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Democracy, diplomacy, and higher education: war college institutional effectivenss in promoting democracy and human rights to international military officers

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Democracy, diplomacy, and higher education: war college institutional effectivenss in promoting democracy and human rights to international military officers

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Content Running Head: HUMAN RIGHTS IN WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM

DEMOCRACY, DIPLOMACY, AND HIGHER EDUCATION: WAR COLLEGE
INSTITUTIONAL EFFECTIVENSS IN PROMOTING DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN
RIGHTS TO INTERNATIONAL MILITARY OFFICERS

by

Jeremy B. Folks

______________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirement for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2017
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Pat Tobey, for allowing me to be a
member of her research group and for helping me along the way. I would also like to thank Dr.
Alan Green and Dr. Janice Schafrik for their help and support during the final phases of my
study.
I would like to thank my fellow cohort members for their support and friendship over
several years of difficult assignments and late nights on campus. Many have been great
examples of dedication and commitment.
I would also like to thank my wife, Amanda, for her constant support and willingness to
take care of the family in times of my absence. Her commitment to my education in the midst of
her own graduate school requirements were a much-appreciated sacrifice that I did not feel I
deserved.
I dedicate this work to each of my six children. As a military officer, I have put them
through many ordeals that children should not have to endure. Constant moves to new states,
schools, and support systems, combined with extended periods with their father deployed to war
zones, has placed an unwarranted and unfair amount of stress on each child over the years.
Adding the demands of a doctoral pursuit was equally unfair in many ways, and they deserved
better. I hope I can make up for the lost time in the years to come.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
ABSTRACT vii
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1
Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 12
Research Questions 13
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations and Delimitations 15
Definition of Terms 16
Organizational and Theoretical Framework 18

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 24
Human Rights Education 25
Diversity Education & Integrated Curriculum 35
International Military Education and Training Program 40

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 44
Research Approach and Rationale ` 44
Type of Study 45
Site Selection 45
Data Collection 46
Data Analysis 48

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 51
Introduction 51
Naval War College Description 53
National War College Description 57
Addressing the Research Questions 60

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 74
Introduction 74
Summary of Findings 76
Implications for Practice 81
Recommendations for Future Research 84
Conclusion 85

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM iv

REFERENCES 87

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Curriculum Review Questionnaire Instrument 100

Appendix B: UNESCO Recommendation on Education for International 106
Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Summary of Any Mention of human rights/peace/human suffering (by key word) 60
Table 2: Summary of combined syllabus and supplemental reading HRE Instances
by UNESCO Competency (by paragraph) 61

Table 3: Naval War College Syllabi Review (By Key Word Only) 63
Table 4: National War College Syllabi Review (By Key Word Only) 64
Table 5: Results of Naval War College HRE Instances by Paragraph Intent
(Required Readings Only) 65

Table 6: Results of Naval War College HRE Instances by Paragraph Intent
(Optional Readings Only) 65

Table 7: Results of National War College HRE Instances by Paragraph Intent
(Required Readings Only) 66

Table 8: Results of National War College HRE Instances by Paragraph Intent
(Optional Readings Only) 66

Table 9: Summary of HRE Instances by UNESCO Competency 69

Table 10: Summary of HRE Instances by UNESCO Competency (Minus Competency 2) 70

Table 11: Naval War College HRE Results by Course 71

Table 12: National War College HRE Results by Course 71

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Naval War College Resident Curricula 56
Figure 2: National War College Resident Curricula 58
Figure 3: National War College Student Course Options 59

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM vii

ABSTRACT

This qualitative study addressed an information gap on both the presence and frequency of
human rights education (HRE) available to international students attending the US military war
colleges as participants in the State Department-funded “Expanded International Military
Education and Training” program. The study was specifically designed to address a GAO report
from 2011, which stated that out of the 141 International Military Education and Training
(IMET) Program certified courses offered by all Professional Military Education institutions,
only seven of those courses included references on human rights, rule of law, or international
military law (none of which were at the war colleges). Although congress has mandated in
legislation that the military services must provide training on human rights and democratic ideals
to international officers in the IMET program, the GAO report indicated otherwise. The report
also noted that most international students who received specific training on human rights were
not attendees of any of the six war colleges, which cater to the most senior of military and
civilian IMET participants. To better understand the complete exposure all international students
have to the written curriculum, a thorough review of every syllabus, required reading, and
optional reading was completed. The study indicated a presence of human rights education
subjects that were addressed in many different aspects of the curriculum. The study further
identified the frequency of human rights competencies associated with the UNESCO HRE
guidelines that were found within the written course materials at the Naval War College and at
the National War College.
Running Head: HUMAN RIGHTS IN WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM

CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

To those who cling to power through corruption and deceit and the silencing of dissent,
know that you are on the wrong side of history, but that we will extend a hand if you are
willing to unclench your fist.
- President Barack Obama, Inaugural Address, 2009

This chapter provides an overview of the problem being addressed by the study, as well
as a background of the issues involved. Chapter one also identifies the research questions that
were used for the study, and it identifies a theoretical framework used to provide structure to the
study’s design.
Human Rights Education (HRE) has received much attention and support within the
international community in the past two decades. The 2006 conclusion of the United Nations
Decade of Human Rights and associated efforts across national governments and
nongovernmental organizations to increase human rights awareness as well as promote a unified
international standard for teaching HRE has led to a dramatic shift in availability and opportunity
for training across the globe (Cardenas, 2005; Lapayese, 2005; Ramirez, Suarez & Meyer, 2005).
Despite the significant international focus on human rights and increased access to education,
there has been an equally dramatic global increase in human rights violations since the UNDHR
began in 1996 (Croser, 2014).
The effects of international economic globalization combined with post-cold war
international politics has created a polarizing effect on human rights issues. On one hand,
traditionally isolated people and nations now have an economic and social connection to the
international community, thus offering greater opportunity for HRE and potentially even the
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 2

realization of greater human rights activity. On the other hand, the same global and political
forces have contributed to an international system that is arguably more difficult to navigate than
the cold war era. Since 1991, the current international system has seen increased instability and
an increase in gross and systemic human rights violations that some scholars predicted would
occur with the conclusion of the bipolar international system and the subsequent collapse of the
Soviet Union (Betts, 2013; Huntington, 1993; Zakaria, 2008).
As the relationship between HRE and human rights violations continues its negative
trend, one must question the paradoxical reaction between increased human rights education and
the actual practice of human rights violations by individuals and governments of other nations.
The curriculum and training being offered by the US government, other western governments,
and NGOs has been increasing for decades, however based on today’s environment there is
cause for concern about the effectiveness of current human rights education, especially among
vulnerable and struggling governments that have partnerships with the United States.
Background of the Problem

Since the end of WWII, there has been a continual shift in the roles played by nation-
states and by non-state humanitarian organizations. This shift has affected world economics as
well as issues involving social justice (Bendell, 2000). The process of international integration
that has come by way of shared views, ideologies, and cultures has become a significant factor in
domestic debates regarding our long-term economic well-being, but it has also provided a
vehicle for much needed social reform in nations that have reported gross and systemic human
rights violations.
One of the greatest challenges faced by state and non-state organizations today is the
education of such oppressed nations on the importance of human rights. A recent report by
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 3

Human Rights Watch included 90 countries that conducted some form of human rights violations
in 2015 alone. Human Rights Watch Director Kenneth Roth stated in the report that there are
significant crises occurring across the world from groups like Islamic State of Iraq and the
Levant, Boko Haram and others, and that “Human rights violations played a major role in
spawning or aggravating many of today’s crises” (Roth, 2015, p. 1).
The past decade has seen an unprecedented amount of instability on a global scale as a
result of violence and activities that are contrary to international treaties by both state and non-
state actors. Ten years after the end of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights, much of
the world has increased its focus on HRE, yet the reality of today’s security landscape indicates a
significant gap in the implementation of such learning. The annexation of Crimea and combat
operations in Ukraine by Russian forces, civil war in Syria, brutal violence by terrorist groups
such as Daesh and Boko Haram, fighting between Saudi military forces and Iranian-funded
Houthis in Yemen, and escalating tensions in East Asia involving China and North Korea are just
some of the examples of increased instability that have changed the international landscape since
the end of the cold war. Each of these situations involving both state and non-state actors has
included many well documented incidents of human rights violations, indicating that there
remains a significant uphill battle in securing basic rights for all people, even in the midst of an
increasingly educated international populace on human rights responsibilities.
Despite calls for reform, international sanctions, and diplomatic efforts to help economic
and military partner nations comply with international human rights standards, the United States
still supports and aids many state actors with poor human rights records (Hodzic, 2015).
According to the 7th annual Human Rights Risk Atlas (HRRA) produced by global analytics
company Maplecroft, there was a 70% increase in global human rights violations from 2008 to
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 4

2014. Many of the nations in the study that are ranked highest overall for numbers of violations
include those who have significant ties, whether economically or strategically, with the United
States. Some of the more prominent include Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
China, Philippines, Mexico, and Colombia (Maplecroft, 2014). Some activists argue that the US
Government should end relations with nations that do not follow internationally established
Human Rights standards, yet others argue that in today’s volatile international climate, doing so
would cut off important strategic allies and ultimately close the door to future negotiation or
potential for reform (Ignatieff, 2009). Despite critical opinion and increasing international
instability, the United States has continued to promote human rights with foreign allies and to
coordinate activities through Non-Governmental Organizations (CFR, 2013).
The US Department of State (DoS) is the federal entity charged with promoting human
rights among foreign nations through the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
(DRL). DoS states the following goals regarding human rights (2017):
 Hold governments accountable to their obligations under universal human rights norms
and international human rights instruments;
 Promote greater respect for human rights, including freedom from torture, freedom of
expression, press freedom, women's rights, children's rights, and the protection of
minorities;
 Promote the rule of law, seek accountability, and change cultures of impunity;
 Assist efforts to reform and strengthen the institutional capacity of the Office of the UN
High Commissioner for Human Rights and the UN Commission on Human Rights; and
 Coordinate human rights activities with important allies, including the EU, and regional
organizations.
DRL in-turn uses the above goals to conduct investigations of human rights cases using three
primary principles: a) finding factual accounts of incidents and focusing on truthful and factual
events, b) providing a consistent "inside-outside" approach to dealing with human rights abuse
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 5

cases, and c) DRL focuses resources and funding on government partnerships and non-
government institutions committed to human rights (DoS, 2015).
One of the primary resources used by DoS to promote and teach democracy and human
rights to foreign governments is through the International Military Education and Training
(IMET) Program. This program is a partnership between the Department of State and
Department of Defense that brings international military officers and foreign government
civilians to the United States in order to provide strategic military education with the intent of
teaching and promoting democratic values (Moskowitz, 2008).
The original IMET program was established as a grant by congress and was a
subcomponent of the International Security Assistance Act (ISAA) of 1976. This act was an
amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, which was originally designed to provide
authorities on general foreign military assistance. The ISAA of 1976 identified the IMET
program as a way to maintain military relationships with foreign governments while also
strengthening the military capabilities of allied nations (Cope, 1995). Then in 1990, members of
the Foreign Operations Subcommittee of the Senate Appropriations Committee proposed the
concept of building onto the success of the current IMET program with the intent of promoting
democratic values to foreign officers (Webster, 2008). This new and improved program was
dubbed Expanded IMET, or E-IMET.
The new Expanded IMET’s goals were to educate “U.S. friends and allies in the proper
management of their defense resources; improving their systems of military justice in accordance
with internationally recognized principles of human rights; and fostering a greater respect for,
and understanding of, the principle of civilian control of the military” (DSCA, 2016, p. 16-9).
Along with an expanded focus for curriculum and instruction, the new program also offered
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 6

training to a larger population of students. Students attending training in the United States and
elsewhere under the expanded program now include foreign civil servants in a variety of
capacities, those associated with NGOs, and senior military officers. The intended purpose of
the new program was not only to shift the focus of the curriculum to human rights, civilian-
controlled military, and improved military justice systems, but it was also designed to focus on a
target audience of military officers and civil servants who would have opportunities to rise to
high positions later in their careers with the ability to impact civil-military, human rights, rule of
law, and resource management policies (Reynolds, 2003).
Defining Human Rights. In order to study the best format for teaching human rights,
one must first clearly define human rights. Flowers (2000) describes human rights as being
universal, inalienable, indivisible, and interdependent. They are the birthright of all human
beings and cannot be taken away, nor can anyone decide that one person’s rights are more
important than another’s. Human rights are considered abstract concepts while at the same time
they provide a roadmap for practicality in the treatment of others. Human rights set minimum
standards for how people should treat one another while also guiding individuals to take action in
defense of those same rights.
In addition to human rights being a concept (both abstract and practical), there are
internationally recognized laws and documents that govern the conduct of people and
institutions. According to the Office of the High Commissioner for UN Human Rights:
Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status.
We are equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. These rights are all
interrelated, interdependent, and indivisible. (OHCHR, 2016)
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 7

Human rights are non-discriminatory and must be applied to all people.
In addressing the application of Social Work to human rights-based clinical approaches to
victims of abuse, Berthold (2015) provides examples, but not a complete list, of human rights.
Examples include a right to physical security, a right to have and access one’s family, a right to
be free from unwarranted detention, a right to not be subjected to torture, a right to healthcare, a
right to shelter, and a right to obtain nourishment. While these areas provide some substance to
what human rights can include, they lack a full recognition of all fundamental rights that every
human should recognize and receive.
The three primary documents that govern human rights law are the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDFR, 1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR, 1966), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR, 1966). These documents combined make up what is known as the International Bill
of Human Rights.
Of the above-named documents, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides the
most comprehensive list of actual rights to be recognized, and thus provides the best format for
defining and identifying each individual right. This list is encompassed in 30 separate articles
and includes a focus on a variety of areas for protection. The authors of the declaration all were
in agreement that human rights are fundamentally freely given to all people due to the very
nature of being human and through shared human dignity (Reichert, 2007).
The UNDHR highlights 27 separate rights that should be universally recognized by all
nations on behalf of all human beings. While still somewhat controversial in some areas due to
the focus on western culture and ideology, the declaration is supported by a majority of the
nations on earth and stands as a beacon of not only internationally recognized human rights, but
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 8

also as a standard for human rights in the United States. The following 27 rights found within the
articles of the declaration offer a specific format that identifies what all human beings are
entitled to:
1. Right to liberty and equality as a birthright
2. The right to not be discriminated against in any way
3. The right to life, liberty and security of person.
4. The right to freedom from slavery or servitude
5. The right to freedom from torture
6. The right as an individual before the law
7. The right to equal protection of the law
8. The right to an effective remedy by national tribunals for acts violating the
fundamental rights granted.
9. Freedom from arbitrary arrest or detention
10. The right to a fair trial
11. The right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public
trial
12. Freedom from arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home or correspondence
13. The right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.
14. The right of asylum
15. The right to a nationality
16. The right to found a family and marry with the free consent of both parties.
17. The right to own property
18. Freedom of thought, conscious, and religion
19. Freedom of opinion and expression
20. The right to peaceful assembly and association
21. The right to take part in government service
22. The right to social security
23. The right to work
24. The right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours
25. The right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 9

26. The right to education
27. The right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community
The final three articles (28-30) in the declaration go beyond mere understanding of the rights of
individuals. These articles instead stress the duties and obligations of citizens and governments
to promote these basic human rights and fundamental freedoms. These concepts align with
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains (Anderson, Krathwohl, & Bloom, 2001), which will
be a primary focus in the data assessment for this study.

Statement of the Problem
Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members
of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world…
the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in
fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal
rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better
standards of life in larger freedom
-Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948

Human Rights and democratic ideals are two core concepts that set the United States
apart as a world leader in freedom and the protection of all members of the human race. Since
the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in December of 1948, the United
States government has promoted human rights and freedom among its own citizens, and has
lobbied for those same rights in nations across the world.
Congress has authorized the President to implement the Expanded IMET program to
provide foreign military officers and civilians, including:
foreign governmental personnel of ministries other than the ministries of defense, and
may also include legislators and individuals who are not members of the government if
the military education and training, [and who] 1) Contribute to responsible defense
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 10

resource management, 2) Foster greater respect for and understanding of the principle of
civilian control of the military, and 3) Contribute to the cooperation between military and
law enforcement personnel with respect to counter-narcotics law enforcement efforts, or
improve military justice systems and procedures in accordance with internationally
recognized human rights. (22 USC 2347)
According to the Congressional Budget Justification for the Department of State’s Foreign
Operations and Related Programs, FY16 allocations for the IMET program was over $108
million, with a projected increase for FY17 to over $110 million. This allocation was in stark
contrast to the relatively modest budgetary request to congress in 2002 of $3.6 million. The
exponential increase in authorizations indicates that State Department officials and congressional
overseers alike have found benefit in the IMET program. In FY10, over half of the total IMET
budget was spent training foreign military officers and civilians through Professional Military
Education (PME) within military war colleges and staff colleges, an amount that equaled all
other sources of IMET training combined (GAO, 2011).
While the War Colleges have been the primary resources used to educate thousands of foreign
officers in strategic thought to promote democratic ideals and human rights, the US Government
Affairs Office reported that there has been a continuous lack of focus on human rights education
(GAO, 2011). According to the report, IMET-sponsored foreign officers and civilians have the
ability to obtain HRE through multiple avenues, including classes that are focused on human
rights and field trips to democratic institutions. Yet only 25% of the training plans of host-
countries with poor human rights records that were reviewed by the Government Affairs Office
reflected human rights training as an objective. Some IMET participants were still able to
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 11

participate in courses with a specific focus on human rights and related concepts, yet most were
not conducted at one of the five War Colleges.
The GAO Report (2011) states that out of the 141 IMET certified courses offered by all PME
institutions only seven of those courses included references on human rights, rule of law, or
international military law. Most students who received specific training on human rights were
not attendees of any of the five war colleges, which cater to the most senior of military and
civilian IMET participants. Those programs that actually did offer specific courses were focused
on establishing civil-military relations and international law of military operations, and they were
conducted exclusively at the Defense Institute of International Legal Studies and the Naval
Postgraduate School. Additional human rights-specific training was also available via mobile
training, and all IMET students in the master’s degree program at the Naval Postgraduate School
were required to take one class on human rights (GAO, 2011, p. 9).
GAO investigators reportedly interviewed government officials and studied the curriculum
content for various PME programs that included curriculum from the war colleges. They found
that human rights information and training was “integrated broadly into the DOD PME
curriculum, and not as a standalone course” (GAO, 2011, p. 13). Due to the lack of measurable
evidence to indicate IMET effectiveness, especially regarding human rights training, it is
important to understand how well professional Military Education Institutions are integrating
human rights training into the curriculum. It is also important to consider whether integrated
curriculum or stand-alone classes are the most effective at teaching international students about
human rights.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 12

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to assess the frequency and presence of Human Rights
Education found within the curriculum of the US military’s six War Colleges. The study
provides a qualitative view of the current curriculum that mentions subjects related to human
rights as it is offered to both domestic and international students. The following literature review
provides a broad understanding of studies that have been conducted regarding the challenges of
teaching and creating curriculum for human rights education and diversity education (Banks,
2005; Cumming-McCann, 2003). It also ties these subject areas to related content on the
effectiveness of Professional Military Education curriculum, and provides a review of current
literature that has addressed the effectiveness of the IMET program.
Recent criticisms of the war colleges from both inside and outside of these educational
institutions have brought into question the benefits of a war college education and its usefulness
to senior officers in the US military, much less that of foreign officers needing specialized
education in targeted areas (Cronin, 2014; Hughes, 2010; Johnson-Freese 2014; Reed, 2011;
Wiarda, 2011). In light of these criticisms, there has also been a noticeable shift in some policies
by the defense department to have a greater focus on civilian higher education and to provide
more opportunities for select senior officers to attend institutions of higher education for
advanced degrees. This effort is designed to give these high-potential officers a learning
environment that promotes differing views, with a diverse civilian environment. Additionally,
defense department officials hope to strengthen the senior officer corps by providing education
to senior officers in non-traditional areas such as international relations or community
development (Tilghman, 2015).
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 13

Of the few studies that have been conducted on the Expanded IMET program since its
creation in 1990, most have focused on the students themselves and the general lack of
accountability for the program’s effectiveness (as specified in Section 2347b of the Foreign
Assistance Act) (Calhoun, 1998; Cope, 1995; Edwards, 2012). To date, no study has focused on
the institutions, curriculum, or the faculty as potential variables in effectively meeting the stated
goals of the IMET program. This study will focus on curriculum effectiveness at the war college
level rather than on student perceptions or EIMET program accountability.
Despite over two decades of calls for program reform to provide a quantifiable annual
assessment of program effectiveness, many questions still remain unanswered as to the return on
investment achieved through Expanded IMET. Some studies have attempted to obtain
information from the perspective of the students who have attended PME courses as part of
IMET (Cope, 1995; Edwards, 2012; Moskos, 2004), however the students in these studies had a
limited educational experience and also a limited perspective. International students that are
sponsored to attend a war college are given a great opportunity; however their experience is
primarily limited to the war college environment, interaction with primarily other military
officers, and an arguably isolated academic year living in military housing. This narrow view
and limited experience lacks the depth necessary to provide a thorough and comprehensive
review of program effectiveness when considering alternative curriculum or environments.
Research Questions
While it is obviously important to understand an academic experience and effectiveness from
the students’ point of view, it is also imperative to understand the quality of the instruction as it
is assessed using established criteria and educational norms. Student perceptions can be very
telling about individual satisfaction and even effectiveness; however such assessments can be
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 14

subjective and can overlook the purpose behind the curriculum to begin with. Studying the
presence of certain educational requirements through comparison to established international
HRE standards can better assess the appropriateness of the environment and the effectiveness of
the curriculum in meeting stated IMET goals.
In order to provide a baseline of understanding and inform both faculty and researchers about
the current state of HRE curriculum present at each war college, a qualitative study of the
curriculum was accomplished. The following research question and sub-questions guided the
study:
What association does war college curriculum have to human rights principles found in
key aspects of the 1974 UNESCO Recommendations Concerning Education for
International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education?
a. How often do War College curriculum syllabi address concepts encompassing one
of the key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?
b. How often do War College required and optional readings address concepts
encompassing one of the key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?
c. What percentage of Human Rights Education (if any) is found within required
readings compared to optional readings?
d. What competencies (if any) identified in the UNESCO recommendations are most
prevalent in the war college curriculum?
e. How frequently do primary courses address concepts encompassing one of the
key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 15

Significance of the Study
This study may help to advance previously conducted research on HRE curriculum by
providing a qualitative approach to assessing curriculum content. The study may help to inform
the current body of knowledge on the effectiveness of the war colleges in preparing all leaders
(military, civilian, and international) for the most complex policy issues of the 21
st
century as
they apply lessons learned about human rights in their respective spheres of influence.
Additionally, the results of the study can be used to help identify gaps in current war college
curriculum, helping to close the gaps identified by congress in 2011.
The goal of this study was to assess the amount of human rights subject matter found within
current course curriculum. Even though there has been a documented increase in HRE efforts
and curriculum reform across the globe, there still remains a lack of historical educational data
on HRE. State-level Board of Education reports have been utilized by some scholars, however
Moon (2009) notes that the data found in these reports are somewhat incomplete and
“superficial”, and that they lack the details “on whether human rights is considered a separate
subject, a cross-curricular theme, dates of implementation or how much time is allocated to the
teaching of human rights” (p.19). Eurydice (2005) argues that most consider human rights
education to be a cross-curricular theme that is “conflated with existing subjects”, making it
difficult to even identify curriculum devoted to HRE. This study attempts to assess these same
issues at the war colleges and it provides recommendations to increase the effectiveness of
human rights education found at each campus.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study is limited in scope in several areas. Professional Military Education encompasses
distance learning, in-residence education, and non-academic environments across the globe for
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 16

many different levels of learning for junior enlisted through senior ranking military officers. This
study focuses exclusively on education materials specifically in two of the nation’s six War
Colleges’ in-residence programs. The officers and senior civilians selected to attend any of the
six war colleges are considered the most promising leaders and future strategists on military
matters.
In addition to the limitation of only studying war college curriculum, this study also only
focused on the Naval War College and the National War College. These were chosen based on
geographic location and the different focus areas of each school which provides more diversity in
the curriculum. While the basic curriculum standards for each war college is very similar (and
accredited by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff), a more comprehensive study of all six
curricula with an emphasis on supplemental reading materials would provide a more
comprehensive review of the level of HRE found in senior officer-focused PME.
This study addresses the amount of human rights material is found in the curriculum,
however the study does not provide a mechanism to empirically assess the best way to teach
HRE. This study also is not intended to assess the effectiveness of PME at the war colleges, nor
is it designed to assess the effectiveness of the Expanded IMET program. However, it does
provide a view of the whole curriculum based on the existence of HRE material that can help
inform practitioners about the level of HRE currently employed, and provide a roadmap for
adjusting the levels of HRE in the curriculum as necessary to fulfill congressional mandates.
Another limitation comes from the data collection methods used in phase two of the
study. In order to avoid identifying false HRE instances via key words, phase two was designed
to assess the readings based on paragraph intent. While this method provided a number of
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 17

results not found in phase one, there was still a potential bias on the part of the researcher in
determining what constituted the paragraph’s actual intent.
Definition of Terms

Diversity courses: “Those courses that have content and methods of
instruction that are inclusive of the diversity found in
society” (Laird et al., 2005, p. 450).

DoD: Department of Defense

DoS: Department of State

E-IMET: Expanded International Military Education and Training

HRE: Human Rights Education

IMET: International Military Education and Training

Integrated Curriculum Model: A multidisciplinary educational approach where teachers
“fuse skills, knowledge, or even attitudes into the regular
school curriculum” (Drake & Burns, 2016, p. 9).

UDHR: Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UNDHR United Nations Decade of Human Rights

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization

PME: Professional Military Education: Program intended to
“produce senior officers who, as skilled joint warfighters,
can develop and execute national military strategies that
effectively employ the armed forces in concert with other
instruments of national power to achieve the goals of
national security strategy and policy in the air, land,
maritime, and space physical domains and the information
environment”. (CJCSI 1800.01E, 2015)

NGO: Non-Government Organization

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 18

Organization and Theoretical Framework
The ultimate goal of this study was to provide additional insight into current methods of
educating international military and government officers about human rights. The study also
offered government leaders, faculty members, educational practitioners, and human rights
activists a greater understanding of how to be more effective in teaching the world’s leaders how
to both understand and to promote human rights globally by better understanding the amount and
frequency of HRE being offered. The study was organized by providing a review of existing
literature followed by a document analysis, results of the study, and finally a discussion of the
implications.
This study covered a range of issues including curriculum reform, educational
administration, foreign policy, international relations theory, and leadership. As such, it is
difficult to provide a single conceptual framework for the study that provides appropriate focus
on the issues at hand. Therefore, the study was addressed using two primary conceptual views.
The first involves political ideology through Liberal Idealism and Democratic Peace Theory,
encompassing complex international relations theory, leadership, and foreign policy (Doyle,
1983). The second conceptual frame focuses on Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy (encompassing
curriculum reform and educational administration).
International Relations Theory Framework. The significance of the IMET program
should not be overlooked, nor should its role in international diplomacy be underestimated. The
influence that the IMET program has on foreign governments and the importance of its stated
goals among US officials is indicated by the significant funds allotted by congress each fiscal
year as well as the overwhelming interest in participation by government leaders in over 140
countries annually (GAO, 2011).
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 19

Viewing this study through a democratic peace theory lens affords the reader an
opportunity to see the potential effect PME institutions and the IMET program have on
improving human rights conditions and policies across the world. By educating the senior
leaders of military and civilian governments on human rights during their PME experience, the
United States has a tremendous opportunity to challenge these leaders to return and implement
these same standards in their home nations.
Democratic Peace Theory was first proposed by philosopher Immanuel Kant in the 18
th

century (Doyle, 2005). The concept and theory itself has evolved over time with theorists both
for and against the ideas proposed. However, the most fundamental portions of the theory
include:
-Democracies are less likely to fight wars between each other due to economic ties and decisions
for war requiring citizen approval (Lake, 1992)
- Democratic nations tend to suffer fewer casualties and have shorter campaigns than other
government types (Bennet & Stam, 1996; Siverson, 1995)
- Democratic states that are at odds over policy, economics, or other issues tend to find
alternative ways to resolve their issues rather than resort to war (Dixon, 1994; Mousseau, 1998)
Hedley Bull, a prominent international relations scholar, characterized some of the early
proponents of democratic peace theory at the beginning of the 20
th
century as idealists,
mentioning writers such as Sir Alfred Zimmern, S. H. Bailey, Philip Noel-Baker, and David
Mitrany in the United Kingdom, and James T. Shotwell, Pitman Potter, and Parker T. Moon. He
notes that what made these theorists stand out at the time (prior to WWII) was their:
belief in progress: the belief, in particular, that the system of international relations that
had given rise to the First World War was capable of being transformed into a
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 20

fundamentally more peaceful and just world order; that under the impact of the
awakening of democracy, the growth of 'the international mind', the development of the
League of Nations, the good works of men of peace or the enlightenment spread by their
own teaching, it was in fact being transformed; and that their responsibility as students of
international relations was to assist this march of progress to overcome the ignorance, the
prejudices, the ill-will, and the sinister interests that stood in its way (Bull, 1972, p. 31).
Yet many scholars (Bull included) saw much of the international system through a realist lens,
which, unlike the above-mentioned writers, focused less on the good works of individuals and
organizations such as the league of nations, and instead viewed the international system through
a lens that focused on anarchy and power.
Michael W. Doyle, another well-known theorist who (unlike Bull) was a proponent of the
liberal view of democratic peace, published an essay in 1983 that used Kantian logic to build
upon his own notions of the liberal international system. More recent work published by Doyle
is likely the most significant piece of literature related to this current study that helps to frame
the importance of human rights education and its proliferation through government-funded
education to senior foreign officials. In a response to critics of the Democratic Peace Theory,
Doyle (2005) indicated there are three pillars of logic that, when combined, constitute the
foundation of the theory of liberal democratic peace. They are a) republican representation, b) an
ideological commitment to fundamental human rights, and c) transnational interdependence. He
goes on to say that “the logic underlying the peace among liberal states rests on a simple and
straightforward proposition that connects those three causal mechanisms as they operate together
and only together, and not separately” (Doyle, 2005, p. 464).
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 21

Doyle identifies human rights to be a necessity for the Democratic Peace Theory to be
logical and consistent as applied to the international system, and it is in fact one of the three
primary pillars of the entire theory. Using the lens of Democratic Peace Theory as a mechanism
to view the issue in context of international student participation at the war colleges helps to
frame this study in a way that indicates the need for increased cooperation between nation-states
and an increased need for internationally recognized human rights standards. Yet it is important
to recognize that this is still just a theory, and many policy makers, both domestic and foreign,
view the international system with a realist lens.
When applying realist perspectives to the field of education, there may not be the same
consideration for the importance of HRE, nor is there likely to be the same results found in
foreign government HRE reformation efforts when leaders are using this type of ideology.
Differing realist theories that are by-products of modernization theory (in economics and
international relations) suggest that the international system is driven by rational decisions by
nation states or individual actors that focus on their personal power rather than focusing on the
international system as a whole (Moon, 2009).
It is important to note however, that existing literature suggests a pattern where stable
democracies are already likely to promote human rights and may view HRE as a reform
consistent with a democratic system of governance (Moon, 2009). Additionally, strong
democracies tend to offer more support and resources to NGOs in order to provide a platform
that forces the ruling party to create new policies that promote such reforms (Hathaway, 2003).
It should be emphasized that the democracies noted in the literature are characterized as
established and strong, and that young democracies are not as likely to accept such reform as
easily. Therefore, the success of the IMET program in bringing democratic ideals and respect
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 22

for human rights to nations across the globe still ultimately rests upon the shoulders of the
foreign government leaders, and its effect is dependent on the courage and willingness of each
leader to act on the teachings received during their PME experience.
Learning Theory Framework. Another equally important way this study was framed
was through the lens of an educator. Learning theory provides a conceptual framework that
focuses on the most effective ways that information is obtained, retained, and processed in a
given learning environment (NRC, 1999). There are a multitude of established theories based on
existing paradigms in the field, including behaviorist theories, cognitive theories, constructivist
theories, humanist theories, and model theories to name a few. The model theory known as
Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain (Bloom et al, 1956), as updated in 2002 by
Anderson and Krathwohl, also guided this study.
Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy provides a framework that can help international students go
beyond mere understanding and instead offer an environment that promotes application, analysis,
and evaluation of their current national environment regarding human rights. The hierarchical
nature of the updated model identifies 6 different levels of learning. They include knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. While focusing on the most
basic and lowest level of knowledge may be an adequate goal for some government leaders, the
argument made by many in the field of HRE is that students need to be given the opportunity to
learn at Bloom’s highest levels of learning (Patel, 2007; Sajan, 2010; Tibbitts, 2002). Only then
will the IMET goals be fulfilled and the actual return on investment (both monetarily and
politically) be realized as foreign graduates of the war colleges return to their native countries
and actively promote human rights reform in personal practice and in the creation of government
policy.
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 23

Authentic Leadership. A key component that ties the two previous frames together is
the understanding of a leadership theory dubbed authentic leadership. This theory is grounded in
the concept of ethical behavior and truth-centered activism; however there are differing views on
what constitutes the whole of the theory (Gardner et al., 2005). Despite these differences of
opinion, one aspect of the theory that resonates across the field is that of an internalized moral
perspective (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Leaders who exhibit an internalized moral perspective
tend to guide their decision-making process based on the aforementioned guidelines and do so
without being influenced by outside actors (Kernis, 2003). Using a moral guide for making
ethical decisions as leaders promotes the concept of self-regulation that not only impacts the
leader’s own beliefs, but it also influences the leader’s self-awareness of their decision-making
impact on those they lead (George, 2003; Hannah et al., 2005). The reason this concept is
especially relevant to this particular study is due to some scholars arguing that the internalized
moral perspective can be obtained through formal education (May et al., 2003; Shamir & Eilam,
2005). This study does not measure the validity of this argument or previous empirical data,
however the concept of “teaching” students to become authentic leaders is important as the study
is framed around the notion of promoting American ideals though educating current and future
world leaders about human rights.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 24

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

HRE has been an important pillar of education and training in the United States for
decades, yet even among academics in higher education and K-12 settings there remains a lack
of focus on the most effective way to teach students about human rights (Tibbitts & Fernekes,
2011). There is a general consensus that human rights are important enough to emphasize, and
in some instances provide separate courses on the subject, however like other concepts such as
diversity and ethics, much of the HRE curriculum is expected to be included in other courses at
many universities. This idea of a shared curriculum model could be based on the notion that as
American citizens, students are already taught from a young age by family, civic, and school
leaders about the inherent rights of all people. However, in today’s higher education
environment, there are many students enrolled in undergraduate and graduate study in the
United States that lack the background and understanding of human rights and social equity that
many domestic students automatically enjoy (Rincon, 2008).
This literature review provides a broad overview of the research already conducted in
areas that inform the current landscape of teaching international students about HRE. The
review first highlights HRE efforts and studies that have focused on actual HRE curriculum.
A second section is dedicated to diversity education in the United States. Due to the
lack of literature that specifically assesses the effectiveness of Human Rights Education for
international students (and international military students in particular), this section focuses on
literature that has assessed diversity education in a higher education setting. The diversity
section provides an understanding of the work already accomplished in assessing diversity-
centered curriculum as well as the best models for measuring diversity curriculum effectiveness
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 25

in courses that are not diversity-specific but still meet the diversity requirement for specific
institutions.
A third section of the literature review focuses on the efforts of the US Government in
recent decades to provide education and training to foreign military officers on human rights
and democratic ideology through the IMET and Expanded IMET program. This section
reviews past studies on IMET effectiveness and identify gaps in program assessment.
Human Rights Education
HRE (as it is understood internationally today) was an initiative that was first manifest
in the UN Charter as well as the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) Constitution along with the creation of the United Nations
immediately after the end of World War II (Tibitts & Fernekes, 2011). Initial attempts to
promote HRE were limited in scope and conducted by non-state actors. Additionally, in 1953
UNESCO attempted its own reform plan by integrating human rights into formal school
curriculum through the Associated School Program. These early efforts were met with
resistance at the state-level and for several decades they gained little traction. However in 1974
the lack of action began to change.
During the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization, which took place in the months of October and November of 1974,
members of the assembled body adopted what was called the Recommendation concerning
Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to
Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Unlike the original declaration of human rights
that preceded it, this document goes beyond the mere definition of human rights and outlines a
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 26

robust framework for educating international audiences about human rights as well as how to
implement HRE (Thompson & Hayden, 1998).
The 1974 UNESCO “Guiding Principles” include 4 key aspects that help shape the
expectations of Human Rights Education today:
1. Education should be infused with the aims and purposes set forth in the Charter of the
United Nations, the Constitution of UNESCO and the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights…which states: ‘Education shall be directed to the full developments of the
human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations,
racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the
Maintenance of Peace.’
2. The following objectives should be regarded as major guiding principles of
educational policy:
a) an international dimension and global perspective in education at all levels and in
all forms
b) understanding and respect for all peoples, their cultures, civilizations, values and
ways of life, including domestic ethnic cultures and cultures of other nations
c) awareness of the increasing global interdependence between peoples and nations
d) abilities to communicate with others
e) awareness not only of the rights but also of the duties incumbent upon
individuals, social groups and nations toward each other
f) understanding of the necessity for international solidarity and cooperation
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 27

g) readiness on the part of the individual to participate in solving the problems of
his community, his country, and the world at large
3. Combining learning, training, information and action, international education should
further the appropriate intellectual and emotional development of the individual. It
should develop a sense of social responsibility and of solidarity with less privileged
groups and should lead to observance of the principles of equality in everyday conduct.
It should also help to develop qualities, aptitudes and abilities which enable the
individual to acquire a critical understanding of problems at the national and the
international level; to understand and explain facts, opinions and ideas; to work in a
group; to accept and participate in free discussions; to observe the elementary rules of
procedure applicable to any discussion; and to base value judgments and decisions on a
rational analysis of relevant facts and factors.
4. Education should stress the inadmissibility of recourse to war for purposes of
expansion, aggression and domination, or to the use of force and violence for purposes
of repression, and should bring every person to understand and assume his or her
responsibilities for the maintenance of peace. It should contribute to international
understanding and strengthening of world peace and to the activities in the struggle
against colonialism and neo-colonialism in all their forms and manifestations, and
against all forms and varieties of racialism, fascism, and apartheid as well as other
ideologies which breed national and racial hatred and which are contrary to the purposes
of this recommendation.
These four recommendations to member nations regarding a common standard for international
education provides a framework for educational curriculum that applies to national and
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 28

international organizations, and when viewed from a compatibility perspective for training US
and international military officers at war college, it holds an equal level of applicability.
Despite significant HRE advances on the international scene (especially among NGOs)
in the 1970s, nation-states (including the United States) were slow to adopt the reforms or make
changes to curriculum (Cardenas, 2005; Moon, 2009). While it may be taken for granted by
some politicians or even some scholars that universal human rights are regularly promoted in
American society, there has been a slow acceptance of a significant gap in human rights
education among K-12 and higher education institutions in the United States (Flowers, 2000).
The first scholarly promotion of HRE in the United States occurred in the journal Social
Education in September 1985 by the National Council for the Social Studies. HRE did not find
its way into any school curriculum in the United States until 1986, when David Shiman first
published Teaching about Human Rights. This initial attempt to create a new resource for
teaching human rights was followed by more efforts from Betty Reardon in 1995 and the
creation of the University of Minnesota Human Rights Education Series in 1998, which was
monumental and at the same time cast a negative shadow over the field considering it was the
50
th
anniversary of the UNDHR and very little had been done to educate U.S. citizens on human
rights.
In 1993, the World Conference on Human Rights held in Vienna revisited the
importance of HRE, identifying it as “essential for the promotion and achievement of stable and
harmonious relations among communities and for fostering mutual understanding, tolerance, and
peace” (UNGA A/RES/48/127, p. 1). The following year, in direct response to the Vienna
declaration, the UN General Assembly identified the period from 1995 to 2004 to be the UN
Decade for Human Rights (UNDHR).
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 29

Along with the proclamation for the UNDHR, the General Assembly published a Plan of
Action (1994) that detailed human rights education to be “training, dissemination, and
information efforts aimed at the building of a universal culture of human rights through the
imparting of knowledge and skills and the molding of attitudes which are directed to:
1. The strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
2. The full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity
3. The promotion of understanding, tolerance, gender equality, and friendship among all
nations, indigenous peoples and racial, national, ethnic, religious and linguistic groups
4. The enabling of all persons to participate effectively in a free society
5. The furtherance of the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace”
(para. 2).
Prominent authors and Human Rights experts have called in recent years for a greater
emphasis on Human Rights Education that includes both an understanding of human rights and a
focus on engagement on the part of the student (Flowers, 1998; Tibbits, 2002; Volker &
Savolainen, 2002). Using Bloom’s Taxonomy as a framework for educational objectives, a
focus solely on understanding human rights limits the student to mere comprehension. This
limitation has merit however, as it still provides students opportunities to learn about the rights of
all human beings by virtue of birth to be treated respectfully, to learn about the history of human
rights, about laws governing human rights nationally and internationally, and about the vehicles
for the promotion of those rights (Moon, 2009).
Yet comprehension alone may limit the students from attaining learning objectives that
are designed to go beyond understanding. Teaching students about human rights engagement
requires an increased level of instructional techniques using learning objects that invoke
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 30

Bloom’s (1956) revised taxonomy of conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and
metacognitive knowledge (Anderson et al., 2001). This level of instruction requires students to
rise above rote memorization and instead promotes a sense of responsibility that leads to the
defense of human rights through actively recognizing human rights violations and using tools
to address those violations (Moon, 2009). In order to facilitate a shift in human rights education
procedural and metacognitive knowledge, faculty and administrators in higher education must
consider learning objectives and curriculum reform to meet those objectives. Since 1991, there
have been several articles and papers published that focus on HRE in various countries across
the globe (Addo 2000; Claude 1996; Duffy 1994; Gearon 2003; Kang 2002; Kati & Gjedia
2003; Keet & Carrim 2006; McQuoid-Mason 1997; Tibbitts 1994, 2000). Many of these
studies began to appear in international education journals, others appeared in book format or
in social science journals.
The fall of the Soviet Union and subsequent dramatic increase in young democracies
across Eastern Europe and Southern Asia, combined with the increased focus on HRE among
UN partner states, resulted in an unprecedented shift in HRE curriculum availability. Much of
the literature on HRE published before and during the UNDHR was characterized by
researchers and authors assessing the challenges associated with social, cultural, and policy
changes as both a prerequisite and an enduring necessity for HRE to be implemented (Addo,
2000; Claude, 1990; Kang, 2000; Mahmud, 1993). The following articles provide insight into
the focus of the literature on international HRE efforts after the fall of the Soviet Union and
during the UNDHR.
In Educating for Human Rights: The Philippines and Beyond (1990), Claude provides a
multifaceted study that reviews the history, political dramas, and policy issues involving human
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 31

rights in the Philippines. Although there is a portion of the study that reviews curricula and
pedagogical developments in the promotion of basic human rights among the people of the
Philippines, it is somewhat outdated and still provides only an overview of the educational
framework being used. There is very little data to assess the effectiveness of the HRE
curriculum. Kang (2002) provides another study from Southeast Asia that differs in its approach.
He argues that cultural expectations and bureaucratic school policy combine to limit the ability
of teachers to even use the terms “democracy” or ‘human rights”. Kang (2002) calls for reforms
in school regulations and national-level laws in order to address the lack of human rights
teaching in South Korea.
Addo (2000) offers an HRE review that is more generalized and encompasses multiple
states on the African continent. This article provides a needs-assessment of the then current
situation in many African nations and attempts to identify areas where the UNDHR Plan of
Action could be implemented. A single paragraph is dedicated to HRE materials in the study,
however the article addresses challenges more than it does provide any empirical data on HRE
and curriculum. McQuoid-Mason (1997) and Mahmud (1993) both provide a more
comprehensive review of HRE on the African continent, however the articles similarly provide
little value to the issue of HRE curriculum effectiveness in this study.
Some literature is also focused on HRE in states that have struggled to reform their
governments after decades of gross human rights violations or at minimum an unwillingness to
acknowledge certain rights (Duffy, 1994; Magendzo, 1997; Mahmud, 1993; Martin et al., 1997).
Duffy (1994) addresses the HRE needs of Cambodia after the atrocities of the Khmer Rouge. In
Toward a Culture of Human Rights in Cambodia, Duffy (1994) focuses on the United Nations
Transnational Authority in Cambodia’s efforts to begin a grass roots campaign for educating
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 32

villagers about human rights. This article provides another view of the political challenges other
nations have endured in implementing HRE, however it also lacks empirical evidence of
curriculum effectiveness and instead focuses on the struggles in the social and political realms
for cultural reform.
Some scholars have provided a review of HRE as a global movement that has only
recently begun to find its way into US classrooms. Over the past decade, several studies have
focused on the level of non-governmental institutions as the driving force for HRE across
national and international boundaries (Ramirez et al., 2005; Suarez 2005; Suarez & Ramirez
2005). Other studies found that school curriculum has evolved from nationally-focused rights
education to now include more human rights and international identity (Suarez, Ramirez & Koo
2007). This relatively recent shift in educational policy to focus on global issues rather than
nationalism has followed closely with an international trend among western nations specifically
that promotes globalization in economics, politics, and education. Recent changes within the
United States to focus on global preparation for K-12 students has resulted in many states
adopting “Common Core” curriculum standards in an effort to compete in the modern world
(especially economically). Despite these national-level changes being implemented across the
nation with a focus on global education and competency, a gap still remains in the literature
regarding effective implementation of HRE to accompany this global focus at the K-12 level.
More recent scholarly work has provided insight and direction on best practices for
implementing HRE in the United States. Suarez (2007) notes the difficulty of identifying a
common model for teaching HRE and provides a roadmap for implementing and evaluating HRE
curriculum. Suarez and Ramirez (2005) reflect on the impact of the human rights movement on
education in general to the world at large, yet they emphasize the lack of theoretical focus from
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 33

within the academy and from curriculum designers. They propose that antiquated instructional
methods that focus on nation-based civics education lacks a modern global perspective of all
human rights and instead focuses on rights that are limited to those provided by the US
Constitution (Suarez & Ramirez, 2005).
Cole (2011) provides a view of Human Rights as it relates to gender, race, sexuality and
disability. Cole’s analysis is based on experiences by parents and administrators primarily in the
United Kingdom, however the issues of equity and social justice are found equally in the United
States and elsewhere in advanced western nations. Cole (2011) identifies issues and addresses
disparities historically, however there is little from the book that indicates any study of
effectiveness in teaching HRE or the benefits of varying types of curriculum based on empirical
data.
The most critical aspect of HRE curriculum being addressed in the current study focuses
on the most effective format for implementing HRE at the War Colleges. Suarez (2007)
addresses the crux of this issue and asks whether HRE should be presented to students as a
formal and separate curriculum, or whether it can be received by way of “hidden curriculum”
using alternate means. Citing public message boards from a group of Human Rights Education
advocates, Suarez notes that some in the community believe that implementing HRE using only
a “paragraph in a textbook mentioning the Universal Declaration of Human Rights” (Suarez,
2007, p. 51) will be a waste of effort and bring a fruitless return on investment. Such advocates
want to instead see a combination of integrated curriculum (with more than a single paragraph of
content) combined with a separate course curriculum focusing on HRE. Additionally, advocates
in Suarez’s (2007) study highlight the need for a format that connects the curriculum to the
students’ lived experiences.
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 34

Some scholars argue that no one single approach for teaching HRE is “best” (Reardon,
1994), yet there are several authors internationally who have provided strategies and models for
teaching human rights in formal and informal settings. The current study focuses primarily on
human rights issues found War College curriculum, therefore the following studies are reviewed
based on formal training rather than experiential or informal training.
Much of the literature that has been accomplished regarding human rights education
initiatives has focused on comparing differing nation-state efforts. Lapayese (2004) offers a
view of national-level initiatives to implement HRE reform in schools. The study compares
reform efforts in the United States, Japan, and Austria. It provides insight to formal school
settings, but provides a mixed review based on varying levels of accomplishment between
nations and focuses more on policy than curriculum effectiveness.
Tibbitts (2002) provides three distinct emerging typologies of HRE. Each is described
respectively as the values and awareness model, the accountability model, and the
transformational model. Other authors provide similar models that break down the focus of HRE
in a way that can be built upon one another, eventually resulting in a transformational process
that reflects Bloom’s learning theory (Sajan, 2010, Patel, 2007). These articles, while useful in
understanding approaches to creating curriculum, provide little guidance to the effectiveness of
these methods as opposed to using a non-formal approach or relying on “life experience” to
provide the teaching points.
Due to the dearth of empirical data indicating HRE curriculum effectiveness, it is
necessary to explore closely aligned subjects in order to identify whether assessment models are
in place and whether studies exist that have conclusive results. The following section addresses
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 35

the current literature associated with the best delivery format and curriculum development
models for diversity education.
Diversity Education and Integrated Curriculum
The subjects of human rights and diversity are often used interchangeably throughout the
literature and in the classroom. Within the field of diversity education, the themes of equality,
equity and access for women, people of color, religious minorities, and those who identify as
LGBT are all apparent in the articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNFE,
2017).
These themes of tolerance and equal treatment are also represented within the culture of
today’s military. Contrary to the beliefs of some in the United States who are not familiar with
the military or are not supportive of it as an institution, there is a significant representation of
minorities in the officer and enlisted ranks. As of 2013, among senior officers there were 81
African American generals or admirals and 70 female generals or admirals serving as senior
leaders and commanding generals across the world (Brook, 2014). Additionally, there were two
openly gay general officers who had introduced their recently married spouses to the public
(Scarborough, 2015).
While there is still a significant journey to be undertaken in order to find truly equitable
outcomes for minority populations in the military, there is a legacy of tolerance found within the
military that is not seen many other places in the general U.S. population. General Colin Powell,
the first African American four-star general to become the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
and then the Secretary of State remarked on his experiences of discrimination in the military
from the 1950s until his retirement: “they no longer cared whether I was black or white,
immigrant kid or not…The only thing my commanders ever told me from 1958 for the rest of my
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career, is 'Can you perform?' And that's all we have ever asked for” (Wiltrout, 2008, p. 2). This
legacy of tolerance and promotion of diversity ahead of the general American society has led the
US military to be admired and respected worldwide, and in many cases the US military is the
example for others to follow both in operational expertise and in the expectations of its people
(Hawkins, 2012; Ricks, 1997).
Both diversity and human rights are indeed related very closely, however there are still
aspects to the act of teaching each subject that require a separation to truly understand the
purpose each brings to a learning environment. Some attempts have been made to differentiate
the philosophic views of each (Milne, 1986), however for the purpose of this study, the general
challenges of deciding whether to include subject matter in existing curriculum or to create
separate coursework is universally applied in both settings.
Many studies have been accomplished that focus on the impact of diversity initiatives on
university campuses. There are three primary types of diversity initiatives mentioned in the
literature that offer a different approach in each setting (Chang, 2002). The first area studied is
that of structural diversity. This approach is focused on the representation of a diverse student
body, focusing on a classroom or campus environment that includes a variety of racial and ethnic
groups (Hurtado et al., 1999). Some studies have indicated that this form of diversity initiative
can increase learning effectiveness through more developed cognitive skills gained by having
multiple frames to view problems (Milem, Chang, & Antonio, 2005; Pike & Kuh, 2006). Yet,
departing from the field of educational administration and focusing on literature in the field of
social psychology provides a more in-depth look into the benefits of structural diversity. Some
studies in this field have indicated that when the sole form of diversity initiative is structural
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 37

