principals,
My name is Mercedes Lovie and I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern
California (USC). I am conducting research about the potential influences upon women
teacher’s aspiration to the principalship. I am seeking your help to identify women teachers
at your site as potential participants for the study. Your knowledge of the leadership potential
of the teachers at your site will assist me in locating participants for the study who would
best be able to inform me about the influences that impact their aspirations to the
principalship.
Your recommendations will be kept confidential as will the identities of those
teachers participate in the study. Not all teachers recommended for the study will be selected
to participate in the study. Participants in the study will be asked to participate in a one-on-
one interview that will last one to one and a half hours.
Please submit names of the women teachers you believe will be good sources of
information for the study to me at lovie@usc.edu in the next three days or through this link to
an online form. If you have any questions please feel free to contact me at the above email
address or my faculty Advisor Monique Datta, EdD at mdatta@usc.edu or phone at 808-721-
8621.

Sincerely,
Mercedes Lovie

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 164
Appendix B
Letter to Nominated Women Teachers
Dear (Participant Name),
My name is Mercedes Lovie and I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern
California (USC). I am conducting research about the potential influences upon women
teacher’s aspiration to the principalship. You have been identified by an administrator in your
district as a candidate for this study because of your leadership potential and insight into the
influences that impact your aspirations to the principalship.
If you would like to participate in this study, your identity will be kept confidential as
will the identities of all teachers who participate in the study. Not all teachers recommended
for the study will be selected to participate in the study. If you participate in the study, you
will be asked to partake in a one-on-one interview that will last about one hour. Participants
in the interview will be audio-recorded and the interview will be transcribed. Participants will
be able to review the transcripts of their interview and review them for accuracy. You are
free to decline this request to participate at anytime either before or during the interview
process. There will be no compensation for participating in this study. Your participation will
help further research on women in the principalship.
If you would like to participate in this study please reply to me at lovie@usc.edu or to
this online form. If you have any questions please feel free to contact me at the above email
address or at 818-521-9679 or the Faculty Advisor Monique Datta, EdD at mdatta@usc.edu
or phone at 808-721-8621.
Sincerely,
Mercedes Lovie
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 165
Appendix C
Interview Protocol
1. Tell me about how you became a teacher. (M)
Ask about how many years they have been a teacher.
Ask about the life events occurring as they started as a teacher and how long they
have been teaching.
Probe about educational attainment.
2. Tell me about what you do when you are not teaching.
Seeks to discover other activities the women participate with and value.
3. Think about the principals you have known and worked with, how would you
describe them and their leadership style? (M)
4. Have you ever considered becoming a principal? Why or why not? (M)
(If the informant had never considered being a principal, then I would frame
questions around the parenthetical. However, I don’t know many teachers who have not at
least thought about becoming a principal.)
5. How do you think a principal impacts the staff, students, and community by their
actions and work? (K) Often the question above leads to the answer of this question, but if
not, I will ask more directly.
6. Do you think that your family would be supportive of you being a principal?
(I would identify who the participants define as their family and prompt them to tell me about
how those people would react to the teacher becoming a principal.)
7. If you were to consider becoming a principal what would be some of the impacts on
your life that you would think might change (K,M,O)
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 166
8. Were there point(s) in your life did you consider becoming a principal? This question
is a follow up used to gain insight about past thoughts of the women and as a follow up to
question 4. (Tell me about what event(s) experiences, or opportunities prompted you to
consider becoming a principal (O Cultural Norm)
9. Do you still think you might consider being a principal in the future? (M and O) If yes
what might happen to have you consider being a principal? If no, what are some reasons or
circumstances that have caused you to rule out becoming a principal?
10. Tell me about what were some of the things you thought about/might think about
when considering becoming a principal. (K, M, O) For example, do you think about your
own ability to be a principal, the impact on your life, the challenges of the job, and the
opportunity to make a bigger impact on students.
Listen for: Going back to school
Impact on personal life
Concerns about workload/hours
Impact on students
Increased pay
Loss of flexibility in work
Identity as a woman
11. When you think of becoming a principal now what are some of the challenges/
benefits you think about? (K, M, O)
12. From your perspective, what are the personal benefits and costs to being a
principal? (M)
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 167
13. If becoming a principal is something you would like to do, what supports both at
work and at home do you think would need to be in place for you to consider becoming
a principal in the future? (M)
14. Suppose you became a principal, how would things change for you from being a
teacher? For example, your relationships with coworkers, students, your time commitments
to work, the amount of time you would have for family. (K, O)
15. Is there anything you think I should know that I have not asked you about?

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 168

Appendix D

Codebook

Axial Codes Frequency
Knowledge
Impact of the principal
On school culture 27
On teachers 27
On academics 19
On students 13
On school vision 12
Motivation
Efficacy
Perfectionism 12
Parenting confidence 10
Leadership confidence 10
Combined parenting and leadership
confidence
8
Expectancy Value
Children’s independence 54
Impact on family 40
Loss of time/Long work hours 36
Timing of principalship 31
Challenging Human relations 27
Compensation 27
Lack of work-life balance 24
Anger/Conflict 15
Improving test scores 10
Loneliness 10
Organizational Influences
Cultural Model: Ideal worker (Loss of
Time)
36
Cultural Model: Ideal parent (Role of
Women)
26
Co-administrator (Need) 25
Cultural Setting: Lack of Flexible
Structures (Teaching vs. Principalship)
16
Priorities of the district 13
Desire for mentoring 11
Cultural Model: Ideal worker (Heavy work
load)
10

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 169

Appendix E

Evaluation Tool of Level 1 and Level 2

Post-Course Reaction:
SD=Strongly Disagree D=Disagree N=Neutral A=Agree SA=Strongly Agree
SD D N A SA
Engagement
1 The course was interesting.
2 The group was the right size for this training.
3 I was actively involved in the training.
Relevance
4 The course content matched the stated objectives.
5 The course was applicable to my career.
6 The course enabled me to use my prior knowledge and apply it in
new ways.

Satisfaction
7 This course allowed me to learn and practice new skills.
8 I had the opportunity to explore new ideas.
9 My mentor was knowledgeable, helpful, and attentive to my
needs.

10 I would recommend this course to others.
Declarative Knowledge
11 I am able to identify the ways principals increase student
achievement.

12 I know management strategies that will help me be effective as a
principal.

13 I am aware of the available organizational supports for principals
in managing work life balance.

Procedural Knowledge
14 I am able to use management skills in my life.
15 I know when to use each skill in my life.
16 I am able to apply the learning gained in this course.
Value (Attitude)
17 The principal is important to improving student achievement.
18 The management skills I learned are valuable to me.
19 This course was a good use of my time.
20 I think becoming a principal is an important goal.
Confidence
21 My mentor helped build my confidence about the principalship.
22 I feel that I could be an effective principal.
23 I believe that I would be able to manage the principalship and my
personal life effectively.

Before the Course Post Course Learning Review After the Course
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 170
-4 -
2
0 +2 +4 -
4
-
2
0 +2 +4
Ability to apply time management
skills.

Ability to apply delegation skills.
Positive personal relationships with
practicing administrators.

Confidence in balancing work and
personal life.

Desire to seek a principal position.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 171
Appendix F

Delayed Evaluation Tool of Levels 3 and 4

Review Date: Direct Manager:
Employee Name:

Direct Manager- Post Course Evaluation
(Completed three weeks after course.)
After the course
The outcomes of the course are aligned with the objectives of the course. -
4
-
2
0 +2 +4
The employee understands the course material.
The employee has a positive attitude about the course.
The employee demonstrates a positive approach to their work.
The employee is showing the ability to use the management skills taught in
the course in their own setting.

The employee is taking on more leadership roles.
The employee is interested in applying for a position leading to the
principalship.

What impact has the course had on your organization?

What are some further actions or training needed to enhance the course objectives?

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 172
Appendix G

Blended Evaluation Items: Kirkpatrick Levels 1-4

Post-Course Reaction:
SD=Strongly Disagree D=Disagree N=Neutral A=Agree SA=Strongly Agree
SD D N A SA
Engagement (Level 1)
1 The course was interesting.
2 I thought about what I learned after the course.
Relevance (Level 1)
3 The course content is something I use in my work.
4 The course assignments helped me to think about my leadership.
Satisfaction (Level 1)
5 This course helped me to learn new skills.
Declarative Knowledge (Level 2)
6 I am able to identify the ways principals increase student
achievement.

7 I know management strategies that will help me be effective as a
principal.

8 I am aware of the available organizational supports for
principals in managing work life balance.

Procedural Knowledge (Level 2)
9 I am able to use management skills in my life.
Value (Level 2)
10 The principal is important to improving student achievement.
11 The management skills I learned are valuable to me.
Confidence (Level 2)
12 I feel that I could be an effective principal.
13 I believe that I would be able to manage the principalship and
my personal life.

Commitment (Level 2)
14 I will use the management skills taught in the course,
15 I will apply for leadership opportunities.
16 I will consider becoming a principal.
Transfer of Behavior (Level 3)
17 I have been able to use time management in my work.
18 I have been able to use negotiation skills in my work.
19 I have actively sought leadership opportunities.
Required Drivers (Level 3)
20 My principal has encouraged me to take on leadership roles.
(Encouraging)

21 My involvement in leadership gives me new opportunities.
(Rewarding)

22 My principal checks on my progress in using management
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 173
skills. (Monitoring)
23 My principal is sharing his or her own management journey
with me. (Reinforcing)

Results (Level 4)
24 I have a new leadership opportunity.
25 I have improved my time management and negotiation skills.
26 I am applying for a principal job.
27 I am using the leadership skills taught in the course.
28 My confidence in being a principal and managing my personal
life has increased.

ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 174
Appendix H

Information Sheet for Exempt Research

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Leadership Development of Women to Become Principals: An Evaluation Study
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study will look at how women teachers perceive the principalship and what are the
influences upon women teachers’ aspiration to the principalship. The reason this study is being
conducted is to better understand how women make decisions about taking leadership roles and
help encourage more quality teacher leaders to become principals.
The study hopes to benefit women teachers, students, and school districts by providing a deeper
understanding of how women teachers can be supported in their aspirations to the principalship.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a one-hour audio-taped
interview. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to; if you don’t want to be
audio-taped, you cannot be part of the study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The
audio-tapes will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. You will have the opportunity to
review/edit the transcribed interview if you choose. The transcribed data will be stored on a
password-protected computer in the researcher’s office for three years after the study has been
completed and then destroyed.

The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP
reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
ADDRESSING THE PRINCIPAL SHORTAGE: WOMEN TEACHERS 175

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
(Provide contact information for investigators)

Principal Investigator Mercedes Lovie via email at mlovie@usc.edu or phone at (818) 521-9679
or Faculty Advisor Monique Datta, EdD at mdatta@usc.edu or phone at 808-721-8621

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study used a qualitative research design to identify the influences leading to the underrepresentation of women in the principalship as this contributes to a shortage of principals to lead schools. Women teachers from a California school district were interviewed to discover how they made choices about pursuing the principalship. Clark and Estes (2008) framework was used to assess knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on women teachers’ aspirations to the principalship. The findings of the study indicated that women had limited knowledge of how the principal impacted student achievement. Furthermore, most women found the costs of the principalship to be high compared to the benefits. While women teachers felt they could be effective leaders, having children generally limited their desire to become principals. The organizational expectations for principals to work long hours and to be available to all stakeholders were identified barriers for women. The findings of this study suggested that there was a need for training and mentoring for women teachers to build the skills and confidence needed to assume principal jobs. Furthermore, needed organizational support for family life was revealed by the findings. Effectively addressing these influences is likely to result in more women teachers aspiring to the principalship and the elimination of the shortage of effective principals to lead schools.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lovie, Mercedes Delaney (author)

Core Title Addressing the principal shortage: women teachers

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 02/23/2018

Defense Date 12/15/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,gender bias,ideal parent,ideal worker,leadership,Motherhood,OAI-PMH Harvest,Principal,shortage of principals,Women

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence (committee member), Robles, Darline (committee member)

Creator Email lovie@usc.edu,mlovie@icloud.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-477940

Unique identifier UC11267266

Identifier etd-LovieMerce-6056.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-477940 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LovieMerce-6056.pdf

Dmrecord 477940

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lovie, Mercedes Delaney

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA