University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Teachers’ perceptions of students with disabilities in an inclusion classroom

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Teachers’ perceptions of students with disabilities in an inclusion classroom

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Content Running head: TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 1
TEACHERS’ PERCPETIONS OF STUDENTS WITH DISABILITES IN AN INCLUSION
CLASSROOM

by

Donald Jason Hamilton

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Donald Jason Hamilton

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 2
Dedication

I dedicated this dissertation to my Lord and savior Jesus Christ, through him all things are
possible.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 3
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my mom Janice, because without her none of this would be possible. She is
the reason I continued my education, because she taught me at a young age the importance of
education. She is my role model; I love her because she continues to push me in order to do my
very best. She has taught that hard work and determination will pay off and to never give up. She
is my best friend and the bravest woman I have ever met in my life. She sacrifices so much for
me, I will never forget.
I would like to thank my uncle Greg. He taught me at any earlier age to strive for higher learning.
Our conversations over the years would challenge me to investigate and learn more about the
topics we would discuss. Every time I have needed help in my life you have always been there. I
am so very lucky to have you as an uncle. The smartest man I ever met in my life is your father
and my grandfather. However, the second smartest man I have ever met is you. Thank you for
sharing your wisdom to me over the years.
I would like to thank all of my friends and family, Brian and Miguel. When I was having
difficulties with the dissertation, they told me to never quit or give up. I will always be indebted
to their moral support. Thank you gentlemen you guys are not my friends but my brothers. I am
lucky to have both of you in my life.
I would like to thank my best friend and the love of my life Sonae. She gives me strength with
the moral support you provide me every day. She did not start the journey towards my
dissertation with me, but she was there in the end and I love her for that.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 4
I would like to thank Dr. Green for believing in me and working with me. Dr. Green kept my
spirits up when I was down and unsure if I would ever finish the dissertation. Dr. Green was the
perfect chair and the moral support I needed to get through this process.
Finally I would like to thank Guadalupe Garcia Montano, who helped bring my words to life.
Without her help and support my dissertation would have not been complete.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2!
Acknowledgements 3!
Abstract 7!
Chapter One: Introduction 8!
Background of Problem 10!
Statement of Problem 14!
Importance of Study 18!
Limitations and Delimitations 19!
Chapter Two: Literature Review 21!
Teacher Perceptions and Challenges 21!
Inclusion Classroom 24!
Classroom Management 28!
Cognitive 32!
Communication 33!
Behavior 35!
Discussion of Teacher Perceptions and Challenges 37!
Teaching Strategy Implementation 37!
Reading 38!
Mathematics 43!
Classroom Behavior 46!
Discussion of Teacher Strategy Implementation 48!
Social Capital 49!
Social Cultural Capital 49!
Collaboration 51!
Training 53!
Social Capital Network 55!
Summary 56!
Chapter Three: Methodology 58!
Research Design 59!
Sample and Population 60!
Instrumentation 61!
Data Collection 64!
Data Analysis 65!
Chapter Four: Results 68!
Participants 70!
Training 72!
Non-Disabled Peers 76!
Collaboration 78!
Lesson Plans 82!
Summary 87!
Chapter Five: Conclusion 88!
Summary of Findings 88!
Implications for Practice 90!
Limitations 94!
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 6
Future Research 94!
Summary 96!
References 100!
Appendix A: Lesson Plan Review Sheet 106!
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 108!
Appendix C: Interview Questions for Inclusion Teachers 110!
Appendix D: Survey Questions for Inclusion Teachers 111!
Appendix E: Observation Data 112!
!

