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The effect of opportunity gaps: the charge for culturally relevant pedagogy in middle school social studies classes
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The effect of opportunity gaps: the charge for culturally relevant pedagogy in middle school social studies classes
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Content
Running head: OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 1
THE EFFECT OF OPPORTUNITY GAPS: THE CHARGE FOR CULTURALLY
RELEVANT PEDAGOGY IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL
STUDIES CLASSES
by
Keisha Larry Burns
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2018
Copyright 2018 Keisha Larry Burns
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 2
Dedication
Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate. Our deepest fear is that we are powerful
beyond measure. It is our light, not our darkness that most frightens us. We ask our-
selves, Who am I to be brilliant, gorgeous, talented, fabulous? Actually, who are you not
to be? You are a child of God. Your playing small does not serve the world. There is
nothing enlightened about shrinking so that other people won’t feel insecure around you.
We are all meant to shine, as children do. We were born to make manifest the glory of
God that is within us. It’s not just in some of us; it’s in everyone. And as we let our own
light shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are
liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others. (Williamson,
1992, pp. 190–191)
I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Norma J. Larry and Lester D. Larry, Sr., for
their unconditional love and support in my educational endeavors. I thank them for always
reinforcing the importance and value of education as a platform from which would open many
possibilities, regardless of my race and gender.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 3
Acknowledgments
This dissertation would not have been possible without the support of the following
people:
• First and foremost, I want to thank God for His wisdom and guidance throughout the
dissertation process. His strength has enabled me to persevere and walk into the pur-
pose that He set before me.
• I thank my dissertation committee: Dr. Paula Carbone (Chair), for her unwavering
support, guidance, and insight that challenged me to delve deeper into the process; Dr.
Jenifer Crawford (member), for her energy and passion for the topic of opportunity
gaps and academic achievement of minoritized people; and Dr. Briana Hinga (mem-
ber), my professor in the doctorate program who saw me for to the person I have
become. I am grateful to each of them for their tireless efforts and joining me along
this journey.
• I thank Dr. Andrea Poma for her motivation, dedication, and friendship and for helping
me to see the light at the end of the tunnel. Much love and blessings!
• I thank Dr. Donna Campbell, Dr. Stacy Bryant, and Dr. Ruth Hirsch for reminding me
that the dissertation process is about the journey and achieving the goals ahead.
• Last but not least, I thank my husband and family for their continuous love, support,
encouragement, and steadfast prayers. They are my motivation!
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
Abstract 6
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 7
Background of the Problem 7
Opportunity and Achievement 8
The Educational Debt 11
Multicultural Education 13
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose of the Study 17
Research Questions 17
Theory and Framework 18
Significance of the Study 18
Limitations and Delimitations 19
Definition of Terms 19
Organization of the Study 20
Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature 21
History of African American Educational Opportunity in U.S. Public Schools 21
Current State of African American Education in U.S. Public Schools 26
Opportunity Gap—Not Achievement Gap 30
Educational Debt 31
Deficit Mindset 32
Resources 35
Multicultural Education 39
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 41
CRP and Its Benefits in Social Studies 52
Theory and Framework 57
Sociocultural Learning Theory 58
SCT and Culturally Diverse Students 60
Critical Race Theory 66
Conclusion 68
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 70
Methods 72
Site and Participant Selection 72
Data Collection 76
Data Analysis 79
Researcher Biases and Positionality 80
Concluding Statement 81
Chapter Four: Results 82
Study Sites and Participants 83
Site 1: Madden Middle School 83
Site 2: Mason Middle School 86
Participant Overview 88
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 5
Figure 1. Summary of details of data collection at Madden and Mason Middle
Schools 89
Findings 90
Research Question 1: Participants’ Understanding of CRP 90
Research Question 2: Participants’ Enactment of CRP 102
Chapter Summary 119
Chapter Five: Discussion 121
Summary of Findings 123
Implications for Practice and Research 125
Recommendations for Future Research 128
Conclusion 129
References 131
Appendices
Appendix A: Superintendent Contact Email 152
Appendix B: Principal Contact Email 153
Appendix C: Prospective Site Principal: Follow-up Phone Call Protocol 154
Appendix D: Teacher Email Contact 155
Appendix E: Teacher Confidential Agreement: Consent Form 156
Appendix F: Pre-Interview Protocol 158
Appendix G: Post-Interview Protocol 160
Appendix H: Observation Protocol 161
Appendix I: Interviewer Reflection 163
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 6
Abstract
The focus of this dissertation was to examine how the role of historic factors, systemic
discrimination, and oppression in the education system has affected the progress of African
American students in middle school. The researcher sought to understand the ways in which
middle school social studies teachers incorporated culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) to engage
their African American students to elicit equitable academic outcomes.
The objective of this qualitative research was to examine what CRP looked like in the
classroom and how teachers perceived its efficacy in addressing the opportunity gaps that affect
African American students. The research questions for this study were developed to obtain valu-
able information about CRP and its utility in middle school curriculum with the goal of support-
ing African American youth in increased engagement and educational achievement. The
questions were designed to gather a consensus of teachers’ interpretations of CRP and to provide
insight into perceptions of the impact of using CRP in the classroom.
The researcher selected two middle schools to obtain a sampling of three social studies
teachers identified as successfully implementing CRP. Data were collected using two semistruc-
tured interviews of each participant and two observations of the participants’ teaching methods to
triangulate emergent findings and to substantiate interview data. The findings revealed that
making connections with students was essential, in addition to the participants’ uncompromising
belief that regardless of race, gender, or socioeconomic background, their students could succeed.
Further investigation showed that enacting CRP required that the participants were mindful in
lesson planning that incorporated students’ backgrounds as well as encouraged student engage-
ment to promote academic achievement.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 7
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The focus of this dissertation was to examine how the role of historic factors, systemic
discrimination, and oppression within the education system has impacted the progress of African
American students in middle school. The researcher sought to understand the ways in which
middle school social studies teachers incorporated culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) to engage
their African American students so as to elicit more equitable academic outcomes. This chapter
deals with the background of the problem, presenting issues surrounding the gaps in opportunity
for students of color (Milner, 2010, 2012), specifically African American students. In addition to
the opportunity gap, the researcher will highlight concepts related to the educational debt
(Ladson-Billings, 2006), the culture of power (Delpit, 1988), and CRP (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
This chapter will present the statement of the problem, the purpose, and the significance of
solving the problem as supported by research, as well as the limitations and delimitations of the
study, definition of the terms, and an overall outline of how the problem was addressed.
1
Background of the Problem
In 1903 W. E. B. Du Bois argued, “the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of
the color-line” (p. viii). The problem of race-related issues creating disparity in social, economic,
and political advancement articulated by Du Bois is just as prevalent today in the 21st century as
it was back then. Recent research in education suggests that, in many cases, minoritized students
struggle not only academically but also emotionally, socially, and physiologically due to the gaps
in opportunity to learn in schools (D. Bell, 2004; Ladson-Billings, 1995b; Milner, 2010).
1
The following sections were co-written with Andrea Poma: Background of the Problem,
Theory and Framework, Definition of Terms, and Organization of the Study. Both authors con-
tributed equally.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 8
Opportunity and Achievement
Some scholars call into question the term achievement (Milner, 2010; Ogbu & Simons,
1998; Stanton-Salazar, 1997) because traditional measures of achievement do not provide a
complete picture of performance and potential. The traditional measures of achievement are
problematic because they fail to account for all aspects of schooling (T. C. Howard, 2010).
Approaching education through the lens of the achievement gap encourages deficit instead of
asset model thinking as it relates to students of color (Milner, 2010). Deficit-based thinking
suggests that students of color suffer due to a culture of poverty, that they lack motivation, that
they devalue education, or that they are lacking in language development due to an ignorance of
standard English (T. C. Howard, 2010). Ultimately, instruction loses rigor and a cycle of teach-
ers with low expectations leaves students feeling disconnected, thus leading to low grades and
test scores (Milner, 2012).
Focusing solely on the achievement gap is negligent, because the ideology does not
examine its reasons through the lens of cultural differences. This situation places students of
color at a deficit compared to their White contemporaries and is based on the assumption that
there is something inherent in students of color, their families, communities, and teachers that is
to blame for the disparities (Ladson-Billings, 2013; Milner, 2012); therefore, current research
suggests using the term opportunity gap (Milner, 2010). Differences should not be framed as
dichotomous, with one group seen as deficient because it masks the structural inequities imped-
ing opportunities in educational advancement. To bridge the gaps in opportunity and to decrease
deficit model thinking, Milner (2010) suggested that educators attend to five areas: (a) rejecting
color blindness, (b) the ability to work through and transcend cultural conflicts, (c) understanding
ideas surrounding meritocracy and how that shapes students’ academic and social success, (d)
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 9
shifting from deficit mindsets to asset model thinking, and (e) the rejection of context-neutral
mindsets and practices.
When rejecting color blindness, educators are challenged to understand that race matters
for all involved in education; they recognize the individual and systemic realities related to race
that contribute to gaps in opportunity for students. Cultural conflicts exist when an educator’s
cultural ideology takes precedence over that of their students—a situation that can make teaching
and learning difficult. Educators must be willing to acknowledge that there are factors beyond
merit that shape the academic and social success of their students and be mindful of that issue
when designing lessons and programs. With a deficit mindset, the fact that educators tend to
focus on what their students are lacking instead of the assets that they bring to the classroom
often causes them to set low expectations. Teachers must consider the context in which their
students are learning. Context-neutral mindsets often reinforce opportunity gaps and the status
quo (Milner, 2010). To understand opportunity and its impact on education, Milner (2012)
further contended that “context-neutral mindsets do not allow educators to recognize the deep-
rooted realities that are embedded within society” (p. 707). Approaching education from the idea
of the opportunity gap compels educators to consider the historic inequities, racist structures, and
policies of practice enacted upon African American students.
Literature on equity in education begins with race and often references court cases that
have impacted the state of education (Strouse, 2001). For example, the 1896 case of Plessy v.
Ferguson set a precedent that separate facilities for Blacks and Whites were constitutional if they
were equal. This court decision became known as the separate-but-equal doctrine that was
extended to include public facilities such as restaurants, theaters, restrooms, and public schools.
The inequity produced from the ruling perpetuated the disparity in educational outcomes between
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 10
White and minority students (Vanneman, Hamilton, Baldwin Anderson, & Rahman, 2009). In an
effort to end and replace Plessy for a more equitable outcome for students of color, the 1954
ruling of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, highlighted the detrimental impact of
segregation on African American students due to inequities in educational opportunities. The
ruling of Brown v. Board of Education was intended to provide equity for students of color.
However, integration has created another layer of disadvantage for students of color such as
schools within schools, an increase in the special education population, and cultural disconnects
between teachers and students (B. W. Bell, 1987).
The perception and treatment of students by mainstream society—and consequently by
the schools they attend and the educators who teach them—are fundamental for creating aca-
demic success or failure (T. C. Howard, 2003). Research has shown that students of color are
more receptive to learning from a teacher who looks like them and shares the same background
(Dee, 2004; J. J. Irvine, 2009). Teachers of color are role models to all students, as their presence
helps to diminish stereotypes and prepares all students to live in a multiracial society (Hubert,
2013). However, 65% of educators in California K-12 schools are White while only 24.6% of
the student population is White (California Department of Education [CDE], 2016a). Data from
the national Schools and Staffing Survey of teachers and principals (U.S. Department of Educa-
tion [USDOE], Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development, 2016) showed that 82%
of public school teachers identified as White, whereas only 50% of the national student popula-
tion is White and the percentage is expected to decline significantly by 2025. According to
Milner (2012), White educators and students of color may have had different racial experiences
both inside and outside the classroom—a situation that possibly creates roadblocks to students’
academic and social success in the classroom and beyond. Teachers need to learn about the
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 11
background and experiences of their students (Du Bois, 1935) and be aware of personal biases
that can infect the learning atmosphere. The USDOE, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy
Development (2016) projected that by the year 2024, students of color will comprise 56% of the
student population whereas the population of K-12 educators will remain overwhelmingly White.
As educators, it is crucial to understand the culturally constructed nature of educational environ-
ments and to develop an awareness of the effect of our own racially and ethnically defined sense
of self, of learning, and of education (Chávez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999). What is imperative about
the groups excluded from educational opportunities over the past several centuries is that they are
the groups who continue to be at or near the bottom of the achievement hierarchy today (T. C.
Howard, 2010). “Educational outcomes for students of color are much more a function of their
unequal access to key educational resources, including skilled teachers and quality curriculum,
than they are a function of race” (Darling-Hammond, 2007, p. 320). Student achievement does
not depend solely on the student’s race; it depends on the opportunities that the student is given
throughout the educational process.
The Educational Debt
Ladson-Billings (2006) discussed the educational debt, which she explained as a debt that
the educational system owes to students who are not being properly served; she highlighted the
system’s issues with various educational components including history, economics, politics, and
morality. The historical context related to the educational debt dates back to slavery, when it was
illegal to teach enslaved persons to read (Tyack, 2003). After the emancipations and years of
struggle, African Americans were afforded the opportunity to go to school; however, these
schools were separate from Whites and only operated during the agricultural growing season. As
a result of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), schools for Blacks received second-hand, outdated books
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 12
and resources that were formerly owned by White schools (Ladson-Billings, 2015). After the
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision, schools were forced into integration and Whites
developed private schools that they called academies and refused to send their children to the
local desegregated public schools (Tyack, 2003).
The financial disparity in education is another key component of the educational debt.
More affluent areas tend to have better performing schools, due in part to the resources that are
afforded to the neighborhood school district. Property taxes account for a large portion of school
funding; in low-income areas, school resources are scarce and the federal funding given to those
schools does not make up for the economic disparity between lower income schools and those in
communities of a higher socioeconomic status (Ladson-Billings, 2015). Politics plays a key role
in that there is a lack of representative legislators to assist persons of color. Thus, families of
color continue to be excluded from the conversation surrounding quality education for their
children (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Finally, the debate between what is morally right and wrong
continues. The government continually raises the notion that individuals need to take personal
responsibility for their health, welfare, and education; however, the national government is negli-
gent when it comes to providing the opportunity for certain groups of people to receive equitable
access to education and encourages its citizens to ignore social obligations (Ladson-Billings,
2006). The educational debt must be addressed because of its impact on educational progress in
order to give voice to the past and to forge a better educational future (Ladson-Billings, 2006).
In addition to addressing the educational debt, Delpit (1998) asserted that all stakehold-
ers’ regardless of their race and ethnicity, must be educated in what she called “the five powers”
(p. 2). The five aspects were the power that surrounds teachers and curriculum, the language and
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 13
codes used in schools, the organization of schools, communication, and cultural acknowledgment
(Delpit, 1998; Freire, 2000). This study focused on cultural acknowledgment.
Multicultural Education
Pedagogical approaches to address the structural inequities have included multicultural
education and CRP. Multicultural education and instructional practices are essential, as affirmed
by the National Education Association (NEA; 2004):
As students continue to grow and as we continue to develop a multiracial society, the
societal and educational benefits of racially diverse classrooms remain just as valid.
These benefits include: reducing stereotypes and prejudices; offering students great
opportunities for learning how to function in integrated environments; and promoting
cross-racial understanding that brings out different vantage points, skills, and values to
enhance a student’s abilities to succeed. (para. 3)
This idea ties directly back to cultural acknowledgment of different cultural perspectives.
Likewise, Stanton-Salazar (1997) argued that students of color are systematically denied opportu-
nities for academic success because of schools failing to provide them with training for effective
decoding of language. Such training would undermine the bureaucracy of the organization and
challenge the myth of meritocracy; therefore, those essential funds of knowledge required to
assist students of color are ignored (Milner, 2012; Stanton-Salazar 1997).
In her article, Ladson-Billings (1995b) proposed a theory of culturally focused pedagogy
that “not only addresses student achievement but also helps students to accept and affirm their
cultural identity while developing critical perspectives that challenge inequities that schools (and
other institutions) perpetuate” (p. 469). As she explained, CRP is “humanizing pedagogy that
respects and uses the reality, history, and perspectives of students as an integral part of the
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 14
educational practice” (Ladson-Billings, 1995b, p. 160) and requires students to maintain some
cultural integrity to enhance their opportunity for academic success. Similarly to Ladson-
Billings, Gay (2000) introduced culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP), which addresses curricu-
lum and instruction. Gay (2000) wanted to address curriculum and instruction but felt that
incorporating multicultural information, resources, and materials in all subjects and skills taught
in schools was also essential. The importance of CRP lies in the validation, information, and
pride that it produces in African American students.
Cunningham (2016) asserted that when teachers choose a pedagogical practice that
addresses the cultural and linguistic heritage of students, they are, in turn, choosing a method that
validates the prior knowledge base of their students and allows them to work from the complexi-
ties of their own background to cognitively connect to the necessary knowledge, attitudes, and
21st-century skills. To illustrate, in a study that sought to assess African American students’
interpretations of culturally responsive teachers within an urban context, 17 students were inter-
viewed both individually and within a focus group with peers. The findings of the study indi-
cated the following:
Students stated positive relationships between teachers and students affected academic
achievement; teachers’ responsiveness to students’ personal lives generated positive
feelings that led to increased effort in school, and that they preferred for teachers who
enabled them to actualize their own ideas in completing assignments and becoming
engaged in class discussions. (T. C. Howard, 2001, p. 133)
African American students needed the encouragement to believe that they could accomplish just
as much as their White contemporaries (Du Bois, 1935). Essentially, CRP enhances the capacity
of teachers and students and attempts to shift curriculum from individual disempowerment
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 15
toward collective empowerment (Delpit, 1986; Ladson-Billings, 1995b). This pedagogical
approach is described in more detail in Chapter Two.
Paris (2012) questioned whether the terms relevant and responsive went far enough to
address the full scope of America’s multiethnic and multilingual society. In turn, Paris offered
culturally sustaining pedagogy (CSP) as an alternative term and argued that CSP was to sustain
“linguistic, literary, and cultural pluralism as part of the democratic project of schooling” (p. 95).
The attention given to culture and language by these scholars is crucial in closing the opportunity
gap.
The aforementioned components have contributed to the problems that exist in education
as it pertains to the gap in opportunity for culturally relevant pedagogical learning opportunities
(Irvin & Darling, 2015). Often, the CRP gap exists because of a teacher’s lack of deeper under-
standing of the social context within which he or she is working and the skill set needed to
incorporate culturally relevant pedagogical practices into the curriculum (Milner, 2010).
Statement of the Problem
African American middle school students are not performing at or above grade level at
the same rates as White and Asian students within the U.S. public school system. According to
the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) data, African
American middle school students scored 31 points lower, on average, than did White students in
mathematics (CDE, 2016b). The difference between Language Arts scores was 37 points, with
African Americans scoring below Whites and some Asians (CDE, 2016b), thus demonstrating
that this large disparity is a problem. The evidence highlights that a gap still exists between the
races. Research provides evidence that relative to White students, minority youth receive lower
grades, score lower on standardized tests, have higher retention rates, and are disproportionately
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 16
assigned to low-ability groups or special education (Becker & Luthar, 2002; Vanneman, Hamil-
ton, Anderson, Rahman). Researchers, educators, and policymakers continue to seek to under-
stand the reason for the disparities (Carter & Welner, 2013) and to develop policies and strategies
to reduce the magnitude of the Black-White student academic performance gap (Bohrnstedt,
Kitmitto, Ogut, Sherman, & Chan, 2015) and the opportunity gap.
Based on research, history, and policy, all stakeholders in education need to understand
the value in addressing the needs of the whole child, especially in middle school. During middle
school years, students’ teachers, classrooms, and school experiences impact the future educa-
tional opportunities and outcomes of adolescents (Becker & Luthar, 2002). Middle school is an
important time of transition in students’ lives. Adolescent students are trying to gain independ-
ence and a sense of self. Adolescence is a vital age for stakeholders to realize the value of
acknowledging and incorporating students’ background to empower students who have been
historically oppressed. A history of racial prejudice and daily experiences of discrimination
causes many adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds to believe that their hard work in
school is irrelevant and their academic endeavors will have little reward (Becker & Luthar, 2002;
Ogbu, 1987). CRP is a tool that teachers can use to empower their African American middle
school students and to create a connectedness between students and teachers who do not look like
one another. Teachers should attempt to connect learning to the feelings, memories, or personal
associations of the students (Armstrong, 2016).
Middle school students lack the opportunity to engage in focused learning adventures that
can help them develop their identities and sharpen their metacognitive skills (Armstrong, 2016).
Culturally relevant teachers build bridges from students’ knowledge to the content by affirming
identities and values (Byrd, 2016). CRP is a strategy that can be used across curricula and
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 17
disciplines but specifically in the content area of social studies. Social studies curriculum incor-
porates components of literature, reading, and historic content about non-White students that is
covered hastily or often neglected. Engaging students in curriculum-related activities helps in the
development of their social and emotional intelligences (Armstrong, 2016).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine middle school social studies teachers’ under-
standing of CRP and how they described and enacted CRP to provide usable information for
teachers, administrators, policymakers, and teacher educators. The study should provide infor-
mation about what CRP looks like when performed in a middle school social studies curriculum
and should assist other educators in integrating this instructional approach into their teaching
methods, school and district-wide initiatives, and preservice teacher preparation programs. Addi-
tionally, it was the goal of this study to understand the level to which teachers grasped the
concepts of CRP and to what degree they thought their students were benefitting from the incor-
poration of CRP, so as to inform the field of approaches to CRP that are robust and beneficial to
student engagement and subsequent learning.
Research Questions
To determine teachers’ understanding of CRP, the researcher had to gather information
surrounding teachers’ comprehension, descriptions, and perceptions of CRP relating to student
engagement and resultant achievement in addressing gaps in opportunity. As such, the relevant
research questions pertaining to this problem were as follows:
1. How do middle school social studies teachers using CRP explain their understanding
and enactment of CRP?
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 18
2. How do middle school social studies teachers enact CRP within the sociohistorical
constraints of school structures to impact the academic achievement of African American
students?
Theory and Framework
The literature stresses the relationship between activation of cultural prior knowledge
with a cognitive connection, as in sociocultural theory (SCT; Scott & Palincsar, 2013). Greater
attention is paid to discourse and community as educators work to create the “third space” in
which a student’s primary discourse and secondary discourses are merged (Moje et al., 2004;
Scott & Palincsar, 2013). Thus, interest in the success of CRP lies in what is happening in the
classroom and how teachers are incorporating it to engage students. Ladson-Billings (1995b)
proposed a theory of culturally focused pedagogy that addresses the necessary factors surround-
ing student achievement, as well as giving students the tools to accept and affirm their cultural
identity and challenging inequities that schools perpetuate. The premise behind CRP has been
linked to the idea of teachers connecting the cultural knowledge, beliefs, and practices that
students bring from home to the content and pedagogy used in their classrooms in order to
potentially enhance the academic performance and overall schooling of culturally diverse learn-
ers (T. C. Howard & Terry, 2011).
Significance of the Study
This study is important for the discussion of the ambiguity surrounding CRP as it relates
to social studies instruction in middle school. The cause of the ambiguity could be resultant of
the lack of training on CRP through professional development or in many teacher education
programs—a deficit that has caused classroom teachers to struggle to understand ways in which
they can design classroom instruction to meet the needs of their students (Barnes, 2006). Social
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 19
studies should be a content area highlighting the many voices of color and allowing students to
reflect on the past (Aronson & Laughter, 2016) and contribute to the future.
This study was important to the researcher because she is a middle school counselor with
goals to eventually consult with educators on ways to effectively incorporate CRP to bridge
students’ cultural backgrounds to the nuanced discourses and expectations of the classroom. In
addition, CRP is a means to increase academic achievement, outcomes, and attainment, thereby
decreasing opportunity gaps.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations for this research included time constraints, a small sample size, limited
interviews (two) for each participant, one school site instead of two, and participants’ possible
lack of total understanding of CRP. Delimitations of this study included not studying other
underrepresented groups outside of African American, as this group seems to lack support
services.
Definition of Terms
Achievement gap: Discrepancies in educational outcomes between primarily White and
some Asian students and underserved populations (T. C. Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2006).
Critical race theory (CRT): A critical analysis from a legal standpoint that examines the
oppressive social (e.g., race, racism, laws) and educational structures (e.g., tracking, standardized
testing) that impact student learning and achievement in education and identifies power struc-
tures are based on the superiority of White culture, therefore marginalizing people of color (D.
Bell, 1989; Delgado & Stefanic, 1989).
CRP: “Humanizing pedagogy that respects and uses the reality, history, and perspectives
of students as an integral part of the educational practice” (Ladson-Billings, 1995a, p. 160).
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 20
Culturally sustaining pedagogy (CSP): Pedagogy that seeks to perpetuate, foster, and
sustain linguistic, literary, and cultural pluralism as part of the democratic project of schooling;
the shifting of society toward valuing, preserving, and maintaining a multilingual and multicul-
tural society (Paris, 2012).
Opportunity gap: Focus on the disparities among students in schools relating to the
quality of schools, resources, and diversity by addressing the ways that race, ethnicity, English
language proficiency, and socioeconomic status perpetuate lower attainment and/or aspirations
for students of color (Milner, 2010, 2012).
Organization of the Study
Four chapters follow the introductory chapter. Chapter Two will present the literature to
support the study. Chapter Three deals with the methodology of the research, including the par-
ticipants, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter Four contains an extensive explanation of
the findings of the study. Chapter Five concludes the dissertation with a discussion, as well as
suggestions for future research in the area of CRP.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 21
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine teachers’ understanding of CRP and
how they described its enactment in order to provide usable information for teachers, administra-
tors, policymakers, and teacher educators. Additionally, it was the goal of this study to under-
stand the level to which teachers grasped the concepts of CRP and to what degree they thought
that their students were benefitting from the incorporation of CRP, so as to add to the current
body of research regarding the benefits for student engagement and subsequent learning.
The literature review will identify strengths of studies from the salient literature, analyze
emerging themes from the research, and explore previous research that focused on the opportu-
nity gap between African Americans and their White counterparts. In addition, the chapter will
address contributing factors of the opportunity gap such as government policies, historic implica-
tions, teachers’ roles and preparation, and teaching strategies.
Chapter Two begins with a historic overview of the treatment of African American
students in the U.S. public education system, followed by the current state of education for this
group. This chapter deals with the literature and theoretical frameworks of CRP to provide a
foundational lens and understanding of the data that were collected, analyzed, and reported in
Chapters Four and Five.
2
History of African American Educational Opportunity in U.S. Public Schools
As a result of years of exclusion and unequal treatment under the law, African American
students have historically been denied an education equitable to that of their White counterparts.
2
The following sections of this chapter were co-written with Andrea Poma: History of
African American Educational Opportunity in U.S. Public Schools, Current State of African
American Education in U.S. Public Schools, Opportunity Gap—Not Achievement Gap, Cultur-
ally Relevant Pedagogy, Theory and Framework, and Conclusion. Both authors contributed
equally.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 22
Centuries of slavery in the United States fueled by systemic racism created a society in which the
“other” remains oppressed and denied their inalienable rights (D. Bell, 1983; Ladson-Billings &
Tate, 1995). The historic and contemporary treatment of marginalized communities attests to the
fact that they have never been afforded their full rights as citizens of this country (López, 2003).
After the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and the culmination of the
Civil War in 1865, in recognition of the plight of African Americans and the importance of their
education, Woodson (1931) wrote:
The same educational process which inspires and stimulates the oppressor with the
thought that he is everything and has accomplished everything worthwhile, depresses and
crushes at the same time the spark of genius in the Negro by making him feel that his race
does not amount to much and never will measure up to the standards of other peoples. (p.
21)
Students denied the opportunity of an equitable and meaningful education are also cut off from
other opportunities for success (López & Burciaga, 2104). such as participation in social, eco-
nomic, and political activities.
Whenever things might have appeared to be moving towards progress in equity, new
methods were used to prevent Blacks from progressing (D. Bell, 1983; Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
Legislation and policies have been tactics used by those in power to maintain the status quo.
Policy determines what gets done and what decisions are (or are not) made and by whom (López,
2003; López & Burciaga, 2014). Policy focuses on the visible as well as the invisible mecha-
nisms that structure organizational life (López, 2003). Several laws and policies instituted in the
U.S. had a profound correlation on marginalized populations, specifically in the field of educa-
tion.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 23
After the emancipation of slaves in 1863, separate but equal became law under the 1896
Plessy v. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court ruling. Under this ruling, segregation became legal and
extended to cover many areas of public life such as restaurants, theaters, restrooms, and public
schools (D. Bell, 2004). The ruling reinforced the ideology of White superiority over Blacks
through legislation (D. Bell, 1983; Ladson-Billings, 1995b; López, 2003), enacting doctrine and
overt racism toward mistreatment of African Americans in the United States. Presumably Blacks
were assigned equal membership in society under the law; however, socially, politically, and
economically, they remained at a disadvantage by a racist political and legal system that margin-
alized them daily (D. Bell, 2004; López, 2003; López & Burciaga, 2014). These Jim Crow laws
remained in effect for almost 60 more years, reassuring Whites of their superiority to Blacks (D.
Bell, 1983, 2004). Three centuries of oppression institutionalized many challenges for Blacks in
the United States. Many of these challenges were and are still connected to a larger system of
racial oppression that is perpetuated and reinforced by the ideology of White supremacy (López
& Burciaga, 2014; Orfield, 2014; Oliver & Shapiro, 1997).
In 1954, the Supreme Court ruling of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas,
deemed racial segregation unconstitutional, thereby overturning Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). The
court concluded that the doctrine of separate but equal has no place in education and that separate
educational facilities are inherently unequal (NEA, 2004). In response to the Supreme Court’s
decision regarding Brown, Chief Justice Earl Warren commented:
In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if
he (or she) is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity where the state
has undertaken to provide it is a right, which must be made available to all on equal
terms. (as cited in NEA, 2004, p. 3)
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 24
Critically, in the 21st century, the dialogue of inequity in education continues.
Teaching as a profession was seen as an honorable career, especially among African
Americans (Smith, Mack, & Akyea, 2016). By the 1950s, half of the working African American
professionals were teachers. Unfortunately, during the 1960s, with desegregation initiatives, the
percentage of African American teachers who held jobs began to decline. The reason for the
decline was that when White and Black students began to attend integrated schools, African
American teachers were the ones who were dismissed from their jobs (Cole, 1986). By the
1970s, educators’ attempts to remedy the issue of African American teachers’ underrepresenta-
tion failed; the damage had already been done. African Americans were no longer seeing teach-
ing as a viable profession because it did not hold the same appeal that it once did. In fact, of the
public school teachers in 2013, only 7% of them were African American, less than 2% of them
being men (Bitterman, Gray, & Goldring, 2013). Teaching was no longer perceived to be an
avenue out of the lower class (Smith et al., 2016), and students—especially African American
males who would have once held those jobs—began to pursue other opportunities.
As a result of integration and free public education made available to all citizens, the
expectation is that the discourse of equal education for Blacks (and other marginalized groups)
should no longer be relevant. However, since 2014, children from minority backgrounds have
constituted the majority of children in the nation’s public schools (USDOE, National Center for
Education Statistics [NCES], 2016), yet the opportunity gap in the public education system
continues to widen. The NCES projected that 50.4 million students entered public schools in the
United States, with Whites accounting for 24.6 million and minority students, 25.8 million. In
California the ethnic distribution of public schools is more profound. with White students
consisting of 24.10% of the population (CDE, 2017b). The difference between racism today and
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 25
in the past is that modern-day racism is more subtle, invisible, and insidious (López, 2003). The
subtleties can lead to equity-blind and color-mute discourse that continues to perpetuate the
status quo by rendering the needs of the most vulnerable children invisible (Bonilla-Silva, 2014;
Pollock, 2004). Equity blind refers to the disregard the fact that schools with a high population
of minority students receive unequal access to resources. Pollock (2004) emphasized that color-
mute conversations or suppressing discourse around race creates a false reality and belief that
racism is nonexistent. For example, many do not realize that Rosa Parks’s protest occurred 18
months after the Brown ruling and that the integration of Central High School by the Little Rock
Nine happened 3 years after the ruling (López & Burciaga, 2014). When racism becomes
invisible, individuals begin to think that it is merely a thing of the past and/or only connected to
the specific act (López, 2003). As a result of this disconnect, students are uninformed about their
history, as schools do not utilize textbooks or curriculum that accurately depict the history of all
Americans to create a dialogue about racism past and present. Yet years of subjection to the
cruelty of mental and physical oppression have created a significant gap in opportunity between
the treatments of African American children in U.S. public schools.
The opportunity gaps created by a tumultuous past and the constant inequities that remain
are still evident in US classrooms today. Orfield and Eaton (1996) argued:
How can a student who grows up in a family with fewer resources, in a neighborhood that
has fewer educational activities, attends a less demanding school with fewer teachers and
students who are well-prepared, and more limited curriculum have a fair chance to com-
pete with students who face none of these inequities? (as cited in Noguera, 2017, p. 132)
It is imperative for teachers to recognize the impact that history plays on the misalign-
ment of opportunities in education that prevent African American students from having an equal
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 26
playing field. The historic inequities ingrained in the education system can cause an unconscious
bias in educators with respect to minority students. The goal of this research was to address the
role of CRP on these and other current issues found in the U.S. public school system.
Current State of African American Education in U.S. Public Schools
More than 60 years after Brown v. Board of Education (1954), issues of race continue to
be a persistent cause of the disparities in education for African American students. Current
research reports that the United States continues to have the most inequitable education system in
the world (Darling-Hammond, Noguera, Cobb, & Meier, 2007). Within the politics of education
there is an assumption that all legal citizens have certain inalienable rights. including the right to
vote to ensure that the government and policies work in the interest of everyone (D. Bell, 1995;
López, 2003). There is also an assumption that people will assert their rights as citizens through
influence, power, conflict, political pressure, and voting to minimize real and opportunity costs
(López, 2003). Unfortunately, the concept of rights is elusive to the voice and issues of margin-
alized communities in the politics of education until the issue of racial inequality is fully ad-
dressed. As López (2003) explained,
issues of race and other areas of difference must play an instrumental role in our knowl-
edge base and practices, so that the important topics pertaining to education policy and
leadership is not solely rooted in technical knowledge but rests in the nuances of creating
schools that truly work for all children, families, and members of the school community.
(p. 87)
Had the Supreme Court required the representation of African Americans on school
boards and other policymaking bodies after Brown (1954), African Americans would have had
access to decision making—a prerequisite to full equality still not attained in many
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 27
predominantly Black school systems (D. Bell, 1983). Until there is equity among all stake-
holders to provide input in the creation and implementation of education policies and procedures,
the gaps in opportunity for African American students and other marginalized groups will
continue to widen.
Additional factors contributing to the opportunity gap experienced by African American
students, as identified by Darling-Hammond (2010), include the resegregation of schools that
equate to unequal access to quality teachers, curriculum, and increased dropout rates (Orfield &
Eaton, 1996). Many of the nation’s African American students remain segregated from their
White counterparts, who have more affluent families and are able to gain access to wealthier
schools (Carter, 2009). By 2000, resegregated schools were the norm across the United States,
with 71% of African American students attending majority ethnic schools (Pitre, 2014). Many
segregated schools with a predominantly African American population have overcrowded
facilities; poor libraries; and materials that are old, dilapidated, and must be shared among
students (Darling- Hammond, 2010). A study by Houck (2010) examined the resegregation of
schools in the Nashville School District from 1999 to 2004 and revealed that students’ race and
poverty characteristics were significantly associated with an increase in the number of
nontenured teachers.
The small amount of progress achieved in attaining academic equality after the Civil
Rights Movement (1954–1968) and landmark legislation of 1896 and 1954 has waned. Re-
segregation of schools has become more prevalent as complacency developed after the Brown
case. Darling-Hammond (2010) emphasized how resegregation of schools is a critical factor
responsible for the disparities in the academic achievement of African American students:
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 28
Deepening segregation tied to dwindling resources has occurred as African American
students are increasingly concentrated in central city public schools, many of which have
become majority “minority” over the past decade while their funding has fallen further
behind . . . a group of schools emerged that can be characterized as apartheid schools—
serving exclusively students of color in low-income communities. (p. 38)
The traditional minorities now comprise a majority of the population, as described by Darling-
Hammond (2010a) above. Therefore, the definition of minority, “consisting of a group that is
significantly smaller in number” (“Minority,” 2017, para. 2), is no longer fitting. Groups that are
different in race, religious affiliation, nation of origin, sexuality, and gender and have less power
or representation as a result of social constructs will be referred to as minoritized persons (Smith
et al., 2016). Minoritized persons were not born to be discriminated against; rather, this behavior
has been placed upon them as exemplified by the inequities found in low- income schools, such
as teacher quality and consequently quality courses and curriculum.
Unqualified teachers are disproportionately found in schools with high minority and low
socioeconomic populations (Barton, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 2010b). In 2001, students in
highly segregated minority schools in California were 5 times more likely to have an uncertified
teacher (Pitre, 2014). This is a problem because research has shown teacher quality to be the
most important school-based factor in student achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2001a; Pitre,
2014; Rand, 2012). In addition to lacking experience, unqualified teachers lack certification,
subject matter training, and pedagogical training. Therefore, as a result of having high numbers
of inexperienced, unqualified teachers, minoritized students face significant differences in the
availability of courses, curriculum, materials, and equipment afforded to them. Inequitable
access to qualified teachers correlates with courses and curricula that impede African American
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 29
students’ exposure to college preparatory courses in high school. Multiple studies found that
minoritized students attend schools that have more remedial, vocational, and special education
courses (Boykin & Noguera, 2011; Darling-Hammond, 2010b; Pitre, 2014) that often have an
overrepresentation of African American students. By contrast, minority students are dispropor-
tionately referred for special education services on account of behavior and learning problems
compared to their White counterparts (Russo & Talbert-Johnson, 1997). Many teachers expect
African American students to conform to the status quo method of teaching and often refer to
students’ indifference as defiance or a learning disability.
Research has shown that teachers are the most important school-based resource for
equity, yet experienced and effective teachers with strong educational backgrounds remain
concentrated in schools and districts with higher income families and fewer students of color
(Houck, 2010; Orfield, 2014). Experienced and certificated teachers have both subject matter
knowledge and knowledge of teaching and learning. The inequitable distribution of qualified
teachers is a major cause of the disparity in learning. After analyzing 900 school districts in
Texas, Ferguson (1991) found that the single most important measurable cause of increased
student learning was teacher expertise. The differential in teacher effectiveness is a strong
determinant of student learning more so than class size and heterogeneity (Darling-Hammond,
2001a). Students who are assigned to several ineffective teachers in a row have significantly
lower achievement gains with differences as much as 50 percentile points over 3 years in com-
parison to students who are consistently assigned to highly effective teachers (Sanders & Rivers,
1996). Research has further posited that African American students are twice as likely to be
assigned to ineffective teachers, because poor and minority students are concentrated in
inequitably funded schools with an uneven allocation of resources. Expert teachers use strategies
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 30
to address the needs of all students while being able to implement curriculum that is challenging
rather than rote learning or dumbed down (Darling-Hammond, 2001a). Results from a study by
Dreeben (1987) analyzed reading instruction and outcomes for 300 White and Black students in
Chicago. He found that “when black and white children of comparable ability experience the
same instruction, they do about equally well, and this is true when the instruction is excellent in
quality and when it is inadequate” (p. 34). The study further revealed that the majority of African
American students received a much lower quality of instruction than the White students, thereby
creating a racial gap in aggregate achievement. Schools serving predominantly minority and
poor populations offer fewer advanced courses and more remedial courses (Vanneman et al.,
2009). Teacher interaction with students in lower track classes is less motivating, less support-
ive, and less demanding, thus leading to interactions that are less academically oriented (Darling-
Hammond, 2001a; Robinson, Good, & Brophy, 1987; Oakes, 1986). Schools are the only public
institution that can reach the majority of American society and explicitly commit to equalizing
opportunity (Orfield, 2014). However, the common presumption about educational inequality is
that it resides in students with inadequate capacities to benefit from what education the school
has to offer (Darling-Hammond, 2001a) rather than looking at the unequal learning opportunities
afforded to students based on their race and social status—thus setting up the failure that society
predicts for them.
Opportunity Gap—Not Achievement Gap
Viewing students from the lens of an achievement gap perspective is equivalent to
standardization. This point of view negatively assumes all students come from environments that
are equal and equitable and therefore students of color simply need to apply grit and tenacity to
achieve at the same rates as the status quo. On the other hand, the opportunity gap takes into
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 31
consideration the historic, cultural, social, economic, and racial constructs that minoritized
students encounter that prohibit an equal and equitable education, thereby accounting for the gap.
Educational Debt
Much like the national debt, the educational debt was conceived to address the inability of
the courts to provide equitable outcomes for African American students. Ladson-Billings (2006)
argued that the focus on the achievement gap is misplaced and that looking at the achievement
gap from year to year is misleading, because it does not address the reasons for the gap. She
emphasized that the historical, economic, sociopolitical, and moral decisions and policies sur-
rounding American society have created an educational debt, much like the national debt, and
that if people look at issues in education in terms of a debt, instead of focusing on the achieve-
ment gap, then people will need to take ownership for their role in creating the gaps in opportuni-
ties (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Furthermore, when people take ownership for their part, they can
work toward creating systems and interventions to decrease the debt.
Achievement gap explanations can force researchers, policymakers, and practitioners into
conceptualizing students of color from a deficit perspective that is transferred into practices with
students. Furthermore, subscribers of deficit thinking contend that “deviations from mainstream
forms of verbal and cognitive processing are viewed as dysfunctional, pathological, or inferior”
(T. C. Howard, 2010, p. 30). Deficit-based thinking of White educators toward African Ameri-
can students creates a classroom that bolsters low expectations and a disengaged student body.
What people believe, including our biases and prejudices about others, deeply influences how
they relate to them and inevitably, how they teach them (Gorski & Pothini, 2013; T. C. Howard,
2010; Ullucci, 2007). Ng (2006) studied teacher candidates and found that preservice teachers
were likely to avoid teaching in urban schools due to the misperception that students of color
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 32
were behavior problems and would be more difficult to engage. Individuals subscribing to
deficit thinking have frequently contended that low-income students and students of color are
unfit for academic success (T. C. Howard, 2010). Deficit thinking such as this is indicative of
the cultural dissonance between the lived and schooled experiences of White teachers and the
experience of their students of color (Bergeron, 2008; Ladson-Billings, 2011; Milner, 2011).
Context-neutral mindsets further deficit based thinking; therefore, teachers should
incorporate the context of students’ backgrounds to make the tasks relevant. However, many
teachers choose to adopt a color-blind philosophy and avoid the discussion of race altogether,
believing that they can separate themselves from the responsibility of needing to consider the
context by which a child is accessing learning (Liu, 2006). The notion that primarily White
educators hold that they should avoid the discussion of race and how it operates within the
confines of education is an oppressive yet prevalent epistemology within the educational system.
Delpit (2006) argued that “if one does not see color, one does not really see children” (p. 177).
By refusing to consider culture and race as relevant to student learning, teachers and school
leaders inevitably wound a child’s self-concept, render them invisible, and allow White people to
remain ignorant of the institutionalized racism to which they are continually subjected (L. A.
Bell, 2002; Delpit, 1995). The notion that race is not a factor in society actually legitimizes the
inequities that still exist and perpetuate the beliefs, attitudes, and practices that lead to disparag-
ing outcomes for students of color (Bonilla-Silva, 2003).
Deficit Mindset
One way of thinking about the achievement gap that has been reinforced by school
officials is through the deficit lens. Deficit mindsets covertly and tacitly construct White
students as intellectually and academically superior to others (Milner, 2012). White privilege
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 33
presents White students as the norm to which other racial and ethnic groups are compared
(Foster, 1999; Milner, 2012; Russo & Talbert-Johnson, 1997). Historically, the idea of White
privilege generated the resistance of many Whites toward allowing non-Whites access to main-
stream society in the United States. This situation has been evident as African American students
were prevented from receiving equitable educational opportunities (e.g., attending schools that
were underfunded and segregated based on their racial and ethnic classification; T. C. Howard,
2010). Remnants of White privilege are ingrained in the current public education system. The
difference is that the beliefs and behaviors are more subtle and covert, appearing in the form of
low expectations, exclusion from academic enrichment programs, and inequitable funding for
schools attended by students of color (T. C. Howard, 2010; R. W. Irvine & Irvine, 1983; Kozol,
1991). Teachers who subscribe to deficit-based paradigms typically seek to rid students of their
cultural knowledge and means of communicating and to replace their ways of knowing with
mainstream cultural norms (T. C. Howard, 2010; Valenzuela, 1999). Teachers who ascribe to a
deficit-based notion of students have low expectations and provide ineffective instruction, as
teachers question the intellectual capability of students’ abilities based on the assumption of race,
culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (T. C. Howard, 2010). Deficit-based explanations
are centered around students of color as lacking culture, as coming from a culture of poverty that
is unsuitable for attaining academic success, as having a disdain for academic achievement, or as
having parents who lack concern for their child’s academic goals (T. C. Howard, 2010; Ogbu,
1987; Steele, 1997; Suzuki & Valencia, 1997). Culturally responsive teaching attempts to alter
deficit-based thinking.
Meritocracy works largely to perpetuate the system of domination by those who are
already advantaged in society in that success and failure are based on individual characteristics of
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 34
the learner instead of institutionalized discrimination. U.S. society is philosophically and ideo-
logically structured such that all people are supposedly created equal with the same opportunities
for success (Milner, 2012). People tend to explain academic success or deficiencies on the indi-
vidual characteristics of the learner, rather than the contribution of institutional factors (Lynn &
Adams, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995b; Milner, 2012). They argue that benefits should be
afforded to those who demonstrate the talent and effort required by the system of domination.
This is another example of a cultural conflict that is frequently evident in schools that serve
minority children in that educators’ cultural understanding and ideologies often take precedence
over those of their students. By not acknowledging the greater social and structural inequalities
at play, the myth of meritocracy minimizes the race and language factors that often impede a
student’s opportunity to receive equitable access to meaningful education, and perpetuates
cultural conflicts (Liu, 2011; Milner, 2012; Ullucci, 2007). There is a “legacy of inequality in
U.S. education” (Darling-Hammond, 2007, p. 320).
Focusing on the opportunity gap instead of the achievement gap allows for examining the
causes for disparities in education that are structural and systemic rather than blaming the
student. The disparity in achievement is usually between White and non-White students, and the
difference can be seen in standardized test scores, grade point averages (GPAs), graduation rates,
and college admission data (Pitre, 2014). The focus of the achievement gap is one dimensional
—namely, on standardization and the individual student— whereas the opportunity gap encom-
passes a more complex and nuanced reality (Milner, 2012). Those in education must be persis-
tent in questioning what knowledge is; how it is constructed and validated; and who decides the
worth, value, and meanings of knowledge (Apple, 2006; Milner, 2012). Milner (2012) high-
lighted the implications of framing opportunity accounts for the inequitable systems, processes,
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 35
structures, policies, and practices demonstrated by research to prevent minoritized students from
reaching their full potential.
Educational outcomes for students of color are a function of their unequal access to key
educational resources, including skilled teachers and quality curriculum, than they are of race
(Darling Hammond, 2007; T. C. Howard, 2010). Many educators subscribe to deficit thinking in
regard to the expectations of students of color and from low socioeconomic backgrounds.
Research has demonstrated the detrimental effects that low expectations can have on the aca-
demic performance of students (Avery & Walker, 1993; T. C. Howard, 2010; J. J. Irvine & York,
1993), in addition to having a lack of available resources. Pedagogy and educational experiences
must be designed in ways that address the varying needs of all students and are responsive to the
sociocultural context in which students live and learn (Gay, 2010; T. C. Howard, 2010; Ladson-
Billings, 2009; Milner 2010, 2012). To this end, the focus of this research was upon how teach-
ers perceived their role of fostering an equitable learning environment and on what teachers build
capacity for a more equitable environment in learning.
Resources
There continues to be pervasive disparities in educational resources afforded to African
American children that continue to perpetuate the gaps in educational outcomes. Education is
believed to be the “great equalizer”; however, the inequitable funding of urban schools by the
government is disparaging. Statistically, higher spending schools outperform lower spending
schools, thus causing the gap in opportunity for students in low-income areas to widen (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2007). This is another systemic way that inequity is perpetuated, and it
connects directly to African American students’ opportunities in schools.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 36
Teachers. Another issue in equitable opportunities for minoritized students are the
teachers. The largest populations of incoming teachers are White, and they are often not pre-
pared to teach diverse students. They often default to habits from their educational experiences
that contribute to the gap in accessible educational opportunities for their African American
students (Delpit, 1988). Teaching is often based on the assumptions that are developed by a
teacher’s understanding of the world, which racial and cultural identity deeply influence (Roman-
owski, 1996). Those assumptions often follow teachers to the classroom, and the stereotypes that
they carry with them are typically a strong indicator of student success (Bright, Turesky, Putzel,
& Stang, 2012; Milner, 2010, 2012; Muijs & Reynolds, 2002). When teachers are biased and a
lack of positive student–teacher relationships within the classroom causes them to underestimate
students, they have a tendency to underserve them.
Preparing teachers in preservice education programs with the knowledge, attitudes, and
skills to implement a culturally responsive lesson can lead to improved academic success of
ethnically diverse students. Teachers working in schools with large, diverse student populations
often exclude issues of culture in their lessons. With diversity education being used as an
ancillary component to instructional methodology in teacher education programs, it is easy to see
why teaching principles are disconnected from the learning contexts of students (Bakari, 2003).
Building a cultural knowledge base requires teachers to do more than just acknowledge differ-
ences and necessitates the practice of championing the lived experiences of students as viable
classroom resources (Moll, Amanti, Neff, & Gonzalez, 1992). However, Cochran-Smith and
Power (2010) identified a gap in teacher quality whereby schools with large numbers of histori-
cally marginalized students are more likely to have teachers who are inexperienced or teaching
outside of their area of expertise. As G. R. Howard (2016) stated, “We can’t teach what we don’t
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 37
know” (as cited in Gay, 2002, p. 1), and this is the sentiment with which many teachers grapple
in addressing the needs of a diverse student population. Many teachers are inadequately prepared
to teach ethnically diverse students as a result of some professional programs’ equivocation to
including multicultural education despite the increasing numbers and disproportionate poor
performance of students of color (Gay, 2002). While there is an overwhelming amount of
research that shows that social progress in the United States is directly connected to equity, and
quality education (Achinstein, Ogawa, Sexton, & Freitas, 2010), American schools are failing to
translate that research into the need for the diversity of teachers in the classroom.
CRP embraces student academic achievement, the teacher’s ability to develop in students
cultural competence, and students’ development of a critical consciousness (Ladson-Billings,
1995a). Teachers who use CRP as a strategy exhibit a passion for what they are teaching, believe
all students could and must succeed, and create bonds with students and their families. Good,
effective, teaching goes beyond race as a determinant to teach minoritized students using CRP
(T. C. Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1995a). CRP puts teachers in an ethical, emotional, and
academic partnership with ethnically diverse students that is anchored in respect, honor, integrity,
resource sharing, and a deep belief in the possibility of excellence (Gay, 2002).
Curriculum. An additional aspect of the opportunity gap lies within the curriculum
taught in schools. Woodson (1931) evaluated the curriculum of southern schools, finding that
the curriculum failed to include factual information about African American culture. For
Woodson, teaching African Americans about their true history was a form of self-empowerment
during a time when blacks were still viewed as three-fifths of a person. Woodson posited that
“the so-called modern education with all its defects, however, does others so much more good
than it does the Negro, because it has been worked out in conformity to the needs of those who
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 38
have oppressed weaker peoples” (p. 20). Similarly, Du Bois (1935) argued that schools should
give special consideration to instructing African American youth from the vantage point of the
African American in order to encourage them to believe that they could accomplish just as much
as their White counterparts. Du Bois’s (1935) theory may have been a precursor for CRP.
Further analysis of the background of African American education and teaching practices leads to
an understanding of why there is a gap between African Americans and students in other demo-
graphics (The Education Trust West, 2011). Without being able to make relevant connections to
the curriculum, African American students continue to struggle to achieve (Delpit, 1988; Ladson-
Billings 1995b).
African American students have traditionally received a substandard curriculum due to
the high number of novice teachers assigned to urban schools. American education has not been
very culturally responsive to ethnically diverse students. Instead, traditional public school
instruction is based on White Americans’ perceptions of the educational needs of Black Ameri-
cans, thus controlling their education and placing students in double jeopardy, where students
toggle between mastering the lesson while functioning under unfamiliar cultural conditions (Gay,
2002). Minoritized students have been expected to divorce themselves from their cultures and
learn based on the cultural norms of European Americans (Gay, 2002). Curriculum continues to
be dominated by content that focuses on the contributions of White people and leaves minori-
tized people out of the conversation. When curricula are void of the acknowledgment of various
races, students are learning something valuable about the perceptions of that race in that they may
end up feeling as if who they are is of no serious value to society or to the world (Banks, 2001;
Gay, 2010; Milner, 2010). It is imperative to acknowledge cultural diversity as a way to meet the
educational needs of ethnically diverse students.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 39
Culture encompasses many aspects and has direct implications for teaching and learning
(Gay, 2002). To establish the importance of culture in the classroom, teachers can examine the
unspoken norms and assumptions stemming from instructional practices that reinforce students’
perceptions of color and socioeconomic status (Friedus & Noguera, 2017). Cultural values,
traditions, communication, learning styles, contributions, and relational patterns of ethnic groups
should be incorporated into curriculum. Incorporating these different facets of culture is required
to make schooling more interesting, relevant, and responsive to the needs of a multiethnic student
population. The influence of culture on attitudes, values, and behaviors that students and teach-
ers bring to the instructional process has to be a major determinant of how the problems of
underachievement are solved (Gay, 2002).
The focus of this research was primarily on teachers’ perceptions and enactment of CRP,
as inappropriate and ineffective teaching can alter the academic performance of students. The
ability of teachers to provide well-chosen curricula and appropriately designed instruction are
contingent not only upon teachers knowing their students but also on recognition of how
acknowledging and incorporating students’ background into their curriculum can influence
learning. The theory of multicultural education can act as a means to close the opportunity gap.
Multicultural Education
Diversity in education is essential to the academic and social development of all students,
not just students of color. Because of the lack of teachers of color, there exists a gap in cultural
knowledge (Wilder, 2000). Multicultural education recognizes the diversity of the human race
within classrooms and the need for educators to create systems that promote respect and equita-
ble education for all students. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2017), 13.3% of the na-
tion’s people are African Americans. Public schools are continuously experiencing demographic
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 40
transformation, and the assimilation model that exists in public education is failing American
students. According to Nieto and Bode (2012),
multicultural education is a process of comprehensive school reform and basic education
for all students. It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in
schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic,
religious, economic, and gender, among others) that students, their communities, and
teachers represent. Multicultural education permeates the curriculum and instructional
strategies used in schools, as well as the interactions among teachers, students, and
parents, and the very way that schools conceptualize the nature of teaching and learning.
Because it uses critical pedagogy as its underlying philosophy and focuses on knowledge,
reflection, and action (praxis) as the basis for social change, multicultural education
promotes the democratic principles of social justice. (p. 307).
Students of all ethnic backgrounds benefit from a diverse multicultural education that
encourages positive, fluid relationships (Roberts, 2010) and explores the struggles and the suc-
cesses of people of color (Graham & Anderson, 2008). Despite the arguments of scholars,
multicultural education is not an integral part of all K-12 curriculums, thus leaving the realities of
social problems and racial identities continuously distorted and incomplete (Banks, 1993; Gay,
2002, 2010).
A variety of cultural knowledge is empowering. Dee and Penner (2016) conducted a
quantitative study about the effects of CRP on student outcomes for historically marginalized
African American high school students. Several students receiving a 2.0 or below in the eighth
grade and considered at risk entering the ninth grade were given a year-long ethnic studies class.
The course focused on themes of social justice, discrimination, stereotypes, and social
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 41
movements from multiple race and ethnic groups that are not typically represented in U.S. social
studies curricula. Students were also required to explore their individual and family identity,
along with the history of their community, to design service learning projects based on their
findings. In order to create a correlational study, other students meeting the criterion were not
asked to participate in the ethnic studies course. The study results for students who did not
receive the ethnic studies course were as follows: Student attendance increased by 5.6%; GPA,
by .039%; and credits earned on all ninth-grade academic outcomes increased by 6.3 credits. The
results for students who did receive the ethnic studies course were as follows: Student attendance
increased by 21%; GPA rose 1.4 grade points; and credits earned on all ninth-grade academic
outcomes increased by 23 credits. These results indicated that the implementation of CRP led to
significant improvements in ninth-grade GPA, attendance, and credits earned and could be effec-
tive in supporting the academic progression of African American students. Delpit (1988) argued
that when stakeholders, regardless of race and ethnicity, are educated in a culturally relevant
curriculum and gain relevant knowledge, they can work to create a more just society. Although
the focus of this research was on the effects that CRP had on African American students, the
learning benefits associated with the various strategies are effective for all students. The next
section defines, discusses, and shares empirical studies illustrating the effects of CRP on the
academic achievement of African American students.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
When academic knowledge and skills incorporate students’ lived experiences, frame-of-
reference lessons become personally meaningful and more appealing and are learned more easily
and thoroughly (Gay 2000, 2002). The goal of CRP, which was the focus of this study, is to
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 42
affirm African American students—empowering them intellectually, socially, emotionally, and
politically through cultural referents in order to impart knowledge, skills, and behavior.
In 1990, Ladson-Billings sought to shift the blame for academic deficits away from
African American students to the educational system in such a way that would encourage edu-
cators to incorporate their students’ assets into their curriculum and daily practices within urban
classrooms containing African American students. Through her research in this area, she devel-
oped the term culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995b). Ladson-Billings (1995b)
noted that for pedagogy to be culturally relevant, there were four criteria: collective empower-
ment, academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness. Ladson-Billings
(2014) discussed academic success as the intellectual growth that a student experiences as a
result of classroom environment and instructional experiences. Academic success requires educ-
ators to prepare students in the areas of literacy, mathematics, technology, and civics to get them
ready for a democratic society. CRP suggests that to make advances in student academic compe-
tence, students must engage in collaborative sharing to ensure their ability to be educationally
competitive with their dominant counterparts. CRP also requires educators to create and culti-
vate the cultural competence of each student in home, community, and school cultures
(Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
Teachers’ classroom practices have the greatest impact of all school-based factors
(Lingard & Mills, 2007), meaning that teaching among diverse populations requires teachers to
work toward understanding the cultural aspects shared among students and between teacher and
student (Young, 2010). CRP depends on teachers’ ability to be nonjudgmental and inclusive of
the cultural differences within their diverse population of students (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper,
2011). CRP requires that teachers are intentional about accessing students’ cultural knowledge
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 43
and linking it to the curriculum, especially where the cultural context of the teacher does not
align with that of the student (Sleeter, 2008). For example, T. C. Howard (2001) examined
African American students’ perceptions of instructional practices used by four teachers who were
considered to be culturally responsive, meaning that they were able to incorporate features of the
students’ cultural capital into their practice. T. C. Howard (2001) found that students felt more
engaged and willing to work when their teachers displayed caring bonds and attitudes toward
them, established community and family-type classroom environments, and made learning
entertaining and fun. As part of the present study, teachers’ perceptions, beliefs, and enactment
of CRP in the classroom were observed to see how a cohesive classroom is constructed.
Milner (2011) spent 19 months in an urban school focusing on how one White male
science teacher developed cultural knowledge and competence to effectively teach at the primar-
ily African American school. He wanted to know what made the teacher so successful and in
what ways the struggles and successes of this teacher contributed to the building of cultural
competence. Similar to T. C. Howard (2001), Milner (2011) found that the teacher’s success
with students relied in part on building and sustaining meaningful and authentic relationships
with students. For instance, instead of sending students out of the classroom through referrals
due to undesirable behavior or noncompliance with school rules, the teacher chose to adopt a
philosophy of restoration, in that a student had an opportunity to “get it right the next time” (p.
77). He refused to give up on his students but rather chose to meet students where they were
instead of using a one-size-fits-all approach to teaching and learning. He explained to his
students that a criterion for success existed, and his expectation was that each of his students
meet that criterion; he demonstrated a positive level of caring when conflict arose rather than
letting it overshadow his students’ opportunities to learn. One way of doing this was to ask
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 44
personal questions about students and engage them in friendly conversations about their interests
and activities. Milner (2011) recounted an anecdote that the teacher shared about a student
athlete who was having difficulty completing his homework. The teacher showed up at the
student’s basketball games and even played one on one with the student. Once the student
developed a positive relationship with his teacher, he did not want to disappoint him by not
turning in his work. The teacher reported that the student missed only two homework assign-
ments the entire year, because of the teacher’s efforts in showing interest in the student. The
teacher refused to adopt the color-blind approach (previously discussed) in his practice; he built
an understanding of how his White race was perceived by his students and worked to change the
negative view by recognizing his students’ identities and developing a belief system that teaching
is a family and communal affair. He shared personal narratives with his students to provide a
window into his life and invited students to share theirs, thereby indicating that he valued them
beyond their roles as students. He took his students’ perceptions of him to heart and worked on
developing their understanding of the commonalities that existed between them, which helped to
serve as a bridge to building cultural competence (Milner, 2011) and his ability to incorporate
CRP.
Culturally relevant teachers who are aware of their conceptions of self and others are
meticulous in how they structure social relationships (Milner, 2011) and continue to develop the
current cultural knowledge that they know; they are teachers who effectively aid in the
implementation of CRP (Banks, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1992). These teachers genuinely believe
in their students’ intellectual potential and understand that it is their responsibility to facilitate the
unveiling of their potential, by leading them to critical consciousness without ignoring their
students’ ethnic and cultural identities (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995b; Sleeter, 2001).
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 45
Young (2010) conducted a qualitative study in which an attempt was made to work col-
laboratively with a group of administrators and teachers at one urban school to define, imple-
ment, and assess CRP as a viable pedagogical tool. Taking on a participant-as-observer role,
Young used CRT as the foundational framework for examining the racial practices existing in
schools to engage administrators and teacher leaders in difficult discussions surrounding race and
racism. Together, they examined research surrounding CRP to understand how it could be
effectively implemented into classroom practice to bring about change in academic outcomes for
African American students. Based on the assumption that racism was deeply rooted in the
structure of schools as the underlying cause of the racial achievement gap, the purpose of the
study was to engage in a collaborative study inquiry to understand and eventually alter the
oppressive conditions of schools.
Young’s (2010) study took place in an elementary school in a large metropolitan area in
the northeastern United States. The total enrollment was 220 students, 80% of whom were
African American or Latina/o or Hispanic and had test scores that historically classified them
under the “needs improvement” category. Eight participants from the school’s leadership team
took part in the study, including the principal intern who asked to be a part of the study upon
receiving information that the study was aimed at promoting antiracism in urban education. Over
the course of 3 months, data collection strategies such as interviews, inquiry group meetings,
follow-up meetings with the principal and the principal intern, classroom observations, the
participants’ reflections, the district’s documents, online discussions, and the researcher’s
journals were employed. Young reported that the participants, especially new teachers, found
CRP almost impossible to implement. They felt overwhelmed with the amount of time that they
had to cover course material in order to assist students in meeting grade-level proficiency and
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 46
because CRP stands in sharp contrast to standardized curriculum and high-stakes tests (Morrison,
Robbins, and Rose, 2008). Young shared an understanding of why the new teachers reacted as
they did. Participants raised concerns centered around three critical challenges: encouraging
educators to confront their own cultural biases, addressing systemic roots of racism in school
policies and practices, and adequately equipping preservice and inservice teachers with the
knowledge of how to implement theories into practice. Toward this end, Young found that much
of what the participants were complaining about had much to do with the current state of teacher
preparation programs in that not enough was being done to equip teachers with the support
needed to implement scholarly theories into their practice—which is one weakness with respect
to the enactment of CRP. Preservice teachers lacking an opportunity to develop their awareness,
knowledge, and skills working with diverse populations are inadequately prepared to meet the
needs of classrooms with a diverse student population (Avery & Walker, 1993). To this end,
participants in the present study were asked to reflect on their experience in their preservice
teacher program pertaining to implementing CRP in their class. Prospective teachers believe that
having high expectations for the academic performance of minoritized students can make a
difference and that teachers must be aware of and inclusive of elements of diverse cultures
(Avery & Walker, 1993).
Morrison et al. (2008) synthesized 45 classroom-based research studies in the area of
CRP, from 1995 to 2008, to understand how it was enacted in classrooms. The researchers found
that teachers’ use of explicit instruction methods such as modeling, scaffolding, and clarifying
helped guide their students through the curriculum successfully. Building upon student suc-
cesses, planned activities were implemented to develop student self-efficacy by focusing on their
strengths prior to moving on to more rigorous and challenging material. To assist students
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 47
further, effective teachers of CRP set flexible schedules in such a way that students had access to
them during various times of the day. Finally, the teachers expressed their desire and determina-
tion to ensure high levels of learning for all of their students. The creation of nurturing and
cooperative environments is also a hallmark of CRP. Morrison et al. pointed out that these char-
acteristics were demonstrated when classroom inequities occurred and teachers would step in to
encourage and support their students in feeling a sense of belonging and emotional and physical
safety. Culturally relevant teachers also maintained high expectations of their students by
immediately enforcing the rules when and if they were violated, refraining from arguments, and
facilitating an environment focused on learning.
Teachers also built on students’ funds of knowledge that embraced students’ cultures,
experiences, artifacts, values, feelings, language, and identity—which is a powerful way to
communicate to students that they are important. The researchers also found that teachers
brought primary sources to their classrooms and asked students and their families to also share
information, thus allowing them to serve as an academic resource (Morrison et al., 2008).
Students were given an opportunity to communicate with teachers outside of academic matters so
that teachers could gain insight into their students that would later benefit them in designing
lessons and class discussions. The study highlighted various organizational structures necessary
to fully enact CRP, such as collaboration time, funding, and smaller class sizes, noting that, albeit
difficult, the pedagogy is necessary to ensure high levels of learning for all students (Morrison et
al., 2008).
Borrero and Sanchez (2017) conducted a study that presented asset mapping as an exam-
ple of CRP enacted in classrooms. Asset mapping allows students to visually represent their
personalized stories of culture and to share these stories with their peers and community through
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 48
a gallery walk type of forum. Focusing on students as the prime holders of their cultural beliefs,
behaviors, traditions, and perspectives, the researchers chose to call special attention to students
as prime entities in the construction and study of assets. The work with new teachers, primarily
preservice teachers, was at the core of the study. For this study, the researchers sought to explore
asset mapping with teachers and students in public school classrooms. The project required three
1st- or 2nd-year teachers to create their own maps, debrief with colleagues, and then prepare a
project for their 15 students to implement in their classrooms. All three teachers were females
(two White and one African American) between the ages of 25 and 35. Their students, eight
females and seven males, were between the ages of 8 and 11. Of the girls, one was of mixed
race, one was African American, and six were Latina. Of the boys, one was Asian/ Pacific
Islander and six were Latino. The researchers met with the teacher participants at the beginning
of the year, encouraging them to invite family and community members to also participate in the
asset mapping activities. After the projects were carried out, teachers and students were given
the opportunity to share their experiences and reflections of the asset mapping activities. The
themes that emerged from the participants were learning about self, learning about others, and
building community.
During the mapping process dedicated to self-awareness, students were asked to reflect
on their own personal and family history. They were asked to speak with their parents and
grandparents, review old photographs of their family, and learn about who their ancestors were.
Students were given the autonomy to choose how they mapped those experiences; some devel-
oped timelines, and others created pop-out details that were folded into the paper. One of the
most important aspects of the mapping process was that teachers participated alongside their
students. One teacher explained that she felt it was an important part of relationship building
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 49
with her students in that they were able to learn from one another’s shared experiences, which led
into how teachers and students learned about one another. Teachers organized a gallery walk to
encourage students to share their maps and talk about their experiences. This activity allowed for
a universal language. It did not matter what language students were speaking, all were able to
learn from one another, which enabled connection and community building (Borrero & Sanchez,
2017).
Teachers and students discussed the ways that asset mapping impacted the classroom
environment. Students developed a sense of pride about their families and completion of their
projects. Teachers observed an increase in positive communication both in and out of the
classroom. Borrero and Sanchez (2017) reported that teachers attributed the success of the
project to family involvement and the access to key elements that they were given as a result.
This vulnerability is an important aspect of CRP, and to this study, as it seeks to build connec-
tions between students home lives and their school identities (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
In her 2014 study, Ladson-Billings reflected on the uses and misuses of her theory of CRP
since its 1995 inception. She addressed various researchers who have challenged or added
suggestions to her theory, such as Beauboeuf-Lafontant (1999), who argued that because of the
political shortchanging that has occurred for students of color, CRP required a more political
edge, and Dixson and Rousseau (2006), who thought that CRP should take a more feminist
perspective when it came to seeing teachers as an avenue by which change could occur. In her
reflection, Ladson-Billings (2014) acknowledged that culture extends further than race and
ethnicity; it also encompasses age, gender, language, and beliefs. In this work, she proposed that
CRP undergo a “remix” of sorts to incorporate CSP (Paris, 2012), which works to “ensure that
the consistently marginalized students are repositioned into a place of normativity—that is, they
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 50
become subjects in the instructional process, not mere objects” (Ladson-Billings, 2014, p. 76).
The evolution of CRP to CSP equips teachers with the skills needed to rejuvenate their practices
and to avoid a sort of “death” of classroom practices that can negatively influence African
American students. As described by Ladson-Billings (2014),
the academic death of students is made evident in the disengagement, academic failure,
dropout suspension, and expulsion that have become an all too familiar part of schooling
in urban schools. Academic death leaves more young people unemployed, underem-
ployed, and unemployable in our cities and neighborhoods, and vulnerable to the criminal
justice system. Furthermore, this vicious cycle often continues with the children they will
parent. If we hope to disrupt this cycle, our pedagogies must evolve to address the com-
plexities of social inequalities. (p. 77)
Not only is CRP is suggested for providing new strategies for meeting the needs of students, but
also it is necessary to ensuring the positive trajectory of students’ lives.
Ladson-Billings (2014) recounted a seminar course that she constructed, entitled Peda-
gogy, Performance, and Culture. The purpose was to give teachers who were interested in urban
teaching a relevant teacher education experience. Students were provided the opportunity to
speak one on one with each of the lecturers involved in the lecture series that ran concurrently
with the seminar. Ladson-Billings (2014) relied on the expertise of her students to provide her
with new understandings of how popular culture could be enacted to engage in conversations
about critical theoretical concepts and the development of pedagogical strategies. An example of
this would be when she asked her students to “spit a poem” (p. 79) through spoken word, stu-
dents were able to deliver content that “brought their audience to tears” (p. 79). Her goal was to
show that the knowledge and skills of learners are a critical component of CRP and essential to
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 51
the overall learning process (Ladson-Billings, 2009). For the purposes of the present study, it
was imperative that teachers were asked about the level to which the knowledge and skills of
their students were considered when designing their lessons to align with the assertion of
Ladson-Billings (2009).
When describing how CRP has been used over the years, Ladson-Billings (2014) asserted
that state departments, school districts, and individual teachers have essentially distorted the
ideas and theories that she had developed related to CRP and had reduced the pedagogy to
simplistic ideas of adding books with people of color, having cultural celebration, or posting
diverse photographs and other images around the classroom or in the hallways of the school. It
was important to her that teacher educators and teachers understand the philosophies held by
researchers Paris (2012) and Paris and Alim (2014), who felt that CRP must be pushed further
and who first decided to name and define CSP. Paris and Alim looked to take the principles of
CRP and incorporate the multiple variables concerning identities and cultures that help to
formulate the culture of today’s youth (Ladson-Billings, 2014). CSP focuses on global identities
rather than on one racial or ethnic group. This theoretical approach is still creating notions that
are critical as educational structures continue to evolve; however, Ladson-Billings (2014) recog-
nized that a CSP has the ability to meet the demands of external performance assessments
instituted by the system of education, as well as community- and student-driven learning.
Essentially, in order for CRP to work, teachers need to critically analyze the way that race
and racism influence the educational system in its entirety. CRP cannot remain a taboo phrase; it
must be seen as a pedagogical practice that has the ability to reconstruct education (Ladson-
Billings, 1998).
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 52
CRP and Its Benefits in Social Studies
CRP requires teachers to develop curriculum that address diversity, higher thinking skills,
and support students in finding purpose in their learning and lives (Milner, 2014). Teachers who
practice CRP do so because it is consistent with what they believe to foster, support, create, and
enable students’ learning opportunities (Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Milner, 2011). Research on
CRP postulates student motivation, interest in content, self-perception, and confidence in taking
standardized tests will increase if CRP is enacted in a classroom (Aronson & Laughter, 2016).
Adopting CRP means developing students academically, and having a willingness to support
critical reflection and cultural competence for students through the attitude of teachers and cur-
riculum (Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Gay, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
Students in social studies classrooms are exposed to standardized curriculum that are
often dated and perpetuate Westernized cultural values at the expense of non-White students
(Crocco, 1998; Epstein, 2001; Fitchett, Starker, & Salyers, 2012). After her analysis of social
studies textbooks, Gay (2003) contended that the textbooks were either completely devoid of
racial issues or mentioned racism in politically correct passages (Fitchett et al., 2012). As minor-
itized students become the majority, consisting of 40% of the school enrollment (USDOE,
NCES, 2018), the changes in demographics are not reflected neither in social studies curricula
nor in the ways in which the subject is taught, therefore remaining Eurocentric.
To this end, minoritized students are disconnected between their own lived experiences
and the truths propagated in daily social studies lessons (Epstein, 2001; Fitchett et al., 2012).
Students’ lack of access to the curriculum leads to ambivalence and disinterest in historic and
civic issues, thus further perpetuating a cycle of marginalization (Fitchett et al., 2012; Kincheloe,
2001). Ethnically diverse students benefit from social studies instruction that is inclusive of
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 53
diverse literature and explicit instruction and provides opportunities for positive, meaningful
discussion as demonstrated by implementing CRP.
Ladson-Billings (2003) posited that traditional social studies teacher education programs
minimize the importance of race and diversity. Preservice teachers have misconceptions about
students’ culture, which can manifest as bias and deficit model thinking (Fitchett et al., 2012).
Young (2010) asserted that cultural bias among practitioners is exhibited in teachers’ perceived
fear that deviation from the prescribed social studies curriculum will take away from instruc-
tional time. To this end, it is important for preservice teaching programs to incorporate training
in CRP to effectively prepare teachers to teach diverse student populations. Developing cultur-
ally relevant curricula suggests teaching that rises above the traditional, myopic canon and draws
from sources, histories, and ways of thinking that characterize diverse learners (Ladson-Billings,
1995a).
To address the importance of preparing teachers to work with diverse student popula-
tions, research suggests integrating elements of CRP into teacher education programs to build
their confidence in engaging classrooms with diverse student population. Fitchett et al. (2012)
conducted a study to “provide secondary (grades 6-12) social studies preservice teachers with a
distinctive, pedagogical bridge between theory and praxis of culturally responsive ideology” (p.
591). For the study the researchers created a three-phase social studies methods course for
secondary teachers entitled Review, Reflect, and React (3Rs). The participants were 20 pre-
service social studies teachers in a graduate program. In the initial phase, preservice teachers
were asked to review their standard course of study while reflecting on who was represented
within the curriculum, who was marginalized, and in what capacity. The participants were able
to critically examine the materials for implicit Eurocentric messages; this process led to open
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 54
discourse among students and the instructor, focusing on what was present and missing from the
curriculum. In the second phase of the study, candidates interviewed the learners in their student
teaching sites to gain insight to the cultural context of the class. In addition, participants
observed the lead teacher and his or her enactment of pedagogy to engage various learners in the
class. After conducting the interviews and observations, the preservice teachers were asked to
reflect on their findings.
For the third phase, React, with guidance the preservice teachers created culturally rele-
vant lessons that, in turn, were taught to their students. The preservice teachers who engaged in
CRP were more likely to exhibit a command over the content and use sources outside of the
textbook (Fitchett et al., 2012). Previous social studies research suggested that for social studies
practitioners to develop CRP, they have to be confident in their abilities to teach culturally
diverse and at times sensitive material (Fitchett et al., 2012). Therefore, Fitchett et al. (2012)
surveyed the preservice teachers, using a pretest and posttest, regarding their efficacy to execute
specific teaching practices and tasks associated with teachers who use CRP. The survey con-
sisted of 40 questions whereby participants were asked to rate their confidence in their ability to
engage in CRP and in teaching diverse social studies content. The content questions referenced
slavery, discovery of America, Trail of Tears/Indian Removal, Holocaust/Genocide, civil rights,
women’s rights/suffrage, immigration, globalization, and religious persecution. The specific
topics were selected based on the researcher’s prior experience with teacher candidates and
knowledge of related social education literature.
The findings of the study suggested that social studies teacher candidates can develop
efficacy in their use of CRP if a program is embedded in a methods course. Research further
indicates preservice teachers’ prolonged interaction with students of color has substantial impact
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 55
on the willingness and quality of instructional interaction among students and teachers (Fitchett
et al., 2012). Results from the study demonstrated that a methods course to prepare teachers in
CRP improves their confidence to teach in diverse environments, which is important given that
the majority of the teaching workforce in urban and diverse environments do not mirror the
demographic makeup of the students they teach (Fitchett et al., 2012). With the lack of diversity
associated with teaching social studies, it is important for teachers to serve as curriculum gate-
keepers (Thornton, 2005), willing to move beyond the prescribed curriculum to enact pedagogy
that offers a diverse view of American society (Fitchett et al., 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2014).
CRP enhances the capacity of African American middle school students to attain the intellectual,
social, and content-specific skills required to increase academic achievement and to gain access
to opportunities to improve their educational outcomes.
When teachers actively use the social and cultural knowledge of their students as a basis
for planning instructional activities, academic achievement increases (Delpit 1992; Ladson-
Billings, 1995b; Milner, 2010). This is exemplified in Milner’s (2014) qualitative research study
in which he sought to demonstrate how a teacher is able to purposely enact CRP in a middle
school social studies class. Milner’s (2014) research took place over a 19-month period in an
urban middle school. In his study, Milner (2014) followed Ms. Shaw, a middle school social
studies teacher, whom he defined as a good teacher because of her use of CRP. Ms. Shaw was
said to empower her students by developing their sociopolitical consciousness (see Ladson-
Billings, 2009) as middle school social studies students. In so doing, she helped her students to
think selflessly as they navigated society; she helped them to read and find purpose in the word
and world. Ms. Shaw took the time to learn about her students and their backgrounds. Research
has stressed the importance of teacher learning and understanding the background and lived
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 56
experiences of their students to be successful (Gay, 2010). Ladson-Billings (2009) explained that
teachers should study their students when deciding what and how to teach. CRP requires that
teachers develop curricula that address diversity and use of critical thinking skills. Incorporating
literature into a curriculum that is reflective of minoritized students and is based on understand-
ing students’ interests, ability, and prior knowledge gives students of color equitable representa-
tion (J. J. Irvine et al., 2001) while creating meaningful connections to the curriculum.
The research study conducted by Milner (2014) included interviewing and observing Ms.
Shaw in the cultural context of her classroom and around the school in addition to document and
article analysis. Ms. Shaw, as described by Milner (2014), taught from the moment that class
started to the moment the students left, thereby ensuring that the students remained engaged in a
project, discussion, or writing assignment. Ms. Shaw’s purposeful thinking and classroom
practices related to
(1) building relationships with her students, (2) seeing teaching and learning as a mission
and responsibility, (3) remembering race, (4) moving beyond materialism, (5) accepting
and serving in multiple roles, and (6) promoting self and school pride. (Milner, 2014, p.
12)
Her teaching practices and beliefs aligned with the tenets of culturally relevant teaching.
To accomplish her goal of CRP, Ms. Shaw used her students’ lives and backgrounds to
frame her lessons. In doing so, Ms. Shaw helped her students to think beyond their current
situations. For example, most of Ms. Shaw’s students had never been outside the county in
which they lived. For students to recognize that they are part of a larger community and to think
beyond themselves, Ms. Shaw incorporated class discussions about what life is like in other parts
of the city, state, and country. She used storytelling to share with students her experiences living
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 57
in and outside of the county. Milner (2014) reported that the students were captivated by Ms.
Shaw’s stories that afforded connections to aspects outside of school and the realization that
students can leave the community should they desire to do so.
In addition, Ms. Shaw spoke openly with her students about current and historic aspects
of race and what it meant to the students. In the classroom Ms. Shaw used higher level thinking
questions, insisting that her students think about the reasoning behind historic and current events.
Another strategy was explicitly linking present-day situations related to issues such as race, rather
than focusing on remembering a host of dates, historical names, and events. According to Milner
(2014), Ms. Shaw’s goal was to develop skillsets that included critical and analytic thinking to
help students consider important historic and current social issues, such as those related to race.
Because teachers’ pedagogical choices can serve as a difference-maker in the classroom, this
researcher studied teachers’ enactment of CRP in middle school classrooms. CRP strengthens
students’ ability to engage with the curriculum in a way that fosters identity and academic
achievement.
Theory and Framework
This investigation drew on the frameworks and theories of SCT related to learning and
CRT. The fact that CRP is derived from the foundational knowledge of SCT and CRT provides
a strong justification for why CRP is an essential practice in education.
The premise behind CRP has been linked to the idea of teachers connecting the cultural
knowledge, beliefs, and practices that students bring from home, as well as the content and peda-
gogy used in their respective classrooms, to potentially enhance the academic performance and
overall schooling of culturally diverse learners (T. C. Howard & Terry, 2011). Essentially, CRP
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 58
focuses on cultural competence rather than cultural assimilation and links principles of learning
to a deep understanding and ultimately an appreciation for culture (Ladson-Billings, 2014).
Sociocultural Learning Theory
Features of SCT are relevant in providing a guiding pedagogy centered around valuing
cultural diversity in the classroom. SCT, developed by Vygotsky (1978) in the early 20th cen-
tury, looks at the impact that society has on the development of an individual. The theory postu-
lates that the true understanding of a person is encompassed in the understanding of the contexts
and history of that individual (McBride, 2011; Rogoff, 2003). An important advantage of SCT is
that it addresses the issues of race, culture, language, and learning in a way that incorporates
conceptualizing complex social and cultural processes (Nasir & Hand, 2006) that affect the
education of African American students. SCT embraces the ideals of Ladson-Billings (1994)
regarding CRP, which is the inclusion of students’ culture in lessons so as to transcend the
negative effects of mainstream culture while uplifting the culture of minoritized students.
Smagorinsky (2013) posited that Vygotsky’s (1978) ideals regarding learning are signif-
icant in that school work must be grounded in what students know from their daily experiences.
That foundation becomes refined as students learn how to take what they know and create
abstractions to apply to new situations. Vygotsky emphasized the educational process as a source
rather than a consequence of the development of cognitive and learning skills (Kozulin, 2004),
thus demonstrating that people learn by making things that they find useful and meaningful.
Vygotsky postulated that what a child accomplishes through cooperative learning today and
scaffolding can be reproduced independently tomorrow. This claim is known as the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD), described as “the distance between the actual developmental level
as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 59
determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable
peers (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).
ZPD suggests that with proper guidance or scaffolding, a student can master a task
regardless of previous knowledge. However, growth can be problematic if the developmental
path assumed by teachers conflicts with the pathways assumed by the culture of the student
(Smagorinsky, 2013).
An example of SCT and ZPD was evidenced by Gallas (2001), who taught in a suburban
class in Massachusetts before transferring to a diverse school in California. Gallas (2001) noted
that it was assumed that students were lacking imagination as they attempted share time and
other forms of literary performance. Gallas was approaching her heterogeneous class in Califor-
nia with the same lens that she used for her homogeneous class in Massachusetts, whereas the
teacher and prior students were acculturated to experience conventional classroom processes
associated with White culture. More often, when particular cultural groups do poorly in school,
it is often due to a lack of familiarity with the cultural practices through which they are taught
(Smagorinsky, 2013). After self-reflection, Gallas (as cited in Smagorinsky, 2013) realized that
it was “her responsibility to adapt to her students’ ways of being in school” (p. 201). Soon
thereafter, Gallas realized that “her students had relational personalities” (p. 201) and that the
work that she wanted students to produce could be manifested through social engagement. By
switching her paradigm rather than comparing current students to her former students, the teacher
“recognized and provided students with an opportunity to bring their lives into contact with the
curriculum” (as cited in Smagorinsky, 2013, p. 200).
Gallas (2001) demonstrated her expectations through modeling of lessons and then scaf-
folding for student success. The teacher provided structured classroom experiences including
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 60
share time, science lessons, math lessons and reading lessons. Gallas recognized the importance
of language development, socialization, and play for the growth of a student. During math,
science, and reading lessons, the teacher used authoring as a strategy. As defined by Gallas,
authoring is when “children’s interactions with text, props, and cultural tools are created with an
awareness that they will have a public viewing of their work” (p. 476). Authoring encouraged
peer collaboration in which students discussed their work in pairs or small groups in preparation
for sharing with the whole class. This engagement prompted rich social interactions and fueled
new and different ideas from the students (Gallas, 2001).
Gallas’s (2001) self-reflection and willingness to change her mindset allowed both her
and her students to take on the role of leader in which learning became reciprocal. Scaffolding of
expectations and building a learning community empowered Gallas’s students academically and
socially. As teachers strive to adapt to students, the classroom dynamics may be altered to
promote rich learning and a strong sense of school affiliation. SCT helps educators to provide
instruction that recognizes and empowers culturally diverse students (John-Steiner & Mahn,
1996).
SCT and Culturally Diverse Students
Milner (2012) expressed that a critical entity of sociocultural learning is that educators
recognize their own backgrounds as well as the racial backgrounds of students. Examining one’s
own cultural influences and potential biases; having a desire to learn about another’s culture,
history, and the dynamics that mold them; and moving beyond a deficit mindset are all aspects of
sociocultural learning (McBride, 2011; Rogoff, 2003). This knowledge will aid in preparing to
teach the whole child rather than fragmented, disconnected students (Milner, 2012).
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 61
Instructional practices and related educational experiences have to be constructed in ways
that address and are responsive to students’ varying needs due to the range of differences that
students bring into the classroom and the social context in which students live and learn (Gay,
2010; T. C. Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Milner, 2010). When particular cultural
groups perform poorly in school, it is often due to a lack of familiarity with the cultural practices
through which they are taught and assessed (Smagorinsky, 2013). The cultural-historical dimen-
sion of SCT highlights that learning and development cannot be disassociated from their context
and that the way learners interact with their worlds informs their thinking (Alfred, 2009; Schunk
& Pajares, 2004).
While schools are believed to be institutions that transmit academic knowledge, there
exists the transference of cultural knowledge consistent with mainstream concepts, paradigms,
and experiences (Banks, 1996; Carter, 2005) that are problematic for minoritized students as they
attempt to exhibit academic proficiency. Fordham and Ogbu (1986) argued that the academic
struggles of African American students are attributed to a disconnection among personal knowl-
edge, cultural knowledge, and the knowledge that is valued in schools. Whaley and Noel (2011)
argued that some sociocultural theories, specifically those concerning the academic success of
African American students, promote a “cultural incompatibility” (p. 150) perspective.
Cultural incompatibility presents a dichotomy of rules for African American students,
thereby suggesting opposing roles for African American students’ cultural identification and
academic success (Whaley & Noel, 2011). It has been noted that African American youth who
succeed academically can be viewed as preferring the European American culture; conversely,
students who identify with their culture may feel a sense of vulnerability toward negative racial
stereotypes. In turn, cultural incompatibility is based on the assumption that current schooling
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 62
practices are dominated by and promote European American culture in addition to perpetuating
negative stereotypes of African American students’ underachievement (Whaley & Noel, 2011).
This dichotomous experience is a result of the remnants of oppressive history and current injus-
tices in the education system as they pertain to the African American student.
Research does not show a consensus among scholars regarding the cultural identity of
African Americans or regarding their reaction to the European American culture versus a strong
identification with their African heritage (Ogbu, 2004; Whaley & Noel, 2011). SCT seeks to
move culture away from simply an individual construct that resides in a person’s mind, to one
that is also influenced by the external or outer factors that shape human cognition (Cole, 1998;
T. C. Howard, 2010). Sociocultural theorists have recommended examining culture as a con-
struct that influences cognition, motivation, modes of interaction, everyday practices, as well as
ways of viewing the world and navigating one’s place within it (Cole, 1998; Gutiérrez & Rogoff,
2003; T. C. Howard, 2010; Lee, 2007; Nasir & Cobb, 2002). These sociocultural ideals overlap
with the Ladson-Billings (1995b) framework of CRP in addressing the opportunity gap in the
U.S. public education system.
Educators with a strong understanding of SCT are able to connect the ideals to student
learning and cognition and therefore are able to construct pedagogical practices that are accessi-
ble for students from diverse backgrounds. A study by Nasir (2002) examined the math profi-
ciency of African American adolescents by using students’ knowledge of dominoes. She found
that incorporating the cultural knowledge and identity of her students allowed for a rise in math
goals. Further results were demonstrated in an earlier study in which Nasir (2000) explored
using basketball to engage students in lessons in statistics and mathematical reasoning. The
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 63
findings of the study suggested incorporating students’ cultural experiences as a data set to help
them to analyze new information.
Teacher pedagogy should be arranged in ways that enable students to use cultural forms
of expression, interpretation, and analysis (T. C. Howard, 2010). A teacher from T. C. Howard’s
(2001a) study stressed the importance of recognizing the verbal propensities that her African
American students brought to the classroom. The teacher discovered that many of her African
American students performed better with oral than written forms of expression. Consequently,
her students’ literacy performance improved after integrating verbal opportunities as a form of
assessment. Another teacher from T. C. Howard’s (2001a) study, Louise, recognized that
incorporating students’ discourse patterns into lessons was helpful and important in their aca-
demic success.
Louise further explained that her students did not have the background knowledge to
understand some of the stories that she had to introduce and read in class, such as Greek mythol-
ogy. She engaged her students, saying, “Polyphemus, Odysseus, what is that” (T. C. Howard,
2001a, p. 192)? If students do not have the background knowledge, it becomes difficult for them
to understand. Therefore, Louise presented Greek mythology to her students using familiar
language—analogies and metaphors to make connections. Using the names of students in the
class the teacher was able to create background information and make meaningful parables for
students to transfer knowledge from their personal understanding to the message of the story.
For example, when introducing Odysseus, the teacher (Louise) had students imagine their
classmate, Dwayne, as the wisest leader in the class who fought hard to protect Louise’s class
from the other classes that were trying to conquer it. She continued the story, casting other
students along the way as other participants in the Trojan War. Louise then asked the students,
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 64
“Can we allow Room 14 to dis us like that” (T. C. Howard, 2001a, p. 192)? The students replied
together with a resounding, “No!” Louise then cast Diondre as Polyphemus, telling the students
that “he is a mess because he has done something we can’t tolerate. He killed Ray because he
was jealous of Shaneequa” (p. 192). Louise ended the story and proceeded into a classroom
discussion, where she informed the students, “These are some crazy people, so let’s deal with it”
(p. 192). Louise used meaningful examples with unfamiliar content to actively engage students
in the learning process. Sociocultural learning, as demonstrated by the teacher, emphasizes
interactions with persons in the environment to stimulate the developmental process and to foster
learning. Another aspect of SCT is providing opportunities for students to interact with others to
minimize alienation and discontinuities between the home and school culture (Nieto, 2000).
A meta-analysis in which Aboud, Mendelson, and Purdy (2003) reviewed 515 social
science studies over 30 years found that significant contact between different groups lowers
intergroup prejudice. The research demonstrated that exposure to students of other racial and
ethnic backgrounds produces knowledge and awareness of those backgrounds—in turn, lowering
anxiety and increasing empathy.
In addition, Allport (1954) theorized that there are critical elements necessary to foster
optimal contact across different groups: All members need equal status; stakeholders need clear
guidelines on working cooperatively; and leadership must actively support intergroup relation-
ships. The elements suggested by Allport can be demonstrated in schools through the elimina-
tion of tracking students, subsequently removing barriers to advanced courses, and suspending
the overidentification of Black students for referral to special education. Second, the use of
heterogeneous cooperative grouping and extracurricular activities enable students to actualize
working together toward a common goal. Finally, the modeling of positive behavior by teachers
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 65
and administrators around issues of fairness and diversity (Siegel-Hawley, 2012) is needed to
foster favorable relationships among different groups of people. Based on the aforementioned
studies showing that CRP is about fostering relationships, among other things, for the present
study, it was imperative that participants’ strategies for building rapport and facilitating collabo-
ration among students were solicited in addition to observing their methodology to enact CRP.
The U.S. school system is an institution of historical significance that should promote
learning for all, but it is often structured to alienate minoritized students. One goal of CRP is to
minimize the alienation experienced in the classroom as well as the discontinuities between
home and school culture (Alfred, 2009; Nieto, 2000). To create an environment that includes all
students, regardless of culture, educators can take a more sociocultural approach that incorporates
the personal, sociohistorical, and institutional dimensions that influence learning. Culturally
relevant teaching offers an intervention for reversing the perennial underachievement that has
become commonplace for an increasing number of students (T. C. Howard, 2003). However, the
fundamental aim of CRP is to empower ethnically diverse students through academic success,
cultural affiliation, and personal efficacy (Gay, 2000). CRP recognizes and utilizes students’
cultures, histories, and identities to plan and deliver instruction. CRP incorporates individual
learning, social learning, and the characteristics that the learner brings to the classroom—
concepts inherent to the sociocultural approach (Alfred, 2009). For the present study, CRP was
defined as “humanizing pedagogy that respects and uses the reality, history, and perspectives of
students as an integral part of the educational practice” (Ladson-Billings, 1995a, p. 160).
Research on race, culture, and learning spans a wide range of theoretical perspectives and
concerns. The theoretical foundation of the sociocultural approach emphasizes that learning
occurs within a social world (Alfred, 2009). The sociocultural approach to learning also must
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 66
address equity and justice in education by utilizing CRP to deliver concepts. SCT conceptualizes
multiple factors, processes, and levels of analysis but tends to exclude the discussion about race
and power that is required to understand race, culture, and learning in America’s schools (Nasir
& Hand, 2006). Bridging sociocultural learning with CRP embraces the expectations of both
teachers and students, fosters respect for self and others, and acknowledges the importance of
community building to bridge the opportunity gap. CRP provides teachers with the tools and
strategies that allow students to draw from their own experience and cultural knowledge, there-
fore empowering them to take an active role in their learning and closing the opportunity gap
along the way.
Critical Race Theory
Race, culture, power, and education intersect to form CRT. Originally derived from the
work of Derrick Bell, Alan Freeman, and Richard Delgado, CRT was developed to address the
issues of race and racism within the legal and judicial system (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001).
Racism is normatively viewed in its individual form rather than as a large, collectively institu-
tionalized system that perpetuates the benefit and advantage of White people (Tatum, 1997).
CRT calls attention to racism, places it at the forefront of the discussion to highlight its presence
in every facet of American society, and unveils the disparaging truth about its normalized part of
the social order (Ladson-Billings, 1999). Although CRT has been largely used in the legal arena,
scholars have expanded it into education, thus providing an additional explanation for the
practice of CRP (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). Because education is not outlined in the Con-
stitution, states are given autonomy when it comes to the laws and governance of education. As a
result, states often contour their educational laws to fit the dominant culture, thus supporting
institutional inequities of opportunity (D. Bell, 1983). When the battle over equal opportunity
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 67
began, states felt that providing the same education to African Americans was sufficient; how-
ever, they failed to address the past afflictions that made it nearly impossible for African Ameri-
can students to receive access to the same quality of education as their White counterparts
(Ladson-Billings, 1998). Ladson-Billings (1998) used the areas of curriculum, instruction,
assessment, school funding, and desegregation to show the parallel between CRT and education.
Curriculum is seen as an avenue by which educators can maintain White supremacy by
erasing African American history when it challenges the dominant culture and authority. Here,
race neutral or color-blind perspective comes into play in that students are not taught the true
manner in which their ancestors arrived in America and are subsequently left feeling guilty for
not rising above their immigrant status in the same way as those who were afforded the opportu-
nity to arrive in the United States on their own (Ladson-Billings, 1998; Milner 2010). In an
effort to provide voice and agency to African American students, researchers developed the
practice of counter storytelling.
Solórzano and Yosso (2002) asserted that counter storytelling can be found in a variety of
narrative forms that help to contradict and challenge the privileged discourses that are noted in
predominantly White explanations of the truth. Counter storytelling (Matsuda, 1995) is an
essential element of CRT. Its aim is to counteract the misinformation given to persons of color
about their origin and their role in U.S. history, and it provides a voice to the historically margin-
alized population. Through counter storytelling, students of color can shed light on educational
issues such as academic rigor, which is not available on a consistent basis for African American
students. Rigorous courses are given over to the gifted, while enrichment courses are offered to
those usually of the dominant culture, thereby leaving African American students out of the
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 68
equation. These curricular decisions often leave African American students stuck in a cycle of
underperformance, unprepared for collegiate studies (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
Current instructional strategies suggest that African American students are deficient and
then design instructional approaches that usually involve remediation. Initial instruction is
presented as a one size fits all; and when students do not deliver the desired outcome, the student,
not the instructional strategy, is blamed for the low performance. When the curriculum is dys-
functional and the instruction lacks innovation, students are least likely to perform well on
assessments. The assessments are able to demonstrate only that the student does not understand
what is on the exam; they do not, however, show what the student understands and is able to do
(Ladson-Billings, 1998). CRT also suggests that using property taxes to fund schools is another
cause in the disparity in the instruction received between X and Y. The areas with more affluent
residents have better funded schools, meaning that property is a strong determinant of academic
advantage, and the status quo is continuously reproduced (Ladson-Billings, 1998). The afore-
mentioned issues addressed by CRT are what Ladson-Billings (1995b) sought to expound upon
when she developed her theory of CRP.
Conclusion
Until there is discourse in action, and acknowledgment about the injustices endured by
African Americans, society remains stagnant and children of color are deprived of their rights to
an equitable education. When knowledge and skills are situated in the lived experiences and
frames of reference of students, they are more personally meaningful, have higher appeal, and are
learned more easily (Gay 2000, 2002). CRP uses the cultural experiences, characteristics, and
perspectives of minoritized students as an instrument for teaching these students more
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 69
effectively. Using the lens of CRP, the vision of this research was to add to the body of work
currently addressing the opportunity gap present in educating African American students.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 70
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The objective of this qualitative research was to examine what CRP looks like in the
classroom and how teachers perceived its efficacy in addressing the opportunity gaps that affect
African American students. In qualitative research the focus is on the process, meaning, and
understanding in addition to the researcher serving as the main instrument for collecting and
analyzing data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative methodology was appropriate for this
study as the researcher sought to examine the opportunity gap of African American middle
school students in the California public education system.
The overrepresentation of African American middle school students not performing at or
above grade level is a problem acknowledged by the CDE (2017b) and the USDOE (2018). It is
imperative that this problem be addressed in order for African American students to have oppor-
tunities to exceed the goals of high academic achievement and attainment, which correlate to
excelling socially, economically, and intellectually. CRP, as described by Ladson-Billings
(1994), uses student culture to maintain it and to transcend the negative effects brought about by
not seeing one’s history, culture, or background represented in educational practices or resources
but rather a distortion thereof. CRP is a tool that social studies teachers can use to empower their
African American middle school students’ cultural, linguistic, and ethnic-racial identities while
creating a connectedness between students and teachers who do not look like one another or have
similar socioeconomic backgrounds (Gay, 2010; T. C. Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Culturally relevant teachers tend to engage students in curriculum-related activities that serve to
develop their social and emotional intelligence (Armstrong, 2016).
CRP is a strategy available for teachers to implement in classrooms across various
disciplines to close the opportunity gap. CRP has been proven to address the problem of low
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 71
academic success rates for African American middle school students compared to their White
counterparts. Educational practices must match the children’s culture in ways that ensure the
generation of academically important behaviors. CRP uses student culture to guide the educa-
tional process to achieve the desired academic results and to avoid undesired behavior (Ladson-
Billings, 1995b). CRP addresses student achievement while helping students to accept and
affirm their cultural identity in addition to developing critical perspectives that challenge the
inequities perpetuated in schools (Ladson-Billings, 1995b). By the time that minoritized students
reach high school, their achievement significantly lags behind that of White and Asian students
(Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). The 2015 results from the National Assessment of Educational
Progress revealed that eighth-grade White students continued to score higher than Black students,
on average, in reading and math, with gaps of 26 points and 32 points, respectively (USDOE,
NCES, 2018), thus creating the need to study approaches to provide equality of opportunity in
educational achievement.
This research questions for this study were developed to obtain valuable information
about CRP and its utility in middle school curriculum with the goal of supporting African
American youth in increased engagement and educational achievement. The questions formu-
lated to meet this goal were as follows:
1. How do middle school social studies teachers using CRP explain their understanding
and enactment of CRP?
2. How do middle school social studies teachers enact CRP within the sociohistorical
constraints of school structures to impact academic achievement of African American students?
The questions were designed to gather a consensus of teachers’ interpretations of CRP and to
provide insight into perceptions of the impact of using CRP in the classroom.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 72
Methods
In conducting research, it is imperative that the right methodology is selected to yield
results that widen the understanding of areas of concern in ways that can lead to change in
practice and policy. Qualitative research allows the researcher to enter the field to explore the
meaning behind certain phenomenon, understanding, or perceptions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;
Patton, 2014). A qualitative design was most appropriate for this study to understand social
studies teachers’ perceptions of the concept of CRP, as well as ways in which CRP executes in
the classrooms to engage students and garner academic achievement. A qualitative design helped
the researcher to understand the context for which teachers decided to use specific strategies and
their perceptions of how the pedagogy affects student performance.
Site and Participant Selection
Site. The research questions focused on the practice and understanding of middle school
social studies teachers with a predominantly African American student population. For that
reason, it was important to select sites that fulfilled the specific criteria to provide the best oppor-
tunity to answer the research questions (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016); hence, the
school sites were selected based on their enrollment of African American students. The current
demographics of African American students attending California public K-12 schools was
reported to be 5.81% (CDE, 2016a); African Americans comprise 6.5% of the total population in
California (U.S. Census, 2017). Therefore, it was the goal of the researcher to use school sites to
conduct research with a population of African American students at or above the 5.81% enroll-
ment representative of California.
Several school districts in the Los Angeles County area were targeted by the researcher to
obtain participants. Many districts researched were elementary school districts servicing
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 73
kindergarten through eighth grade (K-8). The goal of the researcher was to select one middle
school from a K-8 district to obtain up to three participants for the sample; however, the number
of sites was adjusted to more than one during the investigation as a result of unforeseen barriers
to obtain participants (Patton, 2014). The researcher viewed and examined district and school
site demographics on the CDE website and then contacted several principals of middle schools
with populations of African American students at or above the state average of 5.8%. The goal
of the researcher was to find a middle school with an African American population at or above
10%.
The researcher was redirected by the site principals to contact the district superintendent
to obtain permission for access. To this end, the researcher proceeded to contact the superinten-
dents of the various school districts whose data aligned with the study by email (Appendix A).
Patton (2015) argued that to achieve the most in-depth, rich understanding of the issue or
phenomenon of central importance, qualitative purposeful sampling should be used. Initially, the
researcher made attempts to gain access to potential research sites by emailing select middle
school principals (Appendix B) to explain the study and seek permission to conduct research
with teachers at their sites. In the event a response was not received within 1 week, the re-
searcher followed up by calling the school’s office to set up a meeting or discussed details of the
research with the principal over the phone (Appendix C). During the initial contact with the
principal, the researcher introduced herself as a University of Southern California doctoral
student conducting research for a dissertation on CRP. The researcher provided a brief overview
of the study, describing the impact on the school and the teachers who agreed to participate; she
shared the goals of the study and the amount of time needed for study. It was reiterated to the
principals that participation was voluntary.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 74
Upon reaching an agreement to conduct the study, the researcher asked the principals, the
key stakeholders knowledgeable about the practices of their teachers, to identify social studies
teachers who exhibited positive efforts with respect to the use of CRP to participate in the
research study. If the principal was unclear about the theory, the researcher inquired about the
names of social studies teachers who demonstrated the qualities of teachers whom the literature
identified as culturally relevant (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, teachers had to employ
strategies that incorporated the history and perspectives of their African American students
(Ladson-Billings, 1995a, 1995b). Upon receipt of participant names and contact information, the
researcher emailed the recommended teachers (see Appendix D).
Middle school. Middle school is an important transition time in a student’s life. The
transitional period of early adolescence requires renegotiation of rules and roles for students to
adapt successfully (Becker & Luthar, 2002). Without knowledge or support to navigate the
changes, many students tend to get lost in middle school, both academically and socially.
Teaching and learning are inevitably linked to school climate and organization in that they
warrant diverse transactions between students and their environment (Becker & Luthar, 2002).
Middle school is a vital time for stakeholders to connect the value of acknowledging and incor-
porating students’ background culture and context to empower students who have been histori-
cally oppressed. Due to structural inequalities in attitudes, resources, and quality instruction,
disadvantaged students continue to face barriers to equal educational opportunities (Becker &
Luthar, 2002). During the middle school years, the teacher, classroom, and school experiences
critically affect students’ future educational and life opportunities (Becker & Luthar, 2002;
Elmen, 1991). Teacher support is consistently linked with academic success. Research findings
established that seventh graders’ perceptions of their teachers’ appraisals and support are the
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 75
most consistent and significant predictor of student achievement (Murdock, 1999). Teachers
who use CRP have high academic expectations for all students, understand and incorporate
students’ cultural experiences in the learning process, and demonstrate a connectedness with each
student (Ladson-Billings, 1994). For these reasons, site selection focused on middle school
social studies teachers with predominantly African American youth.
Participants. Purposeful sampling is based on the assumption or phenomenon that the
investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight about; therefore, participants selected
must be those from whom the most can be learned (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In selecting the
teachers for the study, the researcher needed to ensure that participants could provide a deeper
understanding of how social studies teachers perceived and implemented CRP to produce
information-rich results. The logic and power that stem from purposeful sampling places impor-
tance on gaining a deeper understanding of specific cases (Patton, 2014). For this dissertation,
the researcher studied middle school social studies teachers who used CRP in schools with a
percentage of 5.81% or more African American students.
The researcher selected two middle schools, one from a K-8 district and one from a
unified school district (K-12) to obtain a sampling of three social studies teachers due to a lack of
participants who fit the design criteria at the initial site. The phenomenon being explored was the
teachers’ perceived use of CRP in the classroom to positively impact African American students’
engagement and achievement. Criteria for participant selection were the following: (a) princi-
pal’s recommendation and identification of the individual as a social studies teacher using CRP
or the demonstration of qualities thereof, (b) teachers’ willing participation, and (c) individuals
teaching in a school with 5.81% or more African American students enrolled.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 76
Upon receipt of permission to use the site, the researcher contacted the social studies
teachers indicated by the principal via email. The researcher provided each teacher with a brief
overview of the study, developed an understanding of their willingness to participate, built initial
rapport, selected the sample, and gathered contact information. Teachers who did not respond to
the initial email received a second request, and a phone message was left with the school office .
Upon agreement to participate, the researcher met face-to-face to obtain the signed consent form
(Appendix E) and to conduct preinterviews (Appendix F). The number of willing participants
who met the selection criteria at the initial site determined the need for a second. Therefore, the
process was repeated at another middle school that met the criteria of the study.
Data Collection
To create credible research, the researcher must be intentional in selecting methods of
data collection. The data collection methods should support the research questions by providing
multiple means to answer, thereby allowing for triangulation that facilitates validation of data. In
this study, the researcher collected artifacts, interviewed, and observed three middle school social
studies teachers to determine their understanding and enactment of CRP in the classroom. These
methods of data collection helped the researcher to understand the process by which events and
actions occurred during instruction (Maxwell, 2013). The data collection methods enabled the
researcher to gain insight about the process that teachers used and the impact of those strategies
on African American students. The researcher adopted a semistructured interview process to
gather information from teachers, including their definition of CRP. The semistructured inter-
view afforded the researcher the flexibility to use open-ended and closed-ended questions to
obtain clarity and elaboration. In addition, the semistructured interview allowed the interviewees
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 77
to elaborate and respond to additional questions beyond those in the scripted interview instru-
ment.
The researcher also elected to observe the participants’ teaching methods used in middle
school classrooms to triangulate emergent findings and to substantiate interview data. Observa-
tions enabled the observer to draw inferences about participants’ perspectives that could not be
obtained solely from interviewing (Maxwell, 2013). In this study, observations provided valu-
able information as to what CRP looks like in practice.
Interviews. Interviews are important to obtain additional information that cannot be
observed (e.g., feelings, thoughts, intentions, and behaviors) to get a glimpse of the respondents’
emerging worldview (Patton, 2002; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research questions centered
on middle school social studies teachers’ perceptions and enactment of CRP in the classroom to
impact the achievement of African American students. Teachers were asked about their percep-
tions of the concept of CRP, as well as their goals and strategies for incorporating CRP in the
classroom.
For the purpose of this research, three middle school social studies teachers were inter-
viewed using a semistructured interview format. The semistructured interview format was bene-
ficial in that both structured, predetermined questions and unstructured, conversational elements
were implemented. Although an interview protocol (Appendix G) was used, the semistructured
format afforded the researcher the ability to probe beyond the interview questions, thus allowing
for flexibility and follow-up questions. The use of an interview protocol helped with the compa-
rability of data across individuals, times, and settings (Maxwell, 2013). For this study, predeter-
mined questions allowed for inquiry about how the teachers defined and enacted CRP in the
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 78
classroom. The unstructured questions brought a focus to the phenomenon studied, which
differed among individuals and required specifically tailored questions (Maxwell, 2013).
Upon receipt of each teacher’s agreement to participate in the study, the date, time, and
location were arranged for the initial interview. Participants had direct contact with the
researcher via telephone, text, and email. Each participant received an email reminder 2 days
prior to each interview and observation appointment. To ensure comfort during the interviews,
each participant selected the time that worked best according to their schedules. The interviews
lasted no more than 45 minutes, including a review of the protocol and consent form. At the start
of each interview, permission was granted to record the conversation to preserve data. Brief
notes were taken by the researcher during the dialogue to recall keywords, interesting quotes, and
just in case of technical error. The researcher transcribed the recorded data by hand, including
information about school and classroom demographics and teachers’ years of experience. The
researcher elected to preinterview participants prior to observations to ensure each teacher
understood the concept of CRP. This procedure enabled the researcher to triangulate the teach-
ers’ practice with their perceptions of how CRP impacts African American middle school
students but also determined whether the participant continued in the process.
Observations. Observations occur in the situation where the phenomenon of interest
naturally takes place (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The observer sees things firsthand to interpret
what is taking place rather than relying solely on interviews. During the observations, the
researcher maintained the stance of observer-as-participant so as not to be an obvious presence in
the classroom and affect the environment, solely observing the teacher.
Each participant was observed twice to ensure stability of the observation. The observa-
tions lasted for the duration of one classroom period. During the observations, the researcher sat
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 79
in the back of the classrooms so as to be unobtrusive. The observer recorded field notes,
student–teacher engagement, interaction of African American students, and classroom setup (see
Appendix H). In addition, observations were recorded to use the teacher’s comments as data.
The names of students and any identifying factors were not recorded in any of the reported data.
The protocol used for each observation included classroom maps and field notes that
aligned with the a priori codes representative of CRP. The map drawn illustrated the spatial
arrangement of the class and indicated student’s gender, including the seating arrangements of
African American students (Appendix H). To maintain anonymity of students each desk on the
protocol map was numbered and identified as such. The narratives from field notes contained
classroom interactions that provided a better understanding of naturally occurring situations.
Last, the researcher created and used a priori codes representative of the components of CRP
presented during the lessons. The a priori codes included classroom environment, student
engagement, collaboration, teacher beliefs, and expectations. CRP focuses on teachers establish-
ing caring bonds with and positive attitudes toward their students, establishing community,
engaging students in collaborative sharing, and designing curriculum and instruction in a way
that makes learning enjoyable (Ladson-Billings, 1995b). The researcher observed the physical
layout of the classes, the activities, teacher–student and student–student interactions, and nonver-
bal communication to thoroughly grasp the extent to which teachers enacted CRP.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of making sense of the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
researcher consolidated and interpreted the information conveyed in the interviews and observa-
tions. To make sense of the data collected the researcher analyzed the interview transcripts,
observer comments, classroom maps, and transcripts of classroom audio, as well as field notes.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 80
The use of multiple data collection methods allowed for triangulation of data to determine
whether the strategies clearly and accurately supported the other—in other words, a form of
checks and balances. Triangulation of data allowed the researcher to gain a more secure under-
standing of the issues to be investigated and to check for validity threats (Maxwell, 2013).
After gathering data, the results were organized and analyzed using a code book. A code
book is essential for categorizing the data from transcribed observations and interviews to look
for the patterns from which categories and themes are developed (Maxwell, 2013). Initially,
open coding was used as the researcher referenced notes from observations and interviews and
built on them as new patterns emerged. Emergent patterns found from coding were organized
into categories. Finally, the emergent themes were developed throughout the data collection
process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Researcher Biases and Positionality
According to Merriam & Tisdell (2016), “it is important to identify any biases and
monitor them to make clear how they might shape the collection and interpretation of the data”
(p. 16). Ethics and relationships with study participants are of high importance; therefore, it was
imperative that the researcher recognize personal biases through reflectivity. This consideration
was important to identify as a prior middle school social science teacher of 15 years. Because of
the researcher’s work experience in a middle school setting and her ethnicity, she had to be
mindful, or reflective, of the ways in which her personal history could affect the study as well as
how the participants could have been affected by the research process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
To address any concerns, the researcher reminded the participants that this was a nonevaluative
process of solely collecting information.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 81
To further avoid validity threats requires testing researched accounts against the world,
giving the phenomenon that one is trying to understand the opportunity to prove one wrong
(Maxwell, 2013). Researcher biases were eliminated by using rich data, respondent validation,
reflections (Appendix I), and triangulation. For this study, rich data were collected during
interviews and observations. This method required verbatim transcription of the interviews,
whereas in observations maintaining rich data was maintained by use of descriptive note taking
and transcription of the specific, concrete events observed (Maxwell, 2013). In addition, the
researcher used respondent validation to solicit feedback about data and conclusions from the
study participants (Maxwell, 2013) to eliminate misinterpretation of their perspectives and what
they said and did. Likewise, triangulation was used to collect data using a diverse range of
participants, settings, and methods to reduce the risk of systematic biases.
Concluding Statement
Many studies that examine the achievement of disadvantaged youth focus only on the
negative outcomes and fail to uncover and inform interventions of modifiable factors that lead
some students to academic success (Meece & Kurtz-Costes, 2001; Spencer, Noll, Stolzfus, &
Harpalani, 2001) despite formidable economic and social barriers. The goal for this research
study was to add to the body of knowledge regarding academic opportunity gaps for African
American students inclusive of presenting positive outcomes and providing successful interven-
tions that create academic achievement.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 82
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine middle school social studies teach-
ers’ perceptions and enactment of CRP. The disproportionately large number of African Ameri-
can middle school students who are not performing at or above grade level is a significant
problem that has been acknowledged by the USDOE (2017) and the CDE (2017a). Research
illustrates the educational system is still not meeting the needs of minoritized students because
they are designed to substantiate the cultural practices and ways of knowing and being of the
White majority (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Milner 2017). Employing CRP in the classroom
has been shown to provide social studies teachers with a tool that can empower their African
American middle school students by connecting the past to the present in a manner that students
can identify and understand (Howard & Terry, 2011). Teachers utilizing CRP have been shown
to honor and respect students’ home cultures in addition to advocating for accurate and fair
representation of African American culture in their curriculum (Ladson- Billings, 1994). CRP
affords minoritized students the same types of educational opportunities, personal enhancements,
school structures and experiences that have been in place for dominant groups since the estab-
lishment of public schools in the United States (T. C. Howard, 2010). In the context of a social
Studies class, teachers use of CRP provides supports for minoritized students to gain an apprecia-
tion for their own histories, cultures, and traditions, which are not generally taught in the class-
room. The teacher’s incorporation of CRP signifies an understanding of the context-neutral and
deficit mindsets often found in traditional classroom structures and content (Milner, 2010).
The first three chapters of this dissertation offered an introduction to the problem involv-
ing the impact of opportunity gaps on the education of African American middle school students,
a review of literature regarding CRP, and the methodological design utilized for this study. In
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 83
this chapter the researcher will address each research question separately as findings and analysis
are reported. The data to be discussed identify practitioners’ perceptions, understandings, and
execution of CRP within middle school social studies classes. The two research questions that
guided data collection and analysis were the following:
1. How do middle school social studies teachers using CRP explain their understanding
and enactment of CRP?
2. How do middle school social studies teachers enact CRP within the sociohistorical
constraints of school structures to impact academic achievement of African American students?
Study Sites and Participants
This qualitative study included the use of multiple sites for data collected from observa-
tions, interviews, and document collection. This section provides a detailed description of the
school site and the participants in this study. To ensure anonymity, all site and participant names
were changed to pseudonyms.
Site 1: Madden Middle School
Madden Middle School housed students in Grades 6–8. The student demographics were
as follows: 83% Latino, 9.9% African American, 4% White, 2.2% Asian, and 3.2% other eth-
nicities. The African American student population of Madden Middle School was greater than
the percentage of African American students enrolled across California K-12 schools (5.6%) and
Los Angeles County (7.6%; CDE, 2017). Madden Middle School was one of two middle schools
in a small urban district within Los Angeles County. At the time of this study, the district’s
student population was approximately 6,000, of which 81% of students’ families were designated
with low socioeconomic status (CDE, 2017).
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 84
The demographics of the 43 teachers at Madden Middle School were as follows: 44%
White, 21% Latino-Hispanic, 7% Pacific Islander, and 27% who declined to state (CDE, 2017).
Of the seven social studies teachers at this school site, the principal identified three teachers who
utilized CRP. Two of the three identified teachers at this site agreed to participate in the study:
one seventh-grade teacher (Mr. Adams) and one eighth-grade teacher (Mr. Baker). Interviews
and observations for these teachers were conducted in November and December of 2017.
The campus of Madden Middle School epitomized a neighborhood school, as the campus
shared the block with a community park and was flanked by single-family dwellings and
duplexes as well as a few small businesses on the corner. The façade was not overbearing or
obtrusive; the school building was painted in the school’s official colors, and the mascot painted
on the wall indicated the main student entrance and the school’s office.
The campus housed three grade levels but did not feel crowded as students walked from
class to class. Most classrooms were in single-story buildings accessed by outdoor corridors with
classes facing one another. The exterior windows of the classes displayed each teacher’s name
along with samples of students’ work for passers-by to observe. There was one two-story
building that provided a barrier between the public sidewalk and the school and sat beside a
garden planted and maintained by the students.
Madden participants.
Mr. Adams. At the time of this study, Mr. Adams had been teaching at Madden for 20
years as a seventh-grade social studies (world history) teacher. He also taught geography and a
social studies elective class that focused around movies in history. Mr. Adams worked with a
team of three other core disciplinary teachers, who shared 160 students among them—thus aver-
aging 28 students per class. His prior experience in education included administration in
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 85
addition to teaching adult education and English as a second language. He was well learned and
very well traveled, as demonstrated by the four university diplomas and photographs from the
various countries that he had visited posted along the walls of the classroom.
Mr. Adams stressed the importance of visual aids as a powerful teaching tool; hence,
“posting photos and college information around the room allows my students to learn about
higher education and dream of their future goals.” Mr. Adams shared that he was born and raised
in the area in which he has taught for many years. He states that “this [being born and raised in
the area], along with having parents from two different ethnic groups, allows me to relate to my
students.” The researcher observed the teacher during different class periods and noted that his
demeanor remained consistent, very upbeat, and happy, as did his rapport with the students.
For 30 years, Mr. Adams worked in various capacities in the field of education. He
started as a classified employee at a high school within the same district. During this time, he
was mentored by a teacher who encouraged him to obtain his teaching credential and advanced
degrees. After receiving his teaching credential, Mr. Adams was employed for 6 years at a
neighboring middle school before he accepted a job as an assistant principal. However, due to
financial strains in education leading to cutbacks, he found himself returning to the classroom,
where he was placed at Madden Middle School. He said that “in the last 20 years I found my
niche working with this grade level.” He shared his excitement in “being able to prepare students
for high school and college with the strategies I use in the classroom.”
Mr. Baker. Mr. Baker, like Mr. Adams, had taught at Madden Middle School for many
years. At the time of this study, Mr. Baker had been at Madden for 18 years and, at the time of
the study, taught eighth- grade social studies (U.S. history) and a social justice elective class. His
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 86
class sizes ranged from 26 to 36, with an overall roster of 156 students. Prior to teaching at
Madden, Mr. Baker worked for 6 years as a teacher in the Juvenile Hall system.
Mr. Baker expressed how his career in education “began with a mindset to make culture a
priority and to weave history into that framework.” He continued by sharing that his “purpose in
teaching middle school U.S. history was to frame the subject around students’ life experiences.”
Mr. Baker’s purpose was evidenced by the individual and collaborative student work posted on
each wall in his classroom, which included two large works of art prominently hung in the room
that had been spray painted by former students. Upon examination, the student work displayed in
the room demonstrated a literacy-rich environment. As Mr. Baker stated, “100% of my pedagogy
is influenced by the background of my students.”
Site 2: Mason Middle School
Mason Middle School housed students in Grades 6–8. The student demographics were as
follows: 48.5% Latino, 15.7% White, 15.5% Asian, 9.2% African American, and 11% other eth-
nicities. The African American student population of Mason Middle School is greater than the
number of African American students enrolled across California K-12 schools (5.6%) and Los
Angeles County (7.6%; CDE, 2017). Mason was one of seven middle schools in a small urban
district in Los Angeles County. The district has a student population of approximately 24,000, of
which 27% of the enrolled families were identified as low-socioeconomic households (CDE,
2017).
Similar to Madden, Mason Middle School is also a neighborhood school that rests among
multiple single-family homes and apartment buildings. The lot of the quaint school is shaped
like a boomerang that is nestled between two adjacent streets, with each side flanked by a row of
homes. The classroom buildings were arranged into six rows, with five classrooms per row that
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 87
reached toward two sets of bungalows and the physical education field. At the time of this study,
the demographics of the 30 teachers at Mason were as follows: 57% White, 23% Asian/Pacific
Islander, and 10% Latino/Hispanic (CDE, 2017). Of the six social studies teachers on campus
identified by the principal as enacting CRP, one agreed to participate in the study. Interviews and
observations in this school were conducted in February of 2018.
Mason participant: Ms. Cohen. At the time of this study, Ms. Cohen had taught
seventh-grade social studies at Mason Middle School for 19 years. Her educational background
was in the area of bilingual studies. In addition to social studies, she had taught an environmen-
tal studies elective during the past previous 4 years. Prior to teaching at Mason, Ms. Cohen
taught 3 years of high school social studies, both world history and U.S. History, in an adjacent
county. She transitioned from teaching high school when she moved from a small suburban
community northeast of Los Angeles County to her current city of residence. She said, “I thought
it would be an easier transition from a more suburban [high school] to an urban [middle school].”
After the move, Ms. Cohen initially taught 3 years of social studies at a middle school located 30
minutes away from Mason. She noted,
“I was working in [a neighboring district] at a big middle school that was far from my
house. It was hard to engage in the community because there were a lot of teachers who
commuted there. I wanted [to work in] a smaller district, and I wanted to work within my
own community.
The demographics of Ms. Cohen’s classes at Mason averaged about 30 students each; she iden-
tified them as 40% Latino and 12% African American.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 88
Participant Overview
Figure 1 presents an overview of the study participants including years of service, ethnic-
ity, and courses taught by each participant. The total number of years of teaching experience was
77 years among all three participants. The researcher observed both seventh- and eighth-grade
classes (world History and U.S. history, respectively), even though some participants taught
multiple disciplines. The lowest number of teaching service was 23 years; the highest was 30.
Additionally, the total hours observed and the context of observation are indicated, along with
the total number of interview hours per candidate. Figure 1 also reveals that the participants were
from different ethnic backgrounds than their students; this factor is important because culturally
relevant teachers should intentionally learn about their students’ culture to connect their identity
to the curriculum, especially when the cultural context of the teacher is different from that of the
students (Sleeter, 2008).
Figure 1 is important in that Pitre (2014) asserted that students in highly segregated
majority-minority schools in California were 5 times more likely to have an uncertified teacher
compared with students attending schools with large populations of White and Asian students.
The figure indicates that the participants were all experienced, credentialed teachers working in a
community that served minoritized students. Research has shown teacher quality is the most
important school-based factor in student achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2001b). Highly qual-
ified teachers have content knowledge and an understanding of pedagogy and learning. A study
by Ferguson (1991) detailed that the most important measurable cause of student learning was
teacher experience and knowledge. Experienced teachers use strategies that address the needs of
all students while implementing challenging curriculum rather than rote learning (Darling-
Hammond, 2001b).
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 89
Partici-
pants
Relevant
Characteristics
Courses
Observed
Length and
Content of
Observations
Length of
Interviews
Self-Identified
Race/Ethnicity
Mr. Adams 20 yrs. at Madden
30 total yrs. of
teaching
social studies elective
(Movies in History)
7th-grade
social studies
(World His-
tory)
45 mins.: Review
of Ancient Islam
45 mins.: Geog-
raphy of Ancient
Africa
preinterview:
30 mins.
postinterview:
35 mins.
Caucasian
Mr. Baker 18 yrs. at Madden
24 total yrs. of
teaching
social justice elective
8th-grade so-
cial studies
(U.S. History)
45 mins.: Human
Rights, Declara-
tion of Independ-
ence
45 mins.: Betray-
als of Past and
Present—Ameri-
can Revolution
preinterview:
35 mins.
postinterview:
25 mins.
Caucasian
Ms. Cohen 19 years at Mason
23 total yrs. of
teaching
environmental studies
elective
7th-grade so-
cial studies
(World His-
tory)
8th-grade so-
cial studies
(U.S. History)
45 mins.: Civil
Disobedience—
Slavery and Civil
Rights
preinterview:
20 mins.
postinterview:
25 mins.
Caucasian
Figure 1. Summary of details of data collection at Madden and Mason Middle Schools.
Challenging curriculum and certified teachers are just two of the ingredients of CRP that
aid in learning for minoritized students. Education historically has been identified as the great
equalizer for minoritized students, specifically African American students. However, to date, the
education of African American students within the public K-12 school system is still inequitable,
due in part to sociohistoric constraints. Many students are still impacted by racist and inequitable
educational systems as well as structural and institutional inequities that cause African American
students to continue to be underserved in schools (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Milner, 2015,
2017). CRT acknowledges the issues and challenges of race still prevalent in society, whereas
CRP provides educators with the skill set to address race within the classroom. Schools are the
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 90
only public institution that can reach the majority of American society and explicitly commit to
equalizing opportunity (Orfield, 2014).
Findings
The following information details the findings as they relate to the research questions.
The goal of this study was to discover teachers’ understanding of CRP and how they enacted the
theory in middle school social studies classes. This section contains responses from participants
that were obtained from interviews and observations.
Research Question 1: Participants’ Understanding of CRP
Participants’ definition of CRP. CRP, as defined by Ladson-Billings (1995b), is the
use of instructional practices that respectfully exemplify the realities, histories, and perspectives
of students. As demonstrated in the literature review, there are various ways in which educators
describe CRP to align with Ladson-Billings’s seminal definition. As such, the teachers in this
study all defined CRP as incorporating students’ cultures and backgrounds into their lessons.
Milner (2017) noted that culture can be defined as “deep-rooted values, beliefs, languages,
customs, and norms shared among a group of people” (p. 5). In addition, the concept of culture
extends to one’s racial and ethnic identity, class, socioeconomic status, and even gender. The
following section details the participants’ definition and understanding of CRP as it pertains to
opportunity gaps and academic achievement.
Mr. Adams. For instance Mr. Adams responded, “CRP includes the learning techniques
and styles that [students] learn growing up.” He further elaborated by stating CRP is “learning in
a different style than the great majority [of students], which applies not just to people from differ-
ent countries [cultures] but people with learning disabilities.” Mr. Adams went on to share how
he suffered from aphasia after an auto accident during his 3rd year in college, and this experience
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 91
was why he “chose to include disabilities in [his] definition.” He recounted how he was in the
hospital for several months and endured a year of rehabilitation as he learned to read and write
again. Mr. Adams was able to “empathize with students which are second generation trying to
learn a new language” and new content. He explained how the aphasia motivated him in that “I
wanted to prove that I could finish my bachelor’s degree, and go for higher education with a
learning disability and still succeed.” Mr. Adams used his story as a way to share with his
students that they, too, could accomplish their goals with perseverance. As identified by Ladson-
Billings’s research (1995b), culturally relevant teachers speak to students about their own short-
comings and limitations to ensure student success. Mr. Adams was aware of the need to enact
strategies that were best suited for all his students. As he acknowledged, “CRP benefits students
from a variety of backgrounds” to create relevance between the curriculum and his students to
achieve engagement and promote learning for all students.
Mr. Baker. The eighth-grade teacher, Mr. Baker, defined CRP as “designing curriculum
which speaks to students’ ethnic and economic backgrounds.” Creating engaging curriculum that
is based upon students’ cultural knowledge necessitates the practice of championing their frame
of reference as viable classroom resources (Moll et al., 1992). Mr. Baker’s description of CRP
correlated to the funds of knowledge theory (FoK) developed by Moll et al. (1992) FoK is
defined as the skills and knowledge that have been historically and culturally developed to enable
an individual or household to function within a given culture (Moll et al., 1992). Mr. Baker
acknowledged the importance for teachers to understand the life experiences of their students by
taking into account their culture and background knowledge learned from their families and
communities. By contrast, society holds the misconception that minoritized students’ frame of
reference is lacking. FoK as an educational resource helps to remove deficit mindsets that some
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 92
educators apply to poor and minoritized peoples (Moll et al., 1992). SCT encompasses FoK in
that it is an approach to provide culturally inclusive pedagogy that enables educators to account
for the whole child while informing educators’ instruction, behaviors, and decision making.
Ms. Cohen. The third participant, Ms. Cohen, defined CRP as “directing your teaching to
meet the needs of different cultural groups in your classroom.” She explained that “when I teach
medieval [history], I take into account the level of interests that students will have in the subject
based on their cultural background. [The content taught in the class included the continents and
civilizations of] Africa, Japan, China, and different religions like Islam, and different sects of
Christianity.” Culturally responsive teachers purposefully connect their lessons to the back-
ground of their students; this process entails championing students to positively engage with the
curriculum. As indicated by Ms. Cohen, she tried to connect the curriculum to the multiple
religious and ethnic backgrounds that her students brought to the classroom. Through explicit
connection among ethnicity, religious backgrounds, and course content, positive experiences
would have the potential to be developed and exhibited in Ms. Cohen’s classes.
Culture determines how people think, believe, and behave, all of which affects teaching
and learning (Gay, 2010). Teachers who use CRP recognize the rich and varied cultural knowl-
edge and skills that students from diverse backgrounds bring to school. Teachers who incorpo-
rate CRP in the classroom develop dynamic teaching practices, inclusive of multicultural content,
multiple means of assessment, and a commitment to address students’ academic, socioemotional,
and cultural needs (T. C. Howard, 2010). The teachers’ definitions and understandings of incor-
porating CRP in the classroom illustrated an awareness of the structural and systemic barriers in
education facing minoritized students. The participants each shared that making connections
with students was essential, along with the uncompromising belief that regardless of race, gender,
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 93
or socioeconomic background, their students could succeed. Despite the teachers’ own racial and
ethnic identities, they could be successful with all groups of students by possessing the knowl-
edge, attitudes, dispositions, beliefs, skills, and practices necessary to meet the needs of their
students (Milner, 2017) so as to impact student achievement.
Engagement to impact student achievement. During a series of interviews, the study
participants emphasized the importance of engaging students in the curriculum as part of their
overall pedagogical approach to impact students’ academic success. The congruence of data
gathered from the study participants led to the theme of engagement to impact students’ achieve-
ment. Relationship building is a key component of CRP, as evidenced by research (Howard,
2001b; Milner, 2011, 2014; Siegel- Hawley, 2012). Building a positive teacher–student relation-
ship fosters rapport, a sense of comfort, and a feeling of security among students to achieve
classroom engagement. Engagement reinforces learning, which is the gateway to encourage
academic motivation and achievement in students, therefore helping to close the gap relating to
achievement and opportunity.
Mr. Adams. During the interview with Mr. Adams, he shared how he incorporated
“stories about [his] personal travels into [his] world history lessons to engage and connect with
students.” Mr. Adams shared, “I have been fortunate to have traveled to 51 countries. All the
pictures [he pointed to the photos displayed on the classroom walls] are mine. So one of our
assignments we do at the end of every unit is called ‘Dreams for Travel.’”
In sharing his personal narrative with the students, Mr. Adams provided access for them
to peek into his life. His vulnerability was used as an example to encourage his students to share
as well. Mr. Adams mentioned that each student decided which country he or she wanted to
visit, according to the continent of focus for each unit, and then journaled about the location of
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 94
choice. Each of his students determined what country to visit, where they wanted to go within
that country, and what they wanted to see “in their dreams of travel.” Mr. Adams understood that
sharing his passion for travel with his students planted a seed to increase their interest level in the
content and was a way for him to connect with his students. Students become more engaged and
willing to participate as a result of the caring bond displayed by their teacher (Milner, 2011).
Mr. Adams commented:
I informed the students, “maybe it’ll be 50 years from now, maybe 20,” but I told them to
keep this list. I say, “It’s been proven that if you see something every day and you say it
aloud every day, it has a better chance of being successful as opposed to just having it
somewhere in your mind.” So students keep [the assignment] “Dreams for Travel” [and
consistently add to their list of locations].
Although the lesson incorporated travel, it presented students with the tools that they could use in
their current frame of reference. The teacher seemed to help his students see the way that their
home lives intersected with their academic lives. Mr. Adams chose to connect and build a rela-
tionship with his students using the idea of travel. The idea of dreaming and journaling of places
to visit allowed students to set long-term goals and enabled them to shift their paradigm and
imagine that they, too, could travel the world and visit the places discussed in their history
textbook. Creating activities that allowed students and teachers to learn about one another can
enable personal connections that often lead to significant improvements in the academic progres-
sion of African American students and a lessening of the opportunity gap (Delpit, 1988; T. C.
Howard, 2001a; Milner, 2011). Mr. Adams’s interaction with his students in helping them to
create goals for this assignment presented an understanding that envisioning the possibilities
could open new opportunities for them and their future.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 95
Mr. Adams incorporated primary sources into his lesson—an important aspect of CRP.
During the interview, Mr. Adams shared that he referenced the pictures (that he had taken
himself) posted along the walls to help students visualize and connect with the content. Further-
more, the lesson introduced elements of SCT, as Mr. Adams used scaffolding to assist the
students in their tasks by providing an overview of the assignment and guiding them to complet-
ion. As students move through future lessons they are expected to complete the assignment
independently.
The theory of CRP also entails that teachers assist their students in making cultural
connections to the curriculum and to the classroom environment. Mr. Adams emphasized the
importance of connecting students’ background to the curriculum, as he used different teaching
methods and provided multiple means of assessment for students to achieve academically.
During the interview, Mr. Adams shared that
while teaching Adult Ed and ESL [English as a second language] courses, I learned about
different methods and how people learned in other countries. Although it is difficult for
teachers [to implement] due to large class sizes and the different student populations, it is
very important. I try to use different methods in the class throughout the year. Even in
[my] assessments, if kids are not good at multiple-choice tests, for example, how can [I]
make it different for [them to be successful].
Mr. Adams’s response accounted for the overall utility of CRP in that he seemed to understand
how it can be used for learning among diverse populations and levels of education. SCT posits
that ethnically diverse students perform well in classes wherein teachers’ educational practices
are responsive to the various needs that students bring into the classroom and the social context
in which students live and learn (Gay, 2010; T. C. Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Milner,
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 96
2012). As a practitioner of CRP, Mr. Adams understood the importance of associating students’
background with his curriculum to garner engagement and academic achievement.
Mr. Baker. Similar to Mr. Adams, Mr. Baker asserted that “teachers using CRP create
lessons that honor the students’ experiences and develop honest caring relationships.” His asser-
tion aligned with that of CRP theorists who emphasize recognition of the relationship between
teacher and student as the key component to access learning and situated strong teacher–student
relationships as central to promoting student engagement. Teachers’ success depends on creating
and maintaining meaningful and authentic relationships (Ladson-Billings, 1995b; Milner, 2011).
Mr. Baker noted that in order to engage his students in the curriculum, he had to demonstrate
genuine care for his students, which he accomplished by relating their experiences to the social
studies content. As a practitioner of CRP, Mr. Baker had a strong sense of self and seemed to
understand his role in facilitating learning and the fact that he needed to continue to develop his
relationship with his students. He shared:
I have had many professional development sessions which discussed the importance of
integrating cultural knowledge with curriculum. However, most of them put the empha-
sis on curriculum first and culture second. My own thinking is that a student’s culture is
equal to or even more important than the curriculum, since culture plays a dominant role
in the students’ lives and history has very little value to them.
Gaining students’ cooperation in urban classrooms involves establishing a classroom atmosphere
in which teachers are aware of and address students’ cultural and ethnic needs (Brown, 2004).
The potential connection between teacher and student is lost if students’ racial identity is ignored.
Mr. Baker concluded “that there is a need for [cultural] sensitivity when discussing
material [in a U.S. history class] that impacts students’ personal lives.” In his discussion with the
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researcher, Mr. Baker highlighted the teacher’s need to use decorum and have in place a founda-
tion of respect, as students in social studies classrooms are often exposed to dated curriculum in
which Westernized cultural values are perpetuated (Crocco, 1998; Epstein, 2001; Fitchett et al.,
2012). Mr. Baker shared the sentiment that students’ lack of access to curriculum that is inclu-
sive of their own lived experiences and truths leads to ambivalence and disinterest in the social
studies curriculum (i.e., historic and civic issues) and therefore perpetuates the cycle of marginal-
ization (Epstein, 2009; Fitchett et al., 2012; Kincheloe, 2001).
Mr. Baker commented that
I work hard to cultivate relationships and build the atmosphere of trust between myself
and all students at the beginning of the school year. If students know they are respected
and valued, then they welcome difficult discussions promoted in the environment of
safety. CRP has enabled me to connect with students and offer them an instructor who
cares about who they are.
Mr. Baker seemed to understand that personal connection or building relationships with students
supports engaged learning (Brown, 2004). Mr. Baker shared that he “incorporated instructional
strategies and lesson designs that took into account students’ background and cultural needs to
bridge the gap in opportunity.” Educators with a strong understanding of SCT are able to con-
nect the ideals to student learning and cognition and therefore are able to construct pedagogical
practices that are accessible for students from diverse backgrounds.
During the interview with Mr. Baker, he posited that connecting students’ backgrounds to
the material was key and that it was the responsibility of the instructor to make sure that students
could make those connections. During the interview with Mr. Baker, he shared about a time
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when “he recognized the unique gifts of a male, African American student.” He further
explained:
The student understood and made the connection between the past history of slavery and
the present struggle of African Americans for social justice. I encouraged the student to
express his ideas without reservations and used the student’s writing as an exemplar for
the class.
As a culturally relevant teacher, Mr. Baker discussed the requisite for his students to use
the knowledge acquired in his U.S. history class and apply it to current events to engage their
cultural consciousness. Mr. Baker emphasized that “we are embedded in culture; we cannot
escape culture—cultural norms, biases, expectations, and taboos. Once [students] understand the
role of culture in their lives, they can learn who they are and what potential they possess.” Mr.
Baker’s assignment challenged the students to interact with the curriculum by intersecting race,
culture, and power, as noted in CRT. The teacher challenged convention by connecting students’
culture and everyday experiences to learning. Existing research has exhibited that academic
achievement and tenacity correlate with a positive ethnic identity (Byrd, 2016). When teachers
include students’ prior content knowledge and personal first-hand experiences, learning becomes
personalized and engaging, thus allowing students to learn more easily and thoroughly (Gay
2000, 2002).
CRT acknowledges that a discourse of invisibility exists in that the ancestors of many
minoritized peoples in the nation have been inaccurately depicted in the social studies curricu-
lum. Many social science textbooks reinforce in societal curriculum the information and ways in
which minoritized people are viewed in the media (Ladson-Billings, 2003). Mr. Baker empow-
ered the young man to “express himself freely through a thought-provoking assignment.” Mr.
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Baker’s writing assignment allowed students to create their counter-story to express how they felt
that they were viewed by society. He encouraged the student to “write without regard, without
censorship, allowing the student to make connections between the history of his culture and the
tangible injustices of the student’s present experiences”—thus enabling the student to grow
personally and academically. The societal curriculum suggests that people of color are relatively
insignificant to the growth and development of the country, as exemplified whenever students
turn on the evening news or whenever they see people who look like them in the lowest skilled
jobs around the school.
This writing assignment was a prime example of how CRP benefits student learning and
academic achievement. The aforementioned student’s paradigm shifted: “Whereas the student
began the school year withdrawn and hostile, he ended the year as a warm, giving person,” noted
Mr. Baker. Furthermore, expressed Mr. Baker, “the young man became ‘Student of the Year.’”
The teacher’s enactment of CRP for this assignment engaged the student academically, socially,
and emotionally. The teacher incorporated the student’s frame of reference whereby the young
man’s real-life experiences were legitimized as they became part of the official curriculum (Byrd,
2016). Inasmuch, Mr. Baker sought to bridge the existent opportunity gap as he affirmed
students’ identities and values by connecting their knowledge to the content, as is representative
of CRP.
Ms. Cohen. Like the other study participants, Ms. Cohen also believed that building a
curriculum that engaged students was valuable to promote learning. As such, Ms. Cohen identi-
fied a specific event in which she built a connection with one of her African American female
students, thereby leading to increased engagement. Ms. Cohen shared about a time in which she
presented a lesson about 9/11. She stated that “[at the beginning of the school year] we were
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 100
doing a lesson on 9/11 and [the student] told me that this assignment was personal for her
because her dad was a rescue worker at that time.” The student must have felt a sense of comfort
in Ms. Cohen’s pedagogical approach to such a sensitive topic in that the student divulged very
personal information. The teacher’s establishment of a safe classroom community led to a
productive learning environment (Brown, 2004) for the student. Ms. Cohen’s pedagogical
approach to such a sensitive topic supported an environment in that the student felt comfortable
enough to divulge such personal information. Ms. Cohen asserted that as a result of the lesson, “I
was able to connect with her on a personal level.” Ms. Cohen was receptive to the fact that her
student’s sharing of personal information generated positive feelings and therefore created a
foundation for a positive teacher– student relationship. Through the sharing of personal informa-
tion, the student was accessing her background knowledge to apply it to learning, as Ms. Cohen
described, which is an important aspect of sociocultural learning theory and CRP.
Although Ms. Cohen did believe in the goals and ideals of CRP, unlike Mr. Adams and
Mr. Baker, she shared that she was not formally trained in CRP during her teacher preparation
program or as a result of professional development. She mentioned that she believed her back-
ground in bilingual studies prepared her to enact different strategies in the classroom to work
with her diverse populations. Ms. Cohen agreed with the other participants in that connecting
students’ background to the material presented in class was important. She expressed that “it is
important to be sensitive to students’ cultural background and to appreciate cultural differences.”
The conclusion of SCT is that culture is inclusive of one’s customs and lived experiences. Ms.
Cohen also emphasized, “[being in this city], I see bigger differences in class versus racial cul-
ture.” Her idea of CRP was misinterpreted to simply revolve around race and ethnicity, when
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 101
indeed one’s history, social, psychological, emotional, and socioeconomic status are also in-
cluded in the theory to ensure equitable learning among minoritized students.
Ms. Cohen, although she meant well, did not necessarily convey a full understanding of
CRP and its correlation to socioeconomic status. CRP allows teachers to filter curriculum and
teaching strategies through students’ cultural frames of reference to make content more meaning-
ful (Gay, 2010; Milner, 2017). The ideology of CRP is to be able to make connections with the
students’ culture (e.g., home life) to present to them with an equitable learning experience.
Students from impoverished backgrounds are less likely to have access to adequate medical care,
food, and shelter, all of which can negatively affect their ability to focus in class to learn. The
confluence of race, class, and culture plays out in classrooms daily in this country, yet many are
not well informed on how these differences play out in the education system (T. C. Howard,
2010).
CRP is more than just incorporating students’ ethnic background into lessons; rather, the
focus is on the whole child. The idea of CRP is that students and teachers are actively engaged in
knowledge construction as teachers learn about students’ outside-of-school practices, experi-
ences, and realities that can be mirrored and connected to school curriculum (Milner, 2017). In
that sense, Ms. Cohen also mentioned that she supervised a volunteer food sorting station pro-
gram at her site during the snack and lunch periods. Any unwanted, unopened foods were placed
in a bin for students who remained hungry. She said, “I offer the Free Food Bin from the sorting
station as an option [for my students] to eat/drink in class.” Conceptually, Ms. Cohen understood
CRP in that if the basic needs of her students were not met, they were unable to focus in class.
Therefore, she engaged in an activity that sought to eradicate the social inequities on campus to
ensure that her students did not go hungry. As is characteristic of practitioners of CRT, Ms.
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Cohen saw the inequities in her students’ socioeconomic backgrounds and set out to propose and
make revisions (D. Bell, 1995; Ladson- Billings, 2003; Tyson, 2002).
All of the participants agreed on the importance of opportunities that engage students in
learning, even though they had different ways of expressing this concept; the common factor was
their description on how to create engagement in academic content by accessing students’ back-
ground knowledge and lived experiences. Students need to feel that they are valued and acknowl-
edged. Utilizing CRP ensures that students know that they are supported; this support, in turn,
reduces achievement gaps and promotes positive identities for minoritized students. Culturally
relevant teachers create classroom climates that are respectful and inclusive (Byrd, 2016; T. C.
Howard, 2001b) and therefore conducive to relationship building through the valuing of students’
culture.
Research Question 2: Participants’ Enactment of CRP
Research Question 2 focused on the enactment of CRP within the sociocultural con-
straints of the school system. The researcher used semistructured interviews to gather teachers’
responses regarding their implementation of CRP in the classroom. Data were also collected via
observation to determine how these practices were illustrated in the classroom. After the cross-
analysis of data, two themes emerged: (a) strategies of practice and (b) funds of knowledge. The
data presented below includes participants’ perceptions and integration of CRP related to aca-
demic achievement.
Culturally responsive teachers recognize and utilize students’ cultures, histories, and
identities to plan and deliver instruction. Teachers should study their students so as to decide
what, when, and how to teach (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Milner, 2017). The premise of CRP is to
promote students’ academic achievement through the teacher’s ability to develop students’
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cultural competence as well as their understanding and enactment of critical consciousness,
through which learners are taught to question their historical and social conditions (Ladson-
Billings, 1995b; Freire, 2000). In other words, incorporating CRP into the curriculum teaches
students to recognize systems of inequality and to make connections between their frame of
reference and the sociohistoric plight of minoritized peoples often depicted in the social studies
curriculum. Culturally relevant teachers use students’ culture in their curriculum, planning, and
implementation to cultivate students’ skill sets with respect to questioning power structures in
society (Milner, 2017). CRP incorporates individual learning, social learning, and the character-
istics that the learner brings to the classroom (Alfred, 2009). The fundamental aim of CRP is to
empower ethnically diverse students through academic success, cultural affiliation, and personal
efficacy (Gay, 2000). The strategies of practice that teachers use enable students to see the
contradictions and inequities that exist inside and outside the classroom and ultimately to work to
eradicate them (Ladson-Billings, 1992; Milner, 2017).
Strategies of practice. During the interviews, the teachers shared that they practiced
CRP because it aligned with their beliefs to foster, advocate, create, and enable learning (Aron-
son & Laughter, 2016; Milner, 2011) in their classes. The teachers in this study encouraged their
students while challenging them to push the limits of their learning to achieve academic success
and, as a result, to increase the number of opportunities afforded to them. For culturally respon-
sive teachers, examination of pedagogical approach is pertinent to ensure that the elements of
CRP are enacted as defined by Ladson-Billings (1995a): “creation of humanizing pedagogy that
respects and uses the reality, history, and perspectives of students” (p. 160). Following are illus-
trations of how the study participants incorporated elements of CRP in their lessons.
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Mr. Adams. Mr. Adams noted that “there are some strategies I have used for years that I
really like because they have been successful, but [I believe] it is still important to learn new
things, whatever it takes for today’s kids to succeed.” He went on to share how his cohort of
students piloted the use of one-to-one Chromebooks
™
and that it had been a challenge to incorpo-
rate technology when some students were unfamiliar with the hardware and may not always have
had access to the technology when they left the school. To ensure that all students had access to
the curriculum, Mr. Adams continued to use paper-and-pen strategies such as Cornell Notes and
maintaining a spiral notebook. Mr. Adams specified that the foundational skills were most
important before adding in the content:
It’s not just how to teach Cornell Notes but it’s how to be organized. Content to me is
important in seventh grade, but its number two. Number one for middle school is organi-
zational skills, especially with the Internet—nowadays you can find anything in 1 second.
So, it’s not the content that is number one ‘cause [students are] able to go on the Internet
and find out is it true. [However,] what sites I use, that’s more important.
Learning was about extending students’ thinking and abilities as he taught study skills and
organization skills in addition to the content. As he reflected on the strategies, Mr. Adams
described his belief in the value of knowing the reason behind the design of lessons rather than
just the how of teaching.
Another strategy used by Mr. Adams was assigning responsibilities to different students.
For example, he had a group of students whom he called “stampers” and another group called
“TAs.” The stampers were responsible for checking students’ Cornell Notes (and other assign-
ments) and indicating with a rubber stamp whether or not the assignment was completed and
ready to be given to the teacher. The TAs collected and returned assignments and gathered the
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 105
necessary materials for the day to distribute to their group. As students were completing their
daily warm-up assignments, Mr. Adams announced to the class, “Since we are starting a new
unit, I need to select new leaders. Raise your hand if you have never been a leader for your
group.” Many hands went up indicating students were interested in the leadership position. Mr.
Adams quickly selected two new helpers for each group by calling out the names of eight stu-
dents who had their hands raised. Once the new stampers and TAs were chosen, the students
assumed their new roles by getting the necessary supplies or checking the work of their peers
according to their assigned role. This activity went on for 5 minutes (the teacher displayed a
timer on the board), while the other students were instructed to finish working on the daily warm-
up. When the timer sounded, the student helpers returned to their seats and all the students
awaited the next set of instructions. Mr. Adams’s incorporation of student leadership positions
helped to nurture the abilities in students who might not otherwise have received the opportunity
to demonstrate their leadership abilities due to the prevalent deficit mindset in which minoritized
students have been historically viewed by educators. Student leadership positions dispel the idea
of meritocracy whereby minoritized students have been depicted as not having certain qualities
and characteristics. Mr. Adams’s inclusion of CRP provided a message to his students that they
were all afforded the same opportunities and equitable treatment, regardless of their background.
Mr. Adams continued with the class by announcing, “We are going to clean up our
Google Drives
™
before we go on to the next lesson.” The students began to moan as Mr. Adams
reminded them of the value in organization. Mr. Adams asked, “What’s the next folder we need
to create?” In unison, the students called out “Islam.” Mr. Adams welcomed the idea of call and
response after he made his announcement and the students replied. In many classrooms, students
who answer aloud are chastised for doing so; however, culturally responsive teachers are aware
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 106
that call and response is a common method of communication within the African American
community. Mr. Adams continued by informing the students to place their completed work on
Islam in their newly created folder. During the activity an African American male student
notified the teacher that he did not have an Islam folder and did not know how to create one.
When the teacher looked puzzled, immediately an African American female student raised her
and called out, “Can I help him?” Mr. Adams acknowledged the young lady, and she quietly
went to assist her peer across the room. By allowing more skillful peers to assist ones that were
struggling, Mr. Adams introduced SCT as a way for students to obtain academic achievement.
Practitioners of SCT posit that learning from peers is an effective way to develop one’s skill set
and move from one level to the next. With assistance from his female peer, the young man was
able to learn the necessary skill; therefore, he was able to move from one level of his ZPD to the
next.
Suddenly the classroom was abuzz as all students were working on the documents and
talking with their neighbors. Mr. Adams rang a bell to get the attention of his students when he
noticed that there was some confusion about how to create the new folder. He said to the class,
“Raise your hand if you need help creating a folder.” Because a number of students raised their
hands, the teacher realized that he needed to demonstrate the task to the class. Soon thereafter,
Mr. Adams projected his computer screen onto the board in front of the class for all to see and
follow. Culturally responsive teachers’ use of scaffolding can move students from what they
know to what they need to know (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Mr. Baker. Successful teachers of CRP enact strategies of engagement when presenting
their curriculum. Mr. Baker shared, “I work to keep current with all aspects of modern culture
which impacts my students and continue to be informed on events taking place in the areas of the
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world my students come from.” Mr. Baker said that throughout the school year he “implemented
strategies such as games, culture maps, personal timelines, video clips, and writing prompts” that
allowed students “to connect historical evidence with their personal reality.”
As part of data collection regarding strategy use, the researcher observed Mr. Baker’s
eighth-grade social studies class, where he presented a lesson on human rights. Mr. Baker
reminded students that they had learned about natural rights the week prior and, as such, gave the
students time to discuss their response to the meaning of natural rights with a partner. Mr. Baker
prefaced the assignment by reminding his students about the explicit instruction he gave on the
topic a week prior; therefore, the information was frontloaded, and the teacher was now looking
to check for understanding and to build connections to the new theme. The researcher watched
as the students turned toward one another and began sharing their thoughts; each student ap-
peared to be fully engaged as they shared with their partner.
Mr. Baker chose to incorporate SCT in his lessons whereby students were encouraged to
use strategies such as collaboration, which provided opportunities for social interaction while
providing content that he would later connect to students’ backgrounds. Additionally, Mr. Baker
enacted elements of CRT in the lessons observed by the researcher (see below); his lessons
promoted the idea that students of color possess a rich, complex, and robust set of cultural prac-
tices, experiences, and knowledge that are essential to connect to learning (T. C. Howard &
Navarro, 2017). Culturally responsive teachers create a community of learners who are responsi-
ble for the learning of the others. To solidify social relationships, the teachers encouraged
students to learn collaboratively, to teach one another, and to be responsible for the academic
success of one another (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
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Once students had the opportunity to share with their table partner, Mr. Baker posed the
questions again. Many students raised their hand to share their understanding of natural rights:
Student 1: Natural rights are the rights you are born with.
Mr. Baker: Okay. Can you give me an example?
[Student 1 paused and was unable to respond.]
Student 2: My natural rights are if I want to dress a certain way, I can. Or if I want to
go to church, I can.
Mr. Baker: That’s good! So natural rights are those things that make us unique and
make us the same. They are your “God-given rights,” like breathing. Who
can tell us what are “civil rights”? [He called on a student who was not
raising his hand.]
Student 3: That’s the time when Martin Luther King made his speech.
Mr. Baker: Yes, Dr. King did play a big role in the Civil Rights Movement, which was
a time when Blacks and other minorities were trying to get the government
to give them rights. But what specifically are one’s civil rights?
Student 4: I think civil rights are rights so people are treated the same.
Mr. Baker: So tell me an example. What are one of your civil rights? You have the
right to . . .?
Student 4: Go to school and get my education?
Mr. Baker: Sure. There was a time when students of color and Whites could not go to
the same schools. The White schools and Black schools were different.
The Black people wanted their kids to have the same things the students in
the White schools had, like new books and nice, clean buildings. So they
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 109
decided something needed to be changed because, according to the Declara-
tion of Independence, all people were supposed to seen as equal. So natural
rights are the freedom to choose what you want. If you want purple hair,
you can have purple hair. Civil rights have to do with the fair treatment of
all people by the government and the laws.
Mr. Baker informed the students that he was going to share a short video clip. He
instructed the students to think about their replies as they watched the clip. After showing it, Mr.
Baker engaged his students by asking specific questions to elicit responses about the main charac-
ter’s actions. During the lesson, a female African American student mentioned that “the coach in
the video was an example for his Black students and wanted the kids to do better.” Mr. Baker
responded:
That’s right—he knows that the kids can do better and that there are better things in life
that his students do not know about. But some of his students did not want to change and
some did.
The discourse between Mr. Baker and his students continued as students shared their
thoughts about the video and civil rights. By introducing the video, Mr. Baker provided a context
in which students were able to challenge dominant narratives and center the discussion around
the perspectives of minoritized peoples (Howard & Navarro, 2016). The observation of Mr.
Baker’s classroom lesson demonstrated his understanding of CRP by connecting the concept of
marginalized peoples fighting for their civil rights with that of the colonists fighting against
England because they, too, wanted freedom. The lesson continued as Mr. Baker posed another
question to the students:
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 110
What was the new idea? The founders of this nation were beginning to realize the King
over in England still had control over them. The people wanted to break away from
England and the monarchy because they felt his rules did not apply to them anymore.
Mr. Baker then projected the full text of the Declaration of Independence. While doing so, he
read the words aloud, scaffolding some of the terminology—for example, “inalienable”—for
which Mr. Baker helped students to chunk the meaning of the word by defining the prefix, root,
and suffix of the text. Students were then instructed to rewrite the preamble of the Declaration of
Independence in their own words along with a paragraph that explained the way in which the
words applied to them personally. A few students were selected to share their responses.
Mr. Baker wove into his lesson content that was relevant to students’ cultures and life
experiences as he began to connect the Declaration of Independence with civil rights and even
further with the Black Lives Matter movement of today. He posited,
If the U.S. was founded on the idea of equality in 1776, why did African Americans form
Black Panthers in 1966? Why was there a Civil Rights Movement 190 years later? And
why did African Americans form the Black Panthers in 1966?
Before reviewing students’ answers, Mr. Baker shared a short news clip about the forma-
tion and purpose of the Black Panther Party. The clip ended with Beyonce’s Super Bowl appear-
ance and her homage to the Black Lives Matter movement. Social studies teachers who use CRP
are mindful of their role to reflect on racialized histories by making race part of the curriculum
with an understanding that race is a sociohistoric construct (Howard & Navarro, 2016).
Ms. Cohen. Similar to the method of Mr. Adams, Ms. Cohen employed team building
strategies as part of her daily class routines to allow her students to build leadership capacity as
classroom helpers. Culturally relevant teachers encourage students to grow and strive for
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 111
excellence. Ms. Cohen sought to establish growth in her students through leadership, as CRP
research requires teachers to have high expectations for student success (Ladson-Billings, 1995a;
Milner, 2012). During the interview Ms. Cohen explained:
The selected team captains for the month monitor the other students in their rows. The
team captains hand out and collect papers, check peer assignments, and make sure the
students in their assigned row has their supplies to successfully complete classwork.
To engage her students in the lessons, Ms. Cohen enacted various strategies that were
observed by the researcher. For example, during one of the observations of Ms. Cohen’s class,
she rolled a die to establish partners for students to share their responses to the daily warm-up.
The warm-up consisted of a political cartoon that Ms. Cohen displayed (that depicted two birds,
both cardinals, with one saying “You wish” to the other) for students to analyze independently.
As students worked on their warm-ups, Ms. Cohen monitored the classroom and engaged in
conversation with students who seemed puzzled or had difficulty starting by prompting them to
recall a lesson from the day before.
After a few minutes passed and most students had finished writing their responses, Ms.
Cohen rolled a die that landed on the number 5. The number on the die indicated to the team
captains the person in their row with whom they would pair-share. The team captains met with
the fifth person in their respective rows and read their responses to their partner. After the
allotted time, the team captains were informed by Ms. Cohen to bring both papers to the front of
the class where the teacher was standing. She then instructed the team captains to read aloud
either their written response or the response of their partner. Ms. Cohen allowed the students to
decide which answer to share with the class. This option prevented students from passing on
their turn and removed the idea of self-consciousness, as their peers were unaware of whose
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responses were shared with the class. As the students read their papers aloud, the teacher
assigned a point value that she then recorded on the board using tally marks. Ms. Cohen shared
with the researcher that the row with the most points received a small token or prize at the end of
each week. She identified the importance of “established routines so students [knew] what the
expectations [were].” The role of the culturally relevant teacher is to also provide good class-
room organization and management to promote academic achievement.
Ms. Cohen emphasized, “I try to [involve] all students with the way I run my class. [For
example], some students will like the group work; others will like individual.” She further
explained that in her classroom, she frontloaded information and found different mediums to
present the theme or topic. Culturally relevant teachers use pedagogy that is inclusive of a clear
and focused mission, a safe and orderly environment, regular monitoring of student progress, and
high expectations (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
CRP is the integration of culture, experiences, and curriculum. Instruction that is relevant
to students’ needs on all levels is imperative and supports the notion of cultural competence,
which encourages students to appreciate their history, culture, and traditions while developing
valuable understanding and aptitude with respect to other cultures. The participants’ willingness
to allow students the opportunity to contribute to the curriculum engaged them in the learning
process and helped them to develop fundamental skills sets required to promote academic
achievement. Culturally relevant teachers prepare students with skills to question inequity and to
fight against the many “isms” and phobias that they encounter, while allowing students to build
and transfer knowledge gained through instruction to other experiences (Milner, 2017). Incorpo-
rating CRP into the curriculum to address the opportunity gap experienced by African American
students takes strategic and purposeful lesson planning. During the interviews, participants
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explained the significant amount of their time that was consumed by planning lessons, finding
supplemental materials that were inclusive of students’ cultures and histories, and the constant
need to update lessons according to current events. CRP allows students to see their culture in
the curriculum and instruction while gauging contradictions and inequities both in and outside of
the classroom. Culturally relevant teachers are intentional about their students learning and
therefore empower students to examine what they are learning as well as encouraging them to
contribute to classroom conversations with agency (Milner, 2017).
FoK. Curriculum presented in social studies classes has to engage students in critical
consciousness, wherein they are taught to question the nature of their historic and social situa-
tions but are also given the efficacy to take action. Academic empowerment enables students to
acquire control of their learning as teachers engage them in the curriculum while also creating a
sense of belonging. The study participants realized that CRP is more than a vague recognition of
supplemental material that included persons of color (Ladson- Billings, 2014). The process of
academic empowerment fosters capacity within students so that they can apply the content
learned to their own lives, communities, and societies by acting on issues that they deem impor-
tant. Culturally relevant teachers intentionally link the curriculum with the cultural knowledge of
students, especially when the background of the teacher and students differs (Sleeter, 2008).
Mr. Adams. During the second observation of Mr. Adams’s class, the researcher sought
to learn how he was able to engage his students in world history by accounting for students’
background knowledge. As students settled into their seats, they one by one opened and turned
on their Chromebooks. The teacher had instructions projected onto the front whiteboard that told
the students to go to his website and follow the link for the day’s assignment. As students com-
pleted their warm-ups, the teacher reminded them to update their “Dreams for Travel” document
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with their country of choice for Africa because they were now in the next chapter of the unit. A
few students were overheard as they shared their desired country to travel within Africa with
their neighbors. Mr. Adams took a cue from students’ chatter and asked a few students to share
aloud with the class where in Africa they wanted to visit. After a few students replied, the
teacher projected a map of Africa onto the front board.
Mr. Adams reminded his students that they had a printout of the exact map and a list of
the countries that he had shared electronically in their Chromebooks. Before the students labeled
their individual maps, the teacher reviewed the correct pronunciation of each country. As the
students started to work, the teacher played music from the Lion King in the background. The
playing of the familiar soundtrack allowed students to connect the music to a familiar movie and
then to the content of the class. Mr. Adams then announced to the class that they did not have the
full class period to work on the assignment because this was the 2nd day; therefore, if work was
still incomplete after the allotted time students were to finish it for homework. He did not penal-
ize students who were unable to finish the assignment but instead allowed them to finish at
home, where they could work at their own pace. When the allotted time ended, Mr. Adams
reviewed with students where to find the assignment on his website so that they could complete it
at home.
Mr. Adams had earlier mentioned to the researcher that he had a learning disability that
resulted from injuries sustained in an auto accident; therefore, he recognized that some students
needed additional time and assistance to do their work. As he shared in the interview, Mr.
Adams had an understanding that not all of his students worked at the same pace.
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Wlodkowski and Ginsberg (1995) discussed the importance of the relationship between
what is to be learned and students’ personal experiences. Mr. Adams structured the students’
lessons in ways in which the goals and expectations were clear, understandable, and enforced.
He transitioned into the second half of the class by reviewing the previous chapter on Africa. Mr.
Adams asked students to name the three empires of northwest Africa. The students responded
almost in unison: “Mali, Ghana, Songhai.”
Mr. Adams: What did the empires trade?
Class: Gold and salt.
Mr. Adams: How did they travel?
[Some students identified “camels”; others said “caravans.”]
Mr. Adams: [clarifying] You are all right—they traveled in camel caravans.
As the class moved to the next set of questions, a few students raised their hands as a
demonstration of their comfort level with the material. Rather than answer in unison, students
wanted to demonstrate their knowledge to the class. This activity continued throughout the list of
10 questions. Toward the end of the period, the teacher shared a short, 3-minute video that
demonstrated a mnemonic device to help students to memorize the countries in Africa for their
upcoming test. Mr. Adams played the video a second time but walked students through it slowly.
A few students started to repeat and then, toward the end, the whole class was catching on. Later
Mr. Adams shared with the researcher that he “learned about the video from a student” and that
after he watched it, “realized it was of value and chose to share it with the class.” As a culturally
relevant teacher, Mr. Adams realized that the teacher–student relationship is fluid in that the
teacher can learn as much from the students as they do from him because the end goal is student
achievement.
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Mr. Baker. Mr. Baker, the eighth-grade social studies teacher, noted that students’
culture is equal to or even more important than the curriculum, since culture plays a dominant
role in students’ lives. Most students do not see the value in the history-social studies curriculum
until there is a personal connection to the material.
As the researcher observed Mr. Baker’s eighth-grade U.S. history class, it became evident
that he was intentional about connecting students’ prior knowledge and culture with the lesson.
As the warm-up assignment, Mr. Baker displayed two flags (the British flag and the flag of the
U.S. colonies) and then asked the students, “Why did the flag change from one to the other?
Why are immigrants willing to face death to reach the U.S.?” The students started to raise their
hands to answer, but Mr. Baker asked them to wait because he wanted to show a clip from a
movie. The video clip was in Spanish with English subtitles and was about an immigrant family
trying to get to the United States. After the video ended, the class fell silent. In a low tone of
voice, Mr. Baker asked the students to write down their thoughts and ideas about the video and
then to respond to the two warm-up questions.
During the interview, Mr. Baker shared that “students become interested and very willing
to write, read, and discuss historical issues which are integrated with their culture. In contrast,
they respond with apathy to historical pedagogy which is divorced from their lives.” Mr. Baker’s
sentiment was evident as students sat quietly, writing their reply. Mutual respect was demon-
strated in Mr. Baker’s class as a result of his using CRP. Mr. Baker’s students produced work
that was honest and enlightening, as evidenced when students shared their responses. CRP
creates environments that help students to reach their highest levels of academic achievement
(T. C. Howard, 2010).
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After a few minutes Mr. Baker had the students first share with their table partners, and
then students were given the opportunity to volunteer to share aloud. Mr. Baker entitled the
assignment “Betrayal,” wherein he had students identify betrayal over time in this country. Using
three column notes, students compared the betrayal of King George (Great Britain), the New
United States (13 Colonies), and Today (DACA [Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals]). The
teacher resorted to the use of pulling index cards that had students’ names written on them as a
tool to ensure that all students had an equal opportunity to share. To culminate the assignment,
Mr. Baker ended with a news clip about the reform of the Dream Act.
Mr. Baker’s lesson was a demonstration of how to enact CRT in the curriculum. The
assignment was relevant to his students and gave students permission to freely discuss a topic
that affected many of them and their families. CRT, related to social studies, examines how
racism has become invisible through the curriculum. CRT can serve as an analytic tool to
explain the systematic omissions, distortions, and lies that plague the field (Ladson-Billings,
2003). Under the framework of CRT, CRP is a way to present a historically accurate curriculum
that allows the narrative of minoritized people to become visible, coherent, and warranted. The
inclusion of CRP in the curriculum will assist students in recognizing the inequities on which the
education system is predicated and the social injustices imposed on minoritized peoples, so as to
promote change to attain equitable access and opportunity for all.
Ms. Cohen. Ms. Cohen empathized with the other participants in that “[the students] are
good at doing [and believing] what they are told [or read], so I try to get them to question the way
things were.” The researcher observed Ms. Cohen as she was able to get students to question
people’s actions. She started the lesson by writing “Gender Neutral Terms” on the board and
asked the students whether they were familiar with the term. A few students shared that they had
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heard the term before but did not know what it meant. She began to chunk the phrase, whereby
students defined one word at a time until they determined its overall meaning. Ms. Cohen con-
tinued the lesson: “When we refer to people in power, we often use the term ‘he.’ Why do you
think this is so?” A few students replied: “Because that’s the way it’s always been.”
Ms. Cohen: Yes, but why?
[She asked students to think about their current unit, Medieval Europe, and the people
with the power.
Student: The kings had the power.
Ms. Cohen: Yes, the monarchs were in power. Who else have we read about that had
power?
Student: The Pope!
Ms. Cohen: Exactly! The kings, or the monarchy and the Pope were all . . .?
Class: Men.
Ms. Cohen: So historically, the people in power were men, White, men. Women, even
White women, did not have many rights during the Medieval times. So
people have gotten used to referring to people in power as “he.”
Ms. Cohen continued the assignment in the dialogue with her students. She had students
to write their responses to several questions that she had projected onto the whiteboard:
1. How does a king or queen get power?
2. How long can a monarch rule a country?
3. What were things that the monarchs did that cause the people to be upset?
4. What did the people do to make change in their kingdom?
5. How did we get rights in this country?
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6. What does innocent until proven guilty mean to you?
7. Has everyone in this country always been treated fairly?
After her students wrote their responses, Ms. Cohen then asked for volunteers to share their
answers with the class. As the students read their answers, the researcher could see that they
were beginning to make the connections between the past (social studies curriculum) and the
present. Ms. Cohen shared with the researcher that “if you relate [the curriculum] to students in a
different way, the idea is that it will help those students” to have a better understanding of the
lesson and be able to make connections to prior knowledge. CRP is an essential element for
educators to incorporate into the social studies curriculum in order to enable students to make
valuable connections between past and present injustices with respect to minoritized peoples so
as to create a better future for this nation.
Chapter Summary
The teachers in this study incorporated elements of CRP such as those that provided
encouragement for students to read text from a variety of perspectives, use research skills, and
create social science and artistic projects that represented their ideas (Ladson-Billings, 2017).
The teachers’ ideals aligned in that each one understood the importance to continuously update
lessons to reflect the changes taking place with young people and in the world. Although society
is constantly evolving, the education system is cyclical in that the overall practices and policies
continue to perpetuate the opportunity gap of African American students. The integration of
CRP into curriculum and instruction is a significant improvement; however, it remains under-
utilized as many educators shy away from the idea of race. “Race must be a consistent theme of
studies that examine classroom practice through a culturally relevant pedagogical lens” (Milner,
2017, p. 5).
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The teacher participants recognized the utility of implementing CRP in their classrooms
and the impact of its use for their students’ academic achievement and empowerment. “Any
educational or training system that ignores the history or perspectives of its learners or does not
attempt to adjust its teaching practices to benefit all its learners is contributing to inequality of
opportunity” (Brown, 2004, p. 267). Minoritized students need teachers who recognize that
students’ outcomes can be improved by incorporating the contributions of racial and ethnic
minorities in their curriculum and by diversifying pedagogical practices (Pratt-Johnson, 2006).
Culturally responsive educators see cultural competence as both a moral and ethical responsibil-
ity to create a welcoming environment for students to succeed.
The next and final chapter of this dissertation offers a discussion of the ideas that
emerged as a result of this study, addresses implications for educators inclusive of teacher
preparation programs and policymakers, in addition to providing recommendations for further
research in this area of study.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
In writing this dissertation, the role of the researcher was to examine the historical factors,
systemic discrimination, and oppression within the educational system that have impacted the
progress of African American students in middle school. Minoritized students struggle not only
academically but also emotionally, socially, and physiologically due to gaps in learning oppor-
tunities within the public school system (D. Bell, 2004; Ladson-Billings, 1995b; Milner, 2010).
The purpose of this qualitative study was to give insight into the ways in which middle school
social studies teachers incorporated culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) to engage their African
American students to elicit more equitable academic outcomes and to decrease the opportunity
gap.
This problem was important to address because of the identified disparity in educational
achievement, attainment, and opportunities afforded to African American students. Research has
shown that minority youth receive lower grades, score lower on standardized tests, have higher
retention rates, and are disproportionately assigned to low-ability groups or special education
(Becker & Luthar, 2002; Bohrnstedt et al., 2015; Milner, 2012; USDOE, NCES, 2000). The low
academic achievement among African American middle school students is attributed to the
inequities that influenced and determined the educational experiences of these students. Many
scholars and policymakers questioned the traditional measures of achievement, citing that the
data did not account for the historical factors, systemic discrimination, and oppression experi-
enced by minoritized students (D. Bell, 2004; T. C. Howard, 2010; Milner, 2010; Ogbu &
Simons, 1998; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Focusing solely on the achievement gap is negligent,
because the ideology does not examine its reasons through the lens of cultural differences
experienced by students of color, but rather places minoritized students at a deficit compared to
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their White counterparts. The deficit mindset assumes that the blame for the disparity in achieve-
ment is innate to minoritized students, their families, and communities (Ladson-Billings, 2013;
Milner, 2010, 2012). The term opportunity gap (Milner, 2010) focuses on the discrepancies
associated with the quality of schools, resources, and diversity by addressing the impact of race,
ethnicity, language proficiency, and socioeconomic status on perpetuating the ideals of lower
attainment and aspirations of minoritized peoples (Milner, 2010, 2012). To address the inequi-
ties, educators have needed information to explain the correlation of the discrepancies in a way
that respects and integrates the reality, history, and perspectives of students into their educational
practice, or CRP (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
In this dissertation the researcher sought to challenge educators with respect to shifting
away from a discourse of achievement gap and toward the idea of an education debt experienced
by African American students (Ladson-Billings, 1995b; Milner, 2017). A qualitative design was
used for this study to better understand social studies teachers’ perceptions of the concept of CRP
and the ways in which it was enacted in the classroom to engage students and promote academic
achievement. The researcher used purposive sampling to select two comprehensive middle
schools, each with an African American student population above the state average of California
(9.9% for the first site and 15.7% for the second site). Study participants were identified by their
principals as practitioners of CRP. The data in this study were gathered through conducting two
rounds of semistructured, individual interviews and observations of three middle school social
studies teachers—thus resulting in six interviews and six observations over the course of 3
months.
The following questions guided the inquiry:
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1. How do middle school social studies teachers using CRP explain their understanding
and enactment of CRP?
2. How do middle school social studies teachers enact CRP within the sociohistorical
constraints of school structures to impact the academic achievement of African American
students?
In the following sections, the researcher provides a discussion of findings and implications for
practice and future research.
Summary of Findings
The first research question inquired about participants’ definition of CRP and their
purpose for implementing it. From this question emerged the theme, engagement to impact
student achievement, along with participants’ description and detailed understanding of the
framework. This theme involved understanding participants’ perceptions of CRP and its impact
on students’ achievement as a way to legitimize their real-life experiences by connecting it to the
content and capitalizing on students’ cultural styles and strengths. The second research question
asked participants about their specific methodologies used to affect the academic achievement of
students. From this question emerged the themes of strategies of practice and funds of knowl-
edge. These themes included teachers encouraging cooperative learning among students and
giving voice to differing perspectives and world views as seen through the lens of the students.
The participants agreed that their positions as teachers were an important resource for
building equity in learning, and they did not take the role for granted. These findings were
important because CRP gives students a voice (Aronson & Laughter, 2016) to express them-
selves as teachers connect students’ cultures to the historic and sociopolitical content presented
in the social studies curriculum. The premise of CRP is to allow students to develop a critical
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consciousness to construct and deconstruct their knowledge. Essentially, the goal of CRP and the
injection of race is for teachers to create learning environments where students develop voice and
perspective and can fully participate in discourses surrounding the topic (Freire, 2000; Milner,
2017). The teachers in the study presented their students with leadership opportunities in the
classroom to build efficacy and agency. In addition, the teachers provided learning opportunities
that promoted ways in which students could safely discuss current issues of race and culture.
Therein, all the teachers found that building a connection with the students and bridging
students’ culture to the curriculum were important for all the study participants, none of whom
was representative of a marginalized group. By including cultural competence, the teachers
helped to foster students’ learning about their own culture as well as others. In addition, having
built students’ cultural knowledge promoted self- and collective empowerment that students
could use to challenge and transform power structures (Ladson-Billings, 2006; Milner, 2017)—
thereby leading to achieving equity in education.
Although the teachers were mindful of the racial differences between them and their
students, neither participant explicitly revealed the idea of deconstructing their whiteness in the
classroom or as a reflective practice. During the interviews the participants shared how they
understood that they had different racial experiences from those of their students and acknowl-
edged the difference in their interactions in the classroom. The teachers believed that it was
imperative that they were aware of their personal biases and any subscriptions to context-neutral
or deficit-based mindsets that could harm the learning environment and perpetuate the opportu-
nity gap.
The concept of race continues to be a strong factor in examining educational inequity in
K-12 schools. Therefore, it is important to continue the discourse of race and its impact in the
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field if educators are to eradicate the gaps in learning experienced by African American students.
Classroom and pedagogical practices that focus on race should be evaluated with an understand-
ing of the historical, current, social, legal, and phenotypical manifestations of race (Milner,
2017). Research has demonstrated that student achievement does not depend solely on the race
of the student or the effort that they put forth. Student achievement is relative to the opportuni-
ties that students are given throughout the educational process to succeed (Darling-Hammond,
1998; T. C. Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2017; Milner, 2012). In the following section, the
researcher will describe the resources from which educators can benefit as they navigate their
enactment of CRP in social studies.
Implications for Practice and Research
The study’s findings were consistent with research in that the use of CRP is a valuable
practice in the classroom when the teacher and students are from different backgrounds. The
findings were in alignment with the literature on CRT, SCT, and CRP. One implication for
policy and practice is that there must be more training for teachers as it relates to CRP. Minori-
tized students are more receptive to learn when a teacher looks like them (Dee, 2004; T. C.
Howard, 2003; Irvine, 2009). However, a report from the USDOE (2016) projected that the
majority of new teachers are not from marginalized communities, and these new teachers may
feel an inability to connect with students due to the cultural differences. As demonstrated by the
teachers in the study, the enactment of CRP in the curriculum provided the foundation for
teachers to connect with their students regardless of their background.
As teacher education programs prepare teachers, it is important to address the concept of
race as with the social studies curricula, teacher preparation programs are also taught from the
point of view of White society (Milner, 2017). Thus, the addition of courses on CRP in teacher
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preparation programs is needed. Novice teachers may have a fear or misinterpretation of teach-
ing in majority–minority schools due to personal biases and experiences. People’s beliefs,
including their biases and prejudices about people, deeply influence interaction with others (T. C.
Howard, 2010; Ullucci, 2007). Teacher education programs that focus on CRT, a tenet of CRP,
as an important factor of pedagogy can help teachers to challenge their own personal belief
systems so that they can deliver content in ways that give students a voice, engage them in the
curriculum, and provide them with the opportunity to be successful. As exemplified in this
study, the teachers who were trained in CRP were able to delve deeper into the content to provide
students with a stronger connection to the curriculum.
Similarly, the data from the study also suggested a need to provide professional develop-
ment opportunities on CRP for new and veteran teaching staff. The teachers in the study each
shared that they were not mandated by their respective districts or school sites to implement CRP
but that they recognized its value and could attribute it to student engagement and learning.
Teachers need to understand the why of incorporating CRP, but they also need to know the how.
Many professional development opportunities provide staff with theory rather than implementa-
tion strategies. Ladson-Billings (2006) was hesitant in developing a checklist of CRP strategies
out of fear that its context and viability would become lost. However, Milner (2017) captured
and summarized some important features of CRP in the hope to employ their use more readily.
The outcomes shared included student empowerment; incorporating student culture in curricu-
lum and instruction as well as in transcending negative effects of White culture; and creating
contexts that are challenging, innovative, student centered, and that connect to sociopolitical
realities.
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The how that will encourage future enactment of CRP strategies in the classroom includes
building quality student–teacher relationships; valuing students’ backgrounds; adopting positive
beliefs of self and students; and providing classroom activities that are engaging, rigorous, and
empowering while encompassing students’ culture. Teachers celebrated their students’ lived
experiences by incorporating their frames of reference into the curriculum, thereby affirming and
empowering them intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically (Gay 2000, 2002; Ladson-
Billings, 1995b). Teachers used the context in which students were living to inform their think-
ing and to transmit academic knowledge (Banks, 1996; Carter, 2005). Teachers challenged the
dominant culture by allowing students to share their experiences openly and to use those experi-
ences as critical pieces valuable in the analysis and understanding of traditional classroom
literature, thus providing a voice to the historically marginalized population (Matsuda, 1995).
Just as with developing and planning an impactful lesson, to incorporate CRP takes time and
commitment.
Content in textbooks, specifically in social studies curricula, is generally explained
through the purview of Whites. Teachers must provide the capacity for students to connect to the
curriculum. Introducing the same topic through the lens of minoritized people allows all students
to see themselves as relevant. According to Milner (2017), “seeing oneself in the curriculum and
through instruction helps students to understand the important ways in which their culture has
contributed to various genres and curriculum content and to the broader fabric of society” (p. 11).
To connect the texts to students’ background, each of the participants introduced secondary
resources to counter the curriculum in the textbooks. The study showed that it is imperative for
teachers to stay abreast regarding current issues and ever-changing cultural identities that stu-
dents encounter daily in order to provide an atmosphere where students are encouraged to be
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themselves and feel as though they are valued. Pedagogy and educational experiences must be
designed in ways that address the varying needs of all students and are responsive to the sociocul-
tural context in which students live and learn (Gay, 2010; T. C. Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings,
2009; Milner 2010, 2012).
Many African American students are forced to leave their day-to-day lives behind when
they arrive at school and assimilate into the culture of the school. Minoritized students have been
expected to divorce themselves from their cultures and to learn based on the cultural norms of
European Americans (Gay, 2002). The findings of this study indicated that teachers, with the
proper training, could learn to infuse culturally relevant, ethnically diverse supplemental material
and instructional strategies that are unique to students into the existing curricula. Implementing
CRP affords students a seat at the table and the ability to participate in the discourses of those in
power (Milner, 2017) so as to manipulate society and close the opportunity gap.
Recommendations for Future Research
The findings of this study could be extended to future research, which could include a
cross- curricular study to measure the consistency of CRP in all core content areas: mathematics,
English language arts, science, and social studies. Research could also be extended by address-
ing the effects of CRP in classrooms with multi-ethnic student populations rather than identifying
a specific ethnic group, as the demographics of K-12 schools is changing toward that of a major-
ity minority. Future research regarding CRP could also include a mixed-methods approach in
which a comparative case study is conducted, inclusive of qualitative and quantitative data sets,
to guide the concept of CRP beyond a framework and a theory and into daily practice.
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Conclusion
To address the issue of the pervasive color line within society, scholars have deemed
education to be the great equalizer. However, the system of education has experienced its share
of social, economic, and political injustices that have prevented minoritized students from being
able to achieve the concept of equity, thus resulting in a gap of academic achievement between
Whites and minorities. Scholars and policymakers have become activists to bring about change
to a system in which difference was seen as a threat and equity was not an option. The idea of the
opportunity gap focuses on the disparities within schools that are associated with a quality educa-
tion and resources, by addressing the ways in which race, ethnicity, language proficiency, and
socioeconomic status perpetuate lower attainment and/or aspirations for students of color
(Milner, 2010). The goal of this study was to examine the role of CRP as a method of teaching
that used the reality, history, and perspectives of students as an integral part of practice (Ladson-
Billings, 1995b), in order to engage African American middle school students in social studies
curriculum while promoting academic achievement.
The researcher sought to focus on two research questions: how middle school social
studies teachers using CRP explained their understanding and enactment of CRP and how middle
school social studies teachers enacted CRP within the sociohistoric constraints of school struc-
tures to impact the academic achievement of African American students. From these questions,
the researcher was able to obtain from the three study participants their perceptions of CRP and
the ways in which they incorporated it into their curriculum. The findings suggested that there is
a need to develop and foster positive teacher–student relationships, to value students’ cultural
identities, to incorporate humanizing strategies of practice that align with their beliefs and values,
and to empower students through engagement to the curriculum. The problem of the color line,
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 130
as identified by Du Bois in 1903 (as cited in Du Bois, 1935), is just as pervasive and detrimental
to the futures of minoritized students should educators continue not to consider the disparities in
equity and opportunities. In 2017, Howard and Navarro poignantly stated that
a 21st-century analysis of race would reveal that it remains the elephant in the room, the
issue that many do not want to acknowledge, even within the context of social studies
curriculum. As much as we attempt to ignore race, look around it, over and under it, race
remains a constant reality in the United States. (p. 215)
CRP, as seen through the framework of SCT and CRT and if implemented with care and fidelity,
can bring change to the education system wherein the identities of students are affirmed and
inequities in schools are challenged to promote an equitable learning atmosphere to close existing
gaps in learning, achievement, and opportunities.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 131
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OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 152
Appendix A
SUPERINTENDENT CONTACT EMAIL
To: Superintendent of Potential Research Site
From: Keisha Larry Burns
Subject: Use of Site Request
Dear [insert name of Superintendent here] Date: [insert date here]
My name is Keisha Larry Burns. I am a school counselor in the Palmdale School District and a
doctoral candidate at the University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education. I am
researching opportunity gaps in the academic performance of African American students in
middle schools. I am particularly interested in two main areas: (1) how do middle school social
studies teachers who use culturally relevant pedagogy describe its utility in the classroom? and
(2) how do middle school social studies teachers who use culturally relevant pedagogy enact the
strategy to impact the academic achievement of African American students?
With your permission, I would like to contact the middle school principals within your district in
hopes of finding three social studies teachers in your district to interview and observe for my
research study. I am looking for teachers who effectively utilize culturally relevant pedagogy.
Your district was selected because of its diverse student demographic and rich population of
African American students. This study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board of
the University of Southern California. Pseudonyms will be used to protect the identities of
participants and site(s) used in the study.
Thank you for taking the time to read my request. I am willing to meet with you in person or by
phone, should you seek further information.
Sincerely,
Keisha Larry Burns
[xxx-xxx-xxxx]
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 153
Appendix B
PRINCIPAL CONTACT EMAIL
To: Principal of Potential Research Site
From: Keisha Larry Burns
Subject: Use of Site Request
Dear [insert name of Principal here] Date: [insert date here]
My name is Keisha Larry Burns. I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education. I am researching opportunity gaps in the academic performance of
African American students in middle schools. I am particularly interested in two main areas: (1)
how do middle school social studies teachers define culturally relevant pedagogy? and (2) how
do middle school social studies teachers perceive pedagogical practices and enact culturally
relevant pedagogy to impact academic achievement and engagement for African American
students?
With your permission, I would like to interview and observe social studies teachers at your site
who you believe are highly effective in their content area and utilize culturally relevant pedagogy.
Your site was selected because of its diverse student demographic and rich population of African
American students. The study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board of the
University of Southern California and your district Superintendent.
Thank you for taking the time to read my request. I am available to meet with you in person or
by phone, should you seek further information.
Sincerely,
Keisha Larry Burns
[xxx-xxx-xxxx]
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 154
Appendix C
PROSPECTIVE SITE PRINCIPAL: FOLLOW-UP PHONE CALL PROTOCOL
Hello [insert name of principal]
My name is Keisha Burns, and I am a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. I am conducting an educational research study as part of my
dissertation process. The purpose of the study is to examine how effective middle school social
studies teachers are incorporating targeted cultural pedagogies into their practice. The reason for
my call is to follow up with you about an email that I recently sent discussing the study and to
obtain permission to conduct research with social studies teachers you identify as using CRP.
Should you do decide to allow participation of teachers from your school site, all information
obtained in this study about the school will remain confidential and the participants will remain
anonymous.
I am available to meet in person to discuss the information further if you would like. If so, what
dates and time work best for you?
Thank you for your time and have a nice day.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 155
Appendix D
TEACHER EMAIL CONTACT
Dear [insert name of teacher here],
My name is Keisha Larry Burns. I am currently a middle school counselor working towards my
doctorate in education at the University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education. I
received your name and email information from your principal, as you have been identified as a
strong, effective middle school social studies teacher who successfully works with students from
diverse backgrounds.
The purpose of this email is to request your participation in a research study which will consist of
an interview and observations regarding the pedagogical methods used with your students. All
information obtained in this study will remain confidential, and the participants will remain
anonymous.
Thank you for taking the time to read my request. Feel free to contact me with any questions you
have about the study or the process. I am grateful for your help, as I will be able to learn more
about incorporation of cultural pedagogies as a result of your participation.
Sincerely,
Keisha Larry Burns
Doctor of Education student - 2018
University of Southern California
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 156
Appendix E
TEACHER CONFIDENTIAL AGREEMENT: CONSENT FORM
The Opportunity Gap: Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and African American
Middle School Students
You are invited to take part in a research study about pedagogy and student equity. You were
selected as a participant because of your effective teaching skills working with the middle school
population as well as your success in having high academic outcomes working with students
from diverse populations, specifically African American students. We ask that you read this
form and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to be in the study.
This study is being conducted by Keisha Larry Burns, a doctoral candidate at the University of
Southern California, Rossier School of Education.
Background Information:
The purpose of this study is to better understand how middle school Social Studies teachers
define culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and to gain insight into the teaching methodology used
in their classes to enact cultural relevance.
Procedures:
If you agree to be a participant in this study, you will be asked to share your definition and per-
ceptions of culturally relevant pedagogy, and the decisions and actions you have made to practice
CRP in the classroom to provide an equitable cultural learning experience for students. Partici-
pation will require approximately 45 minutes of your time during interviews and 45–60 minutes
for each observation (each teacher will participate in allowing the researcher to observe class-
room instructional practices for two sessions at 45 to 60 minutes per session).
Risks and Benefits of Study Participation:
There are no risks to your involvement in this study. The benefit to your participation in this
study is that your input will broaden the understanding of what works in school environments
that provide opportunities for academic success of African American students. Your feedback
may help guide other schools in fostering the use of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy as a tool that
provides an equitable learning experience for students.
Compensation:
In appreciation of your time, each of the three participants selected to complete the study will
receive a $10 Starbucks gift card as token of gratitude.
Confidentiality:
The records of this study will be kept private. In any sort of report that is published, all records
will be stored securely and only the researcher, Keisha Larry Burns, will have access to the
records. Interviews and observations will be audio-recorded. These recordings are available to
the researcher and the participant. No individual school or participant will be identified in any
report, and all responses will be confidential and anonymous. You and/or your school will not be
compared to any other school in the study.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 157
Voluntary Nature of the Study:
Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision to participate or not will not affect your
current or future relations with the University of Southern California. If you decide to partici-
pate, you are free not to answer a question or withdraw at any time without affecting those rela-
tionships.
Contacts and Questions:
The researcher conducting this study is Keisha Larry Burns. You may ask any questions you
have now. If you have questions later, you are encouraged to contact her at xxx-xxx-xxxx or via
email at [email address]. If you would like to talk to someone independent of the researcher,
please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower
Street, #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
You will receive a copy of this information to keep for your records.
Statement of Consent:
I have read the above information. I have received answers to my questions. I consent to partici-
pate in the study.
Signature of Participant: ______________________________________ Date: __________
Signature of Researcher: ______________________________________ Date: __________
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 158
Appendix F
PRE-INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Good Morning. Thank you for taking the time to talk with me today. The purpose of this inter-
view is to learn about your definition and incorporation of CRP in the classroom. There are no
right or wrong answers, or desirable or undesirable answers. I would like you to feel comfortable
saying what you really think and how you really feel.
If it’s okay with you, I would like to audio-record our conversation since it is hard for me to write
down everything while simultaneously having an attentive conversation with you. I assure your
confidentiality in all phases of the study. I will be the only person with access to the information
should I need to follow up on a response. The responses will be compiled in a report which will
contain teacher comments without any reference to individuals.
Before we get started, please take a few minutes to read and sign this consent form. [Hand
consent form to teacher. After teacher returns signed consent form, TURN ON audio recorder.)
Setting the Stage
I’d like to start by asking a few background questions about you and your classes.
1. What grade level(s) do you currently teach?
a. For how long?
b. What did you teach prior this?
2. How many years have you been teaching?
3. What brought you to teach middle school?
4. How did you come to teach middle school?
5. Did you teach at any other sites?
a. If so, how long were you there?
6. What is the demographic makeup of students in your classes?
a. How many students are in each class?
b. Of those students, how many are African American?
Background
Information
&
Classroom
Demographics
Now I would like to ask you questions about your definition, understanding,
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 159
7. To what extent do students’ backgrounds influence your pedagogy?
8. How would you define Culturally Relevant Pedagogy?
9. What is your perception of how African American students perform
academically in your class?
10. In what ways is it possible to provide equity in the classroom experi-
ence?
11. Can you give me an example of a time you felt you successfully reached
one of your African American students?
a. What made this particular experience a success?
12. What role does culture play in teaching and learning?
13. How do you decide what instructional strategies to use during a lesson?
14. How do you facilitate collaboration of students in your class?
15. What are some strategies you use to build rapport with your students?
16. Do you know of any colleagues who also use CRP?
a. If so, what subject areas do they teach?
RQ #1
___________
Definition &
Description of
Utility of CRP
in the
Classroom
Again, thank you for your time and participation! [TURN AUDIO-RECORDER OFF.]
It was nice meeting you. Within the next few days I will contact you again to set up appoint-
ments for the observations and post-interviews. Thank you!
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 160
Appendix G
POST-INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Thank you again for your willingness to set aside time to participate in my study. As previously
mentioned, this interview should last about half an hour. If you do not have any questions for
me, I would like to have your permission to begin the interview. I brought a recorder with me so
that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is solely for my purposes to
best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone else. May I also have your
permission to record our conversation? Remember that you can pass on any questions you
choose not to answer.
Personal Reminder of Interview Questions:
1. How do middle school Social Studies teachers that use culturally relevant pedagogy de-
scribe its utility in a classroom of primarily African American students?
2. How do middle school social studies teachers that use culturally relevant pedagogy enact
the strategy to impact the academic achievement of African American students?
1. What influenced the design of the lesson(s) I observed?
2. Please describe any professional development you receive regarding
integration of culture into instruction and assessment.
3. What preparation, if any, did you receive in your teaching program
regarding CRP?
4. When you began teaching, how well prepared were you in implement-
ing CRP?
5. How do you handle the discussion of sensitive subject matter in class,
which may relate to students personally?
6. Have you experienced any barriers to implementing CRP into your
class?
7. What are the supports for the integration of CRP into your class?
a. If positive, who provides those supports?
b. If negative, what type of supports would you like?
8. Summarize for me your overall experience integrating CRP into your
classroom.
9. What is your perception of how using CRP might impact students’
academic outcomes?
10. How has the use of CRP personally affected you?
11. What do you want other teachers who don’t use CRP to know about
using culturally relevant pedagogy?
12. Do you have any questions or other information regarding your expe-
rience that you think would be useful for me to know?
RQ #2
____________
Enactment of
Culturally
Relevant
Pedagogy
[Additional questions will be contingent upon the specifics of the lesson(s) observed.]
Again, thank you for participating! [TURN AUDIO-RECORDER OFF.]
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 161
Appendix H
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
Name of Observer Date Time
School Grade Level
Study
Seating Arrangements Evidence of Student Activities
____ rows of tables/desks facing front of room
____ circle/semi-circle of tables/desks
____ clusters of pods of tables/desks
____ individual tables/desks
____ rug area
____ other (describe)
____ group projects
____ journals
____ storyboards
____ poetry
____ student art
____ instructional centers
____ student writing
Demographics
Teacher
! Ethnicity
! Languages spoken
Students
! Ethnic distribution
! Gender distribution
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 162
Instructional Strategies
Teacher Details
____ lesson plans
____ culturally relevant materials
____ icons/visual clues
____ sentence frames
____ realia
____ labels
____ leveled questions
____ graphic organizer
____ grouping strategies
! heterogeneous
! homogeneous
____ opportunities for conversation
Student
____ responds in multiple ways
! oral
! physical
! written
____ classroom participation
! one-on-one
! small group
! whole class
Teacher-Student
____ think aloud
____ modeling
____ one-on-one
____ small group
____ repeat student’s response
____ utilize student’s first language
____ wait time
____ facial expressions
____ gestures
____ preview content prior to lesson
Draw diagram of physical space on the back.
Additional field notes on the back or separate sheet of paper.
OPPORTUNITY GAP IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 163
Appendix I
INTERVIEWER REFLECTION
Date of Interview:
Describe respondent’s attitude toward the interview:
Describe any unusual circumstances or events that had any bearing on the interview:
Describe anything else that happened during the interview that has any bearings on the study’s
objectives:
Additional comments:
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
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Larry Burns, Keisha Janise
(author)
Core Title
The effect of opportunity gaps: the charge for culturally relevant pedagogy in middle school social studies classes
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
07/03/2018
Defense Date
04/09/2018
Publisher
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(original),
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Tag
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Electronically uploaded by the author
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Carbone, Paula (
committee chair
), Crawford, Jenifer (
committee member
), Hinga, Briana (
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)
Creator Email
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