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The role of higher education in bridging workforce skills gaps: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 1

THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN BRIDGING WORKFORCE SKILLS GAPS:
AN EVALUATION STUDY

by

Terri L. Horton

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Terri L. Horton

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 2

DEDICATION
This dissertation is humbly dedicated to my father, a huge USC fan, who, as I walked across the
stage to receive my undergraduate degree, predicted that I would go on to earn a doctoral degree.
May he rest peacefully. To my mother, role model and best friend. To my brothers, who
relentlessly encouraged me to think big and persevere. To my aunt and uncle who encouraged
me to apply to USC and encouraged me to Fight On until the end. Finally, this is dedicated to my
niece, to fearlessly Fight On and pursue her dream of becoming the next Dr. Horton in our
family.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Lawrence Picus for his guidance and
support through my doctoral journey. I thank him for always responding promptly to my emails
and text messages and for obliging my requests for “quick” LMS live sessions. Thank you for all
of the laughs and assurances along the way.
I would also like to thank my dissertation committee members, Dr. Datta and Dr.
Tambascia. Their insights and support gave me the guidance I needed to not only navigate the
doctoral process but also to discover areas of interest for future research. I would also like to
thank Dr. Alicia Dowd, my first professor at USC who inspired me to Fight On and embody the
five traits of a Trojan.
Next, I would like to thank my colleagues from the OCL Cohort. It was a pleasure to
work with and learn from all of you. Continue to Fight On!

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 10
Organizational Context and Mission 11
Organizational Goal 12
Related Literature 13
Importance of the Evaluation 14
Description of Stakeholder Groups 15
Stakeholder’ Performance Goals 16
Stakeholder Group for the Study 17
Purpose of the Project and Questions 18
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 18
Definitions 19
Organization of the Project 20
Chapter Two: Review of Literature 21
The Impending Workforce Skills Gap Phenomena of 2025 21
In-Demand Workforce Skills 23
The Role of Higher Education: Accountability and Implications 26
Accountability 27
Implications 29
Summary of General Literature 30
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences 30
Knowledge and Skills 30
Knowledge Influences 31
Motivation 36
Expectancy Theory 37
Utility Value 38
Self-Efficacy Theory 38
Organizational Culture 41
Cultural Models and Cultural Settings 43
Cultural Climate 44
Cultural Setting 44
Cultural Model: Resistance to Change 45
Curriculum and Programmatic Change 46
Cultural Setting: Lack of Expertise and Role Models 47
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 49
Conclusion 50
Chapter Three: Methodology 51
Research Questions 51
Research Design 51
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 5

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the
Organizational Context 52
Clark and Estes Integration with KMO Model 53
Unit of Analysis and Participating Stakeholders 55
Participating Stakeholders 55
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale 55
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 56
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale 56
Interview Sampling (Recruitment Strategy and Rationale) 57
Document Analysis Criterion and Rationale 58
Document Analysis Criterion and Rationale 58
Data Collection and Instrumentation 59
Survey 60
Interviews 61
Documents and Artifacts 62
Data Analysis 63
Credibility and Trustworthiness 64
Validity and Reliability 66
Ethics 68
Summary 70
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 72
Participating Stakeholders 73
Survey Results 73
Qualitative Interview Results 75
Qualitative Interview Findings 76
Qualitative Interview Themes 77
Summary 85
Document Analysis Findings 86
The SCUE 2015-2019 Strategic Plan 86
SCUE Faces Unprecedented Challenges 87
Majority of Strategic Initiatives Aimed at Reducing Skills Gaps 88
LAEDC Institute for Applied Economics: People, Industry and Jobs Report 90
Higher Education Plays a Role in Bridging Regional Skills Gaps 90
Regional Job Growth in Professional and Business Services 91
SCUE Email and Memo Updates 92
Focus on High-Quality In-Demand Programs 92
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Validation 94
Knowledge Findings 94
Motivation Influences Validation: Qualitative Interviews and Document Analysis 98
Organizational Influences Validation: Interviews and Document Analysis 101
Summary 103
Chapter Five: Solutions, Implementation, and Evaluation Plan 105
Recommendations for Practice to Address Knowledge Influences 105
Declarative Knowledge 107
Procedural Knowledge 107
Knowledge Solutions 108
Recommendations for Practice to Address Motivation Influences 108
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 6

Expectancy: Utility Value 109
Expectancy: Self-Efficacy 110
Motivation Solutions 111
Recommendations for Practice to Address Organization Influences 111
Cultural Model Influence: Resistance to Change 112
Cultural Model Solutions 113
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 113
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 114
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 114
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 115
Level 3: Behavior 116
Level 2: Learning 119
Level 1: Reaction 122
Evaluation Tools 123
Data Analysis and Reporting 123
Summary 124
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 124
Limitations and Delimitations 125
Recommendations for Future Research 126
Conclusion 127
References 129
Appendix A: Survey Interview Protocol 140
Appendix B: Qualitative Interview Protocol 142
Appendix C: Document Analysis Protocol 144
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Interviews 145
Appendix E: Survey Recruitment E-mail 149
Appendix F: Qualitative Interview Recruitment E-mail 150
Appendix G: Post-Class Survey 151
Appendix H: Delayed Period Survey 152

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 7

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 16
Table 2: Stakeholder Goal and Knowledge Influence, Type and Assessment for Knowledge Gap
Analysis 36
Table 3: Stakeholder Goal and Motivational Influence and Assessment for Motivation Gap
Analysis 41
Table 4: Stakeholder Influence Type and Assessment for Organizational Culture Gap Analysis 49
Table 5: Sampling of Documents for Data Analysis 59
Table 6: Survey Response and Qualitative Interview Selection Criteria 75
Table 7: Qualitative Interview Solicitation and Participants 76
Table 8: Alignment of Qualitative Interview Themes with Research Questions and KMO
Influences 78
Table 9: Documents Selected for Analysis 86
Table 10: Validated Knowledge Influences 95
Table 11: Validated Motivation Influences 98
Table 12: Validated Organizational Influences 102
Table 13: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences 106
Table 14: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 109
Table 15: Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 112
Table 16: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 115
Table 17: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for SCUE Academic Staff 117
Table 18: Required Drivers to Support SCUE Academic Staff Critical Behaviors 118
Table 19: Components of Learning for the Program 121
Table 20: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 123

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 8

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework. 19
Figure 2: Skills and abilities in the knowledge economy (Carnevale & Smith, 2013) 24
Figure 3: KMO conceptual framework: Developing programs to bridge workforce skills gaps. 54

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 9

ABSTRACT
The impending workforce skills gap crisis of 2025 poses a significant problem of practice for
institutions of higher learning as federal agencies, employers, and policy makers across the
United States look to higher education for innovative solutions. The purpose of this study was to
conduct a gap analysis to examine the factors that contribute to programs aligned with workforce
and employer skill demands at a college of continuing education in the California public
education system. The gap analysis framework served as the foundation of the study in the
context of influences required to develop programs that met employers’ skill needs while
mitigating workforce skills gaps. The study was conducted using qualitative single-case
methodology and employed surveys, interviews, and document analysis as data sources. Findings
indicated that knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences played a significant role in
harnessing the institutional bandwidth required to develop relevant programs that prepared
students for knowledge and artificial intelligence economies, met employers’ needs, and
contributed to bridging workforce skills gaps. Recommendations for future research included the
use of artificial intelligence systems to more accurately identify in-demand skills and develop
programs aligned with workforce, industry, and economic requirements.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 10

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
This study addressed the problem of practice faced by institutions of higher learning to
develop strategies that aid in bridging the projected workforce skills gap crisis of 2025 (Shaffer,
2015). By 2025, research suggests that more than 20 million workers in the United States will
need some post-secondary education to meet workforce demands (Shaffer, 2015). Post-
secondary education refers to college coursework, degrees and professional certificates acquired
after high school from higher education institutions (Baum, Kurose, & McPherson, 2013). In
California, according to Johnson, Mejia and Bohn (2015) more than two million workers would
be required to have some post-secondary education by 2025 to meet the region’s burgeoning
occupational demands. The fact that 70% of occupations in California were projected to require
some post-secondary education (Bohn, 2014) and that only 30% of workers were expected to
hold the necessary post-secondary workforce skills by 2025 exemplified the problem (Bohn,
2014).
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
This problem of practice was critical to address because, increasingly, federal agencies,
municipalities, and policy makers across the United States expected institutions of higher
learning to advance innovative approaches to mitigate workforce skills gaps while addressing
critical workforce development and economic growth demands (Sandström & Ylinenpää, 2012).
Cappelli (2015) asserted that the problem was two-fold. Cappelli posited that the problem was
first rooted in readiness strategies that prepare college students with the skills needed for the
workforce. Cappelli further argued that a contributor to the problem was the failure to create
programs that addressed the workforce skill deficits of individuals who look to post-secondary
institutions to upgrade labor force skills. Scholars Bahr et al. (2015) claimed that accelerated
labor market shifts impacted job types and requisite skills and thereby posited that post-
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 11

secondary institutions focus on bridging skills gaps related to the 21st century competencies
required by employers. According to the Pew Research Center (2016), in addition to applied
skills, relative to the knowledge-based economy, social, analytical, management, communication
and technical skills were the most in-demand skills that contributed to the projected workforce
skills gap.
Although community colleges within public education systems historically developed
programs aligned with workforce and economic development skill needs, policy makers and
industry partners extended such accountability for bridging workforce skills gaps to 4-year
public institutions of higher learning (Baum et al., 2013). Consequently, scholars, policy makers,
and enterprise experts concurred that 4-year public institutions of higher education played a
significant role in bridging the workforce skills gap, which, if left undeterred, could result in
reverberating negative impacts across institutions of higher learning, the national labor force,
economy, and global competitive advantage (Dobbs, 2012).
Organizational Context and Mission
Southern California University Extension (SCUE) was a pseudonym used for a
continuing education division within the University of California system. The mission of SCUE
was to create extraordinary learning experiences for adults of all ages. SCUE was the largest
provider of continuing education in the United States offering more than 5,000 courses each
year. SCUE offered more than 100 certificate programs serving 40,000 students in the United
States and abroad. The division offered certificate programs in wide-ranging disciplines to meet
the needs and demands of students and the workforce at large.
The extended university was accredited by the Western Association of Schools and
Colleges and all courses were approved by the SCUE academic senate. SCUE provided several
student-centered services, including financial aid and career advisement. Completed coursework
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 12

could be transferred for undergraduate degree credit. Certificate program graduates were also
eligible to join the SCUE alumni association. Nearly 3,000 instructors taught in SCUE programs
and had substantial industry and academic preparation. SCUE offered courses both on ground
and online.
Organizational Goal
The vision for SCUE was to utilize education as a platform to transform lives, industries,
and societies on a global level. Underpinning the vision was the mission to create extraordinary
educational experiences for adult learners. The vision and mission supported the university’s
value proposition of providing students with the ability to leverage academic performance,
professional growth, and networks across their careers. The vision, mission, and values of the
university served as a catalyst for the development of the 2015-2019 strategic plan. Major
initiatives focused on addressing challenges facing institutions of higher learning related to
reduced municipal funding, post-secondary labor force demands, career development, and
disruption driven by globalization and technological advances.
The focus of this study was on the strategic goals related to post-secondary workforce
demands unique to the SCUE Business Program. The 2015-2019 strategic plan listed post-
secondary workforce demands and career goals as priorities linked to serving students. A
required action was to design strategies focused on career and workforce development programs
aligned with 21st century economies and labor market demands. The goal of the business
programs department was to develop at least five new certificate programs that incorporated 21st
century skills to meet employers’ workforce skill needs by 2019. Plan evaluation began in 2017
on a quarterly and annual basis. Audits conducted by program administrators and the academic
senate measured goal achievement.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 13

Related Literature
Research suggests that, by 2025, more than 20 million workers in the United States will
need some post-secondary education to enhance workforce skills (Shaffer, 2015). In California
alone, more than two million workers will be required to have some post-secondary education to
meet regional workforce skill demands (Bohn, 2014). Post-secondary skills are necessary since
employers require 21st century in-demand skills not typically acquired in high school settings.
Therefore, the intersection of the workforce skills gaps and the role of institutions of higher
education created a compelling problem of practice due to the accountability placed upon these
institutions to bridge gaps between education and employability (Lumina Foundation, 2013a).
Furthermore, according to Friedman (2016) the problem is compounded by the combination of
the virtual elimination of most on-the-job training provided by employers, the failure of higher
education to bridge the training gap, and the ultimate failure of employees to acquire and
maintain in-demand skills.
The scale of the problem and associated negative implications to the national labor force
were such that policy makers, workforce and economic development agencies, industry, and
employers pressed public institutions of higher learning to develop collaborative and innovative
solutions to close the skills gap by 2025 (Sparks & Waits, 2011). In the interim, disruptive
nascent, non-traditional competitors focused on skill development and alternative credentialing
aligned with employer demands emerged and offered solutions to mitigate workforce skills gaps
as well as improve employment outcomes and candidate competitive advantage (Lumina
Foundation, 2013a).
According to Cappelli (2015), the workforce skills gap phenomenon was a primary
outcome of the shift in the workforce skills required to perform low, medium, and high skill jobs,
which require levels of knowledge and competency above that of a high school diploma. A
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 14

deeper look at the problem revealed that the workforce skills shortage was presaged as early as
the 1970s and was rooted in the nation’s decades-old shift from an industrial-based to a
knowledge-based economy (Cappelli, 2015).
Despite implications to organizational continuity, productivity, and competitive
advantage related to the anticipated workforce skills gap of 2025, Cappelli (2015) noted that the
expectation of acquiring skills aligned with employer demands systematically shifted from
employers to individuals and institutions of higher learning. Although colleges and universities
across the country collaboratively harnessed institutional capacity to develop and provide
academic, corporate, and regional training programs to support workforce demands, scholars
asserted that more innovative approaches were needed to stem widening post-secondary
workforce skills gaps across the nation (Shaffer, 2015).
As stated, post-secondary workforce skill demands are projected to create a gap of more
than 2 million workers in California by 2025 (Bohn, 2014). Therefore, California’s projected
post-secondary workforce skills gap presented ample opportunities for institutions within the
state’s 4-year public higher education system to expand trajectories to aid in bridging skills gaps
and that ultimately supported the long-term workforce and social prosperity of the region (Bohn,
2014).
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate the business programs department’s performance in
relationship to its goal of developing at least five market-based certificate programs by 2019 for
a variety of reasons. As the California has largest economy in the United States and the eighth
largest economy in the world (Center for Continuing Study of the California Economy, 2015),
the post-secondary workforce skills gap could have negative implications on regional, national,
and global economic levels.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 15

SCUE’s 2015–2019 strategic plan listed post-secondary workforce demands and career
goals as priorities for the university. A required action was to design strategies focused on career
and workforce development programs aligned with 21st century economies and labor market
demands. Therefore, failure to evaluate the university’s performance specific to developing
relevant programs aligned with employer, industry and market needs, risked institutional
accountably, programmatic effectiveness, and student outcomes. Furthermore, institutions of
higher learning across the country risk long-term financial viability and institutional relevancy by
failing to create programs that meet the skill-based needs of the future workforce (Wilson, 2013).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The key stakeholder groups positioned to contribute directly to and benefit from the
achievement of the department’s performance goal were the academic administrative staff,
adjunct faculty, and students. Each stakeholder group’s contribution was relative to its
organizational role. The contribution of the business program’s academic administrative staff
was to develop at least five market-based certificate programs aligned with workforce skill
demands. To meet the goal, the academic administrative staff would collaborate with faculty,
advisory boards, trade associations, and students. Collaboration with faculty, advisory boards,
trade associations, and students would aid the academic administrative staff in developing
certificate programs that met this criterion. The benefit of achieving the performance goal
enabled the academic administrative staff to meet the overarching strategic priority of serving
students through skill-based programs aligned with employer and labor market demands.
Moreover, achievement of the performance goal increased competitive advantage in the Southern
California market through the expansion of the department’s certificate-program portfolio.
Faculty with practitioner expertise would contribute to the achievement of the
performance goal through shared knowledge of industry, market, discipline and career-related
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 16

insights that aided in the development of rich curriculum, experiences, and programs that
prepared students for the workforce. The faculty stakeholder group would also contribute to the
achievement of the organizational goal through participation in advisory boards and program
development committees. The faculty stakeholder group benefited from the realization of the
performance goal through participation in the design and implementation of programs aimed at
closing the workforce skills gap and aiding students in achieving academic and professional
goals. Furthermore, the faculty stakeholder group benefited from the opportunity to engage with
the leadership team and expand university service and impact beyond the classroom. The
student stakeholder group benefited from the achievement of this goal by the ability to complete
certificate programs aligned with employer and workforce demands that mitigated skills gaps
and that could position them with the skills needed for desired professional opportunities.
Stakeholder ’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The vision for SCUE is to utilize education as a platform to transform lives, industries, and
societies on a global level. Underpinning the vision is the mission to create extraordinary
educational experiences for adult learners.
Organizational Performance Goal
The goal of the Business, Management and Legal Program is to develop at least five new market-
based certificate programs by 2019.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 17

Table 1, continued
Stakeholder 1 Goal Stakeholder 2 Goal Stakeholder 3 Goal
By December 2017
Business Management &
Technology Academic staff
will have acquired knowledge
of market needs to develop
desired program focus and
outcomes for new market-
based certificate programs to
launch by 2019
By June 2018 Business
Management & Technology
Academic staff will meet
with administrators,
advisory board members
and industry partners to
provide recommendations
for program and curriculum
development
By June 2019
Business Management &
Technology Academic staff will
launch at least five new programs
for Fall 2019 enrollment

Stakeholder Group for the Study
While a complete analysis of the problem of practice unique to the post-secondary
workforce skills gap phenomenon would require the engagement of all stakeholders, as a matter
of practicality, one stakeholder group was used for this study. Therefore, the academic
administrative staff from the business program, which included deans, directors and managers,
constituted the stakeholder group of focus. Selection of this stakeholder group is appropriate
based on core accountabilities related to the development, management, and implementation of
certificate programs for the business program. Furthermore, this group was accountable for the
department’s role in supporting the strategic organizational priority of serving students’
workforce needs. The stakeholder goal was to develop at least five new market-based certificate
programs by 2019. Plan evaluation began in 2017 on a quarterly and annual basis. Audits
conducted by program administrators and the academic senate measured goal achievement.
Failure to achieve this goal would result in the division’s inability to meet the organizational goal
of creating programs aligned with job market demands and to extend the competitive advantage
of the program in the local Southern California market. Moreover, as one of the largest programs
in the extended university, failure to achieve this goal could negatively impact its collaborative
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 18

relationships with workforce and industry partners in the region focused on bridging the
anticipated workforce skills gap.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which the SCUE Business
Program was meeting its strategic goal of developing at least five new market-based programs
aligned with labor force demands. The analysis focused on knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences related to achieving this organizational goal. While a complete
evaluation project would focus on all SCUE Business Program stakeholders, for practical
purposes, the stakeholders of focus for this analysis were SCUE business academic staff. As
such, two questions guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational requirements for developing at
least five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill needs by 2019?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions required
to attain the goal?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model, which represents a systematic, analytical
method that helps to clarify organizational goals and identify related knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences, was adapted as the conceptual framework to evaluate potential causes
of performance gaps and viable performance solutions. The methodological framework was a
qualitative case study using descriptive statistics. Assumed knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences that impacted organizational goal attainment were generated based on
personal knowledge and related literature. Influences were assessed using surveys, interviews,
literature review, and document analysis. Research-based solutions were recommended and
evaluated comprehensively. Clark and Estes’ six-stage gap analysis process is shown in Figure 1.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 19

Figure 1. Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework.

Definitions
Workforce Skills Gap: A general term used to describe the variance between the skill
requirements of organizations and the current skills and capabilities of the relative workforce
(Cappelli, 2015).
Post-secondary Skills: Skills acquired after high school that are competencies required for career
and workforce success. Skills are acquired in post-secondary environments, and programs in
which they are learned may result in certificates, apprenticeships, licenses or in 2- and 4-year
degrees (Cappelli, 2015).
Skills Mismatch: Lack of equilibrium between individual candidate job skills and labor market
demands (Cappelli, 2015).
Market-based Curriculum and Programs: Curricula that is relevant and responsive to workforce,
employer, and industry needs (Markley & Koernig, 2015).
Knowledge Economy: A general term used to describe the knowledge, education, and intellect
required in post-industrial economies (Cappelli, 2015).
Artificial Intelligence Economy: A general term used to describe the knowledge, education, and
intellect required in the machine learning and data age (Friedman, 2016).
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 20

Organization of the Project
Five chapters were used to organize this study. This chapter provides the key concepts
and terminology commonly found in a discussion about the role of higher education in bridging
workforce skills gaps. Furthermore, the organization’s mission, goals, stakeholders and the
framework for the project were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of the current
literature on the scope of the study. Topics of the workforce skills gap phenomenon, in-demand
workforce skills required by employers and the role, accountability and implications of higher
education are addressed. Chapter Three details the knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences examined as well as methodology specific to participant selection and data collection
and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Finally, Chapter
Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing perceived performance gaps and
recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 21

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents a review of literature on the role of higher education in bridging the
workforce skills gap expected by 2025, specifically examining the problem of practice and the
related knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence leaders’ ability to
develop programs that meet employers’ skill requirements. The chapter consists of four distinct
sections. The first section explores literature related to the factors that contributed to the
workforce skills gap phenomenon, in-demand skills required by employers to mitigate skills gaps
and the role, accountability, and implications to institutions of higher learning. The second
section provides a review of knowledge constructs and the factual and declarative knowledge
needed by SCE Business Program staff to develop new skill-based programs. The third section
provides an overview of motivation constructs and the utility and efficacy required of SCE
Business Program staff to meet the program development stakeholder goal. Finally, the fourth
section examines the constructs in the context of organizational culture and settings that
influenced stakeholder goal attainment.
The Impending Workforce Skills Gap Phenomena of 2025
Scholars asserted that the emergence of the workforce skills gap phenomena was a
byproduct of the speed and pace of technology, globalization, and inherent demands of the
knowledge economy. Friedman (2016) described the phenomena as an accelerated process of
pulling jobs in four distinct directions. Friedman first reasoned that the pulling up of jobs
required higher levels of knowledge and skill. Second, he asserted that the pulling apart of jobs
resulted in the disaggregation of tasks distributed across multiple individuals. Third, Freidman
posited that the pulling out of jobs reflected increased completion from robots, artificial
intelligence, and the global workforce. Finally, the pulling down of jobs resulted in accelerated
obsolescence. In a separate context, Friedman noted that the shift from employer-sponsored
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 22

learning and development to individual culpability outside of the workplace was an additional
burden for workers attempting to fill skills gaps.
A 2015 study conducted by Deloitte University Press revealed that, concurrent with the
accelerated demands described by Friedman (2016), the decline in employee learning and
development programs by employers contributed to growing workforce skills gaps. Implications
of the decrease in corporate learning and development emerged in a 2015 Kelly Global
Workforce Index Survey which revealed that 82% of participants acknowledged the need to seek
out learning opportunities to close existing workforce skills gaps and keep pace with industry
and employer demands. A McKinsey and Company (2017) report on workforce skills gaps
provided additional texture and context into factors that contributed to skills gaps that
disconnected individuals from the workforce. The report suggested that other drivers of the
workforce skills gap phenomenon were Generations Y and Z entering the workforce ill-prepared,
career transitioners, and downsized workers attempting to reenter and adapt to the workforce.
Equally compelling was the fact that the severity of the skills gaps, according to Bridgeland,
Milano, and Rosenblum (2011) was linked to the level of sophistication and caliber of
knowledge required of individuals to meet employer demands. Furthermore, Bridgeland et al.
noted that contributing to the problem was the fact that most workers failed to keep pace with the
education and skill requirements of employers, industries, and the global competitive
employment landscape.
Cappelli (2015), a scholar and renowned human resource expert, asserted that workforce
skills gaps were a symptom of a broader framework of issues in the national labor force. Cappelli
argued against the paradigm that the projected workforce skills gap of 2025 was synonymous
with worker shortages, and stated it was, rather, a result of mismatches between worker and
candidate value and employer demands. Cappelli asserted that the overarching framework related
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 23

to the projected workforce skills gap phenomenon was mismatches related to skills,
qualifications, and education. Correspondingly, Carnevale and Smith (2013a) linked gaps in
skills and abilities between workers and employer needs to new skill requirements for the
knowledge-based economy. Carnevale and Smith classified the required knowledge economy
skills into basic, foundation, communication, adaptability, group effectiveness, influence,
personal management, and attitude and applied skills categories. At the same time, Carnevale
and Smith argued that the skills mentioned above were multi-dimensional and required cross-
category correlation to meet employers’ complex skill demands.
Scholarly and industry research clearly pointed to the fact that external, organizational,
and individual factors contributed to the workforce skills gap phenomenon, which posed
significant workforce, economic, and social challenges for the United States (Toner, 2011).
Therefore, it was important for workers, organizations, and institutions of higher learning to
identify the skills required to meet the demands of employers and the employment landscape of
the future (McKinsey & Company 2017).
In-Demand Workforce Skills
Cappelli (2015) defined gaps in workforce skills as a mismatch between the job skills of
applicants or employees and the demands of the workforce. Ultimately, skills gaps, often referred
to as skills shortages, are the byproduct of not only a lack of necessary skills, but also of a lack
experience, qualifications or academic credentials (McGuinness & Ortiz, 2016). The most
compelling evidence in support of the skills gap phenomenon emerged from research by
academics and industry experts noting the pervasiveness of the problem. Scholars suggested that
workforce skills deficits were not specific to industry, organizational, functional area, role or
employment level, but, rather, represented a collective dearth of 21st century skills across the
United States workforce (American Society for Training and Development, 2012). In fact,
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 24

according to a study conducted by the Society for Human Resource Management (2016), 84% of
human resource professionals reported significant gaps in skills among applicants within the
previous 12-months. Kearney (2015) established that workers without the skills acquired in post-
secondary education to meet employers’ needs found themselves excluded from knowledge
economies of the future.
Based on the posits of Carnevale and Smith (2013a), it was not difficult to rationalize the
broad scope and reach of the skills gap phenomenon. In fact, research by Carnevale and Smith
demonstrated the overarching scope of this problem by establishing that future demands for post-
secondary workforce skills would impact not only high-skilled but also traditionally low-skilled
occupation levels across most industries and functional roles. Carnevale and Smith identified
nine in-demand skill categories: (a) basic, (b) foundation, (c) communication, (d) adaptability,
(e) group effectiveness, (f) influence, (g) personal management, (h) attitude, and (i) applied
skills. Embedded in each category were specific components that characterized the capabilities
required in each group, as indicated in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Skills and abilities in the knowledge economy (Carnevale & Smith, 2013a)
Although Carnevale and Smith (2013a) argued that the nine categories represented the
skills required by employers, some occupations required variations in the application and
correlation of skills. Exemplifying the variance in interactivity and correlation of skills,
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 25

Carnevale and Smith noted that business and education sector jobs, while utilizing skills across
all categories, ascribe value to higher levels of adaptability, problem-solving, and interpersonal
skills due to the nature and needs of the constituents served.
While the work of Carnevale and Smith (2013a) demonstrated some of the most prolific
scholarly research on the relationship between in-demand skills and the workforce skills gap
phenomenon, the thematic reference to the categories identified by Carnevale and Smith echoed
throughout scholarly and industry literature. Although Pavlin (2014) compartmentalized the
skills categories of Carnevale and Smith differently, he contended that the ability to harness the
power of critical thinking, problem-solving, leadership, communication, collaboration,
technology, and applied skills to perform critical tasks and solve problems in the context of
employer needs was at the heart of the workforce skills gap phenomenon. The perspectives of
Carnevale and Smith aligned with that of Radford, Coningham, and Horn (2015) in that,
ultimately, employers require a distinct amalgamation of soft and hard skills that could be
applied directly to solving problems in an organizational context.
Comparatively, the Pew Research Center (2016) argued that analytical skills, critical
thinking and interpersonal skills were both among the most coveted by employers and
recognized by workers as requiring further development to maintain relevancy in the workforce.
Research by scholars Rosenberg, Heimler and Morote (2012) and Dobbs et al. (2012) referenced
the skills described by Carnevale and Smith (2013a) and Pavlin (2014) while emphasizing the
tension among employers, employees and applicants associated with the supply and demand of
the intellectual currency required to bridge workforce skills gaps.
Friedman (2016) acknowledged existing scholarly research on workforce skills gaps and
asserted that 21st century skills (Carnevale & Smith, 2013a) such as critical thinking, and
problem-solving were essential workforce skills for now and the future. However, Friedman
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 26

further informed the debate by positing that the pace in which workers needed to acquire and
deploy the skills demanded by employers contributed to the phenomenon and required the grit,
improvisational and entrepreneurial acumen that most of the United States workforce would fail
to summon. Friedman’s perspectives on the velocity of change in the workforce, demands of
employers, and the inability of most workers to acquire the skills at a rate and pace aligned with
the demands of employers posed a significant challenge for workers, employers, society, and the
national economy. As workforce skills gaps widen, policy makers, economic agencies and
employers hold institutions of higher learning accountable for contributing to the development of
strategies, partnerships and solutions to address the workforce skills gap phenomena (Bedwell,
Fiore & Salas, 2014).
The Role of Higher Education: Accountability and Implications
Historically, the role of institutions of higher learning was to create education to
employment pathways for graduates. Transitioning students into work was embedded in an
institution’s ability to provide students with the capacity to convert theoretical knowledge into a
career-based practical application (Pavlin, 2010). Research by Cappelli (2015) illuminated the
disconnect between academic and workforce stakeholders and linked the mismatch of skills
between graduates and employers to broader workforce and economic implications. In fact,
Cappelli maintained that policy makers and industry leaders contended that institutions of higher
learning contributed to the workforce skills gap problem by failing to graduate students with the
skills required for the workforce.
Conversely, Friedman (2016) argued that failure to create relevant learning platforms and
skill-based programs aligned with workforce skill demands impeded the ability of many higher
education systems to mitigate existing and future workforce skills gaps. The duality of
expectations around the projected workforce skills gap phenomenon as described by Cappelli
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 27

(2015) and Friedman presented a complex problem of practice for the academy in balancing
tradition, academic rigor, and the weight of demands to produce skill-based academic products
aligned with market and employer requirements.
Accountability
Research indicated that municipalities, development agencies, and industries across the
United States shifted greater focus to 4-year institutions of higher learning as principal
collaborators to develop innovative practices and programs aimed at skilling-up the labor force
in the backdrop of the looming workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025 (Johnson et al., 2015).
In fact, Johnson et al. (2015) argued that all colleges in California, to include public and private
institutions, played a major role in bridging workforce skills gaps. However, the challenge
facing institutions of higher learning as it relates to workforce skills gaps presented a perplexing
problem of practice for leaders of higher education systems (O’Keefe && Hamer, 2011).
The challenge was rooted in the fact that culpability for its role in bridging workforce
skills gaps extended beyond traditional measurements of academic performance, institutional
effectiveness and accountability (Cleary & Van Noy, 2014). The perplexity, according to Bohn
(2014), lay in the reality that issues related to workforce development historically resided in the
domain of community college systems (Wilson, 2013). For this reason, workforce development
programs at the community college level provided sector-based training focused on regional
labor force needs aligned with workforce investment boards and economic development agencies
to improve community and regional prosperity (Holzer, 2015). In contrast, professional
development, or skilling-up in 4-year public institutions of higher learning traditionally fell
within the domain of colleges of continuing education (Walshok, 2012). Unlike workforce
development programs, the role of these colleges was to create relevant courses and certificate
programs centered on providing individuals with a platform for personal and professional
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 28

development to increase value in the labor force (Association for Continuing Higher Education,
2017).
Research suggested that the expanded role expected of higher education in bridging
workforce skills gaps extended beyond the parameters of community college and college of
continuing education systems and squarely sat at the intersection of the broader university and
the future of work (Cleary & Van Noy, 2014). The research of Wilson (2013) suggested the use
of a multi-faceted collaborative approach to the problem. Wilson recommended that institutions
of higher learning, business, non-profit organizations, educational technology enterprises and
venture capitalists create partnerships as an approach to the problem. Wilson suggested that the
broad collaborative approach could result in the development of market and employer-centric
programs that provided workers with the skills required by employers and served as a strategy
for mitigating the impact of the projected workforce skills gap crisis of 2025 (Radford et al.,
2015).
Dobbs (2012) argued that increased deliberation between business and public institutions
of higher learning focused on developing strategies that build pools of workers with skills
aligned with the 21st century global economy could result in the marginalization of the
anticipated workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025. However, research revealed that only
29% of business leaders collaborated with institutions of higher learning and only 11% of
business leaders believed that higher education institutions provided the skills required to meet
business needs (Lumina Foundation, 2013a). In the case of business curriculum, Brown,
Holtham, Rich and Dove (2015) reasoned that radical change from theory to practical application
was required to align learning with the multi-disciplinary expectations of the workplace.
The complex multi-disciplinary expectations of Brown et al. (2015) supported the in-
demand skills described by Carnevale and Smith (2013a). Moreover, research by Welborn and
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 29

Singer (2013) supported findings from the Lumina Foundation’s (2013b) survey results and the
posits of both Brown et al. (2015) and Carnevale and Smith. Welborn and Singer (2013) found
that the misalignment between business program curriculum, textbooks, and relative employer
job descriptions contributed to the failure of preparing students for the workforce and
consequently contributed to the nation’s workforce skills gap dilemma.
Implications
Scholars asserted that institutions of higher learning in the United States are losing the
historic edge in providing platforms for learning and workforce skill development (Gerstein &
Friedman, 2016). Furthermore, institutions of higher learning suffer from an inherent
disadvantage in swiftly adapting to change (Zimmer, 2014). While institutions of higher learning
struggled to develop programs that meet employers’ needs, non-traditional nascent enterprises
such as LinkedIn.com, Lynda.com, Udemy.com, Udacity.com and nonprofits like the Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation emerged to provide workers with professional development and
skilling-up solutions aimed at bridging workforce skills gaps (Radford et al., 2015). Furthermore,
non-traditional and nascent enterprises continue to charge forward in developing options and
solutions to the projected workforce skills phenomena that blur the lines between the role of
institutions of higher learning and workforce skills acquisition (Bedwell, Fiore & Salas, 2014).
Research suggested that learners focused on skill acquisition for the workforce alone
versus the validation of university credentials will continue to gravitate towards skill-based
platforms to fill workforce skills gaps (Radford et al., 2015). In the end, scholars cautioned that
failure to develop and sustain market-based programs reflective of industry, employer, and
regional market needs jeopardized the long-term relevance and competitive advantage of
colleges and universities seeking to aid workers in bridging workforce skills gaps (Radford et al.,
2015).
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 30

Summary of General Literature
Research suggests that the workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025 would impact more
than 20 million workers in the United States and 2 million in the state of California (Shaffer,
2015). The intersection of this phenomenon, higher education, and the employers’ expectations
created a significant problem of practice for leaders of higher education systems. While several
factors contributed to the workforce skills gap phenomenon, research suggests that the dearth of
skills was a consequence of the demands of the knowledge economy and gaps in experience and
qualifications garnered from some form of post-secondary education (McGuinness & Ortiz,
2016). Industry experts and scholars alike contend that gaps between employee and candidate
skills and employers’ skill demands were a collection of 21st

century soft and hard skills required
to solve complex problems in organizational contexts (Cleary & Van Noy, 2014). Although the
role of higher education is complex, policy makers and employers hold institutions of higher
learning accountable for developing solutions to solve the problem (Bedwell et al., 2014).
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences
Research suggests that institutions of higher learning play a significant role in bridging
the workforce skills gap by developing new academic program offerings aligned with labor force
and market demands (Carnevale & Smith, 2013b). The purpose of this knowledge and skills
analysis was to determine if the staff of the SCUE Business Program had the necessary
knowledge and skills to develop market-based certificate programs that addressed unmet
workforce and employer demands. Analysis of the knowledge and skills of the academic staff
was critical, as it provided insights on the feasibility of global and stakeholder goal attainment.
Knowledge and Skills
The construction of knowledge, as described by Mayer (2011) involved cognitive
processing that facilitated sense-making, meaningful learning, and enabled learners to infuse new
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 31

information into existing schemas. As such, to achieve the stakeholder goal, the staff needed to
acquire new knowledge, which could be superimposed over existing schemas and juxtaposed
against new programmatic frameworks. This section focuses on the constructs and dimensions of
the assumed knowledge influences related to the SCUE Business Program staff members’ ability
to attain the stated stakeholder goal of developing market-based programs that met employers’
workforce skill demands.
Knowledge Influences
Scholars have long revered Bloom’s taxonomy of learning as a method of determining
learning goals and outcomes. The cognitive domain as described by Krathwohl (2002) was
composed of six categories: (a) knowledge, (b) comprehension, (c) application, (d) analysis, (e)
synthesis, and (f) evaluation. Krathwohl revised the original taxonomy by expanding the
categories within the knowledge domain. While the original taxonomy focused heavily on
assessing course outcomes across multiple categories, Krathwohl’s revision collapsed the six
categories of Bloom’s taxonomy into a new framework that provided a more concentrated focus
on the alignment between course architecture and learning objectives. Furthermore, Krathwohl’s
introduction of metacognition, incorporated self-awareness and self-cognition into the
knowledge domain. Thus, Krathwohl’s framework provided a road map for assessing what is
learned, how learning occurs and cognitive self-awareness through the taxonomy domains of
factual, conceptual and procedural knowledge.
Each dimension was important, as each served as a catalyst to goal attainment for the
stakeholder group. For this study, the focus was vested in factual and procedural knowledge
influences. Therefore, factual and procedural knowledge served as guideposts of influence for
the staff to develop market-based certificate programs that met the needs employers. Krathwohl
(2002) asserted that declarative knowledge, which incorporates the factual and conceptual
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 32

components of knowledge, blends elements and details with the understanding of the
interconnectivity needed to facilitate the transfer of knowledge for problem-solving. Aguinis and
Kraiger (2009) described factual knowledge as the fundamental elements and specifics required
for problem-solving. In differentiating factual and procedural knowledge, Aguinis and Kraiger
posited that procedural knowledge was the practical knowledge and expertise required to
complete tasks and therefore, augmented skills and know-how to solve problems.
To that end, factual knowledge provided the staff with the elements, details and insights
(Krathwohl, 2002) into the current and projected industry and labor force demands and skills
employers require. Procedural knowledge as explained by Aguinis and Kraiger (2009) provided
the staff with the practical knowledge and expertise to utilize acquired knowledge of industry
and labor force demands to develop market-based programs that incorporated the workforce
knowledge and skills required by employers.
Knowledge of in-demands skills. The SCUE Business Program staff needed to have
both factual and conceptual declarative knowledge of unmet workforce and employer needs and
skill requirements to create programs aimed at bridging workforce skills gaps. Research suggests
that, while institutions of higher learning traditionally maintained relationships with professional
bodies for curriculum influence and development, disruptive shifts in economic, industry,
workforce, talent, and skill demands often served as catalysts for the development of new
market-aligned programs (Hordern, 2014). Foretelling the problem of practice facing institutions
of higher learning, Carnevale, Rose, and Hanson (2013) posited that, as the nature of work
continued to evolve in response to technological advances, global competition, new industries,
and positions emerged that required employees with new skills and higher levels of education
(Carnevale et al., 2013). Underscoring the impact of the changing workforce on institutions of
higher learning, Harrington and Sum (2010) argued that leaders of the academy pursue strategies
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 33

aimed at research, knowledge acquisition and curriculum development reflective of labor market
jobs and demands. However, the objective of Harrington and Sum (2010) was often challenging,
as the core skills required to develop market-based programs that bridge workforce skills gaps
varied among scholars and industry experts.
Pink (2005) argued that institutions of higher learning must prepare students with the
intellectual currency of innovation and creativity valued by employers. Carnevale and Smith
(2013a) suggested that companies required specific 21st century skills and abilities for
employees in the knowledge and service economy. Carnevale and Smith classified these skills
into nine categories: (a) basic, (b) foundational, (c) communication, (d) adaptability (e) group
effectiveness, (f) influence, (g) personal management, (h) attitude and (i) applied skills. The
World Economic Forum (2016) report on the future of work identified (a) cognitive abilities, (b)
physical abilities, (c) content skills, (d) process skills, (e) social skills, (f) systems expertise, and
(g) complex problem-solving skills as coveted workforce skills. While institutions of higher
learning were cognizant of many of the skills employers require, the challenge for the academy
was identifying academic resources with the knowledge and ability to inject in-demand skills
directly into curriculum and programs (Bridgeland et al., 2011).
Although the categorization and quantity of skills differed among Pink (2005), Carnevale
and Smith (2013a) and the World Economic Forum’s (2016) study, each advanced the paradigm
that knowledge and in-demand skills underpinned the professional and occupational
requirements needed to meet employers’ programmatic needs. Correspondingly, Reed (2008)
insisted that collaboration and knowledge-sharing among institutions of higher learning and
industry partners facilitated the development of programs and initiatives that provided profound
insights into the specific skill needs across disciplines and supported multidisciplinary program
enhancement. Therefore, the staff of the SCUE Business Program needed to have three types of
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 34

knowledge. The triad of knowledge included factual knowledge of the new spectrum of
multidisciplinary skills employers require, the professional and occupational skills (Bridgeland et
al., 2011) required by functional area employers within the disciplines offered in the program
and of regional and national labor force demands.
Knowledge to develop skill-based programs. SCUE Business Program staff needed
procedural knowledge to understand how to utilize knowledge of labor force and employer needs
to develop market-based programs. Research suggests that collaboration among employers,
workforce partners, and higher education to develop comprehensive programs that blended
theory, practitioner and applied skills contributed to the development of robust curriculum and
programs squarely aligned with employers’ skill needs (Hordern, 2014).
While evidence supported the fact that institutions of higher learning historically
collaborated with industry partners to develop a variety of programs and initiatives to support
workforce demands, Shaffer (2015) asserted that alternative solutions were needed to stem the
widening scope of the workforce skills gap phenomenon. As such, scholars contended that many
higher education systems lacked the institutional capacity and know-how to make the
programmatic shifts required to balance academic integrity and rigor with skill-based learning to
offset the mismatch of skills described by Cappelli (2015). Therefore, the SCUE Business
Program staff needed to collaborate with industry and workforce partners to assess the
procedural knowledge required to garner the know-how to develop programs that align with
employers’ skill needs.
The mismatch of skills as examined by Cappelli (2015) contributed to the projected
workforce skills gap of 2025 and the problem of practice for leaders of higher education systems
to develop approaches to mitigating the gap. This problem of practice was not unnoticed by
private, for-profit and philanthropic sectors (Mitchell & Allen, 2014). The approach of relatively
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 35

new entrants into the deeper realm of the academy was described by Dyer (2011) as innovative,
novel, and scalable. New collaborations between non-profit organizations, venture capitalists,
policy makers and business across the United States emerged with frameworks that forged non-
traditional relationships with institutions of higher learning to create learning platforms to stem
workforce skills gaps (Lumina Foundation, 2013a).
In line with the perspectives of Cappelli (2015) on the role of higher education in
bridging the workforce skills gap, Shaffer (2015) and Bridgeland et al., (2011) demonstrated
strategies used by universities to leverage research, knowledge-intensive services, and
customized programs to mitigate skills gaps. Shaffer pointed to the significance of such
partnerships as a means of learning and engagement in knowledge creation and transfer to
develop innovative products, services, and programs that supported regional economic and
human capital development initiatives.
Therefore, to address employers’ unmet needs and align new programs with workforce
skill requirements, the SCUE Business Program staff needed to acquire procedural knowledge
from employers, workforce, economic, and industry partners and new entrants to meet the
stakeholder goal of developing five market-based certificate programs by 2019. As the staff
increased their knowledge of employers’ unmet needs and the understanding of how to utilize
knowledge of labor force and employer needs to develop market-based certificate programs they
felt more confident in their ability to accomplish the stakeholder goal, as shown in Table 2.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 36

Table 2
Stakeholder Goal and Knowledge Influence, Type and Assessment for Knowledge Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Organizational Mission
The vision for SCUE is to utilize education as a platform to transform lives, industries, and
societies on a global level. Underpinning the vision is the mission to create extraordinary
educational experiences for adult learners.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2019 the business program will develop at least five new market-based certificate
programs
Stakeholder Goal
By March 2018, the business program will develop a course list for two potential market-
based certificate programs that will launch before the end of 2019.

Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence
Assessment
• Academic staff need
knowledge of unmet
workforce and
employer needs and
skill requirements

• Academic staff need
to know how to utilize
knowledge of labor
force and employer
needs to develop
market-based
programs
• Declarative/Factual

• Procedural
• Academic staff will be
surveyed on
knowledge of current
and projected labor
force and employer
demands

• Academic staff will be
interviewed to
describe the program
development process

Motivation
For decades, scholars have linked theories of expectancy and self-efficacy to motivation
and performance. Scholarly research suggests that individual motivation had a profound impact
on performance. Clark (2003) posited that motivation both initiates and sustains goal-oriented
performance. Clark (2003) clarified the connection between motivation and performance in
noting that, while motivation impacted performance, it was motivation that drove an individual
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 37

to capitalize on the knowledge, skills, and capabilities to attain performance goals. The
conjecture of Clark and Estes (2008) expanded the debate on motivation and performance by
attributing internal influences to an individual’s ability to meet performance goals and
expectations. In like manner, Clark and Estes (2008) identified active choice, persistence, and
mental effort as drivers that initiate and sustain the motivation required to meet performance
goals. In connecting knowledge and motivation to performance, Pintrich (2003) asserted that
motivation was actualized and sustained by performance centered on goal-oriented actions. This
section discussed the assumed motivational constructs and influences relevant to the ability of
the SCUE Business Program staff to attain the stakeholder goal of developing market-based
programs that met employers’ workforce skill demands.
Expectancy Theory
Eccles (2006) posited that expectancy was a driver of motivation, particularly in
ascribing value to goal achievement. Eccles (2006) further noted that ascribed value coupled
with perceptions of positive outcomes were pivotal in inspiring motivation. However, interest
factors into the equation for both initiating and sustaining motivation. Shraw and Lehman (2009)
suggested that interest, personal, and situational relevance are necessary to maintain motivation.
The work of Clark and Estes (2008) expanded constructs on motivation by factoring in choice
and persistence as critical factors of motivation. In fact, Clark and Estes argued that active choice
significantly contributes to the persistence required for goal attainment. The persistence needed
for goal attainment underpinned the constructs of utility value and self-efficacy. Scholars assert
that utility value correlates with perceptions of relevancy and practicality as opposed to self-
efficacy which correlates with perceptions of aptitude and competence (Bandura, 2002). In
connecting persistence to goal attainment, Shraw and Lehman argued that utility value and self-
efficacy significantly informed the desires, beliefs, and perceptions of usefulness associated with
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 38

the actionable motivation required for goal attainment. What follows reviewed the assumed
influences that related to the motivation necessary for the SCUE Business Program staff to meet
the performance goal of developing new market-based programs aligned with workforce
demand.
Utility Value
The SCUE Business Program staff needed to see the utility value in developing market-
based certificate programs that align with workforce skill demands. Pintrich (2003) described
utility value as an individual’s perception of the usefulness of a given task. Pintrich (2003) also
argued that utility value driven by intrinsic motivation extended beyond the usefulness of a task
by connecting goal attainment to individual purpose and self-worth.
Therefore, the staff needed to ascribe value to developing programs that met the
workforce partners’ needs in the context of achieving the departmental performance goal and in
the context of how attainment (Pintrich, 2003) enriched their professional worth in the
department, institution, and higher education community. Moreover, the staff needed to see the
value in creating programs that met employers’ workforce skill needs in the backdrop of
mounting national disquiet around the need to integrate economic goals into academic missions
and to use labor force analytics to shape goals and programmatic priorities (Alssid, Goldberg, &
Schneider, 2011). Ultimately, the staff needed to ascribe value to their role as catalysts for
innovation and growth, as validated by the research of Shaffer (2015), in utilizing institutional
capabilities, research, and resources to attain the department’s performance goal while
developing programs that bridged workforce skills gaps.
Self-Efficacy Theory
While expectancy theory is rooted in value and perceived positive outcomes, self-efficacy
theory, on the other hand, is grounded in themes of confidence and competency. Pajares (2006)
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 39

intellectualized that self-efficacy laid the groundwork for positive beliefs about goal attainment
and fueled behaviors concomitant with successful outcomes. Therefore, self-efficacy is the belief
in one’s ability to achieve stated goals. The posits of Pajares aligned with the conjectures of
Bandura (2002) on the function of efficacy in advancing motivation for task completion and goal
attainment. The theories of Pajares and Bandura underpinned the work of Eccles (2006) on the
capacity of motivation to impact one’s beliefs and behaviors related to the attainment of goals
(Eccles, 2006).
Comparatively, Clark and Estes (2008) reasoned that motivation was a facilitator of
determination capable of circumventing persistent barriers to goal attainment. Self-efficacy,
according to Bandura (2002), was not only a facilitator of motivation and goal attainment but
also contributed to the self-regulation required to persist through goal completion.
Administrators’ self-efficacy played a significant role in the ability to collaborate with multiple
stakeholders and synthesize labor force, industry, and economic data into programs that met both
academic and employers’ workforce priorities. Therefore, it was vital that the SCUE Business
Program staff feel confident in their ability to attain the performance goal of developing new
market-based certificate programs that met the stakeholder partners’ needs.
Self-efficacy of SCUE staff. SCUE Business Program staff needed to feel confident in
their ability to develop market-based programs that met workforce demands. Research suggests
that wide-ranging innovative approaches by institutions of higher learning were needed to stem
widening workforce skills gaps (Shaffer, 2015). Examples abounded of collaborative and
innovative approaches to the workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025 between institutions of
higher learning, non-profit organizations, venture capitalists, policy makers and business across
the United States. According to the Lumina Foundation (2013a), models of such multi-industry,
collaborative partnerships provide insights into possible frameworks that aid institutions of
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 40

higher learning bridge the post-secondary workforce skills gap. Comparatively, Paytas, Gradeck,
and Andrews (2004) established that universities that built multidisciplinary frameworks
synthesizing educational attainment with workforce and industry skill demand evolved as
substantial contributors to both labor force and economic growth. Therefore, the staff needed to
feel confident in their ability to adapt to new paradigms related to the development of market-
based programs.
However, collaboration and synthesis across multiple entities as described by the Lumina
Foundation (2013a) could have challenged the self-efficacy of SCUE Business Program staff
unfamiliar with new paradigms around skill-based program development. Specifically, the self-
efficacy of the staff could have been tested in the context of the cognitive ability required to
apply and demonstrate mastery (Pajares, 2006) of workforce skill demands, instructional design
and practitioner focus in the development of new programs. Furthermore, the lack of institutional
social models as described by Pajares (2006) could have posed threats to the self-efficacy
required of the staff to attain the stakeholder performance goal.
The perspectives of Shaffer (2015), Paytas et al. (2004) along with Bartik and Erickcek
(2008) demonstrated the complexity required to align programmatic development with the needs
of multiple external stakeholders across the workforce and industry environments. Therefore, the
complexity of synthesizing innovative best practices, new learning, and credentialing models
from various industry partnerships could, as Sparks and Waits (2011) described, challenge the
staff members’ beliefs about capabilities and the capacity to effect change.
Scholarly literature suggests that the lack of self-efficacy and the ability to ascribe utility
value to tasks minimized motivation and performance to goal outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Therefore, it was imperative that the SCUE Business Program staff felt confident in their
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 41

abilities and ascribed value to leveraging the motivation needed to positively influence their
performance in developing new programs that meet employers’ skill needs as seen in Table 3.
Table 3
Stakeholder Goal and Motivational Influence and Assessment for Motivation Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The vision for SCUE is to utilize education as a platform to transform lives, industries, and
societies on a global level. Underpinning the vision is the mission to create extraordinary
educational experiences for adult learners.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2019 the SCUE Business Program will develop at least five new market-based certificate
programs
Stakeholder Goal
By March 2018, the SCUE Business Program will develop a course list for two potential
market-based certificate programs that will launch before the end of 2019.

Assumed Motivational Influences Motivational Influences Assessment
Utility Value: Administrators need to see the
value in developing market-based programs
Written survey item: How important is
developing curriculum and programs that
reflect the skills employers want?
Self-Efficacy: Administrators need to feel
confident in their ability to develop market-
based programs that meet the employer needs.
Interview Question: In what ways does the
academic staff demonstrate the ability and
know-how to translate industry, economic and
workforce needs and trends into new
programs?

Organizational Culture
Culture is the embodiment of the principles and practices that guide organizations in
attaining strategic goals or initiatives and in driving sustainable change efforts. In defining
organizational culture, many scholars, to include Schneider, Brief, and Guzzo (1996),
evangelized the meaning of organizational culture as a distillation of the fundamental values
perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes that influence organizational capacity, performance, and
profitability. However, acknowledging the complex nature of organizational culture and resultant
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 42

impacts on organizational performance, Watkins (2013) described the dynamism of culture as a
social control system with multiple layers and influences. The dynamism and multiplicity
described by Watkins (2013) often materialized as what Schneider et al. (1996) described as
schisms between culture and climate or practices and policies incongruent with the desired
culture or projected cultural change.
Schneider et al. (1996) emphasized that, although culture was representative of the
collective values and beliefs of organizational members and, therefore, esoteric, climate, on the
other hand, was observable, institutionalized and often compromised sustainable cultural change.
Nevertheless, Watkins (2013) provided a cautionary perspective for both leaders of organizations
shackled to institutionalized practices and policies that negatively influence and inhibit cultural
change and those that fail to adapt to shifting internal and external influences and environments.
Watkins posited that organizational leaders manage culture as a continuous process infused with
TOC and TQM methodologies advanced by Schneider et al. to develop sustainable cultures of
learning and development that supported overarching organizational goals, initiatives
performance, and competitive advantage.
The posits of Watkins (2013) on organizational culture and the blended TOC and TQM
approach to organizational culture and climate by Schneider et al. (1996) were particularly
relevant in the context of organizational culture and influences in higher education settings.
Research by Kezar (2001), a national expert on change and leadership in higher education
suggested that mounting pressures from internal and external forces challenged the traditional
foundation of the academy. Kezar (2001) argued that problems rooted in accountability,
technology, policy, enterprise and industry expectations require leaders in higher education to
develop responsive cultural models to positively influence institutional change aligned with 21st
century demands.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 43

The following review of literature focuses on the organizational influences associated
with the role of higher education in creating programs to bridge the projected workforce skills
gap of 2025 (Carnevale & Smith, 2013b). Specifically, the review is centered on the cultural
models and settings that influenced the SCUE Business Program staff members’ ability to attain
the performance goal of developing at least five new market-based certificate programs by 2019.
Cultural Models and Cultural Settings
Cultural models buttressed by the shared values, beliefs, and attitudes that define an
organization can serve as guideposts for sense-making and navigating normalized practices.
Acknowledging the influence of organizational culture on organizational performance, Schein
(2004) argued that culture laid the foundation for the development of norms, informal rules
practices, and policies. Schein further claimed that, in sizable organizations and institutions,
dominant cultures and sub-cultures often co-existed, resulting in the fragmentation of shared
beliefs and assumptions. While dominating cultural models were most distinguishable and
pervasive in organizational settings, members of sub-cultures may not share the same values and
beliefs that ultimately impact practices and performance (Zammuto & Krakower, 1991).
Research by Kezar (2001) acknowledged the multiplicity of culture in higher education settings.
Kezar found that the most common cultures in higher education were collegium, bureaucratic,
political, and anarchical models. Kezar described each cultural model as follows: (a) collegium
or culture based on faculty values, (b) bureaucratic or culture driven by administrative values, (c)
political or culture at the intersection of competing values, and (d) anarchical or cultural
ambiguity around power and structures. Adding to the complexity of identifying cultural models
in higher education, Kezar noted that the four cultural models were not static and manifested in
various combinations of predominance across institutions.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 44

Cultural Climate
Research by Kezar (2001) and Schein (2004) suggested that leaders in higher education
settings identified and understood the juxtaposition and fluid relationships across multiple
cultural continuums to assess relative influences on performance. However, the role of cultural
climate and cultural settings as influences on performance required consideration. Schein viewed
climate as an extension of understanding organizational culture. Schein defined climate as shared
feelings and sentiment about the organization’s infrastructure and atmospherics manifested by
how groups interacted with internal and external customers and stakeholders. Expounding on the
role of climate relative to organizational culture, Schneider et al. (1996) argued that climate was
a perceptual outcome based on the experiences of organizational members related to imposed
policies, practices, behaviors, and rewards. Therefore, the research of Schein and Schneider et al.
reinforced the connections between organizational culture, climate and performance and laid the
foundation for analyzing the role and influence of cultural settings on performance.
Cultural Setting
There was a direct relationship between cultural models, climate, and settings in the
context of organizational performance. Research suggests that culture in and of itself was
relatively invisible (Schein, 2004). Cultural climate, on the other hand, reveals the perceptions of
practices within an organization and illuminate cultural models. In comparison, cultural settings
materialized in the form of transparent social contexts within an organization (Schein, 2004).
According to Schneider et al. (1996) cultural settings explain sentiment and reveal organizational
constructs that serve as impediments to performance and goal attainment (Lunenburg, 2011).
Barriers to performance and goal achievement in the context of cultural settings include limited
resources and incentives (Ruben, 2014) lack of role models and burdensome practices and
policies. Exploring the relationships between cultural models and settings enables leaders of
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 45

educational systems to assess influences and impediments to both performance and achievement
of goals. What follows reviews the assumed cultural influences related to resistance to change
that impacted the SCUE Business Program staff members’ ability to meet the performance goal
of developing new market-based programs aligned with employers’ demands.
Cultural Model: Resistance to Change
Research suggests that institutions of higher learning engage in institutionalized
resistance to change. Agocs (1997) described institutionalized resistance as opposition embedded
across structures, processes and decision-making. Research by Kezar (2001) suggested that
resistance to change in higher education settings was attributable to collective authority,
organized rebellion, and polarized administrative and professional values. Agocs argued that
changing cultures embedded with resistance to change required an amalgam of skills,
knowledge, courage, and political acumen. Kezar posited that deeply embedded resistance to
change in institutions of higher learning would be challenged by imposing stakeholders and
policy makers as expectations for improved quality and outcomes continued to drive increased
levels of institutional accountability. The projected workforce skills gap of 2025 increases
concerns among new and traditional stakeholders about the role of higher education in
developing curriculum and programs that aid in bridging the skills gap (Carnevale et al., 2013).
The workforce skills gap is often described as a failure by institutions of higher learning to
transition from a focus on academic skills to the practical skills needed for the workforce
(McGuinness & Ortiz, 2016). Consequently, the impact of the changing workforce on
institutions of higher learning compels leaders of the academy to pursue strategies aimed at
research, knowledge acquisition, and curriculum development reflective of labor market jobs and
demands (Harrington & Sum, 2010).

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 46

Curriculum and Programmatic Change
According to Greenwood and Hinings (1996), political and regulatory pressures from
external environments and the advance of technological change faced by organizations require
that leaders of organizations engage in radical change and adaptation. Administrative leaders of
institutions of higher learning face the challenge of developing programs and curriculum that
meet the skill needs of workforce, economic, and industry partners (Carnevale & Smith, 2013b).
The problem of creating curriculum and programs aligned with market, workforce, economic and
industry needs (McLester & McIntire, 2006) requires change focused on the creation of balanced
skill-based and theoretical programs aligned with 21st century economies and labor market
demand (Shaffer, 2015). Furthermore, scholars assert that employment-focused curriculum
provides institutions with the opportunity to develop non-traditional cutting-edge programs that
challenge institutional norms and position universities to mitigate skills gaps and meet workforce
needs (Mourshed et al., 2012).
Research suggests that a significant number of universities in the United States fail to
provide students with the skills required for the workforce of the future (Kimmell & Martin,
2015). Scholars assert that the change required by institutions of higher learning include shifts to
real-world experiential learning and the development of academic programs representative of
regional and state workforce needs (Pavlin, 2014). Janeksela (2014) argued that, although
disruptive innovation in higher education and demands for higher levels of accountability to
workforce partners created trepidation across the professorate, colleges and university must align
programs with regional needs and state priorities and create micro programmatic strategies to
address current and future workforce skills gaps.
Spak (2013) described the trepidation and aversion to the type of change described by
Janeksela (2014) among academic leadership as a clash of cultural models and values among the
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 47

academy, industry partners, and business experts. The clash of cultural models and values often
manifest in the form of policy and practice impediments to change which compromise
engagement with industry partners (Janeksela, 2014). Furthermore, Janeksela (2014) posited that
strategies aimed at improving existing models of curriculum development and deepening
alliances between the academy and industry required shifts in cultural settings and were essential
to the role of academe in bridging workforce skills gaps (Ghaith & Diab, 2011). The goal of the
SCUE Business Program was to develop at least five new market-based certificate programs by
2019. The ability of the staff to mitigate negative cultural setting influences position the staff to
attain the stakeholder goal.
Cultural Setting: Lack of Expertise and Role Models
According to Mourshed et al. (2012), a significant number of institutions of higher
learning lacked the capability to develop and implement programmatic changes representative of
the emerging issues, applied skills and practices aligned with the needs of workforce and
industry partners to bridge the workforce skills gap (McGuinness & Ortiz, 2016). As such, many
institutions lack the expertise and role models among academic staff to develop programs that
meet the burgeoning needs of diverse stakeholders. Research suggests that, because of the
imbalance between theoretical and practical knowledge infused into current higher education
curriculum, a significant number of graduates are deficient in critical workforce skills employers
require (Hernández-March, Martín del Peso, & Leguey, 2009).
Cognizant of the relationship between expertise in program development and workforce
skills gaps, Casner-Lotto and Barrington (2006) advocated for the inclusion of strategies to
assess deficiencies in curricula and the incorporation of promising models using experiential,
business and workforce frameworks. However, Pharr (2000) recognized the lack of expertise and
role models to advance vital contemporary curricular development in higher education. Pharr
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 48

contended that the ability of institutions of higher learning to develop business curriculum
aligned with industry and workforce skill-based demands required leadership considerations
specific to attitudes, infrastructure and resources to support the development of multidisciplinary
expertise among administrative staff and faculty. Pharr further argued that a significant
percentage of faculty lacked the multidisciplinary expertise across broad domains of business to
develop curriculum inclusive of cross-functional interdependencies and emergent workforce skill
demands. The lack of multidisciplinary expertise in the business professorate (Pharr, 2000)
coupled with marginal curricular engagement between academics and industry partners
contribute to the lack of institutional role models and program development suited to minimizing
workforce skills gaps (Kar et al., 2013).
The projected workforce skills gap of 2025 poses a significant problem of practice for
leaders of institutions of higher learning and has overarching social, economic and workforce
implications (Carnevale & Smith, 2013a). Thus, many higher education institutions across the
United States have engaged in dynamic cultural change by collaborating with leading
technological, philanthropic and workforce organizations to develop faculty expertise and
facilitate industry collaboration to develop skill-based programmatic models that mirror
workforce, industry, economic and employer skill demands (Wilson, 2013). The approach to
cultural change described in research by Wilson (2013) and Kar et al. (2013) aligns with the
posits of Kezar and Eckel (2002) of utilizing staff development as an effective conduit for
cultural change in higher education setting. The facilitation of change around faculty
development and expertise (Kezar & Eckel, 2002; Phar, 2002) will moderate the cultural setting
(Schneider et al., 1996) and aid in the attainment of the business program goal of developing
market-based programs aimed at bridging the workforce skills gap as seen below in Table 4.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 49

Table 4
Stakeholder Influence Type and Assessment for Organizational Culture Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The vision for SCUE is to utilize education as a platform to transform lives, industries, and
societies on a global level. Underpinning the vision is the mission to create extraordinary
educational experiences for adult learners.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2019 the SCUE Business Program will develop at least five new market-based certificate
programs
Stakeholder Goal
By March 2018, the SCUE Business Program will develop a course list for two potential
market-based certificate programs that will launch before the end of 2019.

Assumed Organizational Influences

Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence
There is a culture of resistance to change
and working with industry, economic and
workforce partners to develop market-
based curriculum and programs

Written survey items to determine reasons for
resistance to change and aversion to working with
industry partners
Cultural Setting Influence
There is a lack of expertise and full-time
role models with the ability to develop
curriculum and programs that meet
industry, economic and workforce skill
needs
Interviews to explore expertise and capabilities
related to market-based programs aligned with
workforce needs

Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences related to the
achievement of the stated stakeholder goal reflected the potential for gaps in performance (Clark
& Estes, 2008) in developing programs that met employers’ skill-based needs. Achievement of
the stakeholder goal was dependent upon the ability of the SCUE academic staff to acquire and
apply the knowledge required to develop a minimum of five market-based programs.
Furthermore, the staff needed to muster and leverage the motivation linked to utility value and
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 50

self-efficacy to attain the stakeholder goal. Finally, the staff needed to assuage cultural
influences rooted in resistance to change and a lack of role models to move forward in
developing programs that met workforce skill demands.
Conclusion
This study addressed the perceived knowledge, motivation and organizational influences
that impacted the academic staff of the SCUE Business Program in attaining the performance
goal of creating at least five new market-based certificate programs by 2019. General literature
relating to the role of higher education in bridging the workforce skills gap was reviewed to
support the problem of practice. The assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences that impacted the achievement of the stakeholder goal aligned with theories and
related literature. A qualitative methodology incorporating surveys, interviews, and document
analysis was applied to validate assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational influences.
The validation process was described in Chapter Three of the study.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 51

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to explore the knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences required by institutions of higher learning to develop market-based programs aligned
with employer skill demands that contribute to mitigating the projected workforce skills gap
crisis of 2025. The project reflected a significant problem of practice facing institutions of higher
learning in the United States, as policy makers, employers and industry partners looked to the
academy for solutions in deterring negative labor force, economic and social impacts related to
the phenomenon (Carnevale & Smith, 2013a). The problem of practice was studied using the
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model to specifically explore the factors that contributed to
the SCUE academic staff members’ ability to create at least five new programs that met
employers’ skill demands. As such, the researcher, employed a qualitative single-case
methodology to explore the problem by juxtaposing scholarly substantiation against survey,
interview and documents collected from the SCUE academic staff.
Research Questions
Two research questions guided the study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational requirements for developing at
least five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill needs by 2019?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions required
to attain the goal?
Research Design
A qualitative approach was used to uncover the assumed knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences that contributed to the SCUE academic leadership staff members’
ability to attain its organizational performance goal. The appropriate qualitative design for this
study was case analysis. Case analysis is focused on the deep scrutiny of an individual or group
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 52

while addressing the how and why of a problem (Yin, 2017). Maxwell (2012) described case
analysis as an effective means of exploring phenomena related to organizations. Furthermore,
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) argued that single-case design was an effective means of examining
organizational programs and processes and of building strategies to mitigate impediments to
continuity.
The researcher first used a survey as a data collection tool to qualify interview
participants. The researcher subsequently used the results from the survey to inform the selection
of interview participants. The rationale for this approach was rooted in the research of Creswell
and Creswell (2017) which suggested that the qualitative data collected in the second phase of
the process yielded rich participant perceptions and experiences that provided in-depth insights
into the problem of study. In the context of this study and implications for practice, the
illustrative narrative derived from qualitative case inquiry provides deeper insights and relevance
for organizational leaders attempting to navigate the phenomenon of the workforce skills gap of
2025.
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders ’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
The application of conceptual frameworks, particularly in qualitative inquiry aids
researchers in framing interpretive constructs around theory (Maxwell, 2012). A review of the
literature suggested that qualitative researchers collect, analyze, and interpret research findings
through the lens of theories aligned with the problem of study, related literature and research
objectives. Maxwell (2012) expounded on the usage of conceptual frameworks by describing the
process as an amalgamation of assumptions, expectations, concepts, and beliefs underpinned by
relevant theory. Comparatively, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) posited that conceptual frameworks
played a pivotal role in explaining phenomena and context and in providing researchers with
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 53

purposeful guidance through the research process. However, Merriam and Tisdell cautioned that
researchers construct conceptual frameworks as opposed to attempting to find them. The essence
of Merriam and Tisdell’s juxtaposition of constructed versus found, was echoed by Maxwell.
Maxwell concluded that, although researchers engaged in scholarly appropriation, the
overarching structure, cadence, and rationality of a study was anchored in the development of an
overarching conceptual framework.
Clark and Estes Integration with KMO Model
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model guided this study. The Clark and Estes
(2008) model provided a systematic approach to evaluating organizational and stakeholder
performance goals in the context of apertures between goals and actual performance using
knowledge, motivation, and organizational culture influences as bedrocks. Arguably, knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences were elevated singularly as viable concepts of inquiry.
However, research by Krathwohl (2002), Eccles (2006) and Schein (2004) suggested that an
integrated evaluation of knowledge, motivation and organizational influences relative to goal
attainment provided a more comprehensive approach to analyzing problems of practice. The
problem of practice addressed in this study was the role of higher education in bridging the
projected workforce skills gap of 2025. Although Clark and Estes’ gap analysis model guided the
study, it integrated into a broader framework that included the relationship among knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences specific to purpose, research questions, and
methodology for the study. Specifically, the framework illustrated the extent to which the SCUE
Business Program was meeting the stakeholder goal of using programmatic strategies to bridge
workforce skills gaps. Figure 3 provides the conceptual framework that guided this study.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 54

Figure 3. KMO conceptual framework: Developing programs to bridge workforce skills gaps.
This customized conceptual framework represents the relationship among the problem of
practice, organizational influences in the context of cultural models and settings, the role of
factual and procedural knowledge, and motivation in attaining the stated stakeholder goal.
Specifically, the framework demonstrated that the SCUE Business Program staff needed to
acquire the factual and procedural knowledge necessary to develop new market-based programs
that met employers’ workforce skill demands. The staff needed to possess the self-efficacy or
belief in their capacity to develop market-based programs. However, the staff also needed to
couple self-efficacy with the ability to ascribe value around the purpose of creating market-based
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 55

programs. Finally, in harnessing the power of knowledge and motivation, the staff was
positioned to attain the performance goal.
Unit of Analysis and Participating Stakeholders
The unit of analysis was the business program within the continuing education division of
a public 4-year university located in Southern California. The division was the largest provider
of continuing education in the United States and served 40,000 students from the United States
and abroad. The business program had 13 distinct areas of focus in which it offered more than 30
certificate and series programs. The program’s academic staff, comprised of deans, directors,
managers, analysts, program representatives, and support staff, was the focus of this study.
Research for this study was conducted in the academic department.
Participating Stakeholders
To ensure research validity, participants must possess the requisite knowledge and
experiences that contribute to the collection of data reflective of the research topic and approach
(Maxwell, 2013). As such, the researcher engaged participant stakeholders that represented a
pool capable of providing insights and perspectives that supported the purpose and propositions
of this study. The stakeholder group of focus for this study was the SCUE Business Program
academic staff. For this study, the academic staff included deans, directors, managers, analysts,
program representatives, and coordinators responsible for contributing to the development,
execution, and evaluation of programs. The stakeholder group was comprised of 20 members of
staff.
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Participants must be SCUE Business Program academic staff
Criterion 2. Participants must be members of the academic staff charged with meeting
workforce skill-based program development
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 56

Criterion 3. Participants must be responsible for or involved in one or more of the
following functions: identification, analysis and feasibility of new market-based programs,
recruitment of workforce and industry partners to participate in program development, certificate
program development, launch and evaluation of market-based program outcomes.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Data collection for the study commenced with a survey to assess the level of involvement
in program development. The survey was used as a qualifier for qualitative interviews. All
members of the academic administrative staff with roles and responsibilities associated with the
attainment of the stakeholder goal of creating five new market-based programs by 2019 received
a survey. Therefore, the appropriate sampling strategy was one of clustering. Creswell and
Creswell (2017) described cluster sampling as a means of identifying and contacting clusters or
groups of individuals within an organization to sample. Three factors contributed to the rationale
of the clustering approach. The first factor was that the relative size of the academic
administrative staff was less than 25 and, therefore, did not constitute a sizeable population for
random sampling. The second factor was that all participants may not have responded to the
survey. As suspected, only 15 members of staff responded to the survey. The third factor was
that the researcher used the clustering approach as a means of critically identifying viable
participants for qualitative interviews. The researcher recruited participants through email and
used Survey Monkey surveys as the data collection tool.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Participants must be members of the academic administrative staff in the
SCUE Business Programs charged with developing market-based programs.
Criterion 2. Participants must have substantive involvement in new program
development.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 57

Criterion 3. Participants must have direct decision-making responsibility for selection of
five new programs to launch by 2019.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment Strategy and Rationale)
The qualitative data collection phase of the study focused on the usage of purposeful
sampling of individuals screened from the surveys. Interviews were conducted to garner insights,
perspectives, and behaviors which are otherwise undetectable (Patton, 2005). Administration of
interviews, as described by Patton, was based on the premise that participants possessed explicit
knowledge aligned with the research objective. According to Creswell and Creswell (2017), the
appropriate number of interviews for phenomenological studies ranges between three and ten
participants. Results from the surveys identified 11 members of staff with substantive
involvement with new program development. Therefore, the researcher identified seven
members of staff to participate in interviews based on the recommendations of Creswell and
Creswell for conducting qualitative interviews. The seven members of staff included a dean,
three program directors, two program managers and a marketing manager, based on their roles in
identifying and developing new programs. While the researcher solicited 11 members of staff in
to attain the aforementioned segmentation, due to a departmentwide restructuring effort, only
four members agreed to qualitative interviews.
To recruit participants, the researcher emailed participants qualified through the survey.
The interviewer employed a standardized open-ended question approach as described by
Creswell and Creswell (2017) and restricted interview times to 45 minutes. Interview questions
were focused on knowledge, motivation and organizational influences directly related to the
research focus of the study. The standardized open-ended question approach for this study
aligned with Patton’s (2005) posit of minimizing variations in questioning across participants to
ensure validity.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 58

Document Analysis Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Internal documents must provide insights specific to department strategic
goals, program requirements, development, and progress.
Criterion 2. External documents must provide insights specific to the alignment of new
programs with workforce and employer skill demands.
Document Analysis Criterion and Rationale
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) asserted that documentary analysis as a form of data
collection was like the process of collecting data from qualitative interviews in that the
researcher must be open to discovering new insights and themes that arise during the analysis
process. Yin (2014) asserted that data analysis was an appropriate data collection approach for
case analysis associated with exploring phenomena. Furthermore, the approach to data analysis
was led by the overarching research questions and by the intellectual curiosity of the researcher
and the emergence of valuable topics and themes related to the research topic. Merriam and
Tisdell noted that, in addition to identifying documents that aligned with the research study,
researchers mind the relevancy and authenticity of all documents. Therefore, the researcher
established selection criteria based on the following: (a) history of document, (b) document
completeness, (c) the purpose and relevancy, (d) origin of sources used by authors, and (e)
primary or secondary sourcing (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
According to Bowen (2009) data analysis requires the process of locating, selecting,
assessing and amalgamating content that must be organized, themed and categorized for
interpretive analysis to uncover insights and meaning. Since document analysis, according to
Bowen, can be used as a means of providing background information, historical perspective and
for tracking change and development unique to organizational projects, the researcher selected
documents that contained rich sources of data. The researcher selected a combination of
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 59

electronic and hardcopy publicly available and internal documents and physical evidence
provided by the SCUE Business Program Director. Documents were (a) strategic plans; (b)
economic, industry, and employment reports; and (c) email and memo program proposals and
updates as demonstrated in Table 5 below.
Table 5
Sampling of Documents for Data Analysis
Selected Documents Purpose of Analysis
SCUE 2015-2019 Strategic Plan Confirm Strategic Goals, Initiatives &
Actions
SCUE Business Program Department Email
& Memo Updates
Department updates, New Program
development
2015-2020 Los Angeles County Economic
Development Corporation Institute for
Applied Economics: Los Angeles: People,
Industry & Jobs Report
Relationship between program development
& alignment & industry sector growth

Data Collection and Instrumentation
Selecting the appropriate data collection technique is critical to a researcher’s ability to
analyze data, protect validity and reliability, and intellectualize research findings. This study
employed a qualitative approach to explore the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that influenced the development of market-based programs aligned with workforce and
employer needs. According to Yin (2017), to ensure validity and reliability in qualitative case
analysis, at least two sources of data are required. Therefore, three sources of data were used for
this study. This three-pronged approach to data collection provided the researcher with a
thorough means of evaluating the problem of practice.
The researcher initially deployed a survey to gather qualifying data from participants,
which was used to identify viable interview participants. Data from the survey provided context
for the selection of interview participants based on their involvement in developing new
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 60

programs aligned with market and employer needs. In addition to surveys, semi-structured
interviews using open-ended questions were used to collect insights, experiences, and
perspectives related to the objectives of this study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The researcher
was cognizant of the fact that, due to the small number of program staff, the blend of surveys and
qualitative interviews did not represent a mixed-methods approach to inquiry, but, rather, aided
in assembling the most viable participants for qualitative interviews. Therefore, amalgamating
survey data and qualitative interviews enabled the researcher to investigate, explore and view
data (Yin, 2014) that provided multilayered insights into the stakeholder group for this study.
Finally, document analysis was used as a form of data collection and aid in triangulating data to
support research credibility. As such, document analysis consisted of a combination of public
records, institutional documents and physical evidence (O’Leary, 2014) to assess processes and
procedures related to the development of new market-based programs. Analyzed documents
were in both electronic and hardcopy formats.
Survey
Data collection began with a survey that served as a qualitative questionnaire. A
clustering sampling strategy (Creswell & Creswell, 2017) was employed for the survey as a
means of identifying groups of individuals within the department for qualitative interviews. The
rationale for this approach was supported by the diminutive number of staff, merely 20
employees, within the business department. Furthermore, the clustering strategy enabled the
researcher to isolate and query members of the department specific to roles and responsibilities
while reserving qualitative interviews for members with substantive responsibility for developing
new programs.
Surveys were administered using Survey Monkey software. Participant names, titles, and
email addresses were obtained from the department dean. The researcher emailed a link to the
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 61

survey to participants informing them of the purpose of the survey, their respective role in the
study, and the timeline for completion. The survey was available for participants for a maximum
of 21 days. The researcher ensured content and construct validity (Maxwell, 2012) of the 10
survey items by aligning survey questions with Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework,
study research questions and conceptual framework centered on knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that contributed to goal attainment. The researcher ensured reliability
by juxtaposing survey data with qualitative interviews in the second phase of data collection
(Maxwell, 2013).
Interviews
Qualitative interviews enable researchers to collect rich data specific to the perceptions
and experiences of participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Qualitative interviews commenced
after the administration of surveys. Purposeful sampling, commonly used for interviews in
qualitative case analysis (Creswell, 2014), was based on survey results. Interviews were informal
and conducted to garner insights, perspectives, and behaviors which are otherwise undetectable
(Patton, 2005). Administration of interviews, as described by Patton (2005), was based on the
premise that participants possessed explicit knowledge aligned with the research objective. The
researcher approached this data collection method using semi-structured interviews laced with
open-ended questions. According to Creswell (2014) the use of semi-structured interviews for
case analysis was an effective means of capturing data specific to the research topic, while
allowing for the emergence of insights that further informed and enriched research findings.
A pool of 11 qualified interview participants were identified by survey results. The
researcher identified seven potential interview participants in line with the posits of Creswell
(2013) regarding qualitative interview sample size. Furthermore, the seven members of staff
identified for interviews represented those with the most decision-making authority specific to
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 62

the launch of new programs. However, during the time of data collection, the department was
undergoing a restructuring effort, and this compromised the desire of some staff members to
participate in interviews. As such, four members of staff participated in qualitative interviews in
roles as dean, program director, and program manager.
Due to participants’ time constraints, they were interviewed once for 45 minutes by
phone. The researcher solicited involvement through email for qualified participants. Interview
questions were focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences directly related
to the attainment of stakeholder goal of developing new market-based programs. This approach
supported the conceptual framework and allowed the researcher to capture insights and
perceptions about the department’s role in bridging workforce skills gaps and in developing
market-based programs focused on employers’ skill demands. The standardized open-ended
question approach for this study aligned with Patton’s (2005) posit of minimizing variations in
questioning across participants to ensure validity. In line with the recommendations of Creswell
(2013) to ensure validity, the researcher first pilot-tested questions with colleagues in separate
higher education institutions. Pilot-testing aided in identifying barriers in the protocol and served
as a means of pre-testing to fine-tune questions prior to actual participant interviews (Maxwell,
2012). Interviews were conducted by phone and took place over a 2-week period.
Documents and Artifacts
According to Yin (2014), document analysis used in conjunction with case analysis is an
efficient way of gathering insights to support research objectives. In this context, documents
provided historical insight and context into understanding the culture associated with the
participant group. However, the use of documents as a data collection method requires that
researchers seek out documents that support the research topic and conceptual framework
(Maxwell, 20132). In this context, the researcher selected documents that provided meaning and
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 63

texture to the study while allowing considerations for emergent themes that emerged from the
analysis (Yin, 2014).
To ensure validity and reliability, the researcher defended document choices by deeply
reviewing, deciphering context, and justifying alignment and relevancy with research objectives.
The researcher also keenly extracted and analyzed relevant themes and latent content within the
context of selected documents (Creswell, 2015). The researcher also adhered to the arguments of
O’Leary (2014) by making considerations for the diversity and quantity of selected documents.
Document analysis consisted of internal and public records and physical evidence
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2015) to assess processes and procedures related to the development of new
market-based programs. Specifically, documents were (a) strategic plans, which outlined the
stakeholder goal, obtained from the university website; (b) department and emails and memos,
which provided insights into program development progress, obtained from the department dean;
and (d) industry and workforce development reports, which provided statistical data specific to
employment industry, sector, and workforce demands, obtained online.
Data Analysis
Survey results were analyzed in the context of the roles and responsibilities of
respondents that represented substantive responsibility for the development, implementation, and
evaluation of new program development. The department was comprised of 20 staff members
with a range of positions from associate dean to program directors, program managers,
marketing and business managers, and support staff. The researcher reviewed summary results to
identify 11 staff members for qualitative interviews. The researcher subsequently reviewed the
surveys of all 11 respondents to verify that roles of dean, program director, program manager,
and marketing manager were the roles with the most influence and responsibility for the
development of new programs.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 64

Qualitative interviews were recorded, transcribed, coded, and themed. The researcher
used open coding and used the priori method to tie coding to the conceptual framework of the
study. The researcher also engaged in emergent coding, which allowed for the emergence of
nonprioritized codes that surfaced from interview data. Throughout the process, an analytic
memo was used to facilitate interpretations, reactions, and connections between interviews and
other data sources. Subsequently, the researcher used axial coding to identify relationships
between codes. Next, the researcher identified patterns and themes that emerged that aligned
with the research questions and the conceptual framework for the study. For document analysis,
the researcher engaged in the same process used for qualitative interviews. However, the process
was applied to six separate documents: a strategic plan, industry and workforce development
reports, and three SCUE internal email and memo documents. Data from surveys, qualitative
interviews, and document analysis were collectively synthesized for the development of findings
for this study.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2015), credibility and trustworthiness are inextricably
linked to the steadfastness of the researcher. Merriam and Tisdell asserted that the nature of
qualitative research was such that the credibility and ethical behavior of the researcher correlate
with the trustworthiness of research. Merriam and Tisdell further argued that embedded in the
hallmarks of qualitative research were reliability, credibility, dependability, and transferability.
Moreover, Creswell (2013) posited that establishing trustworthiness in case analysis occurred
through protracted engagement, peer debriefing, triangulation and the collection of rich data
from participants. To that end, the researcher adhered to confidentiality protocols to protect the
identity of participants and the participant organization. Throughout the research process the
researcher reviewed the literature for new and emergent scholarly work associated with the
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 65

research topic (Maxwell, 2013). Yin (2013) posited that triangulation fortified reliability and
validity in qualitative case design. Therefore, the researcher triangulated data from participant
surveys, interviews, and document analysis to lay the foundation for research reliability and
validity.
In the process of data analysis, the researcher assumed the role of a collection tool
(Merriam, 2013). Miles and Huberman (2014) outlined a strategic approach to qualitative data
analysis. The approach proposed by Miles and Huberman was comprised of nine steps to lead
researchers through the process of data analysis and identified three options for coding: (a) open,
(b) broad, and (c) pattern coding. Additional guidelines for the process of analysis described by
Miles and Huberman included the creation of notes, theme extraction, summarization, and
proposition development. Therefore, the researcher used open coding to capture concepts and
themes from transcripts. Open coding was used to code and group data thematically. This
approach facilitated the emergence of unanticipated insights and perspectives (Creswell, 2014).
The researcher used member checking to ensure accuracy in data coding and thematic analysis
(Miles & Huberman, 2014). According to Creswell (2013), peer debriefing is an effective means
of ensuring accurate data analysis. To further support rigorous data analysis, the researcher used
peer debriefing to enrich reliability and validity of data analysis and research findings. The
researcher consulted industry and higher education peers with expertise in program development,
instructional design, and workforce skills development.
The researcher acknowledged the interpretative nature of qualitative research and
remained cognizant of the propensity to infuse personal biases into analysis and, therefore,
worked to mitigate this inherency to ensure confirmability. The researcher mitigated bias in the
research process by engaging in what Creswell (2014) referred to as reflexivity. Reflexivity
allowed the researcher to reduce bias through the process of reflection and examination of self
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 66

and the relative relationship to the research process, participants, and participant organization
(Merriam and & Tisdell, 2015).
Finally, to avoid threats to validity rooted bias, the researcher fully disclosed potential
researcher prejudice related to the researcher’s role as an instructor at the university, former
experience and background in corporate executive leadership, and current role as a human capital
and professional development consultant to avoid confirmation bias (Creswell, 2014) in research
analysis and interpretation. Creswell (2014) described confirmation bias, one of the most
pervasive forms of researcher bias, as the potential to influence data interpretation through one’s
experiences and perceptions. Therefore, the researcher worked to mitigate the propensity to lean
towards themes that emerged as a means of confirming existing beliefs and perceptions about the
roles and accountabilities of higher education in developing programs that bridge workforce
skills gaps by continuously challenging preexisting assumptions and reassessing participant
responses and related evidence.
Validity and Reliability
Although qualitative research is not focused on validity and reliability in the same
context as quantitative research, Merriam and Tisdell (2015) argued that credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirmability were viable substitutional constructs for
qualitative research. Furthermore, Merriam and Tisdell asserted that conscientious data
collection analysis, interpretation, and presentation, irrespective of the method of inquiry,
addressed issues of research validity and reliability. On the other hand, Merriam and Tisdell
explained external reliability in the qualitative context as the ability of other researchers to arrive
at the same research findings or conclusion using the same methodological construct.
Therefore, the researcher used peer debriefing to ensure accuracy in data collection,
review and interpretation. Furthermore, the researcher thoroughly analyzed data to uncover all
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 67

related themes and patterns and establish appropriate relationships related to the research
question and purpose of the study. Additionally, the researcher re-evaluated coding and themes
after each interview to assess the emergence of new themes, codes, or patterns (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2015). The researcher also used peer debriefing specific to data collection, analysis,
interpretation, and subsequent research conclusions (Miles and & Huberman, 2014).
Credibility, objectivity, and transferability support validity in qualitative research.
According to Creswell (2013), credibility is established in qualitative research by ensuring
accuracy in data collection and analysis. Analyzing multiple data sources affords researchers the
opportunity to triangulate data to support validity in research findings (Creswell, 2013). The
researcher used participant surveys, interviews, and document analysis for triangulation. In line
with Yin’s (2013) perspective on credibility, the researcher engaged in frequent comparative
analysis of data to capture relevant and emergent themes. According to Merriam (2013), the
collection of rich descriptive data aids in the process of facilitating research transferability. The
aim of transferability for this study was for the reader to be able to view the research findings
through the lens of the lived experiences of participants.
Consequently, the researcher used a survey instrument to accurately identify qualitative
interview participants with substantive responsibility for new program development. The
researcher used qualitative interviews to explore the perspectives and experiences of participants
relative to goal attainment. The researcher used document analysis as a means of verifying that
stakeholders were developing programs that aligned with market and employer skill demands.
Yin (2013) referred to this approach as the development of multiple chains of evidence to
support or validate research findings. Finally, since qualitative research cannot be generalized, it
is important for researchers to ensure that research findings are reliable and valid. Therefore,
through the three data sources, triangulation, and peer debriefing, the researcher established
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 68

reliability and validity that can be evidenced by research replication that yields similar outcomes
(Merriam, 2013).
Ethics
The focus of this study was to explore the knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences that could affect the ability of the SCUE academic staff to attain the performance goal
of creating five new market-based certificate programs by 2019. The SCUE performance goal
aligned with the problem of practice facing many institutions of higher learning across the
United States described by Carnevale and Smith (2013a) as the anticipated workforce skills gap
of 2025. The workforce skills gap is a phenomenon with the potential of negative reverberations
through institutions of higher learning, industries, and employers (Carnevale & Smith, 2013b).
In the context of ethical research, Merriam and Tisdell (2009) asserted that in, qualitative
research, the propensity for ethical dilemmas often evidenced in the realm of data collection and
findings. Therefore, it is critical that researchers demonstrate a commitment to ethics guided by
the doctrines of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice outlined in the Belmont Report
(United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1979). Basic ethical principles
described in the Belmont Report (United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
1979) included considerations of respect, mitigation of harm or injury, and fairness and equality.
To insure no harm to participants as described by Maxwell (2012), the researcher
submitted a research proposal to the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review
Board for approval before collecting research. Once approved, the researcher contacted the
SCUE Business Program Director for email contact lists. The researcher then emailed the
academic staff explaining the purpose of the study, participant selection criteria, and appropriate
timelines.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 69

According to Glesne (2011), informed consent requires that the researcher inform
participants that participation is both voluntary and without reprisal. Glesne (2011) further
posited that it is the responsibility of the researcher to protect the identity of participants.
Participants were informed that confidentiality and identity were preserved through the use of
pseudonyms. Since the second phase of data collection involved qualitative interviews, the
researcher contacted selected interview participant through email and included an explanation of
the purpose of the study, participant selection criteria, length, time and location of interviews and
commentary explaining risks associated with participation.
The researcher ensured that participants engaged in informed consent and understood the
confidential and voluntary nature of the study prior to the commencing interviews. The
researcher complied with the requirements of anonymity and informed consent described by
Glesne (2011) and provided interview participants with a consent form before interviews. The
consent form included as Exhibit A informed subjects that participation was both confidential
and voluntary. The researcher further informed participants that the interview could be
terminated at any time without risk and that they reserved the right to not answer any questions.
To ensure understanding, the researcher also read and recorded the contents of the consent form
at the beginning of all interviews.
Research participants were also informed of the survey, interview, and document analysis
methods of data collection. Participants were informed of audio recording and the right to edit or
delete recordings. The statement also informed participants that the information collected from
the study would be confidentially preserved on a password-protected hard drive for a period of 3
years. All research was conducted by phone. Although the researcher did not provide incentives
to participants, the researcher stated that participation contributed to the body of scholarly
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 70

knowledge on the role of higher education in creating programs and strategies aimed at bridging
the projected workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025.
The researcher is an adjunct instructor for the institution selected for this study. As a
higher education instructor with a multidisciplinary industry and academic background, and
professional development consultant, the researcher had a personal and professional concern
about the role of higher education in bridging the workforce skills gaps. As a life-long resident of
Southern California, the analytic interest of the researcher was piqued, as it relates to workforce
and economic outcomes related to education and regional workforce and economic outcomes.
Because of the close intellectual, geographic, employment, and economic proximity of the
researcher, the ability to mitigate bias was critical. According to Glesne (2011), qualitative
researchers must be cognizant of personal biases that might influence analysis, interpretation,
and evaluation of research results. Therefore, the researcher guarded against what Creswell
(2014) described as confirmation bias. Creswell posited that confirmation bias, one of the most
pervasive forms of researcher bias, had the potential to influence data interpretation through
one’s experiences and perceptions. Therefore, the researcher worked to mitigate the propensity to
lean towards themes that emerged as a means of confirming existing beliefs and perceptions
about the roles and accountabilities of higher education in developing programs that bridged
workforce skills gaps by continuously challenging preexisting assumptions and reassessing
participant responses and related evidence.
Summary
Chapter Three presented the methodological framework for exploring the knowledge,
motivation and organizational factors that influenced the academic staff of the SCUE Business
Program in attaining the performance goal of creating at least five new market-based certificate
programs by 2019. The qualitative case analysis approach employed a qualitative survey,
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 71

qualitative interviews, and document analysis to provide an in-depth exploration of the factors,
perceptions, and experiences of participants that contributed to developing market-based
programs that met employers’ skill needs and aided in bridging workforce skills gaps related to
the projected workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025. In Chapter Four, the performance of the
SCUE Business Program staff in relationship to stakeholder goal attainment was assessed using
data collected through qualitative surveys, interviews, and document analysis. Chapter Five
explores research findings and proposed research-based recommendations for the problem of
practice.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 72

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to evaluate factors that contributed to the development of
curriculum and programs that aligned with employers’ workforce demands and mitigated
workforce skills gaps. Specifically, this study sought to explore knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that contributed to the attainment of the stakeholder goal of creating at
least five new market-based programs by 2019. Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO (knowledge,
motivation, and organization) gap analysis model was used to identify ways that organizational
performance could be improved. The conceptual framework that underpinned this study
examined specific KMO influences that supported goal attainment. Two research questions
guided the study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational requirements for developing at
least five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill needs by 2019?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions required
to attain the goal?
This chapter provides an overview of findings categorized by assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational causes as defined by the KMO framework developed for this
study and discussed in Chapter Three. A qualitative methodology was used for this study. Three
data sources, a survey, qualitative interviews, and document analysis, were used to validate
assumed causes. The survey was used to identify interview participants with the most influence
over the development of new programs. Qualitative interviews were conducted to provide
insights into the program development process. Document analysis, the third data source, was
used to validate the alignment of the new program development process with the SCUE 2015–
2019 Strategic Plan, SCUE email and memo updates, and the 2016-2017 Los Angeles Economic
Development Corporation (LAEDC) Economic Forecast and Industry Outlook report.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 73

Participating Stakeholders
The first step in the data collection process involved collecting survey data. The purpose
of the survey was to identify appropriate interview participants. All 20 members of the academic
staff were solicited to complete the survey. Fifteen surveys were completed, representing roles
from program representative to department dean. Eleven members of staff were identified for
qualitative interviews based on substantive involvement in new program development. The 11
members of staff identified for interviews held positions as dean, program director, program
manager and marketing manager. All were solicited for qualitative interviews. Ideally, the
researcher would select seven for qualitative interviews. However, four agreed to participate in
qualitative interviews. Qualitative interview participants represented the department’s most
critical roles responsible for new program development and stakeholder goal attainment. The
third step in the data collection process involved document analysis of internal and external
documents as a means of triangulating data findings. The resistance to completing surveys and
participating in qualitative interviews was attributed to the fact that, during the time of data
collection, the department was in the process of a restructuring effort that extended through the
end of 2017. As such, despite additional assurances about confidentiality, uncertainty about
future roles appears to have contributed to lower response and participation rates.
Survey Results
The purpose of the survey was to identify potential interview participants and ascertain
which members of staff were substantively responsible and accountable for the development,
implementation, and evaluation of new programs. The department was comprised of 20 staff
members with a range of positions from associate dean, to program directors, program managers,
marketing and business managers to support staff. The organizational structure of the department
included staff members with both academic and operational program portfolio responsibilities,
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 74

which complicated the identification of responsibilities and accountabilities exclusively by title
or position. Therefore, the survey enabled the researcher to identify qualitative interview
participants who could provide the most insights on new program development and related
stakeholder goal attainment. Fifteen surveys were completed, which represented a 75%
completion rate. Respondents were queried about roles and responsibilities related to (a) program
identification, (b) program portfolio analysis, (c) market research, (d) coordination of program
implementation, (e) recruitment of workforce partners, and (f) launch and evaluation of program
outcomes (Appendix A).
Interviewees were selected using the purposeful sampling method described by Creswell
(2014) for case analysis. Selection for qualitative interviews was determined based on each
respondent’s level of responsibility for development, implementation, and evaluation of new
programs; with a goal of identifying those with the highest levels of such responsibility. Seven
participants were identified as candidates for qualitative interviews. They held roles as dean,
program director, program manager and marketing manager. The survey collected data about
respondent’s beliefs regarding the role of higher education in bridging workforce skills gaps, the
need for programmatic alignment of in-demand skills and the cultural setting of the department.
These data were not of interest to the researcher from a quantitative perspective, but were, rather,
as a means of gauging the pulse of the department and identifying potential areas within the
qualitative interview to delve deeper for greater understanding and insights. Table 6 below
illustrates survey response and qualitative interview participant selection based on new program
development, implementation and evaluation responsibilities.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 75

Table 6
Survey Response and Qualitative Interview Selection Criteria
Title Number
of
Responses
Program
Development
Program
Implementation
Program
Evaluation
Administrative
and
Analytic
Support
Qualitative
Interview
Dean
Associate
Dean
1 Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Program
Director
3 Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Program
Manager
2 Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Marketing
Manager
1 Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Business
Manager
1 No No Yes Yes No
Program
Representative
4 No No No Yes No
Program
Assistants
3 No No No Yes No

Qualitative Interview Results
The purpose of the qualitative interviews was to explore the experiences and perceptions
of the SCUE administrative staff relative to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences required to attain the stakeholder goal of developing new market-based programs. A
purposive sampling method was used to select participants (Creswell, 2014). Participants were
selected based on substantive responsibility for the development, implementation, and evaluation
of new programs. Therefore, based on the results of the survey, the associate dean, program
director, program managers, and marketing manager positions were identified for interviews.
Eleven staff members within the four position categories were solicited for qualitative
interviews. The objective was to interview seven participants, with representation across each
position category. Four solicited for interviews agreed to participate. Interview participants were
a dean, three program directors, and one program manager as demonstrated below in Table 7.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 76

Table 7
Qualitative Interview Solicitation and Participants
Position Number of
Positions in
Department
Solicited for
Interviews
Proposed
Purposive
Sample
Actual Interview
Participants
Associate Dean 1 1 1 1
Program
Director
5 5 3 2
Program
Manager
4 4 2 1
Marketing
Manager
1 1 1 0
Total 11 11 7 4

Despite multiple attempts to solicit interview participants, only four members of staff
agreed to qualitative interviews. At the time of data collection, the department was engaged in a
restructuring effort, evidence of which emerged in qualitative interviews in line with the 2015-
2019 College of Continuing Education Strategic Plan. The planned restructuring would shift
reporting structures and roles within the department and require some members of staff to
interview for a limited number of remaining positions. Therefore, the most likely explanation for
the curtailed interview participation rate was apprehension related to perceived uncertainty about
restructuring outcomes. Although only four members of staff participated in qualitative
interviews, the number was deemed sufficient for this study and represented participants with the
most essential responsibilities and accountabilities for archiving the stakeholder goal.
Qualitative Interview Findings
This section reviews the findings from the qualitative interviews. The section begins with
a list of each theme with the corresponding research question and KMO assumed influence. The
section concludes with thematic findings and participant insights supported by scholarly
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 77

literature and associated KMO assumed influences identified in Chapter Two. The alignment and
validation of assumed KMO influences is discussed in further detail later in Chapter Four.
Qualitative Interview Themes
Merriam and Tisdell (2015) posited the importance of ascribing meaning to themes
garnered from qualitative interviews that align with overarching research questions. Qualitative
interviews also enable researchers to collect rich data specific to the perceptions and experiences
of participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Themes were identified by the researcher’s inference,
the exact words of participants and scholarly literature (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore,
themes aligned with the research topic, problem of practice, and research questions that guided
the study. Five themes that emerged from the qualitative interviews:
1. Continuing Education must develop programs to mitigate skills gaps
2. Acquiring knowledge to develop programs requires a comprehensive approach
3. Staff needs complex interdisciplinary skills to develop new programs
4. Resource shortages frequently stall new program implementation
5. System-wide restructuring supports new model to meet skill demands
The alignment of interview themes with the research questions that guided the study along with
related KMO influences is illustrated below in Table 8. Each theme is discussed in depth below.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 78

Table 8
Alignment of Qualitative Interview Themes with Research Questions and KMO Influences
Qualitative Interview Themes Alignment with Research
Questions
KMO Influence
1.Continuing Education must
develop programs to mitigate
skills gaps

Research Question 1: What are
the knowledge, motivation and
organizational requirements for
developing at least five new
market-based programs by
2019?
Motivational Value

2. Acquiring knowledge to
develop programs requires a
comprehensive approach

Research Question 1: What are
the knowledge, motivation and
organizational requirements for
developing at least five new
market-based programs by
2019?
Factual Knowledge
3. Staff needs complex
interdisciplinary skills to
develop new programs

Research Question 1: What are
the knowledge, motivation and
organizational requirements for
developing at least five new
market-based programs by
2019?
Procedural Knowledge
4. Resource shortages
frequently stall new program
implementation

Research Question 2: What are
the recommended knowledge,
motivation and organizational
solutions required to attain the
goal?

Organizational Culture
and Setting

5.System-wide restructuring
supports new model to meet
skill demands:

Research Question 2: What are
the recommended knowledge,
motivation and organizational
solutions required to attain the
goal?
Organizational Culture
and Setting

1. Continuing education must develop programs to mitigate skills gaps. The first
theme that emerged was related to the role that higher education plays in bridging workforce
skills gaps. Selection of the theme was supported by the scholarly work of Friedman (2016).
Freidman argued that failing to create learning and skill-based programs that aligned with
employers’ needs compromises the ability of institutions of higher learning to mitigate existing
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 79

and future skill gaps. Moreover, Walshok (2012) asserted that professional development and
skilling-up fell within the domain of colleges of continuing education. While this theme could be
perceived as an obvious paradigm or assertion, the theme represented the pulse of the problem of
practice in the context of accountability across the entire public higher education system.
Research by Carnevale and Smith (2013b) suggested that mitigating the projected skills gap
crisis of 2025 required the development of strategies to skill-up the workforce at community
college, state college, and state university levels. Therefore, increased accountability and focus is
required by colleges of continuing education to ensure the relevancy of programs in supporting
the ability of workers to skill-up in the wake of the crisis.
Participant responses consistently revealed an awareness of the projected workforce skills
gap phenomenon of 2025 and of the impact of the crisis on the state of California and the Los
Angeles regional market. This was evidenced by responses to the interview question as to what
they believed was the role that higher education plays in developing programs and strategies to
bridge workforce skills gaps and by their connections to specific programmatic accountabilities
for colleges of continuing education.
All participants mentioned that students enrolled in continuing education programs for
skill acquisition to improve career outcomes. Participant 1 stated, “We know that most of our
students coming to us are either in a career change mode or looking to advance their current
career.” Reinforcing the theme, Participant 3 stated, “We’re not educating our workforce, our
community members as quickly as they need to be in order to be prepared for jobs of the future.”
Conversely, while the responsibility of higher education and, specifically, that of colleges of
continuing education consistently emerged, participants reasoned that higher education was not
the panacea for the approaching skills gap crisis. Participant 3 stated, “We have tremendous
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 80

needs that go well beyond my own department in terms of how we create value, basically to help
people be qualified to be successful candidates for almost any job.”
In the final analysis, participants affirmed the theme that colleges of continuing education
played a significant role in developing programs that mitigate workforce skills gaps and serve as
platforms for professional development, skilling-up, and regional workforce development. The
theme, “Continuing Education Must Develop Programs to Mitigate Skills Gaps” both hinges on
the foundation of the first research question and supports the KMO assumed influence of the
utility value of motivation. An analysis and validation of KMO assumed motivational influences
is discussed later in this chapter.
2. Acquiring knowledge to develop programs requires a comprehensive approach.
The second theme that emerged was related to the process of acquiring the knowledge to create
market-based programs. The theme was supported by the research of Wilson (2013) that suggests
the use of a broad collaborative strategy for acquiring knowledge to develop programs that meet
employers’ skill needs and mitigate the impact of workforce skills gaps.
Participants consistently described the process of acquiring the knowledge to identify and
develop new programs as comprehensive and multi-faceted. Participants described engagement
with internal and external marketing research departments, advisory board members, adjunct
faculty, regional subject-matter experts, staffing firms, employers, and economic, industry, and
workforce development agencies.
In describing the process, participants used words and phrases such as “multiple
sources,” “complex,” “several descriptors,” “demonstrable research requirements,” and “tied to
trends and growth.” Collectively, participants continually referred to a process that was multi-
tiered and that required stitching and synthesizing large amounts of qualitative and quantitative
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 81

data to, as Participant 4 described, “build the infrastructure for a new program.” Participant 2,
who was responsible for a program portfolio comprised of five disciplines stated,
If there is a new area of growth where we project that there will be a growth in
employment and or new skills that are going to be necessary for the existing work
population, we then go about examining the types of skills that will be needed and then
go about creating programs in that way.
Participants also described a systematic process to ensure programmatic relevancy that weaved
market research and hiring trends with feedback from professional associations and instructors. It
is noteworthy to include the fact that participants viewed economic, industry, and workforce
development agencies such as the Bureau of Labor and Statistics and Workforce Development
Agencies as antiquated sources of knowledge on labor force projections. The preferred source of
job growth and skill needs were economic, workforce, and industry forecasts developed by the
LAEDC. Details of how LAEDC reports were used is discussed in the document analysis section
of this chapter.
In summary, participants affirmed the theme that acquiring knowledge to develop
programs required a comprehensive approach involving the amalgamation of multiple and
complex sets of qualitative and quantitative data to ensure that programs are relevant and reflect
employers’ skill needs. Moreover, the theme of “Continuing Education Must Develop Programs
to Mitigate Skills Gaps” aligned with the first research question, as knowledge is needed to
develop the programs. The theme also supports the KMO assumed influence of the need for
factual knowledge identified for this study. An analysis and validation of KMO assumed
knowledge influences is discussed later in this chapter.
3. Staff needs complex interdisciplinary skills to develop new programs. The third
theme that emerged was related to skills required to develop new market-based programs. The
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 82

theme aligned with the work of Friedman (2016) that suggested leaders of institutions of higher
learning shed old paradigms related to curriculum development and embrace transformational
models of learning that prepare students for the future of work. To garner the skills needed to
develop new programs, Wilson (2013) recommended that institutions of higher learning partner
with business, non-profit organizations, and educational technology enterprises to abridge the
problem.
Participants described a complex set of skills and qualifications required of academic
leadership and staff tasked with developing new programs. Resoundingly, participants discussed
the need for program directors and managers responsible for multi-disciplinary program
portfolios to have a blend of interdisciplinary skills and experience.
The skills most frequently described by participants were (a) industry expertise, (b)
multi-disciplinary business acumen, (c) project management, (d) networking, (e) relationship
building, and (f) professional development. Participant 4 stated, “I want to see the academic
wraparound and a professional development background, including a work history.” The need
for such skills was evidenced by participant responses related to the need to stay on top of
industry and learning trends. Furthermore, participants used words and phrases such as
“background in academic training,” “professional experience,” and “experience with academic
wraparound” to describe skill and experience qualifications. However, while participants
acknowledged that both deep and broad experience was required to develop new programs, this
perspective was shrouded in the reality that it was unreasonable to expect directors and managers
with large program portfolios to possess subject-matter expertise and experience in all
disciplines. Reinforcing this paradigm, Participant 2 stated, “No one could possibly be a subject-
matter expert in every program area.” To exemplify the unreasonable expectation for subject-
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 83

matter expertise across all program areas, Participant 2 was responsible for a program portfolio
with more than 15 specific concentrations.
To summarize, participant responses supported the theme that the staff needed complex
interdisciplinary skills to develop new programs that supported the attainment of the stakeholder
goal of developing new market-based programs. The complexity was also evidenced by the steps
and processes described by participants to stay current in the context of industry and workforce
trends and current and emergent skill needs. Overall, the theme titled “Staff Needs Complex
Interdisciplinary Skills to Develop New Programs” aligned with the first research question, as
knowledge is needed to develop the programs. The theme also supported the KMO assumed
influence of the need for procedural knowledge identified for this study. The validation of KMO
assumed knowledge influences is discussed later in this chapter.
4. Resource shortages frequently stall new program implementation. The fourth
theme that emerged was related to the financial and human capital resources needed to develop
and implement new programs. The theme aligned with research that suggested that colleges of
continuing education identify innovative methods for generating revenue and expanding market
reach (Carlile, Davidson, Freeman, Thomas & Venkatraman, 2016). Moreover, colleges of
continuing education do not receive state or institutional funding and generate revenue primarily
tied to enrollment (Carlile et al., 2016).
Participants unswervingly referenced the need for consistency in resource allocation and
process improvement to implement more market-based programs. Participants also referenced
the difficult balance between identifying new market-based programs and the restraints
associated with the manpower, time, and revenue required for implementation. Participants used
words and phrases to describe equilibrium challenges such as “more support needed,” “time,”
“need for flexibility,” and “financial justification.” Participant 1 stated, “the lack of resources
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impacts our ability to really scale and implement a lot of different programs.” Participant 3
stated, “We want to make sure that whatever we propose is viable financially.” Reinforcing the
need for additional resources,” and Participant 4 stated, “I think there needs to be an investment
in looking at organizational structure to support the implementation of all of this new
programming.”
Participant responses supported the theme that resource shortages frequently stalled new
program implementation. Participants consistently argued that both human capital and financial
resource scarcities impeded the processes and efficiencies needed to meet the stakeholder goal of
developing a host of new programs by the 2019 deadline. It can be concluded that the theme
titled “Resource Shortages Frequently Stall New Program Implementation” aligned with the
second research question in the context of the organizational culture and settings required to
embed the human capital and financial resources needed to attain the stakeholder goal. The
theme also supported the KMO assumed organizational culture and setting influences identified
in this study. The validation of KMO assumed organizational influences is discussed later in this
chapter.
5. System-wide restructuring supports new model to meet skill demands. The last
theme that emerged was related to the perceived impact of a system-wide organizational
restructuring effort on the ability to effectively develop enough market-based programs to meet
employers’ skill demands. The theme aligned with research that suggested most institutions of
higher learning needed to determine if long-standing organizational structures facilitate future
viability (Carlile et al., 2016). Furthermore, according to DiSalvio (2012), strategic repositioning
was required for colleges of continuing education to remain competitive and financially viable.
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Participants overwhelmingly suggested that structural reorganization would contribute to
the ability to meet the goal of developing at least five new market-based programs by 2019.
Participant 3 stated,
It still takes resources to implement. We’re going through a process now of
reorganization, and I think that in a future state will help to support more flexibility in the
way that we’re organized in order to be able to implement the work.
Furthermore, participants believed that the reorganization would enable the department to not
only leverage resources more effectively but also to better develop student-centric programs
aligned with employers’ skill needs.
As shown above, participants believed that departmental restructuring would contribute
to a culture in support of providing the required resources to attain the stakeholder goal.
Participants also believed that the restructuring effort was a strategic initiative that would
ultimately position the department and college for future growth and increase competitive
advantage. It can be argued that the theme titled “System-wide Restructuring Supports New
Model to Meet Skill Demands” aligned with the second research question in the context of the
structural alignment required to provide the resources needed to attain the goal of developing
new programs. The theme also supported the KMO assumed organizational culture and setting
influences identified in this study. The validation of KMO assumed organizational influences is
discussed later in this chapter.
Summary
Findings from qualitative interviews suggested that the SCUE academic staff understood
the specific role that continuing education programs played in providing students with programs
that enable them to skill-up, improve career outcomes, and mitigate workforce skills gaps.
Furthermore, findings revealed that key to the staff members’ ability to meet the stakeholder goal
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 86

of developing at least five new market-based programs that aligned with employers’ skill needs
was the ability to acquire the knowledge and know-how from workforce and industry partners to
develop relevant programs. Finally, insights from qualitative interviews revealed that
organizational culture and settings that supported the restructuring required to optimize human
capital and financial resources were tantamount to goal attainment.
Document Analysis Findings
The purpose of document analysis for this study was to triangulate data from qualitative
interviews in the context of new program development and alignment with market and employer
skill needs. This section reviewed findings from each document aligned with the corresponding
research question, KMO influences and findings from participant interviews. The documents
selected are listed in Table 9 below. The validation of assumed KMO influences is discussed in
further detail later in Chapter Four.
Table 9
Documents Selected for Analysis
Selected Documents Purpose of Analysis
SCUE 2015-2019 Strategic Plan Confirm strategic goals, initiatives &
actions
2015-2020 Los Angeles County Economic
Development Corporation, Institute for
Applied Economics: Los Angeles: People,
Industry & Jobs Report
Relationship between program development
& alignment & industry sector growth
SCUE Business Program Department Email
& Memo Updates
Confirm new program launches &
alignment with strategic goals and LAEDC
reports

The SCUE 2015-2019 Strategic Plan
The purpose of the 2015-2019 strategic plan for SCUE was to set multi-year strategic
priorities and actions required to extend the reach of the brand, increase partner collaboration,
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 87

grow share of market, develop competitive advantage, and provide students with programs and
experiences that reflected the 21st century skills employers require. This document was selected
for analysis because it represented the foundation of the stakeholder goal. This section reviews
the themes and findings that emerged from analyzing the strategic plan.
SCUE Faces Unprecedented Challenges
The first theme that emerged was related to the multiple challenges faced by both SCUE
and the collective continuing education community. Referenced in the plan were the impacts of
change and disruption, declining funding, and declining regional enrollment. The most
significant challenge in the context of this study was confronting and providing solutions for the
workforce skills gap phenomenon. Research by Cappelli (2015) aligned with SCUE’s
acknowledgement and strategic priority related to the role it must play in bridging workforce
skills gaps. Cappelli argued that institutions of higher learning that failed to create programs that
addressed the skill needs of individuals looking to upgrade labor force skills significantly
contributed to the problem.
The key actions identified in the plan addressed the challenge of the workforce skills
phenomenon, the identification of emerging knowledge and skill areas, and the need to focus on
career development programs that reflected the skill needs of the market. Findings from
qualitative interviews suggested that participants understood the implications of the workforce
skills gap phenomenon. In fact, Participant 4 stated,
The skills gap that is looming and it’s something around there will be a million jobs that
won’t have qualified folks, and so we’re not educating our workforce, our community
members as quickly as they need to be in order to be prepared for jobs of the future.
Additional findings from qualitative interviews supported the key actions of identifying and
developing programs that reflect both market and skill needs. Participant 2 stated,
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If there is a new area of growth where we project that there will be a growth in
employment and or new skills that are going to be necessary for the existing work
population, we then go about examining the types of skills that will be needed and then
go about creating programs in that way.
The theme titled “SCUE Faces Unprecedented Challenges” aligned with the first research
question: “What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational requirements for developing
at least five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill needs by 2019?” The theme
also supported the KMO assumed factual knowledge influence identified for this study, as the
staff needed knowledge of unmet market and skill needs to meet the stakeholder goal.
Majority of Strategic Initiatives Aimed at Reducing Skills Gaps
The second theme that emerged was related to the aggressive approach to setting strategic
initiatives and actions to reduce skills gaps. Reducing skills gaps was woven throughout strategic
priorities and actions. This was evidenced by the interdependencies of extending the reach of the
brand, increasing partner collaboration, growing share of market, and providing students with
programs and experiences that reflected the 21st century skills employers require.
Extending the reach of the brand was directly linked to the creation of new programs in
emergent growth areas. Increasing partner collaboration was directly aligned with the need to
garner industry expertise for program development and collaboration for the creation of partner-
based solutions. Growth in market share was rationalized around the idea that robust and relevant
programs would increase regional enrollment. Finally, providing students with programs and
experiences that reflected the skills requirements of employers was rooted in the development of
market-based programs that met the in-demand skill needs of the economy and employers.
The stakeholder goal for the SCUE academic team was set based on the institutions 2015-
2019 strategic plan. The stakeholder goal of developing at least five new market-based programs
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 89

that met employers’ skill demands emerged from the strategic priorities and key actions outlined
in the SCUE 2015-2019 Strategic Plan. Evidence from interview findings suggested that SCUE
academic leadership staff was aggressively developing industry partnerships, identifying
emergent knowledge and skills areas, and developing curriculum that provided students with
programs and experiences that reflected the 21st century skills employers require. To that end,
Participant 2 stated,
We looked at programs in the accounting area and we recently launched a bookkeeping
certificate, which is targeted for those who may not have a degree, but gives them an
entrée into that accounting workspace, and it’s a very short program. So, with a very little
investment in terms of financially, as well as a shorter time period, they can pick up skills
that are really needed.
Participant 4 stated,
If I feel that there is a program that would have potential, I would look at the top
individuals in that area. I developed the Sales Professional Certificate Program, a
program for sales professional training, I networked with them, successfully recruited
him to be a member of the advisory board. I also looked at hiring managers and
consulting firms.
The theme titled “Majority of Strategic Initiatives Aimed at Reducing Skills Gaps”
aligned with the first research question: “What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
requirements for developing at least five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill
needs by 2019?” The theme also supported the KMO assumed factual and procedural knowledge
influence identified for this study, as the staff needed knowledge of unmet market and skill needs
and the know-how to develop programs to meet the stakeholder goal.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 90

LAEDC Institute for Applied Economics: People, Industry and Jobs Report
The purpose of the 2015-2020 LAEDC Institute for Applied Economics, Los Angeles:
People, Industry & Jobs Report was to provide unbiased economic and policy research to aid
organizations in strategic planning and decision-making. The report provided industry and job
projections for the period of 2015 to 2020. This report was selected for analysis because it was
used by the SCUE academic staff to identify sector and job growth in the Southern California
region. This section reviews the themes and findings that emerged from analyzing the report in
the context of identifying opportunities to develop market-based programs that meet the needs of
employers.
Higher Education Plays a Role in Bridging Regional Skills Gaps
The first theme that emerged was related to the role that education plays in mitigating
regional skills gaps and the associated effects on regional economies. The overarching argument
of the report was that the variance between workforce skill needs and the skills of the local
population provided opportunities to develop training programs and workforce development
initiatives. This argument aligned with the foundation of the SCUE 2015-2019 Strategic Plan as
it related to identifying emerging knowledge and skill needs within the market. Furthermore, the
variance between workforce demands and the skills of the regional population provided insights
into skills mismatches, as described by Cappelli (2015).
Identifying a mismatch in skills enabled the SCUE staff to both develop new programs
such as the bookkeeping certificate program and to assess and upgrade existing programs. To
that end, Participant 3 stated, “We get feedback on what’s happening, and then with that
information, there sometimes are opportunities for us to actually look at developing new
programs that might build from or are an option from something that is exiting.”
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The theme titled “Higher Education Plays a Role in Bridging Regional Skills Gaps”
aligned with the first research question: “What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
requirements for developing at least five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill
needs by 2019?” The theme also supported the KMO assumed factual knowledge influence
identified for this study, as the staff needed knowledge of unmet market and skill needs to
develop programs and fulfill its role in bridging skills gaps.
Regional Job Growth in Professional and Business Services
The second theme that emerged was the alignment between the projected growth of jobs
in the professional and business services sector with SCUE program development. The report
described the professional and business services sector as one of the fastest growing sectors in
the region. However, juxtaposed against the growth was the significant need for training. As an
example, administrative, support, bookkeeping, and sales jobs were projected to require higher
levels of expertise, interdisciplinary knowledge, and post-secondary exposure. The acceleration
of skill demands for seemingly low-level positions echoed the posits of Friedman (2016).
Research by Friedman suggested that the speed of change in the workforce and demands of
employers posed a significant challenge for workers, employers, society, and the national
economy. The challenge for employees to keep pace with shifting skill demands fueled the
LAEDC policy recommendation for post-secondary institutions to provide solutions for current
and future workforce skills gaps.
According to the LAEDC report, the professional and business services sector in the Los
Angeles region was projected to grow by 97,000 jobs between 2015 and 2020. The need for
increased skills and expertise underpinned the skills gap phenomenon of 2025. Consequently, the
development of programs in the professional and business services sector aligned with the 2015-
2019 strategic priority of extending the college of continuing education brand and reach, as
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 92

lower level positions such as bookkeeping, administrative assistant, and sales fell outside of the
traditional scope of SCUE program offerings. Moreover, in developing these programs, SCUE
incorporated the interdisciplinary skills employers now require for such roles. The development
of the aforementioned programs also demonstrated the ability of SCUE to programmatically
respond to market, economic, and employer demands.
The theme titled “Regional Job Growth in Professional and Business Services” aligned
with the research question: “What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
requirements for developing at least five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill
needs by 2019?” The theme also supported the KMO assumed procedural knowledge influence
identified for this study, as the staff needed to know how to apply the knowledge extracted from
the report to develop programs to meet market and employer skill needs.
SCUE Email and Memo Updates
The purpose of email and memo updates provided by the SCUE academic leadership
team was to update instructors on the progress of new program development as outlined in the
2015-2019 strategic plan. Instructors received a series of updates between Fall 2015 and Fall
2017. Email and memo updates were selected for analysis to confirm the alignment between
program development and market and employer skill demands. This section reviews the theme
and findings that emerged from analyzing four email and memo updates.
Focus on High-Quality In-Demand Programs
This theme that emerged was related to the commitment to develop and deliver high-
quality market-based programs, courses, and concentrations. The overarching messaging
addressed the projected systematic shifts required at organizational, departmental, partnership,
and programmatic levels to drive the change needed to meet the strategic priorities and actions
around program development described in the 2015-2019 strategic plan. High-quality programs
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were developed to meet the market and skill needs of employers in business, non-profit, and
governmental industries. Consequently, students that completed the new programs could
leverage their new knowledge, skills and certificates into a variety of positions within primary
industry clusters in the Southern California market.
While the stakeholder goal was to develop at least five new programs by 2019, the stretch
goal was to develop 10 new programs that collectively addressed low to mid-level positions
across private, non-profit, and governmental industries. Documents revealed that low- to mid-
level skill needs in the professional and business services sector described in the LAEDC report
were met with the development of new programs that ranged from executive assistant and
business analyst to leadership certificates.
Consistent language appeared around addressing increasing employers’ skill demands.
This thematic messaging aligned with content from the 2015-2019 strategic plan, LAEDC report,
qualitative interview findings and the research by Friedman (2016) on the acceleration of skill
requirements. The words and phrases used throughout the documents to describe in-demand
skills embedded to new programs included “analytical thinking,” “problem-solving,”
“interdisciplinary,” “communication,” “project management,” and “leadership.” The in-demand
skills embedded in the new programs aligned with the skills and abilities required for the
knowledge economy as described by Carnevale and Smith (2013a) as illustrated in Figure 2.
Shifts in organizational structure and partner relationships served as the foundation for
developing programs that met the stakeholder goal and represented 21st century skills employers
require. Documents described increased engagement with industry, advisory, and main campus
partners to create more compelling programs and experiences for students as described in the
2015-2019 strategic plan. Evidence of increased engagement emerged in qualitative interviews.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 94

Participant 4 stated, “The staff needs to be much more involved in the community and with
professional associations.”
The theme titled “Focus on High-Quality In-Demand Programs” aligns with both
research questions: “What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational requirements for
developing at least five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill needs by 2019”
and, “What are the recommended knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions required
to attain the goal?” The theme also supported the KMO assumed procedural knowledge and
organizational culture influences identified for this study. Correspondingly, the staff needed the
procedural knowledge to develop programs to meet market and employer skill needs. In like
manner, the cultural models and settings of the department needed to support the change required
to meet the stakeholder goal.
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Validation
Assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that impact the attainment
of the stakeholder goal were identified in Chapter Two. In this section, assumed KMO influences
were validated, validated in part, or not validated based on findings from qualitative interviews
and document analysis using Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO model.
Knowledge Findings
According to Krathwohl (2002) factual, procedural, conceptual and metacognitive
knowledge domains facilitate the transfer of knowledge needed for problem-solving. For the
purposes of this study, factual and procedural domains were identified as the assumed influences
relative to the attainment of the stakeholder goal of developing at least five new market-based
programs by 2019. Both influences were validated as indicated in Table 10 below.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 95

Table 10
Validated Knowledge Influences
Knowledge Influences Knowledge
Type
Validated Not
Validated
Academic staff need knowledge of
unmet workforce and employer skill
requirements

Factual X
Academic staff need to know how to
utilize knowledge of labor force and
employer needs to develop market-
based programs
Procedural X

Academic staff need knowledge of unmet workforce and employer skill
requirements. The first assumption was that the academic staff needed factual knowledge of the
unmet workforce and employer skill requirements to develop new market-based programs. This
assumption was validated by qualitative interview participants and described as a comprehensive
multi-faceted process. Participants described a process of collecting knowledge of unmet and
emergent skill needs using market research, advisory board members, employers, subject-matter
experts, and numerous industry and workforce partners. Interview participant responses
corresponded to research conducted by Cappelli (2015) and Carnevale and Smith (2013b) on the
need for institutions of higher learning to engage with industry partners to garner the knowledge
needed to develop curriculum and programs that bridge workforce skills gaps.
In reinforcing the need and complexity of acquiring knowledge of unmet skill needs,
Participant 2 stated, “We have a pretty dedicated process where we have initial research we
conduct working with marketing.” Participant 1 argued that failure to understand the unmet
needs of employers had overarching implications to the institutional brand by stating, “Subject
matter changes, subject matter needs to be enhanced, new classes need to be designed, and, if our
staff has very little knowledge or experience about the subject matter, it puts it at a great
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 96

disadvantage.” Overall, participants consistently acknowledged or inferred that developing
programs without substantive contributions from a plethora of resources compromised both
individual programs and student outcomes and the reputation of the institutional brand.
The factual knowledge influence was also validated through document analysis.
Specifically, the 2015-2019 strategic plan emphasized the need to collaborate with business, non-
profit, and governmental partners to acquire knowledge for gaining insights on their unmet
knowledge and workforce skill needs. Similarly, SCUE email and memo updates confirmed that
the development of new programs that met regional workforce needs and employer skill
demands were developed, in part, by soliciting insights, perspectives, and needs of partners.
Moreover, the factual knowledge assumption aligned with the research question, “What are the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational requirements for developing at least five new market-
based programs aligned with employer skill needs by 2019?” Therefore, based on findings from
qualitative interviews, document analysis and corresponding literature, the assumed factual
knowledge influence that academic staff needed knowledge of unmet workforce and employer
skill needs to develop market-based programs was validated.
Academic staff need to know how to utilize knowledge of labor force and employer
needs to develop market-based programs. The second assumption was that academic staff
needed to know how to utilize knowledge of labor force and employer skill needs to develop
market-based programs. The assumption was that the academic staff needed procedural
knowledge to transfer knowledge acquired about the unmet skill needs of employers into the
development of viable programs was validated.
The assumption was validated by qualitative interviews, which provided detailed
explanations of the multi-layered and laborious processes of synthesizing knowledge collected
from multiple sources into relevant courses and programs that balanced learning and applied
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 97

skills. Interviews revealed that participants worked with industry partners throughout the
development process to ensure that acquired knowledge and know-how materialized in new
programs.
Participant responses corresponded with the research of Hordern (2014). Hordern posited
that collaboration with industry partners provided a platform for higher education leaders to
collect data and learn to develop comprehensive programs that blended theory, practitioner and
applied skills aligned with employer skill demands. In the context of program development
know-how, Participant 2 stated,
I also rely quite a bit on feedback from employers, and I work closely with professional
associations, obviously our instructors as well. Just to stay on top in terms of trends in the
marketplace and what employers are looking for in their new hires.
Collectively, participants suggested that acquiring the knowledge of employer skill needs was
one step in the process. Participants reinforced the fact that ongoing industry and employer
partnerships provided the knowledge of how to develop student-centered programs.
The procedural knowledge influence was also validated through document analysis.
Department email and memo updates confirmed that insights from industry partners contributed
to the academic staff members’ know-how in developing programs that focused on both applied
skills and critical interdisciplinary and in-demand skills. The most compelling evidence emerged
from the 2015-2019 strategic plan document. The plan outlined strategic actions related to
industry collaboration and the creation of programs that reflected the realities of 21st century
jobs and economies.
Finally, the procedural knowledge assumption aligned with the research question, “What
are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational requirements for developing at least five new
market-based programs aligned with employer skill needs by 2019?” Therefore, based on
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 98

findings from qualitative interviews, document analysis, and corresponding literature, procedural
knowledge did influence the academic staff members’ ability to attain the stakeholder goal of
developing new programs.
Motivation Influences Validation: Qualitative Interviews and Document Analysis
According to Clark (2003), motivation serves as the catalyst for capitalizing on the
knowledge and skills required to achieve performance goals. Comparatively, Clark and Estes
(2008) attributed internal influences to an individual’s ability to meet performance goals and
expectations. To demonstrate the connections between motivation and performance, Pintrich
(2003) posited that an individual’s perception of the usefulness of a given task impacts
performance. On the other hand, Pajares (2006) connected motivation to self-efficacy and argued
that and individual’s level of confidence and competency was directly related to the motivation
required to attain performance goals. For the purposes of this study, utility value and self-
efficacy were identified as the assumed motivation influences related to the attainment of the
stakeholder goal of developing at least five new market-based programs by 2019. Both
influences were validated as indicated in Table 11 below.
Table 11
Validated Motivation Influences
Motivation Influence Motivation Type Validated Not Validated
Academic staff need to see the value in
developing market-based programs
Utility Value X
Academic staff need to feel confident in
their ability to develop market-based
programs that meet the employer needs
Self-Efficacy X

Academic staff need to see the value in developing market-based programs. The first
assumption was that the academic staff needed factual knowledge of the unmet workforce and
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 99

employer skill requirements to develop new market-based programs. This assumption was
validated by qualitative interview participant responses centered on the conclusion that
continuing education programs, specifically, had an obligation to provide students with programs
that provided the skills employers required. Reinforcing this point, one participant stated, “We
know that most of our students coming to us are either in a career change mode or looking to
advance their current career.” The perspective that students enrolled in continuing education
programs to improve career outcomes was preeminent throughout the interviews.
Participant responses corroborated with the research of Friedman (2016). Friedman noted
that the shift from employer-sponsored learning and development to individual culpability was
an additional burden for workers attempting to fill skills gaps. Johnson, Mejia, and Bohn (2015)
illuminated the role of higher education in bridging skills gaps. Johnson et al. posited that
institutions of higher learning were principal collaborators with industry to develop innovative
practices and programs to aid in skilling-up the workforce in the backdrop of the looming
workforce skills gap crisis of 2025 (Johnson et al., 2015). To that end, Participant 4 stated,
I’m very aware of the discussions around the skills gap that is looming and it’s something
around there will be a million jobs that won’t have qualified folks, and so we’re not
educating our workforce, our community members as quickly as they need to be in order
to be prepared for jobs of the future.
Participant 1 said, “Extension plays a critical role, because programs are categorized as
workforce ready.” Participant 3 extoled,
Right now, there’s just a big push to try to get enough college graduates, folks who have
the higher-level degrees more specialized skills because jobs have moved in that direction
of being really niche and specialized. And that’s really where we see ourselves fitting in
as continuing and professional education.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 100

The assumed procedural knowledge influence was also validated through document
analysis. Department email and memo updates confirmed that SCUE’s commitment to delivering
services, programs, and experiences that prepared students for the workforce. Another key point
was that the consistent use of LAEDC reports to take the pulse and temperature of the Southern
California economic and workforce, indicated that the academic staff ascribed value to
developing programs that met employers’ skill demands.
Finally. the motivational utility value assumption aligned with the research question,
“What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational requirements for developing at least
five new market-based programs aligned with employer skill needs by 2019?” Therefore, based
on findings from qualitative interviews, document analysis, and corresponding literature, the
motivational utility value influence did influence the staff members’ ability to meet the
stakeholder goal of developing new market-based programs.
Academic staff need to feel confident in their ability to develop market-based
programs that meet the employer needs. The second assumption was that the academic staff
needed to feel confident in their ability to develop market-based programs that met employers’
needs. This assumption was validated by qualitative interviews which provided insights into the
perceptions and experiences related to developing market-based programs. The overarching
themes were that the academic staff needed complex interdisciplinary skills to develop new
programs. While participants acknowledged complexity, none spoke of uncertainty associated
with their ability to develop new programs. However, participants did reveal that, if there was an
area or discipline in which they lacked expertise, they would defer to an industry partner or SME
for guidance. To demonstrate, Participant 2 stated,
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We do a good job of gathering all the information in the beginning from all the sources,
from staff, internal and the external parties, and bringing them into the new programs,
and then subsequently communicating them to potential new students.
The assumed motivational influence of self-efficacy was also validated through document
analysis. Department email and memo updates established a sense of pride and commitment that
the SCUE staff was competently developing programs and was confident in the ability to create
as many as 10 new programs as opposed to five as prescribed in the stakeholder goal.
In the context of the guiding research questions for this study, the assumed motivational
influence of self-efficacy aligned with the question, “What are the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational requirements for developing at least five new market-based programs aligned with
employer skill needs by 2019?” Therefore, based on findings from qualitative interviews,
document analysis, and corresponding literature, motivational value and self-efficacy did
influence the staff members’ ability to meet the stakeholder goal of developing new market-
based programs.
Organizational Influences Validation: Interviews and Document Analysis
Watkins (2013) described the dynamism of culture as a social control system with
multiple layers and influences. The dynamism explained by Watkins often materializes as
practices and policies that are out of step with the change required to improve organizational
performance. Schein (2004) connected organizational culture with performance by arguing that
cultural models are supported by shared values, beliefs and attitudes that define an organizations
commitment to performance. Schein further posited that cultural models and settings were
directly related to goal attainment and organizational performance. For the purposes of this
study, assumed influences were identified as the cultural model of resistance to change and the
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lack of cultural settings related to expertise and role models. Only one assumed influence was
validated as indicated in Table 12 below.
Table 12
Validated Organizational Influences
Organizational Influence Cultural Type Validated
In Part
Not Validated
There is a culture of resistance to change and
working with industry, economic and workforce
partners to develop market-based curriculum and
programs
Cultural Model X
There is a lack of expertise and full-time role
models with the ability to develop curriculum and
programs that meet industry, economic and
workforce skill needs
Cultural Setting X

There is a culture of resistance to change and working with industry, economic and
workforce partners to develop market-based curriculum and programs. The first assumed
influence was the cultural model of resistance to change and working with industry partners.
This assumption was not validated by qualitative interviews or document analysis. Qualitative
interviews revealed no resistance to change or apprehension in working with industry partners. In
fact, the major themes that emerged from interviews suggested that the process of developing
new programs was complex and would be remiss without input and direction from industry
partners.
There was no evidence of resistance to the change described in the 2015-2019 strategic
plan related to partner collaboration, emphasizing career development, or creating programs that
reflected 21st century skills and market realities. There was no evidence of resistance to working
with industry partners to develop market-based programs that emerged in the SCUE department
memos and updates. To the contrary, the documents championed the change. However, while the
findings from qualitative interviews and documents did not reveal resistance to change, the
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 103

assumed influence of organizational culture and resistance to change was partially validated.
This assumed influence was partially validated based on the fact that only four participants were
interviewed, and their responses may not represent the sentiment of all staff members.
There is a lack of expertise and full-time role models with the ability to develop
curriculum and programs that meet industry, economic and workforce skill needs.
The second assumed influence was the lack of cultural settings relative to role models and
expertise in developing programs that meet employers’ needs. This assumption was not validated
by qualitative interviews or document analysis. Qualitative interviews revealed a model for
acquiring the knowledge and capability to develop new programs. The model included hiring
academic leaders with multi-disciplinary backgrounds and academic preparation that represented
respective program portfolios. Academic staff with knowledge gaps were required to produce a
plan for acquiring the knowledge and know-how from a network of industry partners and
institutional colleagues. Interviews also revealed a system of accountability for the alignment of
programs with employers’ skill demands that included reviews from academic leadership,
advisory board members, subject-matter experts and end-of-course evaluations. Finally, while
the SCUE 2015-2019 Strategic Plan outlined strategic priorities and actions aimed at developing
programs that meet industry, economic, and workforce skill needs, no evidence emerged that the
department lacked expertise or an existing model that would inhibit the attainment of the
stakeholder goal.
Summary
The role of higher education in bridging workforce skills gaps is documented in scholarly
and industry literature. Colleges of continuing education specifically play a role in collaborating
with industry partners to produce programs and experiences that enable students to skill-up and
improve their career outcomes. In doing so, programs must be relevant and reflect market,
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 104

economic, and in-demand skill needs. Chapter Four discussed findings from survey, qualitative
interviews, and document analysis in the context of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that contributed to the attainment of the SCUE stakeholder goal of
developing at least five new market-based programs by 2019. Assumed influences related to
knowledge, motivation and organizational culture were assessed for validation from the
perspective of stakeholder goal attainment. The assumed influences of knowledge and
motivation were fully validated. However, the organizational cultural influence was partially
validated, and the organizational setting influence was not validated. Chapter Five discusses
recommended solutions for all validated influences.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 105

CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION PLAN
In Chapter Four, assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were
validated, partially validated, or not validated in the context of attainment of the stakeholder
goal. Chapter Five is centered on the research question, “What are the recommended knowledge,
motivation and organizational solutions required to attain the goal?” In this chapter, solutions
and an implementation plan are offered to amend the potential gaps in performance that may
inhibit the attainment of the stakeholder goal of developing at least five new market-based
programs relative to knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The chapter is
organized using Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework. Recommendations for
validated influences relating to knowledge, motivation, and organizational culture were
supported by related literature, survey, qualitative interviews, and document analysis findings.
Recommendations were based on the Kirkpatrick New World Model framework (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Recommendations for Practice to Address Knowledge Influences
This section provides a review of the knowledge influences from Clark and Estes’ (2008)
KMO framework and was aligned with data collected from surveys, interviews, and document
analysis addressed in Chapter Four. The assumed knowledge influences represent the declarative
and procedural knowledge required for goal attainment. Declarative knowledge enabled the
SCUE academic staff to acquire knowledge of unmet workforce and employer skill demands.
Procedural knowledge enabled the academic staff to use the knowledge of unmet workforce and
employer skill demands to develop programs aligned with employers’ skill needs and
requirements of both knowledge and artificial intelligence economies. The data analysis for this
section validated the assumed knowledge influences. Table 13 below represents the validation
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 106

and priority of each assumed knowledge influence relative to the attainment of the stakeholder
goal.
Table 13
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation

Academic staff
need knowledge
of unmet
workforce and
employer needs
and skill
requirements (D)

V

Y

Declarative knowledge,
which incorporates the
factual and conceptual
components of
knowledge blends
elements and details
with the understanding
of interconnectivity to
facilitate the transfer of
knowledge for
problem-solving
(Krathwohl, 2002).

Social interaction and
cooperative learning,
facilitate construction
of new knowledge
(Scott & Palincsar,
2006).

Provide ongoing
training on how to
acquire knowledge of
the in-demand skills and
needs of workforce and
employers for the
knowledge and artificial
intelligence economies.
Academic staff
need to know
how to utilize
knowledge of
labor force and
employer needs to
develop market-
based programs
(P)
V Y Procedural knowledge
is the practical
knowledge and
expertise required to
augmented skills and
know-how to solve
problems. (Aguinis &
Kraiger, 2009)

Modeling proven
strategies or
behaviors advance
knowledge acquisition,
and performance
(Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009).

Provide stakeholders
with a job aid that
indicates the steps
necessary to develop
high-level programs that
align with workforce
and employer skill
requirements for the
knowledge and artificial
intelligence economies.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 107

Declarative Knowledge
Krathwohl (2002) asserted that declarative knowledge facilitates the transfer of
knowledge for problem-solving. Comparatively, Aguinis and Kraiger (2009) described factual
knowledge as the central elements required for problem-solving. According to Mayer (2011), the
construction of knowledge involves cognitive processing that facilitates sense-making,
meaningful learning and enables learners to introduce new information into existing schemas. As
such, to achieve the stakeholder goal, the staff consistently needs to acquire new knowledge to
superimpose over existing schemas and juxtapose against new programmatic frameworks. To
that end, factual knowledge will provide the staff with the elements, details, and insights
(Krathwohl, 2002) into the current and projected industry and labor force demands and skills
employers require.
Procedural Knowledge
Procedural knowledge, as argued by Aguinis and Kraiger (2009), is the practical
knowledge and expertise required to complete tasks. For this reason, procedural knowledge
facilitates the augmentation of skills and know-how to solve problems. Hordern (2014) argued
that, while institutions of higher learning routinely maintain relationships with professional
bodies for curriculum influence and development, disruptive shifts in economic, industry,
workforce demand the development of new market-aligned programs. Research suggested that
collaboration among employers, workforce partners, and higher education to develop
comprehensive programs that blend theory, practitioner, and applied skills contributes to the
development of robust curriculum and programs squarely aligned with employers’ skill needs
(Hordern, 2014). Therefore, the SCUE academic staff needs procedural knowledge to understand
how to utilize knowledge of labor force, and employer needs to develop market-based programs.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 108

Knowledge Solutions
Findings from data analysis indicated that, while the academic staff understood the value
of acquiring knowledge and subsequently applying knowledge to the development of new
programs, the process of acquisition and application must be continuous to attain the stakeholder
goal of developing at least five new market-based programs by 2019. Furthermore, developing
new programs that meet both market and employer demands for SCUE Business Program
portfolios with multiple disciplines and concentration, requires training, job-aids, continuous
learning and collaboration with industry, workforce and advisory partners.
Recommendations for Practice to Address Motivation Influences
This section provides a review of the motivational influences from the Clark and Estes
(2008) KMO framework and is aligned with data collected from surveys, interviews and
document analysis addressed in Chapter Four. The assumed motivational influences represent the
value and self-efficacy required for goal attainment. Value enables the SCUE academic staff to
ascribe significance and meaning to the need to develop programs that align with employers’
skill demands. Self-efficacy enables the academic staff to experience confidence in their ability
to develop programs aligned with employers’ skill needs. The findings from data analysis
validated the assumed motivational influences. Table 14 below represents the validation and
priority of each assumed motivational influence relative to the attainment of the stakeholder goal.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 109

Table 14
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Staff need to see
the value in
developing
market-based
programs that
align with the
skill
requirements of
employers

V Y Learning and
motivation
increase when
learners
understand and
ascribe value
to a task
(Eccles, 2006)

Interest,
personal and
situational
relevance are
necessary to
maintain
motivation.
(Shraw & &
Lehman, 2009)
Provide ongoing
workshops and training
from industry partners on
hiring, and performance
outcomes of employees
that complete programs
that align curriculum,
experiences and skills
employers require.

Staff need to feel
confident in their
ability to develop
market-based
programs that
meet the skill
requirements of
employers
V Y Motivation
impacts one’s
beliefs and
behaviors
related to goal
attainment
(Eccles, 2006).

Use modeling, case
studies from industry and
institutions of higher
learning and collaborative
peer-to-peer feedback to
increase staff confidence
and abilities.

Expectancy: Utility Value
Eccles (2006) posited that expectancy was a facilitator of motivation in ascribing value to
attaining goals. Comparatively, Shraw and Lehman (2009) suggested that interest, personal and
situational relevance were necessary to maintain motivation. Furthermore, Bandura (2002) noted
that utility value correlated with perceptions of relevancy and practicality. Therefore, the staff
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 110

must ascribe value to developing programs that meet the skill requirements of employers and to
student outcomes and the contextual attainment of the departmental goal. Moreover, the staff
needs to see the value in creating programs that meet employers’ workforce skill needs in the
backdrop of mounting national disquiet around the need to integrate economic goals into
academic missions and to use labor force analytics to shape goals and programmatic priorities
(Alssid et al., 2011). Therefore, the recommendation to provide workshops and training from
industry partners on hiring and performance outcomes of employees who complete programs that
align curriculum, experiences, and skills employers require will aid in the staff members’ ability
to see the value of creating market-centric programs
Expectancy: Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy theory is grounded in themes of confidence and competency. Pajares (2006)
argued that self-efficacy laid the groundwork for positive beliefs about goal attainment. As such,
self-efficacy, Pajares believed fueled behaviors that support successful outcomes. Moreover,
self-efficacy, according to Bandura (2002), is not only a facilitator of motivation and goal
attainment, but also contributes to the self-regulation required to persist through goal completion.
The self-efficacy of the SCUE staff plays a significant role in the ability to collaborate with
multiple stakeholders and synthesize labor force, industry, and economic data into programs that
meet the academic and workforce priorities of employers. Therefore, it is vital that the SCUE
Business Program staff feel confident in their ability to attain the performance goal of developing
new market-based certificate programs that meet the needs of stakeholder partners. Furthermore,
the use of modeling and case studies from industry and institutions of higher learning and
collaborative peer-to-peer feedback will aid the staff in increasing the self-efficacy needed to
support the confidence and abilities needed to create market-centric programs that meet
employers’ needs.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 111

Motivation Solutions
Findings from data analysis indicated that the academic staff possessed both the utility
value and self-efficacy to meet the stakeholder goal of developing new market-based programs
that meet employers’ skill needs. While the staff understood the value to the department, industry
partners, and students, the staff needs to sustain the motivation needed overtime as the
department is transformed by restructuring and the disruptive demands of industry and workforce
partners linked to shifting skill demands of the knowledge economy. Furthermore, the staff needs
to balance and sustain motivational value and self-efficacy related to new program development
as in-demand workforce skills shift and are reimagined by what Friedman (2016) described as
the acceleration of skill requirements for the artificial intelligence economy. Therefore,
workshops and training from industry partners is a viable solution for sustaining utility value.
Similarly, modeling best practices, case analysis and peer-to-peer feedback are viable solutions
for sustaining the self-efficacy needed to develop new programs and attain the stakeholder goal.
Recommendations for Practice to Address Organization Influences
This section provides a review of the organizational influences from Clark and Estes’
(2008) KMO framework and is aligned with data collected through surveys, interviews, and
documents addressed in Chapter Four. The assumed organizational influences represent the
cultural model and cultural settings that impacted goal attainment. Cultural models of resistance
to change in working with industry partners can inhibit the ability of the academic team to meet
the stakeholder goal of developing programs aligned with employers’ skill needs. Cultural
settings absent of expertise and role models, too, can inhibit the ability of the staff to meet the
stakeholder goal. Data findings for this section partially validated the assumed cultural model of
resistance to change, but they did not validate the cultural setting influence. Table 15 below
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 112

represents the validation and priority of the assumed cultural organizational influence relative to
the attainment of the stakeholder goal.
Table 15
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence:
Cause, Need, or
Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model
Influence
There is a
culture of
resistance to
change in
working with
industry,
economic and
workforce
partners to
develop market-
based
curriculum and
programs
Partially
Validated
Y Shared feelings and
sentiment about the
organization’s
infrastructure and
atmospherics are
manifested by how
groups interact with
internal and external
customers and
stakeholders.
(Schein, 2004)

Provide workshops and
training from industry
partners on hiring, and
performance outcomes of
employees that complete
programs that align
curriculum, experiences
and skills employers
require.

Provide training from
administrative leaders on
financial implications
tied to enrollment.

Cultural Model Influence: Resistance to Change
The workforce skills gap crisis is often described as a failure by institutions of higher
learning to transition from a focus on academic skills to the integration of practical skills needed
for the workforce (McGuinness & Ortiz, 2016). This suggests that resistance to change is
systemic and change is needed to modernize programs’ effectiveness to align with employers’
needs. Kezar (2001) argued that embedded resistance to change in institutions of higher learning
would be challenged by stakeholders and policy makers as expectations for improved quality and
outcomes continued to drive increased levels of institutional accountability. While findings from
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 113

qualitative interviews did not suggest that the SCUE academic staff is resistant to the change
required to meet the stakeholder goal of developing new market-based programs, only four
members of staff participated in qualitative interviews. Since only four of the 20 members of
staff were interviewed, the researcher must conclude that some members of staff may be resistant
to change. Furthermore, during the time of data collection, the SCUE Business Department was
in the middle of a restructuring effort, and resistance to change among interview participants
might change after the restructuring effort.
Cultural Model Solutions
Resistance to change in working with industry partners to develop market-based
programs was not evidenced in data findings. However, the assumed influence was partially
validated based on the limited number of interview participants. Nevertheless, working with
industry partners will aid in the continuous development of programs that reflect the market,
workforce, and employer skill demands of today and the future. In fact, research suggested that
working collaboratively with industry partners facilitated curriculum development that
effectively addressed labor force demands (Harrington & & Sum, 2010). Therefore, workshops
and training from industry partners is a viable solution for mitigating resistance to change in
working with industry partners. Workshops and training conducted by industry and workforce
partners can provide the staff with the knowledge and insights required to embrace the change
needed to meet the stakeholder goal of developing new market-based programs. Finally, training
conducted by administrative leaders on the financial impact of program growth and enrollment
may aid in mitigating resistance.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The model that informed the implementation and evaluation plan for SCUE is the New
World Kirkpatrick model of evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), which is the academic
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 114

and industry standard for evaluating the effect of training on the attainment of outcomes that
represent desired performance or organizational change goals. The Kirkpatrick New World
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) emerged from the work of Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) on the Four Level Model of Evaluation. The juxtaposition of the Kirkpatrick (2006) and
Kirkpatrick (2016) models revealed that a modern approach was needed to address the
challenges faced by 21st century organizations.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Specifically, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) model champions an approach
centered on beginning with the organizational goal and using the goal as the focal point for
subsequently evaluating participant behaviors, learning, and reactions. Furthermore, the
Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) is centered on the sequential
process of developing solutions focused on work behaviors, the identification and proof that
learning occurred and, ultimately, the emergence of indicators that organizational leaders are
contented with implementation strategies. Therefore, through this process, leading indicators that
emerged cemented the recommended solutions to organizational goals.
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
Southern California University Extension (SCUE) is a continuing education division
within the California public higher education system. The mission of SCUE is to create
extraordinary learning experiences for adults of all ages. The problem of practice faced by SCUE
and institutions of higher learning in the United States is to develop strategies that aid in bridging
the anticipated workforce skills gap of 2025 (Shaffer, 2015). SCUE’s strategic focus aligned
with the institution’s 2015-2019 strategic plan to design strategies focused on career and
workforce development programs aligned with 21st century economies and labor market
demands. The specific goal of the SCUE Business Program is to develop at least five new
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 115

certificate programs that incorporate 21st century skills and meet the workforce skill needs of
employers by 2019. This project examined the knowledge skills, motivational and organizational
barriers that influenced the ability of the SCUE Business Programs academic staff in developing
new programs that met the workforce skill demands of employers. The proposed solution, a
comprehensive training program related to on-the-job support and a shift in the new program
development process should produce the desired outcome—an increase in the development of
programs and curriculum that align with employers’ workforce skill needs.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Level 4 of the Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016)
identifies specific outcomes that confirm goal completion and learning outcomes. Table 16
shows the proposed Level 4 results and leading indicators in the context of metrics and methods
for outcomes for the SCUE academic staff. If the internal outcomes are achieved by training and
organizational support for the process of developing programs that align with employers’
workforce skill needs, then the external outcomes should be realized.
Table 16
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Demonstrate a commitment to
industry partners by improving
strategies that mitigate
workforce skills gaps related to
the expected crisis of 2025
Response, insights and
engagement from industry
partners

Solicit quarterly
engagement data from
industry partners
2. Competitively position the
SCUE Business Program in the
Southern California market as a
leader in providing students with
the ability to leverage academic
performance, professional
growth and networks across
their careers

Improved brand resonance
2a. Conduct quarterly
customer-centric brand
audits using brand
management tools

2b. Conduct quarterly
student surveys
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 116

Table 16, continued
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
3. Increased annual program
revenue through the creation of
new programs that align with
21st century economies and
labor market demands
New revenue generation Track and compare
year-over-year
quarterly revenue gains
Internal Outcomes
4. Increased speed and accuracy
in identifying unmet 21st
century workforce skill demands
4a. Length of time required to
acquire knowledge

4b. Assessment of current and
emerging skill requirements
aligns with industry partner and
statistical data
4a. Aggregate data
from industry partners

4b. Compare with
leading industry
research platform data
– LinkedIn.com
Workforce Skills
database, LAEDC
Reports
5. Increased speed and accuracy
in developing programs that
align with employers’ skill
needs
5a. Length of time required to
develop and launch new
programs

5b. Alignment of program
curriculum and outcomes with
industry partner insights and
labor market demands
5a. Aggregate data
(Level 3.1) from
industry partners

5b. Compare with
industry reports and
artificial intelligence
content/program
development platforms
to increase alignment
accuracy

5c. Benchmark against
best practices among
leading institutions of
higher education
6. Increased staff confidence in
developing new market-based
programs that meet employers’
skill demands
Semi-annual staff engagement
surveys
Compare annual staff
survey results

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors are the third level of focus in the Kirkpatrick New World Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Critical behaviors, according to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 117

(2016) are observable behaviors that demonstrate that learning and the application of such
learning has occurred. The stakeholders of focus are the members of the SCUE academic staff.
The first critical behavior is that the academic staff must correctly identify the in-demand skills
and unmet needs of employers. The second critical behavior is that the academic staff must
display an attitude that demonstrates their belief in the role of the program in developing
programs that prepare students for the workforce and meet employers’ skill demands. The third
critical behavior is that the academic staff must apply knowledge of in-demand workforce skills
to develop new market-based programs that meet employers’ workforce skill demands. The
specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appears in Table 17.
Table 17
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for SCUE Academic Staff
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Increase
engagement with
industry partners to
identify unmet current
and future workforce
skill needs
The number of weekly
meetings with
industry partners,
insights and
opportunities

Submission of
calendared meetings,
agendas and outcomes
During the first 6
months of 2018.
Thereafter,
continuing
monthly

2. Increase skill in
developing market-
based programs that
meet workforce skill
demands of the
knowledge and
artificial intelligence
economies
Program alignment
with industry
partners’ evaluations
and regional and
national industry in-
demand skill reports
Program review by
senior academic
administrators and
programmatic advisory
board members
Ongoing – every
month until new
program
development goal
is achieved.
Thereafter,
continuing semi-
annually

Required drivers. The academic staff will require the support of SCUE senior-level
administrators and the organization to reinforce learning and to ensure the application of learning
to support attainment of the goal of creating at least five new market-based programs by 2019.
As such, rewards should be established for achievement of performance goals to enhance
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 118

organizational support of new program development. new reviewers. Table 18 shows the
recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of academic staff.
Table 18
Required Drivers to Support SCUE Academic Staff Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3
Reinforcing
Accountability: Industry
collaboration
Ongoing 1
Meetings with staff (program
directors, managers and
analysts) to establish goals,
expectations and time frames
Bi-weekly 1, 2
Job aid including checklist of
best practices
Ongoing 1, 2
Team meeting to troubleshoot
collaboratively for additional
training
Monthly 1, 2
Encouraging
Monthly manager and peer-to-
peer collaboration and
modeling
Monthly 1, 2
Feedback and coaching from
department dean
Ongoing 1, 2
Rewarding
Public acknowledgement at
department and institution-
wide meetings, faculty and
newsletters
Quarterly 1, 2

Monitoring
Senior-level administrators
require self-reporting on all
programs that includes
industry partner meetings,
insights, outcomes and
progress of new program
alignment and development
Monthly 1, 2

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 119

Organizational support. SCUE will play a critical role in reinforcing, encouraging,
rewarding, monitoring and providing support for the required drivers outlined in Table 13. This
will require a paradigm shift in the staff members’ approach, perceptions, and behaviors about
the connections between high-level and high-touch industry partner engagement, consultative
relationship building, knowledge transfer to program development, and department and
university accountabilities. Reinforcement, encouraging, and monitoring practices and
procedures will be significantly important organizational drivers that move the staff in the
direction of the desired change, as the aforementioned behaviors will be required to shift old
practices and develop the employer skill-centric programs needed for the workforce skill needs
of today and the future. Furthermore, the SCUE 2015–2019 Strategic Plan and required actions
of creating programs and experiences that represent the workforce demands of the 21st century
serve as guideposts for senior-level academic administrators to support the aforementioned
required drivers of behavioral change.
Level 2: Learning
The Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) requires the
establishment of learning goals for the second level of the process.
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, the stakeholders
will be able to:
1. Understand how to identify the unmet skill requirements of employers (P)
2. Understand how to utilize knowledge of workforce and employer needs to develop
market-based programs (P)
3. Value the role of higher education in bridging workforce skills gaps (V)
4. Value the development of programs that align with skill demands of employers (V)
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 120

5. Recognize the role of organization change in supporting the new approach in developing
market-based programs (V)
6. Indicate confidence in the ability to develop programs that align with the skill
requirements of employers (Confidence)
7. Apply the procedures required to engage with industry partners to gather knowledge of
workforce skill needs (P)
8. Know how to collaborate and engage with industry partners to garner insights and
perspectives on program development (P)
9. Plan and monitor work to meet accountability measures (P)
10. Understand how to identify best practices used in industry and institutions of higher
education that demonstrate how to create programs that meet the in-demand skill needs of
today and future. (P)
Program. The learning goals listed above will be achieved within an 8-week blended
face-to-face and online training program for all SCUE Business Program academic staff
members. The learners will study a broad range of topics that include current challenges in
higher education continuing education programs. Likewise, industry, regional economic job
outlook, and in-demand industry and workplace skill needs specific to department program
offerings will be included. Finally, topics covered will relate to emerging research platforms on
workforce skill demands, building collaborative networking skills, new models of learning, and
the role of analytics and artificial intelligence in aligning course content with workforce
demands. The blended program will consist of five e-learning modules and four face-to-face
application workshops. Total time for completion will be 1440 minutes (24 hours).
The blended asynchronous and face-to-face training will be beneficial in providing
learners with the knowledge and skills required to drive the change needed to meet the
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 121

department goal of developing at least five new market-based programs. Learners will have the
opportunity to check their understanding, practice identifying components for new programs, and
demonstrate development competency and receive feedback in face-to-face training sessions.
While barriers to implementation may be mitigated based on the imperative of the 2015–2019
strategic plan to develop new programs grounded in the demands of the 21st century workforce,
barriers related to resistance to significant change may emerge. Specifically, barriers may emerge
at lower levels of the department from members of the academic staff that may resist applying
training to new processes required for new program development.
Components of learning. The Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) requires that learners demonstrate the ability to apply the knowledge acquired
from training. This is a multi-faceted approach, as it requires that learners value and possess the
confidence, desire and commitment to take the steps required to implement training. Moreover, it
requires that the structure of the training is such that it provides a framework for learners to
demonstrate both the declarative and procedural knowledge required to solve problems. As such,
Table 19 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning.
Table 19
Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it. ”
Knowledge checks using multiple choice. In the asynchronous portions of the e-learning
course after video case demonstrations.
Knowledge checks through discussions, peer-
to-peer and industry partner collaboration
Periodically during the face-to-face training
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now. ”
Collaborative sessions to roleplay the steps for
engaging industry partners to gain insights on
program development
In the asynchronous portions of the course at
the end of each module/lesson/unit

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 122

Table 19, continued
Demonstrations in groups and individually During the face-to-face workshop
Individual application of the skills During and at the end of asynchronous and
face-to-face training
Pre- and post-test assessment of learner of
proficiency before and after the training
Before and after asynchronous and face-to-face
training
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile. ”
Instructor’s observation of participants’
statements and actions demonstrating that they
see the benefit of what they are being asked to
do on the job
During the training
Discussions about the value of what they are
being asked to do on the job
During the training
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
item
After the course
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job. ”
Discussions following practice and feedback.

During the training
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
item
After the training

Commitment “I will do it on the job. ”
Discussions following practice and feedback. During the training
Action Plan Development After the training

Level 1: Reaction
Level one of the Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) is
centered on both the initial and overall reactions of learners to training. Table 20 below lists the
methods that will be used to determine how participants react to learning events.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 123

Table 20
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Data analytics in the LMS Ongoing during asynchronous portion of the
course
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the training
Attendance During the training and from LMS
Course evaluation Immediately weeks after the training
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via
discussion (ongoing)
After every module/lesson/unit and face-to-
face workshops

Course evaluation Immediately weeks after the training
Customer Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check with participants (ongoing) After asynchronous, during and immediately
after face-to-face training
Course evaluation Immediately after the training

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Level 1 and Level 2 evaluations
will be conducted together, using an evaluation instrument that will consist of one or two items
per knowledge, motivation, and organizational category. Each instrument will use an appropriate
rating scale (Appendix F).
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Level 3 and Level 4
evaluation will be conducted six weeks after the implementation of the training, and then again at
three months. SCUE academic leadership will administer a survey containing open and scaled
items using the blended evaluation approach to developing new market-based programs.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal for SCUE academic staff is measured by the accuracy and speed of
developing new market-based programs that meet employers’ skill needs. Each month, the
reviewer will track the number of meetings with industry partners, and progression towards
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 124

completion of new programs aligned with aggregated data from industry partners and labor and
skill-based research platforms. The researcher recommends the use of managerial decision-
making software to track and synthesize data across programs specific to goal attainment
progression.
Summary
Developing programs that align with the demands of employers provides value to
students, industry and workforce partners and ensures program relevancy and market advantage.
The Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick 2016) provides a framework for
assessing the training required for the SCUE academic staff to develop market-based programs
that meet employers’ skill demands. The use of the Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016) will enable SCUE to develop solutions firmly centered on goal attainment
and implementation strategies. Furthermore, use of the model will enable SCUE to assess work
behaviors, reactions and indicators aligned with learning outcomes and recommended solutions.
Finally, this model will allow SCUE to establish metrics to analyze progression towards goal
attainment.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The strengths of the approach used in this study are rooted in the analysis of influences
that may impact performance and stakeholder goal attainment. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis model served as a platform for analysis to assess the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that might inhibit SCUE from attaining the goal of developing new
market-based programs. In particular, applying the gap analysis model to the problem of practice
shed light on the fact that the academic staff needed not only knowledge of in-demand skills, but
also critical systematic knowledge of how to develop programs that represent 21st century
workforce skill needs. Furthermore, the approach illuminated the connection between goal
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 125

attainment and the types of motivation needed for members of staff to perform in concert with
the stakeholder goal. However, while the Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) is the industry standard for evaluating the effects of training on goal
attainment, the model does not provide an approach that addresses the complex problem of
practice related to the role of higher education in bridging workforce skills gaps. Furthermore, as
evidenced by the literature and findings from qualitative interviews and document analysis, the
change required for institutions of higher learning to develop programs aligned with market and
employer skill demands is complex. The complex approach requires strategic changes, some of
which are outlined in the SCUE 2015–2019 Strategic Plan, to institutional vision, mission,
structure, and approaches to learning. The Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) provides a solution specific to the training required to produce a program, but
not a comprehensive solution that addresses the fundamental shifts needed for institutions of
higher learning to sustain a critical role in mitigating workforce skills gaps.
Limitations and Delimitations
The delimitations of this study pertain to the SCUE staff in the college of continuing
education department of a public institution of higher learning in California. The researcher
restricted the study to the business program within the college of continuing education. The
study was restricted to members of staff who had the most substantive responsibilities related to
new program development, who were the dean, program director, and program manager. The
primary limitation of the study was the containment of the study within Clark and Estes’ (2008)
model and the Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) frameworks,
which prohibited the researcher from researching outside of the scope of knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences and training as a solution to the overarching problem of practice.
Limitations were also related to the qualitative single-case methodology used for this study, as
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 126

research findings cannot be generalized. Limitations also existed in the context of the small
sample size specific to qualitative interviews. The SCUE Business Department had a total of 20
members of staff. Fifteen completed the quantitative survey and only four of seven identified for
qualitative interviews participated. Furthermore, during the time of data collection, the
department was engaged in a restructuring effort and data collected regarding organizational
culture and setting influences represented perceptions of staff before the completion of the
restructuring effort.
Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research are centered on the ability of colleges of continuing
education to build programs and learning experiences that reflect the impact of artificial
intelligence on professional and management jobs within the business space. According to
McKinsey (2016), 45% of the tasks associated with most jobs will be eliminated by artificial
intelligence technologies by 2025. This includes jobs related to many continuing education
business program portfolios. The anticipated workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025 together
with the proliferation of artificial intelligence technologies that eliminate tasks across industries
and jobs of all levels will pose a significant challenge for colleges of continuing education to
develop programs with the latest skills employers require for jobs and roles that have emerged
and been reimagined. Future research is recommended specific to the emergence and use of
artificial intelligence and predictive analytic software systems that identify sector growth, in-
demand skills, and timing specific new program launch.
The value of using artificial intelligence systems in higher education expands beyond the
need to accurately predict future in-demand skills. The tension to increase both the depth of
knowledge within disciplines and the use of interdisciplinary approaches to solve complex
organizational problems can be more effectively facilitated through the use of artificial
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 127

intelligence and machine learning systems (Dodgson & Gann, 2017). Machine learning can be
used to facilitate the combination of data across disciplines needed to develop the
interdisciplinary curricula needed in the artificial intelligence economy to address the required
skill needs of employers (Dodgson & Gann, 2017). Furthermore, research suggests that
curriculum and programs will need to be responsive to the skills and capabilities needed by
students to ally their skills with the artificial intelligent systems that will work alongside them
(Dodgson & Gann, 2017). Therefore, it is recommended that further research be conducted to
investigate how artificial intelligence and machine learning can be used to quickly and accurately
create curriculum and programs aligned with the needs of the artificial intelligence economy.
Conclusion
This study addressed the problem of practice faced by institutions of higher learning to
develop programs and strategies to bridge workforce skills gaps in the backdrop of the skills gap
crisis of 2025. The urgency of the problem was fueled by increased pressures from stakeholders
to develop programs and experiences that met workforce and employer skill demands.
Traditionally, colleges of continuing education provide programs for professional development
and skilling-up that enable individuals to improve career outcomes. This study focused on the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that contributed to the SCUE Business
Program’s ability to develop market-based programs that meet employers’ skill demands.
Findings revealed that factual and procedural knowledge were required to meet the stakeholder
goal of developing at least five new market-based programs by 2019. Furthermore, findings
suggested that academic staff members needed motivation and the support of an organizational
culture that could support and withstand the change needed to meet the stakeholder goal.
Recommendations for addressing the problem hailed from the Kirkpatrick New World
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) centered on training focused on the stakeholder goal at
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 128

the forefront of strategy. Recommended training solutions included the use of job-aids,
workshops, online training, and industry partner and peer-to-peer collaboration to assist the staff
in meeting the stakeholder goal. Finally, recommendations for future research incorporated the
use of artificial intelligence and machine learning systems as mechanisms for accurately
developing programs that align with the artificial intelligence economy’s workforce, economic
and employer skill demands.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 129

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APPENDIX A
Survey Interview Protocol
Demographic Questions
1. How long have you worked for the University?
a. Less than one year
b.One year to less than two years
c. Two years to less than five years
d.Five years to less than ten years
2. What is your role in the Department?
a. Dean, Assistant Dean
b.Program Director
c. Program Manager
d.Manager
e. Analyst
f. Program Representative
3. In which capacity are you involved in program development? (check all that apply)
a. identification
b.analysis
c. feasibility of new market-based programs
d.recruitment of workforce or industry partners
e. coordination of program development
f. launch and evaluation of program outcomes
4. Are you aware of the process involved in identifying and developing curriculum and
programs for the Business, Management and Technology Program?
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 141

a. Yes
b.No
5. Within the past year, how many times have you participated in meetings with academic
leaders, faculty, advisory board members, members of professional organizations or
employers focused on the development of programs with the skills employers want?
a. Less than 1
b.1 to 5
c. 6 to 10
d.11 to 15
Likert Scale
Strongly Disagree – Somewhat Disagree – Somewhat Agree – Strongly Agree

1. I understand the importance of developing curriculum and programs that reflect the skills
employers want.
2. I believe that higher education plays a role in bridging workforce skills gaps.
3. I believe that collaborating with industry and workforce partners contributes to the
department’s ability to develop strategies and programs that extend learning, skill
development for students?
4. The department has practices in place that will enable the attainment of the strategic goal
of developing at least 5 new programs by 2019.

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APPENDIX B
Qualitative Interview Protocol
Demographic Questions
1. How long have you worked for the University?
a. Less than one year
b.One year to less than two years
c. Two years to less than five years
d.Five years to less than ten years
2. What is your role in the Department?
a. Dean
b.Assistant Dean
c. Program Director
d.Program Manager
e. Manager
f. Analyst
g.Program Representative

1. Knowledge (Procedural) Describe the process used to identify and select a new certificate
or series programs.
2. Knowledge (Procedural) Describe the process used to ensure that new programs contain
up-to-date content that is market, industry, field and role relevant.
3. Knowledge (Declarative) What industry knowledge or skills are required of the academic
staff to develop the curriculum and content for new certificate or series programs that
reflect the knowledge and skills that employers want?
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 143

4. Knowledge (Declarative) What do you know about the impending workforce skills gap
phenomenon of 2025?
5. Motivation (Utility Value) What do you believe is the role that higher education plays in
developing programs and strategies to bridge workforce skills gaps?
6. Motivation (Utility Value) What value do you believe academic leadership ascribes to
developing new programs that meet the relevant skill needs of employers?
7. Motivation (Self-Efficacy) In what ways does the academic staff demonstrate the ability
and know-how to translate industry, economic and workforce needs and trends into new
programs?
8. Organization (Setting) What role models exist in the department to help the academic
staff develop programs that reflect the skills employers want?
9. Organization (Culture) How does the culture of the department support the change
required to meet the strategic goal of developing several new market-based programs that
meet market, industry and workforce needs?
10. What would you recommend to aid the department in harnessing the knowledge,
motivation and organizational resources required to meet the strategic goal of creating
five new market-based programs by June 2019?

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 144

APPENDIX C
Document Analysis Protocol
Document analysis will consist of combination of electronic and hardcopy, internal and
public records and physical evidence (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015) to assess processes and
procedures related to the development of new market-based programs. Specifically, documents
will include (a) strategic plans, which outline the stakeholder goal, obtained from university
website; (b) strategic initiatives, which delineate specific tactics required to obtain the
stakeholder goal, obtained from the department dean; and (c) department and advisory board
emails, memos, program proposals, handbooks, meeting agendas and minutes, which provide
insights into program development progress, obtained from the department dean; and (d)
industry and workforce development reports, which provide statistical data specific to
employment industry, sector, and workforce demands, obtained online as demonstrated in Table
5 below.
Table 5
Sampling of Documents for Data Analysis
Selected Documents Purpose of Analysis
SCUE 2015-2019 Strategic Plan Confirm Strategic Goals, Initiatives &
Actions
SCUE Business Program Department Email
& Memo Updates
Department updates, New Program
development
2015-2020 Los Angeles County Economic
Development Corporation Institute for
Applied Economics: Los Angeles: People,
Industry & Jobs Report
Relationship between program development
& alignment & industry sector growth

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 145

APPENDIX D
Information Sheet for Interviews
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN BRIDGING WORKFORCE SKILS GAPS:
AN EVAULATIVE STUDY
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Terri Horton, Principal
Investigator, and Dr. Lawrence Picus, Faculty Advisor, from the University of Southern
California. You have been selected as a potential participant because you are dean, director,
manager or analyst in the UCLA Extension Business, Management and Legal Program
Department. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. Please take as much time
as you need to read the information in this form. Please ask questions about anything you do not
understand or requires clarity.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to explore the role of higher education in bridging workforce skills
gaps related to the projected workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025. Specifically, the study
explores factors that contribute to the development of programs aligned with workforce and
employer skill demands. The research study will result in the development of potential solutions
that aid in program specific to this problem of practice.
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 146

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to complete an online survey which is
anticipated to take about 15 minutes. You may also be asked to participate in a one-hour audio-
taped interview. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to, either on the
survey or during the interview. However, if you do not want to be taped, you cannot participate
in this study. Feel free to discuss your participation in this study with whomever you chose prior
to deciding to participate. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. You
will have the option to review and edit the audio recordings and written transcript of the
recordings for the interviews. The audio recordings will be destroyed once they have been
transcribed. No information from the surveys or interviews will be given to third parties.
The data will be kept on the researcher’s password-protected desktop computer and will be kept
indefinitely.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
Please note that when the results of the research are published or even discussed in conferences,
none of your identifiable information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will not result in penalty or loss
of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 147

remedies by participating in this research study.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORT
There are no known risks or discomforts related to this study.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Participants will not be compensated for their participation in the survey or interviews.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: Terri Horton via email at tlhorton@usc.edu or phone at (909) 214-7829 or
Dissertation Chair Dr. Lawrence Picus at lpicus@rossier.usc.edu or (213) 740-2175.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 148

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all his/her questions. I believe that
he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 149

APPENDIX E
Survey Recruitment E-mail
Good Morning/Afternoon,
My name is Terri Horton and I am a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education
at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study on the role of higher
education in creating programs and strategies to bridge workforce skills gaps related to the
impending workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025.
I am emailing to ask if you would like to participate in my research study by completing
a brief survey. The survey should take no more than 15 minutes to complete. Participation is
completely voluntary and your answers will remain confidential and anonymous. If you are
interested in participating, please click on the survey link for additional information to proceed:
www.qualtrics.com/uclaextension. Participation is completely voluntary and your answers will
remain confidential. If you are interested or have any questions, please to contact me either by
phone or email listed below.
Thank you for your time and consideration,

Terri Horton MA, MBA
Email: tlhorton@usc.edu
Phone: 909-214-7829

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 150

APPENDIX F
Qualitative Interview Recruitment E-mail
Good Morning/Afternoon,
My name is Terri Horton and I am a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education
at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study on the role of higher
education in creating programs and strategies to bridge workforce skills gaps related to the
impending workforce skills gap phenomenon of 2025. I am emailing to ask if you would like to
participate in a one-hour interview for my research study.
The interview will be conducted onsite at your location. The interview is a follow-up to
the survey that was disseminated two weeks ago. Participation is completely voluntary and your
answers will remain confidential. If you are interested or have any questions, please to contact
me either by phone or email listed below.
Thank you for your time and consideration,

Terri Horton MA, MBA
Email: tlhorton@usc.edu
Phone: 909-214-7829

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 151

APPENDIX G
Post-Class Survey
Thank you for participating in the recent training about developing new market-based programs.
Please take a moment to tell us how we did by filling out this survey. Your responses will be used to
improve the quality of instruction.
1. I found the training course interesting. (Level 1, Engagement)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
2. I found the training course to be valuable in understanding the role of higher education in
bridging workforce skills gaps. (Level 1, Relevance)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

3. I found the information presented during the training course to be useful in understanding
how to identify the in-demand skills required by employers. (Level 2, Knowledge)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

4. I found the information presented during the training course to be useful in understanding
how to develop market-based programs. (Level 2, Skills)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

5. I can clearly articulate my responsibilities as a member of the academic staff in working
with industry partners. (Level 2, Knowledge)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

6. I learned skills during the training that I can apply to the development of new market-
based programs that meet the skill needs of employers. (Level 2, Skills)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

7. I believe it will be worthwhile to develop programs that meet the skill needs of
employers. (Level 2, Attitude)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

8. I am committed to doing my part to ensure that new programs are developed that meet
workforce and employer needs. (Level 2 Commitment)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE SKILLS GAP 152

APPENDIX H
Delayed Period Survey
Thank you for participating in the recent training about new market-based-programs. Please take
a few minutes to tell us how we did by completing this survey. Your responses will be used to
improve the quality of instruction.
1. I have had the opportunity to apply what I have learned on the job. (Level 3, Behavior)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

2. Reflecting back on the training, I believe that the training was a good use of my time.
(Level 3, Reward)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

3. After the training, I have successfully applied what I learned on the job. (Level 3,
Behavior)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

4. I learned what role higher education plays in bridging workforce skills gaps. (Level 4,
Desired Outcomes)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

5. I found the information I learned in the training to be useful in developing market-based
programs. (Level 4, Desired Outcomes)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

6. After the training, I have learned how to identify in-demand skills required by employers.
(Level 4, Desired Outcomes)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

7. I learned skills during the training that I can apply in developing relationships with
industry partners. (Level 4, Desired Outcome)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

8. I am committed to doing my part to ensure that new programs are developed that meet
workforce and employer needs. (Level 4, Leading Indicators)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

9. How would you characterize how you have felt about developing market-based programs
that meet the skill demands of employers?

10. What concepts from the training were most meaningful for you?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Horton, Terri L. (author)

Core Title The role of higher education in bridging workforce skills gaps: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 02/23/2018

Defense Date 01/19/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 2025,artificial intelligence,artificial intelligence economy,continuing education,gap analysis,Higher education,in-demand skills,KMO,knowledge economy,Learning and Instruction,OAI-PMH Harvest,post-secondary education,professional development,program development,skilling up,skills,skills gaps,workforce development,workforce preparedness

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Picus, Lawrence (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Tambascia, Tracy (committee member)

Creator Email brandcoach@terrilhorton.com,tlhorton@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-478093

Unique identifier UC11266757

Identifier etd-HortonTerr-6057.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-478093 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HortonTerr-6057.pdf

Dmrecord 478093

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Horton, Terri L.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA