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Preventing excessive force incidents by improving police training: an evaluation study of a use-of-force training program
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Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 1
Preventing Excessive Force Incidents by Improving Police Training: An Evaluation Study of a
Use-of-Force Training Program
by
Rick Gonzalez
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2018
Copyright 2018 Rick Gonzalez
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 2
Table of Contents
Dedication ............................................................................................................................5
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................6
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................7
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................8
Abstract ................................................................................................................................9
Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................10
Introduction of the Problem of Practice .................................................................10
Organizational Context and Mission .....................................................................10
Organizational Goal ...............................................................................................12
Related Literature...................................................................................................12
Importance of the Evaluation .................................................................................23
Description of Stakeholder Groups ........................................................................24
Stakeholder Groups for this Study .........................................................................25
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................26
Organization of the Project ....................................................................................28
Chapter Two: Review of Literature ...................................................................................29
Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Framework .......................................................... 31
Police Instructor’s Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences ..........31
Police Instructor’s Knowledge Influences .................................................33
Police Instructor’s Motivation ...................................................................40
Police Instructor’s Organizational Influences ............................................41
Conclusion .............................................................................................................49
Chapter Three: Research Methods .....................................................................................50
The Conceptual Framework and Research Methodology ......................................51
Research Methods ..................................................................................................52
Research Questions ................................................................................................53
Participating Stakeholders .....................................................................................53
Observation Sampling Criterion Rationale ................................................54
Interview Sample, (Recruitment) Strategy, and Rationale ........................55
Data Collection and Instrumentation .....................................................................56
Interviews ...................................................................................................56
Document and Artifacts .............................................................................57
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 3
Data Analysis .........................................................................................................58
Credibility and Trustworthiness .............................................................................59
Ethics......................................................................................................................60
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................62
Chapter Four: Findings ......................................................................................................63
Participating Stakeholders .....................................................................................64
Findings..................................................................................................................68
Knowledge .................................................................................................68
Motivation ..................................................................................................78
Organization ...............................................................................................80
Synthesis ................................................................................................................85
Chapter Five: Recommended Solutions.............................................................................89
Recommendations for Continued Practice.............................................................89
Knowledge Recommendations ..............................................................................90
Introduction ................................................................................................90
Declarative Knowledge solutions ..............................................................92
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions .........................................................97
Motivation Recommendations ...............................................................................98
Introduction ................................................................................................98
Instructor Attributions ................................................................................98
Self-Efficacy ............................................................................................100
Organization Recommendations ..........................................................................102
Introduction ..............................................................................................102
Cultural Model .........................................................................................104
Cultural Setting ........................................................................................104
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..................................................105
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations ......................................106
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ..................................................107
Level 3: Behavior .....................................................................................108
Required Drivers ......................................................................................109
Level 2: Learning……………………………………………………… .111
Level 1: Reaction………………………………………………………. 115
Measuring Reactions ................................................................................116
Evaluation Tools ......................................................................................116
Data Analysis and Reporting ...................................................................117
Summary ..................................................................................................118
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................119
References ............................................................................................................121
Appendices ...........................................................................................................131
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ..............................................................131
Appendix B: Document Analysis Protocol ..............................................134
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 4
Appendix C: Observation Protocol ..........................................................136
Appendix D: Blended Evaluation ...........................................................139
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 5
Dedication
To my wife, I love you. Thank you for always believing in me. I would be nothing without your
encouragement and support.
“Hug hug, kiss kiss, hug hug, big kiss, little hug, kiss kiss, little kiss”.-Nacho Libre
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 6
Acknowledgements
Thank you to my dissertation chair, Dr. Helena Seli, for your patience and insight
through this amazing journey of self-discovery. You are truly inspirational and a brilliant mind.
Thank you Dr. Hirabayashi. Your expertise in this field was evident from the beginning and
made the study purposeful and relevant. I am forever grateful for your time, feedback and
support during the entire process. I was blessed to have you on my committee.
Dr. Bunn, “Mike”, thank you! I do not have words to express how grateful I am for
everything you have done for me. This is our second “go around.” I would not be here if it were
not for you. You have completely changed my life and inspired me in ways that I cannot explain.
You gave me the confidence to take on this program and equipped me with the skills needed to
be successful. I am forever in your debt.
Thank you to the brave men and women at the Cathedral University’s Campus Safety
Department (Pseudonym). Thank you for making this study a success.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 7
List of Figures
Figure 1. A Modified Gap Analysis Model by Clark And Estes ………….... 50
Figure 2. KMO Conceptual Framework ……………………………………... 51
Figure 3. Dashboard Monitoring and Accountability Tool ………………….. 118
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 8
List of Tables
Table 1. Stakeholder’s Performance Goals ..................................................................25
Table 2. Assumed Knowledge Influences and Assessment Techniques .....................39
Table 3. Assumed Motivational Influences and Assessment Techniques ...................44
Table 4. Assumed Organizational Influences and Assessment Techniques ................48
Table 5. Coding/Pseudonyms of Instructors Interviewed ............................................64
Table 6. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations……………… 91
Table 7. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations..........................99
Table 8. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations ......................103
Table 9. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes .........107
Table 10. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, and Timing for New Reviewers .......................109
Table 11. Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors ................110
Table 12. Components of Learning for the Program .....................................................114
Table 13. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program .......................................116
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 9
Abstract
A modified Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis operated as the conceptual framework for this
study. The study investigated the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that affect
the instructors from the Cathedral University’s Campus Safety Department from designing and
implementing effective use of force training. A qualitative study was conducted using document
analysis, an observation and interviews. Results indicated that the instructors lacked the basic
knowledge that is needed in order to design and implement effective use of force training.
Motivation and Organizational influences were discovered that impact the delivery and
effectiveness of the training program. Recommendations and solutions are based on the relevant
literature which includes an implementation and evaluation plan that utilized the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) as the framework.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 10
Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Excessive force incidents by the police are increasing at an alarming rate, specifically
shootings of unarmed African-American males (Swaine, Laughland, & Lartey, 2015).
According to a study conducted by the Guardian (January 1, 2015 to May 31, 2015) statistics
show that unarmed African-Americans are twice as likely to be shot and killed by the police
when compared to other races. According to the Washington Post’s (2015) internal database of
fatal police shootings, the police have shot and killed 24 unarmed black men as of August 2015.
Although this represents a small fraction of the 585 people shot and killed by police in 2015,
black men accounted for 40 % of the 60 unarmed deaths.
Because of this growing trend, President Barack Obama established the President’s Task
Force on 21
st
Century Policing on December 18, 2014. Their primary task was to identify best
practices and make recommendations in order to thrust current police practices into the 21
st
century. This chapter will explore some of the difficulties identified in trying to understand the
increase in excessive force, while providing a framework for strategizing possible solutions by
improving use-of-force training.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Cathedral University Campus Safety Department (CU CSD) is a private law
enforcement agency that is responsible for providing basic police and security services to the
university campus and the surrounding community, a 2.2 square mile radius around the campus.
According to the department’s official website, the CSD employs over 306 employees and is one
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 11
of the largest campus safety departments in the nation. The full time staff includes 87 Public
Safety Officers (Police Officers), 125 Community Service Officers (Unarmed Security Officer)
and 18 Communications Operators (Dispatchers) and 28 Security Systems Officer (CCTV
operators). The upper management includes three chiefs, two captains, and seven lieutenants.
CSD patrols 24 hours a day, 365 days a year and is responsible for two campuses; the main
campus in Cathedral City, CA and the Health Science Campus in East Cathedral City, CA. The
mission of the department is to provide a safe environment for the university community while
providing quality service and building relationships. Community policing and community
engagement is the primary strategy in accomplishing the mission. Community policing is a
problem-solving model that includes working closely with community members to solve issues.
The CU CSD serves the Cathedral University, a private, not for profit, research
institution. According to the university’s official website, it is the largest private employer in
Cathedral City, with over 25 thousand faculty and staff members (3,945 Faculty members, 13,
216 staff members and 7, 880 student workers). There are over 43,000 students enrolled at the
university (19,000 Undergraduate and 24, 000 Graduate).
The student demographics include 33% White/Caucasian, 23% International, 18% Asian,
12% Hispanic, 9 % other, and 5% Black/African American. The students and staff live in the
surrounding community, comprised mostly of low income Latino and African American
residents. According to collegefactual.com, the university’s crime statistics are on par with the
national average. Despite the average crime statistics, the university maintains a negative stigma
as an unsafe area because of several high profile murders off campus.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 12
Organizational Goal
The Cathedral University Campus Safety Department’s goal is to maintain zero incidents
of excessive force incidents through March 2018. The Chief of CU CSD set this goal amidst a
national discussion of police excessive force and the increase in shootings of unarmed African-
American men. The achievement of this goal is measured by the results of an audit of use of
force incidents from 2016 to 2017 and the evaluation of its current use-of-force training courses.
Although there have not been any sustained incidents of excessive force at the CSD, the national
trend has forced many police departments to evaluate their use of force training programs.
Related Literature
This section will explore the related literature in regards to possible causes associated
with excessive force incidents. Exploring the contemporary issues associated with police use of
force will add context to the macro level problem of practice. A key issue with conducting
research into the cause of excessive force incidents is that there is no widely accepted definition
of “excessive force” (Alper & Smith, 1994; Payne, 2012). Rahtz (2003) argues that a widely
accepted definition is only a starting point and is not an academic endeavor. Defining excessive
force should be left to the legal practitioners and subject matter experts. Rahtz (2003) believes
that excessive force is so obvious that we usually know when we see it. This is the perspective
often shared by the local community. It would be impossible to predict what the courts may
consider excessive force, which is the primary reason that police departments focus on what the
courts consider “objective reasonableness.”
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 13
Objective Reasonableness
Without a consensus on a definition of excessive force, the courts are left to rely on the
“objective reasonableness” standard when deciding whether the officer used an appropriate level
of force. This becomes a difficult concept to teach during use-of-force training because it is
ultimately objective. Objective reasonableness standards stem from two U.S Supreme Court
rulings, Tennessee v. Garner (1985) and Graham v. Connor (1985). These rulings have become
case law and serve as the legal standard for use of force. For the purposes of this study, the
explanation of objective reasonableness published by the International Association of Chiefs of
Police (IACP) will serve as the conceptual framework.
[P]olice officers shall use only that force that is reasonably necessary to effectively bring
an incident under control, while protecting the lives of the officer or another….Police
officers are authorized to use department-approved nondeadly force techniques and
issued equipment for resolution of incidents, as follows:
a. To protect themselves or another from physical harm; or
b. To restrain or subdue a resistant individual; or to bring an unlawful situation
safely and effectively under control (Alpert & Smith, 1994, p. 486-487).
This model adopts the “reasonable man” standard and asks, “What would a reasonable police
officer do under the same or similar circumstances?” Of course, there are different variables that
would alter the definition of what a reasonable officer would do, for example; training,
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 14
experience and physical fitness. The IACP did not differentiate from a reasonable person and a
reasonable officer. There is a different perspective from a well-trained police officer and a non-
trained civilian (Alpert & Smith, 1994). A civilian might be quick to condemn the officers’
actions because they do not understand the training and laws that allow a police officer to use
deadly force. This could explain why so many citizens are outraged when use of force incidents
are investigated and considered justified.
This is not to say that all police officers have a deep understanding of “objective
reasonableness” when it comes to the ethical application of force. Even when we consider the
definition given by the IACP, the definition is still too vague (Alper & Smith, 1994). Without a
specific definition, the application of force is left in the hands of the individual officer’s
discretion. This may place a poorly trained officer in a position where they over react and use
excessive force. Training the officers to understand objective reasonableness requires improving
their cognitive abilities, which will be explained later in this study. In order to understand the
key issues that shape an officer’s discretion, we must look at some of the factors that contribute
to excessive force incidents.
Causes of Excessive Force
Klahm and Tillyer (2010) conducted content analyses of use of force studies published in
peer-reviewed journals between 1995 and 2008. They found that there was no definite variable,
which could predict when a police officer would most likely use force. Researchers have
explored several theories attempting to understand what causes excessive force incidents. Many
of the variables that were once thought to influence excessive force are no longer considered
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 15
factors (Friedrich, 1980). For example, improving morale, hiring younger officers or Black
recruits are unlikely to decrease force incidents (Friedrich, 1980). Most theories are broken
down into three areas; the officer, the situation and the organization. Current research suggests
that organizational culture or lack of constraints might be the leading cause of excessive force
incidents and not the individual officer’s discretion (Alper & Smith, 1994; Cao, 2002; Lindgren,
1981; Skogan & Meares, 2004; Reiss, 1980). Departments with high levels of excessive force
incidents lack the following organizational constraints; training, supervision, force tracking
systems, policy and force audit process (Alper & Smith, 1994; Cao, 2002; Skogan & Meares,
2004; Reiss, 1980).
A large part of this organizational culture is the “warrior” or “watchman” mindset that is
ingrained in new academy recruits by para-military style police academies (Friedrich, 1980; Rahr
& Rice, 2015). This is different from the “guardian” mentality, which emphasizes justice based
policing and tactical social intervention. There is no evidence that the guardian mentality
actually reduces excessive force incidents, there is, however, plenty of evidence that the primary
goal of a military style boot camp is to prepare soldiers for war (Rarh & Rice, 2015).
Furthermore, the guardian mentality resembles the values and expectations that communities are
demanding of 21
st
century policing (Rarh & Rice, 2015). Training officers in justice based
policing and tactical social intervention is not easy. This 21
st
century policing model requires
new skills and abilities, which improve officers’ emotional intelligence (Cleveland & Saville,
2007).
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 16
Paramilitary training. Paramilitary style training programs overemphasize the
application of force and may not improve cognitive abilities (White & Escobar, 2008) There are
plenty of legitimate incidents where the police have successfully implemented military tactics
(e.g., active shooters, hostage negotiations, and terrorist attacks) (Hall & Coyne, 2013; Hill &
Beger, 2009; Kraska, 2007). Arguably, these are extreme situations and not very common
occurrences. Militarization is when the police use military tactics and equipment for routine
police functions like drug raids, immigration sweeps and crime suppression (Hall & Coyne,
2013).
The key issue with paramilitary style training programs is that they focus on the
technical aspect of the application of force and not on the critical thinking needed for the ethical
application (Waldman, 2014; White & Escobar, 2008). These cognitive abilities are vital when
making split second, ethical decisions about the application of deadly force. The problem with
modeling police academies and training after the military is that they produce a “warrior”
mentality that is ready to do battle. Military style police training does not reflect the reality of
21st century policing which requires critical thinking and a “guardian” mentality, which looks to
protect the community (Rahr & Rice, 2015). The warrior cop mentality creates an “us vs. them”
climate, which can objectify citizens into the enemy (Balko, 2015).
In 1967, the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice
published a report titled The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (1967). The report contained
recommendations, which included more emphasis on community policing and community
relations. Perhaps the biggest impact of their report was their recommendation for formalized
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 17
police academy training which led to the creation of the first official police academies. Their
report recommended that more emphasis be placed on community policing and sociology. This
recommendation was largely ignored because of the growing popularity in military style training
programs.
The police academies were modeled after the military’s stress based boot camp, which
creates a distrustful and disconnected officer (Bickel, 2013). High stress academies produce
results that are not applicable to 21st century policing which requires community based problem
solving (Bickel, 2013; Kraska, 2007). The LAPD academy is a total of 920 hours. According to
a current LAPD academy instructor, approximately 2/3 of that time is spent on firearms, focused
on making the recruits proficient sharpshooters. Another major focus is physical conditioning,
pursuit driving, riot control and self-defense. These are clearly very important aspects of police
work and absolutely necessary. The reality is that most police recruits spend the majority of
their time preparing for situations that they will rarely encounter, while hardly receiving training
in communication and problem solving (Chappell, 2006). A brief ethnography of the Los
Angeles Police Department will help provide some context into the phenomenon of the
militarization of the police and the possible impact it has had on excessive force. This will help
us understand the national trend, while exploring possible implications and solutions.
LAPD and military tactics. The MacArthur Park “May Day” protest of 2007 is a recent
example where the lack of problem solving skills, during the application of military tactics,
might have led to a major excessive force incident. The LAPD published their investigation
titled Los Angeles Police Department Report to the Board of Police Commissioners. An
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 18
Examination of MAY DAY 2007 (October 9, 2007). During the MacArthur Park “May Day”
protest, several peaceful protesters, including media, were struck with batons by the LAPD’s
Metropolitan Division. The LAPD Metropolitan Division is a specialized para-military unit
tasked with responding to high risk incidents that do not require a full SWAT response (e.g.,
protest, canine searches, and search warrants). According to the LAPD report, over 100 baton
strikes were reported and over 146 less lethal impact munitions were used (e.g., bean bag
shotgun, 37mm foam baton rounds and 40mm sponge rounds). The report described a small
group of individuals that arrived with the intention of disrupting the peaceful protest. The group
was visibly not part of the protest but did succeed in antagonizing the police by throwing bottles.
The report found that several officers used excessive force to clear out the protest. The
report stated that, “[I]t appeared that some officers and supervisors in MacArthur Park believed
that baton strikes could be used to compel a person to disperse, absent aggressive or combative
behavior” (p. 63). The report found that this was out of policy because the application of force
has to be target specific and directed at a recognized individual that is actively resisting (e.g.,
throwing bottles or pushing officers). The force was applied liberally to anyone in the crowd,
including children and clearly distinguishable media personnel. The report found that the
officers reacted exactly the way they were trained in the police academy or during advanced
tactical training. As a result, the LAPD changed their crowd control policy to include a more
socially conscious approach.
The connection with the military. It is unclear when the police began to use military
tactics because it has been a slow integration. We know that Sir Robert Peele’s inaugural police
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 19
model in London, 1829 was created with a militaristic rank and discipline structure (Hall &
Coyne, 2013). Arguably, since its inception the police were somewhat militarized, because both
are governmental agencies that can use force against citizens (Kraska, 1994). There was no
single incident that suddenly caused law enforcement to adapt military tactics or training.
Notably, the last four decades have been highlighted as seeing an increase in the militarization of
the police (Hall & Coyne, 2013).
The question here is why are these types of training programs and tactics accepted by a
democratic society? Many scholars will argue that society is ignorant because the militarization
of the police has been a subtle and murky process. The line between the police and the military
is so blurred that it has led to confusion and acceptance (Hall & Coyne; 2013; Hill & Berger,
2009; Kraska, 2007). Several mistitled patriotic campaigns like the “War on Drugs” and the
“War on Terror” have formed an erroneous acceptance of paramilitary tactics against civilians
(Balko, 2006; Hall & Coyne; 2013; Hill & Berger, 2009; Kraska, 2007). These wars create a
discourse that this criminal activity is a threat to national security and thus warrants an
aggressive response (Kraska, 2007).
Proclaiming war on citizens clearly undermines community policing and may increase
the “warrior mentality” (Balko, 2013; Rahr & Rice, 2015). In order for community policing to be
effective, the community must work in partnership with the police to solve issues. This cannot be
accomplished if there is an increase in excessive force incidents due to the warrior mentality. To
support these local wars on crime, the government has provided military equipment and training
to local police departments. This training included dynamic entry into residences using flash-
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 20
bang grenades, battering rams and entry explosives (Balko, 2006). Community policing is what
is expected in a democratic society and is more in line with 21st century policing strategies.
Because of the rise in highly publicized excessive force incidents, the community is no longer
tolerant of the militarization of the police and has new expectations, which include less lethal
tactics, constitutional policing, cultural diversity and customer service (Cleveland & Saville,
2007; White & Escobar, 2008; Rahr & Rice, 2015).
Paramilitary style training programs can heavily influence this culture because it
overemphasizes the application of force and may not improve critical thinking (White &
Escobar, 2008). Further compounding the problem is new research that show that police officers
may have implicit bias towards certain racial groups, which may predispose them to misinterpret
a threat (Benforado, 2010; Feingold & Lorang, 2012).
Community Policing and Force
It is evident that most police departments are not equipped for the high demands of
policing in the 21
st
century (White & Escobar, 2008). In a report from the Community Relations
Service of the Department of Justice titled Police Use of Excessive Force, they recommended
that training focus on the department’s core values to include less lethal tactics, crisis
communications skills, community involvement and cultural diversity (U.S Department of
Justice, 1999). This has forced law enforcement organizations to evaluate their cultural diversity
or bias training programs based on the recommendations of the President’s Task Force.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 21
Implicit bias. Research shows that the majority of people carry some form of
unconscious racial bias (Benforado, 2010; Feingold & Lorang, 2012). This implicit bias may be
crucial when making split second decisions during a deadly force encounter (Benforado,
2010).The police officer’s perception of an immediate threat may be a contributing factor to the
increase of excessive force. This has shifted the focus of discussion from explicit bias, such as
that exhibited in racial profiling, to implicit bias. Attribution theory suggests that stereotypes
linked to an individual’s race shape decision making in law enforcement (Spohn, 2015). This
unconscious bias, or implicit bias, is an automatic association between a person’s race and a
preconceived stereotype. It differs from explicit bias, where the officer consciously chooses to
target someone because of their race (Feingold & Lorang, 2012).
In a speech at Georgetown University on February 12, 2015, FBI Director, James Comey,
described implicit bias as “lazy mental shortcuts.” Director Comey explained that these shortcuts
develop through years of cynicism from working in areas where a majority of the crime is
committed by men of color. Peruche and Plant (2006) believe that high levels of negative contact
with Black people lead to negative expectations of Black suspects which is then associated with
a threat. Fridell (2008) explains that the implicit system in our brains specializes in quick
reactions, or mental shortcuts, without much thinking. For example, Black people and crime.
Implicit bias and deadly force. Although implicit bias affects all aspects of society, it is
most important when considering the application of deadly force. Police officers have to make
split second, life or death decisions. Correll, Park, Judd and Wittenbrink (2002) conducted a
video game type, computer simulated shooting experiment with undergraduate students. They
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 22
found that shooters, both Black and White, were faster and more accurate when firing at targets
of an armed Black person than when firing at armed White person. The same study found that
shooters were better at holding their fire when confronted with an unarmed White person than an
unarmed Black person.
Correll, Park, Judd, Wittenbrink and Sadler (2007) replicated the study in 2007 with
police officers. They found that police officers exhibited racial bias in the speed of their
decision-making but not in their ability to identify threats accurately (Correll, Park, Judd,
Wittenbrink & Sadler (2007). They theorized that the officer’s extensive use-of-force training
assisted in threat identification. Correll et al. (2007) verified that training can reduce shooter
bias and improve threat assessment. This is monumental paradigm shift with enormous
implications for the future of law enforcement training in the 21
st
century.
The President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing report (2015) made several
recommendations in order to improve training in hopes that it may reduce excessive force
incidents. The report stated that the nation has become more pluralistic, increasing the demand
for more effective training (Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2015). The
President’s Task Force recommended training in bias awareness, scenario-based decision making
and interpersonal communication skills (Office of Community Oriented Policing Services,
2015).
The taskforce recommended improving training by incorporating scenario-based,
situational decision making. The problem is that the taskforce merely made recommendations
and did not provide any clear instructions for improving the training. Numerous scholars have
suggested changes to police training that includes designing training programs based on adult
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 23
educational theories and Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ( Mugford, Corey
& Bennell, 2011). Police officers face dynamic situations on duty which require them to perform
at the highest level of Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy (e.g. analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)
(Cleveland, 2006; Mugford, Corey & Bennell, 2011).
Importance of the Evaluation
The purpose of this study is to examine if the Cathedral University’s Campus Safety
Department can achieve their performance goal of maintaining zero incidents of excessive force.
The literature review introduced the importance of training in relationship to this performance
goal. This study will evaluate the organization of focus’ training program in relationship to the
achievement of the performance goal. According to the Washington Post‘s database of police
shootings, 991 people were fatally shot by the police in 2015. In 2010, The CATO Institute’s
National Police Misconduct Reporting Project (NPMSRP) found that 92 fatalities were
associated with credible excessive force allegations. Researchers at Bowling Green State
University found that from 2005 to 2011, 125 police officers were charged with murder or
negligent manslaughter (Stinson, Liederbach, Lab & Brewer, 2016). According to the study,
about 40 percent of those violence-related police crimes occurred on duty.
One credible allegation of excessive force can destroy the public’s trust in the
organization. As mentioned earlier, organizations with high levels of excessive force incidents
lack several organizational constraints including proper training (Alper & Smith, 1994; Cao,
2002; Skogan & Meares, 2004; Reiss, 1980). Training departments may find this study useful as
they create new curriculum that attempts to reduce excessive force incidents. According to the
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 24
Huffington Post (2015), police departments are paying out exorbitant amount of taxpayer money
to settle excessive force incidents. The Huffington Post reported that from 2002 to 2011, the Los
Angeles Police Department (LAPD) has paid over 100 million dollars in settlements for civil
rights violations, wrongful death suits and misconduct.
Lessons learned from this study may provide policy makers insight into systemic
deficiencies in their own organizations, which may prevent lawsuits and deadly shootings.
Perhaps the most important aspect of this study is the benefit to the current body of research that
is minimal at best. Academics who are frantically trying to find answers to the root cause of
excessive force incidents may benefit from this research and evaluation.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholders directly responsible for achieving the performance goal are the training
staff, the administrative bureau and the officers (see Table 1). The training staff has to design an
effective curriculum, which includes integrating current research on implicit bias and
contemporary adult learning theory. The training staff consists of one full time sergeant and
several part time patrol officers. The patrol officers are the most affected by the training;
exposing them to ineffective training places them at great risk.
The officers could face complaints, lawsuits and injure himself, herself, or a community
member. Injuring a community member may result in the loss of trust from the community. The
administrative bureau is comprised of a captain and a lieutenant who are responsible for
monitoring the performance of the training program. The executive staff is comprised of the
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 25
chief and a deputy chief who are responsible for writing policy and monitoring the completion of
the organizational mission.
Table 1
Stakeholder’s Performance Goals
______________________________________________________________________________
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Cathedral University Campus Safety Department (CU CSD) is to provide a
safe learning environment for the university community while providing quality service and
building relationships.
Organizational Global Goal
By March, 2018 CU CSD will maintain zero incidents of excessive force.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2017, the training staff will demonstrate the competencies necessary to design
and implement effective use-of-force training program.
Administrative Bureau
By December 2017, the
CSD Internal Affairs
department will conduct an
audit of all use of force
incidents from January 2017
to December 2017
Training Division
By December 2017, the
training staff will
demonstrate the
competencies necessary to
design and implement
effective use-of-force
training program
CSD Officers
By March 2018, 100%
of all CSD officers will
complete training
program and
demonstrate competency
in all intended learning
outcomes.
Executive Staff
By December 2017, the
executive staff will audit
and review the
organization’s
performance in
maintaining zero incidents
of excessive force.
______________________________________________________________________________
Stakeholder Group for the Study
A thorough analysis would include all stakeholders but for practical purposes, the
instructors will be the focus of this study. They are responsible for the overall effectiveness of
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 26
the training program, and responsible for evaluating knowledge transfer. They are also
responsible for designing and implementing new training. Arguably, the instructors would be the
first stakeholder group to realize if training is not effective by monitoring it longitudinally. It is
important to study the underlying influences and propose solutions that might assist the
instructors in improving the effectiveness of the training program.
The stakeholder goal, as pointed out in table 1 is that by December 2017, the training
staff will demonstrate the competencies necessary to design and implement effective use-of-
force training program. In order to do this, they must possess the knowledge, motivation, and
skills necessary to design and deliver effective training. This also includes an ability to design
an effective learning outcomes evaluation plan. Failure to evaluate and update the current
training program may prevent the CSD from reaching its mission and accomplishing its
organizational performance goal.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study is to determine the current level of training of the instructors at
Cathedral University (CU) Campus Safety Department (CSD) and the competency necessary to
provide effective training to achieve the organizational goal of maintaining zero incidents of
excessive force. The gap analysis will focus on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
elements related to achieving the organizational goal. In order to meet this goal, the CSD should
continuously evaluate and update its current use of force training program. The current literature
suggests that successful training programs conduct pre-training assessments, real time surveys,
and post-training evaluations. Additionally, there is evidence that managing the cognitive load
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 27
and incorporating scenario testing or problem-based learning (PBL) may improve its
effectiveness.
The final component includes monitoring its effectiveness over an extended period. This
study will include a purposeful sampling of this stakeholder group. It is important to study the
underlying influences and propose solutions that might assist the CSD instructors in improving
the effectiveness of the training curriculum. Any increase in excessive force may lead to distrust
within the community, accompanied by lawsuits and protest, which severely affect their ability
to provide effective police services.
While a complete evaluation project would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes
the stakeholders included in this analysis are the CU CSD instructors. The instructors are given
full autonomy by the organization with regard to designing and implementing training. The
instructors are deeply embedded in the training process and are in the best position to evaluate
the effectiveness of the training as well as their own effectiveness as instructors. As such, the
questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the instructors’ knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences related
to their ability to design and implement effective use-of-force training?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivational, and organizational solutions?
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 28
Organization of the Project
This study consists of five chapters. This chapter provided the reader with the key
concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about excessive force and police
training. Topics of implicit bias, military style training programs, policy and procedures,
constraints and interventions are addressed. This chapter introduced the organization’s mission,
goals, stakeholders, and the framework for the project. Chapter Two provides a review of
current literature surrounding the scope of the study and details the knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences to be examined. Chapter Three includes the methodology when it
comes to the choice of participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and
results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature,
for closing the perceived gaps as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation
plan for the solutions.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 29
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Many believe that the current law enforcement-training model is outdated because it
primarily consists of rote memorization and mechanical skills (Goldstein, 1990; Pitts, Glensor &
Peak, 2007). Law enforcement is a constantly evolving vocation which requires officers to
quickly adapt to dynamic situations on the street (Russel et al, 2002). A government audit of the
California Border Patrol in 2012 revealed that their use of force training actually reinforced
aggressive behavior (Edwards, 2013). The audit came after an in-custody death and several
excessive force allegations. The audit revealed that training was not realistic and recommended
scenario based testing (Edwards, 2013). Rote memorization and repetitive practice during use-of-
force training may reinforce aggressive behavior because it focuses on declarative knowledge
(how to shoot) and not strategic knowledge (when to shoot) (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009).
The Role of Training in Eliminating Excessive Force
The U.S Department of Justice recommends that law enforcement agencies adopt
Problem Based Learning (PBL) grounded in adult learning methodologies (Cleveland & Saville,
2007). PBL has been shown to be effective at improving “use-of-deadly force training” (Russel
et al, 2002).PBL is an adult learning model that incorporates problem-solving skills in real world
scenarios that allow the student to apply past experiences with new knowledge (Cleveland,
2006). For example, in police academy training, students are exposed to several traffic stop
scenarios that test their newly learned traffic codes, communication skills, and safety tactics
(Makin, 2016). Previously, recruits would learn each training module in a lectured-based
platform that did not address critical thinking (Makin, 2016).
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 30
Scenario testing or problem based learning (PBL) is based on Bloom’s taxonomy (1956);
this includes the categorization of knowledge into the processes of remembering,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Pitts, Glensor & Peak, 2007).
PBL activities are believed to utilize complex skills that initiate Bloom’s (1956) higher levels of
taxonomy, including critical thinking which is needed in order to face the dynamic problems
faced by police officers (Cleveland, 2006; Mugford, Corey & Bennell, 2011).
Adhering to the principles adult learning theory does not necessarily ensure learning if
the learner is overloaded with too much information (Mugford, Corey & Bennell, 2011). To
improve a deeper level of information processing, trainers need to understand the implications of
cognitive load theory on knowledge transfer (Schraw & McGrudden, 2006). Officers who are
properly trained in exercising force when making an arrest will be more likely to bring the
situation to a successful resolution (Russel et al, 2002). Training design during firearms
simulation should focus on retention of knowledge and coordination of other skills (Bennel &
Jones, 2004). Research has shown that many police instructors learn the principles of basic
instructional design but are not shown specific strategies in order to implement (Anderson et al,
2000: Mugford, Corey & Bennell, 2011). This chapter will focus on the instructor’s requirements
to design and deliver effective training.
This chapter outlines the evolution of training research as it relates to effective course
design and instruction. The first section focuses on a chronological overview of factors that
influence effective knowledge transfer. The second section addresses the concept of effective
course design and practical applications to use of force training. The chapter ends with an
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 31
analysis of course design from the perspective of learning and motivation literature and
additional research utilizing the gap analysis dimensions of knowledge, motivation, and
organization.
Conceptual Framework: Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis
Pedagogy and adult learning theory have provided some insight into the effective training
strategies used to ensure knowledge transfer and improve organizational performance. A
modified Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis served as the conceptual framework in order to
evaluate the influences of the key stakeholder group’s performance and formulate research-based
solutions. The gap analysis will draw on theories of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational (KMO) structures that may be at the root cause of the performance problem.
Police Instructors’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
In order to meet their training objectives, police instructors must in general terms
understand that there are different types of knowledge. Krathwohl (2002) categorizes the
different types of knowledge into four. The four types of knowledge are factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive. In addition, effective instructional designers understand the
limitations of human attention or working memory. Sweller (1988) who developed Cognitive
Load Theory (CLT) explains the limitations of working memory and the amount of information
it can hold. Poor instructional methods may overload the limited working memory also referred
to as cognitive load (Sweller, 1988).
The second component of the KMO model is motivation. Designing effective training is
challenging and the trainers’ level of motivation plays a critical role in designing effective
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 32
instruction. Motivation is the amount of effort an individual applies towards the completion of a
task or goal (Mayer, 2011; Pintrich, 2003). Motivation manifests itself by active choice, mental
effort, and persistence (Rueda, 2011). Motivational theories may explain their underlying
existence as psychological influences. The two motivational theories of focus in this dissertation
are attribution theory and self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their
capability to perform a task which correlates with the attributions about the causes of their
performance (Bandura, 1997). Both of these theories are directly related to mental effort, which
is required to learn the new skills needed to implement effective use of force training.
The final component of the KMO model is organizational influencers, which analyzes
policies, culture, systems, and resources (Schein, 1990). For example, the lack of mentors
(resources) or an ineffective reward system (systems) may negatively influence knowledge and
motivation respectively. Culture may manifest itself in observable artifacts, values and
underlying assumptions (Schein, 1990). A cultural model (e.g., values, beliefs) may manifest
into an observable setting (e.g., lack of resources, vague policies,) (Rueda, 2011). Changes in
the environment can influence new thinking and force adaptation (Schein, 1990).
This section focuses on the necessary knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences required to accomplish the organizational goal of maintaining zero incidents of
excessive force by March 2018. In order to achieve this, the Cathedral University (CU) Campus
Safety Department (CSD) instructors must meet the stakeholder goal of demonstrating the
competencies necessary to design and implement effective use-of-force training. CU CSD is a
private law enforcement agency that is responsible for providing basic police and security
services to the university campus and the surrounding community, a 2.2 square mile radius
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 33
around the campus.
In order to ensure that the training methodology is current, law enforcement must select
the most qualified instructors for their cadre. According to Lieutenant Dan Marcou (2014), an
internationally recognized police trainer, law enforcement trainers should possess many skills
including the knowledge, desire and ability to teach. There are also the necessary organizational
supports that have to be in place in order for the trainers to be effective at their jobs. This section
will review the relevant literature in regards to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to demonstrating the competencies necessary to design and implement
effective use-of-force training.
Police Instructors’ Knowledge Influences
As previously mentioned, the four types of knowledge that need to be considered in
designing training are factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002).
Factual and conceptual knowledge are also referred to as declarative information needed to
complete a task. Factual knowledge includes basic information, facts, or steps needed to perform
the task (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual knowledge is a general understanding of complex
systems or theories used to shape information (Krathwohl, 2002). This understanding includes
knowing the interrelationships among the basic components within the larger configuration that
allow them to work together. This includes the knowledge of categorizations and classifications,
principles, theories, models and structures.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 34
Procedural knowledge includes the “how to skills” needed to complete the task. This
includes procedures specific to the subject and conditions for making decisions (Krathwohl,
2002). The majority of law enforcement training focuses on developing procedural knowledge
(Bennel & Jones, 2004). Metacognition includes the deepest level of mastery and knowledge
transfer needed to apply new information to unfamiliar situations (Krathwohl, 2002; Pintrich,
2003). This includes being aware of your own thought process and cognitive abilities.
Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about cognition in general and awareness about one’s
own cognition. This is different from cognitive ability. Metacognition can improve cognitive
ability, but only through self-reflection (Krathwohl, 2002; Pintrich, 2003).
Declarative knowledge influences. There is both factual and conceptual knowledge
needed in order to design training that ensures knowledge transfer. Poorly designed courses can
lead to cognitive overload (Kirschner, Kirschner, & Pass, 2006). The key declarative knowledge
that police instructors need to know is the limitation of human attention and ability to process
information at one time, in essence, the limitation of working memory. A general understanding
of these limitations will include how working memory affects knowledge transfer.
In order to be effective, police instructors need to understand that including too much
information at one time can lead to cognitive overload, which limits the learner’s ability to give
meaning to activities (Kirschner, Kirschner & Pass, 2006). Information not properly processed
in working memory will not make it to long-term memory, which is unlimited (Kirschner,
Kirschner, & Pass, 2006). Working memory is limited to about seven new items that have to be
remembered (Baddeley, 1992; Kirschner, Kirschner, & Pass, 2006: Miller, 1956). Two or three
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 35
items can be processed if they are used to compare or organize new information (Cowan, 2000).
This leaves very little room for processing and organizing new information (Sweller, 2008).
Police training designed based on the tenets of CLT improves learning when compared to
the traditional police training methodology (Mugford, Corey & Bennell, 2013). This declarative
knowledge includes knowing the difference between rote memorization and learning via
deliberate practice. Deliberate practice provides students opportunities to practice new skills
designed to improve performance (Campitelli & Gobet, 2011). Deliberate practice during use-of-
force training allows the students to practice newly acquired skills in various realistic scenarios
while ensuring that the new knowledge is stored in long-term memory. According to CLT,
deliberate practice may be used to create schemas.
According to Pass (1992), schemas may also guide the learner during new circumstances
that require the transfer of knowledge to situations that the individual has not encountered
(Mugford, Corey & Bennell, 2013). This is a crucial component during use-of-force training
because the curriculum cannot predict every potential force encounter. The knowledge worksheet
(see Table 2) describes the goals of the training cadre and methods used to assess the required
knowledge.
Procedural knowledge influences. Procedural knowledge in this section includes the
skills needed to design and deliver effective instruction. The first key procedural knowledge
needed to design effective courses is how to conduct pre-training assessments. In order to design
effective instruction based on organizational needs, instructors should conduct pre-training
assessments (Arguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Having instructors conduct an assessment of the
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 36
organizational training needs and identify appropriate responses maximizes the benefits of the
training (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009).
The second piece of procedural knowledge that the instructors need are the skills to
incorporate scenario based testing that improves the learner’s cognitive abilities. The current law
enforcement training model consists mostly of rote memorization and mechanical skills (Pitts,
Glensor & Peak, 2007). The courses appear to increase procedural (how) and declarative (what)
knowledge but fail to affect strategic knowledge (when to apply) (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009).
Incorporating scenario testing will allow the learners to recognize “when to apply” the
appropriate level of force that is justified while validating the transfer of knowledge.
The next piece of procedural knowledge that the instructors need is how to manage the
cognitive load. Courses that focus on increasing procedural knowledge place a heavy load on
working memory, which limits how much information gets stored in long-term memory
(Sweller, 1988). During training design, instructors serving as subject matter expert must design
courses that incorporate cognitive load theory to optimize learning and performance (Kirschner,
Kirschner & Paas, 2009; Schraw & McCrudden, 2013). Managing cognitive load may improve
knowledge transfer and ensure that new information is stored in long-term memory.
Sweller, Van Merrienboer and Paas (1998) recommend using the following strategies
during instructional design in order to manage the cognitive load: (1) using goal free or worked
examples that place less of a load on working memory instead of using means-ends approaches
to problem solving, (2) information should be physically integrated into manageable clusters in
order to eliminate the student having to mentally integrate the information, (3) reduce repetitive
information and eliminate unnecessary processing of repetitive information, (4) use auditory as
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 37
well as visual information that is not redundant to understanding.
An effective way of managing the cognitive load is designing courses with opportunities
to practice new skills purposely designed to improve knowledge and skills (Campitelli & Gobet,
2011). This deliberate practice keeps information in short-term memory long enough to transfer
to long-term memory (Brabeck, Jeffrey & Fry, 2013; Campitelli & Gobet, 2011). For example,
during the police academy, new recruits practice shooting from different positions until it
becomes automatic. Although this type of training does not improve critical thinking, it does
improve basic shooting skills. Instructors need to know how to design longitudinal training that
carries over outside the classroom. For example, additional opportunities for deliberate practice
may be included within ninety days of the training.
Additionally, instructors need to know how to properly assess the effectiveness of their
training courses. Evaluating training will help improve the program and maximize the transfer of
learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). According to Kirkpatrick (2006), there are four
levels of evaluation; reaction, learning, behavior and results. The agency is ultimately
responsible for developing the best way to evaluate their training (Kirkpatrick, 2006).
Problem based learning (PBL) is commonly used in law enforcement training. PBL is an adult
learning model that incorporates problem-solving skills in real world scenarios that allow the
student to apply past experiences with new knowledge (Cleveland & Saville, 2007). For
example, in police academy training, students are exposed to several traffic stop scenarios that
test their newly learned traffic codes, communication skills, and safety tactics (Makin, 2016).
Previously, recruits would learn each training module in a lectured-based platform that did not
address critical thinking (Makin, 2016). The Reno Police Department successfully applied PBL
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 38
to their field-training program, now commonly referred to as the Reno Field-Training Model
(Cleveland & Saville, 2007). Knowing how to design scenario testing that embodies PBL will
allow the instructors to evaluate level two (learning) of Kirkpatrick's (2006) evaluation models,
while improving the students’ critical thinking skills.
Metacognitive knowledge influences. Metacognition refers to being conscious of one’s
own thinking, and knowing what we know or do not know (Blakey & Spence. 1990). Instructors
who are metacognitively aware of their own thinking while conducting the design process are
likely to be more effective at planning, monitoring instruction, and evaluating instruction than
those who do not reflect on their own thinking (Wen, 2012). Instructors must make interactive
decisions during teaching based on the students’ response and reflect on their own teaching
process (Wen, 2012).
Documenting and evaluating the transfer of knowledge after instruction may maximize
the effects of instruction (Arguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Many organizations, including law
enforcement, traditionally lack methods of evaluating training effectiveness or employee
perceptions of training (Bennel & Jones, 2004; Rasool, Bashir, Azam, & Nasir, 2015).
Measuring the effects of training may take several months (Kirkpatrick, 2006). Part of this
assessment should include instructors reflecting on their own effectiveness as instructors (Wen,
2012). This may be accomplished through self-questioning, reflective journal writing or a
debriefing session with other instructors. Metacognitive knowledge includes the ability to self-
assess one’s strengths and weaknesses as an instructor. Monitoring the effects of training,
positive or negative, is a crucial function of the training cadre.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 39
Table 2
Stakeholder Knowledge Influences
______________________________________________________________________________
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Cathedral University Campus Safety Department (CU CSD) is to provide a
safe learning environment for the university community while providing quality service and
building relationships
Organizational Global Goal
By March 2018, CSD will maintain zero incidents of excessive force.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2017, the training staff will demonstrate the competencies necessary to design
and implement effective use-of-force training program.
Assumed Knowledge Influence Sample Items for Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Factual:
Instructors do not know the basic facts or
terminology related to information processing
and adult learning theory
Document analysis:
Review a course curriculum searching for evidence
of knowledge and terminology
Conceptual:
The instructors do not understand the impact
of cognitive load theory on knowledge transfer
Interview items:
“What are the key characteristics of an effective
training course?”
“How do you avoid overloading the student with
too much information?”
Procedural:
Instructors do not know how to conduct
training pre-assessments.
Instructors do not know how to evaluate
knowledge transfer
Interview item:
“How do you know that the training course fits
the needs of the department?
“How do you know that the student is
learning?”
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 40
Assumed Knowledge Influence Sample Items for Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Procedural:
Instructors do not know how to evaluate the
effectiveness of the training.
Instructors do not know how to incorporate
scenario testing into the curriculum.
“How do you evaluate the effectiveness of
training outside of the classroom?”
Observation: Observe a live training course
looking for necessary methods, techniques or
steps.
Metacognitive:
Instructors need to know how to evaluate their
own effectiveness as instructors
Interview item
“How do you reflect on your effectiveness as
an instructor?”
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Police Instructors’ Motivation Influences
This section of the paper discusses the relevant literature related to motivational
influences that affect the stakeholder group in achieving their goals (see Table 3). Motivation is
indicated by active choice, persistence and the amount of effort an individual applies towards the
completion of a task or goal (Mayer, 2011; Pintrich, 2003). The two primary motivational
factors proposed that affect the CSD instructors’ ability to design and implement effective
training are attribution theory and social cognitive theory (self-efficacy). Each will be discussed
next.
Attribution theory. Attribution theory examines the beliefs that the individual has
regarding the reasons an experience of success or failure occurred and correlates the beliefs to
future motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). Instructors need to perceive that officers’
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 41
performance on the job is directly and significantly affected by their effectiveness as instructors
rather than seeing the role of instruction as not critical in relationship to other factors that impact
on the job performance. Attributions may be classified in the dimension of locus of causality,
both internal and external (Harvey & Martinko, 2010). For example, an instructor might
attribute a student’s poor performance in the field to the student’s attitude or personality. This
may prevent instructors from recognizing the role of ineffective training courses or their own
role as an instructor. To understand the effectiveness of a training program, organizations must
understand the employee’s perceptions with regard to such factors (Rasool, Bashir, Azam, &
Nasir, 2015).
Trainer’ attributions. The instructors should feel that job performance is influenced by
the quality of their training rather than the officers’ lack of ability. Whether the instructors
perceive that the training is considered poor because they are ineffective instructors is associated
with internal locus (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). Motivation is increased when individuals
attribute their success with an internal locus of control like effort (Anderman & Anderman,
2009). Attribution theory explains that low achievers are hesitant to engage in chores related to
success because they feel things are out of their control (Weiner, 1980).
External locus would put the blame on the job failure on the students for not
understanding the material or another external explanation that is beyond the police instructors’
control. Instructors that associate the training’s effectiveness with an external locus of control
may avoid evaluating their training course because they feel that it is pointless. Instructors may
also avoid improving the training curriculum because they feel that no matter what they do, it is
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 42
the student who is ultimately responsible for the learning outcomes. For example, a study
revealed that teachers who lack a sense of control over the curriculum, the classroom, or the
selection of students had a lower level of perceived effectiveness (Lee, Dedrick & Smith, 1991).
The professional practitioner’s self-efficacy may be a direct result of the lack of choice (Lee,
Dedrick & Smith, 1991). Accurately assessing attribution can assist in empowering employees in
recognizing their role and contribution (Harvey & Martinko, 2010).
Self-efficacy. Social cognitive theory explains that self-efficacy beliefs are at the basis of
people’s motivation and personal accomplishment (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 2009). Self-efficacy
is judgements or self-perceptions of an individual’s ability to perform a certain task (Pajares,
2009). Individuals with low self-efficacy lack confidence in their abilities before engaging in the
activity. Individuals who lack confidence may avoid a difficult task instead of thinking of it as a
challenge (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 2009). Self-efficacy is important when individuals engage in
self-correcting behavior (Pajares, 2009). Individuals set goals based on their level of self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1997).
Instructors’ self-efficacy. The instructors should have confidence in their ability to
design and implement effective training. Instructors with low self-efficacy may avoid
challenging tasks such as updating the curriculum to manage the cognitive load or incorporating
scenario based testing. The instructors with high self-efficacy will invest the necessary
persistence and mental effort required to improve the training program. This could range from
mastering a certain topic to evaluating the effectiveness of the training. Instructors with low self-
efficacy may not conduct training evaluations to avoid any negative feedback.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 43
Similarly, poor performance reviews from a supervisor may contribute to low self-
efficacy. Instructors with low self-efficacy may not solicit feedback from their supervisor or
other instructors. Instructors with high self-efficacy will look at this feedback as a challenge and
search for ways to improve themselves or the instruction. The instructors’ perception about
other instructors’ self-efficacy may influence their own self-efficacy. It will be vital to study the
source of the instructor’s self-efficacy.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 44
Table 3
Stakeholder Motivation Influences
______________________________________________________________________________
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Cathedral University Campus Safety Department CU CSD) is to provide a
safe learning environment for the university community while providing quality service and
building relationships.
Organizational Global Goal
By March 2018, CSD will maintain zero incidents of excessive force.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2017, the training staff will demonstrate the competencies necessary to design
and implement effective use-of-force training program.
Assumed Motivation Influence Sample Items for Motivation Influence
Assessment
Attribution Theory:
Instructors should feel that job performance is
influenced by the quality of training rather
that the officer's’ lack of ability or other
external influences.
Interview item:
“What are some of the causes for student
success or failure in implementing your
training on the job?”
“How does your role as an instructor impact
that success?
Self-efficacy theory:
Instructors should have confidence in their
ability to design and implement effective
training.
Interview item:
“How confident are you in your abilities to
write a training curriculum?”
Observation: Observe a live training course to
gauge the instructor’s level of confidence
during implementation.
____________________________________________________________________________
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 45
Police Instructors’ Organizational Influences
This section focuses on the assumed organizational influences that affect the instructor’s
ability to meet the organizational goal. Even when the instructors have the required knowledge
and skills, as well as motivation, there might be ineffective processes or a cultural influence that
prevents them from being successful (Clark & Estes, 2008). These influences relate to the
cultural model or the cultural setting of the organization. Cultural models are learned beliefs of
how things should work in the organization (Rueda, 2011). Cultural models are beliefs, values,
or attitudes that are largely invisible and automatic (Rueda, 2011). Examples of organizational
influences related to cultural models include lack of trust, conflict avoidance, non-participation,
resistance to change, and a helplessness attitude (Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001; Schein, 2008).
Within an organization, cultural models shape the values, policies, reward systems and
practices (Rueda, 2011). A cultural setting is an observable representation of a cultural model
which includes who, what, where, when and why (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). The
relationship between the model and the setting is an active “interactional process” of
reciprocating effects on each other (Rueda, 2011, p. 58).
Cultural models. The first cultural model influence assumes that the instructors are
hesitant to apply adult learning theory into the curriculum because they feel that it might be met
with some form of resistance from the participating students (see Table 4.). Potential resistance
from students present roadblocks to teachers practicing new pedagogical approaches, causing
them to revert back to the traditional ways (Seidel & Tanner, 2013). There are natural
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 46
unconscious anxieties that occur during organizational change that may take the form of
resistance (Bovey & Hede, 2001). In this case, the organizational change of updating the training
program to incorporate adult learning theory or adding scenario testing may create some form of
resistance. Resistance can take the form of silence, denial, refusal to implement change, attacks
on the messenger’s credibility, dismantling the new change, and attacking the message itself
(Agócs, 1997). Psychoanalytic theory provides the overall conceptual framework for
understanding these unconscious responses adopted by the individual as a form of self-defense
(Bovey & Hede, 2001).
The second cultural model assumes that the overall culture in the organization is one that
does not value training. This regulatory behavior is a function of goal orientation because
individuals anticipate possible gains and losses (Chernev, 2004). If the organization does not
value training, then the instructors will automatically default to preserving the status quo. The
instructors may continue to conduct and implement training in the manner that they are
accustomed. The instructors may also be harboring some fear that they will be unable to
successfully implement the new ideas and will retreat to the status quo and avoid the threat of
failure (Wiseman, 1988). This is typically associated with an organization that does not look at
failure favorably or does not support employees who fail after trying out new ideas.
Cultural settings. The first cultural setting explores that lack or resources which align
with the organizational goal, specifically the lack of mentors. Applied psychology research
indicates that mentoring relationships provide a means for sharing organizational knowledge and
job related knowledge (Bryant & Terborg, 2008). Research has shown that the process of
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 47
mentoring lowers turnover, increase performance, and improves knowledge creation (Bryant &
Terborg, 2008). A mentor may be a senior instructor or an external expert who can guide new
instructors and provide professional development.
The lack of effective incentives for instructors is the second cultural setting that may be
affecting their ability to implement effective training. Research shows that reward programs
stimulate employees’ creativity and performance (Gohari, Kamkar, Hosseinipour & Zohoori,
2013). Intrinsic rewards include empowerment, recognition, gratitude, and entrustment (Gohari,
Kamkar, Hosseinipour & Zohoori, 2013). Extrinsic rewards include salary increase,
advancement opportunities, bonus pay, and fringe benefits (Gohari, Kamkar, Hosseinipour &
Zohoori, 2013). Intrinsic motivation is necessary for knowledge creation and improves
individual productivity (Markova & Ford, 2011). Extrinsic rewards might be a great way to
recruit someone into becoming an instructor, but without intrinsic rewards, they might revert to
maintaining the status quo.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 48
Table 4
Stakeholder Organizational Influences
______________________________________________________________________________
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Cathedral University Campus Safety Department (CU CSD) is to provide a
safe learning environment for the university community while providing quality service and
building relationships.
Organizational Global Goal
By March 2018, CSD will maintain zero incidents of excessive force.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2017, the training staff will demonstrate the competencies necessary to design
and implement effective use-of-force training program.
Assumed Organizational Influences Sample Items for Organizational Influence
Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1: Instructors are
hesitant to apply any contemporary adult
learning theory to new curriculum because
they believe it will be met with resistance from
the officers
Interview item - “What type of reactions do
officers generally have towards adult learning
theory in police training?”
Cultural Model Influence 2:
The organization does not value training.
Interview item- “Tell me about how the
organization, including the students, perceives
the value of training?”
Cultural Setting Influence 1: Instructors lack
resources that are aligned with the
organizational goal
Interview item- “Who do you go to when you
need help?”
Interview item- “What affects how much time
you spend designing a training course?”
Interview item- “What types of resources are
available to assist you as an instructor?”
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 49
Assumed Organizational Influences Sample Items for Organizational Influence
Assessment
Cultural Setting Influence 2: Instructors do
not receive any incentives or rewards for this
ancillary job function.
Interview item- “How does the organization
reward you for being an instructor?”
“Why did you become an instructor?”
______________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion
This section explored the assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational systems
that may create a performance gap in the instructor’s ability to provide effective training. This
section also highlighted key concepts in line with the most recent research on effective adult
learning methodology. It is clear that in order to meet the organizational goal; the training
curriculum must be updated and then effectively delivered. Qualitative measures will provide
the data required to gain a full understanding of the problem and corroborate the assumed
influences.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 50
Chapter Three: Methods
A conceptual framework is the fundamental construction of the study, which consists of
theories, concepts and research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The study observed the problem of
practice through the lens provided by the conceptual framework. This study’s conceptual
framework included a modified Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model which looked at the
knowledge, motivation and organizational influencers that may be responsible for creating a
performance gap within the stakeholder group (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. A modified gap analysis model by Clark and Estes (2008).
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Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis process utilizes various approaches to gather and
analyze data. This study was a qualitative case study, which included in depth interviews,
observations, and document analysis. Data analysis consisted of thematic synthesis of the
qualitative data. The stakeholder group of focus for this study was the instructors in the training
division. The organizational goal is to maintain zero incidents of excessive force. A preliminary
evaluation of the current training program revealed that it is not consistent with the current best
practices needed to ensure knowledge transfer and improve performance.
Figure 2. KMO conceptual framework adapted from Clark & Estes (2008) gap analysis.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 52
Figure 2 begins with the knowledge and motivation required to meet the stakeholder goal.
The knowledge and motivation categories visibly sit next to each other because they lie within
the instructor. The knowledge category includes the information needed to design, deliver, and
measure the effectiveness of training. The motivation category contains two perceived
influences that affect the success of the training implementation. The organizational influences
are located in the middle of the diagram because they are at the center of the problem. Although
all three of the assumed influencers appear visibly as individual categories, they possess a
symbiotic relationship with each other. For example, the lack of resources (mentors) may be the
reason that the instructors are not confident in their ability to provide quality training. Perhaps
the reason there is so much resistance from students is due to cognitive overload. Additionally,
the lack of incentives may directly influence the lack of resources (mentors). This reciprocal
process influences the design and delivery method of the training, which may prevent the
instructors from accomplishing the final stakeholder goal.
Research Methods
The project employed qualitative research methodology for data gathering and analysis.
The evaluation of CU CSD’s current training program is in relationship to the organizational
goal and will be assessed using interviews, observations, and document analysis.
Recommendations will include research-tested approaches, evaluated in a comprehensive
manner, aimed at closing performance gaps caused by a lack of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influencers.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 53
Research Questions
1. What are the instructors’ knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences related to
their ability to design and implement effective use-of-force training?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivational, and organizational solutions?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder of focus in this study was the group of instructors in the training
division. The instructors are responsible for choosing the delivery method and updating their
respective training courses. The study included a purposeful sampling of the group of
instructors. The purposefully selected individuals and training sites assisted the researcher in
understanding the problem of practice and helped answer the research questions (Creswell,
2013). The criteria include tenure, leadership role, and type of training course they teach. The
participants fell into at least one of the criteria above. The criteria helped highlight any patterns
and reveal if they apply to a certain group or the entire training staff.
The observation location and training course of choice possessed complex use of force
concepts with dense information in order to observe how the instructors manage cognitive
overload. The course featured multiple instructors in order to observe various levels of
knowledge. The course possessed a critical thinking component in order to observe problem-
based learning. The following sections include an explanation of the sampling criterion.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 54
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale
Observing a live training session provided access to real time data and an entire training
team; (1) supervisor and (4-5) instructors. The Chief of Campus Safety agreed to allow the
researcher to observe a live training course. The observation was a convenience sampling at the
discretion of the training cadre. Some training courses are confidential and offered on a limited
basis. The researcher emailed a scripted message to the training cadre explaining the purpose of
the observation. The observation allowed the researcher to ask informal questions and begin to
establish a rapport with the instructors (Creswell, 2013). It was important to conduct the
observation prior to the interviews. This granted the researcher an opportunity to study the
course design in regards to adult learning theory and overall effectiveness.
Observation Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. The use of force courses that were available included firearms training, self-
defense, shooting simulator, tactical communications, and baton training. The course selected
possessed a balance of classroom and practical practice. It was important to observe the training
cadre in their natural environment. The observation focused on the instructors’ ability to
implement the course curriculum and their use of adult learning principles. This provided insight
into their knowledge regarding implementing training and perhaps their motivation. Ideally,
visiting two courses for approximately four hours seemed the most effective, but because of
availability, the researcher visited one course for eight hours. The researcher asked questions and
took notes that shaped the interview questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016)
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 55
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Every participant fell into at least one of the criterion listed below. Non-probability,
purposeful sampling was used with the goal of obtaining at least one supervisor. The goal was to
sample at least two instructors in each tenure range (1-5 years, 5-10yrs, 10+). The sampling also
included at least one instructor from each type of use of force course (firearms, self-defense, and
baton). There are fifteen instructors, which include two supervisors. An effective sample size
included one supervisor and four instructors. This ensured that the previously mentioned
criterion was represented. The interview invitation included the entire training cadre, with the
goal of 30 percent participation. Recruiting included a scripted personal message explaining the
final step in the study and how all of the pieces fit together. The message included the overall
department approval for the study and an explanation of the global goal.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. It was important to interview new instructors with 1-5 years of experience.
They served as the base group. Knowledge and motivation might vary depending on tenure and
experience. Organizational influences may affect this group differently than a senior instructor.
The criterion also included instructors with 5-10 years of experience who have the most
experience teaching. In theory, this group would have the most interaction with the
organizational influencers and culture.
Criterion 2. Instructors who teach use of force courses (firearms, self-defense, baton
etc.). The global goal is to maintain zero incidents of excessive force. It was important to focus
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 56
on the courses that have a direct impact on the stakeholder goal. Although all instructors were
included in the study, it was important to obtain a sample from this criterion. The instructors
involved in the observation made excellent participants because of the pre-established rapport,
which may have led to honest replies.
Criterion 3. Supervisors or lead instructors within the training unit. This group is
perhaps the most influential within the training unit. They are responsible for selecting and
training new instructors. This group has the most influence on one of the main assumed
organizational influencers, the lack of a reward system.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The design of the study focused on qualitative research methods. A qualitative design is
meant to be emergent (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This approach provided the most meaningful
data in order to answer the above research questions. The study consisted of a document analysis
of a written training curriculum, Power Point presentation, post-training surveys, a semi-
structured interviews, and an observation of a live training course.
Interviews
Qualitative research uses interviews as its primary source of data (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Each volunteer participated in a single informal, semi-structured, interview. The
interviews were conducted via an online meeting platform. The interviews did not last longer
than an hour. The majority of the questions were open-ended allowing the participant to
construct their own meaning (see Appendix A) (Creswell, 2013). The document analysis or the
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 57
observation notes guided the follow up questions during the interviews.
Documents and Artifacts
Document analysis is another component of a qualitative study. The Chief of Campus
Safety agreed to allow the researcher to analyze a written course curriculum. Document analysis
allows the researcher to “develop an understanding” and “discover insights” needed to answer
the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 61). Analyzing a course outline prior to the
observation granted the researcher access to language and theory needed to understand the
problem (Creswell, 2013). The document analysis protocol focused on adult learning theory,
cognitive load; practice opportunities and testing methods (see Appendix B). Analyzing a
training curriculum included the Power Point presentation, which provided the researcher an
opportunity to begin to create a theoretical framework. Another benefit of a document is that it
does not change and is available for reference at any time (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
document analysis featured the curriculum that was used in the observation. This will allow the
researcher and opportunity to observe incongruences. An analytic memo was completed
immediately after the document analysis in order to capture the researcher’s initial thoughts and
reactions. The document analysis also included a review of the course post training evaluations.
This allowed the researcher to read the students’ responses and determine the level of evaluation.
This may provide some insight into the instructor’s factual and procedural knowledge.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 58
Observation
Observations are important because they allow the researcher to add context and meaning
to the participants’ perspective (Bogdan & Biklen 2007). Qualitative observations include taking
field notes in a semi-structured process guided by questions the researcher wants to answer
(Creswell, 2003). The researcher conducted one observation of an eight-hour training course.
The focus of the observation was evaluating the effectiveness of the written curriculum. The
observation protocol focused on instructional design strategies, application of procedural
knowledge, receipt of knowledge and knowledge construction (see Appendix C.)
Observations allow the researcher to participate in various roles from non-participant to
complete participant (Creswell, 2013). The researcher assumed the role of a participant
observer, which left room to ask questions without influencing the participant’s behavior in any
significant degree (Maxwell, 2013). This helped maintain the validity of the data retrieved from
the observation. An analytic memo was completed immediately after the observation. The field
notes were typed and analyzed as soon as possible.
Data Analysis
Grounded theory guided the data analysis of the interviews, which allowed the researcher
to derive a general theory of process from interrelation patterns and categories (Creswell, 2013).
Data analysis began during the interviews, observations, and document analysis. The researcher
completed analytic memos after each interview and each observation. This included initial
thoughts, concerns, and possible conclusion about the data in relation to the conceptual
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 59
framework and research questions. The interviews were transcribed immediately after the
fieldwork was concluded. The first phase of analysis included open coding, empirical codes and
priori codes based on the conceptual framework. The second phase of analysis took the
empirical and priori codes and aggregated them into analytic or axial codes. The third phase of
data analysis highlighted pattern codes and themes that materialize which relate to the research
questions and conceptual framework. The intensity of the analysis increased once all of the data
was gathered (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Qualitative researchers enter a study knowing that their research will not discover an
objective reality (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). That does not infer that the research is not credible
or reliable. Creswell (2013) describes threats to internal validity as “procedure, treatment, or
experiences of the participants that threaten the researcher’s ability to draw correct inferences”
(p.275). The first measure for ensuring credibility is triangulation. Triangulation analysis of
multiple data collection methods (interviews, observations, document analysis) increased the
credibility of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Triangulation requires cross checking data
collected at various times throughout the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). During data analysis,
the researcher re-examined the analytic memos in order to see changes in thought or developing
themes.
The second strategy for ensuring internal validity is respondent validation, which
required soliciting feedback about the initial analysis from some of the interview or observation
participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The data analysis was shared with participants in an
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 60
effort to conduct member checking. This was designed to highlight any bias or misunderstanding
of the analysis. This study also included respondent validation with one interview participant and
one participant from the observation. Cross checking the findings from the interviews against
what was actually observed and compared to what is documented in the course curriculum
completed the triangulation process.
The third strategy to ensure validity is question validation. Radhakrishna (2007)
recommends that each question is justified in relation to the object of the study and vetted by a
panel of experts. Two training instructors from outside police departments vetted each question.
The Flesch-Kinkaid Readability Formula guided the structure of the questions to ensure that they
were clear and understandable. This ensured that questions produced the appropriate responses,
which improved validity. The researcher has taken several steps in order to ensure that the
questions reflect the content, is appropriate for the sample, gathers the information needed to
address the purpose of the study and is readable.
Ethics
This study included semi-structured interviews. All participants were given a fact sheet
explaining the purpose of the study. The fact sheet included enough information so that the
interviewee can make an informed decision about participating (Glesne, 2010). This included
recommendations from the CU Office for the Protection of Research Subjects (OPRS) : (1)
participation is voluntary, (2) all data is considered confidential, all identifying descriptors will
be removed to protect the participants, (3) participation will not be shared with the organization ,
(4) participants do not have to be recorded, (5) audio recordings will be transcribed and
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 61
destroyed within two weeks of the interview, (6) all data will be stored in a secured and
encrypted hard drive that is password protected, (7) participants may withdraw at any time. The
Cathedral University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviewed the study to ensure that all
participants were treated fairly and ethically.
The researcher is a former member of the department. A former subordinate and
supervisor relationship did not influence the participants because the researcher left the
organization more than two years ago. Therefore, there was no current power or influence over
the participants. The researcher is a high ranking official for another college and was conscious
of the potential interviewee pressure to participate in the study. This pressure was avoided by
eliminating the researcher’s title in any correspondence and reminding the participants that the
role of the investigator was strictly as a researcher.
The researcher was once part of the training cadre and is aware of the potential for bias in
selecting instructors with a pre-established relationship. To avoid this bias, the entire training
cadre was invited to participate in the study. It was clearly explained that the study will benefit
the participant and the organization in order to gain more cooperation (Krueger & Casey, 2009).
Everyone was encouraged to participate with a clear option to opt out. Although the researcher
may have had preconceived notions regarding the training program, it was imperative to enter
the study with a clear and open mind to avoid any unintended bias. As a former instructor and
police officer, there was potential for bias during data collection. Having an expertise in the
subject may have caused the researcher to unfairly judge the instructors on the merits of their
expertise which may have also carried over to the data collection and analysis process. To avoid
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 62
any such bias, the researcher selected an unfamiliar topic and new curriculum.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are advantages and limitations to every study. During the observation, there may
be information that cannot be described or interpreted accurately. There is a possibility that the
researcher chose an irrelevant training course to observe that does not provide the required
information. There is a possibility that the observer cannot establish a good rapport with the
training cadre during the observation, which may negatively affect the honesty during the
interviews.
Interviews rely heavily on information from the perspective of the participant. This may
lead to inconsistent data that is difficult to interpret (Creswell, 2013). Not all participants are
articulate, which may cause the researcher to rephrase the interview questions and potentially
lead the participant to a bias response. The document analysis of a training curriculum may not
be conclusive or difficult to understand without additional assistance. This may lead to more
questions than answers. The conceptual framework consists of concepts and existing theories
that are coupled with the researcher’s experience. The researcher is conscious of the potential
for researcher bias in the overall study design. There are limitations with these types of concept
maps because the arrows do not always capture all of the possible connections or relationships
between concepts (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher is aware that the conceptual framework is a
visual representation of key concepts and not an actual road map.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 63
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to determine the instructor’s current level of training and
the competency in regards to providing effective use-of-force training. Clark and Estes’s (2008)
gap analysis framework served as a systematic approach of evaluating the gap between
performance goals and desired outcomes. A document analysis was conducted of a written
training curriculum, including the accompanying Power Point presentation and post-training
survey. This was followed by qualitative data collection through the observation of a live
training course, and with in-person field interviews with the instructors who designed and
implemented the course curriculum. The intent of the data collection and analysis was to rule out
or validate the assumed causes articulated in Chapter Three. The questions that guided this study
are as followed:
1. What are the instructors’ knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences related
to their ability to design and implement effective use-of-force training?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivational, and organizational solutions?
Five instructors were interviewed using an in-depth, face-to-face interview format to provide
information about their experiences implementing and designing training. This chapter presents
the findings that were validated through the data collection process and presents them in the
categories of knowledge, motivation and organization.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 64
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders that participated in the interviews included one supervisor and four
instructors. Three of the participants were responsible for writing and teaching the curriculum
that was the basis of the document analysis and the observation. The other two instructors teach
courses related to use of force.
Table 5
Coding/Pseudonyms of Instructors Interviewed
Title
Pseudonym
Random gender/pronoun
assignment Years of teaching
Instructor # 1 Allen Male Five to Ten
Instructor # 2 Ben Male Five to Ten
Supervisor/Instructor # 3 Clara Female Five to Ten
Instructor # 4 Derick Male One to Five
Instructor # 5 Edward Male One to Five
The five instructors, representing forty five percent of the instructors of the campus safety
department, had varying teaching experience. Four of the instructors were male and one was
female. Code names, or pseudonyms, based on the phonetic alphabet, were assigned for each
instructor. Gender for pronouns was assigned to protect the identities of the participants and to
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 65
honor confidentially (see Table 5). Allen and Clara are full time members of the training division
and Ben, Derick and Edward are field officers who are part time instructors.
Observations and Document Analysis
The findings are based on data gathered during a document analysis of written training
curriculum, its accompanying Power Point presentation and post training survey. The course
was designed by Allen and Edward, and then approved by Clara. Additional data was gathered
during an observation of Edward and Clara implementing the same written curriculum during a
live training session. Document analysis consisted of analyzing a written training curriculum
and Power Point presentation searching for specific terms or strategies used to manage cognitive
load or test for knowledge transfer. The second document analysis consisted of analyzing the
post training survey looking for the level of evaluation that the instructors chose.
Interviews
Interviews were conducted with the instructors in table 5. The interviews were conducted
via an online platform which lasted forty-five minutes. The questions were semi-structured with
predesignated follow up questions. There were some follow up phone calls after the interviews
when specific information needed to be clarified or explained. The instructors were asked about
their experience designing and implementing training, rewards and recognition programs,
resistance from learners and organizational support. The following section discusses the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational themes that emerged from the qualitative study.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 66
The four assumed knowledge causes outlined in Chapter Three were validated or validated in
part. The knowledge causes are divided into four areas utilizing Krathwohl’s (2002) and Rueda’s
(2011) four knowledge types: factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. The knowledge
categories are discussed in relation to each other and include validated themes that emerged from
the data. The knowledge themes are based on the Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model
used to identify gaps in knowledge. This section focuses on the research questions that examined
the instructor’s current knowledge in regards to designing and implementing effective use of
force training.
General Knowledge
This section discusses the instructors’ formal training in regards to course design and
implementation. It is important to review the basis of the instructors’ knowledge in order to
provide context to the findings. The study revealed that knowledge within the instructor cadre at
the CSD did not vary greatly. Allen was the only instructor to mention that they had any formal
training in writing curriculum. The training that Allen attended is the advanced instructor course
that follows the basic forty hour facilitator course. The instructors all attend a forty hour
Academy Instructor Certification Course (AICC). This course is the foundation of the
instructor’s knowledge. The course teaches (1) how to create a written training plan, (2)
presentation skills, (3) facilitate a learning activity, (4) use training aids, (5) participate in the
evaluation of peers (https://post.ca.gov).
The course is designed for new police academy instructors who will utilize state
standardized written curriculum and testing. The course focuses on facilitated instruction
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 67
revolving around learning activities tailored to the students’ preferred learning modalities (e.g.,
visual, auditory, kinetic). The notion of learning styles has received consistent criticism from
leading researchers (e.g., Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer & Bjork, 2009) and will be addressed later.
The training course also introduces the instructors to Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy of learning
domains: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The
learning domains were later revised by Krathwohl and Anderson (2000) which included a deeper
discussion of factual, conceptual and procedural knowledge, with the addition of metacognitive
knowledge. Kratwohl’s (2002) revision of Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy served as the conceptual
framework of this study.
As part of instruction, each instructor must diagnose a students’ individual learning style
and tailor the instruction accordingly to obtain optimal learning. This ineffective strategy was
observed during the live training course and mentioned several times during the interviews. The
instructors were asked to explain the key features of an effective training course. Edward replied
that, “one of the key points is just trying to figure out what the general consensus within the class
on learning modalities…some people learn from touch, some people learn by visual.” Research
has found that there is no evidence supporting the idea that instruction is best when it matches
the students’ preferred learning style (Dembo & Keith, 2007; Pashler et al., 2009).
The study showed that the instructors have a basic understanding of implementing a
training course but not necessarily the skills needed to design. This gap in knowledge may be
attributed to the foundational course that they receive which is more tailored for police academy
instructors who utilize pre-written curriculum. The course appears to have improved the
instructors’ conceptual knowledge but not the procedural knowledge needed to design effective
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 68
training. In fact, Allen was the only instructor who indicated that they received advanced training
in the area of instructional design. Although Allen indicated that they found the training
beneficial, he explained that he hadn’t had much practice actually writing new curriculum.
Findings
Knowledge
The knowledge themes are based on the Clark and Estes’ (2002) gap analysis model used
to systematically identify gaps in the instructor’s knowledge. This section answers the part of the
research questions that examines the instructor’s knowledge and how it relates to designing and
implementing training. Several themes emerged that highlighted that the instructor’s need to
have more knowledge in the area of managing the learner’s cognitive load. First, that the
instructors need the basic knowledge of how cognitive load effects knowledge transfer. Second,
the instructors need more knowledge in the area of effective evaluation measures. Third, the
instructors need to learn additional self-reflective practices. The following section explores these
themes in detail.
Lack of basic knowledge of cognitive load. The first four hours of the training course
feature one module with several topics. The first section contains five topics with over seventeen
terms or concepts. Working memory is limited to about seven new items that have to be
remembered (Baddeley, 1992; Kirschner, Kirschner, & Pass, 2006: Miller, 1956). There was no
evidence that the instructors were attempting to manage the cognitive load by breaking up the
information into schemas or mental structures used to organize the knowledge. For example,
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 69
when teaching non-verbal communication, the topic could have been incorporated into the
learner’s prior verbal de-escalation training. This would help the learner by automatically placing
the new information in the appropriate pre-existing framework. The five topics were not tied to
the learner’s pre-existing schemas which limited the amount of new information that they could
process. Using schemas reduces the cognitive load and allows for automated processing of new
information (Kirschner, 2003).
Although the students where not the focus of the study, their comments in the document
analysis of the post training survey revealed that they would have liked more time to practice on
each subject. The curriculum did not contain any opportunities to rehearse new information so
that it can be integrated into existing schemas, keeping the information in short-term memory
long enough to transfer into long term memory (Brabeck, Jeffrey & Fry, 2013; Campitelli &
Gobet, 2011). There is a difference between rote memorization and learning via deliberate
practice. The course appeared to focus on rote memorization or the ability to recall factual
knowledge, even though the goal of the course was to improve procedural skills.
Too many topics in one training day. The training day consisted of an overall theme,
but it was technically three distinct courses. “Cramming” three courses into one full day of
training provided the learners with a large amount of information presented over eighty Power
Point slides. This may explain why there was no time for deliberate practice or rehearsal.
Without any opportunities for deliberate practice such as role-playing, or a live demonstration
with instructor feedback, the information was presented as factual information that needs to be
remembered. As mentioned earlier, working memory is limited to about seven new items that
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 70
have to be remembered (Baddeley, 1992; Kirschner, Kirschner, & Pass, 2006: Miller, 1956) and
this has a significant impact on how instruction is ideally structured. Once deliberate practice is
included in the instructional design, each one of these courses has the potential to become their
own training day.
The instructors are following the state minimum hourly requirement which allows them
to fit several courses into one training day. Although the courses are certified through the
commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST), this does not necessarily make
them effective. Many of the POST certified courses only govern the information that needs to be
included or the skills that are necessary. POST does not mandate any deliberate practice or
rehearsal. There is no guarantee that the information presented in the course is going to be
remembered without deliberate practice. According to Peterson and Peterson (1959), without
rehearsal, almost all information that is stored in working memory is lost within thirty seconds.
Ineffective instructional design. The majority of learning activities were group work in
which the learners were asked to define terms, followed by a three minute presentation or “teach
back,” as it was described in the curriculum. Each table was given a different section. Each
group would designate a spokesperson to post a large white sheet of paper on the wall with the
list of examples or terms. The spokesperson would explain the terms on the list. The lists were
difficult to read and in some cases contained wrong information. The instructors would explain
how some of the examples did not belong on the list, but allowed them to remain on display.
This portion of the teach back was ineffective because it may increase the extraneous load by
including irrelevant information (Mayer, 2009).
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According to cognitive load theory, group learning divides cognitive load across several
individuals (Kirschner, Pass, & Kirschner, 2009). Research does support the concept of group
problem solving or collaborative learning under conditions that cause high cognitive load
(Kirschner, Pass, & Kirschner, 2009). This portion of the teach back was somewhat effective,
even though the cognitive load was low because the task was not aimed at problem solving. This
strategy may have helped reduce the overall cognitive load during the course.
Ineffective presentation and delivery. The observation focused on the instructional
design of the course, looking at how the information was presented. Mayer’s (2001) principles
of managing cognitive load served as the theoretical framework for the document analysis
protocol and the observation protocol. The Power Point presentation contained over eighty
slides. The majority of the slides contained bullet points with the entire definition of the new
terms. The instructors would read the slide verbatim from their computer screen. This is referred
to
“redundancy presentation,” in which words are presented simultaneously as narration and on-
screen text (Mayer & Moreno, 2003, p. 49). According to Mayer and Moreno (2003), the learner
may devote their cognitive capacity to merging the text and narration, thus reducing the amount
of information that can be processed. Atkinson and Mayer (2004) support the theory that a large
quantity of text is likely to cause cognitive overload. Some of the comments in the post training
course evaluation mentioned that this was ineffective and caused the students to lose interest.
According to Mayer (2009), it is effective to combine speech sounds with printed words
utilizing dual channels. Although the instructors targeted two separate modalities (e.g., auditory
and visual), the strategy was ineffective because the slides contained an exorbitant amount of
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 72
text. The research does support the dual channel concept that people have separate information
processing channels for visual material and verbal material (Atkinson & Mayer, 2004). This
generally applies to narration and pictures or short text with narration.
Lack of effective measures. The study revealed that the instructor’s primary method of
evaluating learning is utilizing learner “teach backs.” Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) do
support using teach backs as an effective measure of learning. The instructors used teach backs
after group exercises, in which only one person from the group reported back to the entire class.
Teach backs are representative that the group understood the basic concepts of the lesson
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Using teach backs in a group setting is effective when testing
conceptual knowledge but not necessarily when testing procedural knowledge
Teach backs should be incorporated into a variety of different learning activities. When
evaluating procedural knowledge through a teach back, every learner would have to teach a
portion of the material to their classmates to confirm their own understanding (Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Using teach backs as the only form of evaluating learning is ineffective
during use of force training that aims to increase the learner’s procedural skills.
Class discussions are used to evaluate knowledge transfer. As part of the interview,
the instructors were asked to explain the key characteristics of an effective training class and
how they measure the effectiveness. The study revealed that the instructors do not use any test to
evaluate knowledge transfer after the instruction. Arguinis and Kraiger (2009) recommend
evaluating the transfer of knowledge after the instruction in order to maximize the effects of the
instruction. The theme that surfaced throughout the interviews was that class participation and
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 73
group discussions were used to determine if learning was taking place. According to Kirkpatrick
and Kirkpatrick (2016), group discussions may be used to evaluate declarative knowledge, but
not when evaluating procedural knowledge.
In order to evaluate a skill, the knowledge assessment should require the learner to
actually demonstrate something (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Derrick explained that a post
training assessment is not needed if you have an interactive group. Derrick stated, “Assessments
are a benchmark of kind of what you're teaching and if it's getting through. I think if you have a
really interactive group, you can kind of see that and you almost won't need a test because you
can see that they're getting the materials.” Derrick was referring to a course that was designed to
improve the learner’s verbal de-escalation skills which would make his assessment ineffective.
Instructors conduct informal follow-ups to check for knowledge transfer. The
instructors were asked to explain how they monitor the long-term effectiveness of their training.
The interviews revealed that the instructors informally monitor performance by polling field
supervisors to see if the learners are applying the newly acquired skills. In an empirical study, an
organization that monitored new training and reinforced throughout, increased the application on
the job by as much as 85 percent (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Three of the five instructors
mentioned polling the supervisors to see if the officers are using the training on the job. Edward
stated, “You just have to rely on supervision to provide you with details about encounters that
they’ve had and how they handled that.”
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) recommend using supervisors to gather information
regarding training but only when it is incorporated into a comprehensive evaluation plan with
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 74
observable critical behaviors. Monitoring the degree to which participants apply what they
learned in the training to actual on the job performance is level three (behavior) of Kirkpatrick’s
evaluation model. During the planning phase of the training curriculum, instructors should
design evaluation tools that will be used throughout the program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). The practice of using supervisors to monitor level three (behavior) is effective, but should
be conducted systematically with specific evaluation tools used through varying stages after the
training.
Scenario testing is used to validate procedural knowledge. As a follow up question, the
instructors were asked if they ever incorporate scenario testing into their courses. The interviews
revealed that the instructors use scenario testing as deliberate practice or to test procedural skills,
but not necessarily to improve cognitive abilities. Deliberate practice assists in transferring
knowledge from short-term memory into long term memory (Brabeck, Jeffrey & Fry, 2013;
Campitelli & Gobet, 2011). Scenario testing is used to determine whether learners are capable of
demonstrating the newly acquired skills (e.g., how to throw a punch, how to strike with a baton)
but it does not necessarily test the learners’ ability to apply the new skills in unforeseen
situations.
Rueda (2011) warns that it is dangerous to simply learn the “what” and “how” but not the
“why” or “when” (p. 36). All five instructors mentioned using scenario testing to validate
procedural knowledge during their instruction. Clara mentioned that at the end of a firearms
training course there is a scenario test.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 75
Clara explained,
The scenarios called for us walking the whole thing first with empty guns pretending
they’re shooting, they move from a point of coverage to the other one, and finally
culminated with them having to actually shoot on the move. You could see that they
understood it.
The scenario test was designed to validate “how to” shooting skills and focused very little on
problem solving. Although scenario testing should be used to improve cognitive abilities, it is
somewhat effective at testing procedural knowledge.
Lack of training needs’ assessment. The data revealed that the curriculum was designed
without conducting a training needs assessment. A training needs assessment identifies the needs
of the organization and through addressing the specific needs, maximizes the benefits of training
(Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). The course was adapted from a standard “train the trainer” course.
These courses are mandated by the state with an hourly requirement. A training need’s
assessment will allow the instructors to prioritize the topics which contain the larger gaps in
knowledge.
There were several different positions in the training course (e.g., dispatchers, security
officers, police officers). A training needs’ assessment would have revealed that the various
positions possess different training needs and requirements. This was evident in the post course
evaluation which contained three comments requesting more examples specific to their position.
The first module was specifically designed for police officers leaving the other learners to figure
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 76
out how the training applies to their position. Having to mentally integrate the information places
a heavy strain on the cognitive load (Sweller, Van Merrienboer & Paas ,1988).
Minimal experience writing and designing training. The interviews revealed that
Allen was the only instructor who completed any formal training in writing training curriculum.
The instructors were asked to describe the process of writing and implementing a training
curriculum. Three of the instructors mentioned that they have never had the opportunity to write
or design a training course. Edward replied, “Well, you know what, honestly I can’t, I leave that
to our coordinator. So our coordinator actually writes it.” The study revealed that the instructors
do not possess the procedural skills needed to write an original training curriculum. The
document analysis also supports this assertion since it was a pre-written training curriculum that
was slightly modified to include different learning activities. Procedural knowledge includes the
“how to skills” needed to complete an assignment (Krathwohl, 2002).
The interviews revealed that the instructors’ knowledge in regards to designing and
implementing training is limited to altering pre-written training curriculum to account for the
students’ preferred learning modalities. The instructors were asked to explain the process of
writing curriculum. Allen said, “I’ve taken a whole bunch of courses, I took little pieces here and
there…I’m kind of just mushing it all together.” It should be noted that the instructor with
advance training was still limited to altering pre-written training curriculum. Allen explained that
he tweaks the curriculum by adding group activities, scenarios and teach backs. The curriculum
is part of the “train the trainer” course that the instructors attend or a curriculum taken from
another police department. This may be attributed to Allen’s lack of expertise in that particular
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 77
area and not reflective of his overall writing abilities.
Without the ability to create a new training curriculum, the instructor cannot react quickly
to an issue within their organization and must seek a pre-written curriculum that satisfies their
needs. This may prolong the solution which could be resolved quickly with an original training
curriculum.
Self-reflection during instruction. The interviews revealed that they only reflect on
their effectiveness during the course using student engagement as the gauge. The instructors
were asked how they reflect on their own effectiveness as instructors. Ben replied, “I would say
the engagement of the personnel. If you’re teaching a class with the other instructors, you’re
looking at the body language of the students that you’re teaching.” Ben further explained that
reflecting during the course allows him to make adjustment to improve delivery of the lecture.
Ben stated, “Maybe it’s not the course itself, it’s the way that I’m delivering it, maybe the tone in
my voice. Then I have the new mentality where it’s let me modify what I teach.” Wilson (2008)
explains that reflection-in-action is learning from the event as it is happening, which allows the
practitioner to adapt and respond instinctively.
Three of the five instructors described changing their teaching methods during the course
based on student engagement and participation. Wen (2012) states that making interactive
decisions during teaching based on the learner’s responses is a form self-reflection. This
“reflection-in-practice” is a form of metacognitive knowledge (Wilson, 2008). Reflection-in-
practice is not as effective as reflection-on-action in regards to evaluating course effectiveness.
None of the instructors mentioned any forms of reflection-on-practice, debriefing, or self-critique
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 78
other than reading the course evaluations. Reflection-on-action or reflecting after the training
course is needed to identify areas for improvement (Wilson, 2008). Reflection-on-action allows
the instructors to evaluate the entire course including the effectiveness of the actual course
design.
Motivation
The motivation themes are based on the Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model used
to systematically identify gaps in the instructor’s motivation. This section answers the part of the
research questions that examines the instructor’s motivation and how it relates to designing and
implementing training. A theme emerged in the area of attribution. The instructors believe that
the students are more responsible than the instructors for the learning outcomes. In the area of
self-efficacy, a theme emerged, that the instructors have low to moderate confidence in their
abilities to design and implement training.
External locus of control. The interviews revealed that the instructors feel that the
students are equally, if not more, responsible for learning outcomes as the instructors. The
instructors were asked to explain some of the causes for student success in their classroom, with
a follow up question about how much responsibility falls on the student. Only one instructor felt
that they were ultimately responsible for student success. The rest placed some or the majority of
the responsibility on the student. Derrick replied, “The student should have the discipline to
know that number one, this is going to help them at their job. Number two, they should be able
to. They should want to learn and want to be better.” The other instructors replied, “fifty, fifty”
and “sixty, forty.”
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 79
Placing the majority of the responsibility for student success in the classroom on the
learner may prevent the instructors from recognizing a poorly designed course or their own
effectiveness as instructors. The outcomes of the poorly designed course may be attributed to the
learner’s desire to learn as Derrick explained. The instructor’s may not be motivated to evaluate
the effectiveness of the course or their instruction because they feel that they are not ultimately
responsible for a successful outcome. Attribution theory explains that an individual’s beliefs
regarding the reason they experienced a success or failure is related to their future motivation
(Anderman & Anderman, 2009).
Low to medium levels of self-efficacy. The instructors were asked about their
confidence in their ability to write new training curriculum. Allen reported high levels of
confidence in his ability to write new training curriculum which may be attributed to the
advanced instructor course which focuses on writing curriculum. Ben, Clara and Edward
reported medium levels of self-efficacy which was followed up with a disclaimer that they have
never actually written a new training curriculum. Clara mentioned, “It’d be rough, but yeah, I
think I could. Derrick reported low levels, “Somewhat, I would say, out of ten, I’m at about a
four. I think I covered the basics of what I wrote and it seemed to work. It’s gotten approved.”
Derrick later explained that this curriculum was an amalgamation of two train the trainer courses
that he attended.
These types of statements highlight the importance of self-efficacy as described by
Pajares (2009) as it relates to the individual’s ability to perform the task. The instructor’s gauge
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 80
of their self-efficacy is accurate because it is a self-perception about their apparent skills. This
self-efficacy is at the basis of people’s motivation and personal accomplishments (Bandura,
1997; Pajares, 2009). The instructors’ moderate self-efficacy may be preventing them from
taking on the challenging task of updating or creating new training curriculum. Individuals with
low self-efficacy may avoid a difficult task instead of looking at it as a challenge (Bandura,
1997, Pajares, 2009). Derrick, who reported the lowest level, explained how difficult it was
writing a new training curriculum. Derrick, said, “Yeah, its labor intensive. I had no idea it was
so meticulous. You have to go through so much. You come up with the concept and pick out
your lesson objectives.” Derrick’s belief that writing training curriculum is “labor intensive” or
Clara’s comment that, “it would be rough”, may be directly attributed to their levels of self-
efficacy. Even though the instructors self-reported medium levels of self-efficacy, the goal is for
them to report high-levels. Self-efficacy levels are important when evaluating the effectiveness
of the course. Self-efficacy is directly related to an individual’s self-correcting behavior (Pajares,
1997).
Organization
The organization theme follows the Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model used
throughout this study to methodically identify gaps. This section answers the part of the research
question that examines the organizational influences that impact the instructor’s ability to design
and implement effective training. Three themes emerged from the interviews. The first is
participants believe that the resistance to training from the learners is attributed to recurring
mandatory training. Second, top management does not visibly communicate the importance of
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 81
training. Third, the organization does not assist with scheduling conflicts which impact the
delivery of the training. Fourth, the instructors do not receive any incentives for their ancillary
duties as instructors. These themes are explained in further detail in the following section.
Resistance to mandatory training. The study revealed two types of resistance, verbal
protest and non-participation. The resistance focuses on two aspects of the training. First, the
learners resist the instructor’s attempts to incorporate learning activities. Second, the learners
resist the redundancy of recurring, mandatory training. The instructors were asked to explain any
form of resistance that they had observed from the learners. Allen stated, “I do see push back.
They just want to be lectured. Well, if I’m coming up with the answers, why do I have to take
this class?” During the observation, a student told Edward, “You're wasting your time with these
group projects.” The instructors mentioned that this type of resistance is very minimal with some
students not participating in the group activities. This is not effective because group activities
with a teach back is the instructor’s primary form evaluating learning.
Four of the five instructors mentioned some form of resistance from learners towards
mandatory training. There are courses that are considered a perishable skill and must be
completed biannually. Allen explained that some learners see these types of courses as a burden.
Allen said, “Sometimes we get a lot of officers that go to the training because they are forced to
go, and they just want to get through the eight hours.” Ben said, “With work sometimes what’s
difficult is to get the involvement and the engagement of the officer when it’s more of a
mandatory training.” Seidel and Tanner (2013) suggest that potential resistance from students
presents roadblocks to teachers practicing new pedagogical approaches, causing them to revert
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 82
back to the traditional way. In this study, the traditional way appears to be a Power Point
lecture with periodic group learning activities.
The recurring nature of mandatory training may also explain why the instructors focus on
evaluating student satisfaction as supposed to the effectiveness of the course. Allen explained,
“So it’s really just review. This is really just all common sense and refresher training.” The
instructors mentioned these courses are redundant in nature, so evaluating knowledge transfer is
not as important as gauging the learner’s satisfaction. Allen mentioned that his goal is “to keep
them entertained for an hour, and then give them a break. Then offer a course evaluation to see
any ways that we can improve the material.” This section validated that the instructors are
cognizant of the resistance which may be preventing them from incorporating scenario testing or
written test. Adding written test and scenario testing in order to validate knowledge may add to
the resistance.
Management does not communicate the importance of training. The interviews
revealed that the instructors are solely responsible for obtaining buy in from students. All of the
instructors mentioned that the administration generally chooses the upcoming training courses
based on a contemporary issue. The instructors mentioned that they are usually the ones that
have to articulate the value of the training course to their students. The instructors were asked to
explain how the administration supports them as instructors. Allen explained that he would like
to see the organization assist in obtaining buy in. Allen said,
Like I said, really let them know the purpose of these courses, and what would benefit the
individual. Not only that it’s the instructor has to have this complete buy in, we’ve got to
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 83
have the department buy in. We’ve got to have management saying, Yes, this is a
priority. If we don't get that, it’s kind of a moot point. We got to make sure that the whole
department is standing together saying, this is important. This is what we want.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), top management must clearly and publicly
communicate the vision to those impacted in order for the change process to be successful.
Without the support from the top management, the instructors mentioned that they are left to
“obtain buy in” or “sell the importance of the class” to students. This may create unnecessary
resistance and a lack of trust from the students. The students may feel as this is a course that the
training department is implementing on their own instead of feeling as this is something that the
organization and top management support.
The organization does not assist with scheduling conflicts. The instructors mentioned
that it is difficult to schedule training because of the officer’s compacted work schedule.
Interview data revealed that from the instructors’ perspective, the organization does not assist
them with authorizing overtime for the students or altering their work schedules so they can
participate in training. This forces the instructors to schedule several training modules into one
single day of training or teach the same subject over multiple dates. Ben stated, “Now training
division has encountered that issue now where they have to set up multiple dates of training to
avoid paying the overtime.” Although the instructors feel that the organization values training,
the current procedures demonstrate an incongruent value statement; in which the organization
values training but not enough to authorize overtime. Allen explained the organization’s
incongruent value statement,
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 84
The organization has to really be the entity that’s pushing that yes, this is value, and
training. That has to consist of adjusting schedules or paying overtime to get these
individuals into training. As much as the department is all about go to training until we
tell you that you can’t go to training, so there's no more money in the budget.
This incongruent process places the burden on the instructors to adjust their schedules to
meet the needs of the learners. Clark and Estes (2008) recommend that the organization align
the structures and the process of the organization with the goals. The organization is risking not
meeting its goals by overworking the instructors who do not receive any extra incentives for this
ancillary duty. The study also revealed that the instructors schedule several topics into one
training day because they know that they have a limited amount of time to implement all of the
mandatory training without creating any overtime.
Lack of incentives from the organization. The instructors were asked to describe any
incentives that they receive for being an instructor. All five instructors mentioned that they
receive no incentives for this ancillary duty. Allen and Clara are part of the training division,
which does require that they teach occasionally. These positions are on a volunteer basis and are
rotated every couple of years. Their primary duties are to coordinate training and manage the
part-time instructors. The study revealed that the officers assigned to the training division are
regularly tasked with teaching courses because of the lack of instructors.
Ben, Derrick and Edward are full time patrol officers who teach part time. The theme that
surfaced is that the instructors enjoy teaching and do not expect any incentives for volunteering
as instructors. Edward said, “I think, well I don’t know. I mean, for me, I like training. You have
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 85
to have a passion for doing it because all of the benefit that you may get in the municipal agency
with monetary, for monetary purposes, might not be there.” Ben said, “No. I think the only
incentive for me is just the personal gratification of knowing that I taught somebody, that I was
able to teach something.”
Although the instructors explained that they do not expect any incentives, the research
shows that rewards programs stimulate the employee’s creativity and performance (Gohari,
Kamkar, Hosseinipour & Zohoori, 2013). An effective reward system may stimulate the
instructors to implement new instructional designs instead of maintaining the traditional format
of lecture with occasional teach backs. The study revealed that the instructors volunteer to teach,
but not necessarily to write the curriculum. Writing curriculum is more labor intensive and
would require additional training and pay because of the added liability. Additionally, the lack
of a reward system may be the reason that the training division has a lack of instructors.
Synthesis
The document analysis and interview data provided key insights into the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors that influence the ability of the instructors to design and
implement effective use-of-force training. The study showed that the instructors are passionate
about teaching, are motivated to improve the quality of training, and understand the importance
of effective training. Yet, the data also revealed gaps in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences.
The data supports the assertion that there is a deficiency in the instructors’ knowledge of
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 86
cognitive load and its effect on knowledge transfer. Specifically, the instructors need a deeper
understanding of how to manage the cognitive load during training by improving the lecture and
presentation by utilizing dual channels (auditory and visual). This will ensure that the
information on the Power Point slide aids in reinforcing the lecture. The study revealed that the
instructors do not conduct a training needs assessment prior to each course. The instructors
implement generic courses designed to meet state standards. This does not ensure that it meets
the specific training needs of the learners. The training needs assessment may be completed by
conducting focus group meetings, polling the supervisors or auditing current incident reports.
Throughout the interviews, the instructors described surveys and learning activities as the
most common form of evaluating the effectiveness of the training. The observation and
document analysis revealed a need to increase knowledge in the area of effective evaluation
methods by including written test and scenario based testing. Although the interviews revealed
that the instructors reflect-in-practice, there exists the need to reflect-on-practice and dedicate
some time for self-reflection on their own ability to provide effective training.
The interviews revealed that the instructors have a low to medium level of self-efficacy in
their ability to design training, primarily because they lacked the experience or training. There is
room to increase their level of self-efficacy when it comes to writing curriculum and
instructional design. Their self-efficacy in their ability to implement training was medium to
high, because of the foundation instructor course they received. The study also revealed that the
instructors feel somewhat responsible for the effectiveness of training but place the majority
responsibility for learning on the student (attribution theory/motivation). There exists a need to
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 87
shift the ownership of the responsibility to the instructors by increasing their internal locus of
control in order to increase their motivation.
In addition to these identified gaps in knowledge and motivation, there are also
organizational barriers that contribute to the delivery of effective training. The interviews
revealed that the administration does not visibly communicate the importance of the training,
leaving the instructors to obtain buy in during the course. Further, the study revealed that the
organization does not support the instructors by approving overtime or adjusting the students’
schedules so that they can attend training. This forces the instructors to combine multiple
subjects into one training day, which may lead to cognitive overload for the learners. This also
limits the opportunities to reflect-in-practice because of the heavy course load.
Although the instructors do not receive any incentives for their ancillary role, they
appear to enjoy teaching. Two of the instructors are part of the training division, which requires
them to teach occasionally, but the lack of an effective reward system may be negatively
impacting their creativity. Rewards and incentives may motivate the instructors to experiment
with new instructional methods. The lack of creativity was evident in the document analysis and
observation which revealed that a rudimentary Power Point lecture is the traditional style of
teaching. It was evident during the observation that one of the courses could have been
completed via an online learning management system (LMS). This would require the instructors
to experiment with a new delivery method.
The study provided evidence that the instructors are aware of the learners’ resistance to
mandatory training and learning activities based on adult learning theory. The instructors are
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 88
cognizant of the resistance during the course design phase which may cause them to revert to the
traditional way of training. When the lack of a reward system is coupled with learner resistance,
it forces the instructors to take the path of least resistance, which is maintaining the status quo.
This chapter identified the key knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
impact the instructors’ ability to design and implement effective use-of-force training. Chapter 5
will provide recommendations to close the knowledge, motivation, and organization influence
gaps and integrated implementation and evaluation plan to assess program outcomes.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 89
Chapter Five: Recommended Solutions
The study revealed that the training program has a solid foundation to build on by
including the recommended solutions presented in this chapter. The instructors are passionate
and self-motivated. Their participation in this study revealed their desire for self-improvement
and dedication to their students. The organization supports the instructors with the necessary
training needed to be effective instructors and will consider the recommendations as future
training opportunities.
Recommendations for Continued Practice
It is recommended that new instructors continue to attend the basic academy instructor
course as a foundational course. The course introduces the instructors to adult learning theory
based on Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) and the basics of facilitating pre-written curriculum. The
organization should continue to send the instructors to the train the trainer courses as the
foundation to new courses. It is recommended that all of the instructors attend the advanced
academy instructor course that Allen attended. This course introduces the instructors to the
basics of writing curriculum.
The instructors should continue to reflect-in-practice during the course. This proved to be
an effective form of metacognitive reflection. They should also continue to conduct post training
surveys that focus on satisfaction. Satisfaction is Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) first level
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 90
of evaluation. Lastly, they should continue to include the supervisors in the training evaluation
process. This proved to be an effective strategy to monitor performance outside of the class
room.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. The knowledge influences in Table 6 represent the complete list of
knowledge influences and their validation. Validation is based on the frequency in which
knowledge influences were mentioned during semi-structured interviews and the document
analysis. The recommendations are based on Clark and Estes’ (2008) approaches to closing the
performance gap caused by a lack of knowledge. The influences in Table 6 have been validated
or validated in part and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal of implementing
effective use of force training. Theoretical principles will guide the context-specific
recommendations in the final column.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 91
Table 6
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Knowledge Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
The instructors do not
know about information
processing and how
cognitive load affects
knowledge transfer (D)
Performance requires
knowledge of basic
facts, information and
terminology related to a
topic (Krathwohl, 2002)
In order to be effective, police
instructors need to understand that
including too much information at
one time can lead to cognitive
overload, which limits the learner’s
ability to give meaning to activities
(Kirshner, Kirshner, & Pass, 2006).
Provide education about concepts and
principles related to cognitive load theory
and information processing
Provide a job aid that explains strategies
used to manage the cognitive load
Instructors do not know
how to design courses
that ensures knowledge
transfer and allows
students to apply
knowledge and skills on
the job (P)
During training design, instructors
must design courses that
incorporate cognitive load theory to
optimize learning and performance
(Kirschner, Kirschner & Paas,
2009; Schraw & McCrudden,
2013).
An effective way of managing the
cognitive load is designing courses
with opportunities to practice new
skills purposely designed to
improve knowledge and skills
(Campitelli & Gobet, 2011)
Provide training with expertise led course
designing, with practice and feedback from
expert reviewers
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 92
Knowledge Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Instructors do not know
how to evaluate the
effectiveness of the
training (P)
According to Kirkpatrick (2006),
there are four levels of evaluation;
reaction, learning, behavior and
results. The agency is ultimately
responsible for developing the best
way to evaluate their training
(Kirkpatrick, 2006).
Provide a job aid that explains the different
forms of evaluation.
Provide training with expertise led
evaluation methods, with practice and
feedback from expert reviewers
Instructors do not know
how to evaluate their own
effectiveness as
instructors (M)
Instructors must make interactive
decisions during teaching based on
the student’s response and reflect
on their own teaching process (Ya-
Hui, 2012).
Provide a job aid that includes an adapted
version of Schraw and Dennison’s (1994)
metacognitive awareness inventory (MAI)
Provide a job aid with instructions to
complete a reflective journal or a post
training debrief
Declarative knowledge solutions. The data showed that the instructors at the Cathedral
University Campus Safety Department (CU SCD) need more knowledge of the limitations of
working memory, cognitive load theory and the principles of information processing. Gaps in
conceptual knowledge will likely continue until instructors understand the basic limitations of
working memory and how it affects learning. Conceptual knowledge is the understanding of the
basic elements of the larger structure and how they function together (Krathwohl, 2002).
According to Krathwohl (2002), basic facts, information and terminology, related to the topic is
needed for effective performance. Though an advanced level of knowledge may not be
necessary, educating the instructors in the basic theoretical constructs of cognitive load theory
may be an effective solution to closing gaps in conceptual knowledge. The researcher has agreed
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 93
to complete a short training course explaining cognitive load theory and its implications on
learning. According to Sweller (1988), cognitive load refers to the amount of information that
the working memory can hold at one time. Instructors should avoid overloading it with activities
that do not contribute to learning.
The observation and document analysis support the assertion that the instructors need
more conceptual knowledge about cognitive load or information processing. The instructors will
receive education and a job aid containing the principles of cognitive load theory and its effect
on knowledge transfer. According to Clark and Estes (2008), education is an appropriate
solution when people need to acquire conceptual or theoretical knowledge. Education is current
research-based information about why and how things happen (Clark & Estes, 2008). This
includes knowledge of principles, theories and classifications (Krathwohl, 2002). Understanding
the limitations of working memory will assist the instructors during the design and
implementation phase by making it easier to recognize when they are including too much
information.
Procedural knowledge solutions. The data showed that the instructors at CU CSD need
more procedural knowledge about how to write effective training curriculum, specifically how to
evaluate the effectiveness of the training. The study revealed that the only formal method of
evaluation is a post training survey focused on Kirkpatrick’s (2006) first level of evaluation, the
learner’s reaction. During the course, the instructors informally evaluate learning by conducting
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 94
teach back exercises with random learners. The data showed that the instructors informally
monitor performance after the training by occasionally polling supervisors. The two major
reasons for evaluating the effectiveness of training is to improve the program and maximize the
transfer of learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The instructors need to learn how to incorporate written test, scenario based testing and
longitudinal evaluation methods. This will ensure that the course is effective by using a formal,
systematic approach to validate learning. To close this gap in procedural knowledge, the
instructors will learn how to implement the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) model for
evaluating training programs which include four levels of evaluation; reaction, learning, behavior
and results. The interviews revealed that the instructors have a basic understanding of the first
level (reaction) and second level (learning).
The researcher has agreed to create a job aid in the form of a flow chart explaining the
various levels and how to use them, which will close the gap in this procedural knowledge. A job
aid is effective when people do not need guided practice and have experience with the task
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The job aid will include specific evaluation tools that may be used to
systematically monitor level three (behavior) and level four (results). The job aid will include
examples of a blended evaluation plan which include a delayed evaluation (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The delayed evaluation will focus on how learners have applied what they
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 95
learned (level three) and what types of results they have accomplished (level four).
The study also revealed that the instructors use scenario testing to validate procedural
knowledge but not necessarily to improve cognitive abilities. Scenario testing that includes
problem solving will allow the instructor to evaluate level two (learning) while improving
cognitive abilities. Scenario testing in law enforcement should incorporate problem solving
which allows the learner to apply new knowledge with past experiences (Cleveland & Saville,
2007). It is recommended that the training division reach out to the Cathedral University’s
School of Education and request the assistance of a faculty member experienced with learning
design and technology.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), problem-solving exercises are a valid measurement
of learning. The instructors should receive training with expertise led evaluation methods, with
practice creating scenario test with feedback from expert reviewers. According to Clark and
Estes (2008), training is appropriate when people must acquire “how to” skills and knowledge,
with practice and corrective feedback (p. 58).
The data also revealed the need for more knowledge of the process of managing the
students’ cognitive load. Incorporating strategies that manage the cognitive load during the
design phase may optimize learning (Kirschner, Kirschner & Paas, 2009; Schraw & McCrudden,
2013). There are professional certificate programs that offer courses in managing the cognitive
load. For example, the Association for Talent Development (ATD) offers a professional
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 96
certificate in micro learning or what Sweller (1988) considers creating schemas.
The instructor should receive training on effective methods of managing the learner’s
cognitive load. The training should include strategies recommended by Sweller, Van
Merrienboer and Paas (1998) which include (1) how to use goal free or worked examples, (2)
how to physically integrate information into manageable clusters, (3) how to reduce repetitive
information, (4) how to use auditory as well as visual information that is not redundant.
Atkinson and Mayer (2004) recommended removing the text off-screen to reduce visual overload
and narrate the content instead. ATD offers a certificate program in instructional design. The
program includes courses in the following: creating powerful infographics, survey design,
technical training, adult learning in the workplace, assessing learning needs, Bloom’s Taxonomy,
essentials of graphics for learning,
The training should also feature how to design training with opportunities for deliberate
practice. The study revealed that the instructors do not incorporate deliberate practice into the
course design. An effective way of managing the cognitive load is designing courses with
opportunities to practice new skills in a repetitive and successive exercise (Campitelli & Gobet,
2011). In use of force training, this repetitive and successive exercise includes the learners
practicing their newly acquired skills in small sections. Each section would include repetitive
practice with the instructor’s feedback. These small sections will eventually integrate into the
overall learning process. Deliberate practice keeps the information in short-term memory long
enough to transfer to long-term memory (Brabeck, Jeffrey & Fry, 2013; Campitelli & Gobet,
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 97
2011). Training the instructors how to incorporate deliberate practice that manages the cognitive
load will reduce the gap in procedural knowledge. Training is the most effective way of
equipping the people with “how to skills” (Clark & Estes, 2008). Training is necessary when the
goal is new, which requires a demonstration and guided practice (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. The data revealed that the instructors did not
reflect on their effectiveness as instructors after the training course. Reflection-on-action allows
the instructors to identify and evaluate areas of improvement (Wilson, 2008). The instructors use
a post training survey as the only method of post training self-reflection. Metacognitive
knowledge is thinking about thinking or being aware of one’s thought process (Blakey &
Spence; 1990). The gap in metacognitive knowledge will remain until the instructors learn about
the importance of self-reflection after teaching.
The data did reveal that the instructors self-reflect during instruction. Instructors that are
aware of their own thinking are more effective at monitoring instruction (Wen, 2012).
The ability to use effective tools of teaching requires metacognitive knowledge in order to adapt
to the learners’ needs (Rueda, 2011). Instructors must make interactive decisions during teaching
based on the student’s response and reflect on their own teaching process (Wen, 2012). For
example, instructors may have to add or modify the learning activities if the students are not
progressing as expected (Wen, 2012). During use of force training, the instructors may have to
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 98
remediate a student that is not progressing through the course. The instructors may have to
conduct a quick diagnostics test to see why the learner is not progressing, and determine whether
it is the instructors’ ineffectiveness or a poorly designed learning activity.
Reflection during the course is more effective when it is followed by reflection after the
course. The instructors must learn strategies which can improve their metacognitive knowledge
such as self-questioning, reflective journal writing and discussing their thought process with
others. A job aid that includes an adapted version of Schraw and Dennison’s (1994)
metacognitive awareness inventory (MAI) is recommended to close the gap in metacognitive
knowledge.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The motivation influences in Table 7 represent the complete list of
motivational influences and their validation. Validation is based on the frequency in which
motivational influences were mentioned during semi-structured interviews and supported by the
literature review. Motivation is the internal mental process that keeps the individual going (Clark
& Estes, 2008). This includes choice (choosing to work towards the goal), persistence, (choosing
to persist until it is achieved), and mental effort (how much mental effort is invested in
accomplishing the job (Clark & Estes, 2008). Table 7 include the influences that have been
validated and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholder’s goal. Theoretical principles
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 99
will guide the context-specific recommendations in the final column.
Table 7
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
_____________________________________________________________________________
Motivation Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Instructors do not feel that the
quality of training influences job
performance as much as other
external influences (e.g., officer’s
lack of ability).(Attribution)
Attribution theory explains
that people are hesitant to
engage in tasks related to
achievement because they
feel things are out of their
control (Weiner, 1980).
Provide education that teaches the
instructors how to accurately make
attributions, which includes a self-
assessment component
Instructors do not have the
confidence in their ability to design
and implement effective training
(Self-Efficacy)
Individuals who lack
confidence may avoid a
difficult task instead of
thinking of it as a challenge
(Bandura, 1997; Pajares,
2009).
Provide training with instructional
support and modeling behavior with
immediate feedback
Instructor attributions. The data revealed that the instructors do not feel that the quality
of their training is as impactful to job performance as the officer’s lack of interest. During the
interviews, the instructors mentioned that the learner’s perceived value of the training course
played a vital role in the learning outcomes. Attributions may be classified in the dimension of
locus of causality, either internal or external (Harvey & Martinko, 2010). The data supported
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 100
that the instructors have an external locus of control. Attribution theory explains that people are
hesitant to engage in tasks related to their success when they feel that they have an external locus
of control (Weiner, 1980). These tasks may include updating curriculum or evaluating the
effectiveness of their training course.
Anderman and Anderman (2009) explain that motivation is increased when individuals
attribute their success with an internal locus of control like effort. The instructors will receive
education that will explain both the internal and external factors involved in the training
outcomes. Accurately accessing the causes of employee performance will assist the instructors
in making the correct attribution (Harvey & Martinko, 2010). Making the correct attribution will
empower the instructor and create a sense of internal locus of control (Harvey & Martinko,
2010). The education will also include an attributional style questionnaire aimed at increasing
the instructors’ ability to recognize if they have a preferred attribution style. Creating an internal
locus of control will shift the ownership of the responsibility to the instructors in order to
increase their motivation to evaluate the effectiveness of the training and eventually updating the
curriculum.
Self-efficacy. The data revealed that the instructors have a moderate level of confidence
in their ability to design and implement effective training. The instructors mentioned that they
have never actually written a training curriculum from scratch. Social cognitive theory explains
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 101
that self-efficacy beliefs are at the basis of people’s motivation and personal accomplishments
(Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 2009). Training will be necessary in order to increase the instructors’
self-efficacy in regards to writing an effective course curriculum.
It is recommended the instructors attend the entry-level instructor course through the
Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST), Instructor Development Institute (IDI). The
training includes additional instructor development training and internship with competency
verification which should improve the instructors’ self-efficacy. This course provides instructor
development in the following areas: 24 hour instructional skills course, 8 hour presentation skills
course, 16 hour instructional technology course, and 8 hour critical thinking course. The goal of
the training is to provide clear corrective feedback regarding competencies while increasing
expertise and confidence (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003).
The training should include modeling behavior that provides direct guidance about how
to complete the task by demonstrating and providing a systematic explanation of the thought
process (Margolis & McCabe, 2006). For example, the ATD course offers training with a step by
step demonstration of effectively managing the cognitive load by using dual channels (auditory
and visual) during the lecture. The instructors should learn how to incorporate scenario testing
into all aspects of use of force training. The Cathedral University’s Faculty may be able to assist
in creating scenario testing aimed at improving the officer’s decision making during a use of
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 102
force encounter. The instructors’ self-efficacy will increase as they successfully implement and
validate the effectiveness of the scenario based testing in regards to improving the learners’
cognitive abilities. Motivation is enhanced when people have positive expectations for success
(Pajares, 2006). For example, when teaching tactical communications, the instructors will be able
to incorporate scenario based testing into the curriculum, requiring the learner to use their newly
acquired skills to de-escalate a combative person.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. The organizational influences in Table 8 represent the complete list of
organizational influences and their validation. Validation is based on the frequency in which the
influences were mentioned during semi-structured interviews and supported by the literature
review. According to Clark and Estes (2008), the third and final cause of performance gaps is
ineffective organizational work processes and material resources. These work processes can be
broken down into cultural models and settings. Table 8 includes the influences that have been
validated and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholder’s goal. Theoretical principles
will guide the context-specific recommendations in the final column.
Cultural models are observable learned beliefs and values shared by individuals in groups
about the organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). A cultural setting is the
environment in which the performance occurs or an observable representation of a cultural
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 103
model (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). Table 8 includes the validated influences
discovered in the interviews and supported by the literature review. The influences have a high
priority in relation to achieving the stakeholder’s goal and a high probability of being validated.
Theoretical principles will guide the context-specific recommendations in the final column.
Table 8
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Organization Influence Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Instructors are hesitant to
apply any adult learning
theory to training courses
because they believe it will
be met with resistance from
the students. (Cultural
Model)
Potential resistance from students
present roadblocks to teachers
practicing new pedagogical
approaches, causing them to revert
back to traditional ways (Seidel &
Tanner, 2013).
Ask the senior leadership to clearly
communicate (1) Their support for new
training methods (2) How it helps
accomplish the organizational goal
Instructors do not receive
any incentives or rewards for
this ancillary job function.
(Cultural Setting)
Research shows that reward
programs stimulate employees’
creativity and performance.
Intrinsic rewards include
empowerment, recognition,
gratitude, and entrustment (Gohari,
Kamkar, Hosseinipour, & Zohoori,
2013)
Create a recognition program that
acknowledges instructors through a special
rank or title.
Cultural model. The data revealed that there is some resistance to training within the
organization. The resistance was from the learners and focused on adult learning theory and the
mandatory aspect of recurring or redundant training. Seidel and Tanner (2013) explain that when
teachers are faced with any roadblocks while implementing new pedagogical approaches, they
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 104
are likely to revert to traditional ways. Clark and Estes (2008) state that in order for the change
process to be successful, the top management must be visibly committed to the change process
and clearly communicate the vision to those involved. It is recommended that top management
communicate their support for new training pedagogy and how it assists in accomplishing the
organizational goal.
Data analyses have shown that poor communication problems include a lack of top
management support and communication about the change process (Lewis, 2011). The evidence
shows that not having clear channels of communication with decision makers is a major cause of
the resistance (Lewis, 2011). The top management must constantly communicate candidly about
the change process in order to create trust which will help people adjust to unexpected events
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Cultural setting. The data revealed that the instructors do not receive any incentives or
rewards from the organization for this ancillary role. Research shows that non-financial reward
programs stimulate employees’ creativity and performance. (Aktar, Sachu, & Ali, 2012).
Intrinsic rewards include empowerment, recognition, gratitude, and entrustment (Gohari,
Kamkar, Hosseinipour, & Zohoori, 2013). It is recommended that top management create an
intrinsic recognition program that acknowledges the instructors with a special rank or title.
Extrinsic rewards, including extra pay may be used to motivate the instructors, but Markova and
Ford (2011) explain that intrinsic rewards are needed for knowledge creation.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 105
A well designed reward system has been found to greatly improve the organization’s
effectiveness (Akafo & Boateng, 2015). Recognition programs demonstrate respect for the
employee and their efforts (Akafo & Boateng, 2015). The military currently uses special
designations for special assignments as a way of building cohesion and a sense of esprit de corps
(Weitzel, 2014). The organization will be showing respect and appreciation by recognizing the
instructor position with a special designation or uniform insignia.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) will serve as the
model that will guide the implementation and evaluation plan. The model is based on the original
Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model
recommends using the four levels in reverse during the planning phase. This starts with the goals
of the organization and uses leading indicators or short term observations that suggest progress
towards the desired results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Working in reverse order allows
for the development of a sequence of action items: 1) first, the development of solution outcomes
focused on identifying critical behaviors, 2) second, the development of indicators that learning
occurred during the implementation, and 3) third, the appearance of indicators regarding
implementation satisfaction from organizational members. Designing the implementation in this
format keeps the focus on what is the most important, the program outcomes by improved job
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 106
performance (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The purpose of the Cathedral University Campus Safety Department (CSD) is to provide
a safe learning environment for the university community. In order to accomplish this mission,
the department must maintain a working relationship with the community. The CSD must avoid
any incidents of excessive force which may cause the community to lose their trust in the
department. The use of force instructors in the CSD were identified as a vital component. The
stakeholder goal is to demonstrate the competencies to design and implement effective use-of-
force training. This project examined the knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational
barriers that prevent the instructors from designing and implementing effective training. The
proposed solution, a comprehensive training program, organizational support, and a new rewards
system for the instructors, should produce the desired outcome; a more effective use-of-force
training program.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 9 shows the proposed Level 4, results and leading indicators, in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for the instructors.
Meeting the internal outcomes as expected because of the training and organizational support
should produce the completion of the external outcomes.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 107
Table 9
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Decrease in excessive force
incidents
The number of use-of-force
investigations
Solicit quarterly data from internal
affairs
2. Increase in customer
satisfaction
The number of citizen complaints
2(a) The percentage of positive
feedback from stakeholders
Solicit quarterly data from internal
affairs.
2. (a) Aggregate data from a
community survey every semester
conducted by the community relations
office.
3. Decrease in injuries to the
arrestee
The number of injuries reported Solicit monthly data from internal
affairs division
Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
4. Increase in curriculum
containing adult learning
theory and scenario testing
The number of updated curriculum Aggregate data from instructors and
supervisors
5. Increase in support of new
training programs
Positive/Negative feedback from
students
Speak to students on a regular basis
and conduct post training surveys
6. Increase in instructor
confidence in their ability to
design and implement new
training
Positive/Negative feedback from
instructors
6(a). Observations of instructors
during training courses
Speak to the instructors on a regular
and conduct quarterly surveys
6(a) Supervisors will observe
instructors during a live training
course at least once a quarter
7. Increase in safe & effective
use of force applications
The number of appropriate and in-
policy force applications
Solicit quarterly data from internal
affairs
______________________________________________________________________________
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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the use-of-force instructors. The first
critical behavior is that instructors must update pre-existing training curriculum. The second
critical behavior is that they must measure the effectiveness of their training courses. The third
critical behavior is that they must reflect on their effectiveness as instructors. The specific
metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appear in Table 10.
Table 10
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for New Reviewers
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Incorporate adult
learning theory into new
and pre-existing
curriculum
The number of updated
curriculum
The training coordinator will
monitor the process
90 days prior to the
course being
implemented
Monthly, as curriculum
is submitted for
approval
2. Instructors measure the
effectiveness of training
courses
The number of written
tests used to validate
knowledge transfer
2b. The number of
scenario tests used to
measure learning
The training coordinator will
track by conducting
observations and curriculum
audits
Monthly.
2. During each training
course.
3. Instructors reflect on
their effectiveness after
training
Survey The training coordinator shall
provide a survey to the
instructors
After every course
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 109
Required drivers. Instructors require the support of their direct supervisors and the
organization to reinforce that importance of their roles and to encourage them to continue to
update the training curriculum. Rewards and recognition should be established for achievement
of performance goals to enhance the organizational support of the instructors. Table 11 shows
the recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of the instructors.
Organizational support. It is imperative that the organization is held accountable for
implementing the required drivers. The organization will use its project tracking system to
monitor the completion or implementation of the required drivers. Employees will be assigned
specific drivers that coincide with their role. Policies should be enacted that incorporate the
drivers into the pre-existing training plan.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 110
Table 11
Required Drivers to Support New Reviewers’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aid including a glossary of
terms and concepts
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Job Aid including a checklist for
updating training curriculum
Ongoing 1, 2,
Team meetings with new and
experienced instructors to establish
goals and time frames.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Use training bulletins and other
internal message boards to reinforce
communication outside of team
meetings.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Team meeting to troubleshoot
collaboratively and for additional
training.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Collaboration and peer modeling
during team meetings.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from the
training coordinator.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Performance incentive when all
training curriculum is updated
Quarterly, or project-based 1, 2
Public acknowledgement, such as a
mention at All-Hands meetings,
when team performance hits a
benchmark.
Quarterly 1, 2
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 111
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Monitoring
Supervisor can create opportunities
to share success stories during focus
groups
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Supervisor can ask instructors to
self-report their confidence and self-
efficacy in job-related tasks
Two months after training 1, 2, 3
The training coordinator can assess
the performance of the instructors.
Frequent, quick checks can help the
organization monitor progress and
make adjustments if results do not
match expectations at that time
Monthly 1, 2, 3
______________________________________________________________________________
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, most notably the
curriculum development course, the stakeholders will be able to:
1. Understand information processing and how it affects the cognitive load (D).
2. Evaluate the effectiveness of the training course (P)
3. Write training curriculum that incorporates adult learning theory and ensures
knowledge transfer, (P)
4. Evaluate their own effectiveness as instructors (M)
5. Indicate the confidence in their ability to write and implement training curriculum
(Confidence)
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6. Value the impact that their training course has on student performance on the job
(Value)
7. Incorporate scenario based testing into the appropriate training courses (P)
8. Monitor the effectiveness of the training course longitudinally and outside the
classroom
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section, will be achieved with a
training program aimed at instructor development. The learners will learn step by step how to
write or update a training course. The program is blended, consisting of two online, e-learning
modules and one in person application workshop. The total time for completion is 10 hours.
During the asynchronous e-learning modules, learners will be provided a job aid of key
terms and references in regards to information processing and adult learning theory. Another job
aid will contain a flow chart of Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation. The job aids will be
demonstrated on video using authentic training applications and scenarios, and key terms will be
defined with examples and non-examples. The video will include structured pauses that allow
the learner to check their understanding. Following the demonstrations, the learners will be
provided the opportunity to practice using the job aids and receive feedback from the learning
management system.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 113
During the synchronous in person sessions, the focus will be on applying their new knowledge
and incorporating it into writing training curriculum. This will include discussions, peer
modeling and teach backs. More experienced instructors will provide feedback and guidance as
the students design a training course from a template.
Components of learning. Demonstrating declarative knowledge is a necessary precursor
prior to applying the knowledge to problem solving. It is imperative to evaluate the learners’
declarative and procedural knowledge after instruction. Another prerequisite is that the learner
value the training prior to applying their newly acquired knowledge on the job. This includes
being confident that they will be successful in applying these skills and that they are committed
to applying them in their role. As such, Table 12 lists the evaluation methods and timing for
these components of learning.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 114
Table 12
Components of Learning for the Program.
______________________________________________________________________________
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using multiple choice. In the asynchronous portions of the course during and
after video demonstrations.
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair, think,
share” and other individual/group activities.
Periodically during the in-person workshop and
documented via observation notes.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
During the asynchronous portions of the course using
scenarios with multiple-choice items.
In the asynchronous portions of the course at the end of
each module/lesson/unit
Demonstration in groups and individually of using the
job aids to successfully perform the skills.
During the workshop. .
Quality of the feedback from peers during group sharing During the workshops.
Individual application of the skills with actual training
curriculum
At the end of the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment survey
asking participants about their level of proficiency
before and after the training.
At the end of the workshop.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Instructor’s observation of participants’ statements and
actions demonstrating that they see the benefit of what
they are being asked to do on the job.
During the workshop.
Discussions of the value of what they are being asked to
do to the training curriculum.
During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 115
______________________________________________________________________________
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Survey items using scaled items Following each module/lesson/unit in the asynchronous
portions of the course.
Discussions following practice and feedback. During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item. After the course.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback. During the workshop.
Create an individual action plan. During the workshop.
Level 1: Reaction
Reaction is the degree to which participants find the training relevant or engaging. Level
one is needed to confirm the quality of the program and the instructor is acceptable. Table 13
highlights the measures that will be used to evaluate the student’s level one reactions.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 116
Table 13
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Data analytics in the learning management system Ongoing during asynchronous portion of the course.
Completion of online modules/lessons/units Ongoing during asynchronous portion of the course.
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the workshop
Attendance During the workshop
Course evaluation Immediately after the course
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey (online)
and discussion (ongoing)
After every module/lesson/unit and the workshop
Course evaluation Immediately after the course
Customer Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey (online)
and discussion (ongoing)
After every module/lesson/unit and the workshop
Course evaluation Immediately after the course.
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. An online, asynchronous
portion will be used to augment the in-person training sessions. The computer based learning
management system (LMS) will collect data engagement data during the asynchronous portion
of the course, including start, duration, and completion of the modules. The LMS will administer
a brief survey after each training module asking the participants to indicate the relevance of the
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 117
material to their job function and their overall satisfaction with the content.
Level 1, during the in-person workshops, the instructor will conduct periodic pulse-
checks by asking the participants about the relevance of the content to their work, the delivery
and learning environment. Level 2 will include teach backs for understanding among groups in
responding to questions and scenarios drawn from the content.
Delayed for a period after program implementation. The training division will
administer a survey approximately six weeks after the implementation of the training and then
again at 15 weeks. The survey will contain open and scaled items using Blended Evaluation
approach to measure satisfaction and relevance of the training (level 1) and confidence and value
of applying the training (level 2) to updating the training curriculum. Level 3 will include
assessing the extent to which their performance in updating the training curriculum has become
more effective and the improvement in their self-reflection.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of the instructors is measured by the frequency in updated curriculum
while keeping track of certain key indicators. Each week the training division will keep track of
the training curriculum as it is updated and track the amount of new adult learning principles that
are applied. Training division will conduct surveys quarterly in order to measure the other
leading indicators. Figure 3 is an example of the dashboard used to report the data on these
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 118
initiatives as a monitoring tool. Similar dashboards will be created to monitor Levels 1, 2 and 3.
Figure 3. Dashboard Monitoring and Accountability Tool
Summary
The gap analysis in this research project examined the knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences that prevent the CSD instructors from updating the use of force
curriculum with contemporary teaching pedagogy. The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016)
served as the framework for evaluating the proposed solutions that include a new training
program, organizational support systems, and a new recognition program. The goal of the
implementation and evaluation plan is to support the stakeholder goal of demonstrating the
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 119
capabilities necessary to design and implement effective use of force training.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) works in reverse order starting with the end
goal allowing for blended evaluation tools to analyze the data and report the outcomes in a
matter that contribute to the value of the program. Data collection and analysis occurs during,
immediately after, and several weeks after the training. This process includes evaluating job
performance, key indicators that learning occurred and the level of satisfaction from the students.
Conclusion
The findings, implications and recommendations of this evaluation study provide a
further understanding into performance obstacles within the use of force instructors at the
Cathedral University’s Campus Safety Department with hopes of further advancing the limited
body of empirical research. The findings from this study generated recommendations to close the
instructors’ gap in knowledge in regards to designing and implementing effective use of force
training. The findings further generated recommendations for increasing the instructor’s self-
efficacy in regards to designing effective training and improving motivation by increasing their
internal locust of control in regards to training outcomes. The final recommendations have
implications on organizational policy which encourages the top management to align support
structures with the mission of the organization.
Law enforcement training has historically focused on creating subject matter experts by
improving technical expertise (Froese, 2012). This ensures that the organization meets the state
standards but does not ensure that the learner will necessarily be able to apply the new skills in
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 120
the field. Further research should focus on andragogical principles of adult learning education
specific to law enforcement that can assist police instructors in improving the effectiveness of
their training courses. Further research should focus on bridging the gap between realistic
scenario based testing and improving the learners’ cognitive abilities.
Although the mission of law enforcement has not changed, the demands on officers
continue to evolve requiring new skills that require problem solving in new stressful situations.
Training remains a high priority issue for agencies looking to prepare their officers to face the
new challenges associated with 21
st
century policing. Training should be carefully crafted to
incorporate the latest andragogical principles of adult learning theory, using subject matter
experts to create a realistic curriculum that effectively measures learning outcomes while
improving critical thinking.
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 121
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APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
Institutions: _____________________________________________________
Interviewee (Title and Name): ______________________________________
Interviewer: _____________________________________________________
Introductory Protocol
To facilitate our note-taking, I would like to audio tape our conversations today. Please review
the Information Sheet and let me know if you have any questions. Essentially, this document
states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary and
you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) we do not intend to inflict any harm.
Thank you for your agreeing to participate. As the information sheet states, only I will be privy
to the tapes which will be eventually destroyed after they are transcribed. I have planned this
interview to last no longer than one hour. During this time, I have several questions that we
would like to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be necessary to interrupt you in order to
push ahead and complete this line of questioning.
Introduction
You have been selected to speak with me today because you have been identified as someone
who has a great deal to share about teaching and training law enforcement officers. My research
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 132
project as a whole focuses on the improvement of teaching and learning, with particular interest
in understanding how instructors in use of force training programs engage in this activity, how
they assess student learning, and how they monitor student performance outside of the
classroom. The study does not aim to evaluate your techniques or experiences. Rather, I am
trying to learn more about teaching and learning, and hopefully learn about instructor practices
that help improve student learning in your organization.
Grand Tour Questions with Possible Follow-up Questions:
1. Can you explain some of the key features of an effective training course?
a. How does your role as an instructor factor into that effectiveness?
b. How do you determine the effectiveness of the training you have designed
and delivered?
2. Can you describe the process of designing a training course from writing the curriculum
to actually implementing it?
a. Are you confident in your abilities to write a training curriculum?
c. What affects how much time is spent designing a training course?
d. How do you monitor student performance after the course?
3. Can you describe a typical day in one of your training courses?
a. How do you know that the students are learning?
b. How do you avoid overloading them with information?
c. Are there any tests included in the training?
d. How do you reflect on your effectiveness as an instructor?
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4. What are some of the causes for student success or failure in implementing your training
on the job?
a. How does your role as an instructor impact that success?
b. How much responsibility should be placed on the student
5. Tell me about how the organization, including the students, perceives the value of
training?
a. Is there any resistance from students?
b. What type of resources are made available to you?
c. Does the organization provide any rewards or incentives
d. Why did you become an instructor?
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APPENDIX B
Document Analysis Protocol
Course Title_____________________________
Name of Author ____________________________
Lecture Organization:
Pre-training or pre-loading of key terms or concepts
The lesson was organized into chunks with lecture breaks
Material linked to prior topics
The presentation utilized dual-channels (verbal and visual)
The course featured goal-free worked examples
Power Point Presentation:
Slides were easy to read and did not possess any redundant information
The slides contained a single topic and a supporting visual aid
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Each slide made sense by itself
Complex ideas were accompanied with diagrams
Slides matched what the instructor was narrating (avoided splitting verbal input with unrelated
visuals)
Evaluation Techniques:
Pre-training test
Post-training written test
Scenario based testing
Worked examples
Quality of the course design:
Ineffective
Some elements of effective instruction
Somewhat effective instruction
Effective Instruction
Exemplary Instruction
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APPENDIX C
Observation Protocol
Course Title_____________________________
Name of Instructor ____________________________
Announced Observation_________________________________________
(yes, no or explain)
Location of class________________________________________________
Years of Teaching _________
Number of students _____________________
Observer _______________________ Date of Observation ______________
Start time ______________________ End time _______________________
Course Design
The instructional design and activities were not repetitive
Audio and visual information aided in information processing
The lesson encouraged problem solving or critical thinking
The instructors properly measured learning outcomes and knowledge transfer
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Description of Events
The new information was integrated into manageable clusters
The topic was connected to other experiences or real world application
The instructors used goal free or worked examples
Solicited feedback during slide progression
Knowledge Transfer
The students were given the opportunity for deliberate practice of new skills.
The students were actively engaged in critical thinking activities
Students were allowed to reflect on their learning
The students were given opportunities to apply new knowledge
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Quality of the Lesson
Ineffective Instruction (Passive Learning)
Some elements of effective instruction
Somewhat effective instruction
Effective Instruction
Exemplary Instruction
*Teaching Observation Protocol Maine Center for Research in STEM Education
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 139
APPENDIX D
Blended Evaluation Tool
Level 1
Q: What I learned through this training session will help me improve my job performance?
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4
Q: This training session is directly relevant to my job function?
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4
Level 2
Q: I am confident that I can apply what I learned to write effective training curriculum.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4
Q: I see the benefit of managing the student's cognitive load.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
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1 2 3 4
Level 3
Q: I have applied adult learning theory to existing training curriculum?
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4
Q: I reflect on my effectiveness as an instructor after each training course.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4
Level 4
Q: I have seen an impact on the following areas as a result of the improved training curriculum
(check all that apply):
a. Increased student engagement
b. Decrease in student resistance
c. Increase in knowledge transfer
d. Increase in critical thinking skills
Running head: PREVENTING EXCESSIVE FORCE INCIDENTS 141
e. Increase in student satisfaction
f. Other
Q: Updating the training curriculum has assisted in preventing excessive force incidents.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
A modified Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis operated as the conceptual framework for this study. The study investigated the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that affect the instructors from the Cathedral University’s Campus Safety Department from designing and implementing effective use of force training. A qualitative study was conducted using document analysis, an observation and interviews. Results indicated that the instructors lacked the basic knowledge that is needed in order to design and implement effective use of force training. Motivation and Organizational influences were discovered that impact the delivery and effectiveness of the training program. Recommendations and solutions are based on the relevant literature which includes an implementation and evaluation plan that utilized the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) as the framework.
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Gonzalez, Ricardo
(author)
Core Title
Preventing excessive force incidents by improving police training: an evaluation study of a use-of-force training program
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
03/14/2018
Defense Date
12/07/2017
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
cognitive load theory,excessive force,OAI-PMH Harvest,Police training,use of force
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Seli, Helena (
committee chair
), Bunn, Michael (
committee member
), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (
committee member
)
Creator Email
rgonzalez@otis.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-485889
Unique identifier
UC11266885
Identifier
etd-GonzalezRi-6101.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-485889 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-GonzalezRi-6101.pdf
Dmrecord
485889
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Gonzalez, Ricardo
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
cognitive load theory
excessive force
use of force