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 7
Abstract

Inclusion of students with disabilities into general education classes is the direction most schools
districts are deciding to go. However some general education teachers are not familiar with
students with disabilities. Some teachers are apprehensive of students with disabilities in their
classroom. This research study will analyze the perception inclusion teachers have about students
with disabilities (if any) and the time frame given to special needs to complete assignment within
the classroom.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Students with mild/moderate disabilities require strategic support to get through a regular
school day (Westwood, 2009). Providing the right type of help in the least restrictive
environment is a challenge that needs to be addressed. For many years, these students have been
placed in self-contained classrooms which limit or restrict their access to the mainstream student
population. Such classes consist of students who may share the same disabilities and have access
to only a limited amount of general education curriculum (Florian, 2014). Advocates for special
education wanted more students with disabilities to be educated alongside their non-disabled
peers because research showed students with disabilities would benefit from being in classrooms
with others whose capabilities exceed their own (Florian, 2014). When students with mild to
moderate disabilities are mainstreamed into inclusion classrooms, teachers’ perceptions of them
are important to their success.
Most people who enter the teaching profession have an intrinsic desire to serve the
community and help students at risk (Daley, Guarino, & Santibanez, 2006). When they find
themselves in mainstream classrooms, it is imperative that they approach pedagogy with
strategies that assist students with and without disabilities. Teachers who inherited these
inclusive spaces struggle when helping learners who have cognitive and communicative
impairments among other learning disabilities (Ainscow, 2014). Some teachers also encounter
the negative perception that students with disabilities do not learn at the same rate as non-
disabled students, which could have a detrimental impact on academic progress. Improving these
perceptions has been shown to improve teacher performance in mainstream settings. Because
teachers’ positive perceptions of students with learning disabilities is essential to their success, it
is equally important to understand how such perceptions can be developed and maintained over
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 9
time. Wizner (2014) found that these perceptions can be cultivated via professional development,
but more understanding is needed regarding how this cultivation can occur in school settings.
Previously, perceptions of the abilities of students with learning disabilities were so negative that
certain schools did not allow teachers to teach these pupils out of fear regarding their lack of
training and understanding (Florian, 2010). Therefore, teachers’ negative perceptions of the
abilities of students with disabilities are reinforced when schools agree that these pupils are
unteachable in an inclusive environment.
An inclusive environment involves more than putting disabled and non-disabled students
in the same classroom. The teacher must be aware of the pace of instruction because students
with disabilities can regress if the teacher does not provide modified curriculum or additional
time on assignments (Jackson, 2014). Students with disabilities learn differently than non-
disabled pupils; therefore, it is imperative to adjust instruction pacing. The pace of instruction
can improve the academic progress of students with disabilities (Jackson, 2014). How to pace
instruction can be learned in professional development training.
A major area to explore is perceptions that inclusion teachers have about students with
mild/moderate disabilities and how professional development can transform their perceptions
and teaching over time. Teacher training or professional development improved positive
perceptions of how students learn (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). This study focused on professional
development of inclusion teachers and how to overcome the challenges of negative perceptions
through pacing. The intent of the study was not to solely review the problems inclusion teachers
have implementing teaching strategies, but also to analyze how educators use these methods in
an effective manner and have an impact on students’ progress.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 10
Background of Problem
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which assesses students in
subjects such as math, reading, science, and economics showed significant gaps in achievement
between students with mild/moderate disabilities and non-disabled pupils (NAEP, 2008). In 2007,
on the 8th grade NAEP math test, disabled students achieved a score of 246 while the score of
non-disabled pupils was 284. Reading scores for 4th graders were 190 for disabled students and
223 for their non-disabled peers (NAEP, 2008). The 38-point difference in math and 33-point
difference in reading were an improvement over previous years, but still represent a significant
gap.
The National Center for Learning Disabilities stated that nearly 8 out of 10 students
classified with a disability, under IDEA, can operate on the same level as their non-disabled
students in educational settings (Center for Public Education, 2009). Therefore, an analysis of
teaching practices may shed light on the discrepancies in test scores and what can be done to
resolve this issue because a teacher’s goal is to motivate students to become independent and
self-reliant despite their capabilities (Rueda, 2011). The challenge for an inclusion teacher is to
increase the test scores of all their students. Another challenge is to ensure there are no
significant gaps in scoring between students with mild/moderate disabilities and their non-
disabled peers.
One of the challenges an inclusion teacher may have is personal misconceptions about
the abilities of students with mild/moderate disabilities. These students have to overcome
perceptions about their abilities from the school system and their own classroom (Ainscow,
2014). Some inclusion teachers may have a limited perception of the abilities of students with
mild/moderate disabilities. These limitations expressed by their teacher could hamper the
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 11
academic progress or test scores of these pupils. Low-quality teaching practices can have a
negative impact on all pupils especially these students, who usually need additional supports and
services in their school day (Liu & Su, 2014). Some inclusion teachers are not prepared to teach
students with mild/moderate disabilities due to their own misconceptions of the pupils.
Misguided perceptions can lead to negative stereotypes about these pupils’ abilities.
Some teachers would not advocate for additional services for students with mild/moderate
disabilities because of their belief the programs would be ineffective for pupils who have low
cognitive or motor skills (Liu & Su, 2014). These types of perceptions could force an inclusion
teacher to focus most teaching strategies on non-disabled students and leave the pupils with
disabilities behind. This could increase the discrepancy in test scores between disabled and non-
disabled students and cause students with mild/moderate disabilities to regress academically.
Some inclusion teachers have indicated that students with mild/moderate disabilities should be
placed in their own environment or never leave the special education class setting (Florian, 2014).
This type of misguided perception can hinder the progress of these students and the inclusion
teachers.
Misconceptions about work ethic of students with mild/moderate disabilities have led to
reading inefficiencies in their academic progress. Students with disabilities have difficulties
learning to read, due to cognitive ability and working memory (Connor, 2014). Thus, students
with mild/moderate disabilities are not being antagonistic towards reading, but rather have
difficulties processing the information they are receiving. Therefore, some inclusion teachers
need to be aware that it is the processing of information and not their work ethic that delays these
students’ reading efficiency. This is important because early diagnosis of a disability and early
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 12
intervention programs will increase the chance of school success (Ford, 2006). Reading
inefficiencies that go undetected or misdiagnosed can lead to reading regression or illiteracy.
Some inclusion teachers may not believe in the stereotypes associated with students with
mild/moderate disabilities; however, they may still be unfamiliar with how to support their
reading progress. Due to their lack of training, some inclusion teachers are unaware of the proper
assessments or teaching strategies to administer to students with mild/moderate disabilities
(Connor, 2014). Inclusion teacher educational background may focus only on how to help non-
disabled students become efficient readers. Some general education teachers struggle to
accommodate these pupils’ needs (Mears, 2012). Lack of awareness and training has caused
some inclusion teachers to become apprehensive when helping students with mild/moderate
disabilities learn to read.
Reading inefficiencies may occur when an inclusion teacher is unfamiliar with strategies
that could help students with mild/moderate disabilities. The teacher may not collaborate or
communicate with special education educators who could have strategies to help these students.
Some collaborations between general and special education teachers have provided positive
results and improved students’ abilities (Matson &Williams, 2014). However, a lack of
collaboration from teachers is detrimental to these pupils’ opportunity to become a proficient
reader.
Mathematics is another subject which requires students with mild/moderate disabilities to
understand procedures and memory recall. Core subjects as mathematics require a student to
understand procedural, conceptual, and abstract knowledge to solve multiple-step problems
(Rueda, 2011). Inclusion teachers need to be aware that students with mild/moderate disabilities
have difficulties processing information in sequential order. General and special education
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 13
students learn differently, and any teacher who is not prepared for that type of environment will
have their pupils suffer or regress (Bryant & Bryant, 2016). Having teachers who are prepared
allows students in an inclusive environment to progress in their academic classes.
Before an inclusion teacher can assist a student with mild/moderate disabilities in math,
the educator must understand how the pupil receives the information. Students who have
cognitive disabilities have difficulties processing information and receiving all necessary
information to solve a mathematical problem (Harwell & Jackson, 2008). Thus, the inclusion
teacher’s challenge is to determine if these students received all necessary information to solve a
mathematical problem. When the student with mild/moderate disabilities does not receive all
information, the question becomes what procedures or measures are taken to rectify the situation.
Multiple strategies are accessible to help students with mild/moderate disabilities in
mathematics, but determining which method is effective can become challenging. Some
inclusion teachers are willing to help but are unfamiliar on how or which mathematical strategy
to implement (Harwell & Jackson, 2008). Teachers who are not knowledgeable or trained on
how to implement certain strategies will hinder their pupils’ progress. Mathematics is a subject
where most of the understanding comes from recalling previous procedures, but students with
cognitive disabilities have short-term memories (Bryant & Bryant, 2016). Teachers must possess
depth of knowledge on an academic subject and relevant information about how students with
disabilities process procedural information such as mathematics.
Some students with mild/moderate disabilities have cognitive and/or behavioral problems.
Inclusion teachers must address inappropriate behavior by these pupils; otherwise, it can have an
inverse effect on the academic abilities (Oliver & Reschly, 2014). Student behavior can have an
influential effect on their ability to learn and process information. Inclusion teacher must
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 14
understand why the behavior is occurring and how to neutralize the impact it has on students
with mild/moderate disabilities (Leko & Moses, 2014). An effective inclusion teacher is aware of
the academic and social needs of students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Inclusion teachers also must deal with their perceptions of students with disabilities who
have behavioral problems. Some educators view behavioral problems as an indication that pupils
are incapable of learning (Kaufman, 2014). Some teachers may not put forth the effort to
neutralize the behavior of student with mild/moderate disabilities due to their preconceived
notion of the pupils. Teachers are a vital and influential part of a student’s academic success, and
those who have a positive relationship with their students help them become lifelong learners
(Hladky, 2011). Teachers who have a negative relationship with these students can have a pupil
who is frustrated and can become a distraction to all participants in an inclusive environment.
Statement of Problem
The purpose of this study is to address the challenges inclusion teachers’ face when
teaching students with special needs. Teachers are challenged by their own perceptions of the
cognitive and social abilities of students with mild/moderate disabilities. These perceptions
influence how these teachers implement pacing strategies to help students with mild/moderate
disabilities. Ineffective teaching methods or pacing plans may have an impact on students with
disabilities (Jackson, 2014). Reading and mathematics are subjects that are learned by
persistence, practice, and procedural methods. Therefore, inclusion teachers must implement
effective pacing strategies such as time management and constant repetition to assist students
with mild/moderate disabilities. They can accomplish by developing positive perceptions about
how these pupils are capable of learning.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 15
Inclusion teachers’ lack of familiarity with students who have cognitive deficits is a
challenge. Some of these teachers may need to change their teaching methods or the strategies
they previously used to assist students with mild/moderate disabilities. According to Berry
(2008), they must develop a sense of patience and reevaluate their definition of student progress.
This includes their awareness of how students learn differently, but are still capable of learning.
Ineffective teaching methods are detrimental to the progress of all students, especially
that of pupils with mild/moderate disabilities. Some of these students may transition into an
inclusive classroom where the pace of the lesson plan is quicker, fewer examples are provided,
and the teachers’ expectations of the pupils’ background knowledge is higher (Jackson, 2014).
Thus, how does modifying the pace of instruction influence the inclusion teacher’s perception of
students with mild/moderate disabilities academic and social capabilities? Some of these students
may transition from a classroom where the teacher focuses on function skills such as hygiene and
tracing letters most of the day (Jackson, 2014). Therefore, the inclusion teacher must implement
strategies to keep these students engaged in academic course work for either an entire class
period or most of the day, depending on the ability and placement of the student. This can
become problematic for the inclusion teacher when the students are not accustomed to an
academically rigorous schedule, which may not match their educational goals within their
Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Inclusion teachers may have intervention strategies that help students with mild/moderate
disabilities that struggle in class, but implementing these strategies is time consuming. Some
inclusion teachers are more comfortable implementing intervention strategies when they receive
help from a special education teacher or paraprofessional (Berry, 2008). However, some students
are in an inclusion class without an assistant or paraprofessional. Inclusion teachers have
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 16
complained in the past of lack of preparation time during the school day to incorporate effective
teaching strategies (Logan & Wilmer, 2013). This can also lead to frustration by the inclusion
teacher.
Some inclusion teachers’ methods may become ineffective when the behavioral issues of
students with mild/moderate disabilities are not addressed, and these teachers struggle to find
effective methods to control these issues (Blanchett, 2006; Jackson, 2014). The inclusion
teacher’s inability to modify behavior can also create a negative environment within the
classroom for other pupils. Teachers’ strategies are a strong predictor of a pupil’s success in
general education classrooms (Cooper, Kurttss, Baber, & Vallecorsa, 2008). An analysis of how
inclusion teachers handle behavioral issues is important.
Some inclusion teachers have attended professional development sessions on strategies to
address students’ behavioral issues. Some suggested a need for continuous training and updates
on methods to help students with mild/moderate disabilities function in an inclusive setting
(Logan & Wilmer, 2013). While inclusion teachers are aware of some methods to manage
discipline in their classes, some have difficulty implementing standardized test scores of all their
students and simultaneously closing the achievement gap between general education and special
education students. To achieve this goal, inclusion teachers know of the need to differentiate
teaching for students with mild/moderate disabilities, but become frustrated when those methods
do not work (Rusznyak & Walton, 2014). This study investigated the degree to which inclusion
teachers implement strategies for students with mild/moderate disabilities. The goal of an
inclusion classroom is to have teachers be responsible and held accountable for the same type of
academic standards (Levine, 2012).
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 17
Students with mild/moderate disabilities can perform or succeed in an inclusion
classroom that caters to their academic and social needs if the correct pacing plan is in place.
Pacing of instruction is an integral part of understanding curriculum, and because students in an
inclusive classroom are expected to perform academically, the pace of instruction helps them
achieve these goals. This is significant because these students are expected to perform near or at
proficient levels in general education classrooms and settings (Center for Public Education,
2009). Furthermore, the National Center for Learning Disabilities stated that nearly 8 out of 10
students classified with a disability, under IDEA, can operate on the same level as non-disabled
students in educational settings (Center for Public Education, 2009). Therefore, an analysis of
inclusion teacher practices and perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities could help
determine why some pupils with mild/moderate disabilities succeed or fail in an inclusion
classroom. A teacher’s goal is to motivate students to become independent and self-reliant
despite their capabilities (Rueda, 2011). Thus, their needs to be an analysis on how some
inclusion teachers are being effective within an inclusion classroom.
The purpose of this study is to analyze challenges of inclusion teachers when teaching
students with special needs. This study will analyze whether past professional development or
training is used by inclusion teachers to understand the accommodations of students with
disabilities. Are inclusion teachers pacing their instruction so that students with disabilities can
understand and progress academically. Students who are at a disadvantage need a person or
group of people to advocate for them to succeed and progress in the education system (Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). Advocacy can help students with disabilities maneuver through academic
institutions.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 18
Advocacy is important for inclusion teachers who want to assist students with
mild/moderate disabilities. Advocates are knowledgeable of how to navigate through the
education system (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Thus, it is important to learn what perceptions
inclusion teachers have about the capabilities of students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Inclusion teachers also face the challenge of pacing instruction that will accommodate students
with mild/moderate disabilities in reading and mathematics. Teachers need to use an array of
strategies to help engage students’ cognitive abilities (Rueda, 2011). The pace of instruction also
influences students’ comprehension.
The research questions are as follows: What are the perceptions of inclusion teachers
regarding students with mild/moderate disabilities? How has professional development affected
those perceptions? How have perceptions affected pacing?
Importance of Study
This study will aid in determining effective pacing plan practices that address the
academic needs of students with mild/moderate disabilities in an inclusion classroom. These
students perform better academically and socially in inclusion classes compared to when they are
segregated in special education classrooms (Levine, 2012). However, inclusion classrooms are
only effective when teachers have positive perceptions of the capabilities of students with
mild/moderate disabilities. Inclusion teachers who can involve multiple stakeholders such as
parents, co-teachers, and additional special education resources can help students with
mild/moderate disabilities substantially. Understanding how to implement a pacing plan within
an inclusion classroom is vital to addressing academic and behavioral issues of these pupils.
This study is also important because effective pacing plans can be universally
implemented. Given that the teaching profession has a high turnover rate within the first 5 years,
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 19
training in effective strategies may aid in supporting and retaining new teachers (Ingersoll &
Strong, 2011). The perception inclusion teachers have about the capabilities of students with
mild/moderate disabilities is important to the pupils’ learning. Students with mild/moderate
disabilities will continue to enter general education classrooms and will be provided access to
standardized curriculum. Thus, it is vital for inclusion teachers to understand the abilities of these
pupils.
Limitations and Delimitations
Individualized education programs and test scores were not reviewed by the researcher
because of confidentiality. Students’ opinions are viable, but the researcher did not interview
them directly. This study primarily focused on pacing plan effectiveness and the perceptions
teachers have of students with disabilities. This study did not have any access to general or
special education students.
Another limitation of this study was the size of the population sample. Only eight
teachers’ perceptions and work were analyzed for effectiveness of strategies aimed at students
with mild/moderate disabilities in an inclusion classroom. The participating teachers did not
provide informal testing data. Future researchers could increase the size of the sample and
further the study of the theories presented in this study.
Definitions and Terms
Inclusion Teacher: Teachers who have a mixture of general and special education
students in one classroom (Levine, 2012)
National Center for Learning Disabilities: an institution which test and monitors the
progress of special needs students. (Center for Public Education 2009).
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 20
Students with mild/moderate disabilities: students who have cognitive or emotional
deficits which hinders their ability to process information (Berry, 2008).
Co-teaching: a collaboration between two teachers, who provide joint lesson plans and
assistance to all their pupils in the classroom (Levine, 2012).
Organization of Study
Chapter One explains the problem inclusion teachers have with the perceptions and
challenges of teaching students with mild/moderate disabilities. Chapter Two provides a review
of literature on how to implement certain teaching strategies to academically and socially assist
students with mild/moderate disabilities. Chapter Three provides the methodology and data
analysis methods for this study. Chapter Four reports the results of the data regarding inclusion
teachers and their perceptions of students with disabilities. Finally, Chapter Five presents a
summary of the results.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review focuses on the gap between having knowledge of inclusion
strategies and methods of implementing them. A minority of inclusion teachers is aware of how
to implement strategies with students who have mild/moderate disabilities. However, more
school districts want to increase inclusion classes. Thus, the ways in which inclusion teachers
implement these strategies were analyzed. The topics under review are students with
mild/moderate disabilities, cognitive ability, communication impairment, classroom behavior,
inclusion classrooms, classroom management, implementation, teacher collaboration and
sentiments about students with disabilities. Awareness of various strategies does not necessarily
mean that an inclusion teacher knows how to implement them (Levine, 2012). This review
focuses on the important role of how a teacher self-efficacy and perception of how students with
mild/moderate disabilities learn in an inclusion classroom factor in the academic/behavioral
success or failure of these pupils. Finally, this review also focuses on the varying degrees to
which an inclusion teacher can implement strategies to improve the academics and behavior of
students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Teacher Perceptions and Challenges
Inclusion teachers must focus on their own perceptions of students with mild/moderate
disabilities which could lead to obstacles or challenges within the classroom. Inclusion teacher
perceptions of having a student diagnosed with a cognitive disability entering the classroom can
become overwhelming. The challenges inclusion teachers have with students who have mental
learning disabilities is understanding what they can accomplish academically and socially. Some
general education teachers are accustomed to only teaching students without disabilities (Sze,
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 22
2009). Currently, some teachers need to understand their perceptions of students with
mild/moderate disabilities to overcome some of the challenges of teaching them.
A teacher’s self-efficacy is, at times, the determining factor in whether students with
mild/moderate disabilities are successful (Ahsan, Sharma, & Deppeler, 2012). Teachers who
have students with mild/moderate disabilities in inclusion classrooms may become apprehensive
or negative towards these pupils due to their lack of skills or knowledge on how to implement
certain techniques (Ahsan et al., 2012). A teacher who has low self-efficacy is detrimental to the
academic or behavioral achievement of a student with mild/moderate disabilities. For instance, a
teacher of students with mild/moderate disability may not be able to help them meet the learning
goals outlined in their IEP. This can cause the student even more academic or behavioral
deficiencies.
Lack of awareness about a disability also contributes to the low-efficacy of a teacher who
has students with mild/moderate students in their classrooms. Many teachers have reservations
about including students with mild/moderate disabilities in their classroom because they are
either uninformed about disability or not prepared to teach them (Loreman, Earle, Sharma, &
Forlin, 2007). However, inclusion classrooms are becoming a trend in developing countries
(Forlin, Loreman, & Sharma, 2013). Therefore, all teachers can benefit from better
understanding of these pupils to improve their effectiveness.
Some regular education teachers believe meaningful learning can only take place when
students’ cognitive abilities function in a normal capacity and have negative perception of
merging students with mild/moderate disabilities into an inclusion classroom. Students with
mild/moderate disabilities have difficulties processing information. According to Thomas (2008),
some regular education teachers have serious reservations concerning placing students with
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 23
mild/moderate disabilities into regular education classrooms. The general education teachers’
main concern was how an inclusion class affects the academic achievement of non-disabled
students. Thomas also found that inclusion teachers were apprehensive about teaching students
who have processing deficits.
Cognitive awareness of students with mild/moderate disabilities is another challenge for
inclusion teachers. Cognitive ability and the challenges it presents for inclusion teachers is a
second focus point. According to Mayer (2011), meaningful learning takes place when the
sensory, working, and long-term memory all work in unison. Mayer described how each section
of the memory must have the capability to process information properly (Mayer, 2011). When
students can process information, they have fewer challenges adjusting to their school
environment. However, students with mild/moderate disabilities often have deficits in cognitive
learning, communication, or behavior, which hinders ability to process information (Levine,
2012). This inability may also cause difficulties and anxiety in a school environment. Some of
these students may spend half their time in either general or segregated special education classes
(Carruthers, 2011). Because these students have a cognitive deficit, developing skills to organize,
process, and integrate information can be difficult. Inclusion teachers may be unaware of these
deficits due to being unfamiliar with students who have cognitive disabilities.
Finally, processing deficits can also affect a student’s ability to communicate and behave
within a classroom. Woods-Groves et al. (2014) explained that students who have
communication and behavioral problems will usually earn lower grades. This becomes a
challenge for the inclusion teacher because these students do not progress academically or
socially. Communication and behavior are obstacles some inclusion teachers must overcome to
assist or teach their students.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 24
This review focused on some of the perceptions teachers have about students with
mild/moderate disabilities and the challenges of teaching them in an inclusive environment.
These are the focal points essential to understanding the perceptions some teachers have about
students with mild/moderate disabilities, the inclusion classroom, modifying curriculum,
cognitive ability, communication impairment, and behavior.
Inclusion Classroom
Inclusion in the classroom includes details and aspects of an inclusive environment.
There has been a significant increase of inclusion classrooms in K-12 education (Ajuwon,
Lechtenberger, Griffin-Shirley, Sokolosky, Zhou, & Mullins, 2012). Students with
mild/moderate disabilities are assigned to classrooms with general education academic
curriculum. The goal is to have all students access the same academic core curriculum whether
they have a disability or not. The perceptions teachers have about students with mild/moderate
disabilities will lead to some classroom modification which could become a challenge for some
instructors (Ajuwon et al., 2012). This section focuses on defining inclusion, segregated
classrooms, extra time on assignments, and curriculum modification.
Understanding the definition of an inclusion classroom provides a perspective of the
challenges an inclusion teacher encounters. Devine (2014) asserted the classroom contains a
mixture of general and special education students in one class learning nationally standardized
curriculum. Usually, students with mild/moderate disabilities who meet certain academic criteria
in their special education classes are reassigned to inclusion classrooms, and special education
teachers will make recommendations to general education teachers concerning which students
are capable of functioning in these classrooms (Devine, 2014). Therefore, the student with
mild/moderate disabilities must adapt to a classroom where all pupils are not cognitive or
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 25
communication impaired. According to Karten (2014), an inclusion teacher who can assist
students with mild/moderate disabilities transition into their classroom can increase productivity
within the class. Students with disabilities have a challenge of being placed into a new class or
classes; however, it is the task of the inclusion teacher to ensure this transition is a positive
occurrence for these pupils. Negative transition into an inclusive environment can also have an
adverse impact on these pupils (Karten, 2014). Ineffective transition of students with
mild/moderate disabilities can be affected by the negative perception a teacher has of these
pupils. Therefore, the teacher’s perception of these students will have an influence on their
transition into an inclusive environment.
Students with mild/moderate disabilities are usually transitioned into an inclusion
classroom from a segregated special education class. Segregated special education classrooms
were designed to help students with disabilities with their academic and emotional needs for a
temporary time and usually make use of remedial class assignments, behavioral issues, and a
restrictive environment (Carruthers, 2011). Carruthers (2011) noted segregated classrooms were
never designed as permanent placement for students with disabilities. This can present
challenges for inclusion teachers who may present academic materials which may overwhelm a
student with mild/moderate disabilities who is not familiar with general education workload.
Müller (2010) emphasized segregated classes focus on assisting students with mild/moderate
disabilities by modifying curriculum and accommodating their academic and social needs. Both
Carruthers and Müller suggested that segregated classrooms provide some benefits for students
with mild/moderate disabilities, but, overall, these classes were regressive academic
environments. Inclusion teachers must create a balance of an increase modified academic
workload, which will benefit students with mild/moderate disabilities.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 26
Inclusion teachers also face the challenge of providing extra time for assignments for
students with mild/moderate disabilities. Sprick (2009) explained extra time for classroom
activities and tests allows a student to adjust and become comfortable in the classroom.
Providing additional time on assignments will allow students with mild/moderate disabilities to
keep pace with their general education peers. Some will need extra time to complete assignments
due to cognitive impairment (Sprick, 2013). However, the inclusion teacher must also provide
activities for students who finish their work early, so these pupils will not become a distraction
(Karten, 2014). Inclusion teachers’ challenge is to create a structured environment where all
students work at or near the same pace, but in different time intervals. Sprick and Karten (2014)
both suggested keeping students occupied as much as possible. Providing extra time for
assignments is not the only accommodation that needs to be addressed, as some students need
adjustment or modification to the general education curriculum.
According to Obiakor and Utley (2012), modifying curriculum is a challenging task for
inclusion teachers. Teachers may provide less academically challenging problems to students
with mild/moderate disabilities or raise cultural awareness through lessons on people who were
diagnosed with similar impairments (Sze, 2009). The objective of modifying curriculum is to
have all pupils at or near the teacher’s lesson pacing plan, yet students with mild/moderate
disabilities can become frustrated when their coursework is modified to the point of becoming
remedial. They may fall behind in their academics as compared to their non-disabled peers
(Carruthers, 2011). Carruthers also expressed that some inclusion teachers provide these students
only remedial work because of their perception that the segregated special classes did not
challenge them academically and that their level of understanding the general education
curriculum is minimal.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 27
Thus, some inclusion teachers may need to understand the difference between addressing
these students’ needs and demeaning them with remedial coursework. The teacher must find a
balance between modifying curriculum and providing challenging in-class assignments for
general education pupils. Some teachers may implement a modified grading system to meet the
needs of student with mild/moderate disabilities and create a balanced grading system.
Modifying curriculum also entails modifying grades by assigning different values to
similar points. For instance, a non-disabled student may receive 85 out of 100 points and have
this considered a “B.” However, a student with mild/moderate disabilities may also receive 85
points and have this considered an “A” (Obiakor & Utley, 2014). Modifying curriculum and
grades had no effect on non-disabled students’ outcomes (Ford, 2013). Ford found over 50% of
inclusion teachers interviewed at a school district in the southwest stated their non-disabled
students were unaffected by curriculum or grade modification in the inclusion classroom (Ford,
2013). A modification of grades of not detrimental to the cohesiveness of an inclusion classroom.
Inclusion teachers face many challenges in their attempt to create an inclusive
environment. Some obstacles for inclusion teachers include students who are familiar with
segregated classrooms, providing extra time on assignments, and modifying curriculum.
Inclusion teachers must focus on creating a positive environment for students with
mild/moderate disabilities transitioning from a segregated class. Inclusion teachers must keep all
pupils near or at the same pace while providing extra time to some students. Modification of
grades may be necessary for students with mild/moderate disabilities to stay on pace with their
non-disabled peers.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 28
Classroom Management
When the classroom environment is positive and comfortable to the point that pupils are
willing to take risks, students’ academic performance improves (Mayer, 2011). Students who
trust their teacher and feel the classroom environment is safe are more engaged in class activities.
Inclusion teachers who create a positive environment will usually develop a rapport and trust
system with their students (Bull, Feldman, & Solity, 2013). Therefore, before any academic
lesson is implemented, the inclusion teacher’s first responsibly is to build a trust system.
To maintain a positive classroom, the inclusion teacher must also account for physical
space. Students with cognitive and communication impairments may need to sit near the teacher
to process information (Levine, 2012), and students who sit near their teacher may become more
comfortable engaging in class activities. Students who are comfortable with their seating
arrangement usually ask more questions, and the teacher can also increase interaction with the
pupil by consistently checking for understanding of content knowledge (Bull et al., 2013). While
the inclusion teacher can circulate around the classroom and monitor students’ progress, the
pupils who are closer to the educator’s desk usually receive more attention. Thus, the physical
spacing within the room can also benefit students with mild/moderate disabilities.
When inclusion teachers arrange the seats within the classroom, they need to provide
enough space between the desks or tables for students with mild/moderate disabilities (Bull et al.,
2013). These students can become frustrated or distracted by extra-curricular noise or activities
that can undermine or sabotage their attention span (Milner & Tenore, 2010). Rearranging the
classroom and assisting these students can have a positive effect on the relationship between
educator and pupil.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 29
In addition, the cultural sensitivity of a teacher is important when attempting to adjust the
behavior of students with mild/moderate disabilities. These students may enter the classroom
with the assumption that teachers do not care about their well-being (Milner & Tenore, 2010).
This behavioral challenge may become overwhelming for an inclusion teacher without the proper
perspective. Teachers who are not culturally aware or sensitive to the needs of these students
may escalate a minor behavioral infraction into a serious situation (Milner & Tenore, 2010). For
example, some of these students may not be aware of classroom rules because they come from a
home environment where rules and following procedures is not taught. Therefore, the teacher
may need to create and refer to a classroom expectation checklist to ensure students are aware of
what is expected of them to maintain a positive classroom environment.
Inclusion teachers should not assume that all students who enter their classroom are
aware of how to act in a class. Classroom expectations are a reminder to students of what is
expected of them daily when entering the class (Sprick, 2013). The list of classroom expectations
should focus on both academics and behavior to maintain a positive class environment. Effective
implementation of classroom expectations means the teacher must consistently refer to them
until the students gain automaticity with the rules (Sprick, 2013). Whatever the classroom
expectations are, the inclusion teacher should not make the consequences draconian when one of
the students violates the rules.
Consequences for disobedience should be an opportunity for the teacher to teach the
correct way to behave (Sprick, 2013). Another aspect for an inclusion teacher to consider is
whether classroom rules are fair and positive. According to Bull et al. (2013), students with
mild/moderate disabilities may have difficulties memorizing long lists due to their processing
deficits. Therefore, these students may break a classroom rule because they have forgotten or
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 30
cannot recall the classroom expectation. Effective classroom management involves modeling
acceptable behavior within the class. At times, the inclusion teacher has to address the behavior
needs of both general and special education students simultaneously.
Adolescents have a natural tendency to learn and are open to new ideas (Quicke, 2007).
Inclusion teachers who model and show examples of appropriate classroom behavior provide
students a visual of acceptable behavior. When students become unruly, the teacher can refer to
one of the acceptable models of behavior. Teaching behavior models is as important to the
students’ process of learning as showing them how to do mathematics or how to read a book
(Rogers & Visser, 2001). Research provides evidence that inclusion teachers who provide daily
schedules have minimal classroom behavioral problems.
Students with mild/moderate disabilities who follow a daily schedule of classroom
routines showed improvement in their academics and behavior (Levine, 2012). Some of these
students perform well when they are in a structured environment and are familiar with the
routines of the classroom, and their self-esteem increases when they can anticipate the next
assignment or classroom activity. Providing visual cues allows students with communication
impairments to focus on or refer to the specific problem they have (Domina, Krings, & VerMass,
2014). Inclusion teachers can also implement a daily plan or schedule to focus exclusively on
behavior.
A functional behavioral plan is specifically designed to help students modify their
behavior within the classroom. The goal of a functional behavior plan is to provide students
options or suggestions on how to replace their challenging behavior issues (Matson & Williams,
2014). A functional behavior plan allows inclusion teachers multiple options or suggestions on
how to create an environment to eliminate or curtail behavioral issues. General education and
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 31
special education teachers can collaborate and create a behavior assessment plans to help
students with their behavioral problems (Matson & Williams, 2014). Inclusion teachers who
have sought guidance from special education teachers concerning students’ behaviors have
expressed this help to be beneficial.
Special education teachers have been provided specialized training to assist students with
mild/moderate disabilities (Milner & Tenore, 2010). Therefore, a special education teacher is a
resource for the inclusion educator when implementing classroom management techniques.
Inclusion teachers who embrace teaching social skills see a decrease in unruliness within their
classrooms (Williams & Reisberg, 2003). Additionally, this collaboration between educators
allows students to become comfortable in their environment because they are familiar with some
of the strategies. Consistent daily routines and familiar teaching strategies can provide a positive
working environment for both teacher and student (Sprick, 2013).
Classroom management is an integral aspect for an inclusion teacher who wants to
implement both academic and behavioral strategies. According to Williams and Reisberg (2003),
teachers who can implement classroom structure allow all students to showcase their academic
abilities. A comfortable environment where students have ample opportunities to learn and the
teacher can implement more academic strategies can only increase the chances of the educator
having a positive perception of their pupils. Inclusion teachers have reported being comfortable
working with students with mild/moderate disabilities when they have had an opportunity to
collaborate with special education teachers (Milner & Tenore, 2010). Therefore, an analytical
review of how general and special education teachers collaborate to assist in implementing
strategies for students with mild/moderate disabilities is appropriate.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 32
Cognitive
Cognitive awareness is the ability to process information. Students who do not process or
retain information may become unmotivated and develop poor academic skills (Mayer, 2011).
Therefore, students with mild/moderate disabilities may perform poorly due to not retaining
some or most of the information presented to them. Morningstar and Mazzoti (2014) suggested
that repeated reading and repetition improve the reading ability of students who have processing
deficits. Core academic subjects tend to follow certain rules and procedures. Cognitive areas to
explore are how students with mild/moderate disabilities process information.
Students with mild/moderate disabilities process information differently than their non-
disabled peers. When students can understand certain procedures and rules, they can process and
decode information which can lead to academic achievement (Rueda, 2011). The ability for a
student to learn is dependent on their ability to process information and follow particular
academic rules or procedures instructed to them by a teacher. Students who can process
information cognitively can recall information about certain academic procedures that can assist
them in improving their problem-solving skills (Rueda, 2011). Students who also understand
when to use their specific skills improve their academic progression (Morningstar & Mazzoti,
2014). For instance, students with cognitive ability may understand multiple procedure steps on
how to solve reading or mathematical problems. Multiple procedure step problems are
problematic for students with mild/moderate disabilities. Reading and math are subjects that
follow certain procedures and routines, but students with mild/moderate disabilities may not
decipher or decode the correct information. Math problems, in particular, often require a high
level of processing skills and the memorization of specific rules to find a solution (Bower &
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 33
Spooner, 2008). However, implementing strategies to help students perform this process have
proven difficult for some teachers.
Inclusion teachers who are aware of the cognitive abilities of students with mild/moderate
disabilities can implement strategies to enhance their academic achievement. Inclusion teachers
who attended workshops or seminars on how to help students with mild/moderate disabilities
improve their reading skills were better prepared for the classroom, and some of their pupils
showed academic improvement (Bower & Wakeman, 2006). Thus, the perception or attitude of
the teacher regarding students with mild/moderate disabilities can shift if the educator is
provided with training and strategies to implement. However, some of these students have
multiple deficits, so inclusion teachers must also focus on implementing strategies for students
who communication is impaired.
Some inclusion teachers are unaware of the cognitive abilities of students with
mild/moderate disabilities. Helping students process information can improve their academic
success (Bower & Spooner, 2008). Some inclusion teachers are unaware of how to help students
with mild/moderate disabilities process information due their lack of training or their perception
of the pupils. Inclusion teachers who are unprepared to address students with mild/moderate
disabilities cognitive ability risk having the pupils fall further behind their non-disabled peers
academically.
Communication
Some students with mild/moderate disabilities have communication deficits. These
students may have trouble processing information due to their inability to communicate (Chung,
Carter, & Sisco, 2012). Their inability to communicate could lead to them falling behind their
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 34
non-disabled peers in an inclusion classroom. Students who have communication impairments do
not develop phonemic awareness and have uncomfortable classroom experiences.
Some students with mild/moderate disabilities have difficulty communicating.
Communication impairments result in difficulty pronouncing syllables clearly and can have an
impact on engagement in school activities and assignments (Domina et al., 2014). Students who
have difficulty communicating in an inclusion classroom may begin to disengage or become
frustrated with their academic progress. Thus, a teacher may have to implement a
communication strategy for one or two students because most pupils can provide clear feedback.
Domina et al. (2014) suggested some students who have communication impairments may not
want to verbalize their questions or answers in a classroom, and others may be unwilling to
communicate their responses because they fear being ridiculed by their peers or teacher. These
students’ limited communication skills can also contribute to having their needs not addressed or
accommodated (Domina et al., 2014).
Some students with disabilities are not comfortable in an inclusion classroom. A student
with mild/moderate disabilities may be physically uncomfortable in one area of the classroom,
but s/he may not bring it to the teachers’ attention for fear of not being understood. Thus, the
student could remain uncomfortable and focused on discomfort rather than on the lesson. Some
students who have oral communication impairments will find other forms of communication to
express their thoughts (Carter et al., 2012). This alternative form of communication may result in
behavioral issues.
Overall, the ability of students with mild/moderate disabilities to communicate with their
teacher is imperative to their learning process. An inclusion teacher has to determine the ability
or the level to which a student with a mild/moderate disability can communicate. Inclusion
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 35
teachers must also determine whether students with mild/moderate disabilities can access the
entire classroom and are comfortable in their ability to communicate in an inclusive environment.
The goal of an inclusion teacher is to engage students with mild/moderate disabilities who have
difficulty communicating their needs.
Behavior
Behavior is a major concern an inclusion teacher may encounter when dealing with
students with mild/moderate disabilities. Teachers may encounter behavioral issues which can be
triggered by cognitive deficits rather than outright defiance. Inclusion teachers’ goal is to
recognize what can trigger students with mild/moderate disabilities behavior disruptions and how
to modify or correct these social interactions. The teacher must also focus on the social aspect of
inclusion when teaching students with mild/moderate disabilities in an inclusion classroom
(Müller, 2010). The teacher must deal challenges associated with behavior such as physical, the
importance of social acceptance, and obstacles of unruly behavior within the classroom. These
are the focus area of the behavior discussion.
Some students with mild/moderate disabilities will express their emotions both verbally
and physically to seek attention. Many will become a behavior problem in class to compensate
for their lack of social skills (Hunt, 2012). Becoming a behavior problem may be the only way to
distinguish themselves from their more academically successful peers. They want to belong to
social groups like their non-disabled peers and wish to not be identified only by their disability
(Hunt, 2012). Sometimes the only goal of a student with mild/moderate disabilities is to be
socially accepted in their school environment.
Being socially accepted by their non-disabled peers is an important goal to some students
with mild/moderate disabilities. One of the main reasons students go to school is to socialize and
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 36
become a member or leader of a social group (Müller, 2010). Some students with mild/moderate
disabilities may resort to violence to either gain acceptance into a social group or maintain status
amongst peers. Observations conducted by Müller (2010) indicated that students who struggle
academically and exhibit behavior problems focus on improving their social status through
physical intimidation of their peers. However, Müller also revealed that some inclusion teachers
administer harsher punishment to students with mild/moderate disabilities who misbehave as
compared to their regular education peers. A student with disabilities who has difficulties
communicating may seek attention through physical intimidation (Müller, 2010). However, the
response by the inclusion teacher could determine if this type of attention-seeking behavior will
increase or decrease. The inclusion teacher can implement a strategy, but the results will depend
on the perception or attitude s/he has towards these students.
Some students with mild/moderate disabilities could enter a classroom displaying
cognitive, communication, and behavioral deficits. These deficits can increase if they are not
addressed. According to Domina et al., (2014) to address their needs, schools must develop
intervention programs or classes. Teachers who are assigned to these classrooms must handle
and address a variety of students who are on different academically and emotional levels. Due to
the varying degrees of cognitive ability within an inclusion classroom, the teacher may be
presented with the challenge of implementing multiple behavior strategies. Inclusion teachers
must address the needs of both disabled and non-disabled students for their classrooms to
function (Griffin & Kilgore, 2002). The inclusion teacher must possess certain skills to create a
functional inclusion classroom.
Therefore, the way students behave in the classroom is a strong indicator of the academic
progress within the class environment. Inclusion teachers are challenged by verbal abuse,
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 37
students’ ability to be socially accepted and potential disruptive behavior within the class.
Inclusion teachers’ ability to implement behavior strategies or modifications is equally important
as any strategy which would address the pupils’ academic goals. The inclusion teacher must
address the academic and socially challenges of students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Discussion of Teacher Perceptions and Challenges
Inclusion teachers are presented with many obstacles. The first obstacle is to understand
their own perceptions of students with mild/moderate disabilities. Inclusion teachers have to
integrate pupils who have disabilities with which the teachers are unfamiliar. These teachers
must develop routines and procedures which will accommodate the students’ cognitive,
communicative and behavioral disabilities. These routines can be viewed as challenges
depending the teachers’ perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities. Thus, a study
should focus on inclusion teachers who have overcome the obstacles of teaching students with
mild/moderate disabilities. It is important to learn what strategies they used to overcome
misperceptions about students’ ability to achieve academically and socially and the advice they
provide about to how to manage a classroom of students at various academic levels.
Teaching Strategy Implementation
This section focuses on how inclusion teachers implement reading, math, and classroom
behavior strategies. Teaching students with mild/moderate disabilities is complex due to their
cognitive deficits (Rueda, 2011). This focus of this section is not on any particular strategy;
rather, the focus is on how to incorporate different techniques and assessment to help students
with mild/moderate disability access the curriculum. The overall focus is not to have all students
working at the same pace, but to have pupils achieve their academic and behavioral goals at a
pace suitable for them. Two core subjects of focus are reading and mathematics. Reading
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 38
strategies are essential because students with mild/moderate disabilities who can read at a
functional level have improved their grades and academic scores gradually (Scalise, 2015). Math
strategies have helped these pupils increase their self-esteem and limit unruly behavior in the
classroom (Bunnell, Manoalo, & Stillman, 2010). Students with mild/moderate disabilities who
demonstrate improvement in these core subjects tend to become a better pupil in class both
academically and socially.
Reading
Reading is a skill, which requires a person to process and retain information for and
individual to comprehend the text. Students with mild/moderate disabilities cognitive deficits
make this process difficult (Davis, 2015). Scalise (2015) asserts, inclusion teachers have to
develop and implement reading strategies to assist student with mild/moderate disabilities. A
variety of evidence-based techniques will help students with mild/moderate disabilities access
reading materials. This section will also focus on how some teachers have incorporated these
reading techniques to help students with mild/moderate disabilities comprehend what they read.
These techniques include pre- and post-assessments, paired reading, and pre-reading strategies.
Teaching a student how to read at any grade level is a challenge. Therefore, teachers
should develop a lesson plan that focuses on how to intervene when students do not read at grade
level (Elish-Piper & L’Allier, 2014). According to L’ Allier and Piper, part of developing a
lesson plan to help students improve in English language arts is administering a pre-assessment.
The teacher can implement an effective strategy to help a student with reading if s/he is familiar
with the student’s background knowledge (Elish-Piper & L’Allier, 2014). Information from the
pre-assessment can guide intervention strategies.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 39
Additional pre-assessments can provide an abundance of data that can influence teaching
strategy to help a student who is struggling with reading and allow teachers to focus on the
student’s academic difficulty (Rueda, 2011). Rueda asserted that collecting data can help the
teacher motivate pupils to read. Teachers can set reading goals once they become familiar with
the students reading ability (Rueda, 2011). Multiple pre-assessments can also indicate whether a
student repeats the same mistakes or patterns are forming in their responses. Accuracy of the pre-
assessments can influence the teacher to create a lesson plan which caters to the academic needs
of a particular student (Scalise, 2015). Information from pre-assessments can help a teacher
determine how to model or present the reading intervention information.
Teachers have a variety of techniques at their disposal to teach reading. One of these,
direct teaching whole groups, is similar to college lectures in that the educator lectures in front of
the class while students listen or take notes. The teacher may read a book to an entire class, so
the students can understand how reading accuracy and fluency sounds to a group of listeners (Lin,
Morgan, Hillemeier, Cook, Maczuga, & Farkas,, 2013). This type of modeling by the teacher
helps students understand how a fluent reader sounds. This technique could be used in a
combination with other implementation strategies to help students improve their reading literacy.
Paired reading is a strategy that involves a teacher combining a fluent reader in the
classroom with a less-developed reader and they work as a team to improve the reading literacy
of both. The less-developed reader can read a few reading passages to the fluent student and each
can take turns helping and reading. The teacher should discuss the contents of the reading
passages with them, both before and after reading, so the pupils can have an opportunity to grasp
the main points (Padak & Rasinski, 2013). Working in small groups or with a peer may help the
less-developed reader improve reading literacy. Paired reading groups allows students to feel
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 40
more comfortable about reading aloud and more willing to expand their vocabulary because they
are reading in front of a small group of peers (Padak & Rasinski, 2013). Paired reading groups
allow the inclusion teacher to assess students with mild/moderate disabilities progress when
paired with fluent readers.
Once different learning techniques or practices have been implemented, post-assessment
usually occurs. The goal of a post-assessment is to determine student improvement after a lesson.
Post-assessment provides information about the effectiveness of the lesson and allows for student
feedback on whether content knowledge increased (Buckley & Boardman, 2014). The teacher
can compare information from the both the pre- and post-assessments and determine what
adjustments need to be made to teaching strategies. Teachers can improve their techniques if
they use student data effectively (Padak & Rasinski, 2013). While Tedick (1998) and Padak and
Rasinski (2013) provided research on reading strategies, they did not address how to implement
these techniques for students with mild/moderate disabilities, and some inclusion teachers have
difficulties in this area. Therefore, the issue of implementing reading strategies with these
students needs to be considered.
Students with mild/moderate disabilities may need more assistance in the classroom.
While they can take pre- and post-assessments, results may not reveal all their needs. Some
teachers may need to use accommodations such as extended time on reading passages or
modified curriculum to help these students achieve (Levine, 2012). Levine (2012) asserted that
the focus should be on how well a student with mild/moderate disabilities can read rather than on
how fast they can. The pace at which a student can read will increase, when the pupil can
improve their reading accuracy. Therefore, some teachers implement additional or multiple
strategies to help them learn reading accuracy. While data from assessments will indicate a
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 41
student’s problem, engaging and motivating him/her is the educators’ objective (Padak &
Rasinski, 2013). Therefore, a student with mild/moderate disabilities can maintain motivation to
read, if the teacher focuses on accuracy rather than reading speed.
Teachers should decipher the reading material a student with mild/moderate disabilities is
interested in before selecting a reading strategy (McConkey, 2001). Some teachers allow
students to select reading books from the school library on topics they are interested in. These
teachers can implement strategies such as timing the students on reading accuracy or having
them explain each paragraph after reading non-curriculum material. Inclusion teachers can use
alternative assessments to incorporate reading strategies (McConkey, 2001). Accuracy is only
one component to reading; comprehension is vital in ensuring students these students become
literate.
Teachers who consistently implement strategies and provide structure in the classroom
see an increase in students’ academic abilities (Sprick, 2013). Sprick (2013) indicated that
students who are occupied with engaging activities are willing to focus and challenge themselves
on completing those assignments. Providing a consistent reading strategy will help students with
mild/moderate disabilities become comfortable and familiar with the lesson. They can anticipate
and prepare for the next strategy once the teacher provides an outline of the lesson (McConkey,
2001). Consistency in the classroom is important to helping these students improve their reading
comprehension. The next step is to select effective teaching strategies.
Repeated readings are used as a strategy by inclusion teachers to improve reading literacy.
Repeated readings involve a student reading and rereading a passage until s/he is familiar with its
main idea. Students with mild/moderate disabilities showed signs of improvement in reading
when they were front loaded with information about the text before reading it and became
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 42
familiar with the reading passage by rereading it multiple times (Boardman & Buckley, 2014).
This allows the student to become aware of key words and points before reading the passage.
Therefore, the goal of an inclusion teacher is to prepare these students to read text before they
attempt the readings. A technique that is useful in implementing these strategies for an inclusion
teacher is patience.
Teachers who do not modify their pace report frustration over the pupils’ academic
performance (Boardman & Buckley, 2014). Therefore, they must practice patience when
implementing any reading strategy (Boardman & Buckley, 2014). Students’ vocabulary
improves over time when they have reading strategies which are constant and consistent.
However, some inclusion teachers may be unaware or have difficulties modifying the pace of
their curriculum. Some inclusion teachers expressed being overwhelmed by having limited or no
knowledge on how to create lessons that allow repetitive reading techniques to help students’
reading comprehension (Bryant & Bryant, 2016). Consistent reading routines are essential to
helping students with mild/moderate disabilities improve their reading ability.
Students with mild/moderate disabilities showed improvement in their academic
performance when their daily schedule was consistent and outlined for them (Bryant & Bryant,
2016). Creating a daily schedule allows teacher and students to anticipate the appropriate times
when reading intervention can occur during the class period (Sprick, 2013). A daily class
schedule allows the teacher to organize how much time s/he can spend on each topic and allows
students to expect and be prepared for extra help (Bryant & Bryant 2016). Many inclusion
teachers who incorporate intervention time into their daily schedule find opportunities to
implement reading strategies for these pupils (Sprick, 2013). A routine schedule helps students
with mild/moderate disabilities function in an inclusion classroom.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 43
Providing reading strategies for both general and special education students is a
challenging endeavor for inclusion teachers. While some strategies need to be incorporated
differently, depending on the students’ processing abilities, some can overlap and be
implemented with an entire inclusion classroom (Sprick, 2013). Thus, the teacher’s perception of
a student’s ability to read should be a positive one, as direct teaching, paired readings, repeated
readings, daily schedule and teachers’ patience can benefit all students (Bryant & Bryant, 2016).
These strategies are not applicable solely to reading; they can also be incorporated into the
subject of mathematics.
In summary, inclusion teachers who are patient and consistent when implementing
reading techniques to help students with mild/moderate disabilities have evidence which shows
strategies are effective. Having a reading plan when assisting students with mild/moderate
disabilities become better readers has also proven effective. These teachers also have a
perception that students with mild/moderate disabilities can improve their reading ability when
given some classroom modifications. A consistent plan along with a positive perception of
students with mild/moderate disabilities help teachers record reading improvements in their post-
assessment evaluation of their pupils.
Mathematics
Mathematics is a complex subject that includes vocabulary problems for students to solve,
and a requirement to understanding these is mastery of mathematical terms. Math is a difficult
subject for some students to master because they have negative preconceived notions from
previous experience and become apprehensive about the material (Taber, 2013). Math has
patterns and rules to be followed, and students who are not organized or have difficulties
following organized procedures and step-by-step methods have difficulties solving problems
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 44
(Taber, 2013). Math teachers will usually prepare students by giving them pre-content
knowledge, such as vocabulary terms, before asking them to attempt numerical problems.
Teachers should incorporate reading comprehension techniques to help students understand
mathematical vocabulary terms (Gresens, 2011). Once students become familiar with math
vocabulary, the next step is to implement step-by-step procedures on solving mathematic
numerical problems.
Solving mathematical problems in secondary education usually involves students
extracting information from word problems, creating a numerical problem, and using multiple
steps or procedures to find the solution. Some teachers can show five to ten steps to solve one
math equation (Applegate, 2012). Therefore, an effective teaching strategy is to have students
understand math vocabulary and provide sample problems with multiple-step solutions so
students are aware of the procedures needed to solve them. Teachers who prepare their students
for math by scaffolding and providing pre-content knowledge alleviate many of their students’
anxiety (Hellum-Alexander, 2010). These strategies are effective when most students are at or
near the same cognitive level. Nonetheless, Hellum-Alexander and Applegate do not address
cognitive disabilities in their research, and inclusion classrooms have students for whom these
techniques may not be as effective. As the inclusion teacher must implement practices for a
variety of students, the following section presents effective strategies to help students with
mild/moderate disabilities grasp math vocabulary and multiple step-by-step mathematical
procedures.
Mathematics requires computation skills, but students with mild/moderate disabilities
have difficulty using these (Bunnell et al., 2010). Mathematics is also a discipline which requires
an understanding of routines and procedures. In addition, many math problems require
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 45
understanding how to manipulate numbers and understand the organization of those numbers to
solve “real world” mathematical problems (Bunnell et al., 2010). Inclusion teachers who want to
implement math strategies need to become aware of students’ cognitive deficits. Awareness of
their cognitive ability, will allow the inclusion teacher to implement a strategy which could help
their mathematics capability.
Some teachers have students become proficient in math vocabulary before attempting any
mathematic numerical problems (Gresens, 2011). Some inclusion teachers implement flash cards
to help students understand math vocabulary. Flashcards may show a word, definition, and visual
picture (if applicable) so that students can understand the meaning of the words before reading
them in math literature. Showing students key math vocabulary words individually is an effective
teaching tool for helping them memorize and understand the word (Bunnell et al., 2010). Some
inclusion teachers have implemented this strategy at both the beginning and end of math
literature.
One of the processes of meaningful learning is for students to pay attention to relevant
words or pictures (Mayer, 2011). Inclusion teachers may focus on context clues in mathematical
word problems to help students decipher important information within the equation. Teachers
who focus on the important aspects of a mathematical word problem help students improve their
test scores (Gresens, 2011). Thus, students with mild/moderate disabilities can focus on the main
idea or points and not irrelevant information which can confuse the pupils. This technique allows
students to focus and memorize key mathematical terms that will help them solve equations.
Some inclusion teachers have implemented techniques and demonstrated to how to decipher
context clues within mathematical word problems.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 46
Some inclusion teachers will give students with mild/moderate disabilities a list of
mathematical vocabulary words to focus on and a highlighter or marker so they can underline
key words. Focusing on context clues allows them to read, visualize, hypothesize, compute,
check, and self-monitor if the information extracted from mathematical word problems is correct
(Montague, Enders, & Dietz 2011). Inclusion teachers who implement these techniques help
students overcome their cognitive impairments. However, when implementing a math strategy,
the teacher must also monitor the pace of instruction. Some mathematical strategies are difficult
to implement if the teacher does not account for students who learn at a deliberate pace (Dietz et
al., 2011). Inclusion teachers need to create a pacing plan so the student with mild/moderate
disabilities who is learning math will not fall behind their non-disabled peers.
In summary, teachers should not respond or view students in a negative way when they
have difficulties in mathematics. Instead, teachers should reaffirm and implement strategies such
as math vocabulary, context clues, and flashcards because students’ confidence in math can be
influenced through on the approach and strategies used. Inclusion teachers can incorporate math
strategies which could help students with mild/moderate grasp complex mathematical concepts.
Inclusion teachers who help students with mild/moderate disabilities on math strategies must also
be aware of incorporating a pace plan so these students will not fall behind and become
frustrated.
Classroom Behavior
Students who are not engaged in constructive or positive school activities tend to become
disruptive in class, which can lead to behavior problems (Müller, 2010). Some students will
become disruptive when the teacher has not provided enough course material to stimulate them
throughout the class period. Secondary teachers need to become aware that some students have
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 47
behavioral problems due to hormonal change and are not personally antagonistic towards them
(Sprick, 2013). Therefore, the inclusion teacher must implement a behavior plan for only a
minimal number of students to create or maintain classroom management.
Behavioral problems can start from external factors and manifest itself within the
classroom. For example, some students will develop behavioral problems at school because their
home environment is unstable (Carruthers, 2011). Some students will continue with their
behavior problems despite the consequences of their action because the teacher is focused on
them. During their adolescent developmental stage, students want a sense of importance or
relevance. Therefore, they will seek attention whether positive or negative (Müller, 2010). Thus,
inclusion teachers must become aware of their students’ behavioral needs and implement
strategies to address them.
Creating a positive and nurturing environment is one of many strategies to improve or
adjust student behavior (Sprick, 2013). Making friendly gestures, asking students about their
personal interests, and providing assignments which are engaging are some techniques that
address the social and emotional needs of disruptive pupils. Teachers who implemented open
forum discussion groups, where all pupils voice their concerns, saw a decrease in disruptive
behavior in their classroom (Levine, 2012). Research has shown that these strategies are
effective when implemented correctly. However, Levine does not address what happens when
students with mild/moderate disabilities have behavioral problems.
Students who have processing deficits may not understand a teacher’s directions (Levine,
2012). Some may be labeled as disruptive in the classroom because the teacher is under the
impression s/he is being defiant through a slow response rather than slow to process information.
This type of miscommunication can have a negative effect on these students. Some inclusion
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 48
teachers who have not made a connection with these students refer them to the principal’s office
for minor infractions more readily than they do their non-disabled students (Blachett, 2006).
Students who have difficulties expressing themselves orally may use physical or
emotional means to communicate (Sprick, 2013). Like their non-disabled peers, students with
mild/moderate disabilities also want attention from adults or teachers. However, they may be
overlooked by their inclusion teacher due to their limited verbal skills; thus, they will seek
attention by intimidating or physically assaulting fellow classmates (Carter et al., 2012).
Inclusion teachers must also implement strategies to adjust these students’ behavior problems.
Behavioral techniques used for non-disabled students can also be implemented for pupils
with mild/moderate disabilities. Additionally, the inclusion teacher can implement behavioral
strategies such as checking for understanding and creating visual cues around the class so the
pupils are aware of classroom expectations. These techniques are supportive of students who
have processing and communication impairments. These visual cues can be the foundation for an
inclusive classroom management structure or style.
Discussion of Teacher Strategy Implementation
Implementing any teaching strategy is a difficult process. The inclusion teacher must find
the appropriate strategies to help students with mild/moderate disabilities progress with their
reading, mathematics and social behavior. The inclusion teacher must also become patient when
implementing these strategies so students with mild/moderate disabilities will not become
frustrated and regress both academically and socially. Inclusion teachers who are consistent with
their reading, mathematics, and behavior strategies will help students with mild/moderate
disabilities adjust to an inclusive environment.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 49
Social Capital
Inclusion teachers can become an advocate for students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Inclusion teachers who have a positive perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities can
help their academic progress through by assisting in the transition from segregated to inclusion
classrooms (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The inclusion teacher can advocate for the resources needed
to help with students with mild/moderate disabilities. Inclusion teacher can elicit resources such
as collaborating with other teachers and/or continue their education about students with
mild/moderate disabilities through going to school or attending professional development
training. Inclusion teachers can solicit assistance from a resource specialist or special education
teacher to develop or implement strategies on the students they both share (Hellum-Alexander,
2010). Special education teachers may model or role-play with the inclusion educators how to
implement certain academic and behavior strategies. This type of support can benefit students
with mild/moderate disabilities both academically and emotionally. This section focuses on some
of the resources an inclusion teacher can solicit to help students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Some of the resources are social environment, collaboration, and additional education through
school or professional development (Hellum-Alexander, 2010). The theoretical framework for
this review is to assess how an inclusion teacher can become an advocate or change agent for
students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Social Cultural Capital
According to Stanton-Salazar (2004), social capital is connections an individual makes to
help them achieve their social or education goals. Students who are at a disadvantage or have
disabilities depend on a social network to help them achieve the educational goals. Social
network is a composite of individuals who have resources that can help students who are
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 50
disadvantage or disabled (Stanton-Salazar, 2004). Through social capital, students with
mild/moderate disabilities can improve their academic progress by having access to resources
they were not privilege to without social connections. An example of social capital or network
for students with mild/moderate are certificated tutors, assistive technology coordinator, and a
speech/behavioral therapist.
Stanton-Salazar’s (2004) theory is that disadvantaged individuals who can develop a
social network will acquire social capital. This social capital will allow disadvantaged or
disabled students to improve their academic and social status within an unfamiliar education
institute or environment. Disadvantaged students are more prone to drop out of school when they
do not have an individual or teacher concern with their academic or social needs (Stanton-
Salazar, 2001). Thus, a student with mild/moderate disabilities would need an advocate who can
create a social network for these pupils to improve their social status.
Stanton-Salazar (1997) suggested that individuals who want to successfully maneuver
through institutions need to access additional resources to achieve this process. Individuals need
to acquire certain resources or capital to navigate through an institution they may be unfamiliar
with. Students who have access to resources increase their academic standing and improve their
ability of social promotion within their learning institute (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). These students
usually have a change agent, which is a person who can access resources and bring resources
together to help students in certain minority groups. Students with mild/moderate disabilities are
labeled as a minority group (National Center of Educational Statistics, 2011) and need a change
agent to help them navigate through their school experience of inclusion classrooms.
Inclusion teachers can become change agents for students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Teachers have the capability of bringing together parents, tutorial intervention, social workers,
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 51
and other resources to help their students succeed (Goldstein & Ault, 2015). For students with
mild/moderate disabilities who have limited to no network of help, an inclusion teacher can
improve their social capital. Inclusion teachers can also increase social capital of assistance by
recommending these pupils have access to a teacher aide. A vast social network will increase the
chances of a student navigating successfully though their learning institution (Stanton-Salazar,
1997). Inclusion teachers can be the change agent who can increase a student with mild/moderate
disabilities social network.
Inclusion teachers can involve the parents of students with mild/moderate disabilities in
accessing a social capital of assistance for their child. Students with mild/moderate disabilities
who have parental involvement are better adjusted in school than their peers whose parents are
not involved. Inclusion teachers can provide parents with information on outside resources or
programs which can help their child with mild/moderate disabilities improve both academically
and socially. Having parental and extended family support helps students with mild/moderate
disabilities improves their ability to social promote within their learning institution (Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). Inclusion has the capability of bringing all these resources together to assist
students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Collaboration
Collaboration occurs when the inclusion teacher seeks knowledge from colleagues on
how to assist students with mild/moderate disabilities academically and socially. Inclusion
teachers receive a better understanding of students with mild/moderate disabilities when they
collaborate with special education educators (Hellum-Alexander, 2010). Collaboration amongst
the teachers can be beneficial when both educators improve their communication on how to
assist students with mild/moderate disabilities in an inclusion classroom (Jones & Goble, 2012).
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 52
This allows the inclusion teacher to generate a positive perception of the abilities of students
with mild/moderate disabilities.
Collaboration is a support system which can help inclusion teachers change their
perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities (Hellum-Alexander, 2010). Hellum-
Alexander (2010) provides an example of a new inclusion teacher who had an abundance of
these students and limited experience teaching and did not seek assistance in the semester. The
inclusion teacher also had limited knowledge on implementing strategies to assist these students.
This teacher became frustrated and had a negative perception of the students’ academic abilities.
Thus, the teacher sought guidance from special education teachers and began to collaborate and
implement suggested teaching strategies. The results were that students showed improvements in
academics and behavior.
Inclusion teachers’ support system for students with mild/moderate disabilities is part of
the procedure of implementing teaching strategies. Co-planning allows the inclusion teacher to
become familiar with the background knowledge and strengths of these students (Jones & Goble,
2012). Strategies that were effective in the special education class could be transferred to the
inclusion classroom (Milner & Tenore, 2010). The resources at inclusion teachers’ disposal will
help them implement teaching strategies effectively.
To maintain the academic or behavioral progress of a student with mild/moderate
disabilities, inclusion and special education teachers may share strategies (Jones & Goble, 2012).
This type of collaboration can also build rapport between educators, with the ultimate outcome