diversity, there is little evidence to show increased social benefit (Gurin et al., 2003). In fact, it
may even have a negative effect (Hewstone & Greenland, 2000).
In response to the perceived need to do more than simply just promote a classroom and
campus with differing racial and ethnic backgrounds in order to promote diversity, a second form
of diversity education has been highlighted. This initiative focuses on the use of a combination
of classroom-based and co-curricular events in order to promote diversity (Chang, 2002). Some
literature has focused on co-curricular diversity education on undergraduate student learning.
Some have found a correlation between such activities and a lowered rate of racial bias (Denson
& Chang, 2009), while others have found that such activities have contributed to increased
cognition, equality awareness, and community participation (Bowman, 2010; Gurin et al., 2004;
Hurtado et al., 1998).
A third form of diversity annotated in the literature is referred to as diversity interaction.
This concept is similar to both the concept of a diverse student body and of co-curricular
activities, however the intent is to provide a structured environment where diverse students are
meant to perform tasks together and “forced” to work with others outside their normal sphere
(Umbach & Kuh, 2006). The literature that views this specific type of initiative indicates that
there is a benefit to interaction and that this benefit is manifest in openness to new ideas as well
as in critical thinking skills (Pascarella et al, 1996). Other studies have shown results indicating
increased problem-solving abilities, civic engagement, and intellectual confidence (Hurtado et
al., 1998; Gurin et al., 2004; Misa et al., 2006).
These studies indicate that leaders who promote diversity in the curriculum and in other
formats on campus are more likely to receive a return on investment in the form of student
competency (You & Matteo 2013). Yet, in the case of campuses with less diversity, there is
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some research indicating that specific and separate coursework focusing on beliefs, cultural
traditions, and social ideologies can also effectively make a difference in student outcomes
(Denson, 2009; Sorensen et al., 2009).
When focusing on the effectiveness of integrating diversity and multicultural education
into the curriculum, there are four primary approaches to consider. These include the
contributions approach (holidays and heroes approach), the additive approach, the
transformation approach, and the social action approach (Banks, 2005). The contributions
approach focuses on holidays and heroes that are annually celebrated as minorities that have
contributed to American society. The approach is limited however, and one of its many problems
is that is does not allow students to visualize the role that diversity and multi-ethnic groups bring
to American society. Instead, students and teachers assume that the subject is covered
sufficiently through representation and symbolism, while lacking the opportunity to discuss the
real issues involving social inequity and oppression (Cumming-McCann, 2003).
Another approach often favored by faculty for its ease of implementation is the additive
approach. This approach allows faculty members to add diversity focused or multicultural
reading materials to standard course content in a literature or history class. Although this
potentially allows students to gain an understanding of the issues, the understanding is superficial
and still somewhat overshadowed by the main course content (Banks, 2005).
The transformation approach differs from the previous two in that it requires actual
curriculum reform in order to be effective. Using Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy, there is a much
higher order of learning as the focus for this type of instruction. The model use would include
the intertwining of diversity content and subject content using approaches that increase student
understanding through different perspectives and ideas. While potentially rewarding, this
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 39

approach is not easily adopted by faculty due to the difficulty in preparation and execution. The
greatest challenge is that it “requires a complete transformation of the curriculum and, in some
cases, a conscious effort on the part of the teacher to deconstruct what they have been taught to
think, believe, and teach” (Cumming-McCann, 2003, p. 2).
The final approach of decision making and social action takes all the elements of the
previous approach and adds a student requirement to actively participate in the field. This often
comes in the form of projects or activities designed to encourage students to make a difference in
society. Students are given the opportunity to “analyze their own values and beliefs, apply their
new knowledge, identify alternative courses of action and decide what, if any, actions they will
take to address these issues in their school, workplace, or community” (Cumming-McCann,
2003, p. 2).
Each of these concepts of curriculum reform that focuses on diversity and multicultural
education significantly parallels the efforts put forth in the field of HRE. The same issues of
effectiveness are confronted in HRE when subject matter is integrated with other courses that are
not specifically dealing with the true challenges faced in societies across the globe regarding
basic rights as human beings. Studies on diversity courses have been accomplished for over a
decade, however the majority of the studies have focused on separate courses that are
specifically for diversity training in undergraduate programs (Branche, Mullennix, & Cohn,
2007; Cornbleth, 2010; Smith et al.; Ukpokodu, 2010).
Little research has been accomplished in the area of integrated curriculum assessment.
Of the few that have been conducted however, one of the most useful and influential regarding
this project was done by Teasley and Archuleta (2015). Their study, titled A Review of Social
Justice and Diversity Content in Diversity Course Syllabi, was conducted with a focus on the
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amount of social justice content in diversity courses at several universities. The study had a wide
scope and a large sample size, and ultimately highlighted a gap in several aspects of social
justice curriculum that was missing from the courses. Other studies in the field that pertain to
this project have been limited to other doctoral dissertations.
International Military Education and Training

Today, when America’s military is called upon to act, we often do so as part of a
coalition. This reflects the value of our security assistance programs, including
International Military Education and Training. These programs contribute to America’s
defense industrial base, take advantage of opportunities to promote democratic
practices, and help friends and allies to develop armed forces that are more capable and
better able to operate with our own.

-Former Secretary of State Madeline Albright,
Testimony to the Senate Appropriations Committee, 2000

The primary goal of this study was to assess the effectiveness of the war colleges in
fulfilling one of the primary goals of the International Military Education and Training (IMET)
program. This section of the literature review addresses the IMET and expanded IMET
program in more detail while providing a view of the existing literature that has addressed the
program’s effectiveness as a whole.
The IMET program falls under a broad umbrella of military grant programs involving
“security assistance” efforts that have been implemented and funded by congress (Brandt,
2000). The original military grants that were associated with security assistance came from the
Mutual Defense Assistance Act of 1949, however the term IMET was first used in 1976 with
the passing of the International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act. This act
amended the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 with the creation of IMET along with a separate
authority for implementation and funds allocation from the other security assistance
authorizations, which is found in the “new” Chapter 5 to Part II of the FAA/61 (Manolas &
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Samuelson, 1990). Defense officials and State Department officials saw the change in
authorities under the ISAAECA as a mechanism to increase efficiency in budgeting for (and
executing the objectives of) the program while still being able to strengthen the military
capabilities of partner nations (HCIR, 1976).
While the Department of State provides a vetting process for each nation that receives foreign
assistance (to include IMET) based on the Leahy Laws, the focus of the vetting process is on
“gross violations” of human rights. The intent of this study, however, was to assess a much
higher level of understanding and participation in human rights.
As noted in the previous chapter, the original IMET program was a partnership between the
Department of State and Department of Defense that brought international military officers to
the United States in order to provide specialized military education above the tactical level with
the intent of teaching and promoting democratic values (Moskowitz, 2008), however this
program was initially still only offered to uniformed military officers. Since 1976, the program
has provided education and training to thousands of officers in defense related technical
training, strategy, and leadership through various institutions in the United States. Additionally,
the IMET program provides mobile training teams and educates foreign militaries on their
native soil. Over 120 DoD IMET-approved courses have been offered at any one time across
the world to help countries unable to purchase U.S. military training under the Foreign Military
Sales (FMS) Act in order to meet their needs (Reynolds, 2003; Cope, 1995). While the original
IMET program is still appropriated by congress, there has been a separate and distinct
authorization and change that has been in effect since 1990.
Expanded International Military Education and Training. In 1991, senior government
leaders began to see an increased need for specific portions of leadership training offered
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 42

through the traditional IMET program. Specifically, "Congress felt a need to expand the IMET
program to reach a larger cross section of foreign societies…[and] increase the chance for
success in developing a more democratic philosophy within foreign nations” (Walker, 1998, p.
7). The new Expanded IMET (or E-IMET) focused on enhancing training objectives in four
primary areas: 1) Responsible defense resource management 2) Greater respect for and grasp of
democracy and civilian rule of law, including the principle of civilian control of the military 3)
Military justice systems in a democracy 4) Better understanding of internationally recognized
human rights.
Over the following years, more legislation was passed that increased (or “expanded”)
authorizations for civilian personnel to attend the new E-IMET training. These personnel
included those in both the defense and non-defense ministries, those in legislative positions who
were focused on military authorizations, and even select non-government personnel (Cope,
1995). The new direction for this specific portion of the overall IMET program was seen as a
necessity based on congress’ concerns that “changing world political-military circumstances
warranted a new direction for the traditional IMET program, one that would bring an increased
emphasis on enhancing the skills and professionalism of both civilian and military leaders and
managers of foreign military establishments” (Grimmett, 1996, p.3). While there are hundreds
of U.S. military courses available to international participants, a certain percentage (historically
30%) of a country’s IMET program must be selected from a list of courses designated by the
Defense Security Cooperation Agency as E-IMET-certified. These courses are certified as such
if DSCA determines that at least 51% of their content addresses E-IMET’s stated objectives,
including responsible defense resource management, respect for and understanding of the
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 43

principle of civilian control of the military, military justice systems, and procedures in
accordance with internationally recognized human rights (DSAM 5105.38-M).
While there are a multitude of courses that fall under the IMET umbrella, there are fewer that
are specifically offered through separate E-IMET funded training. These courses are primarily
offered in one of the following schools: The Defense Resource Management School, the Center
for Civil-Military Relations, the Naval Justice School, The Defense Language Institute English
Language Center, and a variety of Professional Military Education programs. This study will
focus on the E-IMET courses being taught at the PME Senior Service Schools, which are
comprised of the National War College, the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, and the
service-specific war colleges (Army War College, Navy War College Air War College, and
Marine Corps War College).

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Approach and Rationale
The purpose of this study was to provide a more accurate, detailed and useful representation
regarding the inclusion of human rights material in existing U.S. war college curriculum. To
address the information gap on human rights being taught at the war colleges, a document
analysis was conducted on course syllabi, which were reviewed based on the existence of topics
found within key aspects of the 1974 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) Recommendations Concerning Education for International
Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education (hereafter referred to as the UNESCO
HRE Guiding Principles) relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. This qualitative
approach provided a measuring tool to assess the existence of myriad human rights subjects in
the curriculum (Duignan, 2008; Bowen, 2009). The specific measurement tool was designed to
identify whether HRE exists in each course through a document review of syllabi, required
readings, and optional readings. Additionally, the measurement tool assessed the frequency and
breadth of any HRE material found by reviewing all reading materials using a competency model
based on the UNESCO HRE Guiding Principles.
The data for this study was obtained from course materials and additional reading
assignments as part of the campus-based War College programs of study at Newport, Rhode
Island (US Naval War College) and Fort Leslie J. McNair in Washington, DC (National War
College). The measure offered qualitative data regarding the inclusion of Human Rights-focused
material based on the language found within the UNESCO HRE Guiding Principles. The
purpose of the data assessment was to understand and document the inclusion of Human Rights
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 45

material covered in standard course materials and in readings that are assigned to U.S. and
international students attending two of the six War Colleges.
Type of Study
This qualitative study specifically assessed course syllabi and assigned readings using a forced
choice questionnaire to identify dichotomous variables assessing whether HRE subjects were
present. The questionairre was followed by more detailed assessments of specific HRE
competencies and course subject areas to identify ratios of returns and percentages of differing
categories of data. These were all accomplished in order to address the main research question
and its five sub-questions, which ultimately provided an assessment of the presence of human
rights subjects found in the written curriculum and supplemental readings.
Site Selection
The sites selected for this study were the US Navy’s War College at Newport, Rhode Island,
and the National War College at Fort McNair, Washington DC. These two sites were selected
based on their geographic proximity to the researcher as well as the ease of access to materials
and faculty from each college. The National War College is considered by many military
officers to be the most prestigious of the war colleges, and graduates of this particular war
college are often placed in high levels of command and responsibility within the US
Government.
Some of the most notable alumni include Senator John McCain, former Secretary of State
Colin Powell, the late Ambassador to Libya Christopher Stevens, and former Chiefs of Staff
from each branch of the military (NWCAA, 2017). Due to the caliber of professionals
graduating from this specific college, combined with the civilian and foreign students who are
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 46

selected to attend based on an equal level of merit, this school was chosen as a primary site for
the study.
Another major factor that influenced this decision is that due to the proximity of the National
War College to the White House, Congress, and countless departments and agencies within the
National Capital Region, the students (and faculty) at this particular school are privileged to gain
first-hand instruction from senior government guest lecturers. Additionally, the students
potentially have access to additional material possibly not accessible by students at the other war
colleges. Due to these factors, it is assumed that the student experience at the National War
College may differ slightly from the service-based colleges in a way that is more strategically
focused and more policy driven, and ultimately may provide a different outcome regarding
human rights education than found at the Army, Air, Navy, or Marine Corps War Colleges.
The US Naval War College was selected as a representation of the joint curriculum taught at
each of the other service-sponsored war colleges. An initial overview of the curriculum
published by each war college indicated that many of the courses were nearly identical based on
a standardized format required for “Joint” PME credit and accreditation by the Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff. Therefore, it was determined that the redundant review of curriculum at the
service-based schools would be beyond the scope of this study and ultimately it would not
provide a significant difference in the final results to be worthwhile.
Data Collection
The study involved the assessment of all syllabi and assigned readings required for US and
international students to graduate from both the US Naval and National War Colleges. The
syllabi were reviewed based on a questionnaire that was formatted to provide a consistent
assessment of the material that identified competencies based on key aspects of the UNESCO
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 47

HRE Guiding Principles (hereafter referred to as the UNESCO HRE competencies). The
assessment tool was based on a previous method used by Dr. Samantha Soll to assess the
existence and level of LGBT material found in doctoral courses at a major university (Soll,
2014). Dr. Soll provided permission to create a new questionnaire that adjusts the LGBT focus
to instead provide a Human Rights framework for the curriculum review.
Course syllabi and assigned reading materials were reviewed based on a questionnaire that
was designed to assess the existence of human rights material in written form. The questionnaire
also assessed, based on competencies associated with the UNESCO HRE competencies, the
depth and level of human rights material found in the syllabi and in assigned reading material for
each course within the 10-month campus-based program. The different sections of the research
tool specifically addressed each theme from the UNESCO HRE competencies and assessed the
existence and/or frequency of those references in all reading material.
The study included syllabi and assigned reading materials from the Academic Year 2016-
2017 for both the Naval and National War Colleges. A request to obtain official syllabi and
supplemental reading material was sent to each college. While there are certain “broadening”
classes offered on a voluntary basis to international students at the War Colleges, this study only
assessed those courses that are required by the school for program completion.
The tool for generating the overall existence of HRE data relied on a “yes or no” system for
the first phase of collection. This phase identified any instance of the actual statements human
rights, peace, or reduction of human suffering that was found in each paragraph. This phase only
addressed whether or not the specific actual words or phrases are addressed in the curriculum.
The second phase utilized the UNESCO questionnaire in order to qualitatively assess the
number of instances of each HRE competency found in the course syllabi and subsequent
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 48

reading assignments (see appendix A). Examples from the questionnaire include: “does the
course in some way promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or
religious groups, and further the activities of the United Nations for the Maintenance of Peace?”
and “does the course stress the inadmissibility of recourse to war for purposes of expansion,
aggression and domination, or to the use of force and violence for purposes of repression?”
In both phases of the study, the intent was to count the number of instances of human
rights training found in the curriculum in order to identify ratios, percentages, and potential gaps
in the representation of HRE by UNESCO competency and by course title.
Data Analysis
This qualitative study addressed the research questions by assessing the existence of HRE
in the written material offered to each international and domestic student attending the war
colleges. Qualitative approaches differ from approaches that are considered traditional
quantitative approaches due to the nature of collection, approach, and desired end state. Rather
than employing deductive reasoning to test a hypothesis or an already stated theory, qualitative
studies use open ended data collection, document or picture analysis, data in figures and tables,
and personal interpretation in order to form conclusions (Creswell, 2013).
This specific study aligned with Creswell’s (2013) identification of a qualitative study in
that the study was designed as a document analysis that included inductive analysis of resulting
tables and figures. Additional qualitative traits included the constant updating of categories and
codes based on a personal interpretation of paragraph data on the part of the researcher.
Both a priori and inductive codes were utilized in order to ensure a robust collection of
data that included several different characteristics in the ultimate HRE categorical analysis
(Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006; Thomas, 2006). Additionally, axial coding was used in order
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 49

to disaggregate the data and to align the resulting categories of HRE data with the appropriate
research questions, which helped to inform the theories associated with specific HRE material
that was either present (or in some cases limited) in various courses as well as in specific HRE
competencies.
A frequency distribution table was created to categorically show the results from the data
collection. Prior to conducting analysis on the HRE competencies, an analysis was first
conducted on the resulting data addressing the question of whether there were any mentions of
the terms human rights, peace, or reduction of human suffering. This first phase of the study
was conducted in order to identify potential differences between assessment practices that focus
on only key words rather than on paragraph intent based on key criteria. While the first phase of
the study did not directly address the research question as it pertained to the 1974 UNESCO
Recommendations Concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and
Peace and Education, it did provide an opportunity to identify the limitations of assessing
integrated curriculum models using only key words as assessment tools.
Phase two of the study allowed the researcher to assess the curriculum based on a broader
definition of HRE with more opportunities to include concepts rather than mere words. In
addition to analyzing the results of the data by course, the study also analyzed the data based on
the 14 HRE competencies. Once complete, the data was then analyzed for frequency and
percentage by both course description and HRE competency in order to address the research
questions. The researcher also chose to count HRE concepts by paragraph rather than by each
instance, or even each sentence. This allowed for a more balanced assessment of concepts vs.
key words, and avoided unnecessary redundancies (i.e. the word “international” vs. the intent of
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the paragraph focusing on international issues). The following chapter provides the results from
the testing and analyses of both phases one and two.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 51

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Introduction
This chapter details the complete data collection and presents the findings of the
questionnaire on the presence of Human Rights Education within the curriculum at the Naval
War College and National War College. The intent of the study is to address how often human
rights are being taught to international military officers through the Expanded International
Military Education and Training Program (as required by congressional mandate in 22 USC
2347). This chapter identifies aggregated and disaggregated data sets, providing the reader with
an in-depth understanding of the amount and frequency of human rights data found at the war
colleges.
For this study, the researcher gathered all course materials from two of the six war
colleges (National War College and Naval War College). This specific study was designed to
review all syllabi from both programs, as well as all supplemental materials (required and
optional) that are assigned to international and domestic students at each war college.
The Naval War College was selected as a sample institution for this study due to its
similarities to the other services’ war college curriculum plans. The National War College was
selected as a second sample institution due to the different approach and focus of the college on
“jointness” and the interagency process. The intent of selecting these two programs was to
attempt to ensure that both military service-focused and joint-focused curriculum concepts were
thoroughly evaluated during the study. Doing so provided the most comprehensive view of the
curriculum offered at each college without requiring a review of largely redundant material
offered at all six colleges.
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The researcher obtained the curriculum and syllabi through an official request to each
institution’s dean of academics. Each course syllabus contained information required for
students to understand the subject material, as well as a reading list for that specific course. The
researcher used the syllabi to complete the first phase of the study, which required a review of
the printed material for key words based on a questionnaire modeled after the 1974 UNESCO
Recommendations Concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and
Peace and Education.
The second phase of the study included gathering all individual course syllabi, required
and recommended readings identified in each course syllabus and then assessing the existence of
human rights material based on an almost identical questionnaire modeled after the 1974
UNESCO Recommendations Concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-
operation and Peace and Education. Many of the reading materials were available to the public
via the worldwide web and through USC’s online library. For those books that were not readily
available, the researcher utilized the Library of Congress’s book loan program in order to ensure
full access to the assigned materials.
One of the more challenging aspects of gathering the data was ensuring that the intent of
the readings was aligned with the intent of the UNESCO Human Rights Education competencies.
By scoring the readings based on key words alone (such as “diversity”), the data could be
skewed to include more human rights principles than were actually present. The researcher
therefore conducted the study by paragraph intent, rather than by matching key words from the
questionnaire. Hence the number of instances of human rights subjects is indicated by paragraph
rather than by each word or sentence encountered.
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 53

Scoring based on paragraph intent was especially important when assessing competency
#2, which asks whether the material identifies an international dimension and global perspective,
regardless of the subject matter. As an example, scoring a 400-page assigned book on
international relations based on each word or concept involving an international dimension
would increase the score exponentially, and ultimately not provide the intended assessment of
human rights-focused curriculum. Therefore, the researcher took extra care to measure whether
each paragraph met the intent of the HRE competency, or if there was instead merely a mention
of similar words or phrases not intended to help student understanding of human rights.
In addition to scoring each assigned reading and syllabus based on the UNESCO
questionnaire, each reading was individually assessed for the mention of (a) human rights, (b)
peace, or (c) reduction of human suffering (Paupp, 2014). In several cases, there were course
materials specifically assigned to help students understand the role the military plays in reducing
human suffering, promoting peace operations, or supporting civilian policy on human rights.
While these readings were specifically designed to provide an understanding of human rights and
peace operations, they did not necessarily fall into one of the more specific categories of HRE
competencies found in the UNESCO questionnaire. Therefore, the researcher included a
separate data collection that indicated whether or not each reading (regardless of the number of
instances) included any mention of these issues with the intent of helping student understanding
of human rights.
Naval War College Description
The Naval War College (officially the College of Naval Warfare) was the first of the War
Colleges and was instituted in 1885. Some in the military community have indicated that it is
considered to be the most academically rigorous and intellectual of the four services (Steihm,
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 54

2002). The Naval War College is located in Newport, Rhode Island and it employs both military
and civilian faculty.
The Naval War College awards a Master of Arts degree in National Security and
Strategic Studies to students who are US citizens and are enrolled in the residence program in
Rhode Island. The college is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and
Colleges, however due to the dual nature of the program as a military Professional Military
Education platform it is also accredited by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to award
Joint PME phase II credit to military officers.
The primary coursework for students attending senior developmental education in-
residence at the Naval War College includes three primary semesters of study. They include the
Joint Military Operations (JMO) Semester, the National Security Decision Making (NSDM)
semester, and the Strategy & Policy semester. Each semester lasts 13 weeks (see figure 1
below). At the Naval War College, international officers sit alongside their US classmates for
the duration of the school year.
At the time of the request for all course syllabi and associated reading assignments from
the Naval War College, the most updated authorized copy available for release was the
Academic Year 2014 version. This was the version provided by the public affairs office for the
purpose of this study. While there are five modules comprised within the Joint Military
Operations semester, there were only two modules assessed for purposes of the study (module
one: Operational Art & Maritime Warfare, and module three: Contemporary Operations).
Module two is a basic overview of the four military services, module four details the navy’s
planning process, and module five consists of a practical exercise. These three modules were
excluded due to the administrative nature of their content. Similarly, within the National
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 55

Security Decision Making semester, only one module is omitted from the study (the National
Security Decision Making Process itself). The Strategy and Policy semester is made up of case
studies with required and suggested readings associated with each. There were no omissions
from this semester’s curriculum for the purposes of the study.
The Strategy and Policy semester offers students the ability to think strategically and help
them transition from positions of operational leadership into positions that require strategic
leadership. The semester is designed to enhance the officer’s analytical abilities regarding
strategic courses of action in order to address national level objectives. Students are especially
focused during this semester on the strategic effects of joint, interagency, and multinational
operations.
The semester focusing on Joint Military Operations is focused on joint military
operations at the strategic and operational levels of war. The tailored courses in this semester are
designed to prepare students for high-level leadership positions requiring joint planning expertise
and joint warfighting skills. Students apply operational art, the joint operation planning process,
and creative thinking skills with the intent of preparing students to employ joint forces for a
variety of end goals.
The National Security Decision Making semester provides students an overview in
contemporary security studies with a foundation in international relations, regional studies,
foreign policy analysis, and strategic leadership. This semester leverages the use of a “Levels of
Analysis” framework with parallel modules in Security Strategies (international/systemic level),
Policy Analysis (national/organizational/societal level), and Leadership Concepts (individual
level). (NWC NSDM Course, 2017). Figure 1 below provides a graphic representation of the
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curriculum layout for international and domestic students attending the Naval War College in
Academic Year 2015.

Figure 1. Naval War College Resident Curriculum for Academic Year 2014. This figure
represents the timeline for all students attending the College of Naval Command and Staff as
well as the College of Naval Warfare. The bottom portion in dark blue represents the Naval War
College curriculum.
Image @ NWC
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 57

National War College Description
The National War College, while similar in purpose and conception, is a unique
institution even among its peer military colleges. Located at Fort McNair in Washington D.C.,
its mission is “to educate future leaders of the Armed Forces, Department of State, and other
civilian agencies for high-level policy, command and staff responsibilities by conducting a
senior-level course of study in national security strategy” (The NWC Mission, 2017, para. 1).
The college focuses on the joint interagency perspective rather than on any specific air, land, or
sea foundational perspective. As such, the National War College boasts nearly 60 percent of its
resident students are from all four services, and the remaining students are a composite of
various US agencies as well as international students from a variety of countries.
Lieutenant General Leonard Gerow, one of the founding members of the National War
College, stated that “the college is concerned with grand strategy and the utilization of the
national resources necessary to implement that strategy... Its graduates will exercise a great
influence on the formulation of national and foreign policy in both peace and war” (History of
the National War College, 2017, para. 1). This foundational focus on the creation of foreign
policy during peacetime and during military operations is illustrated even today in the make-up
of the student body that includes civilians from across the federal government.
The curriculum is broken down into five primary areas of study (see Figure 2). All
students (domestic and international) attend the primary core courses together. International
students differ in their schedules only at the end of the academic year when they forgo the
national security practicum to instead be offered an opportunity to take an American Studies
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 58

course. The American Studies track is an optional course however, and not necessary for
graduation.

Figure 2. National War College Resident Curriculum for Academic Year 2017.

In order to ensure a reliable overall study, the assessed courses only included those that
all students are required to attend for graduation. Since the American Studies course is optional,
it is being considered as an elective (see Figure 3). Additionally, since no US-based students are
authorized to attend this course, it would be difficult to assess the merit of any potential HRE
instruction compared to the other service-centric war college models that do not offer a separate
American Studies track.
National War College Curriculum AY 17
Image @ NWC
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 59

Figure 3. National War College Student Course Options. This figure disaggregates the course
options available specifically to international students at the National War College. While there
are optional courses available, this figure shows that the core courses required by all students are
the same.
National War College Student Course Options

American Students
Course # Course Title
NDU 6000 Strategic Leadership Foundational Course
NWC 6001 Strategic Leadership Foundational Course II
NWC 6200 War, Statecraft, and the Military Instrument of Power
NWC 6300 The Non-Military Instruments of Power
NWC 6500 The Global Context
NWC 6400 The Domestic Context and U.S. National Security Decision-Making
NWC 6600 National Security Strategy Practicum
NWC 66xx Regional Studies
Various NDU Electives and/or NWC Specialized Studies/Electives – 3
Total credit hours = 35

International Fellows Taking American Studies
Course # Course Title
NDU 6000 Strategic Leadership Foundational Course
NWC 6001 Strategic Leadership Foundational Course II
NWC 6200 War, Statecraft, and the Military Instrument of Power
NWC 6300 The Non-Military Instruments of Power
NWC 6500 The Global Context
NWC 6400 The Domestic Context and U.S. National Security Decision-Making
NWC 6703 Applications in Strategy
NDU 6xxx American Studies
Total credit hours = 34

International Fellows NOT Taking American Studies
Course # Course Title
NDU 6000 Strategic Leadership Foundational Course
NWC 6001 Strategic Leadership Foundational Course II
NWC 6200 War, Statecraft, and the Military Instrument of Power
NWC 6300 The Non-Military Instruments of Power
NWC 6500 The Global Context
NWC 6400 The Domestic Context and U.S. National Security Decision-Making
NWC 6701 Individual Strategy Research Studies
NWC 6702 Individual Strategy Research Project
Various NDU Electives and/or NWC Specialized Studies/Electives – 4
Total credit hours = 35

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 60

Addressing the Research Questions
Research Question: What association does war college curriculum have to human rights
principles found in key aspects of the 1974 UNESCO Recommendations Concerning Education
for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education?
The initial results of the overall assessment of the mention of the terms human rights, peace, or
the concept of reduction of human suffering, are highlighted below in Table 1.
Table 1
Summary of any mention of human rights/peace/human suffering (by key word)

Naval War College National War College
Semester and
Course Name
Mention of
HR/Peace/Suffering
Semester and Course
Name
Mention of
HR/Peace/Suffering
JMO-Operational
Art
& Maritime Warfare 0

JMO-Contemporary
Operations 51

JMO-Contemporary
Operations 2 NWC 6000 0
NSDM-National
Security 2 NWC 6200 4
NSDM-Policy
Analysis 0 NWC 6300 16
NSDM-Leadership
Concepts 0 NWC 6400 8
Strategy and Policy
0 NWC 6500 12
Total
55
Total
40

Without a more thorough investigation, these results could be interpreted to mean that
there is little instruction offered on Human Rights Education at the Naval War College. Yet,
even with this limited assessment, there were 53 instances within the joint Military Operations
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 61

semester alone where one of the concepts of human rights, peace operations, or human suffering
was addressed. That being said, the overall number of instances within the curriculum of both
colleges combined (95) was found to be extremely limited compared to the total number of pages
reviewed.
By conducting additional assessments that encompassed all available readings and that
was based on the United Nations recommended HRE guidance for instruction, this study found
that the overall results from phase two were substantially more telling about the HRE offerings
available to domestic and international students than in phase one . Results of the curriculum
review questionnaire for the Naval War College (based on the UNESCO recommendations) are
summarized in Table 2.
Table 2
Summary of combined syllabus and supplemental reading HRE Instances by UNESCO
Competency (by paragraph)

Semester
& Course
Name
UNESCO Competency
Totals
Naval
War
College

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Joint
Military
Operations 76 1004 188 293 350 176 252 132 206 346 382 404 274 71 4154
National
Security
Decision
Making 6 952 32 146 43 53 89 33 22 65 28 19 10 6 1504
Strategy
and Policy 0 161 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 167
Total 82 2117 220 445 393 229 341 165 228 411 410 423 284 77 5825

Semester
& Course
Name
UNESCO Competency
Totals
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 62

National
War
College

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

NWC
6000 0 128 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 128
NWC
6200 0 3 6 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14
NWC
6300 0 425 14 199 13 15 33 23 19 22 5 17 13 7 805
NWC
6400 5 5 14 5 6 5 1 13 24 16 14 0 10 11 129
NWC
6500 0 1023 11 15 8 11 8 6 21 22 5 12 8 6 1156
Total
5 1584 45 220 27 35 42 42 64 60 24 29 31 24 2232

In relation to the overall research question the results conclude that the combined mean
for instances of HRE found within the curriculum at the two war colleges was 4,029, with the
Naval War College having 5,825 instances, and the National War College having 2,232
instances. These results indicate a significant difference from the study’s hypothesis that there is
no presence of human rights training found in the curriculum at the war colleges. Additionally,
the results indicate that the war colleges include reading requirements for international and
domestic students with a frequent number of paragraphs addressing at least one of the 14
UNESCO HRE competencies. The following paragraphs will disaggregate the totals indicated in
Table 2 in more detail, providing statistical analysis on the results while addressing the main
subsections of the research question.
Research question 1a: How often do War College curriculum syllabi address concepts
encompassing one of the key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?
Results of the HRE data found specifically in the Naval War College syllabi are
summarized in Table 3. The results of the overall assessment of the presence of HRE material
found only within the syllabi at the naval War College indicate that there are relatively little HRE
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 63

instances found in the syllabi alone. Hence, any curriculum review conducted with a limited
view of only the syllabi would return few results and indicate a lack of human rights instruction
being provided to the students.
Table 3
Naval War College Syllabi Review (By Key Word Only)
Naval War College Syllabi Review Total
UNESCO
Competency
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
JMO Syllabi 0 21 3 13 0 6 3 0 0 6 3 3 0 0
58
NSDM Syllabi 0 48 0 11 0 4 6 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
72
Strategy/Policy
Syllabi
0 13 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16
139

Results of the HRE data found specifically in the National War College syllabi are
summarized in Table 4. Although the construct for the separation of courses and semesters
differs slightly in the overall framework of each college curriculum, the end result was relatively
similar between the two, with a total of 102 instances of HRE found in National War College
syllabi compared to 139 instances at the Naval War College, with a mean of 121 instances of
HRE being addressed in each college’s total syllabi. Still, as the data are broken down course by
course, the Naval War College exceeded the median number of HRE instances found in Table 1
(in all three course syllabi), while the National War College syllabi had 3 separate courses that
fell well below the median of 18 instances.

Table 4
National War College Syllabi Review (By Key Word Only)
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 64

National War College Syllabi Review Total
UNESCO
Competency
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
NWC 6000
0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 4
NWC 6200
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NWC 6300
0 36 0 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53
NWC 6400
0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3
NWC 6500
0 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42
102

Research question 1b: How often do War College required and optional readings
address concepts encompassing one of the key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?
Including both required and optional readings provided a telling amount of additional
data that showed a dramatic increase in HRE instances at both colleges over just the review of
the syllabi. Results of the data found specifically in the Naval War College readings are
summarized in Tables 5 and 6. The study found that required readings at the Naval War College
included 2,285 instances of HRE, while optional readings included an additional 2,645 instances.
These findings brought the total number of instances of HRE found in the Naval War College
readings to 4,930.

Table 5
Results of Naval War College HRE Instances by Paragraph Intent (Required Readings Only)
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 65

Naval War College Required Readings Review Total
UNESCO
Competency
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
JMO
16 161 33 56 70 35 40 25 31 62 67 78 58 17 749
NSDM
6 891 30 129 39 47 81 26 22 54 28 16 10 6 1385
Strategy/Policy
0 148 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 151
2285

Table 6
Results of Naval War College HRE Instances by Paragraph Intent (Optional Readings Only)
Naval War College Optional Readings Review Total
UNESCO
Competency
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1
4

JMO
44 661 119 168 210 100 169 82 144 216 245 245 158 37 2598
NSDM
0 13 2 6 4 2 2 7 0 8 0 3 0 0 47
Strat/Pol
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2645

Results of the data found specifically in the National War College readings are
summarized in Tables 7 and 8. The study found that required readings at the National War
College included 1,948 instances of HRE, while optional readings included an additional 182
instances. These findings brought the total number of instances of HRE found in the Naval War
College readings to 2,130. Yet even with these totals, several courses of optional readings and
one course of required reading returned zero instances of HRE.
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 66

Table 7.
Results of National War College HRE Instances by Paragraph Intent (Required Readings Only)
National War College Required Readings Review Total
UNESCO
Competency
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
NWC 6000
0 124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 124
NWC 6200
0 3 6 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14
NWC 6300
0 389 14 182 13 15 33 23 19 22 5 17 13 7 752
NWC 6400
5 2 14 5 6 5 1 13 24 16 14 0 10 11 126
NWC 6500
0 829 11 12 5 9 5 5 20 16 5 5 5 5 932
1948

Table 8.
Results of National War College HRE Instances by Paragraph Intent (Optional Readings Only)
National War College Optional Readings Review Total
UNESCO
Competency
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
NWC 6000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NWC 6200
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NWC 6300
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NWC 6400
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NWC 6500
0 152 0 3 3 2 3 1 1 6 0 7 3 1 182
182

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 67

Some of the starkest findings from this portion of the study involve the difference
between the actual mention of HRE key words from phase one compared to the paragraph
concept review of syllabi and readings in phase two. As the study was broadened from the mere
mention of human rights to instead provide an assessment of paragraph intent based on the
UNESCO HRE guidelines, there was nearly 20 times the number of HRE findings throughout
the syllabi. Additionally, applying those same parameters to both required and optional readings
returned an even greater return of HRE instances offered as instruction to war college students.
The following section will address some of the most statistically significant findings regarding
optional and required readings.
Research Question 1c: What percentage of Human Rights Education (if any) is found
within required readings compared to optional readings?
The study assessed the required and optional readings based on each semester of study
for the Naval War College. The combined HRE instances found in the required readings at the
Naval War College was 2285, while the optional readings yielded 2645 instances of HRE.
The results of the Joint Military Operations course indicated 749 instances of HRE in the
required readings (which comprised a total of 33% of the three combined courses’ required
readings), and 2,598 instances in the optional readings (which comprised a total of 98% of the
three combined courses’ optional readings). The results of the National Security Decision
Making semester indicated 1385 instances of HRE in required readings (61% of the HRE
instances found in the combined required readings), with 47 instances in the optional readings
(less than 2% of the HRE instances found in the combined optional readings). The results of the
Strategy and Policy semester indicated 151 instances of HRE in required readings (7% of the
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 68

HRE instances found in the combined required readings), and zero instances of HRE in the
optional readings.
The highest number of HRE instances found in optional readings at the naval War
College was within the Joint Military Operations semester, which included 98% of the total. On
the other hand, the highest number of HRE instances found in required readings was found in the
National Security Decision Making semester, which included 61% of the total for the Naval War
College.
The study also assessed the required and optional readings based on each block of study
for the National War College. While the construct does not mirror the trimester system of the
Naval War College, the study was able to assess the National War College required and optional
readings based on five primary blocks of instruction. The combined HRE instances found in the
required readings at the National War College was 1948, while the optional readings yielded 142
instances of HRE.
The results of the NWC 6000 course indicated 124 instances of HRE in required readings
(6% of the HRE instances found in the combined required readings), and zero instances in the
optional readings. The results of the NWC 6200 course indicated 14 instances of HRE in
required readings (less than 1% of the HRE instances found in the combined required readings),
and zero instances in the optional readings. The results of the NWC 6300 course indicated 752
instances of HRE in required readings (39% of the HRE instances found in the combined
required readings), and zero instances in the optional readings. The results of the NWC 6400
course indicated 126 instances of HRE in required readings (6% of the HRE instances found in
the combined required readings), and zero instances in the optional readings. And finally the
results of the NWC 6500 course indicated 932 instances of HRE in required readings (48% of the
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 69

HRE instances found in the combined required readings), and 182 instances of HRE in optional
readings (100% of the HRE instances found in the combined optional readings).
The combined mean for required readings at both schools was 2,117 instances of HRE,
and the combined mean for optional readings at both schools was 1,415 instances of HRE. While
it appears (based on mean scores) that the required readings include more instances of human
rights education, there was a marked difference in optional reading scores due to the National
War College optional readings only returning 8% of the total 2,645 instances. Hence, based on
the sample data it is inconclusive as to whether the total war college curriculum contains more
HRE instances in required readings or optional readings. In both sample colleges however, the
results of the study indicate an increased presence of HRE instances compared to phase one of
the study.
Research Question 1d: What competencies (if any) identified in the UNESCO
recommendations are most prevalent in the war college curriculum?

Table 9 identifies the instances and percentage of HRE by competency.

Table 9.

Summary of HRE Instances by UNESCO Competency
HRE Instances by UNESCO Competency
Comp
1
Comp
2
Comp
3
Comp
4
Comp
5
Comp
6
Comp
7
Comp
8
Comp
9
Comp
10
Comp
11
Comp
12
Comp
13
Comp
14
87 3701 265 665 420 264 383 207 292 471 434 452 315 101
1% 46% 3% 8% 5% 3% 5% 3% 4% 6% 5% 6% 4% 1%

Table 9 illustrates an obvious outlier in the data that shows nearly 50% of the HRE
instances falling under competency 2. Due to the skewing of the data based on such a high
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 70

return from a single competency, a sensitivity analysis was conducted without competency 2,
indicating a much more evenly distributed categorical result (and providing a better
understanding of the actual percentages of HRE found in the overall curriculum). Table 10
below shows that without competency 2, the remaining competencies are represented more
evenly in the combined curriculum.
Table 10

Summary of HRE Instances by UNESCO Competency (Minus Competency 2)
HRE Instances by UNESCO Competency
Comp
1
Comp
3
Comp
4
Comp
5
Comp
6
Comp
7
Comp
8
Comp
9
Comp
10
Comp
11
Comp
12
Comp
13
Comp
14
87 265 665 420 264 383 207 292 471 434 452 315 101
2% 6% 15% 10% 6% 9% 5% 7% 11% 10% 10% 7% 2%

a. Research Question 1e: How frequently do primary courses address concepts
encompassing one of the key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?

Each of the war colleges in the sample had a different curriculum layout that made a
combined study using median scores from both schools too difficult to accomplish. The
timeline, subject matter, and approach in each college’s curriculum plan differed substantially
enough that this specific research sub-question was addressed with two separate analyses.
Tables 11 & 12 indicate the result of the review and the percentage of HRE found within each
course.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 71

Table 11
Naval War College HRE Instances By Course
Course Name
Number of Instances
(by paragraph)
Percent of Total HRE per
course
Joint Military Operations 4154 71%
National Security Decision
Making
1504 26%
Strategy and Policy 167 3%

Table 12

National War College HRE Instances By Course
Course Name
Number of Instances
(by paragraph)
Percent of Total HRE by
Course
NWC 6000-Strategic
Leadership Foundational
Course
128 6%
NWC 6200-War, Statecraft,
and the Military Instrument of
Power
14 <1%
NWC 6300-The Non-Military
Instruments of Power
805 36%
NWC 6400-The Domestic
Context and U.S. National
Security Decision-Making
129 6%
NWC 6500-The Global
Context
1156 52%

The results in Tables 11 & 12 indicate that in both colleges there are several courses that
contain less than 10% of the overall HRE content in the curriculum. The Naval War College’s
Joint Military Operations course contains the largest amount of HRE overall, with 71% of the
total instances. This trimester is designed to prepare “future military and civilian leaders for
high-level policy, command, and staff positions requiring joint planning expertise and joint
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 72

warfighting skills. It emphasizes the theory and practice of operational art as it relates to
maritime and joint forces” (NWC 2017, para. 1).
The National Security Decision Making course returned 25% of HRE instances at the
Naval War College. It offers:
a broad interdisciplinary curriculum in contemporary security studies that encompasses a
diverse spectrum of global and regional issues and perspectives, but with particular
emphasis on U.S. decision making challenges and processes at the national strategic
level. The National Security Decision Making course also integrates concepts drawn from
a number of disciplines including international relations, area studies, foreign policy
analysis, leadership studies, and cognate fields. (NWC 2017, para. 2)
The Strategy and Policy course returned the lowest percentage of HRE instances with
only 3%. This course is designed to “sharpen the student’s ability to assess how alternative
strategic courses of action best serve to achieve overall national objectives…and adopts an
interdisciplinary approach to strategy, drawing on the disciplines of history, political science,
international relations, and economics” (NWC 2017, para. 1).
The lower portion of table 12 shows the results for the National War College HRE
instances, categorized by its five core blocks of instruction. Similar to the Naval War College,
the instances of HRE are found to be primarily in two major course areas. The NWC 6500
course returned the most HRE instances with 52%. This course is designed to help students
understand the world and assess emerging strategic threats and opportunities in the global arena.
NWC 6300 course shows 36% of the overall HRE instances. This course is designed to
“analyzes the nature, purposes, capabilities, leadership potential, and limitations of the non-
military instruments of statecraft, with blocks of instruction on the diplomatic, informational, and
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 73

economic instruments” (NWC 2017, para. 3). The remaining three courses returned less than
12% combined of HRE instances in the National War College curriculum. NWC 6000 and 6400
focus on leadership strategy and the decision-making process in the domestic environment
(respectively). Each of these only returned 6% of HRE instances. The course with the fewest
instances of HRE was found to be NWC 6200, with less than 1% of HRE found in the readings.
This course “focuses on how state and non-state actors use the military instrument of power to
achieve their political goals – and often by waging war” (NWC 2017, para. 2).

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 74

CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Introduction
The United States Government has spent over $1 Billion dollars since 1990 in an effort to
educate international military and civilian government personnel through the Expanded
International Military Education and Training Program (Kurlantzick, 2016). Through this
program there has been a potential for shared democratic ideals and values, especially with
senior foreign officers, offering an avenue for future cooperation across all spectrums of
diplomatic and economic international issues. Chapter five addresses the results of the study and
provides recommendations for future research to address the potential for educational and
military leaders to increase their effectiveness in teaching human rights to international officers.
Congress has authorized the President to implement the Expanded IMET program to
provide both foreign military officers and civilians with an educational experience that is
mandated to include “improving military justice systems and procedures in accordance with
internationally recognized human rights” (22 USC 2347). This mandate requires senior level
officers to be instructed in both human rights standards and the importance of applying those
standards back in their home nations.
While there have been several studies in recent years that have attempted to assess the
overall effectiveness of the Expanded IMET program (in terms of student satisfaction surveys
and the assessment of student graduate career outcomes), there have been no studies conducted
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 75

that assess the effectiveness of the curriculum being offered in relation to its congressional
mandate to include human rights education.
This study investigated the presence and frequency of human rights education being
taught at the War Colleges in the United States. The study included a review of thousands of
pages of syllabi, required course readings, and optional readings in an effort to identify both
general HRE terms as well as specific human rights teachings associated with 14 HRE guiding
principles from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
The study attempted to answer the following research question and sub-questions:
What association does war college curriculum have to human rights principles found in key
aspects of the 1974 UNESCO Recommendations Concerning Education for International
Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education?
a. How often do War College curriculum syllabi address concepts encompassing one
of the key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?
b. How often do War College required and optional readings address concepts
encompassing one of the key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?
c. What percentage of Human Rights Education (if any) is found within required
readings compared to optional readings?
d. What competencies (if any) identified in the UNESCO recommendations are most
prevalent in the war college curriculum?
e. How frequently do primary courses address concepts encompassing one of the
key aspects of the UNESCO Recommendations?
Syllabi, required readings, and optional readings were all separated by categories and
reviewed using a questionnaire that identified the number of times an HRE competency was
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 76

identified in a specific paragraph. A frequency distribution table was created based on the
collected data, and the data analyzed (framed by the above research questions) to assess the
presence and frequency of HRE in the curriculum.
Summary of Findings
There were several substantial findings associated with each research sub-question. Each
substantial finding is identified below and discussed within the framework of the research
questions. Phase one of the study indicated that there were some instances of HRE terms used
in the overall curriculum at the war colleges (based on the two sample populations). Although a
theory (that there were zero instances of human rights education occurring at the war colleges)
was identified as a result of the GAO report on the IMET program in 2011, This study was
accomplished in order to directly address the knowledge gap on HRE curriculum. Although
phase one of this study provided an assessment of HRE by key word, there was more
information necessary in order to answer the research question and sub-questions. Phase two of
the study provided results based on the UNESCO HRE competencies, first by syllabi, then by
separate reading categories. The results of phase two (assessing paragraph intent rather than key
words) overall indicated a surprising increase of instances of human rights subjects being
addressed in the syllabi, and an even more dramatic increase in subjects covered within the
readings.
When looking strictly at the mention of the terms “human rights”, “peace”, or the general
concept of reducing human suffering, there were a total of 40 instances at the Naval and 55
instances at the National War College. This return was higher than the theory proposed in the
GAO report, however there were still entire courses that returned zero instances of HRE
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 77

material. These results align with Eurydice’s (2005) argument that it is difficult to even identify
curriculum devoted to HRE.
In the end, this phase of the testing produced a median result of 18 instances of HRE
material found in the material (assessing based on actual HRE key words). However, when
evaluating the paragraphs against the UNESCO HRE competencies in phase two of the study,
there was a dramatic increase in the number of instances by paragraph in nearly all aspects
(individual college, syllabi, required readings, optional readings, and by course). Thompson and
Hayden (1998) states that by using the UNESCO Human Rights Education standards to assess
and create curriculum, educators can transcend the mere definition of human rights and instead
outline a robust framework for educating international audiences about human rights as well as
how to implement HRE. Phase II of the study addressed this gap and found a substantial change
in the frequency of HRE instances when using the UNESCO competencies.
Addressing Research Questions 1a and 1b, the study found that assessing the syllabi
alone based on the UNESCO competencies returned a median count of 121instances of HRE,
which more than doubled the mean return from phase one (HRE key words). Research Question
1b addressed the HRE instances found in both the required and optional readings. This portion
of the study provided the most variation in results between the two sample populations. The
Naval War College had a total of 4,930 instances of HRE in the combined readings, with 2,285
required and 2,645 optional. On the other hand, the National War College had only 2,130 total
HRE instances.
Comparing the two colleges by category however, the study shows that required readings
at both colleges are relatively similar, with 2,285 at the Naval War College and 1948 at the
National War College. The largest difference came from the optional readings total. The
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 78

National War College’s optional readings accounted for only 182 total instances of human rights
education, significantly impacting the total for the school. While this is still much higher than
the original hypothesis, there is room for discussion about the value of having more HRE subject
material added to the optional readings at that particular school.
Addressing the percentage of required and optional readings by course title, the study
found that the most substantial results came from the National Security Decision Making course
at the Naval War College, where the required readings returned 61% of the HRE instances in the
total curriculum, but less than 2% from the optional readings.
The combined median scores for each category provided significant findings (when
comparing the frequency of competencies against one another). The most common HRE
competency found in the combined readings was competency #2: Does the material identify an
international dimension and global perspective, regardless of the subject matter? Due to the
international focus and nature of the War Colleges (combined with the charge to include all
instances of international and global perspective “regardless of the subject matter”), this
competency was found within the curriculum of the National War College 1,584 times and at the
Naval War College 2117 times, which came to 46% of the total instances of HRE found
throughout the war college curriculum. In the case of the National War College, this
competency was identified 1,364 more times than the next most frequent competency which
returned 220 instances of HRE (competency #4). The Naval War College had similar results
with competency #2 being identified 1,672 more times than the next most frequent competency
of 445 (also competency #4).
After removing the instances of international or global focus in competency 2, the most
significant lack of HRE presence by competence was found to be those that address
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 79

understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups
(competency 1) with 2% of the overall HRE instances, and the need to actively oppose all forms
and varieties of racialism, fascism, and apartheid as well as other ideologies which breed
national and racial hatred (competency 14) also with 2% of the overall HRE instances.
Contrasting these results, competency 4 was found to have the most instances of HRE in the
overall curriculum, returning 15% of the total instances (not accounting for competency 2).
Research Question 1e addresses the relationship between the course subject matter and
the frequency of HRE instances within the curriculum. The results of the study indicate three
primary findings. First, of the total courses reviewed, half of the courses contained less than
10% of the overall HRE. The second most significant finding was that the Naval War College’s
Joint Military Operations course contains the largest amount of HRE overall, with 71% of the
total HRE instances. And third, the course with the fewest instances of HRE was found to be
NWC 6200, with less than 1% of HRE instances found in the readings.
Many authors and human rights experts have called in recent years for a greater
emphasis on Human Rights Education that includes both an understanding of human rights and a
focus on engagement on the part of the student (Flowers, 1998; Tibbits, 2002; Volker &
Savolainen, 2002). While the study identified many more HRE instances than originally
hypothesized, it did not identify student engagement in human rights anywhere in the
curriculum.
Another area that was addressed in the literature review of this study was the concept of
HRE effectiveness through integrated HRE curriculum as opposed to separate courses. Suarez
(2007) stated that implementing HRE using only a “paragraph in a textbook mentioning the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights” will be a waste of effort and bring a fruitless return on
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 80

investment. Advocates of Suarez’s theory highlight the need for a format that connects the
curriculum to the students’ lived experiences. The results of the current study did not test or
analyze whether there were any instances where the curriculum incorporated a student’s lived
experiences. While the question of HRE presence was answered, there is a lack of information
addressing HRE-specific courses as well as the use of student experience to reinforce the
importance of the HRE curriculum.
To go one step further (borrowing from diversity curriculum theory), the overall
assessment of the HRE curriculum at the War Colleges could be viewed as using the “additive
approach” as described by Banks (2005). While this approach allows students to gain an
understanding of the issues, the understanding is superficial and still somewhat overshadowed by
the main course content. The results of this study indicate that even when analyzing the
curriculum by paragraph intent based on competencies (rather than mere key words), the overall
curriculum focus for the students is focused on the primary subject matter. This focus still may
overshadow the HRE intent in each course, even if the HRE paragraph instances number in the
thousands.
Using Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy as a guide, it appears that there remains a gap
(regardless of whether the curriculum is integrated or stand-alone) in the war college curriculum
regarding the transformational approach. Viewed through the lens of Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy,
there is a much higher order of learning as the focus for transformational teaching. Cumming-
McCann (2003) stated that while rewarding, this approach is not easily adopted by faculty due to
the difficulty in preparation and execution. The greatest challenge is that it “requires a complete
transformation of the curriculum and, in some cases, a conscious effort on the part of the teacher
to deconstruct what they have been taught to think, believe, and teach” (Cumming McCann,
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 81

2003, p.3). The transformational approach does not appear to be the approach used in the
curriculum at the war colleges, though there is potential for such considering the amount of HRE
instances found in each college.
Implications for Practice
First and foremost, one of the best opportunities for any practitioner interested in
addressing a perceived lack of human rights education in their curriculum is to identify the
student learning objectives associated with the desired outcomes. In the case of the war colleges,
there are very specific learning outcomes associated not only with the program overall, but also
with each specific class that a student takes. Due to the focus of the war colleges in particular
being primarily geared toward domestic military officers with significant potential for senior
leadership roles, there is much more of a focus on strategy, leadership, and the operational level
of wartime operations in a joint environment.
While this focus can be regarded as appropriate considering the circumstances, this study
does highlight the lack of urgency in identifying human rights as a primary consideration for
learning objectives in courses that are not designed to teach human rights. Complicating the
issue more is that the courses at the war colleges are designed primarily for international
students. Hence the focus for learning objectives is likely to overlook issues that curriculum
developers assume are inherently brought to the table by the senior field grade officers
occupying the student seats. Identifying HRE as a priority would highlight the fact the
international students are included with every incoming class, and it would provide an avenue to
ensure that such students will have the proper training completed (that in many cases may be the
only time such a student will ever have the opportunity to learn about such subjects in a military
environment).
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 82

One option to address the issue would be to create a separate course that specifically
teaches international students about the importance of applying human rights in practice in their
home nations. One potential issue with this concept is that there may be some (or many) U.S.
personnel that would benefit from the instruction and would thus miss out on the opportunity.
Another issue is that (borrowing from the diversity education model) there is conflicting
evidence as to whether an integrated model or a stand-alone model would be more beneficial for
addressing the subject of human rights (Teasley & Archuleta 2015). While a strictly stand-
alone model could also be considered, Banks (2005) argued that this approach leads to a
superficial understanding of the material and is still somewhat overshadowed by the main course
content. The best model may be a two-pronged approach that specifically addresses the need for
a targeted human rights course that specifically is designed to convince the student of the
necessity to adhere to the UNESCO guidelines, followed by HRE subjects integrated into the
curriculum (such as in the current war college curriculum model).
Another option involves the transformation approach, which requires actual curriculum
reform in order to be effective. While potentially the most effective, it would require the
creation of a separate course at the war colleges that is interactive and repeats many of the
learning objectives already covered in the main curriculum (with a focus on integrating HRE).
The model used would include the intertwining of diversity content and war college subject
content using approaches that increase student understanding through different perspectives and
ideas. Cumming-McCann (2003) noted that this approach to curriculum reform “requires a
complete transformation of the curriculum and, in some cases, a conscious effort on the part of
the teacher to deconstruct what they have been taught to think, believe, and teach” (p. 3).
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 83

Future research in this area would be beneficial to find a more quantifiable ratio of instruction,
whether it be integrated, stand-alone, or combined.
Practitioners can also use the results of this study as a framework to assess their own
curriculum and apply corrective measures where necessary in areas that are lacking substance.
The war colleges in particular can use the results of this study as an opportunity to increase
human rights education in their own curriculum in targeted areas. The areas identified in this
study that would merit a particular review would be the courses that reported 10% or fewer
instances of human rights subject matter in the written form.
Another area that practitioners can take advantage of the results from this study is to
evaluate their own curriculum to identify any competency areas that are underrepresented
compared to other more frequent issue areas. In the case of the two sample populations
addressed in this study, two competencies stood out as being the least addressed across the entire
curriculum. Competency 2 (Does the syllabus identify understanding, tolerance and friendship
among all nations, racial or religious groups?) was among the least represented competencies
with only 2% of the overall instances of HRE at both colleges. Similarly, competency 14 (Does
the syllabus identify the need to actively oppose all forms and varieties of racialism, fascism, and
apartheid as well as other ideologies which breed national and racial hatred?) returned an
equally low percentage of overall HRE instances with 2% as well. Addressing these disparities
allows the practitioner an opportunity to ensure all aspects identified by the UNESCO guidelines
are valued equally and offered to the students in an equitable manner.
A final area that practitioners can utilize the results of this study to benefit their specific
programs is in the selection of case studies. In reviewing certain areas of the curriculum, such as
leadership and strategy, there was a marked decrease in the number of HRE subjects covered. In
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 84

reviewing some of the readings, it was noted that there was a learning outcome that included
understanding the writings of historically reprehensible leaders such as Hitler and Stalin in order
to teach students the shear madness of their ideology. Using this same mentality, there is an
opportunity to also include writings from other notable leaders (such as Mandela, King, or
Ghandi) in an effort to expose the students to a variety of views on leadership, while also
promoting the concepts found in the UNESCO HRE guidelines.
Recommendations for Future Research
The results from this study offer a limited scope and understanding of a much larger
phenomenon, and as such there are many opportunities to conduct further research in myriad
areas. The following three recommendations highlight areas that can be explored further as a
result of this study. First, an aspect that could be further studied is whether integrated
curriculum or separate curriculum models for human rights are more effective for student
learning outcomes. This is not limited to the military college system, but it could be effectively
studied in any undergraduate or graduate environment. The above literature review provides
some insight into this issue, however further studies (both quantitative and qualitative) are
needed to better understand the most effective way to teach HRE at the graduate level.
A second area that requires further research is the perceived percentage of HRE needed in
the overall curriculum in order to fulfill requirements or stated objectives. This current study has
not addressed whether the total 5,825 HRE instances are sufficient to ensure that international
students are receiving the necessary education to fulfill the congressional mandate. While the
study did finally answer the question of whether HRE is in fact taught in the existing curriculum,
more studies are needed to ascertain student perceptions of effectiveness as well as separate
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 85

studies to address what percentage of HRE included in other subject areas is enough to fulfill
HRE requirements.
The third area that would benefit from future research in this field is that of faculty
perceptions on the effectiveness of the current model of study. In the case of the war colleges,
future studies involving faculty perceptions of curriculum effectiveness, as well as their
perceptions of student retention and classroom discussion, would be extremely informative in
assessing the current war college effectiveness regarding teaching human rights to international
students.
Conclusion
This qualitative study addressed an information gap on both the presence and frequency
of human rights education available to international students attending the US military war
colleges. The study was specifically designed to address a GAO report from 2011, which stated
that out of the 141 IMET certified courses offered by all PME institutions, only seven of those
courses included references on human rights, rule of law, or international military law. The
report also noted that most students who received specific training on human rights were not
attendees of any of the six war colleges, which cater to the most senior of military and civilian
IMET participants.
Although government officials who were interviewed as part of the GAO report about
human rights training at the war colleges noted that there was in fact HRE embedded in the
existing curriculum, the GAO report stated that such a claim was not investigated. This study
was designed to address the information gap on the presence of HRE in the curriculum.
Specifically, it was designed to qualitatively identify the HRE presence in the curriculum at the
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 86

war colleges and to further categorically analyze the frequency and HRE competencies found at
the war colleges.
The results of the study indicated a strong presence of human rights education subjects
that were addressed in many different aspects of the curriculum. The study further identified the
frequency of human rights competencies associated with the UNESCO HRE guidelines that were
found in each course of the Naval War College and National War College curriculum. In order
to understand the complete exposure all international students have to the written curriculum, a
thorough review of every syllabus, required reading, and optional reading was completed. The
results of the data collection returned several substantial findings regarding the amount of human
rights in the curriculum, the varying levels found in each course, and the categories of human
rights education that were most prevalent in various readings.
This study identifies the importance of the role that education plays both in preparing
future US leaders and in educating foreign leaders about the importance of understanding the
role of human rights and civilian control of the military. Acting on the suggestions for practice
and for future research will provide an opportunity for the US government to more efficiently
promote these important democratic fundamentals to future international officers, and will forge
more lasting friendships with foreign leaders who will potentially share these same learned
values.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 87

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Curriculum Review Questionnaire Instrument

Required Course Name/Number:

Syllabus Review
HRE Competency 1: Does the syllabus identify understanding, tolerance and friendship among
all nations, racial or religious groups? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 2: Does the syllabus identify an international dimension and global
perspective, regardless of the subject matter? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 3: Does the syllabus identify an understanding & respect for all peoples,
cultures, civilizations, values & ways of life, including domestic ethnic cultures and cultures of
other nations? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 4: Does the syllabus identify an awareness of the increasing global
interdependence between peoples and nations? Yes/No
Number of instances:

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HRE Competency 5: Does the syllabus identify the importance of working in groups,
communicating with others, and participating in free discussions? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 6: Does the syllabus identify awareness not only of the rights but also of the
duties incumbent upon individuals, social groups and nations toward each other? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 7: Does the syllabus identify an understanding of the necessity for
international solidarity and cooperation? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 8: Does the syllabus identify readiness on the part of the individual to
participate in solving the problems of one’s community, country, and the world at large? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 9: Does the syllabus identify the need to develop a sense of social
responsibility and of solidarity with less privileged groups? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 10: Does the syllabus identify ideas that help to develop qualities, aptitudes
and abilities which enable the students to acquire a critical understanding of problems at the
national and the international level? Yes/No
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Number of Instances:

HRE Competency 11: Does the syllabus identify the need to base value judgments and decisions
on a rational analysis of relevant facts and factors? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 12: Does the syllabus identify the requirement for students to understand their
responsibility for the maintenance of peace? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 13: Does the syllabus identify the necessity for students to contribute to
international understanding and strengthening of world peace and to the activities in the struggle
against colonialism and neo-colonialism in all their forms and manifestations? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 14: Does the syllabus identify the need to actively oppose all forms and
varieties of racialism, fascism, and apartheid as well as other ideologies which breed national and
racial hatred? Yes/No
Number of instances:

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Textbook and Supplemental Reading Review
HRE Competency 1: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 2: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify an
international dimension and global perspective, regardless of the subject matter? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 3: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify an
understanding & respect for all peoples, cultures, civilizations, values & ways of life, including
domestic ethnic cultures and cultures of other nations? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 4: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify an
awareness of the increasing global interdependence between peoples and nations? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 5: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify the
importance of working in groups, communicating with others, and participating in free
discussions? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 104

HRE Competency 6: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify
awareness not only of the rights but also of the duties incumbent upon individuals, social groups
and nations toward each other? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 7: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify an
understanding of the necessity for international solidarity and cooperation? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 8: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify
readiness on the part of the individual to participate in solving the problems of one’s community,
country, and the world at large? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 9: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify the
need to develop a sense of social responsibility and of solidarity with less privileged groups?
Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 10: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify
ideas that help to develop qualities, aptitudes and abilities which enable the students to acquire a
critical understanding of problems at the national and the international level? Yes/No
Number of Instances:
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 105

HRE Competency 11: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify
the need to base value judgments and decisions on a rational analysis of relevant facts and
factors? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 12: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify
the requirement for students to understand their responsibility for the maintenance of peace?
Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 13: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify
the necessity for students to contribute to international understanding and strengthening of world
peace and to the activities in the struggle against colonialism and neo-colonialism in all their
forms and manifestations? Yes/No
Number of instances:

HRE Competency 14: Does the primary textbook or supplementary assigned readings identify
the need to actively oppose all forms and varieties of racialism, fascism, and apartheid as well as
other ideologies which breed national and racial hatred? Yes/No
Number of instances:

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Appendix B: UNESCO Recommendation on Education for International Understanding,
Co-operation and Peace and Education

Records of the General Conference Eighteenth Session
Paris, 17 October to 23 November 1974 (Volume I)
38 Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and
Peace and Education relating
to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms1

The General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, meeting in Paris from 17 October to 23 November 1974, at its eighteenth session,
Mindful of the responsibility incumbent on States to achieve through education the aims set forth
in the Charter of the United Nations, the Constitution of Unesco, the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights and the Geneva Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War of
12 August 1949, in order to promote international understanding, co-operation and peace
and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms,
Reaffirming the responsibility which is incumbent on Unesco to encourage and support in
Member States any activity designed to ensure the education of all for the advancement of
justice, freedom, human rights and peace,
Noting nevertheless that the activity of Unesco and of its Member States sometimes has an
impact only on a small minority of the steadily growing numbers of schoolchildren, students,
young people and adults continuing their education, and educators, and that the curricula and
methods of international education are not always attuned to the needs and aspirations of the
participating
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young people and adults,
Noting moreover that in a number of cases there is still a wide disparity between proclaimed
ideals, declared intentions and the actual situation,
Having decided, at its seventeenth session, that this education should be the subject of a
recommendation to Member States,
Adopts this nineteenth day of November 1974, the present recommendation.
The General Conference recommends that Member States should apply the following
provisions by taking whatever legislative or other steps may be required in conformity with the
constitutional practice of each State to give effect within their respective territories to the
principles set forth in this recommendation.
The General Conference recommends that Member States bring this recommendation to the
attention
of the authorities, departments or bodies responsible for school education, higher education
and out-of-school education, of the various organizations carrying out educational work
among young people and adults such as student and youth movements, associations of pupils’
parents, teachers’ unions and other interested parties.
The General Conference recommends that Member States submit to it, by dates and in the form
to be decided upon by the Conference, reports concerning the action taken by them in pursuance
of this recommendation.
1. Recommendation adopted on the report of the Commission for Education at the thirty-sixth
plenary meeting on19 November 1974.

Recommendations
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I. Significance of terms
1. For the purposes of this recommendation:
(a) The word ‘education’ implies the entire process of social life by means of which individuals
and social groups learn to develop consciously within, and for the benefit of, the national
and international communities, the whole of their personal capacities, attitudes, aptitudes and
knowledge. This process is not limited to any specific activities.
(b) The terms ‘international understanding’, ‘co-operation’ and ‘peace’ are to be considered as
an indivisible whole based on the principle of friendly relations between peoples and States
having different social and political systems and on the respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms. In the text of this recommendation, the different connotations of these
terms are sometimes gathered together in a concise expression, ‘international education’.
(c) ‘Human rights’ and ‘fundamental freedoms’ are those defined in the United Nations Charter,
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenants on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights, and on Civil and Political Rights.
II. Scope
2. This recommendation applies to all stages and forms of education.
III. Guiding principles
3. Education should be infused with the aims and purposes set forth in the Charter of the United
Nations, the Constitution of Unesco and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, particularly
Article 26, paragraph 2, of the last-named, which states.. ‘Education shall be directed
to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human
rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship
among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United
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Nations for the maintenance of peace.’
4. In order to enable every person to contribute actively to the fulfilment of the aims referred to
in paragraph 3, and promote international solidarity and co-operation, which are necessary
in solving the world problems affecting the individuals’ and communities’ life and exercise of
fundamental rights and freedoms, the following objectives should be regarded as major
guiding principles of educational policy:
(a) an international dimension and a global perspective in education at all levels and in all its
forms;
(b) understanding and respect for all peoples, their cultures, civilizations, values and ways of life,
including domestic ethnic cultures and cultures of other nations;
(c) awareness of the increasing global interdependence between peoples and nations;
(d) abilities to communicate with others;
(e) awareness not only of the rights but also of the duties incumbent upon individuals, social
groups and nations towards each other;
(f) understanding of the necessity for international solidarity and co-operation;
(g) readiness on the part of the individual to participate in solving the problems of his
community, his country and the world at large.
5. Combining learning, training, information and action, international education should further
the appropriate intellectual and emotional development of the individual. It should develop a
sense of social responsibility and of solidarity with less privileged groups and should lead to
observance of the principles of equality in everyday conduct. It should also help to develop
qualities, aptitudes and abilities which enable the individual to acquire a critical understanding
of problems at the national and the international level; to understand and explain facts,
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 110

opinions and ideas; to work in a group; to accept and participate in free discussions; to observe
the elementary rules of procedure applicable to any discussion; and to base value-judgements
and decisions on a rational analysis of relevant facts and factors.
6. Education should stress the inadmissibility of recourse to war for purposes of expansion,

Recommendation
aggression and domination, or to the use of force and violence for purposes of repression,
and should bring every person to understand and assume his or her responsibilities for the
maintenance of peace. It should contribute to international understanding and strengthening
of world peace and to the activities in the struggle against colonialism and neo-colonialism
in all their forms and manifestations, and against all forms and varieties of racialism, fascism,
and apartheid as well as other ideologies which breed national and racial hatred and which
are contrary to the purposes of this recommendation.
IV. National policy, planning and administration
7. Each Member State should formulate and apply national policies aimed at increasing the
efficacy of education in all its forms and strengthening its contribution to international
understanding and co-operation, to the maintenance and development of a just peace, to the
establishment of social justice, to respect for and application of human rights and fundamental
freedoms, and to the eradication of the prejudices, misconceptions, inequalities and all forms
of injustice which hinder the achievement of these aims.
8. Member States should in collaboration with the National Commissions take steps to ensure
co-operation between ministries and departments and co-ordination of their efforts to plan
and carry out concerted programmes of action in international education.
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9. Member States should provide, consistent with their constitutional provisions, the financial,
administrative, material and moral support necessary to implement this recommendation.
V. Particular aspects of learning, training and action
Ethical and civic aspects
10. Member States should take appropriate steps to strengthen and develop in the processes of
learning and training, attitudes and behaviour based on recognition of the equality and
necessary interdependence of nations and peoples.
11. Member States should take steps to ensure that the principles of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination become an integral part of the developing personality of each child, adolescent,
young person or adult by applying these principles in the daily conduct of education at each
level and in all its forms, thus enabling each individual to contribute personally to the
regeneration and extension of education in the direction indicated.
12. Member States should urge educators, in collaboration with pupils, parents, the organizations
concerned and the community, to use methods which appeal to the creative imagination of
children and adolescents and to their social activities and thereby to prepare them to exercise
their rights and freedoms while recognizing and respecting the rights of others and to perform
their social duties.
13. Member States should promote, at every stage of education, an active civic training which
will enable every person to gain knowledge of the method of operation and the work of
public institutions, whether local, national or international, to become acquainted with the
procedures for solving fundamental problems; and to participate in the cultural life of the
community and in public affairs. Wherever possible, this participation should increasingly
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link education and action to solve problems at the local, national and international levels.
14. Education should include critical analysis of the historical and contemporary factors of an
economic and political nature underlying the contradictions and tensions between countries,
together with study of ways of overcoming these contradictions, which are the real impediments
to understanding, true international co-operation and the development of world peace.
15. Education should emphasize the true interests of peoples and their incompatibility with the
interests of monopolistic groups holding economic and political power, which practise
exploitation and foment war.
16. Student participation in the organization of studies and of the educational establishment they
are attending should itself be considered a factor in civic education and an important element
in international education.

Recommendations
Cultural aspects
17. Member States should promote, at various stages and in various types of education, study of
different cultures, their reciprocal influences, their perspectives and ways of life, in order to
encourage mutual appreciation of the differences between them. Such study should, among
other things, give due importance to the teaching of foreign languages, civilizations and
cultural heritage as a means of promoting international and inter-cultural understanding.
Study of the major problems of mankind
18. Education should be directed both towards the eradication of conditions which perpetuate
and aggravate major problems affecting human survival and well-being-inequality, injustice,
international relations based on the use of force-and towards measures of international
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co-operation likely to help solve them. Education which in this respect must necessarily be
of an interdisciplinary nature should relate to such problems as:
(a) equality of rights of peoples, and the right of peoples to self-determination;
(b) the maintenance of peace; different types of war and their causes and effects; disarmament;
the inadmissibility of using science and technology for warlike purposes and their use for the
purposes of peace and progress; the nature and effect of economic, cultural and political
relations between countries and the importance of international law for these relations,
particularly for the maintenance of peace;
(c) action to ensure the exercise and observance of human rights, including those of refugees;
racialism and its eradication; the fight against discrimination in its various forms;
(d) economic growth and social development and their relation to social justice; colonialism and
decolonization; ways and means of assisting developing countries; the struggle against illiteracy;
the campaign against disease and famine; the fight for a better quality of life and the highest
attainable standard of health; population growth and related questions;
(e) the use, management and conservation of natural resources, pollution of the environment;
(f) preservation of the cultural heritage of mankind;
(g) the role and methods of action of the United Nations system in efforts to solve such problems
and possibilities for strengthening and furthering its action.
19. Steps should be taken to develop the study of those sciences and disciplines which are
directly related to the exercise of the increasingly varied duties and responsibilities involved in
international relations.

Other aspects
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20. Member States should encourage educational authorities and educators to give education
planned in accordance with this recommendation an interdisciplinary, problem-oriented
content adapted to the complexity of the issues involved in the application of human rights
and in international co-operation, and in itself illustrating the ideas of reciprocal influence,
mutual support and solidarity. Such programmes should be based on adequate research,
experimentation and the identification of specific educational objectives.
21. Member States should endeavour to ensure that international educational activity is granted
special attention and resources when it is carried out in situations involving particularly
delicate or explosive social problems in relations, for example, where there are obvious
inequalities in opportunities for access to education.
VI. Action in various sectors of education
22. Increased efforts should be made to develop and infuse an international and inter-cultural
dimension at all stages and in all forms of education.
23. Member States should take advantage of the experience of the Associated Schools which
carry out, with Unesco’s help, programmes of international education. Those concerned with
Associated Schools in Member States should strengthen and renew their efforts to extend
the programme to other educational institutions and work towards the general application
of its results. In other Member States, similar action should be undertaken as soon as possible.
The experience of other educational institutions which have carried out successful programmes
of international education should also be studied and disseminated.
24. As pre-school education develops, Member States should encourage in it activities which
correspond to the purposes of the recommendation because fundamental attitudes, such as, for
example, attitudes on race, are often formed in the pre-school years. In this respect, the attitude
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of parents should be deemed to be an essential factor for the education of children, and the
adult education referred to in paragraph 30 should pay special attention to the preparation
of parents for their role in pre-school education. The first school should be designed and
organized as a social environment having its own character and value, in which various
situations, including games, will enable children to become aware of their rights, to assert
themselves freely while accepting their responsibilities, and to improve and extend through
direct experience their sense of belonging to larger and larger communities-the family, the
school, then the local, national and world communities.
25. Member States should urge the authorities concerned, as well as teachers and students, to
re-examine periodically how post-secondary and university education should be improved
so that it may contribute more fully to the attainment of the objectives of this recommendation.
26. Higher education should comprise civic training and learning activities for all students that
will sharpen their knowledge of the major problems which they should help to solve, provide
them with possibilities for direct and continuous action aimed at the solution of those problems,
and improve their sense of international co-operation.
27. As post-secondary educational establishments, particularly universities, serve growing
numbers of people, they should carry out programmes of international education as part of their
broadened function in lifelong education and should in all teaching adopt a global approach.
Using all means of communication available to them, they should provide opportunities,
facilities for learning and activities adapted to people’s real interests, problems and aspirations.
28. In order to develop the study and practice of international co-operation, post-secondary
educational establishments should systematically take advantage of the forms of international
action inherent in their role, such as visits from foreign professors and students and professional
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 116

co-operation between professors and research teams in different countries. In particular,
studies and experimental work should be carried out on the linguistic, social, emotional and
cultural obstacles, tensions, attitudes and actions which affect both foreign students and host
establishments.
29. Every stage of specialized vocational training should include training to enable students to
understand their role and the role of their professions in developing their society, furthering
international co-operation, maintaining and developing peace, and to assume their role actively
as early as possible.
30. Whatever the aims and forms of out-of-school education, including adult education, they
should be based on the following considerations:
(a) as far as possible a global approach should be applied in all out-of-school education
programmes, which should comprise the appropriate moral, civic, cultural, scientific and
technical elements of international education;
(b) all the parties concerned should combine efforts to adapt and use the mass media of
communication, self-education, and inter-active learning, and such institutions as museums and
public libraries to convey relevant knowledge to the individual, to foster in him or her favourable
attitudes and a willingness to take positive action, and to spread knowledge and understanding
of the educational campaigns and programmes planned in accordance with the objectives of
this recommendation;
(c) the parties concerned, whether public or private, should endeavour to take advantage of
favourable situations and opportunities, such as the social and cultural activities of youth
centres and clubs, cultural centres, community centres or trade unions, youth gatherings and
festivals, sporting events, contacts with foreign visitors, students or immigrants and exchanges
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 117

of persons in general.
31. Steps should be taken to assist the establishment and development of such organizations as
student and teacher associations for the United Nations, international relations clubs and
Unesco Clubs, which should be associated with the preparation and implementation of
co-ordinated programmes of international education.
32. Member States should endeavour to ensure that, at each stage of school and out-of-school
education, activities directed towards the objectives of this recommendation be co-ordinated
and form a coherent whole within the curricula for the different levels and types of education,
learning and training. The principles of co-operation and association which are inherent in
this recommendation should be applied in all educational activities.
VII. Teacher preparation
33. Member States should constantly improve the ways and means of preparing and certifying
teachers and other educational personnel for their role in pursuing the objectives of this
recommendation and should, to this end:
(a) provide teachers with motivations for their subsequent work: commitment to the ethics of
human rights and to the aim of changing society, so that human rights are applied in practice;
a grasp of the fundamental unity of mankind; ability to instil appreciation of the riches which
the diversity of cultures can bestow on every individual, group or nation;
(b) provide basic interdisciplinary knowledge of world problems and the problems of
international co-operation, through, among other means, work to solve these problems;
(c) prepare teachers themselves to take an active part in devising programmes of international
education and educational equipment and materials, taking into account the aspirations of
pupils and working in close collaboration with them;
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(d) comprise experiments in the use of active methods of education and training in at least
elementary techniques of evaluation, particularly those applicable to the social behaviour and
attitudes of children, adolescents and adults;
(e) develop aptitudes and skills such as a desire and ability to make educational innovations and
to continue his or her training; experience in teamwork and in interdisciplinary studies;
knowledge of group dynamics; and the ability to create favourable opportunities and take
advantage of them;
(f) include the study of experiments in international education, especially innovative experiments
carried out in other countries, and provide those concerned, to the fullest possible extent,
with opportunities for making direct contact with foreign teachers.
34. Member States should provide those concerned with direction, supervision or guidance-for
instance, inspectors, educational advisers, principals of teacher-training colleges and organizers
of educational activities for young people and adults-with training, information and advice
enabling them to help teachers work towards the objectives of this recommendation, taking
into account the aspirations of young people with regard to international problems and new
educational methods that are likely to improve prospects for fulfilling these aspirations. For
these purposes, seminars or refresher courses relating to international and inter-cultural
education should be organized to bring together authorities and teachers; other seminars or
courses might permit supervisory personnel and teachers to meet with other groups concerned
such as parents, students, and teachers’ associations. Since there must be a gradual but profound
change in the role of education, the results of experiments for the remodelling of
structures and hierarchical relations in educational establishments should be reflected in
training, information and advice.
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 119

35. Member States should endeavour to ensure that any programme of further training for
teachers in service or for personnel responsible for direction includes components of
international education and opportunities to compare the results of their experiences in
international education.
36. Member States should encourage and facilitate educational study and refresher courses
abroad, particularly by awarding fellowships, and should encourage recognition of such courses
as part of the regular process of initial training, appointment, refresher training and promotion
of teachers.
37. Member States should organize or assist bilateral exchanges of teachers at all levels of
education.

VIII. Educational equipment and materials
38. Member States should increase their efforts to facilitate the renewal, production,
dissemination and exchange of equipment and materials for international education, giving
special consideration to the fact that in many countries pupils and students receive most of their
knowledge
about international affairs through the mass media outside the school. To meet the needs
expressed by those concerned with international education, efforts should be concentrated on
overcoming the lack of teaching aids and on improving their quality. Action should be on
the following lines:
(a) appropriate and constructive use should be made of the entire range of equipment and aids
available, from textbooks to television, and of the new educational technology;
(b) there should be a component of special mass media education in teaching to help the pupils
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 120

to select and analyse the information conveyed by mass media;
(c) a global approach, comprising the introduction of international components, serving as a
framework for presenting local and national aspects of different subjects and illustrating the
scientific and cultural history of mankind, should be employed in textbooks and all other
aids to learning, with due regard to the value of the visual arts and music as factors conducive
to understanding between different cultures;
(d) written and audio-visual materials of an interdisciplinary nature illustrating the major
problems confronting mankind and showing in each case the need for international co-operation
and its practical form should be prepared in the language or languages of instruction of the
country with the aid of information supplied by the United Nations, Unesco and other
Specialized Agencies;
(e) documents and other materials illustrating the culture and the way of life of each country, the
chief problems with which it is faced, and its participation in activities of world-wide concern
should be prepared and communicated to other countries.
39. Member States should promote appropriate measures to ensure that educational aids,
especially textbooks are free from elements liable to give rise to misunderstanding, mistrust,
racialist reactions, contempt or hatred with regard to other groups or peoples. Materials should
provide a broad background of knowledge which will help learners to evaluate information and
ideas disseminated through the mass media that seem to run counter to the aims of this
recommendation.
40. According to its needs and possibilities, each Member State should establish or help to
establish one or more documentation centres offering written and audio-visual material devised
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 121

according to the objectives of this recommendation and adapted to the different forms and stages
of education. These centres should be designed to foster the reform of international education,
especially by developing and disseminating innovative ideas and materials, and should also
organize and facilitate exchanges of information with other countries.

IX. Research and experimentation
41. Member States should stimulate and support research on the foundations, guiding principles,
means of implementation and effects of international education and on innovations and
experimental activities in this field, such as those taking place in the Associated Schools. This
action calls for collaboration by universities, research bodies and centres, teacher-training
institutions, adult education training centres and appropriate non-governmental organizations.
42. Member States should take appropriate steps to ensure that teachers and the various
authorities concerned build international education on a sound psychological and sociological
basis by applying the results of research carried out in each country on the formation and
development of favourable or unfavourable attitudes and behaviour, on attitude change, on the
interaction of personality development and education and on the positive or negative effects of
educational activity. A substantial part of this research should be devoted to the aspirations of
young people concerning international problems and relations.

X. International co-operation
43. Member States should consider international co-operation a responsibility in developing
international education. In the implementation of this recommendation they should refrain from
intervening in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any State in
HUMAN RIGHTS AND WAR COLLEGE CURRICULUM 122

accordance with the United Nations Charter. By their own actions, they should demonstrate
that implementing this recommendation is itself an exercise in international understanding
and co-operation. They should, for example, organize, or help the appropriate authorities and
non-governmental organizations to organize, an increasing number of international meetings
and study sessions on international education; strengthen their programmes for the reception
of foreign students, research workers, teachers and educators belonging to workers’ associations
and adult education associations; promote reciprocal visits by schoolchildren, and student
and teacher exchanges; extend and intensify exchanges of information on cultures and ways
of life; arrange for the translation or adaptation and dissemination of information and
suggestions coming from other countries.
44. Member States should encourage the co-operation between their Associated Schools and
those of other countries with the help of Unesco in order to promote mutual benefits by
expanding their experiences in a wider international perspective.
45. Member States should encourage wider exchanges of textbooks, especially history and
geography textbooks, and should, where appropriate, take measures, by concluding, if possible,
bilateral and multilateral agreements, for the reciprocal study and revision of textbooks and other
educational materials in order to ensure that they are accurate, balanced, up to date and
unprejudiced and will enhance mutual knowledge and understanding between different
peoples.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative study addressed an information gap on both the presence and frequency of human rights education (HRE) available to international students attending the US military war colleges as participants in the State Department-funded “Expanded International Military Education and Training” program. The study was specifically designed to address a GAO report from 2011, which stated that out of the 141 International Military Education and Training (IMET) Program certified courses offered by all Professional Military Education institutions, only seven of those courses included references on human rights, rule of law, or international military law (none of which were at the war colleges). Although congress has mandated in legislation that the military services must provide training on human rights and democratic ideals to international officers in the IMET program, the GAO report indicated otherwise. The report also noted that most international students who received specific training on human rights were not attendees of any of the six war colleges, which cater to the most senior of military and civilian IMET participants. To better understand the complete exposure all international students have to the written curriculum, a thorough review of every syllabus, required reading, and optional reading was completed. The study indicated a presence of human rights education subjects that were addressed in many different aspects of the curriculum. The study further identified the frequency of human rights competencies associated with the UNESCO HRE guidelines that were found within the written course materials at the Naval War College and at the National War College.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Folks, Jeremy B. (author)

Core Title Democracy, diplomacy, and higher education: war college institutional effectivenss in promoting democracy and human rights to international military officers

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/15/2017

Defense Date 07/19/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag document analysis,human rights education,integrated curriculum,international military education and training,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional military education

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee member), Schafrik, Janice (committee member)

Creator Email folks@usc.edu,jeremy.folks@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-456488

Unique identifier UC11266773

Identifier etd-FolksJerem-5923.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-456488 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-FolksJerem-5923.pdf

Dmrecord 456488

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Folks, Jeremy B.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA