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Teach them to read: implementing high leverage pedagogical practices to increase English language learner academic achievement

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Teach them to read: implementing high leverage pedagogical practices to increase English language learner academic achievement

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Running head: HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs

Teach Them to Read: Implementing High Leverage Pedagogical Practices to Increase English
Language Learner Academic Achievement
by

Virginia Araceli Feliz

A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Virginia Araceli Feliz
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 2
Dedication
To my wonderful children, Aimé, Alonzo, and Isabella, who fuel the passion in everything I do:
Our native language carries with it our identities, our histories, and our culture. It is only just that
we continue to preserve and develop it. My wish is that I have taught you the importance of
speaking the language of our ancestors and that you will carry on the legacy to your children.

A mis padres: Todos mis logros son suyos. Sus sacrificios al forjar una vida nueva en este país
no han sido en vano. Ustedes me enseñaron que la educación es tan valiosa como mantener mi
identidad de mujer Americana con raíces Mexicanas. Gracias a ustedes aprendí que ¡Si se puede!

To my patient and understanding husband: I appreciate your support through this whole journey.
You embarked on this process along with me three years ago and have never once complained
about taking on extra chores around the house. Thank you for encouraging me through every
rough spot along the way and always doing so with a positive outlook. I love you!

“Once you learn to read you will be forever free.”
~Frederick Douglass

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my remarkable family for supporting me through this long journey.
There were so many weekends and nights which I longed to join you in the living room to hang
out, but had to keep my nose buried in books or writing. Not once did any of you complain about
having to give up that time. Instead, you offered support and encouraging words to keep me
grounded in my work.
In particular, I would like to recognize my parents for always seeing something in me that
I never understood until now. As a child, you always said I would be “an abogada” (a lawyer)
because I always stood up for what I believed in and was not afraid to state my position. I now
realize that my calling is to advocate for underrepresented children. Thank you for never
silencing my voice.
I also want to recognize the work and dedication of educators who actively seek to do
what is best for all students regardless of their background or native language. It is because of
teachers and administrators like you that I will soon earn the title “Doctor”. I will always
remember the teachers who supported me regardless of my limited proficiency in English, Mrs.
Stormont, Mr. Zimmerman, and Dr. Packer. I never felt different from other students or deprived
of opportunities in your classrooms. I thank you for making me feel significant and capable.
Thank you for recognizing that limited English language proficiency is not a cognitive
deficiency.
In particular, I would like to thank the superintendent of the school district where I
conducted my study. You are a champion for change working each day to reshape the landscape
of education for low SES, Latino, and English Language Learners. You have created a
welcoming, inclusive community of learners in which I was honored to participate briefly. I
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 4
appreciate your transparency and willingness to support my research when you already do so
much for the community you serve. I have learned so much from you and your teachers, I am
eternally grateful. I hope to continue to grow and collaborate with you in the service of
empowering Latino, low SES, and English Language Learners.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 10
Organizational Context and Mission 11
Organizational Performance Status 12
Related Literature 13
Importance of Addressing the Problem 17
Organizational Performance Goal 18
Description of Stakeholder Groups 18
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 20
Stakeholder Groups for the Study 20
Purpose of the Project and Questions 21
Methodological Framework 22
Definitions 23
Organization of the Project 25

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 26
Opportunity Gaps 28
Making Content Comprehensible 41
Reading Pedagogy 44
KMO as a Framework to Examine Opportunity Gaps 48
Conceptual Framework: The Relationship of Teacher Knowledge, Motivation,
and the Organizational Context to Opportunity Gaps for English
Language Learners 62
Conclusion 66

Chapter Three: Methodology 67
Purpose of the Project and Questions 67
Conceptual and Methodological Approach 68
Data Collection 69
Data Analysis 75
Credibility and Trustworthiness 78
Validity and Reliability 80
Ethics 81
Limitations and Delimitations 82
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 6
Conclusion 83

Chapter Four: Results and Findings 85
Sample Participants and Study Site 85
Interview Participants 87
Results 87
Research Question One: Implementing District Mandated Pedagogies 89
Research Question Two: Knowledge, Motivation, Organizational Influences
to Support English Language Learner Reading 93
Research Question Three: Teachers’/Instructional Leaders’ Recommendations
to Improve ELL Reading Instruction 108
Conclusion 115

Chapter Five: Recommendations 117
Recommendations for Practice to Increase ELL Reading Proficiency 121
Focus on Reading Instruction to Promote Content Literacy as a Priority 122
Collect Observational Data on ELL Reading Instruction Practices Regularly 124
Identify and Prioritize Resources for ELL Reading Instruction 125
Motivation Recommendations 127
Organization Recommendations 130
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 132
Future Research 146
Conclusion 147

Appendix A: ELL Teacher Survey 151
Appendix B: Ad Hoc Instructional Leader Interviews 154
Appendix C: Superintendent Clarification Questions 155
Appendix D: SACS Workshop Immediate Survey 156
Appendix E: SACS Workshop Delayed Evaluation Tool 157
Appendix F: SACS Training Results Dashboard (Example Data) 158

References 159

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 7
List of Tables
Table 1 Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance 20
Influences

Table 2 Knowledge Influences 49

Table 3 Motivational Influences 54

Table 4 Organizational Influences 58

Table 5 Summary of Sources about Assumed Influences for Knowledge,
Motivation, and Organizational Issues 61

Table 6 Data Collection 70

Table 7 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 134

Table 8 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Stakeholders 136

Table 9 Required Drivers to Support Stakeholders’ Critical Behaviors 137

Table 10 Components of Learning for the Program 141

Table 11 Components of Measure Reactions to the Program 144

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework: ELL Teachers’ Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organizational Influences 62

Figure 2: Attributes of High Quality Teachers of ELLs and Underrepresented Students 121

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 9
Abstract
The study addresses teachers and instructional leaders of English Language Learners
(ELL's), one of the fastest growing student populations in the United States. English Language
Learners comprise a diverse group of students including native-born Americans who happen to
speak a language other than English as their primary language. One of the most common
characteristics among ELL's is they are predominantly members of the low socioeconomic and
Latino demographics.
English Language Learner reading proficiency is addressed as a foundational factor
leading to success in other content areas and an ultimate determinant of educational attainment as
well as a factor affecting capacity for human capital. The study focuses on inputs rather than
outputs. Attention is given to educational opportunities provided to ELLs within classroom
settings.
The purpose of the study is to identify the most essential strategies that provide teachers
with effective ways to facilitate ELL learning of content material while continuing to improve
their English language proficiency. Voluntary teacher surveys, interviews, and observations
comprise the methodological approach for the study. Data analysis consists of examination of
teachers' responses to surveys and interviews to identify trends and patterns in practices as well
as mindsets for teaching ELL's. Analysis of classroom observations provide for an opportunity to
discern specific, observable, and measurable instructional practices employed with English
Language Learners. The intended outcome is to identify a framework for teaching English
Language Learners.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Every year English Language Learner students (ELLs) fall further and further behind
academically than their English only counterparts (Welner & Carter, 2013). Although, a majority
of ELLs are Latino as well as poor (Welner & Carter, 2013), ELLs are diverse with backgrounds
ranging from being children of refugees to children of financially secure documented immigrants
with professional positions (Gándara, 2013). Most teachers are underprepared to teach ELLs
(Gándara, 2013). ELL’s knowledge of a primary language is not a common tool for English
Language learning within the classroom (Cummins, 2007, 2008). The divorce of students from
their native language and culture is often encouraged through exclusionary mainstream
immersion practices that leave many students searching for their identity within the school
setting. Low expectations and a deficit mindset are prevalent in mainstream classrooms where
students’ knowledge of a second language is viewed as a barrier to learning, academic
achievement, and acquisition of the English language (Garcia & Guerra, 2004; Cummins, 2005;
Milner, 2013). These structures ignore students’ culture and language in classroom instruction.
This study will address the lack of strategic pedagogical practices that support English
Language Learner achievement. Opportunity gaps result in poor academic achievement in
English Language Learners due to lack of access to school resources such as quality teachers,
professional development for teachers, ongoing language supports services across grade levels,
and meaningful curriculum aligned to state standards and assessments (CPE, 2012). For too long,
attempts to address this issue have focused on student outcomes rather than the inputs—the basic
elements of society, school, and communities that create differences in educational and
socioeconomic results (Welner & Carter, 2013). An essential, yet scarce, educational resource is
teachers qualified to teach English Language Learners. Quality teachers are sparse for
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 11
underrepresented students (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007; Flores, 2007; Kang & Hong,
2008; Peske & Haycock, 2006; Rouse & Barrow, 2006; Samson & Lesaux, 2015; Wenglinksy,
2003). According to Ganchorre and Tomanek (2012), awareness of educational challenges draws
certain teachers to teach in under-resourced schools. Schools staffed by teachers who seek to
work with underrepresented students learn to understand student needs and tailor instructional
delivery to maximize learning opportunities. However, the opposite is typically true—new
teachers or less experienced teachers are usually overrepresented in the poorest schools with high
concentrations of culturally and linguistically diverse students (Villegas & Lucas, 2002). The
scarcity of qualified teachers, trained to employ targeted instructional practices for English
Language Learners, is a detrimental factor affecting ELL achievement.
Organizational Context and Mission
The El Dorado Unified School District, EDUSD, (a pseudonym) is a traditional calendar
school district that provides instruction to students in grade levels K-12. The mission of EDUSD
is to support every student toward the goal of being academically successful and be productive
citizens in a democratic society. The district motto derived from this mission is 21st Century
Learning. The El Dorado Unified School District has an enrollment of approximately 5,000
students in its K-12 programs. EDUSD has 2,400 ELLs compared to neighboring districts
Oakwood Unified School District (a pseudonym) and Serenity Hills Unified School District (a
pseudonym) whose ELL populations are 2,561 and 1,446, respectively (CDE, 2017). The El
Dorado Unified School District’s mission is to ensure that every student will have the skills to
compete, succeed, and excel in an increasingly global society.
The El Dorado Unified School District (EDUSD) is located in California. It is one of the
smaller rural school districts in its county, serving students from households well below the
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 12
national poverty average. The 2010 US Census describes this area in California to have an
average household income of $8,176 compared to the national average of $21,587. EDUSD is
comprised of a student population reflective of its community. Approximately 50% of students
live in households where parents are employed in some form of manual labor tied to agriculture.
Students at EDUSD represent an ethnic population with the largest student group being Hispanic
or Latino followed by white, non-Hispanic students. Latino students comprise 95% of the
district’s total enrollment whereas white, non-Latino students make up 1.5% of the student
population (CDE, 2017). The remaining population is broken down as follows: Filipino (3%),
and other (.5%). Socioeconomically disadvantaged students represent the majority at EDUSD at
94.1% of its student population while English Learners represent 48% and Students with
Disabilities represent .04% of the general student population. Spanish speaking ELLs comprise
94% of the ELL population (CDE, 2017). The ethnic and language composition of EDUSD has
remained consistent over the past five years and the enrollment has remained at a steady
population of 5,000 students. The ethnic composition of the teachers and staff at EDUSD are
consistent with the student population. There are 4 district level certificated administrators, one
superintendent, six K-12 principals, and 209 total staff members. The staff ethnic composition is
49% Latino, 49% White, and .03% representing other races. The majority of school and district
level administrators are Hispanic or Latino while most of teaching staff is balanced between a
majority Hispanic or Latino and White staff members.
Organizational Performance Status
The organizational performance problem at the root of this study is English Language
Learner opportunity gaps. Based on the organizational goals, EDUSD strives to achieve a rate of
85% of English Language Learners in the 3
rd
grade scorng at the proficient level or above in
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 13
reading. The 2016 Smarter Balanced Assessment for California (SBAC) results indicated that
16% of EDUSD 4th grade English Language Learners were proficient or advanced in reading
whereas 36% of English only students were proficient or advanced in reading (CDE, 2017).
These scores reveal a large reading proficiency gap between English Language Learners and
their English only classmates. In order to fulfill its mission and continue to prepare students for
the 21
st
century, it is crucial that EDUSD increase the reading rates of English Language
Learners. Failure to do so can result in a large number of students reading below proficiency,
leading many students to struggle with success in academic content, which may result in a
possible long-term effect of loss of human capital that is essential to economic and social
independence.
Related Literature
The national graduation rate for Latino students is 71.4 percent compared to the 93.5
percent graduation rate of Whites (Welner & Carter, 2008). The National Center for Educational
Statistics does not provide a disaggregated report for ELL graduation rates. The achievement rate
for 4
th
grade ELLs on the NAEP Reading Assessment is 90% below proficient compared to 54%
of 4
th
grade white students performing below proficient on the same test (Nation’s Report Card,
2015). Included within the Latino graduation rate is a large percentage of English Learners.
California is comprised of 1.4 million English Language Learners or twenty-two percent of
students in the state’s educational system (California Department of Education, 2013). An
additional 1.3 million students in California schools speak a language other than English in their
homes (California Department of Education, 2013). The CDE (2013), reports that 42.8% of
students in California K-12 schools speak a language other than English. The California
Department of Education (2016), reports the state English Language Learner graduation rate as
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 14
69.4 percent compared to 82.3 percent graduation rate for all students. Similarly, the CDE (2016)
reports ELL 4
th
grade reading achievement on the California state reading assessment is 85%
below proficient compared to 50% of 4
th
grade English only speaking students on the same test.
Similarly, 8
th
grade ELLs underperformed on the California state reading assessment in
comparison to their English only classmates at a rate of 94% and 46%, respectively. The low
academic achievement of ELLs is a systematic issue stemming from inequalities and
inaccessibility to effective instruction. The impetus for improving ELL academic achievement
lies in targeting the foundational building blocks of education through culturally and
linguistically relevant literacy instruction.
High school graduation rates for under-represented students who are not proficient
readers by third grade are significantly lower than white students’ graduation rates with the same
reading proficiency levels. According to a study by Hernandez (2011), students who are not
proficient readers by third grade do not graduate high school on time at a rate four times that of
proficient readers. The rate of under-represented students, Black and Hispanic, who do not
graduate high school is eight times higher than that of proficient readers at 31% and 33%,
respectively (Hernandez, 2011). The impact of low graduation rates in under-represented
students is large because it affects an individual’s ability to secure gainful employment as well as
contribute to the economy. According to Belfield and Levin (2013), education develops an
individual’s skills and knowledge that allow them to work productively and participate
competently in society. These skills and knowledge are also known as human capital (Belfield &
Levin, 2013). High school graduation is the baseline for adequate education although a college
education is a benefit to most students (Belfield & Levin, 2013). Individuals who graduate high
school earn more and have less of a dependence on social services and less incidence of chronic
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 15
health conditions as well as fewer issues with crime (Belfield & Levin, 2013). Consequently,
individuals who do not graduate high school struggle with economic independence leading to an
ongoing cycle of poverty.
Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) proposes the use of characteristics, experiences
and perspectives that reflect the cultures of ethnically and linguistically diverse students for
teaching (Carter, 2013; Gay, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Villegas, 1991). CRT is a direct
response to concern over the achievement gap of underrepresented students which include
ethnic, linguistic, and sociodemographic minorities in schools (Gay, 2002; Vivrus, 2008).
Historically, students of ethnic, socioeconomic, and linguistically diverse backgrounds have not
responded successfully to traditional methods of teaching (Gay, 2002; Vivrus, 2008). There is a
link between the validation of self and construction of identity within school setting social
interactions (Kristjánsson, 2013, pp. 11-27). Mohatt and Erickson (as cited in Ladson-Billings,
1995) found that students in classrooms with teachers who used language interaction patterns
that mirrored students’ home cultural patterns demonstrated improved academic performance. If
teachers fail to bridge a connection between ELLs home culture and language to the classroom
environment, this leads to an increase in the academic achievement gap of this group of students
in comparison to their white English only classmates (Villegas, 1991; De Jong & Harper, 2005;
Carter, 2013). The idea of an oppositional culture or a culture contrary to middle class white
America is a prevalent explanation to the academic underachievement of African Americans and
Latinos (Carter, 2013). An educational structure that promotes white middle class American
culture over the culture or races of others recreates social disparities within schools (Garcia &
Guerra, 2004; Carter, 2013). The problem is that poor academic achievement of Latino English
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 16
Language Learners is a result of opportunity gaps created by a systematic failure to implement
pedagogical practices that view cultural and linguistic differences as assets.
School level influencers such as poor teacher preparation, monolingual/monoculture
classroom environments, lack of ELL access to grade level curriculum, and an absence of
schoolwide focus on ELL achievement are contributing factors to academic underperformance in
English Learners (Milner, 2012;Gándara, 2013;Welner & Carter, 2013). The Center for
American Progress (2012) reports that factors beyond limited English proficiency affect ELL
student outcomes. These factors include poverty, health conditions, parent resources, school
resources, inadequate school support such as limited language services and poorly trained
teachers (Center for American Progress, 2012; Barnett & Lamy, 2013; Carter, 2013; Darling-
Hammond, 2013;Kantor & Lowe, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2013; Orsfield, 2013; Rothstein, 2013;
Tienken & Zhao, 2013; Tyson, 2013; Welner & Carter, 2013;). The existence of cultural
conflicts between educators and students of differing race or ethnic backgrounds are a problem
that extends from insufficient teacher preparation and training (Milner, 2010; Echeverrria, 2011;
Ladson-Billings, 1999; Sleeter, 2000). Teachers need specific training to develop an
understanding about student-teacher diversity gaps, specifically how to teach students of
differing backgrounds than their own. Currently, there are no specific teacher coursework
requirements to address the unique needs of English Language Learners (Center for American
Progress, 2012). State teacher exams often do not assess for teacher knowledge or skills for
teaching ELLs (Center for American Progress, 2012). A national survey recently revealed that
ELL teachers have received only four hours of professional development related to teaching
these students in the past five years despite having at least three ELLs in their classroom
(Gándara, 2013). In order for ELLs to succeed academically, they must also learn to read and
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 17
write within grade level educational contexts (Scarcella, 2003). ELLs require Academic English
proficiency, which is the ability to read, write, speak, and understand academic English required
for school success (Center for Public Education, 2007). According to Cummins (1999), cognitive
skills, academic content, and critical language awareness are essential components of an
instructional program for bilingual students. Language development for academic success is
much more complex than just having students listen and speak for basic communication
purposes.
Much of the focus regarding the academic achievement of English Language Learners
needs to shift to the opportunities these students need and whether they are actually getting them
in today’s classrooms (Gándara, 2013; Welner & Carter, 2013). The shift is one from a focus on
student outcomes to instructional inputs. Federal policies such as No Child Left Behind and
Race to the Top focus attention on solutions to the issue of underperformance of under-
represented students (Berry, 2013). Schools who fail to meet adequate yearly progress on
standardized state tests receive punitive measures against their districts, schools, administrators,
and teachers (Gándara, 2013; Orfield, 2013; Welner & Carter, 2013). Invariably, teachers are
often scapegoats to the cause of poor academic achievement of English Language Learners.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The English Language Learner opportunity gap represents a barrier to academic
achievement for one of the largest growing groups of students in the country. Lack of effort or
intelligence is often misidentified as the cause behind chronic underperformance in the ELL as
well as Latino, African American, and low socioeconomic student demographics. Most ELLs are
Latino, Spanish speaking, and poor. They are also typically in school settings segregated by
language, income, and ethnicity (Gándara, 2013). ELLs are often tracked into specific classes
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 18
with peers of similar characteristics even within diverse school settings (Tyson, 2013). They do
not have the opportunity to interact with peers who can be language models or who can provide
some insight into the different cultural experiences that come with being middle class or wealthy.
More importantly, teachers who teach ELL’s lack knowledge to teach students of diverse
backgrounds because of the scarcity of teacher preparation coursework to address the variables
of diversity present within this student population. As society, schools, and communities remain
unchanged, the ELL opportunity gap will grow larger thus continuing to create a larger
educational rift between ELLs and their native English-speaking schoolmates.
Organizational Performance Goal
The El Dorado Unified School District’s performance goal by June 2020, 85% of English
Language Learners in the 3
rd
grade in the El Dorado Unified School District will score at the
proficient or above level in reading. The district established the goal with the input of school
staff, administrative staff, councils, committees, and community members. The California
Standards Test (CST) measures benchmark performance yearly by school and overall district
Academic Performance Index (API) as well as Annual Yearly Progress (AYP). The goal reflects
the changes in the California Common Core State Standards and the California Assessment of
Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP). The measures used to track progress toward the
goal are the annual standardized state test (CAASPP) and the California English Language
Development Test (CELDT) as well as local assessments.
Description of Stakeholders Groups
The four most influential stakeholder groups of the El Dorado Unified School District are
the students, teachers, site administrators, and district administrators. District administrators
make decisions that have global impact on the programs, policies, and procedures set into play
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 19
across the district. They set the tone for expectations and accountability across schools within the
district. On the other hand, site administrators such as principals affect the implementation of
expectations within their school site. Site administrators are responsible for providing adequate
monitoring of district level expectations at the site. More importantly, site administrators have a
global perspective of site and student needs. They can steer progress in the right direction
through data-driven professional development and student resources. They also have the power
to course correct when data reveals progress is off course. Another significant stakeholder group
is teachers. Teachers are the decision-makers within the classroom who have first-hand
knowledge of student needs through use of informal and formal data. They have the unique and
demanding task of meeting students’ psychosocial and academic needs. Finally, students are also
an important stakeholder group because they are the central players in the role of learning at
EDUSD.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 20
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the El Dorado Unified School District (EDUSD) is to prepare all students to have
the skills to compete, succeed, and excel in an increasingly global society.

Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2020, 85% of English Language Learners in the 3
rd
grade in the El Dorado Unified
School District will score at the proficient or above level in reading.

Teachers’ Goal Site Administrators’
Goal
Directors of
Curriculum Goal
Students’ Goal
By November 2017,
100% of teachers will
implement
instructional practices
including teaching
academic vocabulary,
using complete
sentence responses and
encouraging peer-to-
peer talk.
By November 2017,
the principal and
assistant principal will
evaluate and monitor
100% implementation
of instructional
practices including
teaching academic
vocabulary, using
complete sentence
responses and
encouraging peer-to-
peer talk.

By June 2017,
Directors of
Curriculum and
Instruction will
identify a minimum of
2 district-wide
common formative
reading
assessments per
trimester for varying
proficiency levels with
corresponding
timelines and pacing
guides.
By August 2017, 100%
of Kindergarten-6
th
grade
students will use the
Accelerated Reader
Program to promote and
practice independent
reading strategies.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although it is acknowledged that a collaborative and systematic contribution of all
stakeholders is necessary to support attainment of the EDUSD’s mission to prepare all students
to have the skills to compete, succeed, and excel in an increasingly global society, it is important
to determine the support needs of teachers to succeed in meeting the goal. It is therefore,
necessary to focus on teachers and instructional leaders as the stakeholders, which this study will
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 21
address. Typically, the majority of instructional leaders were once teachers and therefore, share a
common instructional knowledge or experience with classroom teachers. The stakeholders’ goal,
supported by the site administrator, is that 100% of teachers will implement instructional
practices including teaching academic vocabulary, using complete sentence responses and
encouraging peer-to-peer talk. Progress monitoring procedures toward achieving the goal
include running records, fluency checks, and Brilliance System (a pseudonym) data reports.
Failure to meet this goal will lead to a widening opportunity gap among ELLs at EDUSD, which
negatively affects the organization’s overall mission.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences that interfere with preparing all students, with a focus
on English Language Learners, to have the skills to compete, succeed, and excel in an
increasingly global society. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible or assumed
interfering influences and then by examining these systematically to focus on actual or validated
interfering influences. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders,
for practical purposes the stakeholder analysis focuses on teachers and instructional leaders.
1. To what extent are K-2 teachers in El Dorado Unified School District implementing
district-mandated pedagogies (teaching academic vocabulary, using complete sentence
responses, and encouraging peer-to-peer talk)?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving
the goal by June 2020, 85% of English Language Learners in the 3
rd
grade in the El
Dorado Unified School District will score at the proficient or above level in reading?
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 22
3. What are the teachers’/instructional leaders’ recommendations for organizational
practice/professional development in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources to improve their instruction in support of ELL’s reading scores?
Methodological Framework
The methodological framework used for this gap analysis is a qualitative approach
focused on descriptive statistics to identify and clarify the gap between the El Dorado Unified
School District’s goals and the actual and preferred performance levels of EDUSD (Clark &
Estes, 2008). A literature review, surveys, interviews, and observations will determine the
assumed influences that inhibit positive attainment of the El Dorado Unified School District’s
mission. In addition, an analysis of organizational influences and stakeholder knowledge and
motivation will occur. Comprehensive research based solutions will be assessed and presented.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 23
Definitions
Achievement Gap: The difference in educational outcomes between minority and non-minority
(white, middle class) students.
Anchor Charts: Academic reference charts used as student resources or scaffolds for learning
content or academic vocabulary.
BICS: Basic Intercommunication Skills; The language used to communicate basic needs or social
conversation.
CALP: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency; The language used to communicate
knowledge and understanding about a specific subject matter in academic contexts.
Cognates: Spanish words that are similar in English.
Cultural Conflict: A misunderstanding between two individuals due to differences in race,
language, and/or socioeconomic status.
Culturally Diverse: Difference in culture from white, middle class Americans.
Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT): A teacher’s ability to deliver effective instruction that
meets the social, cultural, and linguistic needs of students.
Deficit Mindset: The idea that students are innately unable to learn.
English Language Learner (ELL): a student who speaks English as a second language and does
not have enough proficiency in the English language to access academic content successfully.
L1: Primary language; first language; native language spoken by English Language Learners
L2: Second Language, usually the one that is being acquired by English Language Learners
Linguistically Diverse: Difference in language fluency from native English speaking students.
Monolingual Classroom: A classroom that recognizes only one language, usually English, as the
norm.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 24
Monoculture Classroom: A classroom that recognizes and reflects only one culture, race, or
socioeconomic demographic as the norm, typically White, middle class or Eurocentric
perspective.
Opportunity Gap: The deficits in the basic elements of society, schools and communities that
produce significant differences in educational and economic results.
Oppositional Culture: A culture that differs from White, middle class Americans.
Pedagogy: Strategies or methods for teaching.
Scaffolds: Learning supports such as reference charts or language frames.
Sentence Frames: Framework for constructing written and verbal sentences.
Sequential Instruction Method: English first then academic instruction—virtually guarantees an
academic opportunity gap between English Language Learners and native English speaking
students.
Sheltered Instruction: Regular classroom instruction utilizing a variety of strategies to make
content comprehensible to English Language Learners.
Total Physical Response (TPR): The use of hand gestures or body movements to express an idea,
concept, or word.
Underrepresented Students: A common term used to describe students belonging to the low
socioeconomic, English Language Learner, Latino or African American demographic usually not
represented in higher education.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 25
Organization of the Project
This study consists of five chapters. The first chapter provides key concepts and
terminology found in a discussion about English Language Learner opportunity gaps. The
chapter introduces concepts of the gap analysis as well as the organization’s mission, goals, and
stakeholders. The second chapter of the study provides a review of the current literature related
to the topic. It addresses topics of opportunity gaps, academic achievement, tracking, teacher
quality, content literacy, ELL access to rigorous curriculum, monolingual/monoculture
classrooms, and a lack of focus of ELL instruction as a schoolwide focus. The third chapter
describes in detail the assumed elements of knowledge, motivation, and organization that
interfere with achieving the stakeholder and organizational goals. It also includes a methodology
for choice of participants, data collection and analysis. Chapter Four will provide an assessment
and analysis of the data as well as results. The final section, Chapter 5, provides data based
solutions found in the literature, for closing the perceived gaps in addition to recommendations
for an implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 26
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The research questions for this study asked: To what extent are K-6 teachers in El Dorado
Unified School District implementing district-mandated pedagogies (teaching academic
vocabulary, using complete sentence responses, and encouraging peer-to-peer talk)? What are
the knowledge motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving by June 2020, 85%
of English Language Learners in the 3
rd
grade in the El Dorado Unified School District will score
at the proficient or above level in reading? What are the teachers’ recommendations for
organizational practice/professional development in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources to improve their instruction in support of ELL’s reading scores? This
chapter consists of three major sections. The first establishes a background for an opportunity
gap framework and its effect on student learning. The second section will discuss Culturally
Relevant Teaching (CRT). The final section considers how reading instruction affects the
educational attainment of English Language Learners.
Knowledge and Skills
The purpose of this literature review is to analyze the knowledge and motivational
influences that are necessary to meet the organizational goal of by June 2020, 85% of English
Language Learners in the 3
rd
grade in the El Dorado Unified School District will score at the
proficient or above level in reading. In order to achieve this organizational goal, it is necessary
for the stakeholder goal of all teachers will implement guided reading instruction at 100%
implementation and use the data to strategically plan reading instruction be met. More
importantly, teachers need to have knowledge about how to teach students with diverse
socioeconomic factors such as poverty and wealth, which ultimately affect learning opportunities
(Milner, 2010, pp. 28-33). Milner (2010) also indicates knowledge of race, cultural conflicts,
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 27
socioeconomic factors, low expectations, deficit mindsets, and context neutral mindsets as
essential to influencing opportunities for under-represented students. Additionally, the topics of
teacher quality, sheltered instruction, and academic vocabulary development through content
literacy. This literature review will analyze pertinent literature addressing the type of knowledge
presented.
Knowledge Types. The four types of knowledge that exist are factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwol, 2002). Factual knowledge is the most
elemental pieces of information individuals must know to find a solution to a problem.
Conceptual knowledge refers to reflective, purposeful learning that leads to synthesizing
information and organizing learning. The type of knowledge that prescribes the process by which
we learn about a specific topic is also known as procedural or factual knowledge. Pintrich (2003)
defined metacognitive knowledge as thinking about thinking.
Stakeholder Knowledge Influences. Teachers’ conceptual, procedural and
metacognitive knowledge affect the overall achievement in reading of all ELL students at El
Dorado Unified School District. Teachers need to know how to teach reading by using guided
reading within a balanced literacy approach to reading instruction. Fountas and Pinnell (2001)
define guided reading as “…a context in which a teacher supports each reader’s development of
effective strategies for processing novel texts at increasingly challenging levels of difficulty” (p.
2). According to Baker (2006), metacognition is the use of basic mental processes such as
attention, memory, and the activation of background knowledge specific to a topic as well as the
use of specific mental processes to achieve targeted goals. It is important to analyze teacher
implementation of guided reading strategies during reading instruction for identification as a
high leverage strategy to support ELL’s students. Guided reading is the manner by which
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 28
students learn to read and comprehend literature. However, teachers must first know how to
identify and connect with students of diverse backgrounds in order to lay the groundwork for
learning.
Opportunity Gaps
An opportunity gap is the difference between the educational experiences of linguistically
and culturally diverse students and that of white middle-class students (Welner & Carter, 2013).
Denying ELL’s equal access to educational opportunities directly affects academic failure or
underperformance (Welner & Carter, 2013). Historically, the performance gap of linguistically
and culturally diverse students is analyzed through the lens of deficiencies in the experiences or
backgrounds of students because of their differences from mainstream culture (Berry, 2013;
Carter, 2013; Gándara, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2013). Research suggests that redistribution of
opportunity is limited because of a lack in social policies that address poverty and academic
inequalities (Kantor & Lowe, 2013). During the New Deal, President Roosevelt increased
funding for repair of deteriorating school buildings and education in the arts (Kantor & Lowe,
2013). This funding ended as World War II increased demand for labor. Similarly, President
Johnson sought to address the needs of poor students through the creation of compensatory
education programs, which aimed to enhance human capital so that individuals could participate
fully in the labor market. Much of the educational funding aimed at bridging opportunity gaps in
education for poor, linguistically, culturally, and ethnically diverse students occurred during the
late 60s and early 70s. Title I funding was a direct response to the Civil Rights Act of 1965 to
provide adequate resources to poor students however, Title VI prevented funding to schools that
promoted segregation, so it was unclear if the original aim of Title I was to maintain segregation
(Kantor & Lowe, 2013). Many of the early attempts at addressing opportunities gaps came
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 29
because of legal actions against the federal government to provide equal access to educational
opportunities for all students.
The 1980s marked a shift from a focus on monitoring and implementation of
desegregation laws. Since then, there has been a slow but steady move toward resegregated
schools influenced by segregated neighborhood populations (Orfield, 2013). Lack of
enforcement of housing regulations and in some cases, steering of white buyers toward specific
neighborhoods while confining ethnically diverse buyers toward other areas continue to
segregate neighborhoods (Orfield, 2013). Schools are reflective of the populations in the
neighborhoods that surround them. Housing market segregation by race and income creates
better educational opportunities for schools where the neighborhoods are predominantly white
and higher income (Orfield, 2013; Tyson, 2013). Schools that manage to reflect a more diverse
student population through integration practices often manage to track culturally, ethnically,
linguistically, and socioeconomically diverse students into specific coursework schedules and
classes (Gándara, 2013; Tyson, 2013). This is especially true in schools where tracking of
English Language Learners into courses where they must work on becoming English Proficient
at the expense of access to grade level curriculum is common.
Expectations
Teachers need to hold students to high expectations and utilize student differences as
ways to engage them in learning. Low expectations and deficit mindsets typically plague black
students and other students of color (Carter, 2013; Gándara, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2013;
Milner, 2010,). The idea of a deficit mindset is that racially, culturally, economically, and
linguistically diverse students are inherently less able and do not have the intellect or ability to
succeed in school (Milner, 2010; Tyson, 2013). The perspective of low expectations and deficit
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 30
mindsets lead to less or no opportunities for learning within the classroom (Tyson, 2013).
Teachers view students as difficult to teach, and having gaps that need filling. Furthermore, the
“pobrecito mentality” exists when educators feel sorry for students because of their background
and see excusing them from doing grade level work as a way of being culturally sensitive
(Arnold & Murphy, 2013, p. 299). The “pobrecito mentality is described [as]-mollycoddling or
killing students with kindness—letting them off the hook so much they don’t take responsibility
for their education” (Arnold & Murphy, p. 299). Although teachers may see this approach as a
way to support students of diverse underrepresented backgrounds, it actually creates an
opportunity barrier for students to gain educational attainment because the curriculum dilutes or
waters down content (Tienken & Zhao, 2013). Additionally, the “sequential instruction” method
is common in teaching English Language Learners (Gándara, 2013). This approach denies ELLs
the opportunity to experience academic instruction until after they acquire English language
proficiency (Gándara, 2013). It is an institutionalized guarantee for an academic opportunity gap
between English Language Learners and native English speaking students.
Culturally Responsive Teaching
Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) is the ability of teachers to deliver effective
instruction that meets the social, cultural, and linguistic needs of students (Gay, 2010). Teachers
need to know the community and setting where they teach. Sometimes teachers fail to recognize
the community or setting outside of the school setting. Context-neutral mindsets-create a screen
between the realities of a place or community and do not allow educators to realize there is a
difference in that setting versus their own reality (Milner, 2010, p.37). This perspective
“reinforces opportunity and the status quo” (Milner, 2010, p.37). In order for teachers to create a
learning environment that all students can identify with, they need to demonstrate an
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 31
understanding of where their students come from. The way teachers implement the social
conditions or contexts representative of their students within the classroom best reflects this
understanding (Gay, 2010; Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995). If teachers ignore the reality beyond
the school gates, they are likely to exclude many students from learning in the classroom through
disengagement. Culturally Responsive Teaching engages the motivation of all learners by
creating a safe and inclusive environment that respects the diversity of its students (Wlodkowski
& Ginsberg, 1995). A classroom which mirrors many of the realities of student experiences tends
to engage students in learning at higher rates than those that do not reflect student contexts.
Cultural Conflict and Cultural Mismatch
Cultural conflicts are student-teacher interactions, which create a serious threat to
availability of educational opportunities to students of color. A cultural conflict is the difference
between a teacher’s cultural perspective and experience and that of her students’ perspectives
and experiences (Milner, 2010, pp. 23-28). Similarly, a cultural mismatch is a situation that
describes the dominant school culture as different from that of a group of students (Carter, 2013).
Research suggests that a difference between a student’s culture and that of her teachers or
principal’s results in educational disadvantages caused by the lack of familiarity by the teacher or
principal with the student’s social background (Carter, 2013; Gándara, 2013; Ladson-Billings,
2013). This leads to disengagement with the educational process. Cultural conflicts and
mismatches can affect student-learning opportunities in negative ways. These conflicts and
mismatches characterize discipline and engagement issues as well as power struggles between
the teacher and/or principal and students (Berry, 2013; Carter, 2013; Milner, 2010). According to
Milner (2010), a teacher’s expectations for classroom behavior may be very different from a
student’s awareness of classroom behavior. Research finds students of color comprise the vast
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 32
majority of office referrals due to behavior (Milner, 2010) due to disparities in perceptions of
classroom behavior between school staff and students. It is up to teachers and adults to teach
students the expected behavior in the classroom. The same applies to school settings where
instructional leaders apply similar practices.
Teachers who do not see color or race perpetuate a feeling that identity is not important
and this may extend to the curriculum and discipline practices implemented in the classroom.
The gap between students and teachers of differing racial backgrounds creates barriers to
learning opportunities, which effect students’ academic and social success in school (Milner,
2010; Saffold, 2007; Villegas, Strom, & Lucas, 2012). When teachers are color blind they create
an environment that ignores the individual identities of the students of differing race within the
classroom (Milner, 2010). This color blindness is often not ill intended as some teachers believe
that ignoring race is a form of showing inclusion. However, there are times when a student’s
class, race, ethnicity or language appears as dysfunctional or as an oppositional culture within the
mainstream classroom (Carter, 2013). Students who do not see themselves represented within
their classroom or schools are more likely to never fully engage in learning (Carter, 2013;
Milner, 2010; Villegas, Strom, & Lucas; 2012). Milner (2010) also contends that systemic
racism exists due to the policies and practices in place within organizations that allow for a
mostly Eurocentric perspective and experience in classrooms (Irvine, 1990; Milner, 2010). The
teacher’s role as professional educator becomes central to students’ ability to feel a part of their
classroom.
In order to begin to close the racial gap between a teacher and a student, a reciprocal
interaction must take place between the two, which allows each to learn about the other (Milner,
2010). Carter (2013) stated that teachers fail to engage with their students when their cultural
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 33
backgrounds are different if teachers fail to familiarize themselves with their students’ social
backgrounds. The classroom needs to be valued as a reflection of society as a whole and more
importantly, the community directly served by the school.
The Myth of Meritocracy
Teachers need to know that not everyone has the same starting point to reach the finish
line. The myth of meritocracy is common among some educators. Teachers come from a place of
privilege by virtue of their college education, socioeconomic status, race or culture (Milner,
2010). Although some teachers share a similar race and/or socioeconomic upbringing to some of
their students, they come from a position of power within the classroom. The idea that everyone
has the same opportunity to succeed through hard work is erroneous because it does not consider
that everyone has different backgrounds that affect their opportunities to achieve (Milner, 2010).
Students from low socio-economic or language minority backgrounds as well as other
underrepresented groups of students do not have the same factors affecting educational
attainment. Unfortunately, students cannot control their inability to purchase reading, writing,
and supplemental materials that will support their learning in school. The reality is that students
of poverty and students of color are less likely to have books at home they can read or support
from parents to impact educational outcomes (Barnett & Lamy, 2013; Rothstein, 2013).
Individuals who adhere to the meritocracy mindset believe lack of success in students is due to
poor work ethic or lack of ability (Carter, 2013; Milner, 2010). This mindset does not place any
responsibility on systemic structures. Instead, students receive the blame for lack of success in
the classroom.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 34
Deficit Mindsets
There is a tendency to look to external influencers such as family and demographics as
deficiencies rather than building on the strengths of these characteristics. Studies have found
explanations for the black-white achievement gap. There is greater evidence that “what happens
to students” at school is of greater impact than what students bring with them (Oates, 2009).
Oftentimes, educators view poverty, speaking a second language and single parent households as
deficiencies in student backgrounds. Oates (2009) found that students bring specific engagement
levels, cultural, and social capital with them to school. It is the school’s responsibility to build on
students’ strengths to decrease the academic gap between underrepresented students and their
white, middle class counterparts. Research suggests that atypical low-SES households are
characterized by 1) providing books and writing supplies, 2) inclusive relationships between
students and parents, 3) parents’ educational levels range from 10th grade to AA degree, 4)
parents encourage students and stress the importance of education (Milne & Plourde, 2006).
School personnel including administrators, teachers, and instructional support staff must receive
ongoing professional development in targeted strategies to promote academic success of English
Language Learners. Additionally, it is also important to provide parents with support in the form
of workshops targeting the characteristics of atypical low SES households to understand their
role in helping students achieve academic success.
Teacher Quality
Teacher quality is a barrier to academic achievement. Akiba, LeTendre, and Scribner
(2007) cite teacher quality as a factor contributing to opportunity gaps for students in 46
countries including the United States. Novice teachers, those with three years or less teaching
experience, typically teach in impoverished or failing schools (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner,
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 35
2007). Most new teachers are transitioning from learning instructional practices from textbooks
to becoming practitioners with actual multidimensional students in a classroom setting. The
transition is a difficult one compounded by challenging and diverse student needs, which receive
minimal attention in pre-service coursework. The support teachers need during the in-service
years is often not available or mirrors a culture where instruction is the same for all students. A
study by Griffith, Kimmel, and Biscoe (2009), proposes diminishing the achievement gap by
focusing on elimination of instructional gaps. As organizations conduct gap analyses, there must
also be focused attention on creating systemic action plans to eliminate those gaps.
According to Samson and Lesaux (2015), 70% of ELL’s are also children of poverty. In
comparison, only 37% of English only students are impoverished. ELL’s consistently
underperform in school, standardized tests, basic skills attainment, and are more likely to drop
out of school. Rouse and Barrow (2006) also found that family SES affects test scores, grade
retention, and high school graduation. The study suggests that education strongly affects income
and occupation, thus determining socioeconomic status of adults (Rouse & Barrow, 2006). The
higher the educational attainment, the higher the socioeconomic status (Rouse & Barrow, 2006).
More experienced teachers teach at high SES schools as stated by Rouse and Barrow (2006). As
specified by Rouse and Barrow’s (2006) findings, low SES continues to determine educational
attainment mostly because SES determines differences in access to quality schools.
Consequently, educational attainment strongly affects adult earnings (Rouse & Barrow, 2006).
There has been an overemphasis on English language proficiency as the factor
contributing to low achievement in ELLs (Samson & Lesaux, 2015). Two factors that are more
likely leading contributors to low academic achievement in ELLs are poverty and teacher quality
(Rouse & Barrow, 2006; Samson & Lesaux, 2015). Low achievement in ELLs and low SES
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 36
students is due to low teacher quality due to inexperience, lack of certification, and less skill than
teachers of non-ELLs (Rouse & Barrow, 2006; Samson & Lesaux, 2015). The Samson and
Lesaux (2015) findings also revealed that most ELLs had teachers with less than five years
teaching experience and were more likely to be uncertified. This study found that on average
more teachers in grades K-3 were uncertified or certified through alternative certification
programs (Samson & Lesaux, 2015). The study also found that teachers of ELLs were more
likely to be less skilled in teaching reading (Samson & Lesaux, 2015). On average, 46% of
teachers in grades K-3 reported feeling unprepared to teach ELLs as stated by Samson & Lesaux
(2015). Lesaux and Siegel (as cited in Samson & Lesaux, 2015) found that ELLs tend to
outperform non-ELLs when provided the necessary support in reading. Newer teachers have also
taken more courses in ESL and therefore, oftentimes, ELLs placement is in classes with newer
teachers who have taken more courses in how to instruct them (Samson & Lesaux, 2015). Some
districts and schools are including ESL strategies in their onsite professional development to
equip more of their teachers to work with ELLs (Samson & Lesaux, 2015).
Furthermore, a study by Flores (2007) restated that the achievement gap of low income,
Latino, and African American students is an issue of unequal opportunity. Qualified teachers are
the most important factor linked to student academic success (Flores, 2007). This student
demographic is less likely to access high quality teachers, more likely to experience low
expectations, and receive less per pupil funding (Flores, 2007). The study examined
opportunities to learn in an effort to try to determine the underlying causes of the achievement
gap. Minority and low-income students are more likely to receive instruction from inexperienced
teachers (Flores, 2007). In addition, teachers of minority and low income students often have
lower expectations of them (Flores, 2007). Flores (2007) found that teachers of minority students
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 37
are more likely to ignore incorporating their culture in instruction and therefore cause students to
feel alienated or ignored.
Similarly, Akiba, LeTendre, and Scribner (2007), state that teacher quality is a strong
indicator of student achievement. High poverty and ethnic minority students are twice as likely
as low poverty, non-minority students not to be assigned high quality teachers (Akiba, LeTendre,
& Scribner, 2007). Disadvantaged youth across the globe share similar characteristics such as
low parent educational levels, limited access to books in the home, immigration status, and a
home language that differs from the mainstream language (Akiba et al., 2007). The study
emphasizes the existence and importance of education in the US as a great equalizer. Akiba et al.
(2007) declare access to high quality teachers is an essential component to reduce social
inequalities, ignored through other measures of reform. Highly qualified teachers require full
certification, possess a master’s degree, and demonstrate subject matter knowledge and teaching
competence as stated in NCLB (Akiba et al., 2007). Their work noted that teachers who majored
or minored in a subject matter have greater student achievement than those who did not
specialize in the subject matter they teach. However, this finding is more significant for
secondary schools than elementary schools. The study also found that teacher experience is
another indicator of teacher quality. Most teachers gain effectiveness with longevity (Akiba et
al., 2007) and experience greater gains in student achievement.
Peske and Haycock (2006) also found that poor and minority students do not get quality
teachers. They are often entering school at a disadvantage due to lack of access to books and
other literacy-based resources (Peske & Haycock, 2006). The study found that children in high
minority, high poverty schools are assigned to new teachers at a rate twice as high as that of
students at low poverty, low minority schools. The same is the case for secondary teachers who
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 38
teach out of subject and are assigned to high poverty, high minority students. Teacher quality is
defined by factors such as possession of a minor or major in a content matter they teach as well
as having deep content knowledge in that subject (Peske & Haycock, 2006). Their research cited
that almost half the teachers in high poverty, high minority schools have less than five years
teaching experience. Schools with higher numbers of ELLs also had a higher number of novice
teachers teaching their ELLs (Peske & Haycock, 2006). Furthermore, Peske and Haycock (2006)
found that more experienced teachers are also more likely to teach at schools with higher
achievement. The study found there are five teacher attributes that contribute to student
achievement: teachers’ academic skills and knowledge, content mastery, experience, pedagogical
skill, and combined TQI-Teacher Quality Index. The higher the TQI, the higher resulting student
outcomes (Peske & Haycock, 2006).
In a similar study, Wenglinsky (2003) suggests teacher quality is another factor, which
may affect the achievement gap as well since traditionally stronger or better-qualified teachers
are typically assigned to more advanced classes. The study set out to examine the classroom
practices of teachers. The purpose of the study was to determine which practices are most
beneficial in closing the racial achievement gap. Specifically, teachers are encouraged to utilize
strategies that disproportionately benefit minority students (Wenglinksy, 2003). The study
examined the relationship between student test scores and student background. In addition, it
looked at the relationship between teacher and student background and classroom practices.
Finally, the study also examined the existence of a relationship between teacher and student
background and classroom practices as well as between test scores and student background. The
most important finding was not the use of specific instructional practices, but the overall actions
of teachers in the classroom as a factor affecting the gap. Notably, the study found that
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 39
instructional practices impact the within school achievement gap not the between school gap.
The study also found that poor instructional choices could affect the gap in a negative manner by
increasing it. Site based decisions to reduce opportunity gaps for students in representative
minority groups should be the focus of principals in order to close the achievement gap
(Wenglinsky, 2003). The idea is that targeting instructional practices that raise the average
achievement of all students and disproportionately benefit minority students will reduce the
achievement gap (Wenglinsky, 2003). According to Wenglinsky (2003), not much research
regarding the achievement gap focused on instructional practices before the 1990’s.
Likewise, Kang and Hong (2008) found similarities in causes for the achievement gap in
both the US and South Korea. South Korea is the only country where low SES students are more
likely taught by high quality teachers as compared to the US (Kang & Hong, 2008). The teaching
profession is highly regarded in South Korea and the entrance criteria for teacher education have
high standards (Kang & Hong, 2008). South Korean working conditions defined as salary, hours,
and class size are a likely factor affecting teacher quality. Class sizes are more than one time
larger in South Korea than the US; however, the amount of time teachers spend on in class
instruction is just 35% a week. The remaining time is spent on non-instructional tasks such as
grading, prepping, etc. This finding speaks to the importance of teacher collaboration, planning,
and training emphasized through the organizational systems in place in South Korea. Graduates
certified to teach must take a national exam, which ranks them for hiring processes (Kang &
Hong, 2008). Teacher candidates are tested on content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge,
basic skills, and written essay performance (Kang & Hong, 2008). These processes and policies
make teaching positions highly competitive. Teacher retention is high in South Korea and due in
large part to competitive wages and good teaching conditions. According to Kang and Hong
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 40
(2008), government policies exist which include incentives and five year rotations of teachers to
ensure teacher quality for all students. South Korean education places an emphasis on effort or
working hard to achieve goals as well as developing human capital and purports education as the
solution to develop greater social resources for impoverished citizens (Kang & Hong, 2008).
High poverty South Korean students have fewer resources at home like impoverished American
students (Kang & Hong, 2008).
Teaching English Language Learners
There is resistance to implement specific strategies, practices, routines, and procedures
that address the needs of English Language Learners. Studies have found that inequities in
accessibility to resources affect low academic achievement of low socio-economic students and
underrepresented youth. Ganchorre and Tomanek (2012) found that awareness of educational
challenges draws certain teachers to teach in under-resourced schools. However, this is not
always the case as most experienced teachers teach at higher SES, largely white schools. A sense
of teacher belonging or identification with the diverse communities is essential to supporting
English Learner student success in school (Ganchorre & Tomanek, 2012; Gándara, 2013). As
teachers that are more inexperienced are assigned to more challenging assignments in low SES
schools without proper support or preparation, students in those schools continue to experience
gaps in their learning as well as failed educational attainment. Teachers’ beliefs that they can
function as role models and resources to under-served schools is a key factor in recruitment and
retention (Ganchorre et al., 2012). Organizations that recognize these gaps in their practices,
policies, and procedures can devise an action plan to support novice and experienced teachers in
their work with special student populations. According to Powell and Marshall (2011), schools
give little attention to developing teacher competency to build relationships with at risk students.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 41
Research reveals that effective teachers build relationships with students (Powell & Marshall,
2011). Positive student and teacher relationships assist with classroom management as well as
buy-in with the teacher. Powell and Marshall’s (2011) findings reveal supportive relationships
between adults and children positively affects the academic success of low socioeconomic and
under-represented minority students. Teachers gain more credibility when students can relate to
them and there is a sense of significance and belonging established within the classroom setting.
The classroom setting becomes one of inclusion and respect that values each student’s individual
characteristics therefore setting the tone for engagement in learning. It is important for pre-
service and in-service training to include targeted strategies for engaging as well as supporting
low socioeconomic students and students of under-represented groups.
Making Content Comprehensible
Primary and Second Language
English Language Learners can use their primary language (L1) to support content
learning and language proficiency in English (L2). Cummins (1976, 1991) suggests classrooms
replicate a mainstream culture of oppression over those who do not speak English when their
structures encourage learning English at the expense of losing the home language and culture.
This is subtractive bilingualism (Cummins, 1995). Donnelly and Roe (2010) found that ELL’s
who lack fluency in their home language as well as English, lack proficiency in academic tasks.
Study findings suggest that educators practice additive bilingualism when they support learning
the second language (L2) while valuing and promoting ongoing use of the first language (L1)
(Cummins, 1976, 1991). In a similar study, DeLuca (2010) found that ELL’s may recognize
words similar to their native language when learning academic vocabulary. DeLuca (2010)
suggests these similar words or cognates can increase comprehension in the second language
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 42
when shared within the classroom setting. A study by Franquiz & de la Luz Reyes (1998), found
a teacher’s use of instructional practices that respect and represent students’ cultures as well as
language are more powerful than the teacher’s ability to speak the students’ language. The
implications of promoting continued proficiency in the first language while acquiring proficiency
in English are essential for academic success.
BICS and CALP
Individuals use language to communicate for different purposes in a variety of settings.
Cummins (1999) suggests there are two types of language, Basic Intercommunication Skills
(BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). BICS is the ability to
communicate needs or language used in basic social situations. CALP is the language of subject
matter characteristic of school and learning. Most students acquire BICS rather quickly, but
CALP requires approximately five to seven years acquisition (Cummins, 1999). Academic
language is a third language taught by the content teacher (DeLuca, 2010). Content is
comprehensible in the second language (L2) when the knowledge and skills learned in the first
language (L1) can be used in the second language (L2) (Cummins, 2000). This idea is known as
Common Underlying Proficiency or CUP. When educators teach and provide students with
opportunities to use both BICS and CALP, ELL’s are able to approach academic tasks with
greater success.
Social Interactions
Learning is a social process whereby students’ interactions with their peers and teachers
help build comprehension about the world and academic content. Sociopolitical changes within a
country have an impact on the interethnic and language attitudes of its citizens (Dörnyei, Csizér,
and Németh, 2006) that educational settings often mirror (Scott & Wells, 2013; Darling-
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 43
Hammond, 2013). According to Norton-Pierce (1995), teachers can increase ELL’s opportunities
to speak in social settings by incorporating their life experiences and social identities within the
classroom. Opportunities to speak are socially structured (Norton-Pierce, 1995) and may support
English language development. In settings where interaction with individuals who speak foreign
languages are uncommon, exposure to individuals who speak the foreign language increases
motivation and positive attitudes toward learning the language (Dörnyei et al., 2006).
Furthermore, the ability to have social interactions with students who speak a language that
differs from the mainstream language offers exposure to language models in the new or unknown
language. The implications of these findings suggest that we need to provide ELL’s with more
opportunities to interact with their English-speaking counterparts within and about academic
contexts.
Content Literacy
English Language Learners must read and write in English in addition to speaking and
listening in English. Content literacy is the ability to use writing, reading, speaking, and listening
to learn new information (Carrier & Tatum, 2006). The task of gaining content literacy while
acquiring English language proficiency is challenging (Carrier & Tatum, 2006; Donnelly & Roe,
2010). According to Donnelly and Roe (2010), ELLs can practice academic language through
structured practice using academic sentence frames. The sentence frames provide students with
the structure of the content language to express concepts verbally and in writing (Donnelly &
Roe, 2010). Several studies suggest sentence frames are scaffolds to ELLs and students who do
not have the language proficiency to communicate the content of lessons within classroom
settings (Carrier & Tatum, 2006; Donnelly & Roe, 2010; Manyak, 2010). Sentence frames also
provide the language students will experience within textbooks (Carrier & Tatum, 2006;
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 44
Donnelly & Roe, 2010; Manyak, 2010). Graves (as cited in Manyak, 2010) stressed the
importance of reading a wide variety of genres and participation in literary conversations to
vocabulary development in children. English Language Learners need experience with content
language in authentic learning tasks within the classroom to support both academic success and
academic English language development.
Sheltered Instruction
English Language Learners achieve greater academic success when provided support
with comprehending content while gaining English language proficiency. Sheltered Instruction
(SI) adds specific English language development strategies to regular classroom instruction
(Echeverria, Short, & Powers, 2006). SI strategies may include visuals, content specific student
reference charts, body movements to express concepts or vocabulary, and acting out ideas
(Echeverria et al., 2006). This strategy is most effective when teachers cannot provide instruction
in students’ primary language and its goal is to make content comprehensible to ELL’s
(Echeverria et al., 2006; Freeman & Freeman, 1988; Krashen, 1981). The most supportive ELL
setting in a content area classroom is that which utilizes language development strategies with
content subject objectives to support the learning of content simultaneously with learning the
English language. This allows English Language Learners to receive opportunities and access to
regular grade level curriculum. This strategy is particularly important when teaching reading
because it allows students to comprehend at higher levels than reading text without this support.
Reading Pedagogy
Balanced Literacy
Teachers need to know the essence of balanced literacy instruction. Conceptual
knowledge influences affect a teacher’s ability to implement a balanced literacy approach to
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 45
reading instruction. A balanced literacy approach to reading instruction includes modeled,
shared, guided, and independent reading (Ford & Opitz, 2008). Under the balanced literacy
approach, teachers model fluent reading and interaction with text through read alouds to build
comprehension. According to Bandura (2005), individuals will learn from people they want to be
like and oftentimes, teachers provide the examples of literacy for young learners. Ford and Opitz
(2008) conducted a study, which concluded that successful reading instruction, and learning
depends on teachers’ knowledge, skills, and propensity to approach the task. Avalos, Plascencia,
Chavez, and Rascon (2007) found that teachers often feel under-skilled in teaching reading
particularly because culturally and linguistically diverse students come to school with limited
background building experiences. Teachers’ lack of strategies to address the needs of
linguistically diverse students compounds their feelings of self-efficacy to teach all students.
Building Background Knowledge
Background Knowledge is the term used to describe a person’s prior knowledge or the
collection of life’s experiences to help make sense of new ideas or experiences (Adams & Bruce,
1980; Keene & Zimmerman, 1997). Before reading, successful lessons build experiences to
include enough information about the content with realia, videos, and simulations (Avalos,
Plascencia, Chavez, & Rascon, 2007). According to Slavin and Cheung (2005) realia is a term
referring to concrete objects to define words or concepts. The use of these teaching materials
before learning about an unfamiliar topic allows teachers to build schema that helps build
comprehension. Cognitive Load Theory describes schema as a conceptual framework stored in
long-term memory (Krischner, Krischner, & Paas, 2006). For example, a teacher of low SES
students teaching the topic of camping may embed the use of camping realia such as tents,
lanterns, sleeping bags, and hiking boots to build schema about camping successfully. Once
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 46
teachers present vocabulary within context of building background knowledge, they can
approach reading instruction with more confidence to build comprehension about the topic
(Schaffer & Schirmer, 2010). The skill of building background knowledge facilitates the
opportunity to build comprehension and schema to support a successful reading lesson. Teaching
reading is likely difficult for teachers when students have limited or no knowledge about a topic
of study unless SI strategies are employed to build comprehension about the content.
Data Based Reading Instruction
Teachers need to know how to use reading assessments to plan for differentiated reading
instruction. According to Vygotsky (1978), learning scaffolds occur when teachers use students’
level of existing knowledge to instruct toward a level of potential or targeted learning.
Instructional text levels allow teachers to guide learning toward accelerated growth to higher
levels of text. Ford and Opitz (2008), suggested guided reading allows teachers to teach reading
to students at their cutting edge, right at the zone where additional learning will take place, with
teacher support or scaffolds (Vygotsky, 1978). Guided reading text selection consists of
decisions on reading data collected through ongoing reading assessments called running records
(Clay, 1993). Clay (1993) noted that teachers select instructional level text based on the
outcomes of running records to align text to the needs of students.
Initially, teachers need to preview the books they have selected to determine which areas
may be challenges for students to anticipate and plan for before reading activities. This is
important because teachers need to provide key vocabulary for students before reading
unfamiliar text or content. Ignoring this step will make the text content difficult to access and
hinder comprehension. Pajares (2006) suggested that teachers who present students with rigorous
work while guiding their efforts toward mastery assist in the development of self-efficacy. Self-
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 47
efficacy in the use of reading strategies is essential for fluency and comprehension. During
guided reading teachers work specifically with students on the needs they observe while students
are reading. The teacher’s role is to function as a facilitator in the reading process only offering
support when a student has already attempted to read text on her own. This is important
knowledge for teachers because they must know questioning strategies during guided reading
that prompt self-efficacious behaviors of readers (Wall, 2014). Wall (2014) suggests it is a
teacher’s role to teach metacognitive skills to support success in reading. After reading, teachers
may prompt students to answer questions about the text or engage in written responses related to
the text in order to assess for comprehension (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). Teachers provide
models of self-efficacy when they provide students with specific feedback about areas for
improvement following a guided reading lesson.
Planning for Reading Instruction
Teachers need to be aware of their own thinking regarding how to plan their reading
instruction. A teacher’s ability to plan strategic guided reading lessons based on students’
reading strategy needs is crucial. The steps a teacher takes both before, during, and after reading
determine if a student is provided the opportunities for reading instruction that will take them
from their current level of reading ability to demonstrate growth as readers in both skills and
comprehension. An element of preparation for guided reading is a teacher’s prior reading of the
text she is going to use with students. In this practice, the teacher tries to anticipate which
strategies may prove challenging to a student and develop a plan for how those challenges may
be solved by students. Baker (2006) defines metacognition as “thinking about thinking” and it is
through modeling the thought processes of a fluent reader by thinking aloud that a teacher
models effective comprehension strategies for students. Therefore, it is important that a teacher
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 48
knows both the student and text well. According to Clay (1993), instructional text selection will
allow teachers to meet their students’ needs during guided reading. Based on Pajares (2006),
self-efficacy theory centers on the idea of establishing classroom structures and instructional
practices that will tailor instruction to students individualized needs.
KMO as a Framework to Examine Opportunity Gaps
The knowledge worksheet (see Table 2) gives a detailed description of the overall
organizational mission of the El Dorado Unified School District and organizational global goal
of EDUSD. It also contains the stakeholder goal, which outlines what teachers at EDUSD will do
to support attainment of its global goal and El Dorado Unified School District’s mission. The
worksheet shows the cognitive principles application to this dissertation problem of practice,
particularly the identification of assumed knowledge and/or skills of EDUSD’s stakeholder
group. Column 1, Knowledge Influence, defines the assumed conceptual, metacognitive, and
procedural knowledge influences, which are affecting teachers’ application of guided reading
strategies in the classroom setting to support low SES students. Column 3, Knowledge Influence
Assessment, defines assessment of each impact.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 49
Table 2
Knowledge Influences
Stakeholder Goal
By November 2017, 100% of teachers will implement reading practices including teaching academic
vocabulary, using complete sentence responses, and encouraging peer-to-peer talk.

Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural, or
metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Teachers need to understand the
funds of knowledge of their
students.
Conceptual &
Procedural
Survey/Interiews— All teachers will
identify the skills and knowledge
students bring from their past life
experiences to support academic
success.
Teachers need to recognize when
there is a cultural conflict with a
student and know how to engage
in difficult conversations to
resolve these conflicts.
Conceptual &
Procedural
Survey/Interviews—Teachers will
describe how their teaching scaffold
learning for English Language
Learners.
Teachers need to know the high
leverage instructional strategies for
teaching reading to English
Language Learners.
Conceptual &
Procedural
Interview/Observation—All teachers
will describe the strategies they use to
support vocabulary development, use
of sentence frames, and peer to peer
talk in their classroom.
Teachers need to provide English
Language Learners the opportunity
to learn from grade level
curriculum.
Conceptual &
Procedural
Survey/Interview—All teachers will
describe how they hold students to
grade level expectations.
Teachers need to know the
community and setting where they
teach to view education through
the lens of English Language
Learners.
Conceptual &
Procedural
Observation—How does the
classroom incorporate the culture and
language of the community?
Teachers need to know the essence
of a balanced literacy approach for
reading instruction. (Read Aloud,
Conceptual &
Procedural
Survey/Interviews—All teachers will
describe balanced literacy instruction
strategies and practices.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 50
guided reading, interactive writing,
shared writing, Reading
Workshop, Writing Workshop,
and Word Study)
Teachers should be able to reflect
on their reading instruction and
English Language Learner reading
progress.
Metacognitive All teachers will reflect on the
effectiveness of guided reading
strategies after implementation.
Teachers need to know how to use
reading assessments to plan for
differentiated reading instruction.
Conceptual &
Procedural
Teachers will demonstrate the use of
reading assessment data within text
selection.

Motivation
Motivation is in large part what drives people to engage in and especially to achieve
certain goals. Pintrich (2003) defines motivation as what sets individuals in motion toward
specific pursuits or undertakings. The two motivational theories discussed in this section are
attributional and self-efficacy theories.
Attributional Theory. According to Anderman and Anderman (2006), attribution theory
places causality on external and internal factors. Specific conditions such as perceived lack of
ability, lack of effort or poor instruction can affect a person’s ability to learn. Both
environmental and personal factors impact the types of attributions people make (Anderman &
Anderman, 2006). A student’s home environment or background knowledge are attributional
variables that some consider factors affecting learning. Anderman and Anderman (2006)
describe a locus of causality, stability, and controllability as dimensions central to Attribution
Theory. These dimensions affect learners’ motivation toward engaging in or completing tasks
(Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Factors that remain unchanged across time and conditions are
permanent and considered stable. Temporary factors that change across time or circumstances
are unstable. The final dimension for Attribution Theory is controllability (Anderman &
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 51
Anderman, 2006). According to Anderman and Anderman (2006), controllability relates to
human emotions such as anger, anxiety, guilt, and shame. These emotions may be amplified in
classrooms or school environments that do not value underrepresented students and their
experiences. Controllable attributes refer to effort and uncontrollable causes refer to attributes
such as ability (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Emotions resulting from attributions assigned to
controllability affect motivation. A teacher’s feelings about the origin of their own or a student’s
attributes can affect their motivation as a practitioner. Consequently, teachers who focus on
stable factors they are unable to control are less likely to try strategies to teach students they
view as unteachable. This is important because teachers can affect the instructional environment
they create within the classroom in a negative or positive way depending on the attribution they
assign to the situation.
Classroom instruction setting. Classroom teachers may attribute low reading proficiency
to factors in a student’s home environment (lack of access to books, speaking a language other
than English) and personal ability such as a physical impairment. Milner (2010) states that low
expectations and deficit mind-sets can interfere with academic performance when teachers do not
believe in students’ ability to learn or only focus on what they do not know. Students will
perform according to teacher expectations. Furthermore, teachers’ low expectations tends to
deprive students of opportunities. Another factor to consider when teaching low socio-economic
students is the school and community setting (Milner, 2010). Understanding how to teach a
subject matter is a factor that is most effective when coupled with knowledge about teaching the
subject in a specific setting. Despite the personal or environmental variables that affect a
student, there are key instructional practices such as guided reading that are successful
approaches to implement with all students. According to two separate studies, modifications to
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 52
guided reading is useful with English learners and deaf students (Avalos, Plasencia, Chavez &
Rascon, 2007; Schaffer & Schirmer, 2010). Modifications such as vocabulary building, oral
development opportunities, and interactions with peers are among successful inclusionary
practices for English Language Learners. In addition, students with limited exposure to literacy
strategies and books must receive consistent opportunities to interact with books and reading.
The implications of these studies point to the fact that guided reading as part of a balanced
literacy approach can support all students regardless of perceived ability as long as teachers are
willing to provide students with opportunities for learning. Depending on student needs, teachers
can adapt their teaching to serve students with specific strategies that can improve reading
proficiency. Teachers who view themselves as limited in their ability to teach reading will be less
motivated to engage (Anderman & Anderman, 2006) in the task of a balanced literacy approach
to reading which in turn will affect the ability of students to become readers.
Self-Efficacy Theory. Schunk (1995) defines self-efficacy as the opinions people hold
about their ability to learn or carry out specific actions at specific levels. Self-efficacy
perceptions drive motivation. If individuals do not feel capable of achieving specific tasks, they
will likely not undertake those tasks. According to self-efficacy theory, success increases self-
efficacy and failure decreases it (Schunk, 1995). Teachers who have a low perception about their
ability to teach reading and/or their students’ ability to learn to read, will approach reading
instruction lacking confidence and are more likely to make errors about instruction. Their lack of
confidence directly transfers to their teaching and impacts student learning. Oftentimes, the lack
of self-efficacy stems from an unsupportive environment (Milner & Hoy, 2003) such as in
schools where professional development is limited or non-existent. In addition, the difficult task
of teaching struggling readers or students with a knowledge gap in reading is an attainable
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 53
challenge to teachers who have a high sense of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1995). A study found that
teacher’s feelings of self-efficacy had a positive impact on culturally and linguistically diverse
students’ reading proficiency (Armor, 1976). Achievement of self-efficacy through confidence
relies on the knowledge and skills that an individual (in this case teachers) possesses as well as
the supportive nature of the environment in which they teach.
Classroom instruction setting. Self-efficacy theory relates to teachers’ opinions about
their capacity to engage in reading instruction because of its complex, systematic nature.
According to a study by Lyons and Thompson (2012), teachers often feel they do not have
enough time to work with small groups, there is insufficient space to work with groups, guided
reading instruction can be disruptive to the rest of the class, and not all students will have the
ability to maintain interest or attention on the lesson. In addition, the differing needs of diverse
student populations present a challenge of time to work with small groups of students. All these
perceived challenges make teachers fell less than efficacious in their intent to implement guided
reading. Teachers feel less than efficacious about their own performance with the task of reading
instruction and this can affect their ability to engage in the use of a balanced literacy approach to
reading instruction (Pajares, 2006). Therefore, it is important for teachers to acquire the requisite
knowledge and skills to implementing a balanced literacy approach to reading instruction. It is
also dependent on a supportive culture created by instructional leaders.
The Motivational Influences (see Table 2) describes in detail the overall organizational
mission of El Dorado Unified School District and the organizational global goal of EDUSD. The
Motivation Influences Table also includes the specific stakeholder goal, which speaks to what
the classroom teachers and instructional leaders will do in order to prepare English Language
Learners to meet EDUSD’s organizational global goal. Column one describes the motivational
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 54
influences that impact classroom setting teachers’ attributional and self-efficacy while preparing
teachers to implement guided reading strategies to support all students in their reading
instruction. Column two describes the method(s) to assess classroom teachers’ level of self-
efficacy and beliefs about the value of guided reading strategies for ELL’s reading instruction in
the classroom setting. As a reminder the organizational stakeholder goal, By November 2017,
100% of teachers will implement reading practices including teaching academic vocabulary,
using complete sentence responses and encouraging peer-to-peer talk is the basis for the
motivational influences table.
Table 3

Motivational Influences

Motivation Influences

Motivational Influence Assessment

Attributional—Teachers need to know that
reading proficiency is affected by instructional
practices rather than students’ lack of ability.
Interview/Observation Question:
1) “What are some of the causes for students’
success or failure in your class?”
2) “What are some of the causes for English
Language Learner student success or failure in
your class?”
Self-efficacy—Teachers need to feel
confidence in their capacity to implement
effective reading strategies to teach reading to
English Language Learner students.
Interview Question: “How do you perceive
your ability to implement guided reading
strategies during reading instruction for
English Language Learners?”

Organizational Influences
Culture and Climate
Schein (2004) purports that an organization’s culture is comprised of several different
levels. The culture of an organization strongly determines how an organization functions and the
actions members within that organization take. The surface level of an organization is
characterized by the artifacts that define it (Schein, 2004). Artifacts are the visible processes,
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 55
procedures, policies, and routines within an institution. According to Schein (2004), the second
and third levels of culture are composed of the espoused beliefs and the underlying assumptions,
respectively. Schein (2004) defines an organization’s goals, philosophies, and strategies as the
components of espoused beliefs. In addition, the intangible elements of an organization such as
thoughts, perceptions, and feelings describe the underlying assumptions (Schein, 2004). The
repeated actions members of an organization take and accept as truth without proof clearly
characterize underlying assumptions. They are more difficult to see, but can be deciphered
through qualitative data patterns in organizational procedures, processes, and routines. Schein
(2004) suggests these underlying assumptions become values when leadership proposes them
and they yield successful results. This process shifts the organization to a shared set of
assumptions that define its culture.
Schneider, Brief, and Guzzo (1996) propose that change takes place when analysis of
organizational policies and practices occurs to determine its culture and climate. The culture of
an organization is the organizational processes, procedures, policies, and routines, whereas the
climate is an outcome of the culture. Climate describes the organizational environment and all
the “soft attributes” that characterize the organization. Leadership style also has an impact on an
organization’s climate and culture. According to Schneider et al (1996), democratic leadership
which considers employee input, interpersonal relationships, engagement, support for
professional growth, and rewards or recognition have an impact on organizational climate and
culture. Although more directive organizations may still yield productivity, lack of employee
participation in the leadership and decision-making processes may affect the levels of efficiency
and the bottom line. In addition, Schwandt and Marquart (2000) propose that an inquiry process
is essential to ongoing learning and growth within an organization. In order for learning and
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 56
growth to occur, all members of an organization must be actively involved in the inquiry process
to some degree. The act of constant reflection on policies, procedures, practice, and routines can
produce positive results to refine the organizational culture and ultimately, support positive
organizational outcomes. This process is particularly important when human capital is
concerned.
Specific Stakeholder Influences
Reading Proficiency and Graduation Rates
High school graduation rates for under-represented students who are not proficient
readers by third grade are significantly lower than white students’ graduation rates with the same
reading proficiency levels. Students who are not proficient readers by 3rd grade do not graduate
high school on time at a rate four times that of proficient readers (Hernandez, 2011). A white
eighth grader reads at higher levels than a Latino or Black senior in high school (Welner &
Carter, 2013).
The literacy instruction focus at the El Dorado Unified School District is historically
whole group instruction. An emphasis on whole group instruction without differentiated support
for individual students was the norm prior to Superintendent Solares’ coming on board as the
district leader. The focus for instruction at EDUSD is to empower underrepresented students
through educational opportunity. Superintendent Solares (a pseudonym) an English learner
herself who grew up in poverty. She values the promise of opportunity through education and
promotes “literacy as king”. Teachers participate in monthly staff development in each content
area; reading, math, science, and history. Instructional leaders continuously analyze policies and
practices through consistent collaborative school visits. Students of poverty have significantly
lower academic success than the success of their more affluent peers (Lacour & Tissington,
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 57
2011; Rothstein, 2013). Lacour & Tissington (2011) define poverty as lack of resources ie.
financial, emotional, mental, spiritual, physical, and support systems such as relationships, role
models, and systemic knowledge. Since most low SES and underrepresented students enter
Kindergarten with an existing literacy gap, it is imperative to enforce ongoing systemic focus on
teacher instructional support and professional instructional development to meet the needs of
these specific student populations. Consequently, schools need to develop strong reading
instruction practices, procedures, and policies in order to ensure reading proficiency for all
students by the end of 3
rd
grade. Superintendent Solares has focused a concerted effort on
developing readers to promote future community leaders.
The organizational worksheet (see Table 3) provides a description of the organizational
mission of the El Dorado Unified School District as well as its global goal. The teacher
stakeholder goal, By November 2017, 100% of teachers will implement reading practices
including teaching academic vocabulary, using complete sentence responses and encouraging
peer-to-peer talk, describes what teachers will do to help attain both the organizational mission
and the global goal. Column one of the organizational worksheet describes the cultural
influences affecting the achievement gaps within the English Language Learner student
demographic in the district. Column 1 describes the assumed organizational influences that affect
English Language Learners’ achievement gap. Column two describes what method(s) will be
used to assess organizational influences and how aware teachers are of the impact these
influences have on the existing achievement gap of English Language Learners when compared
to their native English-speaking schoolmates.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 58
Table 4
Organizational Influences
Assumed
Organizational
Influences
Organizational
Influence Assessment
Research Based
Recommendation or
Solution Principle
Proposed Solution
Cultural Model
Influence 1: There is
lack of focus to
implement specific
strategies, practices,
routines, and
procedures that address
the needs of English
Language Learners.
Observation Focus:
1. What is the major
focus for instruction in
the district?
2. What is the major
focus for instruction at
your school?
3. Does the school
focus align with the
district focus?
4. What are the specific
strategies, practices,
routines, and
procedures
implemented to support
the needs of English
Language Learners?
Utilize sentence
frames to support
academic language
use in content areas.
1. Provide access to
grade level content
instruction.
2. Ensure access to
quality teachers for
all ELLs.
1. Focus staff
development efforts
on teacher training of
strategies that are
successful with ELLs
and benefit all
students.
2. Prioritize resources
for ELL academic
success with priority
to access to quality
teachers as the
leading factor in
academic
performance.
Cultural Model
Influence 2: There is a
tendency to look to
external influencers
such as family,
language, and culture
as deficiencies rather
than building on the
strengths of these
characteristics.
Observation Focus:
1. What are the factors
contributing to the
academic achievement
gap of English
Language Learners?
2. How can those
factors be addressed?
1. Incorporate the
language and culture of
ELLs within the
classroom to bridge
personal knowledge to
classroom instruction
and learning.
1. Incorporate
opportunities for
students to utilize
their native language
in peer discussions or
for purposes of
clarifying
understanding of
content.
2. Utilize stories or
literature that
represent the
language, culture and
experiences of ELLs.
Cultural setting
influence 1: Teachers
receive research-based
professional
development to support
the general student
population, but lack
focused professional
development for ELLs.
Interview Questions:
1. What are the
professional
development
opportunities for
teachers in the area of
targeted support for
English Language
1. Utilize sentence
frames to support
academic language use
in content areas.
2. Provide access to
grade level content
instruction utilizing SI
strategies.
3. Ensure access to
quality teachers for all
Provide research-based
staff development that
focuses on
implementing teaching
strategies that promote
ELL academic success
but are beneficial to all
students.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 59
Learners?
2. In what areas do
you believe you need
further professional
development
support?
ELLs.
4. Incorporate the
language and culture of
ELLs within the
classroom to bridge
personal knowledge to
classroom instruction
and learning.
Cultural setting
influence 2: Ongoing
support and training for
teachers after initial
staff development
opportunities centers on
strategies for
addressing the general
student population.
Interview Questions:
1. What types of ongoing
support and training do
you receive in targeted
instructional practices
for English Language
Learners?
1. Follow up support
opportunities should
reflect current needs
based on teacher
and/or instructional
leader feedback.
2. Follow up
opportunities should
reflect student
support needs.
Support initial staff
development
opportunities that shift
a focus from strategies
that are successful with
the general student
population to one that
focuses on utilizes
strategies to support
ELL success and
benefit all students.

Summary
The issue of the growing academic achievement gap of English Language Learner
students is a complex topic. The information presented in Chapter 2 attempted to outline the
factors and variables highlighted in the literature that are central to closing the academic
achievement gap of English Language Learners. Teachers need to be culturally aware of the
students they serve while building positive relationships with them. In addition, teacher
education must include knowledge to teach diverse student populations while in-service
professional learning needs to include training, job aids, and ongoing education about the
changing demographic of the American classroom. Teacher lack of knowledge, motivation, and
inadequate organizational support are likely contributing factors to the performance gap (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The existence and persistence of these performance gaps may prove disastrous for
the future of the American educational system, which in turn, will affect the future adult
workforce. Specific and targeted instructional as well as engagement practices may be important
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 60
provisions toward closing the achievement gap (Brown, Benkovitz, Muttillo, & Urban, 2011;
Wenglisky, 2004). Chapter 3 will address these provisions.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 61
Table 5

Summary of Sources about Assumed Influences for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
Issues
Influences
Sources Knowledge Motivation Organizational
Processes
Learning and
motivation theory
Teachers need to have
the knowledge of
differentiated
instruction strategies to
teach English Language
Learner students.
School settings often
look to student
socioeconomic status
and ethnic or language
background as
deficiencies.
The BTSA Support
team focuses on
meeting the
requirements of FACT
and the CSTPs not on
focused instructional
support.

Teachers need to have
the knowledge to teach
culturally diverse
student populations.

Teachers need to be
aware of their own
thinking regarding how
to plan instruction to
implement targeted
strategies to close the
opportunity gap for
English Language
Learners.

Teachers need to know
how to use formative
assessment data to plan
instruction that will
meet the needs of
English Language
Learners.

There is little or no task
value in implementing
targeted instructional
practices because there
is no support in the
form of professional
development for these
student populations nor
are there consequences
for lack of
implementation of
targeted instructional
strategies.

There is no consistent
structure for instruction
of English Language
Learners in EDUSD.

The EDUSD offers
limited professional
development to support
instruction of English
Language Learners.

Curriculum Coaches
are not adequately
trained to provide
instructional support
that targets
instructional strategies
specific to English
Language Learners.

The Instructional
Services Department
focuses on supporting
use of the mainstream
curriculum as presented
by publishing
companies.

Background and review
of the literature
Teachers do not
understand the
relationship between
opportunity gaps and
Lack of focus on
implementation and
enforcement of targeted
The organizational
vision, mission, and
values do not
effectively embed
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 62
the academic
achievement gap of
English Language
Learners.
instructional practices
decreases task value.

Failure to connect with
students of diverse
backgrounds reduces
student self-esteem,
self-efficacy, and
motivation.

targeted focus on the
instruction of ELLs in
the organizational
culture.

The organizational
action plan does not
include focused
strategies for
instruction of English
Language Learners.

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context to Opportunity Gaps for English Language Learners

The conceptual framework is a model of the research study the researcher intends to
conduct. According to Maxwell (2016), the conceptual model is a model of what exists in
research, the interactions between these ideas or theories, and an explanation of reasons why they
exist. The conceptual framework is a preliminary theory of the topic we are studying (Maxwell,
2016). Each potential influence within the El Dorado Unified School District is presented
independently however; they all interact to create the assumed beliefs and assumptions within
the organization.
Teachers often lack the skills and knowledge to teach under-represented groups such as
English Language Learners, which are most often also, minorities and low SES students. Avalos,
Plascencia, Chavez, and Rascon (2007) found that teachers of low SES students often feel under-
skilled in teaching reading because these students come to school with limited literacy and
schema building experiences. These teachers often feel a lack of motivation and self-efficacy to
teach students from challenging backgrounds such as those of low SES and minority students,
which often includes English Learners. This is best exemplified when teachers and
administrators refuse to utilize specialized targeted instruction that reduces the literacy and
vocabulary gap with which low SES and minority students enter school. Teachers who present
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 63
students with opportunities to access rigorous curriculum while building mastery of material help
foster self-efficacy (Pajares, 2007). The trouble lies in instances where low SES and minority
students have limited access to rigorous curriculum while mastering grade level content.
Teachers’ perceptions of a student’s attributes can influence teacher motivation.
According to Anderman and Anderman (2006), there are internal and external factors that affect
motivation. When a teacher believes that a student’s knowledge or social capital is deficient due
to external factors beyond the teacher’s control such as family background including financial
barriers that lead to no or limited access to books and language factors such as speaking a
different language, the classroom setting can be affected (Carter, 2013; Darling-Hammond,
2013; Gándara, 2013). This leads to a decreased sense of motivation and self-efficacy on the
teacher’s part in believing they cannot do anything for the student or impact learning in any way.
This way of thinking often leads to opportunity gaps.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 64

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework: ELL Teachers’ Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organizational influences

Figure 1 depicts teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
affect reading instruction for English Language Learners. English Language Learners come with
specific home and life experiences, called Funds of Knowledge that teachers can use to build
academic knowledge (Gonzalez, Moll, Tenery, Rivera, Gonzales, & Amanti, 1995). This
includes implementing a culture that supports students where they are and works toward closing
the existing academic gap as well as fostering educational attainment (Ford & Opitz, 2008;
Milner, 2010; Vygotsky, 1978). Figure 1 portrays a conceptual model for teaching ELLs.
Teachers who are successful in teaching academic content to ELLs practice some key strategies
for supporting ELL academic learning and success. Among them is the focus on reading
instruction utilizing a balanced literacy approach as well as scaffold strategies such as SI, the use
of students’ native language to clarify or access content, and sentence frames to support student
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 65
responses to questions or during academic interactions. Teachers who practice CRT in their
classrooms do so in the explicit strategies they utilize to meet the social, cultural, and linguistic
needs of their students. The CRT approach is one that considers needs beyond just the academic
needs of students incorporating factors outside the classroom to teach culturally and
linguistically diverse students. Teachers who utilize CRT realize that teaching academic content
requires knowledge of each individual student’s background and students’ personal experiences,
language and culture to connect these attributes to school learning.
Additionally, organizational prioritization of resources to support ELLs is an essential
strategy for promoting their academic success with learning grade level content. Among the
primary resources given priority in organizations with high ELL success rates is quality teachers
because they are the single most important factor contributing to student performance. All
organizational efforts are guided by data driven decisions, which provide direction for teacher
training and support to assist with student learning. These critical organizational elements create
the conditions for increased teacher engagement with teaching ELLs that increase student
motivation and engagement with learning. Teachers who work in settings where organizational
support for teaching ELLs is priority experience an increase in self-confidence in teaching ELLs
and concentrate their efforts on closing the opportunity gaps that lead to ELL underperformance.
Teachers’ and Instructional Leaders’ choice and persistence in the use of strategies to eliminate
ELL opportunity gaps and close the achievement gap requires consistent mental effort. Educators
must be fully and constantly aware of the most effective strategies to use with ELLs. They must
also have knowledge of their individual students’ needs to target strategies to those academic
demands. Targeted choice, persistence, and mental effort of teachers and instructional leaders to
increase ELL achievement may work to shift the focus from deficient student attributes toward
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 66
strategic use of teaching practices. Through this knowledge, teachers can create culturally
responsive instructional practices to improve reading proficiency and consequently academic
success for English Language Learners. School and classrooms that ignore the differing needs of
English Language Learners, increase the academic gap of this growing student demographic.
Conclusion
Teachers’ thoughts about students’ ability to grow their intellect has a great impact on
increasing reading achievement for English Learners and ultimately their educational attainment.
The preparation teachers receive in credentialing programs has a major impact on the knowledge
and skills teachers have to implement reading instruction for English Learners. In addition,
induction support and professional development play a major role in providing ongoing
education for teachers as they continue to work with ELLs in the classroom.
Generally, teachers are not systematically prepared to work with students of differing
cultural or linguistic backgrounds. Their knowledge relies on general teaching practice that lacks
understanding about how to address the needs of diverse students and they often attribute ELL
academic underperformance to limited English proficiency. The focus in underperformance must
shift to a focus on teaching strategies to scaffold academic learning for ELLs. A foundation in
reading and content literacy is crucial to close ELL academic achievement gaps. Organizational
focus on reading instruction, prioritized resources, and data driven support for teaching ELLs is
imperative.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 67
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to identify possible causes leading to the continuous
academic underperformance of English Language Learner students in the El Dorado Unified
School District. EDUSD was unable to meet its academic performance goals for English
Language Learners in reading on the CAASPP. The CAASPP ELA measures students’ mastery
of grade level standards in the area of reading, writing, listening, and research/inquiry (CDE,
2015). In 2016, 66% of EDUSD 3
rd
graders did not meet the state standards on the CAASPP
ELA assessment (CDE). This means only 34% of EDUSD 3
rd
graders are meeting or exceeding
state standards in reading on the state assessment (CDE, 2017). The data on the same assessment
reveals 87% of 3
rd
grade ELLs did not meet the standards in ELA for CAASPP. Although there
is growth within the performance bands, low SES and underrepresented minority students
continue to fail to meet the organizational goals and increase the achievement gap when
compared to their white, more affluent counterparts. Often, academic achievement gaps are a
result of a wider problem known as opportunity gaps.
The focus of this study is the teaching staff and instructional leader stakeholder groups.
Teachers have direct influence over content delivery, access to instructional resources, and create
or offer opportunities for learning on a daily basis. EDUSD teachers are responsible for
implementing instructional strategies and practices that target its organizational goals. A
purposeful sampling of EDUSD teachers is included in this study because it allows for
identification of teachers working directly with English Language Learner students. Teachers
with English Language Learners in their classrooms are part of the sampling. Additionally,
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 68
because instructional leaders guide, monitor, and enforce teacher practices they are also a focus
for this study.
The importance of understanding the influences that affect the instructional practices,
strategies, and procedures of the teacher and instructional leader stakeholder group is essential to
propose solutions that will close the achievement gap of English Language Learners at EDUSD.
Alternatively, EDUSD English Language Learners will experience ongoing underperformance
among the low SES and underrepresented minority student groups. The achievement deficits
may likely affect recruitment and retention of effective teachers as well as neighborhood students
opting for higher achieving schools.
The following questions steered the study:
1. To what extent are K-2 teachers in El Dorado Unified School District implementing
district-mandated pedagogies (teaching academic vocabulary, using complete sentence
responses, and encouraging peer-to-peer talk)?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving
the goal by June 2020, 85% of English Language Learners in the 3
rd
grade in the El
Dorado Unified School District will score at the proficient or above level in reading?
3. What are the teachers’/instructional leaders’ recommendations for organizational
practice/professional development in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources to improve their instruction in support of ELL’s reading scores?
Conceptual and Methodological Approach
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework is a systematic solutions based
process for diagnosing potential causes of performance gaps to identify corresponding
performance solutions. Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis uses various approaches for data
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 69
gathering and analysis. Studies can apply different research designs including qualitative
methods comprised of observations, surveys, interviews, document analysis, and focus groups.
Alternatively, quantitative research methods include surveys as well as mixed methods, which
combine both qualitative and quantitative research processes. This study will consist of a
qualitative approach including collection of survey, interview, and observational data. Data
analysis includes descriptive achievement statistics and thematic coding of qualitative data to
define the analysis portion of the process.
The assumed influences of knowledge, motivational, and organizational problems that are
possible causes to the instructional gap of teachers, which lead to the underperformance of
English Language Learners at EDUSD, are emphasized and confirmed against theories and
relevant literature. Thereafter, measures of a qualitative nature such as surveys and interviews in
addition to descriptive data from observations will confirm the causes. These research design
methods as well as the conclusions derived from them will yield comprehensive deductions
about the problems and possible solutions.
Data Collection
The approach selected to conduct this study was surveys, interviews, and observations.
This controlled design allowed a collection of data for triangulation limited in generalizability to
other similar settings. The anonymous online surveys were completed by a broader base of
elementary school teachers from K through 6 grades. Superintendent Solares controlled the
administration of the electronic survey as well as the selection of a study site for classroom
observations. The interviewer completed an ad hoc interview with two teachers on special
assignment (TOSAs) following the general classroom observations in which Superintendent
Solares accompanied the researcher. The superintendent participated in both the general
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 70
classroom observations and the ad hoc interview. Table 6 below is a Data Collection Table
depicting research method, data sources, type, and quantity.
Table 6
Data Collection
Research Method Type Source Quantity
Surveys Electronic
Anonymous
Voluntary
K-6 Teachers 37 Teacher
Responses
(58 total teachers in
K-6)
Interviews Face to Face
Ad Hoc
Unstructured
Instructional Leaders 2-TOSAs
1-Superintendent
Observations Brief (5-10 minutes)
Focus (1 hour)
K-2 Grade Classroom
2-K, 1-TK Classroom
18-6 at each school
3-All at Cringle ES

Surveys
Surveys were administered electronically through an electronic platform to ensure
anonymity and accessibility. The survey link was emailed to the superintendent of EDUSD who
then forwarded the email to all elementary school teachers in the district. The survey categorized
questions to collect data about participant background information, professional development
participation, instructional practices, and education/credentialing background. All survey
question categories address the KMO influences of the conceptual framework. There were thirty-
seven respondents, which included male and female teachers. The overwhelming majority of
respondents are experienced teachers with over five years of teaching experience. Many have
taught more than ten years and have extensive experience teaching English Language Learners.
Interviews
The ad hoc instructional leader interviews were conducted at the teachers’ school sites in
order to make the setting as comfortable and convenient for the participant as possible. A set of
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 71
unstructured interview questions was asked based on observation data observed during visits to
the 18 classrooms across EDUSD’s three elementary school sites. As we visited classrooms, the
superintendent noticed two TOSAs were collaborating in a workroom and she asked them to
answer some questions I was posing regarding some of the strategies observed in the classrooms.
The TOSAs were provided with the Exempt Research Information Sheet and the researcher
gained their permission to record the conversation. Superintendent Solares also participated in
this ad hoc interview. The unstructured TOSA interview protocol is included as Appendix B.
Additionally, the researcher interviewed Superintendent Solares while completing the round of
18 general classroom observations. The Superintendent Questions (Appendix C) centered on
clarifying strategies or practices viewed during the observations as well as to establish an
understanding of the district as a whole. The following paragraphs provide a brief description of
each interview participant and their roles at EDUSD.
Superintendent Solares. Superintendent Solares (a pseudonym) has extensive experience
as a high school educator in the roles of teacher and principal. She also served as the Assistant
Superintendent of Curriculum at EDUSD prior to assuming the position of Superintendent six
years ago. Superintendent Solares is an English Learner and attended EDUSD as a student. She
participates in and plans many community events to bridge the home to school connection.
Superintendent Solares has steered EDUSD’s focus toward literacy as a key driver to decrease
the academic achievement gap of underrepresented student groups while increasing educational
opportunities.
Teachers on Special Assignment 1 & 2 (TOSA1&TOSA2). The TOSAs are teachers
who possess their administrative credential, have demonstrated exceptional leadership abilities,
and exemplary instructional practices within the classroom. They hold a position that is split half
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 72
time between the duties of classroom instruction and the other half focuses on professional
development for teachers. The TOSAs were not part of the researcher’s classroom observation.
They participated in an ad hoc interview following the general classroom observations to explain
their role in support for teachers.
Observation
In order to experience a firsthand encounter with the research topic, a total of 18
classroom observations in a total of three schools occurred. The first observation sample was
derived through a convenience sampling method by visiting all elementary school sites for
observations in 18-K-2 grade classrooms. The 18 classrooms were selected for observation by
the superintendent. It is important to note these initial observations were brief (5-10 minutes) and
included the superintendent as a guide through each classroom. Overall, 68% of K-2 grade
classrooms in the district were included in observations. The purpose for visiting K-2 classrooms
was to establish a baseline of district-wide strategies utilized with all early elementary students.
This enabled the researcher to determine any gaps in instruction between the general student
population and ELLs. It also allowed the researcher to develop a sense for the common cultural
practices within EDUSD.
The second observation sample was a snowball sampling derived from a selection of
teachers of ELLs. The superintendent selected the school site for the observations and the
principal selected three classrooms for completion of the observations. The three classrooms
were selected as exemplary because the teachers, Mrs. Linares, Ms. Cortez, and Mrs. Santos
(pseudonyms) met the researcher’s criteria of classrooms demonstrating successful ELL
academic outcomes and English language development. This second set of observations was an
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 73
hour in length and did not include the superintendent. The following paragraphs provide a brief
description of the exemplary teachers and schools recommended for observations.
Mrs. Linares. Mrs. Linares (a pseudonym) is a Kindergarten (K) teacher at Cringle
Elementary School (a pseudonym). She is the least experienced of the three focus exemplary
teachers, but meets the criteria of a quality teacher with five or more years teaching experience.
Mrs. Linares was recommended as an exemplary teacher for the researcher to observe because
she employs strategies in her classroom that represent models of strategies that support
decreasing academic gaps while increasing educational opportunities.
Ms. Cortez. Ms. Cortez (a pseudonym) is a Kindergarten (K) teacher at Cringle
Elementary School. She is the most experienced of the three focus teachers. Ms. Cortez has
taught for 21 years. Ms. Cortez was recommended as an exemplary teacher for the researcher to
observe because she employs strategies in her classroom that represent models of strategies that
support decreasing academic gaps while increasing educational opportunities.
Mrs. Santos. Mrs. Santos (a pseudonym) is a Transitional Kindergarten year 2 (TK2)
teacher at Cringle Elementary School. Her teaching experience qualifies her as a quality teacher.
She has taught more than 5 years, but less than Ms. Cortez. The exact number of years in
education is unknown. Ms. Cortez was recommended as an exemplary teacher for the researcher
to observe because she demonstrates consistent use of key strategies to increase educational
opportunities within the classroom while working to decrease the ELL academic achievement
gap.
Cringle Elementary School. Cringle Elementary School (a pseudonym) was the setting
for the three focal exemplary classroom observations and six of the general classroom
observatiobs. It is the site where Mrs. Linares, Ms. Cortez, and Mrs. Santos work. According to
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 74
the SARC (2015), the school is comprised of a student population of 712 students in grades K-5
of which 53% are enrolled in K-2 grades. 96.9% of the student population is low Socioeconomic
and 63.3% are English Language Learners. The school has 100% highly qualified teachers with
no misassignments in teacher placement. 23% of students scored proficient or advanced on the
2015 CAASPP while only 5% of ELL scored proficient or advanced on the same state
assessment in English Language Arts. Hispanic or Latino students comprise 97.8% of the total
student population.
Pine Forest Elementary School. Pine Forest Elementary School (a pseudonym) was the
setting for six of the general classroom observations. According to the SARC (2015), the school
is comprised of a student population of 624 students in grades K-5 of which 56% are enrolled in
K-2 grades. 95.6% of the student population is low Socioeconomic and 62.4% are English
Language Learners. The school has 94% highly qualified teachers with 6% misassignments in
teacher placement. 17% of students scored proficient or advanced on the 2015 CAASPP while
only 5% of ELL scored proficient or advanced on the same state assessment in English Language
Arts. Hispanic or Latino students comprise 94.6% of the total student population.
Forest Elementary School. Forest Elementary School (a pseudonym) was the setting for
six of the general classroom observations. According to the SARC (2015), the school is
comprised of a student population of 678 students in grades K-5 of which 49% are enrolled in K-
2 grades. 96.3% of the student population is low Socioeconomic and 63.1% are English
Language Learners. The school has 100% highly qualified teachers with no misassignments in
teacher placement. 27% of students scored proficient or advanced on the 2015 CAASPP while
only 5% of ELL scored proficient or advanced on the same state assessment in English Language
Arts. Hispanic or Latino students comprise 94.4% of the total student population.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 75
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), data collection through observation is
categorized into three areas: entry, data collection, and exit of which entry is a crucial stage. The
first impression gained through an initial observation or at the beginning of an observation,
typically determines the course of future observations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher
sought to establish a role of collaborative partner in order to be as transparent and ethical as
possible while creating an atmosphere of shared work (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Descriptive
field notes were part of the observation protocol and included reflection, which lead to some
initial data analysis. The most detailed field notes include factual recording of the setting,
interactions, and conversations, which includes sketching the room layout. In this study, the
presence of the superintendent during the initial round of observations is a factor that may
potentially skew data and definitely interfere with the researcher’s ability to take detailed field
notes regarding observations. On the other hand, the superintendent provided clarification and
background regarding strategies as well as resources observed in classrooms. During the second
round of observations in focused classrooms, the researcher collected detailed field notes
capturing the strategies and interactions taking place in the classroom between teachers and
students.
Data Analysis
Data for this qualitative study includes survey responses, interview transcripts,
and observational notes. The conceptual framework was used as a basis for analysis. The
qualitative data analysis process allows the researcher to make sense of data by combining and
interpreting participants’ responses in alignment with the topic related literature (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In qualitative research, data collection and analysis are a simultaneous process
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This process allows the researcher to determine whom to interview,
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 76
additional or follow up interview questions, and additional resources. Data was collected until a
point of saturation occurred. Saturation is the process by which ongoing data collection produces
no new information (Maxwell & Tisdell, 2016). However, the process of data collection was
highly controlled by the selection of participants by the superintendent and principals. Ongoing
analysis focused, narrowed, and prioritized data as it was collected.
The first set of data was collected through an online survey created and managed through
Qualtrics. Interview participation was elicited through a question embedded within the ELL
Teacher Survey (Appendix A) that was emailed to Superintendent Solares (a pseudonym) who
forwarded the email to EDUSD’s K-6 teaching staff. The purpose for including this method of
quantitative research was to reach a larger stakeholder sample. Survey response data was
organized into a spreadsheet, which was analyzed through descriptive statistics and measures of
central tendency. Salkind (2017) defines descriptive statistics as the way a collection of data is
organized and described. The measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode of a
dataset (Salkind, 2017). The datasets collected were used to determine which measures of central
tendency to use to describe the collection of survey data.
The next set of data was collected through instructional leader interviews. The interviews
were ad hoc following the general classroom observations. The participants were two TOSAs
(TOSA1 & TOSA2) and Superintendent Solares. The ten steps or components of data analysis
and interpretation were used to organize data (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Analysis allowed the researcher to work with and organize data by breaking it into
manageable units (Bogden & Biklen, 2007). Data was managed through the coding process. The
coding process began with interviews that were transcribed using a transcription service called
Rev.com. Reflective notes synthesized through memos supported the thought process as it
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 77
related to coding of interview data. In addition, researcher-practitioner biases were addressed
through analytic memos.
Coding is the process of pinpointing relevant or compelling data and then categorizing it
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Data was coded by identifying categories in the
transcript that address the conceptual framework, coding along the margins of the transcript,
determining which codes fit a specific category, and identifying themes and findings based on
the categories. Data tables were used to help find patterns in data (Harding, 2013). Themes and
categories were derived with data tables. Data tables were also used to determine commonalities,
which are helpful with revision of codes and the development of conceptual themes.
The final phase in data collection was classroom observations. Merriam & Tisdell’s
(2016) strategies for recording observations are the basis for collecting observational raw data.
Observational data was collected with highly descriptive field notes of the three focal exemplary
classrooms. Field notes were recorded by noting verbal descriptions of the setting, people, and
activities. Direct quotations or general themes of what people said were also recorded in field
notes. In addition, observer’s comments labeled as “OC” were recorded in the margins. The
observer’s comments were highlighted to set them apart from the actual field notes. More
general field notes were recorded during the 18 general classroom observations. Preliminary
analysis of observational data occured when the researcher asked questions about what was
being observed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Additionally, a field note journal was maintained to
record the reflective experience in the field. The journal included notes about the observational
process as well as personal reactions to the observation. The field note journal is comparable to
the qualitative analytic memo for interviews.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 78
The data themes or categories from all sources were synthesized in a typicality tool. This
tool allowed a comparison of data to develop common themes and findings among the datasets.
The data was considered in its ability to provide answers to the research questions. Any findings
that did not answer the research questions but provided additional or new information about the
research topic were considered additional findings. Apriori and emergent codes were also noted
in a codebook. Analysis of typicality helped determine general data trends as well as featured
central concepts by revealing who said it and where it was stated (Maxwell, 2013).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In order to maintain the credibility of the study, original survey and interview items
specifically addressed the research questions aligned to the problem of practice. These survey
and interview items were neutral to eliminate the possibility of leading research results toward a
specific direction. The survey and interview questions were modeled after the design of The
English Language Learner Program Survey for Principals (Grady & O’Dwyer, 2014). Some of
the questions and sections were adapted to align with the teacher stakeholder group and to
include some of the same sections addressed in the original survey. The credibility of the survey
was preserved by adapting the design of the survey and not the actual items represented in the
survey. The categories addressed in the survey were background information, instructional
practices information, professional development information, and credential/educational program
information. The items in each category included responses that primarily follow a checklist
format and included some forced choices with definitive answers that prompted for specific
details if the answer was positive.
The validity and credibility of the qualitative methods were established by removing the
researcher from direct contact with individuals who may have perceived the relationship as one
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 79
where the researcher had power over the respondent. The study was conducted in a district where
the researcher had no professional or personal connection. Interview participants were selected
as a convenience sample due to their availability and their general knowledge of district
practices. The TOSAs were approached for interview participation following the first round of
general classroom observations. Superintendent Solares approached them to participate in the
interviews to clarify questions the researcher posed following the general classroom observations
and survey data review. They were asked clarifying questions to support the researcher’s
understanding of strategies observed in the eighteen general classrooms across the three
elementary school at EDUSD. Additionally, the interviews served to triangulate some of the
survey data pertaining to professional development. The interview protocol (Appendix B) was
utilized for these interviews and contained four open-ended questions. The TOSAs answered
these questions collaboratively because they were asked in a setting where the researcher sat at a
table facing East while Superintendent Solares sat to the researcher’s left, TOSA1 sat across
from the researcher, and TOSA2 sat to the right of the researcher. The first question asked “How
do you provide coaching support?” The researcher sought to understand the coaching model used
at EDUSD and how support is provided to teachers. Question two asked “Do you provide
coaching support in a specialized area or general subject areas?” The researcher sought an
understanding of the role of coaches and their knowledge base in the subjects in which they
provide teacher support. The third question asked “Do you have ongoing professional
development at EDUSD?” The model for professional development was an important structure
in providing support therefore, the researcher sought to learn how often teachers receive
professional development and what that support looks like. This information served to
triangulate with the survey data which revealed a sense that teachers had received 8 or more
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 80
hours of general professional development while additional survey data revealed that a little less
than half of teachers had received 8 or more hours of professional development related to
teaching ELLs. In order to preserve the credibility and trustworthiness of the study, surveys were
distributed electronically with the notion that respondents would participate anonymously and
for the sake of interest. No incentives or rewards were offered for participation. Responses and
participant information remains confidential with access limited to only individuals directly
involved in conducting research for the study.
Validity and Reliability
The validity and reliability of the study was maintained by ensuring the same surveys for
all respondents (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The survey questions were open
ended to prevent leading participants to a specific answer. Additionally, interview questions such
as “what is the major focus for instruction in the district? What is the major focus for instruction
at your school? Does the school focus align with the district focus? What are the specific
strategies, practices, routines, and procedures implemented to support the needs of English
Language Learners?” All survey items and interview questions were aligned with the research
questions and problem of practice in order to measure the elements the researcher set out to
measure as well as to ensure all responses accurately reflect participant points of view (Maxwell,
2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The participant sample included teachers in schools with a high
number of English Learners as well as English speaking students. Researcher bias was explained
in order to avoid the negative consequences that could result (Maxwell, 2013, pp.124-125). The
reactivity to non-responses to interview questions was handled by not asking leading or
prompting questions that may have lead to specific answers from participants (Maxwell, 2013).
It was important to accept non-responses at face value and not interpret the reason for a lack of
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 81
responses. The limited participation of teachers in interviews is noted in the limitations section of
this chapter. Researcher bias could be present in the focus of questions on the topic of English
Language Learners rather than all students. This could potentially lead participants to give a
response they think the researcher wants to hear or what is supposed to be taking place in
classrooms as far as support for English Language Learners. Additionally, the presence of the
superintendent in the 18 general classroom observations as well as the Instructional Leaders
Interviews likely steered answers in a different direction that may have given the researcher
different results if she had conducted the observations and interviews on her own.
Ethics
The research study centered on the qualitative method and included providing
participants with research information sheets for exempt studies to delineate the degree of their
participation including possible risks of participation. This method lended itself to gaining
firsthand perspectives of the stakeholder group of teachers and instructional leaders through
interviews, surveys, and observations. Participation in the study was voluntary and participants
were able to withdraw from the study at any time. Informed consent was necessary to ensure
participant awareness that their participation was voluntary, the data collection as well as records
and identities are confidential and that they had the option of withdrawing from the study at any
time (Glesne, 2011). Data was stored in a locked cabinet and will remain there for a period of
three years. In addition to the researcher, only the University of Southern California’s Human
Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The issue of ethics is central to the
subject of human research. In order to ensure the safety, well-being and preservation of rights of
human participants in research studies, clear guidelines for protection were established.
Adherence to these guidelines was reviewed by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 82
participating or sponsoring institutions, in this case the University of Southern California IRB, to
determine the exact description of interactions among the researcher and her human subjects.
It was a goal to develop a clear understanding of the research topic and to create meaning
based on the qualitative data collected from participants’ answers to the research questions
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants were provided exempt study information sheets, which
provided reminders of potential risks of participation, voluntary participation, and confidentiality
of their identity. The participants of the study were teachers and instructional leaders who work
with the vulnerable group of minors, so confidentiality was important as was their ability to
withdraw from the study at any time. The information sheets also specified that participants
would not receive any form of compensation or incentives for their participation in the study.
Elimination of incentives was a way to exclude the possibility of a coercive relationship between
the participants and researcher.
Limitations and Delimitations
In the interest of time, the study centered on one school district and the elementary
schools that comprise it. The focus was on strategies for teaching ELLs in general classroom
settings as well as in classrooms where specific strategies for teaching ELLs are practiced. The
study did not include bilingual, dual or two way immersion classrooms because they are less
common in the area of California where the study was completed. This study relied on teachers’
and instructional leaders’ interpretation of how they implement policies and pedagogical
practices to support the instruction of English Language Learners. Participants’ honesty in their
responses affected the validity of this study.
The researcher also developed the sample selection process. The study confines to the
responses of teachers willing to participate in The ELL Teacher Survey (Appendix A), an online
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 83
survey. Participant selection utilized purposeful and convenience sampling based on identified
criteria. Although 37 teachers responded to the ELL Teacher Survey, only two teachers
completed the Interview Interest Form. However, the two teachers who expressed interest failed
to respond to the researcher’s follow up emails and phone calls attempting to set up the
interviews. As a result, only data from the interviews with Superintendent Solares and the
Teachers on Special Assignment was included. Additionally, the teachers who participated in
interviews and observations were limited to their selection for participation by the superintendent
or principals.
Further limitations on the study were imposed by choices the researcher made in
developing the protocols. The interview protocol prompted responses from teachers and some
questions were not asked due to the researcher’s status as a novice researcher. In addition, the
researcher did not fully develop a relationship of trust with the research subjects due to the lack
of professional association with the organization. The relationship between the researcher and
EDUSD was established solely for the purposes of conducting the study.
Finally, the researcher conducted an analysis to develop findings. The researcher decided
what is important to review during data collection and analysis (Merriam, 2009). The
researcher’s status as a novice researcher likely impacted identification of findings.
Conclusion
The data collection and analysis protocols utilized in this study followed the guidelines
presented by Maxwell (2013) and Merriam & Tisdell (2013). The findings for this study are
limited to the study site due to the small sample size of teachers participating in the study. They
were also likely impacted because of the researcher’s inexperience in conducting research as
well as in the limited professional association with EDUSD. Furthermore, the survey responses
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 84
were random whereas the superintendent or principals selected interview and observation
participants for participation.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 85
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS

The findings section presents and organizes information in response to the three research
questions for this study.
The study research questions are:
1. To what extent are K-2 teachers in El Dorado Unified School District
implementing district-mandated pedagogies (teaching academic vocabulary, using
complete sentence responses, and encouraging peer-to-peer talk)?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to
achieving the goal by June 2020, 85% of English Language Learners in the 3rd grade
in the El Dorado Unified School District will score at the proficient or above level in
reading?
3. What are the teachers’/instructional leaders’ recommendations for organizational
practice/professional development in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources to improve their instruction in support of ELL’s reading
scores?
Sample Participants and Study Site
The focus district for this study was selected because it exemplifies the target
demographics the researcher sought to study. The teachers in EDUSD work with a student
population that is close to half English Language Learners, almost entirely low socioeconomic,
and represents a majority Latino students. In the past six years, EDUSD has largely focused on
reducing opportunity gaps, increasing graduation rates, and improving instruction for historically
underrepresented groups. The focal study site, Cringle Elementary (a pseudonym), was
recommended by Superintendent Solares because it houses exemplary classrooms that utilize
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 86
instructional strategies to support decreasing the academic achievement gap of English Language
Learners. The three focal exemplary classrooms were recommended by Cringle Elementary
School’s principal because the three teachers consistently implement strategies that promote high
levels of rigor, high expectations, and promote content literacy for ELLs. Whereas, the 18
general classroom observations utilized strategies to close opportunity gaps for all
underrepresented students, the focal classrooms were more targeted and intentional in the use of
strategies to reduce the academic achievement gap of ELLs. It is important to highlight the
strategies utilized in these exemplary classrooms to identify strategies that will support the
academic growth and language development of English Language Learners.
The large body of research discussed in Chapter Two of this study points to the
importance of strategic and systematic efforts toward decreasing opportunity gaps typical of
schools with high poverty, high minority student groups. A conscious effort to increase
equitable access to education for all student groups through the conduit of quality teachers is
emphasized as one of the most important factors contributing to student success. The research
calls attention to providing underrepresented students with experienced teachers, culturally
relevant teacher education, and teacher support with professional development targeting work
with underrepresented students. Much of this burden rests on the quality of education and
training teachers receive that is coordinated or managed by instructional leaders.
The study includes survey responses from 39 teachers, 18 classroom observations across
three elementary schools, three focused classroom observations at Cringle Elementary School (a
pseudonym), one superintendent interview, and two teacher on special assignment interviews.
The inclusion of surveys, interviews, and classroom observations allowed the researcher to
triangulate data to arrive at the results and findings.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 87
Interview Participants
The interview participants were included in the study as a matter of a convenience
sampling. The availability of teachers for voluntary participation in a face-to-face interview was
non-existent. As explained in detail in the previous chapter, three teachers completed the
Interview Interest Form included as a link within the online survey. None of the teachers
responded to the researcher’s attempts to schedule interviews. Consequently, the superintendent
facilitated interviews with two Teachers on Special Assignment (TOSAs) and participated in an
interview herself.
Results
Study results depict an organizational culture that focuses on decreasing opportunity
barriers for underrepresented students. Teacher support structures are embedded within
organizational systems to increase teacher knowledge and motivation about working with
culturally and socioeconomically underrepresented students across the district however, a more
intentional district-wide focus is needed to structure high leverage practices for ELL students.
The strategies observed in the three focus observation classrooms are examples of structures that
can be replicated across the district as common practices beneficial to all students, but
specifically successful with English Language Learners.
High Leverage Practices for Teaching ELLs
The major themes for this study emerged after careful analysis of survey data,
observational field notes, and interview responses. Most of the findings confirmed the literature
reviewed in Chapter Two, but also provided a few innovative strategies for teaching reading to
English Language Learners. Classroom observations, interviews, and survey data confirmed the
importance of Culturally Responsive Teaching (Gay, 2010), making content comprehensible
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 88
(Carrier & Tatum, 2006; Cummins, 1976, 1991, 1999; Echeverria et al., 2006; Freeman &
Freeman, 1988; Krashen, 1981; Norton-Pierce, 1995), and the application of impactful reading
pedagogy through the use of the balanced literacy approach (Ford & Opitz, 2008) when teaching
ELLs. The three focus teachers incorporate students’ language and encourage student use of their
language into their teaching (personal observation, November 8, 2017). School staff plans and
participates in community events such as the Halloween Carnival and the Veterans’ Day Parade
(personal observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017). One obvious element of CRT that
is missing is the integration of literature that reflects characters, settings, and plots that are more
aligned with student experiences (personal observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017).
Generally, the organizational culture supports the social, cultural, and linguistic needs of students
(Gay, 2010) while promoting the academic success of underrepresented students at EDUSD. Yet,
the targeted, strategic focus on strategies to support ELLs is deficient as a general district-wide
practice. The three focus classrooms at Cringle Elementary school incorporate strategies to build
academic vocabulary while providing ELLs access to grade level curriculum. This practice
works against the idea of a “sequential method” of instruction that aims to teach English
proficiency at the expense of academic proficiency critiqued by Gándara (2013). Although
elements of conflict between mainstream classroom instructional practices and culturally diverse
student populations are impossible to eliminate, the organizational culture and climate at
EDUSD responsibly engages elements of cultural conflict (Milner, 2010) and cultural mismatch
(Carter, 2013).

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 89
Research Question One: Implementing District Mandated Pedagogies
Teaching Academic Vocabulary
Anchor Charts. While the classrooms visited during the general observations did not
have evidence of using anchor charts, the three focus exemplary classrooms displayed anchor
charts to provide students with visual support and reference for content specific vocabulary. For
example, an anchor chart in classroom two, Ms. Santos’ Kindergarten classroom, displayed the
theme word “vehicles” as a header along with six different words and their corresponding
pictures; car, truck, taxi, van, cement truck, digger (personal observation, November 8, 2017).
Students in this Kindergarten classroom were learning about different modes of transportation. In
classroom three, Ms. Cortez’s Transitional Kindergarten Year 2, an anchor chart for key story
vocabulary containing two columns was displayed. Each column displayed a different header;
the first column header was “word” and the second column was “picture” (personal observation,
November 8, 2017). Teachers referenced the anchor charts as they asked comprehension
questions such as “What are they doing? Which word do we use? [Points to the anchor chart]”
(personal observation, November 8, 2017). The use of anchor charts in these classrooms
demonstrates the teachers’ procedural and conceptual knowledge of content words, which is also
a form of metacognition. This provides students with an engagement strategy for utilizing
content words as well as procedural and contextual applications of the words.
Total Physical Response (TPR). In addition to displaying academic vocabulary through
anchor charts, Ms. Cortez practiced Total Physical Response —TPR (Asher, 1966) to help
students learn content related vocabulary such as using hands to motion ringing a bell for the
word “ring” and using hands to motion pedaling for the word “pedal” (personal observation,
November 8, 2017). TPR is a method for teaching language that uses complete body motions or
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 90
gestures to describe the meaning of a word (Asher, 1966) and it is a form of sheltered instruction
(Echeverria et al., 2006). Although most teachers in the focus classrooms speak Spanish, they
use sheltered instruction strategies to support English language development in their regular day-
to-day instruction (Echeverria et al., 2006; Freeman & Freeman, 1988; Krashen, 1981).
Contrastingly, all the classrooms observed during the general classroom visits had students
working at their tables on writing assignments or other instructional tasks. There was no
evidence of the use of TPR for vocabulary instruction.
L1 Use. Additionally, the three focus teachers, Miss Linares, Ms. Santos, and Ms. Cortez,
clarified terms or tasks in Spanish to support comprehension and expectations (personal
observation, November 8, 2017). The use of a student’s language within the exemplary
classrooms is the antithesis to Carter’s (2013) notion of an oppositional culture within
mainstream classrooms. The researcher did not observe the use of students’ language in the
general classroom observations. However, teachers do not need to speak Spanish to effectively
and successfully teach English Language Learners. Instead, Franquiz & de la Luz Reyes (1998)
found that instructional practices that respect and represent students’ cultures and language such
as CRT (Gay, 2010) are more influential than a teacher’s ability to speak students’ language.
This supports the use of district mandated pedagogies at EDUSD as they are prioritized to
support underrepresented students.
Using Complete Sentence Responses
Verbal Prompts to Foster Independence through Problem Solving. As early as
Kindergarten, students at EDUSD are expected to solve problems independently. Teachers
explicitly teach how to address problems and collectively find solutions while providing the
language to address each situation (personal observation, November 8, 2017). One Kindergarten
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 91
teacher, Mrs. Santos, held a class meeting as the students transitioned back from recess where
they discussed problems they encountered on the playground and how they were solved
(personal observation, November 8, 20017). The teacher began the class meeting by stating,
“You know, there were two people who were crying because they were fighting to be the first in
line. Is that the Wildcat Way?” (Personal observation, November 13, 2017). She proceeded to
review each descriptor in the Wildcat Way poster, Show Respect, Make Good Decisions, and
Solve Problems. Mrs. Santos called one student at a time to offer specific feedback about
behavior and award a Wildcat ticket. As she finished awarding Wildcat tickets, another student
stated, “Teacher, she goes here and he goes there.” Mrs. Santos replied, “Can you solve that
problem? How do you solve that problem?” (Personal observation, November 8, 2017). The
students quickly rearranged themselves to sit in the correct spots. The teacher then proceeded to
ask, “Are there any more problems we need to solve?” A student shared how a classmate
attempted to go down the slide head first during recess to which Mrs. Santos asked, “Did you tell
him ‘please stop? Don’t do it?’” The student replied he had so Mrs. Santos added, “[It] sounds
like you solved the problem” (personal observation, November 8, 2017). The class meeting
conversation reflects the growth mindset culture present at EDUSD’s schools. Contrary to the
common practice of low expectations and deficit mindsets typical of schools with high numbers
of underrepresented youth (Carter, 2013; Gándara, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2013; Milner, 2010),
EDUSD provides students with opportunities to learn in both academic and social settings.
Rather than enabling behavior that will only serve to further widen the achievement gap such as
the “pobrecito mentality” (Arnold & Murphy, 2013), EDUSD teachers hold students accountable
for grade level work and behavioral expectations. Additionally, teachers’ awareness of a need for
social skills education ceases to perpetuate Milner’s (2010) idea of a context-neutral mindset that
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 92
describes the existence of a buffer between teachers’ reality and the reality of their students’
communities.
Encouraging Peer to Peer Talk
Strategic Student Interaction. Students at EDUSD’s three elementary schools are
organized into collaborative groups within the classroom (personal observation, October 13,
20017; November 8, 2017). This is a common practice at the elementary level. Furniture is
arranged so that students sit in groups of four with strategic seating for peer-to-peer interaction
and support. Student’s nametags display color coded circular labels to denote English Language
Learners and their levels (Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017;
personal observation, October 13, 2017). Seating is arranged so that students with limited
language proficiency sit beside a student with high English language proficiency or English
language mastery (Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017; personal
observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017). Teachers provide students opportunities to
work together and to speak through socially structured academic interactions (Norton-Pierce,
1995) such as pair sharing (personal observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017).
Dörnyei, Csizér and Németh (2006) found that settings that provide opportunities to interact with
ELLs increase motivation and positive attitudes toward learning a second language. The practice
of providing students with opportunities to speak particularly with fluent or more proficient
English-speaking peers helps counteract the existence of opportunity gaps. However, the
interactions may be further strengthened by incorporating the use of sentence frames (Donnelly
& Roe, 2010) during student academic interactions to promote English language development
centered on supporting content literacy (Carrier & Tatum, 2006). Traditionally, mainstream
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 93
classrooms promote listening and speaking in English without properly developing the reading
and writing pieces of content literacy.
Research Question Two: KMO Influences to Support ELL Reading
Teacher Quality
Experienced Teachers. Teacher quality (Akiba et al., 2007; Flores, 2007; Samson &
Lesaux, 2015) is a major factor affecting the success in reading instruction of students from
underrepresented backgrounds. According to the California Department of Education (2015), the
three elementary schools in EDUSD are fully staffed with NCLB highly qualified teachers.
Moreover, a 83% majority of teachers who responded to the online survey have taught for five or
more years. Among survey respondents, 91% of teachers indicated receiving eight or more hours
of professional development in the past five years. In addition, 44% of teachers reported
receiving eight or more hours of professional development specific to the instruction of ELLs.
Across this sample of teachers receiving professional development specific to ELLs, most
indicated participating in training about the CA ELA/ELD framework, CA ELD Standards,
research based instructional practices for ELLs, and ELL reading instructional strategies.
Comparably, most teachers declared they are receiving adequate amounts of professional
development support at EDUSD. Furthermore, the majority (84%) of teachers indicated
enrollment in reading instruction coursework to address the needs of ELLs in preservice
education courses and a similar amount of teachers (82%) declared enrollment in coursework to
address the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Consequently, most teachers
(84%) feel prepared to teach ELLs while the remaining percentage of teachers indicated not
knowing the language or lacking full certification as factors contributing to lack of preparation to
teach ELLs. Teachers with strong educational backgrounds and training have a direct impact on
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 94
student performance and can more selectively inform their instructional decisions in the
classroom to target elimination of an achievement gap (Wenglinsky, 2004). This aligns with the
literature that emphasizes the importance of assignment of quality teachers to underrepresented
students such as ELLs (Akiba et al., 2007; Flores, 2007; Kang & Hong, 2008; Peske & Haycock,
2006; Rouse & Barrow, 2006; Samson & Lesaux, 2015; Wenglinsky, 2004).
Reading Pedagogy
Guided Reading and Running Records. A common practice among the three elementary
school sites in EDUSD is the use of guided reading. Teachers were observed meeting with
students in small groups for reading instruction within the classroom. The groups consisted of no
more than five students working with the teacher on a guided reading text while the remainder of
the students worked in small groups of no more than five (personal observation, October 13,
2017). These independent groups of students worked on literacy related tasks at different
locations throughout the classroom. While in guided reading groups, teachers were observed
completing running records with students to determine their instructional level text for the week
(personal observation, October 13, 2017). One teacher explained the running record is used as a
means of selecting an appropriate text for students and to determine additional steps for
supporting the student in reading instruction (personal communication, October 13, 2017). The
superintendent explained it is an expectation that all teachers complete running records on a
weekly basis to inform their reading instructional practices and support for students (personal
communication, October 13, 2017). According to Clay (1993), running records are formative
reading assessments that allow teachers to collect data about student reading behaviors. Running
records used in conjunction with guided reading allow teachers to target instruction to accelerate
reading growth from student current reading levels toward reading higher levels of text (Ford &
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 95
Opitz, 2008). The data from running records is also used to identify students for reading
intervention.
The Den. Students who do not meet adequate reading growth are identified for reading
intervention. The three elementary schools at EDUSD refer to their reading intervention rooms
as The Den because the name aligns with each schools’ mascot; Lions, Panthers, and Wildcats
(Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017). Within The Den, there are
small groups of students meeting for guided reading intervention using the Fountas & Pinnell
Leveled Literacy Intervention (LLI) program (2013) (personal observation, October 13, 2017).
The focus of intervention is reading and writing for students who struggle with literacy. The
superintendent described The Den as a place where instructional support staff who have been
“coached up” provide reading intervention to students who lack grade level reading proficiency
(personal communication, October 13, 2017). The term “coached up” refers to instructional
support staff receiving the same literacy or reading instruction training as teachers
(Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017). This enables them to
support students with becoming proficient readers. In addition to the instructional support staff, a
reading resource teacher leads the intervention support provided in The Den. The “coached up”
instructional support staff were trained to work with reading intervention students. This practice
aligns with the survey findings that revealed a shared responsibility for the instruction of ELLs
among all certificated and support staff. Additionally, the existence of reading intervention
supports the literature that promotes the idea of working with students through data driven
decisions to support reading instruction (Ford & Opitz, 2008; Pajares, 2006). Students receive
the support they need in The Den to become proficient readers.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 96
Writing and Academic Vocabulary. Classroom observations across EDUSD’s three
elementary schools revealed the common expectation that teachers display writing focus walls in
their classrooms. The walls exhibit students’ written work over time with the most current
writing sample displayed on top and the oldest writing sample on the bottom (personal
observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017). From the samples, it is easy to see how
students’ writing changes over time. The wall serves as both a display of student work that
allows students to become part of the classroom culture and define the classroom climate.
Furthermore, student writing is scaffolded with graphic organizers to support proper format,
content, and organization of specific genres. During the visit, the researcher observed students
engaged in writing personal narratives they were developing from “small moments” (Calkins,
2003) and graphic organizers (personal observation, October 13, 2017). This was a strategy used
with all students however, these academic scaffolds provide ELLs with ELD writing supports to
decrease or eliminate the opportunity gaps that exist between them and their white middle-class
English only counterparts (Welner & Carter, 2013). Instead of diluting or watering down content
for ELLs (Tienken & Zhao, 2013), EDUSD teachers support their learning of grade level
standards with temporary scaffolds for learning in the form of graphic organizers for structuring
their personal narratives (Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017).
These supports allow ELLs to structure their writing according to standards and may be removed
once proficiency or mastery for the genre is achieved.
Knowledge and Motivation Influences Impacting ELL’s Reading Achievement
Knowledge Influences
Conceptual and Procedural Knowledge. In order for 100% of teachers at EDUSD to
implement reading instructional practices including teaching academic vocabulary, using
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 97
complete sentence responses, and encouraging peer-to-peer talk, they must possess specific
conceptual and procedural knowledge. Krathwol (2002) defines procedural knowledge as the
knowledge about a specific topic or subject. Teachers at EDUSD must have specific knowledge
about teaching reading to ELLs to attain the organizational goal that by June 2020, 85% of
English Language Learners in the 3
rd
grade in the El Dorado Unified School District will score at
the proficient or above level in reading. Observational data exhibits teacher implementation of
guided reading, read alouds, writing instruction, and the use of running records to support data
driven decisions about reading instruction (personal observation, October 13, 2017; November 8,
2017). Flores (2007) found that the most important factor linked to student academic success is
qualified teachers. The EDUSD teacher survey findings reveal a high Teacher Quality Index as
defined by Peske and Haycock (2006) based on the indicators of teachers’ experience, academic
skills and knowledge, content mastery, and pedagogical skill. According to CDE (2017)
demographic data, all EDUSD elementary school teachers are NCLB highly qualified. The
teacher survey responses revealed that 83% of respondents have 5 or more years teaching
experience and only 17% have less than 5 years teaching experience. Based on the definition of
teacher quality provided by a large body of research (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007; Flores,
2007; Kang & Hong, 2008; Peske & Haycock, 2006; Rouse & Barrow, 2006; Samson & Lesaux,
2015; Wenglinksy, 2003), most teachers at EDUSD meet the criteria of quality teachers because
they are experienced and are trained to work with underrepresented students.
Contrary to Weglinsky’s (2003) finding that poor instructional choices negatively affect
the achievement gap, teachers at EDUSD are making conscious choices to reduce the gap.
Observational data reveals consistent use of sheltered instruction, Culturally Relevant Teaching,
strategic social student academic interactions, and a balanced literary approach to reading
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 98
instruction in the 18 classrooms observed. Focus teachers use of students’ primary language
(Spanish) to clarify understanding of tasks or to communicate responses within the classroom
demonstrates teacher understanding of the knowledge students bring with them to the classroom
from their past home and life experiences. Similarly, it demonstrates teachers’ knowledge of the
importance of use of a students’ language to support content learning in the English language
classroom. In classroom two, Ms. Santos told one student “Dile en español, he’ll understand you.
Right?” (personal observation, November 8, 2017). The use of Spanish was encouraged by Ms.
Santos as a means of communicating a response during a pair-share. She had provided students
with a verbal sentence frame “Tell him: ‘What was the problem in the story?’ Answer with ‘The
problem was ______’” (personal observation, November 8, 2017). Similarly, Ms. Cortez in
classroom three, clarified next steps in Spanish for a particular student “agarra todo lo que
necesitas Juan (a pseudonym) y ven a la meza” (personal observation, November 8, 2017). The
practice of encouraging use of the Spanish language demonstrates teacher knowledge of the
community they serve and high leverage practices for teaching English Language Learners. The
observation data supports the survey responses that indicate teachers feel confident in their
knowledge of teaching ELLs. Additionally, the three interviews revealed teacher knowledge of
student backgrounds as central to engaging them in content learning (Teacher on Special
Assignment, personal communication, October 13, 2017). The practices implemented at
EDUSD’s elementary schools work to dispel the common characteristics of schools with high
numbers of underrepresented students in American schools. The instructional practices and
strategies at EDUSD disproportionately favor underrepresented students specifically low SES
and ELL students who come from backgrounds of limited literacy resources. The use of these
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 99
strategies demonstrates a specialized procedural knowledge for teaching underrepresented
students such as ELLs.
Motivational Influences
Attributional Theory. Anderman and Anderman’s (2006) Attribution Theory declares
that cause and effect or causality is due to external and internal factors. The external factors that
contribute to attribution theory are perceptions of lack of ability, lack of effort or poor
instruction, which affect learning. The types of attributions people make are either environmental
or personal. Factors such as locus of causality, stability, and controllability affect motivation for
engaging or completing learning tasks (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). Permanent conditions
are stable while temporary conditions with the ability to change are unstable. Human emotions
such as anger, anxiety, guilt, and shame identify controllability. Effort is a controllable attribute
while ability is an uncontrollable attribute (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). A teacher’s
assignation of attributions to specific situations or students can affect the instructional
environment negatively thus affecting motivation negatively.
EDUSD teachers’ practice a growth mindset that affects students’ motivation to learn and
their own motivation to implement specific instructional practices that decrease the achievement
gap (personal observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017). Focus teachers incorporate
students’ home language to support comprehension of concepts and encourage the use of
Spanish whenever ELLs struggle to respond in English (personal observation, November 8,
2017). The use of student’s home language in the focus classroom is an example of a personal
attributional factor used to support learning. In focus classroom one, Mrs. Linares, lead students
in singing a song in Spanish as they transitioned to recess “Buenos días, Buenos días. ¿Cómo
están? ¿Cómo están? Muy bien gracias. Muy bien gracias. ¿Y usted? ¿Y usted?” (personal
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observation, November 8, 2017). This is an example of a teacher regulating controllable
environmental attribution factors such as the classroom culture using all available strategies to
promote successful student learning. The practice of using students’ home language also
confirms the survey findings that 69% of survey respondents plan with the needs of ELLs in
mind. Furthermore, the survey findings also reveal that 33% of respondents always address
content knowledge goals of ELLs while 31% of survey respondents always plan lessons to
address the language goals of ELLs however, this practice was only observed in focus
classrooms. As teachers practice Culturally Relevant Teaching they control human attributes of
shame and inadequacy that typically plague schools where underrepresented students attend.
This shift in controllability of inputs draws attention away from environmental factors within the
home such as limited access to books and limited English language proficiency to the
instructional practices within the classroom that can affect student learning.
Self-Efficacy Theory. Self-efficacy is the opinions of people about their ability to learn
or complete specific actions at specified levels (Schunk, 1995). Perceptions of self-efficacy drive
motivation. Milner and Hoy (2003) found that unsupportive environments propagate feelings of
lack of self-efficacy. This theory can be applied to both teacher and student experiences with
support. Furthermore, Armor (1976) found that teacher’s feelings of self-efficacy positively
affect the reading proficiency of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Instructional
leaders at EDUSD provide opportunities for ongoing staff development for teachers in the form
of monthly staff development days (Teachers on Special Assignment, personal communication,
October 13, 2017). EDUSD systematically supports its teachers with ongoing staff development
in the areas of Reading, Math, Science, and Writing (Teachers on Special Assignment, personal
communication, October 13, 2017). Professional development is planned based on the needs
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 101
determined from data collected during instructional rounds (Teachers on Special Assignment,
personal communication, October 13, 2017). According to the ELL Teacher Survey data, 91%
of survey respondents reported receiving eight or more hours of professional development in the
past five years. Only 44% of survey respondents reported receiving eight or more hours of
professional development specific to ELLs in the past five years. This supportive district
environment helps increase perceptions of teacher self-efficacy by developing teachers’
knowledge and confidence in teaching practices for the various subject matter they teach.
Consequently, the teachers at EDUSD provide a supportive classroom environment that
promotes independent learners through explicit instruction of classroom procedures and learning
tasks. Teachers’ motivation to create opportunities for learning increases with increased self-
efficacy. However, the findings suggest a need for specific professional development targeting
the needs of ELLs.
Teachers’ classroom practices such as CRT, sheltered instruction, peer social
interactions, and holding students accountable to grade level behavioral as well as academic
expectations support students’ feelings of self-efficacy. As teachers feel increased confidence in
their own ability to teach students of differing cultural and linguistic backgrounds, they
perpetuate a classroom environment in which students are encouraged to practice independence
and effort toward learning. Student motivation and engagement with instructional tasks increases
because teachers give opportunities to learn through supportive environments that work to
eliminate barriers to learning.

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Organizational Influences on ELL’s Reading Achievement
Organizational Culture and Climate
Schein (2004) stated that an organization’s culture is defined at the surface level by the
artifacts that it visibly displays and the deeper levels are supported by its beliefs that are defined
by the organization’s goals, philosophies, and strategies. We can surmise that EDUSD’s culture
of literacy supports inclusionary practices that allow students to become active participants in
their learning and members of their classroom communities. These practices draw connections
between the students’ personal culture and language to the school environment. Strategies such
as anchor charts, graphic organizers, TPR, and using a student’s native language during
instruction serve to address the existence of a cultural mismatch (Carter, 2013) or cultural
conflict (Milner, 2010) within the elementary classrooms at EDUSD.
Instructional Focus. EDUSD’s major focus for instruction district-wide is literacy as key
to success in all academic areas. The strategies for reading instruction include a balanced
approach to literacy instruction, which incorporates explicit teaching of reading strategies
through modeled reading during whole class read alouds as well as during guided reading
instruction (personal observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017). Guided reading
instruction takes place in a small group setting where students receive individualized instruction
based on data driven decisions (Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13,
2017). Each student’s reading data is collected through running records, formative assessments
to determine a student’s reading fluency and comprehension (personal observation, October 13,
2017; November 8, 2017). In addition, EDUSD utilizes Fountas & Pinnell’s Leveled Literacy
(LLI) Program to support struggling readers. The LLI program is utilized within the reading
intervention classes called “The Den” which are consistently implemented throughout the
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district’s elementary school sites (personal observation, October 13, 2017). Although these
intervention systems are in place, only 14% of survey respondents indicated receiving
professional development specific to ELL reading instruction strategies. Additionally, only 10%
of respondents indicated receiving training in Response to Intervention for ELLs. These findings
suggest a need for greater focus of professional development on strategies to support ELL
academic needs. Furthermore, Superintendent Solares also indicated that strategies for
instruction of ELLs is something EDUSD is going to continue to focus on because they are not
happy with their current performance (personal communication, October 13, 2017). She stated
that their focus for professional development this year is English Language Development and
writing. Additionally, she stated that the rigor needs to be increased for ELLs, especially those
who are designated ELLs into middle and high school.
Additionally, writing instruction takes place using Lucy Calkins’ “Small Moments” and
graphic organizers to support the varying writing genres (personal observation, October 13,
2017). The “small moments’ are developed into larger pieces of writing that ultimately become
finalized drafts teachers display in the classroom on writing focus walls (personal observation,
October 13, 2017). Students’ work through the steps of the writing process to produce writing
pieces. Similar to guided reading, teachers work with small groups of students within the
classroom to provide explicit individualized instruction on the writing process to develop pieces
for each genre (personal observation, October 13, 2017). Eventually, each classroom across the
elementary schools district-wide displays final written pieces on writing focus walls. Focus walls
are a strategy utilized to draw attention to and feature the most important topics teachers are
instructing (personal observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017).
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Furthermore, instructional support is offered routinely to teachers during a monthly staff
development day (TOSAs, personal communication, October 13, 2017). Topics for professional
development are structured around needs observed during instructional rounds (TOSAs, personal
communication, October 13, 2017). Various staff participate in instructional rounds to target on
improvement. The instructional round staff may include teachers, coaches, site administrators,
and district administrators (Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017).
Coaches, who are also part-time teachers at each of the district sites, plan and deliver
professional development at the monthly staff development day (Superintendent Solares,
personal communication, October 13, 2017). The targeted focus on systematic professional
development ensures collaboration as well as consistency in implementation of district-wide
instructional expectations (Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017).
This practice is contrary to the findings in the body of research found in chapter two of this study
which states that most teachers of underrepresented students lack proper training to support their
instruction. The ELL Teacher Survey revealed only 13% of respondents received professional
development specific to research based instructional strategies for ELLs. Thus, further focus on
training specific to ELL instructional strategies is a finding.
Student Led Groups. Students at EDUSD have opportunities within the classroom to
demonstrate both their mastery of literacy skills and develop their leadership abilities. A student
led group is a small independent group of students working on literacy related tasks under the
supervision and guidance of a classmate (Superintendent Solares, personal communication,
October 13, 2017; personal observation, October 13, 2017). Students also have the opportunity to
practice their communication skills in their social interactions for academic purposes within
student led groups. Each week, the teacher selects a new leader to guide the activities within the
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student led group (Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017). During
the researcher’s initial visit to the district, she observed a Kindergarten student gathered on the
carpet in a section of a classroom (personal observation, October 13, 2017). The Kindergartner
held a stack of sight word cards in her hand as her four classmates gathered lap desks, dry erase
markers, and whiteboards. The student leader explained to her classmates they would each get a
set of five cards which they were going to read aloud three times to their partner, then write three
times on their board. She explained they would repeat the process for each of the five words in
their stack. She then proceeded to distribute word cards randomly and students began to work
immediately on the tasks they were assigned. The student leader also worked on the assigned
literacy task while serving as a peer tutor for students who needed help with completing the task.
Meanwhile, the remaining students worked around the classroom in small groups on independent
literacy activities while another group of students worked on guided reading at a table with the
teacher (personal observation, October 13, 2017). Each student led group task is carefully taught
to students. They are trained to implement the activities by the teacher before students are
released to work on their own (Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13,
2017).
21
st
Century Learning Opportunities. Students working independently on literacy related
tasks have access to Ipads in one of their small independent group centers. Students at EDUSD
have access to Ipads at a 1:1 ratio in grades K-2 (Superintendent Solares, personal
communication, October 13, 2017). While on the Ipads, students complete activities on websites
such as Starfall (2017) and Lexia (Lexia Learning, 2017) to practice and assess literacy strategies
(Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017; personal observation,
October 13, 2017). Lexia is a reading support software program that adjusts to support students’
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 106
individual needs and includes assessment (Lexia Learning, 2017). Similarly, Starfall (2017) is an
online program that teaches early reading and writing strategies to preschoolers and
Kindergartners. Access to technology for instructional purposes gives ELLs and other
underrepresented students equal access to educational opportunities that higher SES white
students have as part of regular instruction. Welner and Carter (2013) directly correlate denial of
ELL access to educational opportunities to academic underperformance. The availability of
technology and access to web-based literacy support programs for students at EDUSD help
mitigate the effects of opportunity gaps for ELLs and underrepresented students.
Instructional Leadership
Organizational Leaders. Each elementary school site at EDUSD has one Principal, one
Learning Director, one Counselor, (personal observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017)
and four Instructional Coaches (Coaches, personal interview, October 13, 2017). The
superintendent expressed that leadership is very important to success with English Learners. She
shared there is a performance problem at the middle and high school levels with intentional
focus:
We were not performing to a level where we needed to perform in middle and high
school. We are giving laser like focus right now with the middle and high school in
respect to that and everything else, the rigor needs to be increased. There needs to be
more intentional literacy instruction so we’re putting in those structures in place. I was a
high school principal so I know there was always a bigger challenge to do at the upper
grades (Superintendent Interview, p. 10).

Superintendent Solares commented on her knowledge of the needs to address long term English
Learners at the secondary level and what that support would address. As she reflected on the
difference in focus between the elementary schools and the high school she added:
We’re in the process of looking into that, because the leader has to believe first.
The leader has to lead by example, and a leader has to be relentless, courageous
instructional leader in order for that to happen. Successes that we’re seeing at the
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elementary is because we have the right people there (Superintendent Interview, p. 10)

Superintendent Solares shared her views about instructional leadership factors that affect the
success of English Language Learners. She expressed a need to have leaders who believe in
students’ ability to learn and can dispel any focus on attributional factors that impede learning.
She noted the need for leaders to be examples of what they expect from their teachers and to
express those expectations in the work they require of teachers.
The instructional coaches split their positions as part-time teachers and coaches
(Superintendent Solares, personal communication, October 13, 2017). The site coaches conduct
the majority of professional development. Some of the coaches also provide staff development
district-wide on district professional development (PD) days (Superintendent Solares, personal
communication, October 13, 2017). Coaches and administrative staff along with principals from
the middle and high schools conduct instructional rounds at the elementary level to gather data
about instructional support needs for teachers and assist with identification of professional
development needs as well (Superintendent Solares, October 13, 2017). Additional staff such as
teachers may also be included in the instructional rounds. Instructional rounds serve to address
inequities in students’ educational experiences (Roegman, Allen, & Hatch, 2017), and provide a
social nexus among administrators as well as a focus on school improvement (Hatch et al.,
2016). The practice of instructional rounds serves as a step toward addressing the performance
gaps of underrepresented students beyond the lens of deficiencies in experience described by
Berry (2013), Carter (2013), Gandara (2013), and Ladson-Billings (2013) to one of analyzing
gaps in instructional opportunities. These observation and interview data support the survey data
which indicates that 91% of respondents received eight or more hours of professional
development in the past five years. EDUSD district and school site administrators serve more
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 108
than the purpose of school leaders; they actively participate in developing instructional support
and training for teachers focused on school improvement.
Research Question Three: Teachers’/ Instructional Leaders’ Recommendations to Improve
ELL Reading Instruction

Targeted ELL Professional Development. The second to final survey question in the
study asked if respondents feel prepared to teach English Language Learners. Eighty four percent
of respondents answered positively to this question however, this positive response means either
teachers are already well prepared to teach English Language Learners or they lack the
knowledge necessary to understand the needs of English Language Learners. Based on the
observational data comparisons between the 18 general observations and the three focal
exemplary classroom observations, the latter is true. The literature review in Chapter Two of this
study further substantiates this claim. Teaching English Language Learners does not give
teachers all the knowledge and skills necessary to teach them successfully. It is the education and
training teachers receive that prepares them to teach English Language Learners. The survey
findings indicate only 44% of respondents reported receiving eight or more hours of professional
development specific to teaching ELLs in the past five years. Furthermore, only 33% report
addressing content knowledge goals of ELLs all the time. Whereas only 31% of respondents plan
lessons to address the language goals of ELLs. These practices are consistent with the research
which indicates an overwhelming majority of teachers across the United States are not properly
educated or trained to teach English Language Learners (Gándara, 2013; Gándara, Maxwell-
Jolly, & Driscoll, 2005; Gárcia & Stritikus, 2006; Téllez & Waxman, 2006; Wong-Fillmore &
Snow, 2005). As a follow up question, the final survey question (Appendix A) was an open-
ended question which asked “Answer only if your response to #17 is NO. What support, if any,
do you need to help you prepare to teach English Language Learners?” There were four
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 109
responses to this question from the total 37 participants. The respondents indicated they feel
unprepared to teach ELLs because 1) they believe teaching ELLs “requires a whole sub-
credential because there is so much to it” they need 2) “curriculum and training” and 3) “more
education and training”. Research suggests teaching ELs requires specialized knowledge (Gárcia
& Stritikus, 2006; Téllez & Waxman, 2006), a specialized credential (Gándara, Maxwell-Jolly,
& Driscoll, 2005), knowledge of first and second language acquisition (Wong-Fillmore & Snow,
2005), and proper recruitment and retention of teachers (Gándara & Maxwell-Jolly, 2006).
Taking into account the survey responses, current performance levels of English Language
Learners at EDUSD, and the existing credentialing programs in California and across the United
States, comprehensive professional development to address teaching strategies to support
English Language Learners is necessary. Additionally, based on the data collected from the 18
classroom observations and the three focal exemplary classroom observations as well as the
interviews with instructional leaders, there are opportunity gaps for ELLs at EDUSD that need to
be addressed.
In an ad hoc interview following the general classroom observations, TOSA 1 described
how the coaches are currently receiving training on the updated CA ELA/ELD Standards and
Framework and how they determine the professional development action plan for this newly
learned information. Additionally, she described the need to develop ELD strategies as a result of
this training. From this excerpt, it is clear EDUSD is also focused on developing ELD strategies
and not identifying high leverage or priority strategies for teaching ELLs.
Yeah. So we are now being taught, you know, different strategies for
integrated ELD verses designated ELD. So our next step action is, okay,
on October 25 in our PD, you know, we're going to talk about those. How
do we come up with an ELD strategy?
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 110
Right now, I think we're more at the surface, where now, teachers are
becoming more apparent of where our kids are, and how we're
strategically putting them in groups to make sure they get that positive role
model feedback with other students in the way they speak (Instructional
Leader Ad Hoc Interviews, p. 3).
As members of the instructional leadership team, coaches practice a growth mindset whereby
they learn the most current forms of instruction, in particular the most recent update to the CA
ELD framework. It is important to notice how the coaches turn around to share the information
they learned with teachers in a timely manner to support implementation of current practices
within the classroom. In this case, TOSA 1 is discussing the coaches’ process for learning the
difference between Integrated ELD and Designated ELD and their plans for educating teachers
about those strategies. Additionally, she also describes their awareness of where teachers’
knowledge is about Integrated and Designated ELD. TOSA 1 further acknowledged a need for
determining how to get teachers to a point where they are integrating these newly learned
strategies into their daily work with students.
TOSA 1 recognized the responsibility for strategic academic interaction cannot solely be
left with students. She discusses an apparent need to have teachers structure their lessons in a
way that will ensure students are interacting with each other in ways that allow them to use
English in academic settings for language development and content.
However, we can't just leave it up to the students. So now we're thinking,
"Okay, how are we going to get our teachers to integrate it into their
everyday lessons?" So I think right now, this is where we are. We're at the
surface of it right now, being so new. And so, how can we as coaches now
... We're getting the training now, and how are we going to bring it back to
our teachers to see where we're at? Yeah.
And our teachers are in the position of now they're identifying where
they're at. "Yes, there's a difference between integrated and designated,
and yes, I can identify them". And so they're becoming more mindful. But
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 111
I think we're at that next step action where, "Well, what are we going to do
next?", now (Instructional Leader Ad Hoc Interviews, pp. 3-4).
Based on this information and the survey data, it is clear there is a need for ongoing staff
development to continue to build teacher’s knowledge about strategies for teaching English
Language Learners. At this time, the emphasis and support for teacher professional development
is a need to develop teacher understanding of Integrated and Designated ELD. TOSA 1 described
a need to determine where they must next take action.
There is a clear focus on literacy instruction at EDUSD across the district and the
professional development teachers receive reflects this as a central concept. Instructional leaders
have a shared knowledge that the exemplary classroom teachers are implementing instructional
strategies that are closing the achievement gap for their English Language Learners and they are
taking steps to include those exemplary teachers in instructional rounds to plan for professional
development. Based on the interview data it is not clear that specific high leverage strategies
have yet been identified within the exemplary classrooms to develop as district-wide common
practices as Superintendent Solares added:
I was suggesting to Linares this morning, I said, "You know, would it be
okay if we went ahead and did a walkthrough for all sites with each other
so we can collaborate with one another, so that way, we can bring the idea
together?" And so when we implement it during PD, "This is what we
know, this is what we've seen, this is how we're here to support you". And
then give them an idea of what the goal is to keep on the same idea of
what it is when we say close reading. You know, so we all have that same
idea. Because there's so many different strategies that teaching close
reading [crosstalk 00:02:21]. So then, this way we're all on the same page
with what we're talking about. (Instructional Leader Ad Hoc Interviews, p.
2)
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 112
There is a shift to include exemplary teachers in instructional rounds and professional
development planning. The focus however, is on reading strategies instead of on specific
strategies that are successful with English Language Learners and benefit the general student
population. This is an example of EDUSD’s ability to decrease the opportunity gap for
underrepresented student groups though they have not yet closed the achievement gap for
English Language Learners. So they have identified the source of strategies to close the
achievement gap for ELLs as exemplary teachers, but the focus while including them in
Instructional Rounds remains on general reading strategies rather than the integration of some of
their classroom practices into the general student population.
One example of a strategy used to support ELLs in exemplary classrooms is anchor
charts. During the general observations of 18 classrooms, the researcher did not see this strategy
consistently in place. However, the three exemplary teacher classrooms commonly and
consistently used anchor charts as part of their instruction to build student understanding of key
content vocabulary. The superintendent described her observations about what teachers value as
a need and what instructional leadership views as a need.
And so, it really ... I think the hardest thing being at this level, and you probably
are seeing it now as a coach, is where you build capacity, you build capacity, and
things start, you know, the states start, "You know, the teachers wanted
curriculum rather than the units of study that we developed, you know, that you
were very instrumental in doing," and all that. So now you've shifted to that
curriculum and the teachers drop these strategies that, you know, that you needed
to have in your tool belt to be able to address the needs of English Language
Learners. And so, I keep telling Tanya, I think we need to look at what we know,
and build upon it (Instructional Leader Ad Hoc Interviews, p. 5)
In this example, the superintendent describes how curriculum units were developed by the
coaches to support teachers, but then teachers asked for specific curriculum. In the process of
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 113
obtaining new curriculum, teachers stopped utilizing strategies they had in place for supporting
ELLs. The superintendent further discussed how these neglected strategies supported ELLs.
You know, so what were those signature strategies of GLAD that worked for the
kids? You know, those input charts. I mean, I thought those teachers that didn't
lose those strategies, as I observed throughout the district, I see the students
looking at, you know, the English language learners to access the language off of
them, to be able to help them write their piece (Instructional Leader Ad Hoc
Interviews, p. 4)
Again, the superintendent signaled to gaps in consistent use of instructional strategies that
support the success of English Language Learners. She specifically mentioned GLAD or Guided
Language Acquisition Design-an instructional model that integrates strategies to promote
English acquisition while providing access to academic content in a mainstream classroom
setting (OCDE, 2018). Superintendent Solares described teachers who “didn’t lose those
strategies” and how the ELLs in their classrooms utilize the strategies to scaffold learning. The
instructional leaders are aware that these practices are not taking place consistently across the
district and signal a need to build upon exemplary teacher knowledge and practices as TOSA2
describes in the following interview excerpt.
Yes. And so, that is really valuable to do that I think, in trying, and you know,
some of the strategies you know. I think Pine Forest’s having a lot of success
with the student led learning and she [crosstalk 00:07:55] so that's an exemplary
... that supports our "literacy is king", that supports our powerful communicators,
so why not want to see that throughout the district, right?
And that was Pine Forest ... that was GLAD, too, remember? [crosstalk
00:08:39] So, these are all commonalities, and so ... call it whatever you wanna
call it, make it a signature strategy before the [inaudible 00:08:46] (Instructional
Leader Ad Hoc Interviews, p. 5)
In this interview, TOSA2 recognized a need to identify and designate exemplary practices as
“signature practices” consistent across the district. Although some ELL instructional practices
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 114
are mentioned the strategies she specifically focuses on are strategies that emphasize the
“literacy as king” district priority. Consequently, a shift in focus needs to occur from a priority
for general literacy practices to ELL strategies to support content literacy that benefit all
students. This need was very evident in the difference in practices between teachers in the 18
general observation classrooms and the three focal classrooms. The researcher noted that the
general observation classrooms utilized graphic organizers to support genre writing in the form
of organizational frames to ensure the proper structure of narrative however, the exemplary
classrooms provided verbal sentence frames to structure verbal responses to comprehension
questions or academic discussions (Personal Observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017).
Sentence frames are ELL scaffolds that support students in communicating the material of
content lessons commonly encountered in the classroom setting (Carrier & Tatum, 2006;
Donnelly & Roe, 2010; Manyak, 2010). Sentence frames provide ELLs with the ability to
communicate concepts verbally and in writing specifically, it allows students to experience the
language they encounter in textbooks.
Another example of a practice the researcher observed in exemplary classrooms and did
not find evidence of in general classrooms is anchor charts. Anchor charts are a sheltered
instruction (Echeverria et al., 2008) strategy to support content learning. In the case of the focal
exemplary classrooms at EDUSD, the anchor charts were used to support content vocabulary
development. Instead, the general classrooms displayed student writing samples on a writing
focus wall, math work on a math focus wall, and high frequency words on a language arts focus
wall (Personal Observation, October 13, 2017; November 8, 2017). Again the focus in the
general classrooms was one of supporting the “literacy as king” priority utilizing general
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 115
strategies for English language arts rather than a focus on strategies to support the development
of ELL content literacy that are advantageous to all students.
The type of training that would best suit the teaching needs of teachers at EDUSD is one
that includes knowledge of the diverse needs of ELLs, language acquisition theories, historical
context of ELLs, and specialized strategies for teaching ELLs. The implications for EDUSD are
to offer comprehensive professional development that includes developing an understanding of
the historical context of ELLs and high leverage strategies for their instruction. More
importantly, the triangulation of study data indicates a need to develop teacher capacity to
enhance their focus on literacy instruction to prioritize literacy instruction that promotes content
literacy through research based ELL instructional strategies that benefit all students. Other
districts facing a need to address the demand of teaching ELLs could structure a more
individualized approach to their teachers’ needs based on the findings presented in this study.
Conclusion
EDUSD teachers’ practice of teaching in a manner that considers the social, cultural, and
linguistic needs of their students is an example of attempts to incorporate Culturally Responsive
Teaching (Gay, 2010). With a variety of effective strategies for teaching ELLs such as
collaborative groupings, sheltered instruction, a balanced literacy approach to reading
instruction, holding students to high expectations, and valuing students’ home cultures, the focus
classrooms at EDUSD create an environment that is safe and inclusive thereby engaging the
motivation of learners. The regulation of controllable attributes such as scaffolds for learning
within the classroom supports the increase of inputs that can positively affect ELL and
underrepresented student learning. EDUSD uses strategies to support underrepresented students
with their elementary school student population. Most students, including English only students,
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 116
lack the academic language required to be successful with today’s classroom demands because
they do not have the academic language of textbooks. Additionally, the presence and
involvement of knowledgeable administrators as instructional leaders sets a tone of urgency for
focused instruction of underrepresented students. The culture of support at EDUSD characterized
by the focus on the academic improvement and decrease of opportunity gaps for
underrepresented students assists with increasing inputs that positively affect student outcomes.
Furthermore, these systemic practices support an increased sense of self-efficacy in teachers that
positively affects student learning.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 117
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
The existence of an academic achievement gap among English Language Learners across
the United States is an issue of equity. Access to grade level curriculum is often denied to ELLs
due to teachers’ deficit mindsets, teachers’ limited knowledge, and teachers’ underdeveloped
skills that limit educational opportunities for ELLs. Teachers are the single most important factor
affecting student performance in the classroom. Since most teachers lack the proper education
and training to address the needs of ELLs who are primarily low socioeconomic and Latino
students, they often deny opportunities to decrease academic achievement gaps. The issue of
poor academic achievement in ELLs is an issue of missed opportunities for lack of teacher
capacity to teach culturally and linguistically diverse students adequately within the classroom.
ELLs are not successful with traditional methods of learning that target white middle class
students. Historically, social policies have failed to address educational inequities and poverty
(Kantor & Lowe, 2013). Housing market practices such as confinement of diverse buyers toward
specific neighborhoods while directing white buyers toward other neighborhoods and lack of
enforcement of housing regulations are resegregating neighborhoods (Orfield, 2013). Less
diverse neighborhoods, means resegregated schools therefore creating educational equity issues.
Neighborhoods that are primarily white and higher income have better educational opportunities
(Orfield, 2013; Tyson, 2013).
Additionally, instructional leaders that recognize the existence of inequities are essential
to eliminating opportunity gaps in education. Focus on organization wide instructional practices
such as Critically Responsive Teaching, structured student academic interaction, access to grade
level curriculum, and sheltered instruction are critical considerations for schools and districts
attempting to identify factors contributing to an achievement gap. Current school improvement
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 118
research continues to target mainstream student populations and the strategies that make most
impact to their achievement. Consequently, attention must focus on the strategies that are
beneficial to all students, but favor English Language Learners. Safe and inclusive environments
that are respectful of student diversity engage student motivation (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg,
1995).
Such is the organizational culture of El Dorado Unified School District. Since her
appointment as Superintendent in 2010, Ms. Solares has focused district efforts on changing the
narrative of education for underrepresented student groups in her small California school district.
Despite many of the factors working against students in her district such as gang violence,
poverty, low parent educational attainment, limited home access to educational resources, and
large numbers of English Language Learners, Superintendent Solares has transformed her district
and in turn, the community she serves. Her firsthand knowledge of underrepresented students has
allowed her to set in motion a course of action for addressing academic and opportunity gaps.
Additionally, Superintendent Solares and many of her staff share similar racial, economic, and
cultural upbringings with their students. The study findings prove how the right conditions serve
to promote a culture of promise and educational opportunities. At EDUSD, teachers and
instructional leaders work to promote a culture of self-esteem and confidence whereby students
receive messages that encourage goal attainment through a growth mindset. Instructional efforts
begin with the mission and vision at the forefront and engage multiple stakeholders to nurture
success.
The issue of academic achievement gaps in students is a result of missed or denied
educational opportunities. Issues of academic achievement in underrepresented groups cannot be
resolved without first addressing the overwhelming statistics of underperformance in literacy
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 119
skills such as reading and writing in academic contexts. Since large bodies of research point to
teacher quality as one of the most significant factors affecting student performance, it was
important to address ELL achievement in literacy and academic tasks through the lens of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact teachers’ ability to impact ELL
student achievement in academic contexts. As the topic of ELL academic achievement and
specifically ELL literacy achievement is analyzed, it is clear that teachers as well as instructional
leaders require ongoing support in their work with diverse student populations. The type of
support teachers and instructional leaders need depends on existing procedures, practices, and
routines as well the targeted and actual performance levels of students.
EDUSD has existing practices, procedures, and systems that support reducing
opportunity gaps for underrepresented groups of students such as Latino and low SES students.
Practices such as high expectations, exposure to grade level curriculum, experienced teachers,
and a balanced literacy approach to reading instruction support the reduction of educational
opportunity gaps for underrepresented students in general classroom setting across the three
elementary school sites in the district. A targeted focus on practices, procedures, and systems
that support reducing academic achievement in literacy with a priority for teaching content
literacy for ELLs is missing. Based on the data gathered from surveys, interviews, and classroom
observations, there is a disparity in the practices between the general classrooms and the three
exemplary focal classrooms. Survey data points to only 44% of teachers receiving 8 or more
hours of professional development specific to ELLs. Moreover, teachers’ survey responses
indicated needing more education and training as the type of support required to teach ELLs.
Similarly, Superintendent Solares discussed a need for more focused, strategic professional
development targeting the needs of ELLs while the TOSAs described providing training that
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 120
only developed a surface level understanding of the types of ELD. The observation data revealed
strategies utilized in the focal exemplary classrooms develop content vocabulary with the use of
anchor charts, verbal sentence frames, and sheltered instruction strategies such as TPR to
promote comprehension. These strategies are embedded within general instruction practices in
the exemplary classrooms to reduce both opportunity barriers and achievement gaps in ELLs.
The instructional leader interview data reflects leader knowledge that professional development
is at a surface level to build the understanding of the difference between integrated ELD and
embedded ELD. Additionally, the interview data points to the TOSA belief that a natural course
of action following professional development in the types of ELD should be development of
ELD strategies. This concept reflects a need to promote understanding and identification of
existing ELD strategies within the exemplary classrooms as priority practices for district wide
dissemination and practice.
Teacher and instructional leaders require specific knowledge about the historical context
of ELLs and the practices that promote their success in school settings. A knowledge of CRT
(Gay, 2010) is essential toward understanding social, emotional, cultural, and academic needs of
ELLs. It is also important to build educator understanding that students function as members of a
home and neighborhood culture that values specific knowledge to perform their social and
family roles outside of school. These Funds of Knowledge () require students to understand and
perform specific tasks within their community-home culture that teachers can learn to leverage
as a bridge to academic content learning. This includes building an understanding of how a
student’s home language (L1) can support learning in the school language (L2). Additionally,
content literacy or the ability to read and write to learn new information needs to become the
focus of language development for ELLs. Content literacy is the type of skill ELLs require to
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 121
reduce the achievement gap as they become more skilled in the language of textbooks. These
skills can be taught through the strategic use of sheltered instruction (Echeverria et al., 2006)
strategies across subjects throughout the instructional day. The pictograph represented in Figure
2 represents the knowledge and practices required of teachers to demonstrate capacity for
successfully teaching English Language Learners and students of underrepresented groups.

Figure 2. Attributes of High Quality Teachers of ELLs and Underrepresented Students

Recommendations for Practice to Increase ELL Reading Proficiency
Knowledge Recommendations
The knowledge influences represent the complete list of confirmed knowledge influences
based on the most frequently mentioned knowledge influences to achieving the stakeholders’
goal during informal interviews and observation supported by the literature review. The listed
knowledge influences include the high leverage pedagogical practices for teaching content to
English Language Learners (ELL’s). Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that declarative knowledge
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 122
about something is often necessary to know before applying it to classify or identify, as in the
case of application of culturally and linguistically responsive approaches to teaching English
Language Learners. As indicated, the influences noted are validated as a result of the study and
have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. The recommendations for these high
priority influences based on theoretical principles are:
1. Clearly establish a focus on reading instruction as a foundational approach to improving
educational opportunities for underrepresented groups of students and establish
procedures, practices, and policies to promote content literacy as a priority for increasing
ELL academic achievement.
2. Regularly collect observational data on ELL instructional practices to inform strategies,
routines, procedures, professional development, and coaching for teachers as well as
instructional leaders.
3. Identify and prioritize resources (high quality teachers, support staff, professional
development, culturally and linguistically relevant books, and high priority strategies for
teaching ELLs) to build internal capacity for ELL reading instruction as essential
elements for eliminating educational opportunity gaps.
Focus on Reading Instruction to Promote Content Literacy as a Priority
Establishing a clear focus on reading instruction to promote content literacy as a priority
requires a developed definition of the elements, support systems for implementation, and
criterion for assessment that render the priority operational. Teachers and instructional leaders
will need declarative, procedural, and conceptual knowledge of reading instruction for effective
implementation. They will require a clear definition of reading instruction that is rooted in
practices that promote content literacy while simultaneously developing English language
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 123
proficiency for English Language Learners. The identification and compilation of elements of
reading instruction lay the foundation for the knowledge to support the progressive development
of content literacy over time and increase both the motivational and organizational influencers.
Impact on Knowledge. Knowledge comes in different forms that are useful to individuals
based on the context in which the information is applied. Education is the conceptual, theoretical,
and strategic knowledge and skills needed to complete a job and apply it to new and unexpected
situations (Clark & Estes, 2008). Teachers can increase their knowledge about how to scaffold
English language (L2) grade level content instruction for English Language Learners. Arnold
and Murphy (2013) state the “pobrecito mentality” exists when teachers excuse students from
completing grade level work as a way of being culturally sensitive because they feel sorry for
students due to their background. This supports the historical fact that linguistically and
culturally diverse students have gaps in opportunities for accessing grade level work. Access to
grade level curriculum in content areas such as literature, science, and history are conduits for
teaching reading and academic vocabulary within context. Instead of excusing students from
grade level content work, teachers in focus classrooms at EDUSD find ways to create
opportunities to engage in activities that expose students to experiences with application of grade
level content knowledge. One example is the participation of students in literacy discussions as
early as Kindergarten (personal observation, November 13, 2017). Additionally, students are
expected to solve problems independently in academic and social situations (personal
observation, November 13, 2017). The recommendation is to provide students with academic
sentence frames to promote content literacy to model the use of proper structure and vocabulary
within subject matter context. The academic sentence frames are also necessary scaffolds for
literary discussion to support the acquisition of the academic vocabulary of varying genres.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 124
These scaffolds are removed as proficiency and mastery increase (Scott & Paliscnar, 2006) in the
use of academic vocabulary as well as English language development.
Collect Observational Data on ELL Reading Instruction Practices Regularly
A second recommendation for EDUSD and schools seeking to improve reading
proficiency for underrepresented students is to collect observational data on reading instruction
practices specific to ELLs within classrooms in schools across the district regularly. Although
EDUSD practices regular participation in instructional rounds, their focus is on general
application of reading instruction practices with all students. Collection of observational data
specific to ELLs is important to fidelity of implementation of the focus on reading instruction for
ELLs and for the development of training for instructional staff about strategies that benefit this
underrepresented group of students. Based on a large body of research, data collection on reading
instruction focuses on student outputs rather than the educational opportunities teachers provide
to increase ELL student reading proficiency. Therefore, observational data collection during
instructional rounds should focus attention on which instructional strategies are being used to
reduce opportunity gaps for ELLs.
Impact on Knowledge. Teachers can become more reflective in their reading instruction
strategies to support English Language Learner reading progress. This supports the idea that
reflective instructional practice leads to a more individualized approach to teaching diverse
students. The books teachers use during guided reading are selected based on reading outcome
data from formative assessments called running records (Clay, 1993). The selection of guided
reading books allows teachers to choose texts at a student’s individual instructional level. This
practice aligns with Scott and Paliscnar’s (2006) concept of targeting training and instruction
between an individual’s independent performance level and their level of assisted performance to
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 125
promote maximum learning. In this case, it is applied to teaching and learning. Additionally,
teachers can incorporate books that are more reflective of cultural and linguistic diversity in their
guided reading lessons to increase engagement of ELLs and other underrepresented students.
Anderman and Anderman (2009) suggest providing feedback that stresses the process of
learning as well as the importance of effort, strategy use, and potential self-control of learning.
These principles are specifically addressed during the guided reading approach and the use of
this instructional strategy with English Language Learners regardless of language proficiency
level is supported. Through guided reading, ELLs are able to learn to read while increasing their
academic language proficiency within context. The recommendation is to provide training on the
guided reading process including text selection and interpretation of running records specific to
ELLs.
Identify and Prioritize Resources for ELL Reading Instruction
Identify and prioritize resources (high quality teachers, support staff, professional
development, culturally and linguistically relevant books, high priority strategies for teaching
ELLs) to build internal capacity for ELL reading instruction as essential elements for reducing
educational opportunity gaps. Wenglinsky (2003) promotes the idea of utilizing instructional
strategies to target teaching to ELLs that are beneficial for all students. The same study by
Wenglinsky (2003) found that making poor instructional choices could affect the achievement
gap negatively. Underqualified teachers are typically assigned to underrepresented students and
ELLs at a rate twice as high as white more affluent students (Peske & Haycock, 2006).
Therefore, it is even more important to select the right teachers to use the appropriate resources
to raise the achievement of ELLs and all students.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 126
Impact on Knowledge. A wide body of research has found that teacher quality is a
critical factor affecting student achievement in schools (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007;
Flores, 2007; Kang & Hong, 2008; Peske & Haycock, 2006; Rouse & Barrow, 2006; Samson &
Lesaux, 2015; Wenglinksy, 2003). Milner (2010) describes cultural conflicts and Carter (2013)
describes cultural mismatches as elements of school or classroom cultures that deny educational
opportunities to underrepresented students. The existence of these conflicts between a teacher
and her students can negatively affect student-learning opportunities (Berry, 2013, Gándara,
2013, Milner, 2010). EDUSD already has a system of coaching support for teachers in place. The
coaches described their support of teachers as a process whereby they collect instructional needs
data during instructional rounds to inform their planning for professional development, which
takes place each month. The recommendation is to provide multilevel training in which a coach
(teacher on special assignment) models planning for L2 instruction of ELL’s including text and
materials selection for the lesson. The coach then models the lesson in a classroom setting
followed by a lesson debrief with the teacher(s). The next step in the process includes the coach
observing teacher(s) deliver a portion of the lesson and providing constructive feedback during
and after the lesson. A debrief and reflection on the lesson with the teacher(s) would follow
along with planning of next steps. The same process repeats until each teacher achieves mastery.
Additionally, text selection should reflect the race, culture, and language of ELLs whenever
possible.
Furthermore, teachers can increase their knowledge of the historical context of English
Language Learners. This is an essential influence because when teachers identify with the
backgrounds, experiences, and language of students, they are able to build a classroom
environment that incorporates common elements of students’ community and home that can
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 127
support new learning. Correspondingly, instructional leaders who know and acknowledge the
cultures and experiences of students in the schools or district are supportive of practices and
procedures for inclusion during instruction. Powell and Marshall’s (2011) findings reveal
supportive relationships between adults and children positively affect the academic success of
low socioeconomic and underrepresented students. A sense of teacher belonging or identification
with the diverse communities is essential to supporting English Learners student success in
school (Ganchorre & Tomanek, 2012; Gándara, 2013). The ELL student demographic is widely
diverse based on their life experiences, language of origin, and home culture. Gallimore and
Goldenberg (2001) suggest that when students learn tasks that are similar to their familiar
cultural settings it fosters learning and transfer. At EDUSD, teachers participate in community
events to immerse themselves in the elements of students’ community or town culture. The
recommendation for EDUSD is to provide a job aid to teachers in the form of a family
questionnaire for parents. The results from the questionnaire would allow teachers to learn
individualized information about each student’s home culture and personal learning preference
as well as background experiences. This information would provide teachers with a springboard
for learning engagement through incorporation of elements of the home culture within the
classroom. In addition, annual training that utilizes scenarios to practice the procedures required
for incorporating culturally and linguistically responsive teaching as well as cognates would
support use of the job aid for instructional purposes.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The knowledge influences discussed in this section represent the identified
list of motivational influences and their validation as a result of this study. The list is based on
the motivational influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal observed during classroom
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 128
instruction, noted in survey responses, and supported by the literature review. It includes the high
leverage pedagogical practices for teaching content to English Language Learners (ELL’s) and
other underrepresented youth. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that declarative knowledge about
something is often necessary to know before applying it to classify or identify, as in the case of
application of culturally and linguistically responsive approaches to teaching English Language
Learners. As such, these influences were validated and have a high priority for achieving the
stakeholders’ goal. A discussion about the recommendations for these influences based on
theoretical principles also follows.
Attributional. Students have varying backgrounds that influence their motivation and
engagement with academic tasks. Rueda (2011) states that many believe motivation is an internal
factor that cannot be changed. However, academic motivation develops in learners related to
specific tasks or activities (Rueda, 2011) such as those that mirror their home or community
cultures. In fact, there are three factors known as motivational indexes that affect motivation;
choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Teachers can increase efforts to
create opportunities for students to access grade level curriculum throughout the instructional
day through intentional planning based on their own knowledge about best practices for teaching
ELLs and their knowledge about individual students. Learning and motivation are enhanced
when individuals attribute success or failures to effort rather than ability (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009). In cases where teachers may believe English Language Learners have a
predisposition to failure at certain academic tasks, the opportunity to engage in grade level tasks
supported through specific scaffolds typically supports ELL academic success in content areas.
Specific strategies such as peer-to-peer discussion (Norton-Pierce, 1995), sentence frames
(Carrier & Tatum, 2006; Donnely & Roe, 2010; Manyak, 2010), and content reference charts
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 129
(Echeverria, Short, & Powers, 2006) can increase students’ engagement with academic tasks.
Similarly, as teachers witness student success with content curriculum tasks their choice and
persistence in using these strategies will increase. To that end, the recommendation is to provide
the information contained in the study findings to teachers as a presentation during professional
development. The intent is to create awareness and develop knowledge about research based
instructional practices to support the learning of ELLs. A second recommendation is to provide
training that supports teacher use of language frames to support academic language use,
structured student academic conversations, sheltered instruction strategies, and scaffolds to
access grade level curriculum.
Self-Efficacy. The changing US student demographic affects teachers’ confidence in
their work with specific students. Spitzer (as cited in Clark & Estes, 2008) states that up to 50%
of workers in America only do the amount of work required to avoid termination. It takes a lot of
extra effort and persistence to teach reading and content to English Language Learners. This
extra effort discourages many teachers from doing whatever it takes to support ELLs. Teachers
can increase their confidence in their capacity to implement effective reading strategies to teach
reading to English Language Learner students. Oftentimes, the lack of self-efficacy stems from
an unsupportive environment (Milner & Hoy, 2003) such as in schools where professional
development is limited or non-existent. Feelings of teacher self-efficacy can improve when
provided with the necessary support to implement the information teachers learn in training
specifically as it pertains to the education of ELLs.
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest providing teachers with advanced organizers prior to
training to frontload target goals using the new information. The Sheltered Instruction (SI)
strategies utilized in content classrooms to build content knowledge while developing the
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 130
English language (Echeverria, Short, & Powers, 2006) support EDUSD’s stakeholder goal of
increasing third grader ELL’s reading proficiency. The advanced knowledge of the
organizational goal and the correlation of Sheltered Instruction strategies to its attainment
coupled with a job aid (Clark & Estes, 2008) for utilization of SI strategies support improved
teacher self-efficacy. At EDUSD, the recommendation is to align professional development to
show teachers how structured student academic interactions, academic sentence frames, and
Culturally Relevant Teaching support attainment of the organizational goal. Implementation of
these strategies can be further supported with a Sheltered Instruction job aid.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. The organizational influences discussed in this section represent the
complete list of organization influences and their validation based on the most frequently
mentioned strategies during informal interviews and survey responses that are supported by the
literature review and the review of organization and culture theory. Clark and Estes (2008)
suggest that organization and stakeholder goals often are not achieved due to a lack of resources,
most often time and money, and stakeholder goals that are not aligned with the organization’s
mission and goals. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) propose two constructs about culture –
cultural models or the observable beliefs and values shared by individuals in groups, and cultural
models, or the settings and activities in which performance occurs. Therefore, resources,
processes, and cultural models and settings must align throughout the organization’s structure to
achieve its mission and goals. As such, some organizational influences were validated and have
a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. A discussion on the recommendations for
these influences based on theoretical principles also follows.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 131
Policies and Processes. Teacher resistance to implement specific strategies, practices,
routines, and procedures that address the needs of English Language Learners at EDUSD is
invalid. Clark and Estes (2008) state when organizational goals, policies, or procedures conflict
with organizational culture, expect performance problems. Historically, EDUSD initiates staff
development for strategies specific to addressing reading instruction and then top management as
well as site supervisory management closely monitor its implementation. In addition, ongoing
support through follow up staff development for teachers who need additional time to master the
strategies is in place. Sirkin (2005) outlines duration, integrity, commitment, and effort (DICE)
as four factors that determine transformation initiative outcomes. Each of these factors is in place
within EDUSD’s policies and processes. EDUSD’s management possesses the integrity
necessary to complete the initiative to fruition while teachers and management continuously
develop the skills required to teach reading successfully. The recommendation is to establish a
framework for teaching English Language Learners that can be used districtwide and includes a
delineation of the responsibilities of instructional and management staff. Implementation of ELL
strategies requires long-term effort and commitment as well as ongoing monitoring.
Cultural setting. There is ongoing support and training for EDUSD teachers after initial
staff development opportunities. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest determining the types of support
people need to give their best performance when working in different organizational structures,
cultures, and processes. EDUSD reading staff development and training commitments remain in
place in the form of follow up training sessions throughout the school year. EDUSD establishes
goals to address performance gaps while analyzing the opportunity gaps that create the
unsatisfactory performance. This practice is consistently monitored and analyzed through
instructional rounds.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 132
Implementation of high leverage ELL strategies such as peer to peer talk (Norton-Pierce,
1995), sentence frames, and use of academic vocabulary (Carrier & Tatum, 2006; Donnelly &
Roe, 2010; Manyak, 2010) are among the high leverage pedagogical practices necessary for
English Language Learner academic success. Welner and Carter (2013) suggest that we shift our
attention from outcomes to inputs. This implies that EDUSD needs to spend it’s time, effort,
commitment and focus on the most powerful practices that support ELL learning. Thus, when
people fail to get the necessary resources promised for a high priority work goal or when
effective work processes or procedures, one of the possible causes, do not support a policy, it is a
conflict between some aspect of organizational culture and current performance goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The recommendation is that teachers receive initial staff development and ongoing
training to support consistent use of strategic student interactions, Culturally Relevant Teaching,
and sentence frames for academic vocabulary development. ELL academic success is dependent
on the use of these high leverage practices. The issue lies in EDUSD’s expectation of complete
sentence responses without visual scaffolds in the form of sentence frames to support academic
language development and content literacy. Furthermore, increased opportunities for strategic
student academic conversations are necessary to promote oral language development and
practice of academic language to promote content literacy.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model informed this study (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). This is an updated model based on the original Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of
Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006), which utilizes backwards mapping (Wiggins &
McTighe, 1998) as a means to create plans for addressing organizational goals. The purpose of
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 133
this process is to examine the evaluation process beginning with the goals to determine the
critical behaviors, learning and reactions necessary to implementation of a plan to attain the
goals. This provides for direct alignment between the goals, behaviors, and learning necessary
for success. The goals drive the behaviors and the type of learning that must take place. In
addition, participant reactions and satisfaction with the plan are gauged at the final stage of the
process. This backwards design allows for greater employee adherence to the plan for attaining
organizational goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Teacher Impact on Student Learning. The mission of EDUSD is to prepare all students
for college and career upon high school graduation. A large factor in this purpose is the academic
success of English Language Learners in meeting this expectation. The focus stakeholder group
for successful goal attainment of EDUSD’s mission is teachers and instructional leaders. They
are responsible for direct instruction of students and their role is one of the most important in
determining student outcomes. Success with English Language Learners depends on the
implementation of high influence strategies such as structured student academic interactions, use
of academic sentence frames, ELL access to grade level curriculum, and sheltered instruction.
This project examined the knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational barriers that
prevent teachers from successfully teaching English Language Learners. The proposed solution
is a multi-faceted framework for teaching English Language Learners that includes education, a
comprehensive training program, job aids, and a shift in organizational culture to prioritize
English Language Learner needs. This framework when adhered to systemically should produce
the desired outcome; an increase in the number of third grade English Language Learners
reading proficiently.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 134
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 7 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for EDUSD. If the
internal outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training, job aids, and organizational
support for teachers’ implementation of ELL high leverage strategies, then the external outcomes
should also be realized.

Table 7

Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increase the number of English
Language Learners reading
proficiently by 3rd grade.
Performance of ELL’s on
state and local benchmark
assessments in reading.
Collect trimester reading data
from EDUSD elementary
school sites
2. Increase ELL use of academic
vocabulary in verbal and written
forms.
Performance of ELL’s
on state assessments in
content areas.
Collect trimester content area
data from the EDUSD
Assessment Department.
3. Increase the participation of
ELL’s in peer to peer talk for
academic purposes; structured
student academic interaction
The number of ELL’s
reporting student centered
learning as part of daily
classroom activities.
Trimester check ins with
area/assistant superintendents
about the implementation of
peer-to-peer talk for academic
purposes at school sites across
the district.
4. Increased ELL access to grade
level curriculum.
ELL performance in all
grade level content areas
on state and benchmark
assessments.
Solicit data on state and
benchmark assessments.
Internal Outcomes
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 135
5. Increase focus on balanced
reading instruction for ELL’s in
the primary grades K-2.
The number of K-2
teachers using balanced
literacy strategies
including guided reading
with ELL’s.
Aggregate data from teachers
and principals (self-report and
area/assistant superintendent
confirmation collected via
survey and triangulated via
observation).
6. Increase implementation of peer
to peer talk within the classroom
for academic purposes; structured
student academic conversations
The number of students
using or comprehending
academic language.
Aggregate data from teachers
and principals (self-report and
area/assistant superintendent
confirmation collected via and
triangulated via observation).
7. Increase implementation of
academic language frames for oral
and written expression in content
area instruction.
The number of students
using language frames
during content area
instruction.
Aggregate data from teacher
and principals (self-report and
area/assistant superintendent
confirmation collected via
observation).
8. Increased employee
confidence/satisfaction
7a. EVS results on key
questions.
7a. Compare annual survey
results.
7b. Positive/negative
feedback from
supervisors
7b. Set aside regular times for
1:1 conversations (“Pull up a
chair,”) between new
employees and supervisors.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are teachers implementing high leverage
ELL strategies within daily lessons and the instructional leaders who support their efforts
through ongoing training as well as monitoring. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for
each of these outcomes behaviors appears in Table 8.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 136
Table 8

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Stakeholders
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Increase
implementation of
structured student
academic interaction,
academic sentence
frames, and access to
grade level curriculum.
The number of ELL’s
participating in
remediation or
intervention programs in
place of grade level
instruction.
1a. The Principal shall track
exclusion of ELL’s from grade
level curriculum via their over-
representation in remedial or
intervention type activities and
lack of use of ELL high leverage
instructional practices.
1a. During first month
of instruction– weekly.

Thereafter – monthly,
so long as previously
consistent.

1b. Principal shall observe
instruction looking for lack of
implementation of structured
student academic interaction,
academic sentence frames, and
access to grade level curriculum.
1b. Principal report to
Assistant
Superintendent -
monthly.
2. Identify leading
indicators for successful
academic performance of
ELL’s.
The number of high
leverage strategies
utilized during
classroom instruction in
all content areas.
2a. Principal shall track
strategies planned in lesson
plans for use of structured
student academic interaction,
academic sentence frames, and
participation of ELL’s in CRT
for grade level instruction.
2a. During first month
of instruction lead
teacher/coach shall
track weekly.

Thereafter – monthly,
so long as previously
successful.

2b. Principal shall observe for
implementation of high leverage
strategies.
2b. Principal report to
team lead/coach and
assistant
superintendent–
monthly.
3. Review
implementation for
fidelity; correctly identify
gaps; and complete the
review on or before the
deadline
The number of strategies
used by each teacher.
3a. Teachers shall monitor the
implementation of high leverage
ELL instructional practices,
looking for errors or feedback
from principal about major and
minor flaws and/or omissions.
3a. During first month
of instruction lead
teacher/coach shall
track weekly.

Thereafter – monthly,
so long as previously
successful.

3b. Principal shall observe
instructional strategy
implementation, looking for
major and minor corrections
and/or omissions that will deny
educational opportunities for
ELL success.
3b. Principal reports to
Assistant
Superintendent–
monthly.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 137

The number of days
required to complete
consistent
implementation of high
leverage ELL strategies
from start to finish.
3c. Site principal shall monitor
the implementation of high
leverage ELL strategies.
3c. Ongoing - every
week then progressing
to every trimester so
long as implementation
is consistent.

Required drivers. Teachers require the support of their principals and the organization to
reinforce what they learn in the training and to encourage them to apply what they have learned
to increase reading proficiency of ELL’s. Teacher understanding of ELL needs and the
significance of their achievement in the context of broader social implications require
identification for achievement of performance goals. In addition, this knowledge is necessary
among all stakeholders to enhance the organizational support of teachers. Table 9 shows the
recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of teachers.

Table 9
Required Drivers to Support Stakehol de rs’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Reinforcing
Provide a job aid containing a table with the most common
funds of knowledge students acquire in the home and the
corresponding content areas to which they transfer in the
academic setting.
Ongoing
Provide CRT education that outlines cultural and linguistic
strategies for teaching English Language Learners
successfully.
Ongoing
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 138
Provide training that provides research and evidence-based
strategies including social interactions, academic
vocabulary, and language frames for teaching reading to
English Language Learners.
Weekly
Provide training and a job aid that outlines the required
elements of a culturally and linguistically responsive
teaching (CRT) lesson plan.
Ongoing
Provide Job Aid that includes a family questionnaire for
parents to complete.
Annually within the first 10 days
of instruction
Provide annual training that utilizes scenarios to practice
the procedures required to incorporate culturally and
linguistically responsive teaching.
Ongoing
Encouraging
Train teachers to structure lessons to scaffold ELL access to
grade level curriculum using structured student academic
interactions, and academic sentence frames.
Weekly
Train teachers to structure lessons to scaffold ELL access to
grade level curriculum using structured student academic
interactions, and academic sentence frames.
Ongoing
Rewarding
Public acknowledgement, such as a mention at staff
meetings, when team performance hits a benchmark
Quarterly
Monitoring
Principal creates opportunities at staff meetings to share
success stories
Monthly
Principal ask teachers to self-report their confidence and
self-efficacy in implementation of ELL high leverage
strategies
Monthly after training
Assistant superintendent assess the implementation of high
leverage ELL strategies of teachers at each site. Frequent,
quick checks can help the organization monitor progress
and make adjustments if results do not match expectations
at that time
Monthly

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 139
Organizational support. After training completion, specifically the SACS workshop,
teachers will be able to:
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. After completion of all training, the stakeholders will be able to:
1. Recognize the funds of knowledge ELL’s possess with 100% accuracy. (Declarative)
2. Classify and interpret cultural and linguistic strategies for teaching English Language
Learners. (Declarative)
3. Recognize the high leverage strategies including structured student academic
interactions, access to grade level curriculum, culturally relevant teaching and sheltered
instruction (SACS) that apply to teaching ELL’s with 100% accuracy. (Procedural)
5. Apply the procedures to scenarios to incorporate culturally and linguistically
responsive teaching. (Procedural)
6. Create an appropriate timeline for distribution and collection of parent questionnaires,
(Procedural)
7. Plan and monitor teacher application of student information to instruction. (Procedural,
Metacognitive)
8. Indicate confidence that teachers can structure lessons to scaffold ELL access to grade
level curriculum using structured student academic interaction, and academic sentence
frames. (Confidence)
9. Self-report confidence and self-efficacy in implementation of ELL high leverage
strategies. (Confidence)
10. Acknowledge successful use of high leverage strategies during staff
meetings. (Conceptual)
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 140
11. Create opportunities at staff meetings to share success stories (Procedural)
12. Conduct frequent, quick checks to monitor progress and make adjustments if results
do not match expectations at that time (Procedural, Metacognitive)
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved through
completion of a training program that develops the concepts of SACS; Structured Student
Academic Interaction, Access to Grade Level Curriculum, Culturally Relevant Teaching, and
Sheltered Instruction as essential strategies for English Language Learner academic success.
The program is blended, consisting of two online learning modules and two face-to-face
training workshops. The total time for completion is 1020 minutes (17 hours). During the face-
to-face training sessions, teachers will learn the historical aspects of social and educational
inequities that typically affect culturally, linguistically, and socioeconomically diverse student
populations. Training includes the discussion of diversity among these students, which requires
careful consideration of each student as an individual. Current research based practices as well as
laws, regulations, and policies affecting ELL learning opportunities will be examined. In
addition, the benefits to society of ELL academic success and educational attainment will be
discussed. The workshop will focus on inputs as means of successful learning for English
Language Learners. The impact of teacher instructional choices will be highlighted as a direct
impact to student learning.
During the online training components, teachers will review key terms and
concepts previously presented in the face-to-face training workshop. Teachers will encounter
student and/or classroom instruction scenarios to which they will respond based on application of
the corresponding SACS strategy. Completion of the online training will occur when the overall
response accuracy to the scenario question components is 80% or greater. Thus, it is necessary
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 141
for the training to be repeated when a teacher scores less than 80% accuracy in an online training
module. A certificate of completion is issued by the platform upon successful completion of the
training.
Components of learning. Mastery of declarative knowledge is a prerequisite to
knowledge application to solve problems. Therefore, evaluation of learning is important for both
conceptual and procedural information presented during training. Learners, in this case teachers,
must value training as an essential component of job performance based on accurate application
of skills learned during training. In addition, they must also demonstrate self-coincidence in their
ability to employ the strategies, concepts, and skills acquired through training. To that end, Table
10 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these learning components. Furthermore, Table 11
lists the components to measure reactions to the program.
Table 10
Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through training debrief
discussions
Immediately following each session (built
into training agenda)
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Complete surveys during online training using
scenarios with multiple-choice items.
Each principal will provide time during a
staff meeting two weeks after face-to-face
training to complete the online training
module.
Demonstration in groups and individually of
using the job aids to successfully perform the
skills.
During the workshops.
Quality of the feedback from peers during
peer/mentor observations
Ongoing; every 2 weeks following the
workshops.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 142
Individual application of the skills with authentic
scenarios in asynchronous training modules.
At the end of the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-training survey
asking participants about their level of
proficiency before and after the training.
At the end of the workshop.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Instructor’s observation of participants’
statements and actions demonstrating that they
see the benefit of what they are being asked to do
on the job.
During the workshop.
Discussions of the value of what they are being
asked to do on the job.
During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-training survey item. After the course.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Survey items using scaled items Following each session in the online
portions of the training.
Discussions following practice and feedback. During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-training survey item. After the training.

Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback. During the workshop.
Create an individual action plan. During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post- training survey item. After the training.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 143
Level 1: Reaction
Table 11
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the PD/Training workshop
Observation by Principal/Coach During the PD/Training workshop
Attendance During the PD/Training workshop
Course evaluation Immediately following workshop; Two
weeks after the online training
Session Debrief Immediately following each workshop
Relevance
Periodic comprehension check with participants
via survey (online) and discussion (ongoing)
After every training/professional
development session
PD/Training evaluation Two weeks after each session
Customer Satisfaction
Participant feedback via survey (online) and
discussion (ongoing)
After every workshop
Session evaluation Two weeks after the PD/Training session.

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. The district will administer brief
surveys (Appendix D) after each professional development/training session requiring the
participant to indicate the relevance of the material to their job performance and their overall
satisfaction with the content and delivery of the online course. Training will include an
asynchronous module where teachers will complete surveys requiring they apply knowledge to
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 144
scenarios. Responses will consist of multiple-choice options. Data collection will reflect accurate
knowledge of strategies in application, start, duration, and completion of online training sessions.
These data will indicate the comprehension of training material and indicate a need for further
support with implementation of the strategies. In addition, the collection of data serves as a
measure of benchmark monitoring of critical behaviors for progress toward organizational goals.
For Level 1, during the face-to-face training, the trainer will provide specific times for
participants to discuss concepts and ideas with peers. In addition, Level 2 will utilize scenarios
completion with peer groups to ascertain conceptual and procedural knowledge of strategies in
application. The trainer and assistants will circulate to monitor participant comprehension of
training concepts and strategies. This will allow the trainer to adjust the pace of the presentation
to ensure learning.
Evaluation Instrument
The nature of the SACS training program requires several evaluation instruments along
the course of training implementation. Three evaluation tools (Appendices D-E) were developed
to assess Level 1 and Level 2 as well as integrating both immediate and delayed evaluations
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Each tool allows data collection for a variety of purposes; one
is an immediate reactionary sheet following the first face-to-face module. The second tool, a
SACS survey allow for assessment following the two online training modules. The final tool,
Delayed SACS Training Survey, allows for data collection of monitoring and accountability
practices through the lens of teachers. This blended tool allows EDUSD to determine barriers to
effective implementation of SACS Training strategies and skills. See appendix E.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately six weeks after
the implementation of the training and then again at 15 weeks, leadership will administer a
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 145
survey containing open and scaled items using the Blended Evaluation approach to measure,
from the participant’s perspective, satisfaction and relevance of the training (Level 1),
confidence and value of applying their training (Level 2), application of the SACS strategies to
the classroom setting and the support they are receiving from principals (Level 3), and the extent
to which their application of the SACS strategies has become more accurate and timely (Level
4). Refer to appendix E.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of ELL students is measured by the mastery and performance on district
reading benchmark assessments and local common assessments. Every three weeks, the
principal will track the number of assessments processed and the cumulative performance of
ELLs at each grade level and individually by teacher. A dashboard similar to the one depicted in
Appendix F will report the data on these measures as a monitoring and accountability tool. The
dashboard reflected in Appendix F indicates beginning, actual and targeted performance for
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) Level 3 behaviors and Level 4 learning as a result of SACS
training. Based on data, teachers and administration will determine course corrections to ensure
the critical behaviors are enforced in order to meet expectations. Similar dashboards will be
created to monitor Levels 1, 2 and 3.
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) allowed the researcher to plan a training
program and teacher support that maintains results at the forefront of every action within the
organization. Specifically, the PDCA Cycle of Continuous Improvement (Kirkpatrick, 2016)
allowed the researcher to develop a systematic solution package, which includes ongoing
evaluation and course correction when critical behaviors are not in line with the end goal.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 146
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define success “as application of training-acquired
capabilities leading to improved performance and job results” (p. 128). The framework outlined
in this study is based on sound research data that Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) describe as
necessary to steer actions in a direction that will yield desired and future results. As such, the
researcher’s expectation is to utilize the strategies and skills outlined in the plan to affect English
Language Learner reading proficiency at EDUSD and future organizations.
Future Research
Based on the study findings and literature that guided its development and analysis, there
are a few recommendations for future research that could more fully develop the topic of
strategies for increasing academic proficiency of English Language Learners. The first
recommendation is to examine a larger sample of teachers and instructional leaders over a longer
period of time to provide greater clarity and understanding on how to eliminate opportunity gaps
for ELLs. A larger sample of teachers and instructional leaders may produce data trends with
varying characteristics to inform a more concise body of effective instructional strategies to
target ELLs education. The larger sample size could provide a comparison among the differing
groups of teachers and instructional leaders based on experience teaching ELLs to identify how
opportunity gaps are decreased or increased. A larger sample of schools could produce similar
comparisons among varying school cultures and their impact on ELL opportunity gaps.
A second recommendation is to conduct research in schools where teacher and
instructional leader identities do not match that of the students. It can be concluded that the
success in increasing the graduation and literacy rates at EDUSD is due in large part to the
identification of staff with the students they serve. Therefore, having a staff sample that is more
representative of white middle class teachers and instructional leaders may produce different
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 147
findings. These findings may create a greater understanding of the role of race in creating a
school culture that is more supportive and with greater expectations of underrepresented
students.
Another recommendation is to conduct research in elementary school sites and districts
that implement Dual Immersion (DI) or Two Way Immersion (TWI) programs. Research of
these models is important because they utilize instructional methods that allow for the least
segregated classrooms and both the English language and a native language for instruction. More
importantly, they have proven to be the most successful programs for closing ELL opportunity
gaps when implemented efficiently and effectively.
Finally, the study sites produced results very specific to the characteristics of the culture,
practices, and policies implemented within EDUSD therefore, a comparative study among
multiple sites at additional districts may produce different outcomes or additional information. A
comparison of practices across multiple sites within different districts may yield findings that are
more generalizable.
Conclusion
This study contributes a new understanding of the necessary qualities of teachers of
English Language Learners and a framework for teaching practices that addresses the ELL
academic achievement gap. Teacher capacity to teach ELLs can be developed through education
and training. As a matter of social justice, we can no longer sit by as 88% of California’s third
through eleventh grade ELLs who took the 2017 CAASPP failed to demonstrate proficiency in
English Language Arts standards (CDE, 2017). The widening gap in reading proficiency and
overall academic underachievement of English Language Learners is an issue of opportunity
gaps (Welner & Carter, 2013). Historically, students of color and poverty have systematically
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 148
received a different, less equitable education compared to white middle class children (Kantor &
Lowe, 2013). The issue of opportunity is present in schools as a mirror to society. Culturally and
linguistically diverse students as well as students of lower socioeconomic backgrounds are
labeled as less able and oppositional in their experiences within school settings (Milner, 2010;
Tyson, 2013). Context-neutral mindsets (Milner, 2010) or teachers who neglect to teach in ways
that meet the social, cultural, and linguistic needs of students (Gay, 2010) perpetuate barriers to
educational opportunity. Consequently, students fail to engage in learning when they do not see
themselves reflected in the classroom or school setting. Therefore, it is important for
credentialing programs to integrate more teacher coursework that increases teacher knowledge
about strategies to support students of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in the
classroom.
Replicating the home contexts of students within the classroom can promote greater
engagement in learning tasks. Implementation of culturally responsive teaching allows teachers
to utilize strategies that are familiar to students within the classroom and they are able to engage
at greater levels than in classrooms where the culture represented is white middle class culture. A
classroom or school setting that values students’ home language is additive and values students
for who they are. Instructional practices that value and represent students’ home cultures are
more valuable than a teacher’s ability to speak the students’ language (Franquiz & de la Luz
Reyes, 1998). Teachers can be taught engagement strategies that demonstrate a high value for
students’ culture in learning within the classroom. Both credentialing programs and staff
development can provide teachers with knowledge and skills about cultural and linguistic
inclusion.
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 149
Developing content literacy with a balanced literacy approach (Ford & Opitz, 2008) to
reading instruction as the foundation for literacy is crucial. This focus on instruction coupled
with the use of strategies such as structured student academic conversations with support from
academic sentence frames develops a greater ELL proficiency with academic vocabulary
(Carrier & Tatum 22006; Donnelly & Roe, 2010; Manyak, 2010). Structured student academic
conversations allow students to negotiate their understanding of academic concepts and content
with peers as support. Additionally, sheltered instruction strategies such as anchor charts, visuals,
and realia support the development of English language proficiency when combined with regular
classroom instruction (Echeverria et al., 2006). Teachers’ understanding and use of these
instructional strategies can be broadened through education and training.
The education of underrepresented students, specifically ELLs, must become a priority in
American education embedded within teacher education and staff development. It is imperative
that we utilize instructional strategies proven to decrease the achievement gap in order to
establish a more promising future for the adults of tomorrow. Every student under our care as
educators is deserving of an equitable education and until we prioritize equity in opportunities as
the answer to the ELL academic achievement gap, it will not occur. Currently, our instructional
practices focus on antiquated models of education that served the white middle class student. The
underrepresented groups of Latino, African American, English learner, and poor students is one
of the fastest growing demographics in the United States. It is to the benefit of all Americans that
we start to address the education of this group of students as a priority if we are to have a
promising future for everyone in our country. Until we address the issue of providing quality
teachers for underrepresented students (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007; Flores, 2007; Kang
& Hong, 2008; Peske & Haycock, 2006; Rouse & Barrow, 2006; Samson & Lesaux, 2015;
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 150
Wenglinksy, 2003) and we build capacity for teachers in service, we will continue to propagate
opportunity gaps for diverse student groups. Teachers have the greatest impact on opportunity
within the classroom. This study offers some possible solutions to the issue of
underperformance of English Language Learners that can be applied to teacher credential
programs and in-service training.

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 151
Appendix A: ELL Teacher Survey

1. What is your gender?
 Male
 Female
 Other Gender Identity

2. What is your age?
 Under 30
 30-39
 40-49
 50-59
 60-69
 70+

3. How many years have you been a teacher?
 Less than 5
 5-10 years
 11-20 years
 21-30 years
 over 30 years

4. Do you teach primary aged (K-6) students? (If your answer is no, skip to question #8)
 Yes
 No

5. I plan lessons with the needs of English Learners in mind.
 Never
 Sometimes
 About half the time
 Most of the time
 Always

7. My lessons address the language goals of English Language Learners.
 Never
 Sometimes
 About half the time
 Most of the time
 Always

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 152
8. My lessons address the content knowledge goals of English Language Learners.
 Never
 Sometimes
 About half the time
 Most of the time
 Always

9. In your school, which staff members are responsible for the instruction of English Language
Learners? (Check all that apply.)
 General Education Teachers
 Education Specialists
 Instructional Support Staff
 Intervention Teachers
 Other Staff

10. What is the total hours of professional development you have received in the last 5 years?
 0 hours
 1-2 hours
 3-4 hours
 5-6 hours
 7-8 hours
 8 or more hours

11. What is the total hours of professional development you have received specific to instruction
of English Language Learners in the past 5 years?
 0 hours
 1-2 hours
 3-4 hours
 5-6 hours
 7-8 hours
 8 or more hours

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 153
12. In the past 5 years, which of the following areas have you received professional development
that is specific to the instruction of English Language Learners (ELL's)? (Check all that apply)
 Culturally Responsive Educational Practices
 Linguistically Responsive Educational Practices
 Family and Community Involvement Strategies
 Research Based Instructional Strategies for ELL's
 Assessment Practices for ELL's
 ELL Teacher Evaluation
 Evaluation of General Education Teachers with ELL's in their Classrooms
 Response to Intervention (RTI) for ELL's
 The California ELA/ELD Framework
 The California ELD Standards
 Exit Criteria for ELL's

13. In the past 5 years, have you received other professional development that is specific to the
education of English Language Learners (ELL's)?
 Yes
 No

14. (Respond only if your answer to #13 is yes.) Explain the type of other training you received
not listed in #12.

15. During your credential program, were you required to enroll in courses that addressed the
needs of English Language Learners?
 Yes
 No

16. During your credentialing program, were you required to enroll in courses that addressed the
needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students?
 Yes
 No

17. Additional Comments/Information

19. Click on the following link if you are interested in participating in a face-to-face
interview.https://usceducation.az1.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_7WhZGSEg2qj6w7z

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 154
Appendix B: Ad Hoc Instructional Leader Interviews

1. How do you provide coaching support?

2. Do you provide coaching support in a specialized area or general subject areas?

3. Do you have ongoing professional development support at EDUSD?

4. You said you are still at the surface level for the ELA/ELD training or the understanding
of the new standards. Are you finding the tendency has been to throw out certain
strategies that may have been working and not connect them to working with ELLs
during the whole day versus just in that pocket of time [ELD]?

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 155
Appendix C: Superintendent Clarification Questions
1. Who is involved in Instructional Rounds?
2. Are you following PBIS?
3. Do you have district-wide common assessment expectations?
4. How do teachers teach reading?
5. Was there anything else in your experience, beyond data, that lead you in the direction of
a focus on literacy?
6. What would you say has helped your growth?
7. Do you attribute the growth to one specific change?
8. Who receives intervention in the Den?
9. Are you following an RTI tiered model?
10. What RTI level is the intervention room?
11. What is the role of the coaches? How do they support?
12. Did you find that parents were willing to embrace your focus on literacy?
13. Do teachers deploy among grade levels or based on the language levels?
14. Do you have a coaching model that you follow or agreements or norms?

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 156
Appendix D: SACS Workshop Immediate Survey

1. The material and content in this training is applicable to my work. (Level 1, Relevance)
o 1 Strongly Disagree
o 2 Disagree
o 3 Agree
o 4 Strongly Agree

2. The training environment and sequence helped me learn. (Level 1, Engagement)
o 1 Strongly Disagree
o 2 Disagree
o 3 Agree
o 4 Strongly Agree

3. The skills and strategies I learned are meaningful to my job performance. (Level 2, Attitude)
o 1 Strongly Disagree
o 2 Disagree
o 3 Agree
o 4 Strongly Agree

4. I am confident I will receive the support I need to successfully apply what I learned. (Level 2,
Confidence).
o 1 Strongly Disagree
o 2 Disagree
o 3 Agree
o 4 Strongly Agree

5. I will recommend this training to my coworkers. (Level 1, Customer Satisfaction)
o 1 Strongly Disagree
o 2 Disagree
o 3 Agree
o 4 Strongly Agree

6. What initial successes do you believe will occur as a result of applying what you learned in
this training? (Level 4, Predictive, Open Ended)

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 157
Appendix E: SACS Workshop Delayed Evaluation Tool
PLEASE PROVIDE FEEDBACK TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF OUR PROGRAM.

1. I have used the strategies and skills I learned from this training in my work. (Level 3,
Behavior)

o 1 Little or no application
o 2 Mild degree of application
o 3 Moderate degree of application
o 4 Strong degree of application
o 5 Very strong degree of application, and desire to support others in their application

1b. If your response to question one is 4 or below, indicate all the reasons that may apply: (Level
2, Skills, Attitude, Confidence)

o I do not have the necessary knowledge and skills.
o I do not have a clear understanding of what is expected of me.
o There are other more important priorities.
o I do not have the necessary resources to apply what I learned.
o I do not have the support to apply what I learned.
o The training did not give me the confidence to apply what I learned.
o What I learned will not work.
o There is no system of accountability to ensure I use what I learned.
o Other (Please explain):

3. My supervisor and I determined an implementation plan to apply my learning after training.
(Level 4, Required Drivers)

o 1 Strongly Disagree
o 2 Disagree
o 3 Agree
o 4 Strongly Agree

4. What improvements can be made to this training? (Level 1, Customer Satisfaction)

HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 158
Appendix F: SACS Training Results Dashboard
(Example Data)

Results of SACS Training
HIGH LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR ELLs 159
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Asset Metadata

Creator Feliz, Virginia Araceli (author)

Core Title Teach them to read: implementing high leverage pedagogical practices to increase English language learner academic achievement

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 02/08/2018

Defense Date 01/16/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Academic Achievement,access to grade level content,content literacy,culturally relevant teaching,English language learner reading proficiency,English language learner reading proficiency practices,English language learner teacher survey,English language learners,inputs,Latino,low socioeconomic,making content comprehensible,OAI-PMH Harvest,opportunity gaps,reading pedagogy,sentence frames,sheltered instruction,structured student interaction,teacher quality,underrepresented students

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crawford, Jenifer (committee chair), Moore, Ekaterina (committee member), Wheaton, Craig (committee member)

Creator Email araceli@feliz.net,vfeliz@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-471326

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Feliz, Virginia Araceli

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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