benefiting the students. Trust and respect between general and special education teachers may
lead to their implementing or developing numerous strategies to help students achieve academic
and behavioral goals (Goldstein & Ault, 2015). This type of trust benefits the student with
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 53
mild/moderate disabilities who is transiting into an inclusion classroom. Working in unison,
general and special education teachers can benefit students with mild/moderate disabilities both
academically and behaviorally.
Collaboration amongst teachers can help students with mild/moderate disabilities.
However, collaboration can become ineffective when teachers have certain beliefs about these
students. A teacher’s belief in their own self-efficacy can help or hinder the pupils’ academic or
behavioral progression (Ahsan et al., 2012). The effectiveness of a teaching strategy may be
dependent on the skill level of the teacher.
Becoming an advocate for students with mild/moderate disabilities can be challenging
without accessing any resources such as collaboration. Communication through collaboration
will help the student with mild/moderate disabilities if the inclusion teacher is willing to foster
this relationship amongst their fellow colleagues. This teacher collaboration will also help
inclusion teacher self-efficacy, so they can become a better advocate for their students with
mild/moderate disabilities. Inclusion teachers can only become advocates for students with
mild/moderate disabilities if they are self-assured about their teaching methods when assisting
the pupils.
Training
Enhancing the inclusion teacher’s ability to become an advocate for students with
mild/moderate disabilities can occur through additional classes at a university or professional
development focused on an inclusive environment. Teachers who work with students with
mild/moderate disabilities should have current and continuous training to stay up-to-date with
how to assist students with special needs (Cameron & Cook, 2013). Inclusion teachers who may
have low self-efficacy about their ability to assist students with mild/moderate disabilities can
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 54
take training or university courses in to improve their skills. Perceptions teachers have about
students change as they become more familiar with the students’ needs (Earle et al., 2007). This
section focuses on how inclusion teachers can improve their self-efficacy through training and
knowledge to become an advocate for students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Lack of awareness about a disability also contributes to the low efficacy of a teacher of
students with mild/moderate students. Many teachers have reservations about including students
with mild/moderate disabilities in their classroom because they are either uninformed about the
disability or not prepared to teach them (Earle et al., 2007). However, inclusion classrooms are
becoming a worldwide trend (Forlin et al., 2012). Therefore, all teachers can benefit from some
type of training to improve their effectiveness. The professional development or university
training should focus on how to help students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Some teachers will take courses on how to run an effective inclusion classroom at a
university. Courses that focus on inclusion have had a positive effective on teachers’ approaches
to teaching students with mild/moderate disabilities (Beacham & Rouse, 2012). These university
courses provide skills, knowledge, and an understanding of how these students learn. Many
teachers who have taken university courses on strategies concerning implementation have
benefited from the classes due to some innovative pedagogy models (Norwich & Nash, 2011).
Teachers who have students with mild/moderate disabilities in their classroom use techniques
they learn at the university to help their pupils understand the curriculum (Forlin et al., 2012).
Thus, teachers who had low self-efficacy when teaching students with mild/moderate
disabilities improve their teaching methods when taking courses on inclusion at their local
university (Forlin et al., 2012). For instance, some teachers who have low self-efficacy were not
aware of some of the resources or techniques they already had at their disposal. Teachers who
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 55
were willing to use the techniques developed a better understand or empathy of how pupils
process information. However, not every teacher can take courses at the university level
concerning inclusion. Some teachers can benefit from attending professional development
meetings that focus on inclusion and implementation of strategies.
Professional development courses offer a variety of techniques to help teachers become
better instructors, which could lead to an increase in student achievement. Professional
development can offer teachers and opportunity to practice some of their implementation
strategies with fellow colleagues and listen to outside experts discuss topics, which are germane
to the teaching practice (Guskey & Yoon, 2009). Professional development can allow teachers of
students with mild/moderate disabilities acquire relevant content, practice their skills, and
improve their self-efficacy. A well-run professional development course can allow teachers with
low self-efficacy to discuss their in-class problems and receive immediate feedback on best
practices which can work in their class (Guskey & Yoon, 2009).
In summary, teachers of students with mild/moderate disabilities may gain a new
perspective of these pupils by attending professional development meetings. Professional
development workshops can allow teachers to gain a deeper understanding of the content
knowledge and the students they are teaching. Therefore, teacher training can enhance the
teachers’ ability and help students with mild/moderate disabilities achieve their IEP goals.
Teachers who have a negative perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities can change
their attitude or approach by attending these meeting on a consistent basis.
Social Capital Network
Creating a social capital network is a daunting task when advocating for students with
mild/moderate disabilities. Inclusion teachers must find time to collaborate, go to extra trainings
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 56
and keep all stakeholders involved. This is part of the process of becoming a change agent as
Stanton-Salazar (2004) described. The change agent is the person who can access and create a
social network for students with mild/moderate disabilities. Most students with mild/moderate
disabilities will only improve their academic and social status with the assistance of an inclusion
teacher who can bring their social networks together. This will allow students with
mild/moderate disabilities to acquire social capital which would allow them access to resources
they could not attain on the own merit. The goal of the inclusion teacher is to become an
advocate for students with mild/moderate disabilities to improve their social status in an
unfamiliar educational environment.
Summary
Students with mild/moderate disabilities who have cognitive, communication and/or
behavior issues may have difficulties in inclusion classrooms. In addition, inclusion teachers’
perceptions of these students can help or hinder them when implementing teaching strategies
(Hellum-Alexander, 2010) because of limited experience with these students (Milner & Tenore,
2010). This study sought to shed light on how teachers of students with mild/moderate
disabilities can better understand their own self-efficacy abilities.
Reading, math, or behavioral strategies are irrelevant if teachers understand their own
teaching abilities. Teachers who collaborate, understand content knowledge, attend professional
development meetings and can understand students’ abilities are effective educators. Therefore,
the effectiveness of a teaching strategy is more dependent of the teachers’ ability to implement it,
rather than the student with mild/moderate disabilities in an inclusion classroom capability of
understanding the method. The perception a teacher has of students’ capabilities will guide the
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 57
instructional content. A positive perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities would
allow an educator to become an advocate or change agent for the pupil.
Thus, this study sought answers to two questions regarding how modifying the pace of
instruction influences the teacher’s perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities
academic and social capabilities and the perceptions teachers have about the abilities of pupils
with cognitive impairments. This study explored some strategies inclusion teachers used to have
positive perceptions of students with mild/moderate disabilities because their perceptions can
influence how they teach. Knowledge gained in answering these questions will aid in
understanding how teachers of students with mild/moderate disabilities perceive these pupils.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 58
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
When the academic needs of students with mild/moderate disabilities are not met this can
have an impact on academic performance (Mears, 2012). Some teachers may need to implement
pacing strategies to deal with the students’ academic problems. When pacing strategies are
implemented to assist with academics are ineffective, the teacher faces a difficult challenge. The
teacher may have a negative perception of students with disabilities which can influence how
they address and deliver instruction to students with disabilities.
For this qualitative study, the focus will be on the impact of teacher’s perception of
students with disabilities. The aim of the study is to also focus on what type of influence or role
professional development impacts the teacher’s perception of students with disabilities. Previous
studies have focused on the students’ background knowledge, academics and social behavior
within the classroom. The teachers’ background knowledge of students with special needs can
influence the perception of these students. Continuous training or professional development can
enhance a teacher’s ability to pace instruction to a variety of students regardless of their
backgrounds (Ingersoll & Strong 2011). Inclusion teachers need guidance from professional
development trainers who specialized in special education to assist students with disabilities.
Some teachers need professional support to help implement some practices effectively
(Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Despite access to effective instructional practices, some inclusion
teachers struggle to apply the techniques without additional training. The frequency in which
inclusion teacher meet with special education supports services could have an impact on their
perception of these students. Some support staff are more familiar with the student with
disabilities could provide advice or suggestions on how to monitor the pace of instruction for
these pupils in an inclusion classroom.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 59
The research questions for study for this are as follows:
1.! What are the perceptions of inclusion teachers regarding students with mild/moderate
disabilities?
2.! How has professional development affected those perceptions?
3.! How have perceptions affected pacing?
Research Design
As qualitative research involves collecting data where the problem or issue occurs
(Creswell, 2009), the researcher conducted interviews with inclusion teachers. Qualitative
research answers questions of how and why. Qualitative research was chosen over quantitative
because it can describe the events or phenomenon regarding why some teachers have a certain
perspective of the abilities of students with disabilities (Creswell, 2009). Qualitative research
gives a better analysis of answering the how question. All three of the research questions focus
on the how and whether this phenomenon can be resolved. Qualitative research also focuses on
particular cases studied.
Qualitative research design was also selected because it allows humans to give subjective
meaning to their worldview. Individuals can create multiple views of a social problem (Creswell,
2009). Perceptions of the abilities of students with disabilities is a social problem which can be
interpreted from a variety of views. Data collected from the field can indicate which social views
are relevant when determining the perception teachers have toward students with mild/moderate
disabilities.
The study will focus on the qualitative method on how some inclusion teachers interact
with students with disabilities. Determine whether professional development trainings either help
or hinder their interaction with students who have disabilities. Pacing methods implemented by
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 60
the teachers having any impact on their perceptions of the students. The researcher is also using a
qualitative method for this research because limited studies have been done on the perceptions
teachers have with students with disabilities.
Sample and Population
Participants teach at a secondary school within Los Angeles County. All teachers have
students with disabilities in their classes. All teachers were surveyed on their perceptions of the
abilities of students with mild/moderate disabilities. The focus of analysis was participants
responses along with their interactions with students with disabilities as they implement reading
and mathematics assignments. The age, ethnicity, and gender of the inclusion teachers are
identified below.
The inclusion teachers had some familiarity with inclusion classrooms. The teachers
spent at least one year teaching an inclusion class. These teachers also had previous experience
of going to professional development meetings on teaching students with disabilities. The
teachers provided documentation or certification on completing these training sessions. The
teachers also indicated how many conversations they have a week with providers of support
services for students with mild/moderate disabilities.
The demographics of the classroom could be a mixture of diverse ethnic groups or a
homogenous one. The inclusion teachers must also become aware of the students they teach
(Levine, 2012). The students’ socioeconomic status can range from lower middle class to
poverty. The participating teachers had a minimum of 15 students in their classrooms. Not all
students with disabilities within these classrooms will have a paraprofessional assigned to them.
The teachers will indicate the special education classification of the students. Most of the
students with disabilities within the inclusion classrooms should have an academic or behavioral
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 61
goal the teacher is trying to help them achieve. The age of the students with disabilities within
the three participating inclusion classrooms was between 11 and 18. The classes selected
contained a mix of boys and girls.
Instrumentation
The conceptual framework for this study was social constructivism, which is an
assumption that participants want to find meaning from their experience or situation (Creswell,
2007). The goal of the study was not to determine the right or correct method of teaching
students with mild/moderate disabilities. Instead, the focus was how professional development
influences perceptions about the abilities of students with mild/moderate disabilities. The
research also focused on whether collaboration helps the perceptions teachers have of students
with mild/moderate disabilities. In addition, pace of instruction refers to how inclusion teachers
may change their pacing plans when they teach special needs students.
Data were collected with the goal of determining if certain methods have a positive
impact on perceptions of students because these play a role in the progress of students with
disabilities. The study examined the teachers’ impact through a survey about perceptions, a
review of lesson plan organization, and observation of teachers’ interaction with students.
The pacing plans were reviewed using the review sheet from Sprick’s (2013) Conversion,
Help, Activity, Movement, Participation, and Successful Students, which is an evidence-based
book about proven instructional practices on pace of instruction and lesson plan review. The
author makes recommendations designed for educators to help them meet the behavioral and
academic needs of all pupils, including students with mild/moderate disabilities. Inclusion
teachers who can implement a positive and structured lesson plan will observe a decrease in
student disruption and improved academic success (Sprick, 2013).
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 62
The pacing plan review sheet was compared to the teachers’. The review sheet focused
on content, duration of lesson, time management, pace of instruction, instructional activities, and
whether the teacher had accommodations for students who required them. The lesson plan
review sheet helped to gather data relation to the teachers’ pace of instruction.
The survey focused on the three research questions (Appendix A). Interview questions
1 through 5 focused on what type of professional development teachers encountered or attended.
According to Rentz (2006), teachers’ expectations of their students are an important factor in
instruction delivery. Questions 6 through 9 focused on how knowledgeable the inclusion teacher
was of the students’ background because, when teachers are aware of how to accommodate
students, they become more effective educators (Mears, 2012). Therefore, background and
accommodations were the focus of the interview questions.
Survey questions 1 through 12 (Appendix C) also assist in answering the three research
questions. The survey questions focused on preconceived notions about special education
students, whether teachers use special education resources to guide their instruction, and their
perceptions of the abilities of students with disabilities. Modifying curriculum also includes
collaborating with teachers and staff to ensure students’ needs are met (Levine 2012). The survey
questions allowed participants to discuss how engaged they were with special education
departments and with students with disabilities.
The researcher will utilize open-ended questions (Appendix A) to the three participating
inclusion teachers. The interviews will be between 30 and 45 minutes long. The participants’
responses were audio recorded. The interviews took place at participants’ schools at their
convenience. Interview questions 1 through 3 focused on strategies they learned from
professional development meetings on inclusion classrooms. The researcher gave participants a
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 63
copy of their answers. Thus, they had two days to reflect on their answers before the
observations. This aspect of collecting data allowed teachers to recall information from previous
professional development meetings or the need to collaborate with specialized services before
the observations. The teachers had an opportunity during post-assessment to answer the same
question and change their responses if they choose. Once the observation was complete, the
researcher and the teacher had a conversation about their methods of implementation.
The discussion and their answers to the open-ended questions were recorded. The
purpose of the discussion was to determine how much time and effort a teacher put into pacing
instruction. One example question was whether they would be willing to attend professional
development focused on how to engage students with disabilities. One way to improve student
performance is the willingness of the teacher to make structural changes if necessary (Rueda,
2011). Classroom environment were also a topic of discussion.
The observation data sheet (Appendix E) focused on the aesthetics of the classroom. For
instance, one topic was how far the teachers’ desk was from the students with mild/moderate
disabilities to determine whether the students were grouped together or spread out and whether
their previous assignments are displayed. The ideal of training is to have educators become
aware of how they can improve their classroom and teaching styles (Rentz, 2006). The
observation sheet is a checklist on whether these teachers interact with students with
mild/moderate disabilities, the position of the pupils in relation to the teacher, and the
environment the educator established.
Instructional practices have been researched and practiced by numerous educators and
practitioners to improve student learning (Sprick, 2013). The goal is to analyze whether the
teachers consistently meet the objectives within their lesson plans. Reliability entails teacher
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 64
consistency when presented with multiple constructs (Creswell, 2009). Interviews and
observations will determine the validity and reliability of these teaching strategies.
Data Collection
The participants were contacted both by phone and email. Once the teachers agreed to
participate, the researcher asked permission from their principals for access to their classrooms.
The timeline for granted access was two or three weeks. Once access was granted, the survey and
interview questions were distributed to the participants. Classroom observations of one class
period were 30 minutes in duration.
Teachers’ lesson plans were also reviewed for indications of how long each lesson should
be and the pace of instruction to determine whether there were modifications within the lesson
plans that address the needs of students with mild/moderate disabilities. Lesson plans were
analyzed for assistive technology or equipment from support services as an indication of the
students’ level of abilities and whether they were accommodated.
The goal when conducting observations was to focus on certain structures within the
classroom, such as how many students with mild/moderate disabilities have their work displayed.
Because student engagement and achievement increase when pupils are comfortable in their
environment (Mayer, 2011), the researcher also indicated whether the students with
mild/moderate disabilities were isolated from others or clustered together.
Students have higher academic achievement and fewer behavioral problems when they
have a positive relationship with their teacher (Sprick, 2013). Referring to the observation data in
Appendix A, the researcher counted work displayed on the board. The researcher also focused on
positive or negative interaction between the teacher and students with disabilities. If applicable,
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 65
when a student with mild/moderate disabilities becomes disruptive, the researcher noted what
tone of voice, body language and instructional technique were used to address the problem.
Learning happens when students are comfortable in their class, engaged in classroom
activities, and can have oral discussions on different academic subjects (Mayer, 2011). Thus, the
researcher also documented how much time each teacher gave students with mild/moderate
disabilities on classroom assignments. For instance, the researcher noted how many example
problems were given for students to understand the concepts. The researcher’s goal was to draw
conclusions from the evidence presented and through data collection (Creswell, 2009). The
recorded discussion also focused on the teachers’ strengths and weakness in terms of
accommodating the academic needs of students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Data Analysis
The researcher used Creswell’s (2009) six steps for data analysis. Creswell developed a
qualitative approach to help understand how a human or social problem occurs. This approach
focuses on procedures and has the participants answer questions to understand how the social
problem develops. This protocol will be used for all three participants in the study. Creswell
developed a six-step research design approach so researchers gave gather information from
multiple sources and observer the participants in their natural setting. The approach also allows
participants to participate and gather meaning from the questions they answer from the
researcher. Creswell’s approach allows for more interaction between researcher and participants.
Step one is to organize all data. Step one also involves organizing and preparing the data
for analysis. The information was gathered through interviews (Appendix B) and a survey
(Appendix C). This information aided in analyzing the data. Interviews are important in that they
provide direct information on how participants perceived the abilities of students with disabilities.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 66
Survey questions are vital because they help assess how participants perceive the special
education department overall.
Step two is to read through all data and determine what is and is not valuable for the
study. The researcher must all determine what information is relevant to the study. Step two
focuses on reading through the data. Researcher must determine whether the information given
to him was an accurate account of how these inclusion teachers view students with
mild/moderate disabilities. Therefore, the researcher observed the classroom and reported the
findings (Appendix D). The researcher compared the information from the interviews and
observation data.
Step three is to use a coding pattern to identify what the information means. Coding
involves organizing materials such as graphs or pictures relevant to the study. The goal is to
group certain information together. Coding involves organizing the research material and
determines the meaning of the gather research (Creswell 2009). Coding also involves putting
information under the correct topic headline or deciding what information is irrelevant and
clustering information together from all research material gathered. Coding allows the researcher
to take a large amount of information and give detailed analysis of the information which was
gathered.
Step four focuses on the description of the subjects in terms of how many students they
teach, their ethnicities, their classroom setting, and where the research took place. Step four also
involves giving a description to the information gathered. For instance, the survey questions
(Appendix C) provided descriptive information on how much knowledge the teacher has about
special education procedures and strategies. The description of events provides a theme
regarding how participants view students with mild/moderate disabilities (Creswell, 2009). Step
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 67
four also allows the researcher to connect research questions to the information gathered
(Appendix A).
Step five focuses on a detailed description of the information presented. The detailed
description may include a chronological order of events or multiple perspectives on what
individuals believed of students with mild/moderate disabilities. Step five involves how the
information gathered will be represented and presented. Step five can also provide charts, graphs,
lesson plan checklist (Appendix A). This can assist with the narrative of the research presented.
For instance, the lesson plan checklist can confirm or contradict information provided by
participants. Step five is to bring all relevant information together.
Step six involves an interpretation of the data. The researcher can interpret whether
lessons were learned or if questions remained unanswered. (Creswell, 2009). The researcher can
also determine unforeseen data or questions not initially part of the research. The researcher can
convey certain messages or narrative in step six.
One problem with the data analysis is that a behavioral problem may not occur when the
researcher observes the teachers. The teachers may offer the students an incentive to behave
during the observation periods. The researcher reminded the teacher that this is a research study
and not an evaluation of teaching practices. The researcher strongly encouraged them to not offer
incentives because that would have tampered with the variables under study.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 68
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This study examined inclusion teachers’ perception of students with disabilities in an
inclusion classroom. This inquiry focused on the following research questions:
1.! What are the perceptions of inclusion teachers regarding students with mild/moderate
disabilities?
2.! How has professional development affected those perceptions?
3.! How have perceptions affected pacing?
Some inclusion teachers were unaware of the importance of pacing when presenting academic
assignments or materials to students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Students with mild/moderate disabilities are being introduced into general education
classrooms at an accelerated pace. Inclusion teachers who have a positive perception of students
with disabilities can help them progress both academically and socially (Rentz, 2006). Inclusion
teachers must also be aware of the pace of instruction when they teach students with disabilities,
as these students can become frustrated when accessing general education curriculum presented
at an accelerated pace (Levine, 2012). Professional development courses on how students with
mild/moderate disabilities access information can help inclusion teachers implement an
appropriate pace of instruction. Inclusion teachers’ positive perception of students with
mild/moderate disabilities can help him/her with their pace of instruction in an inclusive
classroom (Dietz et al., 2011). Effective pacing plans can be implemented if the teacher has a
positive perception of the capabilities of mildly/moderately disabled pupils (Sprick, 2013). This
perception can be influenced by the amount or type of professional development courses they
have attended. Thus, professional development can play a role in how teachers perceive students.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 69
The first set of results focused on the research question concerning the perceptions
teachers have about students with mild/moderate disabilities. Understanding a person’s
perception of a situation or a group of people is difficult due to the abstract nature of perceptions.
However, a teachers’ perceptions of students can be monitored by two scenarios:
how teachers compare students with disabilities to their non-disabled peers and the number of
times inclusion educators collaborate with special education teachers. These themes give insight
on how inclusion teachers perceived the capabilities of students with disabilities overall.
The second set of results focused on the research questions concerning the impact of
professional development on the perceptions inclusion teachers have about students with
disabilities. The focus is on the impact of professional development meetings on perceptions of
students with disabilities. These research results are important because they provide insight into
the previous and/or current training focusing on students with mild/moderate disabilities. In
addition, they also provide information on what type of professional development training
inclusion teachers attend and if it is relevant to students with disabilities or solely presents
general information.
The third set of results focused on the research question concerning the impact of pace of
instruction within an inclusion classroom. Pace of instruction is important because students with
mild/moderate disabilities who enter a mixed classroom usually have difficulties in the new
environment. Results provide insight into whether the inclusion teacher will accommodate the
needs of student with disabilities by monitoring the pace of instruction or consider pacing
instruction irrelevant. These results indicate how the teachers approach the academic subjects
and whether they monitor the pace of each assignment or activity.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 70
Finally, some participants provided insight into their methods of teaching within an
inclusion classroom. Five teachers provided information about their teaching background,
professional development training experiences, and techniques they use. These interviews
provided information on perceptions of students with mild/moderate disabilities. Also, five
participants provided additional information about being an inclusion teacher. All eight teachers
are described in the participants section.
Participants
Eight inclusion teachers were involved in this study. Each teacher answered all survey
questions. Also, some of the teachers were available for more in-depth interviews. The interview
and survey questions were derived from the research questions. Each participant was assigned a
pseudonym consisting of the word “teacher” and a letter. For instance, the first teacher to answer
all questions was labeled “Teacher A,” and the second was labeled “Teacher B.”
Teacher A was a 37-year-old female who, at the time of this study, had been a math
teacher in a secondary school for 8 years. Of those years, 6 were spent serving as an inclusion
teacher. Before becoming an inclusion teacher, she had no previous experience teaching students
with disabilities. Teacher A mentioned having a younger sister who has special needs. Teacher A
stated making attempts to attend as many professional development sessions as possible, but had
not attended a meeting focused on students with disabilities.
Teacher B was a 45-year-old male who had been teaching or assisting students with
disabilities for nearly 20 years. Teacher B taught English language arts at a middle school. He
consistently attended at least one professional development meeting a year focused on the
academic capabilities of students with disabilities. Teacher B mentioned he was notified of these
meetings through school email. Every time he attended a professional development session, he
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 71
actively sought and exchanged information concerning future professional development on
students with disabilities.
Teacher C began her educational career as a special education paraprofessional. At the
time of this study, she was 29 years old. She worked at the same junior high school as both a
paraprofessional and an inclusion teacher. Teacher C went to night school to pursue a credential
in special education. She also indicated that her years as a paraprofessional allowed her to have a
positive perception of students with disabilities. She had been attending professional
development meetings focused on students with disabilities since she was a paraprofessional.
Teacher D had taught both at an elementary and junior high school for 21 years. He was
58 years old and had been teaching English language arts to students with mild/moderate
disabilities for 6 years. Teacher D was a substitute teacher for 15 years before being hired at the
junior high school where was assigned at the time of this study. He had students with
mild/moderate disabilities in previous classes, but he had not attended professional development
meetings or trainings on teaching these pupils. Teacher D had taught multiple grades throughout
his career.
Teacher E graduated from college and began her teaching career immediately. She was
hired as an inclusion math teacher at an elementary school 3 years prior to this study. She
mentioned that, while in school, her training focused on non-disabled students. Her first
interaction with students with disabilities was as a teacher intern, which was fewer than four
years before this study. Teacher E mentioned she believed all students are capable of learning
and reaching their capabilities.
Teacher F was 42 years old and had been working as an inclusion teacher for 13 years.
Teacher F was an accountant, but changed careers because he wanted to teach mathematics to
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 72
disadvantaged and minority students. Teacher F only attended mandatory professional
development meetings. He did not attend voluntary trainings concerning students with
mild/moderate disabilities. Teacher F had multiple experiences with students with disabilities
and believed his expertise outweighed any professional development meeting or training.
Teacher G was a special education paraprofessional for 10 years. Fewer than 4 years
prior to this study, he was hired at a junior high school. Teacher G was 37 years old and admitted
being overwhelmed as an inclusion teacher. This was his first assignment as an English language
arts inclusion teacher. Teacher G did attend professional development trainings on students with
disabilities, but he admitted to having difficulties implementing strategies he learned.
Teacher H was 63 years old and had been teaching for over 30 years. She began her
teaching career during a period where segregation of classes between students with disabilities
and their non-disabled peers was normal. Teacher H had been working as a math inclusion
teacher at a junior high school for 7 years. She only attended mandatory professional
development training sessions and indicated she did not see the value in these sessions.
Training
Professional development training can range in topics from vague to specific and occurs
when inclusion teachers’ voluntarily sign up for meetings that can improve their teaching ability.
Professional development training meetings. The participants ranged from those who do not
attend special education professional development meetings to those who attend at least once a
month. The results aligned with the research question regarding how professional development
affected perceptions. Professional development concerning students with disabilities can provide
a positive or negative influence on how teachers view these pupils. Thus, the focus was on how
much special education professional training was received within the last school year.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 73
When the teachers were surveyed on whether they attended training focusing on students
with disabilities, five confirmed. The same educators were also surveyed on whether they
implemented any techniques from training: five confirmed their usefulness. Two of the three
participants who did not find any usefulness in training also indicated that they rarely
implemented strategies from training. Five of the eight participants went with a certified special
education teacher when they attended these meetings. Two participants indicated they had
attended professional development meetings focused on students with disabilities since being
special education paraprofessionals.
When the teachers were questioned about whether they wanted additional training on
students with disabilities, all responded that they did. One educator mentioned that additional
training could help improve time management. All participants were in favor of professional
development training, but the issue of attendance and the specific type of training was
problematic. Inclusion teachers who attend meetings focused on students with disabilities were
willing to implement strategies learned. Some teachers found the usefulness of attending these
meetings. For instance, Teacher B provided an example of the usefulness of attending
professional development meetings consistently.
Teacher B had an inclusion class with five students with disabilities. His lesson plan had
time intervals for each assignment. From the researchers’ observation of the lesson plan, Teacher
B gave an assessment to all students. The lesson plan explained multiple ways to differentiate
instruction and time allotted for each assignment. For instance, Teacher B allotted nearly half of
the class period to assist students with disabilities while their non-disabled peers worked
independently.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 74
Teacher B indicated attending to professional development meetings focused on students
with disabilities as a paraprofessional. Teacher B explained that paraprofessionals are individuals
who work one-on-one with students with disabilities in the classroom. Teacher B also enjoyed
assisting students with disabilities achieve their IEP goals and mentioned having worked with
this population as a teacher or paraprofessional for nearly 20 years. Teacher B was aware that
some students with disabilities learned at a deliberate pace and allowed additional time for them
to complete assignments.
Teacher B voluntarily provided thoughts about his overall perception of special education.
Teacher B believed that all students are capable of learning, especially students with disabilities.
Teacher B also believed that some special education programs must do a better job in stressing
the importance of accommodations and modifications for students. Teacher B also indicated
there should be mandatory training for inclusion teachers on how to design lesson plans for
students with disabilities, which would include topics such as how to pace instruction. Teacher B
also indicated that every teacher should have a positive perception of their students, whether they
have a disability or not; otherwise, the educator will not be successful.
Teacher B interacted with all students during the observation. Teacher B used different
methods of instruction to engage the students’ interest with the assignment. For instance,
students were arranged around the classroom in groups of three or four pupils at a table. Teacher
B provided directions for the assignment by modeling, scaffolding, and asking reflection
questions before assigning work. Teacher B attempted to follow his pacing schedule.
Teacher B used about 5 minutes’ worth of visuals at each table. Teacher B had some
students role-play a part of the assignment. This gave the students an opportunity to learn
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 75
visually, auditorily, and kinesthetically. The researcher also observed the teacher allowing
students with disabilities extra time to correct an incorrect oral answer, when one was given.
Teacher B attended multiple IEP meetings within the previous year. Teacher B
mentioned being invited to attend many meetings due to the positive feedback he provided
parents of students with disabilities. He concluded that many of these parents did not hear
enough positive feedback from general education educators. Teacher B also enjoyed
collaborating with special education teachers at these meetings. This teacher’s collaboration
topics focused on the students’ skill levels and how much time they need for assignments.
Teacher B appreciated modifying his pace to deliver instruction. This educator explained
how teaching students with disabilities allowed him to learn new techniques or instructional tools.
Teacher B also consulted with special education paraprofessionals who sometimes work
exclusively with one student. Teacher B, if necessary, provided time so the paraprofessional
could work on students’ IEP goals. According to Teacher B, this additional assistance allows
students with disabilities to stay on track.
During the extra time frame, Teacher B provided personal anecdotes or experiences for
students with disabilities to find their assignment relevant and engaging. Teacher B also provided
social skill instruction during the extra time. While students were engaged with their academic
assignment, he incorporated some role-playing scenarios to help them develop their social skills.
Teacher B indicated designating extra time to help these students improve their academic and
social skills. Teacher B also indicated that, some days, he spent the full class period working on
social skills with the entire class.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 76
Non-Disabled Peers
Inclusion classrooms include both students with disabilities and their non-disabled peers,
and teachers’ perceptions of students with disabilities come from comparing the two groups. This
comparison also generates the research question regarding their perceptions. Non-disabled
students are considered the standard or example for monitoring academic performance and
progress. Students with disabilities are more likely to be compared to their non-disabled peers
than vice versa.
Three respondents mentioned that students with disabilities would need an abundance of
accommodations and extra time on assignments to outperform their non-disabled peers. Four
respondents did not mention providing additional accommodations or modifications. Three
participants provided time intervals within their lesson plans. For example, Teacher D focused
on behavior problems among students with disabilities and indicated that, since the pupils were
not on par with their peers, more special education paraprofessional were needed despite his lack
of a pacing plan.
Teacher D was inexperienced in terms of inclusion. Teacher D’s lesson plan focused on
the lecture and activities of the assignment. This educator did not indicate the duration of
assignments on the lesson plan. The lesson plan also did not include time for students with
disabilities to complete their assignment or to provide additional instructions. The lesson plan
was about an English language arts writing assignment. Teacher D did not show concern
regarding pacing.
Teacher D began with an activity where students worked independently. This teacher was
not engaged with any of the students. While this activity was in the lesson plan, the teacher did
not give a specific time interval for the assignment. Teacher D simply walked around the
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 77
classroom monitoring the students’ work. However, it was unclear if the pupils understood the
work because neither the teacher nor the students asked questions of each other during this
assignment. Teacher D had the students stop working on the assignment after 15 minutes.
The students were instructed to take out their notebooks and copy some notes from the
board. The teacher lectured while students continued to copy notes. Some students became
distracted and Teacher D continuously refocused their attention on notetaking and listening to
the lecture. The teacher did not give assign a time interval for the duration of the lecture. The
researcher observed that more students became distracted as the lecture continued.
During the interview, Teacher D mentioned attending two professional development
meetings with special education certificated teachers in the previous 2 months. Teacher D
indicated that the topics of both meetings focused on time and classroom management
techniques for students with behavioral problems. This teacher also mentioned interacting with
other special education personnel during the meeting and attempted to implement some
techniques learned at the professional developments. However, this teacher indicated that the
techniques had yet to provide any noticeable success. Teacher D mentioned that students with
disabilities should have structure and to control behavior in the classroom. When asked to define
“control behavior,” he mentioned students can only function if they pay attention in the
classroom and have manners.
Teacher D attended only one IEP meeting in the last 2 years. The teacher’s overall
opinion of special education was positive, and he concluded that students with disabilities should
be taught alongside their non-disabled peers. This educator also indicated that students with
disabilities should be supplied with additional support such as more special education
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 78
paraprofessionals. Teacher D indicated that each student with disabilities who is assigned to an
inclusion classroom should have a paraprofessional to help with behavior problems.
Teacher D met once per week with special education teachers at a staff meeting. The
meetings focused on academic and behavioral support of students with disabilities. Teacher D
wished more time were devoted to modeling or explaining how to implement some of the
strategies or techniques suggested. This teacher indicated there is no co-teaching model at his
school and that team teaching models would help improve teaching skills.
Teacher D allowed extra time on assignments only when needed. Every student had the
option of additional time on assignments. This educator provided examples on the board and
around the classroom on how to complete the English language arts assignments. Teacher D
provided assistance when students asked questions about the assignment. According to the
teacher, students indicate when they need assistance.
Collaboration
Inclusion teachers, at times, will attend professional development meetings focusing on
students with disabilities with certificated special education teachers. While collaboration is not
mandatory, attending these meetings with colleagues who are familiar with the subject matter is
beneficial. Thus, the research question of how professional development affected those
perceptions also applies to this section. Inclusion teachers’ perceptions of students with
disabilities can be influenced by these meetings with experienced certificated special education
teachers or personnel. Inclusion and special education teachers can both attend the meetings and
collaborate on practices.
Two respondents mentioned they did not meet with special education teachers on a
weekly basis. Four teachers met with special education teachers at least once per week while two
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 79
teachers met with them at least twice per week. None of the teachers mentioned they met more
than twice a week. One teacher mentioned becoming accustomed to collaborating after these
meetings. Teacher C gave insight into some of the results of collaboration and benefits of
professional development training.
Teacher C began in the education field as a special education paraprofessional. Teacher C
had been a part of the special education field for almost 10 years. This teacher gave a detailed
description of the lesson plan topic or project assignment. This lesson plan focused on a
mathematical project in which students were paired. The objective of the lesson was to predict
the projection of a plastic bottle rocket ship’s flight using mathematical coordinates.
The lesson plan indicated the teacher would assess the students on their ability to create
linear equations to justify the rocket ship’s projected flight. Teacher C’s lesson plan indicated
this project would be completed over multiple days and the students were to work on the
assignment for the duration of the class period. Thus, all students had the entire week to finish
the assignment with their group partners. Teacher C provided ample time for students to ask
questions and reflect on which mathematical coordinates would project the correct distance of
the bottle rocket ship’s flight. Teacher C provided multiple examples to each group on the
possibilities of the correct mathematical coordinates.
During the interview, Teacher C mentioned having much respect for students with
disabilities. Teacher C was once a special education paraprofessional who worked exclusively
one-on-one with students with disabilities for 8 years before obtaining a teaching certification.
Teacher C had a positive view of the special education field and of students with disabilities.
Another reason teacher C entered the teaching field was to help students with disabilities achieve
both academically and socially in a general education setting. Teacher C wanted to take on
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 80
students with disabilities is to assist them in core curriculum subjects, so they can become self-
sufficient individuals.
Teacher C mentioned attending training with special education teachers. This training
focused on how to restrain students with disabilities when their behavior becomes unruly and
aggressive. She took this training to protect students with disabilities from harming themselves
or others if they become violent or aggressive. This educator mentioned that students with
disabilities should not be at fault if their behavior becomes aggressive. She stated, “students with
disabilities cognitive functions does not allow them to restrain themselves emotionally.”
Therefore, they respond aggressively when provoked.
During the interview, Teacher C mentioned not attending any IEP meeting in almost 2
years. She said she was aware of the IEP procedures due to her tenure as a special education
paraprofessional and no new information was provided in these meetings. She stressed that
effective time management is the only way these goals can be achieved. Teacher C explained
that no IEP goals could be accomplished if the educator does not have classroom management or
is unaware how to use time within the class in an effective manner. Thus, her focus was on the
pace of the class and how much time was spent on assignments.
Teacher C collaborated and took advice from one special education staff member.
Teacher C also worked with a mentor teacher on campus to collaborate multiple times a week on
students’ academic and behavioral progress. She credited the mentor with helping him to develop
time management strategies. Teacher C focused on particular skills when teaching students with
disabilities and not on trying to change every aspect of how the pupil learns. She focused on the
students’ strengths and incorporated them into the pacing plan, rather than trying to improve the
students’ skill levels.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 81
Teacher C also incorporated time for certain assignments to help students remain on pace.
Thus, this educator attempted to design time intervals to expose students to more assignments
and applied practice techniques. She implied that it was important to expose students to more
assignments to help them strengthen their academic skills and cognitive thinking. The mentor
also helped her improve time management skills. Thus, having more projected-oriented time
assignments helped improve time management.
Teacher C also explained that project-based assignments allow students to ask more
specific questions about the assignment. Thus, the teacher can spend more time assisting each
group rather than teaching the same concepts continuously, meaning all inclusion students were
allowed to figure out the general concepts of the project while the teacher focused on specific
elements. Thus, the teacher mentioned that teachers can use the time spent in the classroom more
efficiently if they allow students to work together on collaborative-type projects.
During the observation, Teacher C had groups of students with disabilities and their non-
disabled peers working together on a project. Teacher C provided step-by-step instructions on
how the project should look at each stage of design. This educator provided specific examples to
the groups depending on which questions were asked. Each group member was assigned a
different task for efficiency on the project. Each group had a leader and a writer, and all
members collaborated on the mathematical calculations.
The teacher provided mathematical word problems as examples to allow students to also
focus on English language arts. Teacher C provided examples to their entire class about context
clues and main ideas within the word problem. Whenever a student had a question, the teacher
referenced one of the examples displayed on the board. Most students were engaged when
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 82
Teacher C referenced the examples displayed on the board. Students who were not engaged were
redirected to the importance of the project and the limited time they had to complete it.
On the board, Teacher C displayed past assignments on which students earned a perfect
score or did a good job. No distinction was made between students with disabilities and their
non-disabled peers concerning what assignments were on display. Teacher C mentioned that all
work displayed was completed by students who took advantage of the extra time given to them
to complete the assignment. The teacher mentioned that the reason for allowing extra time on all
assignments was to increase students’ self-esteem and academic abilities.
Lesson Plans
Lesson plans are descriptions of teacher-led lectures, activities, and assignments. The
lesson plans also indicate time intervals for the pace of instruction. The research question
regarding how perceptions affect pacing allowed for the research to focus on the lesson plans.
Inclusion teachers who account for accommodations within their lesson plans indicate their
perceptions of the abilities of students with disabilities by providing modifications. Pacing of
instruction allows students with mild/moderate disabilities an opportunity to be at the same level
as their non-disabled peers before the teacher moves forward with more challenging curriculum.
Only three teachers surveyed stated they implemented an entire weekly lesson plan with.
Six respondents claimed they did not have enough time within the week to incorporate all
materials. All teachers provided extra time on assignments when necessary. However, only three
teachers’ lesson plans had time intervals to indicate the duration of an assignment or lecture.
Teacher A provided extra time for students, but it was random and not accounted for in a
structured sequence of activities.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 83
Teacher A possessed 6 years of experience as an inclusion teacher and taught three
students with multiple disabilities. She allowed the researcher to view her lesson plan. Teacher A
did not provide specific planning time dedicated to the pacing of academic instruction. The plan
did have a review section where the teacher reviewed a previous lesson with the students at the
beginning of the class period. The duration of this lesson plan was 50 minutes, which was the
entire class period.
Teacher A’s lesson plan provided information on how to differentiate activities to help all
students understand and access the general education curriculum. The lesson plan did not provide
specific information on interactive activities between the teacher and the students. Teacher A
provided a seating chart and indicated that the students were in groups of four at each designated
table. The assigned seating was based the group’s ability to work together, and students with
mild/moderate disabilities were grouped with non-disabled peers. The seating chart was based on
the groups’ dynamics and interaction with each other and not based on a preconceived notion of
academic ability.
Teacher A did not have any professional development training focused exclusively on
students with disabilities. She used strategies from previous professional development meetings
focused on differentiating instruction and on how to manage students who have behavior
problems. Teacher A implied that she frequently used behavior strategies learned at professional
development meetings to assist students with disabilities. She mentioned that the only way she
could complete a lesson plan was to ensure the students with disabilities were well behaved and
focused.
During the previous 2 years, Teacher A had not been invited to an IEP meeting. She did
recall previous IEP meetings attended and was impressed by the school’s special education
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 84
program but was unsure of why students with disabilities had certain goals. She indicated that all
students should learn to the best of their cognitive ability, and students with disabilities should
have a different grading scale than their non-disabled peers because they had modifications and
accommodations. Teacher A also met with special education teachers on a weekly basis, but
most of their conversations were informal and about students with disabilities.
Teacher A gave an extra 10 to 15 minutes for students with disabilities on assignments
because she did not want the students with disabilities to fall behind their non-disabled peers.
Teacher A also mentioned, when extended time was given, it was difficult to present the
complete lesson plan. However, during the observation, Teacher A gave students extended time
but did not check if they needed assistance during that extra time.
During observation, Teacher A displayed a variety of student work on the board. Out of
25 posted assignments, only three were from students with disabilities. Eighty percent of the
posted assignments had positive reflections and feedback on how the students can improve on
their assignments. The three posted materials from students with disabilities only had positive
reflections and no feedback.
Teacher A gave the same number of mathematical problems to all students. She did not
provide any additional instructional examples to students with disabilities to help them
understand the problems. Teacher A mentioned that any incomplete assignments are to be
finished for homework. She did not provide extra time for students who did not complete their
homework in class because she believed that the extra time in class and at home was sufficient to
finish an assignment.
Academic progress by students with disabilities is one of the main reasons inclusion
classes exist. Inclusion teachers who provide engaging activities and accommodating time
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 85
intervals for pace of instruction give insight into their perceptions of the abilities of students with
disabilities. Therefore, the research questions regarding the perceptions of inclusion teachers of
students with mild/moderate disabilities and how perceptions affect pacing focus on the
influence an educator can have. While a students’ can progress for many reasons, one of the
factors is teachers’ perceptions.
All teachers responded that they gave multiple examples of math and English questions
before students began their independent work. When asked to elaborate, every teacher gave a
minimum of three examples before students began their independent work. Four mentioned they
gave at least five examples of how to do the assignment before independent practice began. One
gave as many examples as needed to assist students with the assignments. Teacher E had a
positive perception of accommodations and of the abilities of students with mild/moderate
disabilities.
Teacher E’s classroom had multiple activities to keep students engaged with the lesson.
Teacher E’s lesson plan focused on mathematical assignments. During transition periods, she
allotted time for students who complete their work to use the computer while they waited for
their classmates to finish. The lesson plan allowed only 10 minutes for transition time for
students who completed their work ahead of their peers. This gave the opportunity for Teacher E
to focus on students who needed additional help on assignments while the other students were
occupied.
Only the students’ group work was displayed on the board. Teacher E explained that
most of the pupils’ work was in their individual portfolios. She indicated she had a positive view
of special education overall. The transition time interval allowed her to work with pupils,
especially students with disabilities, for them to keep up with the pace of instruction. This
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 86
teacher also modified the work of students with disabilities by providing them with less
challenging and fewer of mathematical problems. According to Teacher E, this allowed the
students with disabilities to stay on pace with their non-disabled peers.
Teacher E did not meet with special education personnel on a regular basis. This teacher
also mentioned that it had been several years since she had been invited to participate in an IEP
meeting. However, the teacher did get copies of the IEPs and attempted to follow the goals
agreed upon during the meetings. Thus, this is how she came up with the idea of providing
transition time between assignments. Teacher E usually assisted students with disabilities once
their non-disabled peers were finished with their assignments.
According to Teacher E, the only time she collaborated with special education teachers
was when they received a copy of an IEP. The meeting was brief and it was a summary of how
the student was performing and what to anticipate from them. Teacher E wanted more feedback
from her special education colleagues on how to assist students with mild/moderate disabilities
and on whether they provide adequate time for them to finish assignments. Teacher E indicated
that the school schedule did not allow for much collaboration between inclusion and special
education teachers.
Teacher E mentioned she usually completed most lesson plans within a week. However,
she was unsure of how much students grasped from the lessons. Teacher E gave examples of
having stop and revisit old lessons for students to grasp the material. Pressure from Teacher E’s
administrators to finish certain lessons before the end of the school year did not allow this
educator to teach at a slower and deliberate pace. Thus, she would like to receive more training
to assist with pacing.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 87
Summary
The participants’ responses provide insight into the perceptions some educators have
about students with mild/moderate disabilities. Some of the respondents did not provide any
additional accommodations, which is an indicator of their perceptions. When surveyed, all
respondents affirmed that training could help them understand how to provide additional
assistance. The training, as one respondent mentioned, could assist them in following a pacing
plan to help students learn at their own pace. The appropriate pace of instruction could allow
students with mild/moderate disabilities to acquire more depth of knowledge in their academic
subjects.
Some participants were interviewed to gain a better perspective on inclusion teachers’
interactions with students with mild/moderate disabilities. These participants answered questions
about their training, pervious experiences with this population, and pace of instruction.
Perceptions can change with training. While training is not guaranteed to change perceptions, it
can provide a different perspective on how students with disabilities learn.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 88
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
Students with disabilities are being integrated into the classrooms with non-disabled
peers, and their teachers’ perceptions of their abilities can either help or hinder their academic
performance (Rueda 2011). Teachers’ preconceived ideas regarding students with mild/moderate
disabilities can influence their ability to assist them. For instance, these students may need
accommodations such as a structured pace of instruction to access the general education
curriculum. A teacher’s perception of a students’ abilities may hinder this additional
accommodation and pupils may fall behind their non-disabled peers. Motivational factors to
increase student performance can be ignited if the educator has a positive perception of the
pupils’ abilities (Rueda 2011). Therefore, inclusion teachers should be aware of the perceptions
they have of their pupils, especially students with mild/moderate disabilities.
The purpose of this study is to address the challenges inclusion teachers’ face when
teaching students with special needs. Inclusion teachers who have a positive perception of
students with disabilities can increase these students’ academic performance. Thus, it is
important to analyze how inclusion teachers’ perception of students with mild/moderate
disabilities may influence the pacing of instruction. Professional development courses also
influence the perception certain teachers have of the abilities of students with mild/moderate
disabilities. This study focused on three research questions to understand these teachers’
approach, their perceptions, how professional development affected those perceptions, and how
perceptions affect pacing.
Summary of Findings
All teachers surveyed agreed that professional development would help improve their
teaching practices. Their initial perception was that they were willing to make accommodations
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 89
for pacing instruction. All teachers surveyed responded positively to going to professional
development training focused on students with disabilities. Therefore, teachers indicated that
training on pacing of instruction would enhance or improve their perceptions of the capabilities
of students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Every teacher surveyed or interviewed had a positive perception of students with
disabilities. However, only three accommodated students with disabilities. This indicates that,
while inclusion teachers have a positive perception of students with disabilities, their capabilities
or academic skill level is dismissed by most of the educators who responded. Therefore, some
were unwilling or incapable of improving the academic performance of students with disabilities
by providing them appropriate accommodations. Lack of accommodations can hamper the ability
of students with mild/moderate disabilities to perform on the same level as their non-disabled
peers.
The teachers’ inability to provide accommodations can provide negative perceptions of
pupils with disabilities. Thus, a cycle develops where lack of familiarity with certain students
along with minimal or no training equals an inclusion teacher having a negative perception of the
academic capabilities of students with mild/moderate disabilities. Unprepared or untrained
teachers create their own negative perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities. Most
teachers who did not provide accommodations such as a pacing plan struggled while teaching
students with mild/moderate disabilities.
Pace of instruction or a pacing plan were implemented by teachers who had some
familiarity with students with mild/moderate disabilities. Three teachers indicated some use of a
pacing plan within their classroom. Students who are occupied with engaging activities will
increase their academic capabilities (Müller, 2009). Pacing plan can benefit all students despite
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 90
their capabilities. Inclusion teachers who embrace the perception that all students are capable see
an increase in their students’ academic performance level.
Implications for Practice
Inclusion classrooms are increasingly being developed in public schools in the United
States (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). Teachers who are not familiar with students with
mild/moderate disabilities are asked to teach them and improve their academic performance
while being placed in unfamiliar teaching situations. Teachers not trained in these classroom
environments have difficulty with the academics and behavior of their students. Professional
development training influences a teacher’s success with students with disabilities.
Mandatory or incentivized professional development training can help new inclusion
teachers become familiar with how students with mild/moderate disabilities learn. Some teachers
leave the profession after a few years due to a lack of training and support (Ingersoll & Strong,
2011). High turnover rates hamper pupils’ progress, especially among students with disabilities.
Therefore, if teachers are unwilling to stay for long tenures, then perceptions of the capabilities
of students with disabilities become increasingly negative. A lack of veteran inclusion teachers
means fewer mentors for incoming educators.
Teachers’ perceptions of students with mild/moderate disabilities could change with an
increase in educators who work with them. As more inclusion classrooms are developed, an
increasing number of inclusion teachers will be exposed to students with disabilities. Negative
perceptions by an inclusion teacher can lead to a challenging classroom. Challenging behaviors
in the classroom can lead to a negative and unproductive learning environment (Sprick, 2013).
Rarely does academic performance progress in a disruptive learning environment.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 91
A lack of academic progress in the classroom can lead to disruptive behavior within the
class, and unruly inclusive classrooms can lead to negative perceptions among teachers. Job
growth in teaching is projected to increase over 5% within the next 10 years; however, many of
these openings will be due to teachers’ leaving the profession (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2016). A negative perception of teaching will lead to a teacher shortage across the United States.
This trend will continue without proper guidance for teachers.
Students with disabilities are also affected by a lack of trained teachers in inclusive
classroom. Students with disabilities graduate from high school at rates 25% lower than those of
their non-disabled peers (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). This type of ratio only enhances
negative perceptions of the capabilities of students with mild/moderate disabilities. Therefore, a
lack of professional development can lead to lasting effects on these students’ ability to function
in the classroom and society.
If inclusion teachers are not exposed to professional development focused on students
with mild/moderate disabilities, their perceptions will not change. However, these teachers are
responsible for the academic progress of all their students. This can lead to a sink or swim
mentality for teachers who have limited professional development or exposure to students with
mild/moderate disabilities (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Therefore, teachers who are not familiar
with a group of students who are not progressing academically may harbor negative views
towards them.
Negative perceptions of students with mild/moderate disabilities are detrimental to both
pupils and teachers. A lack of professional development regarding students with disabilities is
one of the reasons for the teacher shortage across the United States. One of the goals of this
training is to help teachers create a productive learning environment and motivate them to remain
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 92
in the teaching field (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). More professional development on students with
disabilities can lead to a decrease in teachers leaving the profession and a decrease of negative
perceptions of these pupils. Inclusion teachers provided positive feedback about the effectiveness
of professional development training.
In this study, teachers who attended previous professional development indicated
developing a new perception of students with disabilities. For example, Teacher B received
professional development training and incorporated a pacing plan to help these students remain
on pace. Thus, Teacher B developed a perception that students with mild/moderate disabilities
are capable of learning if the appropriate accommodations and modifications are implemented.
Professional development and instructional strategies like pacing plans can help reverse the
teacher shortage.
Pace of instruction is influential in the academic progress of students with mild/moderate
disabilities. Increasing the professionalism of teaching and incorporating evidence-based
practices like pacing of instruction enhance perceptions of students (Rueda, 2011). Inclusion
teachers who are willing to modify pace of instruction allow students with disabilities to improve
their academic abilities. Pacing plans help students with mild/moderate disabilities keep pace
with instructional assignments, and their non-disabled peers also benefit. Modifying the pace of
instruction allows teachers to experiment and incorporate different methods of instruction.
The goal of every teacher is to have students understand the lesson. Some teachers will
need to incorporate multiple instructional strategies for students to learn. Multiple evidence-
based instructional practices improve students’ academic achievement (Rueda, 2011). Therefore,
an appropriately applied pacing plan allows teachers to implement multiple instructional
strategies to assist students with mild/moderate disabilities. Thus, the pacing plan is the gateway
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 93
to other instructional strategies, and pacing plans which are not effective have a detrimental
effect on learning.
Ineffective pacing plans can cause a disruption in classroom management. Students with
mild/moderate disabilities who interpret the pace of instruction as too fast or too slow will lead to
behavioral disruption within the classroom. Some classroom behavior problems are initiated by
the teacher’s low expectations (Sprick, 2013). Therefore, some inclusion teachers who have low
expectation of students with disabilities will not implement an appropriate pacing plan. The
perception of students with disabilities is created by the educator’s inabilities.
Inclusion teachers who are ineffective at implementing pacing plans perpetuate negative
perceptions of the capabilities students with mild/moderate disabilities. The negative perception
is initiated by the teachers’ inabilities rather than the students’ capabilities. During the interview,
Teacher D mentioned that students interrupt lecture time by talking and being disruptive.
However, Teacher D did not provide or indicate to the students how long lecture would be and
did not provide any time intervals for activities. Teacher D attributed their disruption to a lack of
manners and not to the lack of a pacing plan to keep students aware of time intervals for the next
assignment or activity.
Inclusion teachers who are ineffective at implementing pacing plans may also provide
low-skill-level activities due to students’ behavior. Constant disruptions plus an ineffective plan
equals a teacher covering, at most, 50% of their lesson plans daily. A teacher becomes frustrated
and provides low-skill-level activities which do not challenge students, and students who are
consistently exposed to low-skill-level activities will not progress academically (Rueda, 2011).
Thus, teachers’ perceptions of students with disabilities is negative despite the fact that educators
perpetuate the perceptions.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 94
Limitations
One of the limitations of this study is the population sample. While it was previously
mentioned that the sample would be small, it was smaller due to survey responses. Only 25% of
the people contacted participated and completed the survey questions. The teachers chosen were
given nearly two months to complete the survey and become available for interviews. Most of
the surveys were returned incomplete or not returned at all.
Another limitation was that all participants were secondary school teachers. This study
did not address elementary school teachers’ perceptions about students with disabilities. Whether
their perceptions are positive or negative, it is unclear how they affect the classroom
environment and pupils’ academic progress. Some of the participants had taught at an elementary
school; thus, it is unclear whether their perceptions of students with disabilities was formed at the
elementary or secondary level. The professional development meetings or trainings at the
elementary school level could be different from those at secondary level.
Some inclusion teachers attend multiple professional development meetings where the
academic and instructional needs of students with mild/moderate disabilities are never addressed.
Professional development which addresses the needs of students with disabilities are voluntary
and not a required to become or maintain the title of inclusion teacher. The researcher did not
attend any of the professional development meetings. Therefore, the researcher relied on the
experiences of the inclusion teacher and not first-hand accounts.
Future Research
The number of public school inclusion classrooms increased across the United States
(U.S. Department of Education 2015). Therefore, it is important to analyze the different types of
inclusive classrooms. Students have cognitive, physical, mild, and severe disabilities.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 95
Understanding the perceptions of inclusion teachers is vital to students academic and social
progress. Students with disabilities can regress if their teacher’s perception of their capabilities is
limited. Thus, it is important to monitor the types of professional development meetings
inclusion teachers attend.
Future research should focus on much professional development on students with
disabilities inclusion teachers attend. Professional development focused on teaching students
with disabilities could enhance perceptions of these pupils. This can give an indication of how
impactful professional development is to teachers’ perceptions. Future research can also compare
teachers who attend professional development on students with disabilities and those who do not.
Future research can also monitor how many times a month or year teachers attend these types of
professional development meetings.
While all teachers in this study attended a professional development meeting with a
certificated special educator, it is important to continue to monitor this scenario. The ability to
collaborate and implement useful techniques from professional development meetings can
influence the perceptions inclusion teachers have about students with disabilities. Future research
can explore the frequency of collaboration between inclusion and special education teachers.
This can also indicate teachers’ perceptions. Besides pace of instruction, future research can also
focus on techniques used in inclusive classrooms to assist students with mild/moderate
disabilities make academic progress.
Pace of instruction is an instructional strategy used to help students stay on task within
the classroom or on an academic assignment. Future research should also focus on how many
inclusion teachers pace instruction. More participants should be involved in future research
where time intervals are calculated. This would provide an indication of or more insight into the
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 96
effectiveness of pacing in an inclusive classroom. Pacing can also be monitored at different
grade levels.
Future research can analyze the impact pacing has on students with disabilities at all
grade levels. Possibly, the pacing of instruction might be implemented differently in elementary
versus secondary school. Students’ academic progress may also be determined by exposure to
pacing of instruction. It is important to learn whether professional development meetings offer
topics on pacing of instruction. Another area of interest for future research is whether new
inclusion teachers develop pace of instruction and attend professional development meetings
focused on students with disabilities.
Perceptions of students with disabilities can vary depending on when the teacher received
training on how to assist these pupils. Perceptions can be formed at the early stages of a teaching
career. Future research can focus on how many new teachers receive professional development
training on students with disabilities. Future research can provide information on whether
veteran inclusion teachers are more receptive to professional development on students with
disabilities as compared to new educators.
Summary
Perceptions inclusion teachers have of students with disabilities will vary with each
educator. A person perception of a situation or a group of people can also vary depending on the
circumstances. Inclusion teachers’ perception of students with mild/moderate disabilities will be
influence by current and/or previous interactions with these pupils. To advance the academic
achievement of students with mild/moderate disabilities, inclusion teachers’ perception of these
pupils must be analyzed.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 97
Participants in this research had a variety of views concerning students with
mild/moderate disabilities. All participants were willing to help these pupils; however, the degree
of that willingness varied. Some teachers provided minimal accommodations to assist with
academic progress, while others provided an abundance of accommodations to help these pupils
adjust to a new environment in an inclusive classroom. Nevertheless, whatever accommodation
was provided, it was the implementation that provided insight on teachers’ perceptions of
students with disabilities.
These perceptions of students with disabilities can be influenced by the execution, or lack
thereof, of teaching strategies. Unsuccessful teaching strategies cause a negative perception of
students’ abilities. This ironic scenario created by the inclusion teacher causes a negative
classroom environment of academic regression. Professional development meetings play a vital
role in perceptions of students with mild/moderate disabilities.
One way to improve inclusion teachers’ perception of students with disabilities is through
professional development meetings. Meetings can provide examples of different techniques and
instructional strategies which can help inclusion teachers teach students with disabilities. These
meetings provide an opportunity for inclusion teachers to collaborate and interact with
certificated special education educators. This collaboration allows inclusion teachers to receive
information on how to implement instructional strategies or techniques with disabilities.
Professional development meetings also allow inclusion teachers to gain a different perspective
of the capabilities of students with disabilities.
Attending professional development meetings will not instantly change or influence the
perspective of an inclusion teacher. Professional development meetings focused on students with
disabilities are more beneficial to these teachers. These types of professional development
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 98
meetings allow an opportunity to ask questions or review examples of instructional strategies to
assist students with disabilities. Inclusion teachers can also practice role-playing scenarios in the
meeting before implementing them within their classroom. One instructional strategy presented
in these meetings is pacing.
Pacing of instruction allows for students with disabilities to keep track or remain on pace
with the curriculum. While pacing instruction will not automatically influence a student with
disability to stay on task, it will provide them with an opportunity to remain on par with their
non-disabled peers. Usually the non-disabled peers are the standard by which other students are
measured. Therefore, students with mild/moderate disabilities who can keep pace with their non-
disabled peers make progress. Pacing of instruction allows all students to access and understand
the curriculum.
Pacing of instruction also benefits inclusion teachers who properly implement it.
Inclusion teachers’ perceptions of students with mild/moderate disabilities can be influenced or
improved by the pace of instruction because teachers can view these pupils’ abilities. Students
learn at different paces; however, given the opportunity, pupils can achieve academic success
(Müller, 2011). Pace of instruction also allows inclusion teachers to cover more of the
curriculum. Rather than moving forward with only a few students understanding, pacing
instruction gives indicators of when the teacher can advance within a lesson as pupils grasp the
curriculum.
Inclusion teachers have a difficult task of teaching students with whom they are
unfamiliar. Some teachers will have a negative perception of the capabilities of students with
disabilities. These perceptions can change if teachers receive appropriate training. However,
these meetings are voluntary and not mandatory for any inclusion teachers to attend. Inclusion
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 99
teachers’ perception of students with disabilities will change, when the educators are given the
opportunity. Negative perceptions of students with disabilities will both hurt these pupils and
stunt the teacher’s educational growth.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 100
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Appendix A
Lesson Plan Review Sheet
I. Lesson Fountain Check Box if Applicable
Lesson Title
Unit Title
Grade level
Time allotted/duration
Standards
Essential Questions
Instructional Objectives
Formative Assessment
Summative Assessment
Accommodations/Modifications
II. Lesson Body
Engage activity
Teaching Procedures
Guided/Independent Practice
Time allotted/duration
Accommodations/Modifications
III. Differentiated Learning
Differentiated learning activity

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 107
Time allotted/duration
Resources and Technology
Accommodations/Modifications
IV. Reflection
Teacher Reflection
Student Reflection
Time allotted/duration

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 108
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
Research Question #1
How has professional development impacted those perceptions?
Survey Questions:
1.! Have you ever attended a meeting or training with a certificated special education teacher?
2.! Approximately how students with disabilities you believe you have taught over your teaching career?
3.! What is your opinion of special education overall?
4.! How many Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings have you attended over the last two years?
5.! Do you believe students with disabilities can outperform non-disabled peers on academic assignment and
test? Explain
Interview Questions
1. Have you had any specific training on students with disabilities?
2. Describe some of the mannerisms of students with disabilities?
3. Do you believe professional development trainings helps your progress as a teacher? Please explain?
Observation Data
1. Observed teachers interaction with students in classroom
2. Observe the structure of the classroom?
3. Observe the classroom management approach of the inclusion teacher
Artifacts (School Documents, Website etc.)
1. Lesson plan of teacher
2. Classroom agenda which can be found posted in the classroom

Research Question #2

What are the perceptions of inclusion teachers about students with mild/moderate disabilities?
Survey Questions
1. How times of week do you meet with teachers from special education department?
2. Does your school have team teaching models?
3. Do you collaborate with any special education personal besides a certification teacher?
Interview Questions
1. What collaboration advice have you used from special education personnel in order to improve your teaching
technique if any?
2. Who provides most of the information during collaboration, the general or special education teacher?
3. Who do you consult when you have questions about the IEP?

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 109
Research Question #3
How has perceptions impacted pacing?
Survey Questions
1.! How many times a week do you complete an entire lesson plan with your students?
2.! On average how many minutes do you stop for reflection questions from your students?
3.! On average how many example problems of English/Math you give before students begin their independent
part of the assignment?
4.! How long do you spend on a lesson when students are not grasping the concept of the lesson?
Interview Questions
1. Are students penalized if they do not complete their classwork assignments within the class?
2. Why do you modify your pace of instruction and how long do you give special needs students for their assignments?
3. What techniques do you use in order to differentiate instruction?
Observation Data

1.! Look for how many English/Math examples a teacher present to the students?
2.! Look for how much individual time a teacher will assist a student with mild/moderate disabilities?
3.! Look for how long the teacher will give a student with mild/moderate disabilities time to answer a question

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 110
Appendix C
Interview Questions for Inclusion Teachers

1. Have you had any specific training on students with disabilities?
2. Describe some of the mannerisms of students with disabilities?
3. Do you believe professional development trainings helps your progress as a teacher?
Please explain.
4. What collaboration advice have you used from special education personnel in order to
improve your teaching technique if any?
5. Who provides most of the information during collaboration, the general or special
education teacher?
6. Who do you consult when you have questions about the IEP?
7. Are students penalized if they do not complete their classwork assignments within the
class?
8. Why do you modify your pace of instruction and how long do you give special needs
students for their assignments?
9. What techniques do you use in order to differentiate instruction?

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 111
Appendix D
Survey Questions for Inclusion Teachers
1.! Have you ever attended a meeting or training with a certificated special education
teacher?
2.! Approximately how students with disabilities you believe you have taught over your
teaching career?
3.! What is your opinion of special education overall?
4.! How many Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings have you attended over the
last two years?
5.! Do you believe students with disabilities can outperform non-disabled peers on academic
assignment and test?
6.! How times of week do you meet with teachers from special education department?
7.! Does your school have team teaching models?
8.! Do you collaborate with any special education personal besides a certification teacher?
9.! How many times a week do you complete an entire lesson plan with your students?
10.!On average how many minutes do you stop for reflection questions from your students?
11.!On average how many example problems of English/Math you give before students
begin their independent part of the assignment?
12.!How long do you spend on a lesson when students are not grasping the concept of the
lesson?

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 112
Appendix E
Observation Data
1.! Observed teachers interaction with students in classroom
2.! Observe the structure of the classroom
3.! Observe the classroom management approach of the inclusion teacher
4.! Look for how many English/Math examples a teacher present to the students
5.! Look for how much individual time a teacher will assist a student with mild/moderate
disabilities
6.! Look for how long the teacher will give a student with mild/moderate disabilities time to
answer a question

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Inclusion of students with disabilities into general education classes is the direction most schools districts are deciding to go. However some general education teachers are not familiar with students with disabilities. Some teachers are apprehensive of students with disabilities in their classroom. This research study will analyze the perception inclusion teachers have about students with disabilities (if any) and the time frame given to special needs to complete assignment within the classroom.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hamilton, Donald Jason (author)

Core Title Teachers’ perceptions of students with disabilities in an inclusion classroom

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 04/24/2018

Defense Date 09/06/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag classroom,Disabilities,inclusion,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceptions,Special Education,special needs,Teachers

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Green, Alan (committee chair)

Creator Email djhamilt@usc.edu,dupside11@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-493550

Unique identifier UC11266964

Identifier etd-HamiltonDo-6266.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-493550 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HamiltonDo-6266.pdf

Dmrecord 493550

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Hamilton, Donald Jason

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA