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Teachers’ perceptions of student behavior and relationship quality: an exploration of racial congruence and self-identity development

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Teachers’ perceptions of student behavior and relationship quality: an exploration of racial congruence and self-identity development

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Content Running head: TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS 1

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENT BEHAVIOR AND RELATIONSHIP
QUALITY: AN EXPLORATION OF RACIAL CONGRUENCE AND SELF-
IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT

by

Quiana A. Caldwell

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2013

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

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Acknowledgements
I give thanks to the Creator for all that I am, have been, and will ever be; a student
of truth. I want to express my deepest gratitude for all of my teachers who have made
this study a reality. I thank my first teachers, my parents, Melvin and Kimberle Jackson
and DeWayne Caldwell, for modeling strength, perseverance, and excellence. Thank you
for all of the sacrifices, guidance, and encouragement to get where I am. I am proud to
be your daughter. I especially want to thank my mother, Kimberle Jackson, for her daily
messages of love and faith through this process. She continuously helps me realize that
anything is possible. I want to thank “my other parents,” Marianne Williams, Kelli
Dykman, and Ernest Williams, who have always been front and center from the
beginning. I also thank my siblings Aaron, Amber, Austin, Neikia, extended family, and
friends. It truly takes a village.
I want to express my deepest thanks to my committee chair, Dr. Ruth Chung, and
my committee members, Dr. Helena Seli and Dr. Renee Smith-Maddox, for their support
and helpful critique. I admire such wise, strong, and positive women and am honored to
have worked with all of you. Dr. Chung, thank you for the time you spent with me
individually as a “sounding board” as my study took shape, and giving me the space and
freedom to explore my ideas.
I also wish to thank my wonderful sisters of Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority,
Incorporated. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Renee Smith-Maddox for her
many years of mentorship. Thank you, Cenne Carroll-Moore, for your role in supporting
my study in the Bay Area, and for the reassurance that things will happen.
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I am also deeply grateful to the RSOE’s Ed.D. office staff; particularly the
advisors, Rocke DeMark and Nina Nieves, for always being available, knowledgeable,
and personable. I especially want to thank Dr. Katie Moulton and Dr. Robert Keim in the
Doctoral Support Center. I appreciate Katie for her informative data analysis workshops
and always being available to meet with me individually.
I could not have made it through the program without the collaboration and
camaraderie of my thematic group, and the 2010 Wednesday cohort. I am especially
grateful for LaShonda Toston-Zeno, who has kept me focused, grounded, and who has
been a true friend and Ed.D. partner.
Finally, my acknowledgements would not be complete without a special thank
you to my professional colleagues, who in many ways supported my dissertation
research. I give my sincere thanks to Marcia Sidney-Reed for her leadership and
assistance with the pursuit of my career, and Adan Gonzalez, who volunteered time and
resources to assist with this study.

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Table of Contents

Abstract 5
CHAPTER I: Overview of the Study 6
Background of the Study 12
Theoretical Framework 13
Purpose of the Study 15
Importance of the Study 15
Organization of Dissertation 17
CHAPTER II: Review of the Literature 18
Racial Congruence 18
Self-Identity Development 29
Summary of Literature Review 40
Purpose, Research Questions, and Hypotheses 42
CHAPTER III: Methodology 44
Participants 44
Instruments 46
Procedure 53
Data Analysis 54
CHAPTER IV: Results 56
Preliminary Analyses 56
Analysis of Research Questions 59
Post-Hoc Analysis 62
CHAPTER V: Discussion 64
Summary and Discussion of Main Findings 65
Limitations 70
Directions for Future Research 72
Implications for Practice 74
Conclusion 75
References 77
Appendix A: Information Sheet for Non-Medical Research 88
Appendix B: Demographic Information 90
Appendix C: Self-Identity Inventory 91
Appendix D: Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire 94
Appendix E: Student Teacher Relationship Survey 95
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Abstract
The purpose of this quantitative study was to explore the relationship of student-teacher
racial congruence and teachers’ self-identity development with their perceptions of the
behavior and relationship quality with racially dissimilar students. Participants included
31 elementary teachers who completed an online survey about their students (124 in
total) from racially diverse urban California schools. Measurement tools utilized
included the Self-Identity Inventory (Sevig et al., 2000), the Strengths and Difficulties
Questionnaire (Goodman, 1977), and the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale- Short
Form (Pianta, 1992). Findings indicated that teachers’ self-identity development was
predictive of teachers’ perception of pro-social student behavior; conduct problems, and
student-teacher closeness. Additionally, teachers’ age, years of service, and students’
gender were important variables in predicting pro-social behavior, hyperactivity, and
conflict. The results of this study provide direction for elementary teachers,
administrators, and teacher educators in their efforts to gain a better understanding of
factors leading to minority student achievement.

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Chapter I.
Overview of the Study

"WHEN they approach me they see...everything and anything except me.... [this]
invisibility...occurs because of a peculiar disposition of the eyes...."
-- Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man

James Comer, a child psychiatrist at Yale, believed in what he termed “wiseness”
in order to minimize the barriers African Americans face regarding poverty. His central
belief was that learning requires a strongly accepting relationship between teacher and
student. "After all," he explains, "what is the difference between scribble and a letter of
the alphabet to a child? The only reason the letter is meaningful, and worth learning and
remembering, is because a MEANINGFUL other wants him or her to learn and
remember it." (cited in Steele, 1992, p.10). Steele’s (1992) recognition of Comer’s work
with urban youth identified what he called “vulnerabilities” as barriers to intellectual
development, and the consequence that schools hoping to educate such students must
learn first how to make them feel valued.
He notes,
“If what is meaningful and important to a teacher is to become meaningful and
important to a student, the student must feel valued by the teacher for his or her
potential and as a person. Among the more fortunate in society, this relationship is
often taken for granted. But it is precisely the relationship that race can still
undermine in American society.” (Steele, 1992, p. 7)

Achievement gap. For two decades, the National Assessment for Educational
Progress (NAEP) has measured disparities in achievement on reading and mathematics
standardized tests of African American and Latino students compared to their Anglo
counterparts. This disparity is known as the achievement gap, which demonstrates the
differences between average scores between two subgroups on the standardized
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7
assessments in grades four, eight, and twelve. Since 1992 through 2009, Anglo students
consistently performed higher than African American and Latino students in all three
grade levels. Between 2007 and 2009, the gap was smaller between African American
and Anglo students than in the prior years it had been measured; nevertheless, in 2009,
Anglo fourth grade students still scored 26 points higher than their African American
counterparts (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
For Latino fourth grade students, the achievement gap remained 25 points lower
than Anglo students since 1992. Although Anglo, African American, and Latino eighth
grade average reading scores increased from 1992, the gap between the subgroups in
2009 remained at a -26 point and -24 point difference respectively (U.S. Department of
Education, 2011). In grade twelve, the trend continued in 2009 with Anglo students
scoring 27 points higher than African Americans and 22 points higher than Latinos.
Neither score gap was measurably different from score gaps in previous assessment years
(U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Dropout Rates. According to the U.S. Department of Education, National Center
for Educational Statistics (2011), between 1980-2009 Latino students had the highest
high school status dropout rates in the country; followed by American Indian/Alaska
Native and African Americans. The “status dropout rate” is the percentage of sixteen
through twenty-four year-olds who were not enrolled in school and have not earned a
high school credential (e.g. diploma or an equivalency credential such as a General
Educational Development [GED] certificate). The overall national dropout rate in 2009
was 8.1%, which declined from 14.1% in 1980. Between 1980 and 2009, status dropout
rates and changes in the rates varied by race/ethnicity. Latinos, American Indian/Alaska
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

8
Natives, and African Americans continued to be above the national average at 17.6%,
13.2%, and 9.3% respectively.
Trends also showed that the gaps between ethnic groups vary between time
periods. For example, the African American-Anglo gap narrowed during the 1980s, with
no measurable change between 1990 and 2009. Conversely, the Latino-African
American gap narrowed between 1990 and 2009, with no measurable change in the gap
during 1980s. The Latino-Anglo gap narrowed between 2000 and 2009, with no
measurable change in the gap between 1980 and 1999. However in each year of every
time period, Anglo and Asian American/Pacific Islanders had the lowest drop out rates
for all of the ethnic groups represented in the data (U.S. Department of Education,
National Center for Education Statistics, 2011).
Demographic divide. Another trend shows that American schools are becoming
more diverse. There are currently about nineteen million Latino and African American
students in the U.S. compared to about 30 million Anglo students (distribution varies
according regions). Twelve states have an Anglo student population below 50%. In
1996, enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools was 64% Anglo, 17%
Black, 14% Latino, 4% Asian/Pacific Islander, and 1% American Indian/Alaskan Native
(National Center for Education Statistics, 1999).
In contrast, 87% of the teaching workforce was non-Hispanic Anglo, 7% Black,
4% Latino, 1% Asian/Pacific Islander, and 1% American Indian/Alaskan Native (U.S.
Department of Education, 1997). Furthermore, most U.S. teachers are Anglo Americans
from middle-class backgrounds that only speak English. Many racial and ethnic
minorities students live in poverty (one in four children in the U.S. lives in poverty; the
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9
most among Western democratic nations), and speak a first language other than English.
By 2020, students of color will consist of 50% of the school population, while teachers
will likely remain Anglo and female (Amos, 2010). Furthermore, the U.S. trend shows
that a steady decrease in teachers of color further increases the likelihood that students of
all cultural backgrounds will be taught by Anglo teachers (Banks, 1991; Gomez, 1996;
Zeichner, 1996). There may be numerous reasons for the achievement gap between
African American and Latino students with their Asian American and Anglo
counterparts. Teacher perceptions and relationships with students may be one of many
reasons affecting student achievement. This proposition is examined further in this study.
Teachers’ perceptions of student behavior and relationship quality. It is
understood that there are a number of contributing factors of minority students’ school
adjustment and motivation that lead to both positive and negative achievement outcomes
(i.e. students’ home environment, socio-economic status, parent education and
involvement, health, etc.). However, this study will only focus on teachers; particularly
how teachers perceive students’ social behavior and their relationships with them.
Research suggests that positive perceptions and supportive student-teacher relationships
appear to be more important for ethnic minority children’s school adjustment compared
to their majority contemporaries, which has important implications for achievement
(Burchinal, Peisner-Feinberg, Pianta & Howes, 2002; Meehan, Hughes & Cavell, 2003;
Murray et al., 2008). For example, minority students supported by caring schools and
role model teachers have positive impacts on achievement outcomes, including test
scores, lower absenteeism, lower high school dropout rates, increased college-going rates,
and advanced-level high school courses (Villegas & Irvine, 2010).
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However, studies have also shown teachers’ negative perceptions and
interpersonal relationships with minority students are correlated with student-teacher
conflict, and a depression of emotional support beginning in primary grades continuing
through post-secondary education. This has been argued to contribute to student
disengagement and poorer academic performance (Ferguson, 2003; Entwisle & Hayduk,
1988; Sheets, 1996; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Mashburn, Hamre, Downer, & Pianta, 2006;
Baker, 1999; Hughes & Kwok, 2007). Findings also show that early behavior problems
in school (as perceived by the teacher) are also linked to an increased probability of later
dropout, delinquency, and psychopathology (Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1994; Parker &
Asher, 1987; Wehby et al., 1993).
Student-teacher relationship quality. It is essential for children to be able to
create and sustain coping strategies for the social environment in the early school years to
establish a trajectory of academic and behavioral performance (Hamre & Pianta, 2001).
As early as the primary grades, classroom social adjustment is influenced by adult-child
relationships, including teacher-child relationships (Pianta, 1999). Based on attachment
theory that generalized parental-child bond to teacher-child bond, care-giving roles
provides physical and emotional support which is the foundation for the formation of
attachment relationships. Teachers can serve as a secure base for social and learning
environment of school (Hamilton & Howes, 1992).
Student-teacher racial congruence. Student-teacher racial congruence has been
linked to student achievement, as well as teachers’ perceptions of students and their
relationships with them. For example, studies found increased reading and math scores
for African American and Latino students when their teachers’ race matched theirs (Dee,
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11
2004; Clewell et al., 2005, Hanushek, 1992). Racial congruence was also found in
studies to contribute to teachers’ lower ratings of their students’ dependency and student
teacher conflict. On the other hand, student teacher racial incongruence is linked to
teachers’ negative perceptions of their students’ behavior such as conduct problems and
hyperactivity/inattention (Saft & Pianta, 2001; Thijs, 2011). It is also linked to view of
their students’ maturity, competence, and the adoption of teachers’ low expectations
(Alexander, Entwisle, & Thompson, 1987; Dee, 2005). Racial incongruence has also had
a negative effect on teachers’ perceptions of their relationships such as more conflict and
views of student dependency.
Teachers’ self-identity development. Self-identity is rooted in optimal theory
(Myers et al., 1991), which is the awareness of the spiritual and physical unity of people
with their environment. Self-identity development describes an individual’s ability to
value and integrate all aspects of ‘self’ (i.e. race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age,
disability status, etc.), regardless if those identity dimensions are devalued by mainstream
society. Moreover, self-identity development describes the process of expansion of one’s
self-definition and therefore their worldview toward inclusion of others into a communal
orientation.
The rationale for this identity model for describing teachers in this study is to
determine how narrow or broad their self-definition influences their perceptions and
relationships with dissimilar others. Since many school populations are diverse, this
study will explore teachers’ self-identity to determine how it impacts their perceptions
and relationships with their students. Teachers’ beliefs and attitudes about themselves
(i.e. self-efficacy, stress, depression, multicultural attitudes, etc.) have been found to
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

12
influence their perceptions and relationships with students. Therefore, this study
examines teachers’ self-identity development through their beliefs and worldviews (a
psychological variable rarely explored with teachers). Teachers’ self-identity
development is analyzed in this study, as it may be a significant factor in teachers’
perceptions of student behavior and relationship quality with their students.
Background of the Study
Student-teacher racial incongruence originates from a long-standing demographic
divide between minority students (specifically African Americans) and majority teachers
in the U.S. It was proposed that desegregation implemented through the 1954 Brown v.
Board of Education decision had negative consequences for African American students,
although it was intended to ban discriminatory practices and inequitable educational
opportunities. Ultimately, desegregation began dismantling racial matching between
African American teachers, and students. For example, thousands of African American
educators; especially principals were displaced, dismissed, and demoted in the South.
The removal of African American principals hindered the recruitment and advancement
of black educational leaders, and they [black principals] were generally no longer
included in policymaking regarding instruction (Karpinski, 2006).
Conversely, the number of Anglo educators increased, as a result of Brown, to the
point that the current teaching staff does not reflect the diverse populations they serve.
As African Americans migrated to northern, populated, and impoverished cities, middle-
class suburban Anglo teachers more likely taught them with little awareness of legacy of
racism and discrimination (Berry & Blassingame, 1982; Sleeter, 2001). This
demographic shift in the teaching population increased the likelihood of racial
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

13
incongruence between minority students and teachers. Multicultural education
researchers believe that often embedded in the disproportionate number of Anglo
teachers in communities of color are negative and/or stereotypical attitudes, as well as
oppressive pedagogical practices that interfere with education (Page, 2009). There is also
indication that there are less favorable beliefs and interpersonal relationships with
racial/ethnic minority students due to racial incongruence in the student-teacher
relationship, as racial minority students are more likely to have teachers from a different
ethnic background unlike their majority counterparts (Howes & Shivers, 2006; Saft &
Pianta, 2001; Hughes & Kwok, 2007).
Theoretical Framework
Socio-cultural theory. The main theoretical framework for this study is
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. In many diverse schools, cognitive development
through social learning has been widely used in educational principles of instruction.
Socio-cultural theory poses that cognitive development is largely due to interactions with
others possessing more skills and competence. Vygotsky viewed the importance of
collaboration between the teacher and student in that the teacher informs, explains,
inquires, corrects, and forces the child to explain problem-solving (Gredler, 2009). Even
when the teacher is not present, the child must make use of earlier interactions with the
teacher.
Another important assumption in this theory is that culture establishes ways of
thinking with “psychological tools,” such as language (both speech and written), and
other cultural symbols that communicate knowledge with others. In other words,
thinking depends on speech as the means, as well as the child’s socio-cultural experience
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

14
(Gredler, 2009). Children are first introduced to cultural tools by their parents and later
through more formal interactions with teachers, peers, older children, or adults. The
teacher must consider what characteristics and experiences students bring to the
classroom, as they connect new learning to prior knowledge and experience. The teacher
must also understand the zone or range between what students can actually do and their
potential, which makes scaffolding very important.
Moreover, the teacher must also take into account how his or her background
and/or experience interacts and influences the learning process and believe in the
potential of the student. With that in mind, a learning environment that understands and
builds upon the capacity of the students is what is warranted according to this theory.
This will require the consideration that students may construct meaning differently from
themselves. Teacher-student interaction/collaboration is a key component how students
imitate, invent, and apply actions.
The need for “cultural synchronicity” (Irvine, 1988) linking the students’
personal experiences with the teachers’ is proposed to improve minority students’ overall
school experience, as well as advance their academic outcomes. This line of thinking is
within the socio-cultural framework, which contends that learning occurs in a cultural
context and involves active construction of ideas. Additionally, students continuously
strive to connect their prior individual and cultural knowledge and experiences with the
new ideas to which they are exposed. Villegas and Irvine (2010) assert that effective
teachers are able to help students build connections between what is already familiar to
them, from their experiences inside and outside of school.
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Many researchers contend that within the socio-cultural framework is the racial
congruence hypothesis, or the assumption that teachers with similar cultural backgrounds
are more familiar with their students’ background experiences, and are more equipped to
connect those experiences to school. Therefore, student-teacher racial congruence is an
independent variable in this study. Additionally, teachers must consider that knowledge
and behavior are constructed through cultural lenses, so self-examination and/or
development of their own cultural lens is important to determine how connected or
disconnected teachers are from their students’ backgrounds. That is why teachers’ self-
identity development is the other independent variable in this study.
Socio-cultural theory also poses that learning occurs between a student and a
more capable other (identified as a teacher in this study). Since this theory places
importance on the interactions between teachers and students, positive relationships
between students and teachers are essential for learning to occur. In sum, the
relationship between racial matching and teacher self-identity with teachers’ perceptions
and relationship quality with their students is supported by socio-cultural theory.
Purpose of the Study
This study aims to: (a) explore the influence of racial congruence and teachers’
self-identity development has on teachers’ perceptions of their student behavior; and (b)
examine racial congruence and teachers’ self-identity development related to teachers’
relationship quality with their students.
Importance of the Study
Teachers’ evaluations of students are used the most in the placement of students
in special education and classroom ability grouping. Furthermore, teachers’ ratings are
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critical to how parents, other teachers, and administrators are informed about student
competencies. Finally, teacher evaluations and relationships are important factors in
establishing expectations for student behavior, school/classroom environment, and
academic performance (Ferguson, 2003; Baker, 1999; Mashburn, Hamre, Downer &
Pianta, 2006). Studies have also indicated those teachers’ evaluations of student
competencies and socio-emotional skills have also indirectly provided insight about their
own psychological and demographic characteristics. For example, teachers’ motivation,
values, mental state, level of education, economic background and race were found to
influence teachers’ judgment. This study will explore teachers’ demographic variables
(particularly racial congruence), as well as psychological variables such as teachers’ self-
identity development to examine their influence of teachers’ perceptions and relationship
quality with their students.
Researchers have examined teachers’ perceptions finding negative attitudes about
effort, conduct, lower expectations, and less emotional support from Anglo teachers.
Research has also found less close, more conflicted interpersonal relationships between
teachers and minority students at various stages in their education. Some scholars have
attributed these group differences in teachers’ ratings of behavior and relationship quality
to not just demographic variables but psychological variables (i.e. attitudes and beliefs).
What is not well known is the influence of teachers’ self-identity development (a largely
unexamined psychological variable) on their perception of their students’ behavior and
the quality of their relationships. This study takes the perspective that it is important for
teachers to understand the “lens” from where they view their students. Will such analysis
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

17
through self-identity development give insight about how and why certain perceptions
and relationships are formed?
This study takes a socio-cultural perspective in the assumption that learning and
schooling in general is a social process heavily influenced by cultural values, beliefs, and
expectations. Given this perspective, and the socio-historical context by which education
has affected students of color, student teacher racial congruence is a variable in this
study. Also given that racial/ethnic identity is but one aspect of an individual’s social
identity; this study will view teachers’ self-identity, through the lens of optimal theory
rather than using a racial identity model. This alternative view of racial identity will
allow for the exploration of how teachers from various cultural backgrounds holistically
define themselves. This will have implications for their worldview or value system’s
effect on perception of behavior and relationship quality.
Organization of Dissertation
The remaining chapters are organized in the following manner: chapter two
reviews the current literature on student-teacher racial congruence in the K-12 setting,
and their outcomes; as well as literature on self-identity development as it relates to
teachers. Chapter three describes the methodology, including demographic data,
instruments used, and data collection procedures. Chapter four analyzes the collected
data including correlations between variables. Chapter five discusses the results,
implications, limitations, and directions for future research.

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Chapter II.
Review of the Literature

The following review of literature examines identified independent variables in
this study of racial congruence and teacher’s self-identity development as influencers of
elementary teachers’ perception of student behavior and student-teacher relationship
quality. The basic literature on both of these areas will be presented first and then in
connection to the specific dependent variables of teachers’ perception of student behavior
and relationship quality will be examined. The chapter will conclude by proposing
specific research questions and corresponding hypotheses.
Racial Congruence
The importance of teachers’ perceptions of minority students and their
interactions with them has been documented for decades in connection with student
outcomes (e.g. school adjustment, self-identity, and motivation) (Pigott & Cowen, 2000;
Sbarra & Pianta, 2001). Racial congruence influence on perceptions and interactions
between teachers and students has been argued as an indirect contributor to positive
student outcomes. This is based on the racial congruence argument, within the socio-
cultural framework, which makes the assumption that racial matching between students
and teachers enhances teachers’ understanding of children and results in greater
acceptance by the teacher (Irvine, 1988; McLoyd, 1998). Furthermore, it suggests that
knowledge of cultural and family background, shared meaning and enhanced
communication, informed interpretation of behavior, and provision of role models have
all been implicated as instruments by which racial/ethnic match support students. It also
presumes that teachers’ perceptions of students from similar backgrounds would be more
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19
positive than those of different backgrounds. Although, racial congruence has been
argued as important to minority students (particularly African Americans and Latinos)
some racial matching findings in studies are inconsistent.
Teachers as role models. One major argument supporting student-teacher racial
congruence for minority students is that minority teachers become role models for those
students. The role model argument has been documented for decades in teacher diversity
literature highlighting policymakers, pre-service teachers, and in-service teachers of
color. The overall appeal of the role model rationale is that teachers of color more often
report being motivated to teach minority students in order to become “exemplars of
possibility” (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). Other researchers in support for teacher diversity
claim that teachers of color boost the self worth of students of color; motivate minority
students to strive for social success, and decrease the sense of alienation from the
school/classroom environment just by their mere presence (Cole, 1986; King, 1993;
Waters, 1989; Smith, 1989; Graham, 1987). Former Secretary of Education, Richard
Riley, published an article in Education in Urban Society. He stated, “Our teachers
should be excellent, and they should look like America.” He also insisted that,
“…children need to see themselves in the faces of their teachers” (as cited in Villegas &
Irvine, 2010, p. 177).
Mercer and Mercer (1986) articulated their concern about an overwhelming
Anglo teaching workforce contributing to racial mismatching. They asserted that
students of color receive strong messages about the distribution of power in American
society through the racial and ethnic composition of the teaching force. The
overrepresentation of people of color in non-professional positions was argued as
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

20
implicitly teaching all students that Anglo people are more suitable than people of color
to hold positions of authority. Furthermore, lack of exposure to people of color in
authority positions undermined a commitment to a democratic society’s principle of
equality (as cited in Villegas & Irvine, 2010). However, empirical studies directly testing
racial matching with role model effects do not appear to exist, and should therefore be
studied in the future.
Caring environments. Deci and Ryan (1985) point out experiences of social
connectedness help children to internalize social values and become committed to social
values and societal institutions such as school. Furthermore, it has been found that
students in effective urban schools spend more time interacting with teachers and report
more personal support from teachers than those in ineffective urban schools (Waxman,
Huang, Anderson, & Weinstein, 1997).
In an 18-month ethnographic study of four multiethnic schools conducted by the
Institute for Education in Transformation (1992), caring was the most consistent and
powerful finding related to school achievement for diverse students. Different studies
conducted by Foster (1993), Ware (2006), and Dixson and Dingus (2008), document
teachers relating to students as relatives, and/or have adopted a “mothering” /”fathering”
style to administer “tough love, discipline, and caring that they claimed reduced
disciplinary action and increased academic success. Baker (1999) conducted a study
examining student-teacher interactions in urban “at-risk” classrooms. She proposed that
students expressing more satisfaction with school experience more caring and supportive
relationships with teachers than do their peers expressing the least satisfaction with
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

21
school. In sum, school and classroom environments where students feel cared for and a
sense of belonging are important for students to feel connected to school.
Achievement outcomes. Racial congruence studies have also been linked to
several positive achievement outcomes for African American and Latino students.
Performance indicators including absenteeism, high school dropout rates, college
prediction rates, and enrollment rates in advanced-level high school courses were used to
measure positive achievement outcomes. For example, Fraga, Meier, and England
(1986) found that the dropout rates were decreased and college acceptance increased for
among Latino students in large urban high school districts when the proportion of Latino
teachers increased. Meire (1993) reported that an increase in Latino representation in a
school district’s teaching workforce reduced placement of Latino students in special
education, as well as the rates of suspensions and expulsion, and increased their
placement in classes for the gifted. Additionally, Hess and Leal (1997) reported higher
college matriculation rates in urban school districts with a high concentration of teachers
of color. Klopfenstein (2005) found that enrollment of African American students in
Algebra II in an urban school district rose as the percentage of African American
mathematics teachers in the school increased. Finally, Farkas, Grobe, Sheehan, & Shaun
(1990) concluded in a study that African American students displayed lower rates of
absenteeism when taught by African American teachers.
Racial congruence has also been linked academic achievement among minority
students. In one study, Dee (2004) reanalyzed standardized test score data from the
Tennessee Student Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR) Project, which was a class-size
experiment from the late 1980s. This study randomly assigned 6,000 elementary students
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

22
from 79 participating schools to teachers. Racial pairing of teachers and students were
found to increase reading and math scores of African American students by three to four
percentage points. Race effects were found to be especially strong among African
American students with low socio-economic backgrounds in racially segregated schools.
Similarly, Clewell et al. (2005) investigated whether exposure to a same-race
teacher increased reading and math achievement scores for African American and Latino
elementary students. They found that Latino fourth and sixth graders had higher test
score gains in math when taught by Latino teachers than when taught by
racially/ethnically dissimilar students. Reading gains for Latino students were found only
for fourth grade students. The researchers found weaker effects for African American
teacher-student pairings except for the gains in math taught by a same-race teacher.
Finally, Hanushek (1992) examined the influence of teacher race on the performance of
African American students on vocabulary and reading standardized tests. The findings
showed that African American teachers increased the students’ achievement in those
areas more than their Anglo counterparts. However, Tom and Cronan (1998) later found
no differences in academic performance between African American and Anglo students
in a study examining same verses different race tutors.
Several studies found positive achievement outcomes for minority students
(mostly African Americans) when they were paired with a same-race teacher. However,
some studies did not find group differences, nor did they directly test racial matching
with these student outcomes. Several empirical studies in early education, however, have
tested the racial congruence hypothesis in order to explain achievement discrepancies
between African American and Latino students and their Anglo counterparts. These
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23
studies also proposed that a strong predictor of student outcomes among minority
students was determined by their teachers’ evaluations of their social adjustment in
school as well as the quality of their relationships with them.
Racial Congruence and Teachers’ Perception of Student Behavior and
Relationship Quality. Studies of teacher-child relationships have examined children’s
adjustment in classrooms regarding how the relationship develops during typical
classroom interactions, such as instruction, socialization, and classroom management of
activities and time (Saft & Pianta, 2001). It is well documented that there is a strong
association between teachers’ reports of student behavior, relationship quality, and
student outcomes (Hamre, Pianta, Downer, & Mashburn, 2008). This association
between teachers’ perceptions of behavior and relationship quality is argued to begin as
early as prekindergarten with important implications about the trajectory of students’
future school achievement through middle school (Hamre et al., 2008). Many studies
have examined race among other teacher and student demographic variables as
moderators of the behavior/relationship dynamics. For this reason, teachers’ ratings of
student behavior and student teacher relationship quality are examined together in this
section.
Problem behavior among minority students. Prior research findings suggest that
teachers judge African American students to have more serious problems, fewer adaptive
behaviors, more negative personality traits, and poorer educational prognoses. These
negative views have been historically negative, and have been argued to adversely affect
the adoption of a positive self-identity, and arguably “resegregation” due to the
disproportion of students of color in remedial classes (Irvine, 1990; Graybill, 1997;
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24
Fordham & Ogbu, 1986). Research examining racial congruence with teachers’
evaluations of students’ behavior has been inconsistent. Some of the literature supports
the racial congruence hypothesis, and others do not.
In a notable study the school psychology literature, Saft and Pianta (2001)
investigated a large, ethnically diverse sample of preschool and kindergarten teachers and
students. The aim of the study was to examine to what extent their perceptions of
relationships with students was a product of (a) child’s age, gender, and ethnicity; (b)
teacher ethnicity; and (c) ethnic match of child and teacher. They found that racial
congruence was associated with teachers’ negative ratings of dependency and conflict.
For example, more conflict was reported for older African American and Anglo students
than Latino and younger children. In terms of gender, more conflict was reported for
Anglo boys and African American and Latino girls. Finally, teachers perceived more
conflict with different-race students. Racial congruence was associated with lower
negative dependency ratings. Within each ethnic group measured, African American and
Latino students received the highest dependency scores. No effect was found for Anglo
students regarding dependency.
A similar study was conducted in the Netherlands to examine ethnic-Dutch
(majority) teachers’ relationship differences between ethnic-Dutch (majority), Moroccan-
Dutch and Turkish-Dutch minority students (Thijs et al., 2011). Ethnic-majority teachers
perceived more conflict and dependency with the ethnic minority students than ethnic-
majority students. Ethnic incongruence was more pronounced with one minority group
over the other, showing relationship distinctions among minority students. Incongruence
was more pronounced when teachers perceived problem behaviors (e.g. inattention and
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

25
hyperactivity), presumably because majority teachers were more challenged to handle
problems with students from different backgrounds. Finally, teachers’ multicultural
attitudes (perceived by the students) were found to moderate these effects, showing the
importance of the teachers’ role in relationships with minority students.
Other researchers have also tested the racial congruence hypothesis. For example,
Dee (2005) analyzed NELS 1988 data to determine racial pairing effect on teachers’
subjective evaluations of student behavior. He also found that African American and
Latino students were more likely to be viewed unfavorably by a racially/ethnically
dissimilar teacher. These effects were more pronounced when the students had low
socio-economic status. Alexander, Entwisle, and Thompson (1987) conducted a
quantitative study of first graders in Baltimore. The study examined both African
American and Anglo students’ and teachers’ demographic characteristics such as
socioeconomic status, race, and teachers’ evaluation of school climate. Racial matching
and socioeconomic status were then paired and regressed to predict teachers’ evaluation
of students’ personal maturity (defined as “good pupil,” “receptive learner”, etc.). They
found that African American students had lower evaluations of maturity and lower
performance expectations when they were mismatched with Anglo teachers, or teachers
of high SES.
Not all research has supported the congruence hypothesis. Other researchers have
proposed that African American teachers viewed the behavior and academic performance
of African American students similarly to Anglo teachers. For example, Wilson’s (1992)
study comparing ratings of Latino, Anglo, and African American children by same and
different-race teachers found that both African American and Anglo teachers rated the
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26
social and academic performance of black and white students comparably. Pigott and
Cowen (2000) analyzed teachers’ race, students’ race, racial congruence, and teachers’
ratings of children’s school adjustment from 70 elementary classrooms in 24 multiracial
inner-city schools. The main outcome measures were teachers’ ratings of children’s
school problems and competencies, use of negative stereotypes in describing children,
and expectations for the children’s future. They found that both African American and
Anglo teachers negatively judged African American students to have more serious school
adjustment problems, fewer competencies, stereotypical personality traits, and poorer
educational prognoses than Anglo students. It was also noted that African American
teachers judged all students more positively in those dimensions than Anglo teachers. In
sum, some studies support an advantage for students (particularly African Americans) to
be placed with same-race teachers. Other studies did not find group differences in
judgments toward racially dissimilar students.
Teacher bias. Some propose that Anglo middle-class teachers (frequently
female) view African American male behavior as disruptive “talking back” or acting out.
Irvine (1990) reported, “teachers tend to overreact to the behavior of Black students,
particularly black make students” (cited in Graybill, 1997, p. 312). Studies have debated
whether perceived misbehavior was a result of students actually “acting out” in the
presence of Anglo teachers (oppositional culture) verses it being a function of teacher
bias (Ogbu, 1983). A study of early education assessed both possibilities and estimated
the racial matching effects of kindergartners in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-
Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 and eighth graders from the National Education
Longitudinal Study (NELS) of 1988. The authors found that the matching effects were
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27
comparable across both kindergartners and adolescents. Their conclusion was teacher
bias explained lower classroom behavior ratings rather than oppositional culture in that
kindergartners were too young to develop a resistance to schooling and perceptions of
limited opportunities (Ogbu, 1991). Moreover, prior evidence showed that African
American students, including “at-risk” students, generally began kindergarten as willing
learners (Downey & Pribesh, 2004).
Other better-controlled studies did not find teacher bias, or support the
congruence prediction. For example, Sbarra and Pianta (2001) investigated teacher-rated
behavior problems and competencies among African American and Anglo American
students during their first two years of school. The researchers hypothesized that
elementary teachers (kindergarten through fifth grade) would judge racially congruent
children as having better adaptive behaviors, school-based competencies, personality
traits, and higher expectations for the students’ future academic success compared to
different-race teachers. The study revealed that race/ethnicity was significant when the
student groups were compared. For example, African American students had lower
ratings in all of the measurable outcomes than Anglo students. However, when teachers’
race was examined, African Americans judged both groups more positively than Anglo
teachers, yet rated African American students lower than Anglo students. The study
confirmed that gaps between Black and White students exist as early as kindergarten and
widen as students continue through schooling. However, race-bias was not readily
apparent in racial matching. Teachers’ ratings were of student competencies accounted
for more of the variance of teachers’ judgments than student attributes.
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28
Teacher bias and Conflict. Teacher perceptions also play a role in student-
teacher conflict and disciplinary practices in the classroom. According to Freeman
(1992) classroom conflict is a result of incompatible perceptual differences of two groups
(teachers and students) who believe that their needs and values have been threatened.
Hamre et al. (2008) conducted a study as part of the larger statewide early education
program (SWEEP) study in order to examine teachers’ perceptions of problem behavior
related to conflict. The researchers used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to examine
individual and classroom level data associated with teachers’ ratings of conflict. Next,
both student and teacher demographic variables were used predict problem behaviors and
conflict. Then psychological variables of teachers (e.g. level of depression and self-
efficacy) were measured. Finally, the classroom-level data was collected by observing
the emotional support and positive/negative teacher interactions with students. The
researchers compared raters and adjusted for problem behaviors to determine the degree
teachers varied in their reports of problem behaviors (inter-rater bias), and to see which
of the leveled measures predicted conflict the strongest. The study found that teacher-
level data made stronger predictions, and that teachers reported more conflicted
relationships than expected based on problem behavior ratings. This study not only
showed that teachers were biased in their views about behavior and conflict (not to be
confused with racial bias), but that psychological variables of the teacher were stronger
predictors of conflict than demographic variables.
In sum, there is a large body of literature that debates the racial congruence
hypothesis that proposes that same-race teachers perceive their students more positively,
therefore contributing to better quality relationships and beneficial student outcomes. On
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29
the other hand it argues that mismatched students are perceived negatively, leading to
internalized negative identities, unsupportive relationships, and further academic decline.
There are a number of interpretations for the mixed findings. First, there are design
limitations such as confounded and/or poorly controlled variables (e.g. race/SES overlap
or mismatched among the samples). This was noted in many of the studies, including the
one in the Netherlands. Other studies compared groups, but failed to directly test racial
matching.
Psychological variables (i.e. beliefs and attitudes; in the studies where they were
tested) were more salient than demographic variables. One important interpretation for
African American and Anglo teachers rating students of color more negatively than
Anglo students was the way the groups of teachers saw themselves. It was suggested that
perhaps African American teachers saw themselves more like Anglo middle-class
teachers than low-income African American students (McLoyd, 1988). In such a case,
the interplay of race, gender, economic status, as well as psychological variables
introduce questions about teachers’ self-identity as a contributor to the way teachers
perceived their students. Self-identity development may offer explanations of how
teachers’ worldviews, belief system and tolerance influence their perception of dissimilar
students.
Self-Identity Development
Racial congruence among teachers and minority students appears to show
significance in some of the literature. However, there were studies in which African
American teachers rated their students’ behavior comparably to their Anglo colleagues.
Other studies did not find racial bias as a factor to teachers’ negative ratings of minority
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30
students. It can be argued that merely examining racial matching alone as an independent
variable is too simplistic for two distinct reasons: (1) race is a complex construct that
homogenizes racial groups to the extent of overlooking within group differences. (2)
Identity has more recently been defined in much of the literature as multi-dimensional,
where perceptions and worldviews are informed by a variety of simultaneous overlap,
sociocultural context, and how individuals might deal with multiple oppressions (i.e.
race, gender, age, religion, sexual orientation, physical ability, etc.) (Reynolds & Pope,
1991; Jones & McEwan, 2000). Therefore, this study takes an alternative view of racial
identity development when examining teachers to include the individuality one’s cultural
realities.
Optimal Theory. Optimal Theory is the framework used to conceptualize the
self-identity development model for this study. Optimal meaning “the best possible
under a specific set of conditions” (Myers, 1988) posits a set of conditions promoting
peace, joy, harmony, and holistic well-being. Optimal theory is multicultural in that it
integrates common African, Eastern, Native American, and Western spiritual and
philosophical principles, promoting a universal worldview upon which an identity
development model can be based (Highlen et al., 1989). This perspective of identity
development is also in line with Erikson’s (1968) belief that the process of identity
development comes through the interaction between individuals, socio-cultural
environments, and the inherent core ‘self’. Furthermore, it also coincides with Jung’s
(1953) belief that the essence of the individual is spiritual, and therefore it should be
people’s task within their lifetime to develop coherence and harmony with their inherent
spiritual wholeness.
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31
Optimal theory operates at the interpersonal, intrapersonal, and institutional
levels. It is based on the notion that because westernized societies segment spirit and
matter, therefore making oppression the natural consequence (Myers et al., 1988).
Oppression, within this theoretical framework, is defined as the socialization into a
worldview with a fragmented sense of self, leaving one perpetually vulnerable and
insecure because self-worth is based on material external validation (appearance,
education, income, status, etc). This fragmented conceptual system is called suboptimal,
and it transcends racial and ethnic groups in that all individuals who adopt this system are
considered oppressed. Furthermore, a suboptimal worldview places power and
responsibility outside of the individual, which causes an imbalance within the individual
and the need to seek “power over” others in search for meaning, value, or self-worth.
“…The oppressor has vested interest in negative identity of the oppressed because
that negative identity is a projection of his [or her] own unconscious negative
identity- a projection which, up to a point, makes him [or her] feel superior but
also, in a brittle way, whole.” (Myers et al., 1991)

This belief system is the basis for the “oppressor/oppressed” and the “haves,” and
the “have-nots” dynamic. Rewards, benefits, and privileges of society are based on
membership in a particular group. According to Highlen, Speight, Myers, and Cox
(1989), “Within the United States, the generally accepted norm by which people are
evaluated or against which they measure themselves is how close one comes to being
Anglo, middle class, male, Christian, heterosexual, English-speaking, young, and
mentally, physically, and emotionally unimpaired” (p. 8). According to optimal theory,
the process of identity development is when individuals realize themselves as a
combination of spiritual-material beings who are capable of realizing their connection
with ‘others.’ Proponents of this theory suggest that the optimal worldview is a healthy
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32
state that conflicts with the mainstream (suboptimal) worldview that fosters self-
alienation and self-destructive behavior (May, 1977).
Optimal Theory of Applied Identity Development (OTAID) model. Myers’ et al.
(1991) Optimal Theory of Applied Identity Development (OTAID) model is used in this
study as a framework to examine teachers’ self-identity development. Myers’ et al.
(1991) OTAID model uses optimal theory to integrate all aspects of one’s being, (e.g.,
such age, color, ethnicity, size awareness of ancestral relationships, nature, and
community) into a holistic sense of self. This approach to identity development
addresses a number of critiques and limitations of the widely used racial identity
development models. Such limitations include a lack of systematic empirical validation,
universal relevancy, and the disregard for the role of the individual in the identity
development process (Highlen et al., 1986, Akbar, 1989; Nobles, 1989). The most
notable criticism of racial identity development models is that they do not consider
individuals with multiple oppressions (e.g., lower- class African American, female Asian
American, etc.), or biracial backgrounds. Posten (1990) and Speight, Myers, Cox, and
Highlen (1991) suggest that such omissions oversimplify the nature of reality for most
oppressed people and categorize individuals within one sphere ignoring interrelatedness
of other identity dimensions. Myers’ et al. (1991) OTAID model is used in this study for
the following reasons: (a) it is an inclusive model that could apply to both racial/ethnic-
majority and minority members, (b) is based on a universal worldview that could apply
across cultures, (c) does not segment or single out considerations for multiple
oppressions, (d) emphasizes the role of the individual and his/her conceptual system in
the identity development process.
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33
The OTAID model (Myers et al., 1991) occurs through six sequential phases. The
phases are as followed:
Phase 1: Individuation. In this phase, individuals lack alternative views of self
from how they were initially introduced, nor do they consider a particular aspect of their
identity as special. Personal identity has been defined by family values, and may be
reinforced by mainstream society; therefore they are oblivious to the part of self that is
devalued by others. These factors may make it less likely from individuals to move from
this phase.
Phase 2: Dissonance. In this stage, feelings of guilt, confusion, insecurity, and
isolation, may accompany the encounter with the devalued sense of self. The individual
begins to feel conflicted between a false devalued self-image projected by others and who
the individual believes he or she is. The individual may also consciously or
unconsciously internalize socio-cultural values that perpetuate a negative view of self.
As a reaction, one may suppress or disassociate themselves from this negative self-
definition.
Phase3: Immersion. In this phase, individuals embrace devalued aspects of
themselves, which helps them appreciate devalued others who are like them. Through
“immersion,” individuals gain a sense of belonging and pride; however they develop
negative perceptions and/or rejection of the dominant group and its norms and values.
Phase 4: Internalization. Individuals in this phase have a sense of worth and
security due to positive feelings associated salient aspects of self, which is also
recognized as just one of many components of their self-identity. This broadened
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34
perspective allows individuals to be more tolerant and accepting of others who do not
pose a threat to their sense of self.
Phase 5: Integration. In this phase, individuals have developed a stronger internal
security, and it is reflected in their relationships and perceptions of others. The
individuals’ connection to others has developed their sense of community that goes
beyond appearance. Individuals in the phase also experience a conceptual shift through
by recognizing that all people can oppress or be oppressed according to their relationship
with self or others.
Phase 6: Transformation. Individuals have redefined their sense of self inclusive
of ancestors, offspring, nature, and community. One’s worldview is also based on the
interrelatedness and interdependence with a more spiritual outlook rather than focusing
on external circumstance. There is also an appreciation of their history and culture,
therefore unifying with and valuing humankind and life as contributors to a “greater
good.” Moreover, the world is now viewed as orderly, rational, and personal, seeing
negative experiences as part of growth and development.
Studies of Teachers’ Self-Identity Development. There are few studies applying
Myers’ et al. (1991) OTAID model. This includes a validation study operationalizing the
model into Sevig, Highlen, and Adams’ (2000), Self-Identity Inventory (SII), used in the
present study. Others include a dissertation where the model was used to explore the
self-identity development of South African women in a large urban university, and a
chapter examining spirituality among African American college women. The
investigator is unaware of any application of the OTAID model to teachers. Identity
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35
development among teachers has largely been applied specifically to race examining pre-
service and in-service teachers.
There have been few studies in the U.S., Canada, and Australia that have
examined teachers’ self-identity. Studies related to teachers’ self-identity development
have largely been racially based, and have focused on: (a) Anglo pre-service teachers’
coursework; (b) in-service teachers’ professional development; and (c) advocacy for
increasing cultural diversity in the teacher workforce. Given this limitation in prior
research, this section will discuss how identity has been applied to teachers.
Racial identity in pre-service teacher education coursework. Researchers have
studied what teacher education programs have done to address issues relating to student
diversity. For example, from the anti-racist perspective, scholars have examined
“Whiteness” as a means to combat systems and practices believed to discriminate against
students of color, and provide unfair privileges to members of empowered groups.
However, researchers of teacher education programs’ coursework addressing antiracism
show that many Anglo candidates demonstrate resistance to such self-reflection.
McIntyre (1997), Gee (1996), and Haviland (2008) used discourse analyses in studies of
teacher pre-service training. They observed communication patterns during racial
discussions that included: “derailing the conversation, evading the conversation,
dismissing counterarguments, withdrawing from discussion, and creating a “culture of
niceness” (uncritical, status quo talk that glossed over issues of race). The
communication patterns were labeled as “silencing tactics” to insulate Anglo pre-service
teachers from examining individual or collective participation in the perpetuation of
racism.
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36
Similarly, Amos (2010) conducted a small study to investigate the kind of
interaction that takes place between minority and Anglo pre-service teachers in a
multicultural education class and how it impacted minority pre-service teachers’
participation in class. She interviewed minority students (n=4) in a semi-structured
format after participant-involved observations throughout the course. Journal entries
were also coded line-by-line. The researcher interpreted her analysis of the data as Anglo
students demonstrating: frustration, anger, and fear that led to the “silencing” of minority
students.
Rezai-Rashti and Solomon’s (2008) study of Canadian pre-service teachers
examined how the development of candidate’s racial identity influenced the adoption of
antiracist awareness during a one-year post-baccalaureate program in an urban setting.
Participants were teacher candidates (N=36), representing racial minorities (primarily
African American and Asian American; N=18) and Anglo Americans. The Helm’s
Racial Identity Development (RID) model (for Whites and non-whites), the Multicultural
Antiracist Education Survey, and interviews were used to collect data before and after the
program to measure growth. First, the study acquired a baseline of candidates’ racial
identity status which included: their awareness, attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge about
racial differences and diversity, perspectives on anti-racism education, and their initial
level of competency in teaching from an anti-racism perspective. Once a baseline was
established, personalized growth goals toward racial identity development, anti-racist
awareness, and competency in teaching from an anti-racist perspective were developed
for each participant.
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37
Findings showed a range of beliefs within groups. Pre goals revealed that 6.1% of
participants disagreed with “race talk” in class. Post goals showed that 0% disagreed. Pre
goals also showed that 64% of participants felt they were competent in teaching ARE.
Post goals revealed that 90% of participants felt competent. Post goals also showed
ambivalence to anti-racism education (ARE) goals. The researchers concluded that the
Anglo participants had an unrealistic appraisal of ‘self’, which distorted their individual
plans (goals).
Other findings showed that Anglo candidates did not see themselves as
“racialized”, identifying themselves only as “Canadian.” The researchers interpreted this
self-definition as establishing “Canadian” as the non-ethnic “norm.” Furthermore,
respondents had difficulty isolating single dimensions of their identity. Instead, they saw
the interplay between other dimensions of their identity. For example, one participant
saw herself as more Jewish than “White.” The data also revealed that many participants
practiced identity status inflation. This occurred when what they self-reported about their
racial identity status was closer to the autonomy status (preliminary stage) of the Helm’s
RID model than what their attitudes revealed during the interviews. Evidence also
showed the misinterpretation of antiracism. During post- interviews, candidates still
described their roles as promoting appreciation for all cultures, which is a closer
description of multicultural goals than anti-racism.
Finally, the researchers noted limitations in the study design. They suggested that
Helms’ RID model was a good educational tool, but ineffective in accurately describing
the respondents. Helms’ model’s validity and reliability were questionable, due to
rampant status inflation. Status inflation (social desirability bias) was noted as common
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

38
among mixed-race groups in that “no one wanted to be ignorant, intolerant, or racist.”
Researchers were also challenged to accurately measure and implement growth plans due
to the limitations of the instrument (Rezai-Rashti & Solomon, 2008).
Additionally, Santoro (2009) conducted small-scale qualitative study of pre-
service teachers’ identity during a three-week teaching experience in two urban schools.
Post-structuralist theories of identity framed the study. It explored how pre-service
teachers (N=8) constructed their identities in terms of ethnicity and socio-economic class,
and how they interacted with their secondary students with different ethnic and socio-
economic backgrounds. The participants in this study were teachers in their final year of
obtaining their post-graduate teaching degree. They all represented the dominant cultural
‘mainstream’ in that they attended Anglo-Australian middle-class schools during their
primary and secondary education, were monolingual, and had little experience
working/living in multicultural contexts. The study design included a two-hour focus
group discussion about how they constructed their identities in terms of ethnicity and
social class. Next, researchers used field notes to document observations during
instruction, as well as during post-instructional conversations. At the same time, teachers
were required to keep a reflective journal about the professional and personal challenges
of working in a diverse setting for analysis. Following the teaching experience, teachers
were interviewed separately, as well as in a final focus group to compare and reflect
about their experiences. Discourse analysis during interviews and focus groups was used
to examine how they understood their identities as well as their “positionality” (how they
position themselves) in a range of discourses and discourse communities. The researcher
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39
was interested in how they responded to power relations (resistance or alignment) with
discourse communities.
Findings showed a lack of cultural knowledge about their students, as well as their
own social status and positioning (group identity). “Colorblindness” was a shared
perspective observed during interviews. The researcher interpreted the teachers as
lacking the awareness of ‘self’ and ‘others.’ In turn, this lack of awareness caused
teachers to stereotype their students during their interviews. Furthermore, the researchers
saw pre-service and cooperating teachers as uncritical and unaware of how their own
practices affected the engagement of the students.
The approach did not account for cultures being multifaceted and changeable.
Moreover, the researcher noted that critical self-reflection by teachers was absent.
Therefore, it was likely that diverse students, from an uncritical stance, could be viewed
as “problems” that need to be “managed” in order to conform to the dominant values and
beliefs. For example, a teacher with ethnically diverse students (the majority consisted of
Vietnamese, Serbian, and Somali backgrounds) designed a lesson about the Anglican
archbishop’s resignation. When the lesson was unsuccessful, the teacher attributed the
challenges of her lesson to her students’ difficulty with religious and political vocabulary,
rather than her own challenge of seeing beyond her own localized understanding of the
world.
Teacher racial identity development and professional development. There is
limited research regarding racial identity development for in-service teachers. Lawrence
and Tatum (1997) conducted a teacher’s identity development study. This qualitative
study focused on how a semester-long anti-racist in-service professional development
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40
course exploring racial identity and racism led to anti-racists pedagogical and political
practices. Participants were suburban teachers (n=84) participating in the METCO
program (school desegregation program). Participants explored personal, cultural, and
institutional racism. Then they were encouraged to interrogate assumptions and
expectations of their students of color. They were then asked to acknowledge their own
racial-group membership and its social implications. Written assignments were used for
analysis (i.e. reflection papers, case studies, and other essays) to detect whether
participants engaged in antiracist practices. Categories and frequencies described that
142 anti-racist actions occurred during the course. 52% involved improving relationships
among students, parents, and other teachers. 27% included curricular transformations.
20% of anti-racist actions involved institutional changes supporting services for students
of color. This included educating others by sharing literature, engaging in discussions
about the course content, and advocating for students of color. This study addressed a
small sample, and it did not address whether these actions continued beyond the course.
Summary of the Literature Review
An overview of the literature related to the independent variables (student-teacher
racial congruence and teacher self-identity development) was provided above. There has
been a substantial amount of attention about addressing racial congruence between
teachers and students. First, many scholars argued for increase of diversity in the
teaching workforce as it will provide positive role models, increased academic success,
and better school experiences for racial minority students. Some studies found
achievement benefits for African American and Latino students in same-race student-
teacher pairings as a result of healthy student-teacher relationships. Other studies found
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41
racial incongruence to predict negative teacher perceptions and relationship quality with
minority students (i.e. inattention/ hyperactivity, dependency, and conflict). Yet, some
racial matching studies showed mixed findings regarding racial incongruence, showing
cases in which African American teachers rated African American students comparable
to Anglo teachers.
The psychology of the teachers (i.e. multicultural attitudes, self-efficacy,
depression, and bias) was also significant in predicting negative perceptions and
relationships with racially dissimilar students. Researchers proposed racial identity
development (RID) to develop teachers’ multicultural knowledge and/or anti-racist
pedagogy of pre-service and in-service teachers. However, there were validity
limitations of the RID model’s application in the study. Most of the literature providing
insight concerning teachers’ identity development were small-scale qualitative studies,
and focused on pre-service teachers’ field experiences and/or the discourse between
Anglo and minority pre-service teachers at the university setting.
Finally, Myers’ et al. (1988) optimal theory was examined as an alternative to
continuously viewing self-identity from a suboptimal lens that focuses on a segmented
and externalized value system of separate, oppressed groups (Myers et al., 1991). The
OTAID model assumes spiritual unity as the “core” of all individuals, regardless of social
identities, and therefore describes identity development as full self-awareness, internal
acceptance/value, and integration of a holistic sense of self. Within this model, self-
concept expands along with one’s worldviews.
The two independent variables: student-teacher racial congruence and self-
identity development (through optimal theory) will be examined to determine if they are
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

42
predictors of teachers’ positive and/or negative perceptions and student behavior and
relationship quality.
Purpose, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
The purpose of this study is to fill a gap in the current literature on student-teacher
racial congruence by exploring student teacher racial congruence and teachers’ self-
identity development through the lens of optimal theory, which may predict how teachers
rate the behavior of and relationship quality with racially dissimilar students.
Research questions. The following questions and hypotheses will be addressed
in this study:
Research Question 1:
Are there differences between teachers who are racially similar or different from
their students in teachers’ perception of student behavior and student teacher
relationship quality?
Hypothesis 1a: Same-race teachers will evaluate their students to
have more pro-social behaviors as well as closer, less conflicted
relationships with their students.
Hypothesis 1b: Different-race teachers will perceive more
problem behaviors and have less close, more conflicted
relationships.
Research Question 2:
Does teachers’ self-identity development predict their perception of student
behavior and the quality of their relationships with students?
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

43
Hypothesis 2a: Teachers described in the individuation,
dissonance, and immersion phases will perceive more problem
behaviors and have less close, more conflicted behaviors.
Hypothesis 2b: Teachers described in the internalization,
integration, and transformation phases will perceive more pro-
social behavior, and have closer, less conflicted relationships.

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44
Chapter III
Methodology

This study investigates the influence of student-teacher racial congruence and
teachers’ self-identity development with teachers’ ratings of student behavior and
relationship quality. The following chapter includes information on the participants used
for the study, the instruments utilized, and the procedures for data collection and analysis.
Participants
Elementary teachers (N= 31) were recruited from three urban school districts in
northern and southern California during the spring of the 2012-2013 school year. All
teachers to evaluated four of their students for a total of 124 cases. This sample included
full-time permanent teachers in self-contained elementary classroom settings ranging
from kindergarten to grade six. Participants in this study ranged in age from 27 to 65
years old (M= 43.97 years, SD= 10.31), and ranged in years of service from 2 years to 30
years (M=14.10, SD= 7.77). As shown in Table 1, female teachers comprised of 80.6%
(n= 25) of the sample, while male teachers comprised of 19.4% (n=6) of the sample. The
teachers’ gender, grade level, race/ethnicity, primary language, and level of parents’
education are presented below in Table 1.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

45

Table 1
Frequency Distribution of Teacher Participants
N Percentage
Gender
Female
Male

25
6

80.6
19.4
Grade Level
Kindergarten
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth
SDC 3-5

3
8
2
6
4
3
2
3

9.7
25.8
6.5
19.4
12.9
9.7
6.5
9.7
Race/Ethnicity
Anglo American/White
African American/Black
Asian American
Native American
Hispanic/Latino

11
6
8
1
5

35.5
19.4
25.8
3.2
16.1
English as Primary Language
Yes
No

26
5

83.9
16.1
Parent Education (Bachelor’s degree or
higher)
Yes
No
Unsure

17
13
1

54.8
41.9
3.2

Both primary teachers and upper grade teachers represented nearly the same
proportion of teachers from the entire sample. There were thirteen primary teachers and
fifteen upper grade teachers. The largest group of teachers who participated in the study
was Anglo American/ White (n= 11, 35.5%), followed by Asian American (n= 8, 25.8%),
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

46
African American/Black (n= 6, 19.4%), Hispanic/Latino (n=5, 16.1%), and Native
American (n= 1, 3.2%). In addition, most of the teachers who participated in the study
spoke English as their primary language during their childhood (n=26, 83.9%). A
majority of teachers also had one or more parent obtain a Bachelor’s degree or higher
(n=1, 54.8%), although a large percent of the teachers did not have a parent who obtained
a Bachelor’s degree or higher (n=13, 41.9%).
This study investigated thirty-one teachers in relation to 124 students. Students’
race/ethnicity is presented below in Table 2.

Instruments
Demographic Data. Questionnaires provided demographic data about
participants in the study. The questions included provided background information of the
teachers related to age, years of service, grade level, gender, ethnicity, and socio-
economic status.
Self-identity development. This study measured the correlation between teachers’
self-identity development and their perception of student behavior as well as the
Table 2
Frequency Distribution of Student Race/Ethnicity
(N= 124) Percentage
Anglo American/White 9 7.2
African American/Black 33 26.6
Asian/ Middle Eastern 17 13.7
Hispanic/Latino 64 51.6
Pacific Islander 1 0.8
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

47
relationship quality with their students. Self- identity was measured with the Self-
Identity Inventory (SII; Sevig et al., 2000). The Self-Identity Inventory (SII)
operationalized the Optimal Theory of Applied Identity Development (OTAID) model
(Myers, 1991) described in Chapter II. It measures one’s worldviews and multicultural
identity in a holistic manner.
The SII consists of two parts; an open-ended section that respondents describe
their identity in their own words, and a 71-item self-report instrument that uses a six-
point Likert rating scale (1- strongly disagree to 6- strongly agree) to measure
participants’ development within six identity scales as indicated by the OTAID model.
They are as followed: (a) phase 1-individuation: “All people can succeed in this country
if they work hard enough”; (b) phase 2- dissonance: “I am just beginning to realize that
society does not value people like me”; (c) phase 3- immersion: “My identity as a
member in my group is the most important part of who I am”; (d) phase 4-
internalization: “I recently realized that I don’t have to like every person in my group”;
(e) phase 5- integration: “I have a deep understanding of myself that comes from
examining different parts of my identity”; and (f) phase 6- transformation: “I see myself
in all others, including criminals and all oppressors, because we are part of the same
collective spirit.” Scores for the items in each scale are summed and divided by the
number of scale items to create a mean score for each of the six scales (Sevig, Highlen, &
Adams, 2000). Part one (the open-ended section) was omitted from the study to prevent
fatigue from respondents.
Reliability of the final SII scales had Cronbach alphas as followed: Individuation
(.89), Dissonance (.90), Immersion (.84), Internalization (.72), Integration (.78), and
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

48
Transformation (.90). Test-retest reliability correlations all were significant (p < .01)
based on the following coefficients: Individuation (.92), Dissonance (.81), Immersion
(.72), Internalization (.83), Integration (.90), and Transformation (.87) (Sevig, Highlen, &
Adams, 2000).
External construct validity. The Tolerance Scale from the California
Psychological Inventory (CPI; Gough, 1987) measured construct validity of the SII phase
scales. It measures one’s ability to accept differences and differences in beliefs (Gough,
1987). Another measure of construct validity was the use of the Belief Systems Analysis
Scale (BSAS; Montgomery, Fine, & Myers, 1990). The BSAS tested the OTAID
model’s belief system’s alignment to the SII scales. Finally, the Social Desirability and
Infrequency scales (Personality Research Form-Form E; Jackson, 1984) measured
socially desirability and a response set, as well as careless responding with items.
Construct Validity. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed a pattern of
inter-scale correlations. Five of the six scales were highly correlated with their adjoining
scales. Goodness –of-fit indices and CFA results support that the SII scales conform to
the structure of the OTAID model, thus supporting the construct validity of the SII. None
of the SII scales were significantly related to the social desirability and infrequency
scales, which supports that the SII would not be subject to bias through social desirability
or random manner (Sevig, Highlen, & Adams, 2000).
Content Validity. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between each
SII item and its corresponding scale. Most of the scales produced item-scale correlations
of .30 or above (considered appropriate by Nunnally, 1978). All scales except for Scale
Four (Internalization) items were above .30. Scale Four items were .25, .26, .27, and .29.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

49
According to the researchers, three goodness-of-fit indices for Scale four ranged from .93
to .83, while three ranged from .70 to .79, which made the scale less problematic (Sevig,
Highlen, & Adams, 2000).
The SII was also pilot-tested on people from different social groups such as:
Japanese American females, Anglo American lesbians, Native American males, etc. 325
participants from 24 states representing different races, sexes, sexual orientations, and
classes were obtained through convenience sampling procedures.
Student-Teacher Relationships. For this study, the dependent variable of
student-teacher relationship quality was assessed using the Student-Teacher Relationship
Scale- Short Form (STRS-SF) (Pianta, 2001) is a widely used measure of teachers’
perceptions of their relationships with students. The typical age range for the STRS is
from four through eight years (preschool through grade three), however, it may also be
used to research students grades five, middle school, and higher. The STRS measures
patterns in terms of conflict, closeness, and dependency, as well as the overall quality of
the relationship. STRS applies attachment theory in school settings, and is the only self-
report measure that assesses a teacher’s perception of his or her relationship. It has
shown validity regarding the prediction of academic and social functioning in pre-
kindergarten through elementary years (Hamre, Pianta, & Downer et al., 2008).
The STRS is a 28-item self-report instrument that uses a five-point Likert rating
scale to assess a teacher’s perception of his or her relationship with a student, a student’s
interactive behavior with the teacher, and a teacher’s beliefs about the student’s feelings
about the teacher (Pianta, 2001). Scales range from 1- Definitely does not apply, 2- Not
really, 3- Neutral, not sure, 4- Applies somewhat, and 5- Definitely applies. Summing
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50
groups of items corresponding to three factor-based subscales that capture conflict,
closeness, and dependency scores the STRS. Sample questions included: “I share an
affectionate, warm relationship with this child,” and “This child and I always seem to be
struggling with each other.” Finally, a total scale score assesses the overall quality of the
relationship.
For this study, the dependency scale was excluded because of its internal
reliability rating of .64. The dependency subscale had lower internal consistency
reliability across the entire normative sample, as well as across gender and ethnic groups
(Pianta, 2001). Therefore, only the closeness and conflict scales were used in the short
form version of the instrument. This reduced the number of items from 28 to 15. Test-
retest reliability and stability over a four-week period showed correlations of closeness,
.88; conflict, .92, which according to the researchers, is adequate test-retest reliability.
Internal consistency for the conflict and closeness scales was high.
Construct validity was determined through exploratory factor analysis of all 28
items on the STRS. VARIMAX rotation and principal components analysis were used to
extract factors. A three-factor solution (labeled as conflict, closeness, and dependency)
accounted for 48.8% of the total variance of all 28 items. Cutoff values were |.40| or
greater. The closeness factor accounted for 12.9% of the total variance, and had an
eigenvalue of 3.73. Dependency accounted for 6.2% of the total variance, and had an
eigenvalue of 1.79. Furthermore, Pearson product-moment correlation among and
between subscales showed moderate-to-strong association in the expected directions of
the scale and subscales (except for the dependency subscale) (Pianta 1992b).
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

51
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The Strengths and Difficulties
Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997) is a brief behavioral screening instrument for
participants ages 4-16. It measures children’s positive and negative behaviors, emotions,
and relationships. It examines internalizing and externalizing dimensions of behavior
such as inattention/hyperactivity, emotional problems, conduct behaviors, peer problems,
and prosocial behavior. The SDQ has a version for parents, teachers, and self-report.
The instrument asks about 25 attributes; 10 are generally thought of as strengths, 14
are considered difficulties, and one is considered as neutral. The SDQ is divided between
5 scales of 5 items each. To minimize the burden for data collection for the teachers, the
researcher only used the hyperactivity/ inattention scale, the conduct problem scale, and
the prosocial behavior scale. This reduced the number of items from 25 to 15. The
selected scales are considered measures of both negative and positive externalized
behaviors (Goodman, 1997). Furthermore, the researcher also used these scales with the
rationale that externalized behaviors would be easier for teachers to observe and therefore
more readily report. The items are shown below.
1. Hyperactivity scale. “Restless, overactive, cannot stay still for long”;
“Constantly fidgeting or squirming”; “Easily distracted, concentrations
wanders”; “Thinks things out before acting”; and “Sees tasks through to the end,
good attention span.”
2. Conduct Problem Scale. “Often has temper tantrums or hot tempers”;
“Generally obedient, usually does what adults request”; “Often fights with other
children or bullies them”; “Often lies or cheats”; and “Steals from home, school
or elsewhere.”
3. Prosocial Scale. “Considerate of other peoples’ feelings”; “Shares readily with
other children (toys, treats, materials, etc.)”; “Helpful if someone is hurt, upset,
or feeling ill”; “Kind to younger children”; “Often volunteers to help others
(parents, teachers, other children).”

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52
Each item was rated as “not true”, “somewhat true”, or “certainly true.” The
items are score 0 for “not true”, 1 for “somewhat true”, and 2 for “certainly true.”
Scales 0-2 are summed to generate a total score ranging 0 to 6.
SDQ construct validity and reliability were tested using comparative statistics of
Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) curve. Quantitatively, comparability is
measured under the curve by how well two instruments (in this case SDQ and Rutter
questionnaire) discriminate between two samples. A score of 1 indicates perfect
discrimination, and .5 for a measure no better than chance accuracy. Both measures were
compared across different samples such as parents and teachers. SDQ-Rutter inter-
measure correlation for each type of rater were as followed: difficulties total was .88 for
parents and .92 for teachers; hyperactivity was .82 for parents and .90 for teachers; and
conduct problems scale was .88 for parents and .91 for teachers. For overall behavioral
difficulties, both the SDQ and Rutter Questionnaires were .87 for parents (a non-
significant difference; z = .13, p = .9). For teachers was .85 for the SDQ and .84 for the
Rutter Questionnaire (a non-significant difference z = .41, p = .7). The comparative
ability to measure psychiatric and non-psychiatric samples was evident in that the two
ROC curves almost superimpose on one another. The ROC analyses showed that the two
measures had equivalent predictive validity (Goodman, 1997). The Rutter questionnaire
has a well-established validity and reliability, therefore providing evidence of concurrent
validity for the SDQ given the high correlation between the two measures (Goodman,
1997).

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

53
Procedure.
The investigator for this study contacted site administrators in selected urban
school districts in California requesting that the online survey be sent to the teachers at
their school site. Administrators were provided with a brief recruitment letter containing
a description of the study, as well as benefits and incentives. Upon approval, all
elementary grade level teachers were included in the sample to attempt to provide data in
both primary and upper grades. Teachers who were interested in participating in the
study provided the researcher with their preferred e-mail address. The researcher
obtained student rosters from the site administrators to pre-select four ethnically diverse
students (two boys and two girls) for each teacher to evaluate. Teachers who participated
in the online survey were provided with the following: (1) names of their four students to
evaluate, (2) an informed consent form notifying them of the purpose of the study,
procedures for completions, potential risks and benefits, and confidentiality of the
participants, and (3) a link to the survey. Only primary investigators for this study were
granted access to data. All identifying information from the survey was kept in a separate
location from survey responses. The average time to complete the survey was
approximately 30 minutes. Teachers had three weeks to complete the survey. Each
participant was provided with a $5 gift card to Starbucks as a reward, and they had the
option to enter their name into a drawing for $50.
Racial Congruence. Racial congruence is an independent variable in this study
to examine teachers’ perceptions of student behavior and relationship quality between
same-race teachers and different-race teachers in elementary classrooms. The study
required for each teacher to evaluate a small number of ethnically diverse students. The
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

54
researcher obtained the class roster of each teacher who participated in the study, which
divided the students alphabetically by gender (e.g. boys list on top and girls list at the
bottom). For each list, the teacher randomly highlighted two names from each section of
the roster (two boys and two girls). After names were selected, the researcher obtained
another class list that contained each student’s race/ethnicity to cross check selections for
at least one student-teacher racial match. Teachers responded to items in the
questionnaire about the four selected students. For each student, the questionnaire asked
whether they would describe the student as a member of the same race/ethnicity or
different race/ethnicity.
Data Analysis
For the data analysis, student-teacher racial congruence and teachers’ self-identity
development (worldviews and values) were used as the independent variables while
students’ behavior and relationship quality (as perceived by the teacher) were used as the
two dependent variables. Racial congruence was measured by teachers’ responses to
items on the questionnaire asking whether they would describe each students’
race/ethnicity as the same as or different from their race/ethnicity. Teachers’ self-identity
development was measured by the OTAID model/Self-Identity Inventory (SII). The
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) measured student behavior and the
Student Teacher Relationship Scale- Short Form (STRS-SF) measured the teachers’
relationships with students. To examine the two hypotheses, including the role of racial
congruence on student behavior and student teacher relationships, two one-way
MANOVAs were deemed appropriate. In order to examine the role of teachers’ identity
development in predicting their perceptions of their students’ behavior and their
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

55
relationships with them, five multiple regressions of the behavior and relationship scales
were deemed appropriate.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

56
Chapter IV.
Results

The following chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the results of the
study, including preliminary analyses, analyses of the research questions, as well as post-
hoc analyses.
Preliminary Analyses
Teacher Demographics and Correlations. Pearson product correlation analyses
were conducted to examine the relationships between demographic variables (e.g. age,
grade level, and years of service) along with teacher self-identity (as measured by the
OTAID model), student behavior, and student-teacher relationships. Results are
summarized in Table 4 with the main finds highlighted below.
Teachers’ age and years of service. The age of the teacher was significantly
correlated with transformation phase of identity (r = .22, p = .05), and inversely
correlated with the individuation identity phase (r = -.21, p = .05). However, age of the
teacher was not associated with the integration, internalization, immersion, and
dissonance identity phases. In addition, age of the teachers was correlated with student-
teacher conflict (r = .24, p= .01). Years of service of the teachers were also correlated
with student-teacher conflict (r= .24, p = .01), and the grade level of the teacher was
inversely associated with student-teacher closeness (r = -.28, p = .01) as well as with the
internalization phase of identity (r = .19, p = .05).
Teacher self-identity development and student behavior. The individuation
phase of identity among teachers was negatively correlated with pro-social student
behavior (r = -.19, p = .05). The dissonance phase of identity reported by teachers was
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

57
also negatively correlated with pro-social student behavior (r = -.30, p = .01). In
addition, the internalization identity phase reported by teachers was inversely correlated
with pro-social student behavior (r = -.25, p = .01). Finally, the integration identity phase
among teachers was positively related to student pro-social behavior (r = .27, p = .05).
Dissonance identity phase among teachers was positively correlated with student conduct
problems (r = .32, p = .01). Integration identity phase from teachers was also correlated
with conduct problems (r = .25, p = .05).
Teacher self-identity development and student teacher relationship quality.
Furthermore, the dissonance identity phase among teachers was also related to student-teacher
relationship conflict (r = .20, p = .01). The internalization identity phase of teachers was also
positively correlated with student-teacher conflict (r = .20, p = .05). The integration identity
phase reported by teachers was also positively correlated with student-teacher closeness (r =
.27, p = .01). Finally, the transformation identity phase among teachers was positively
correlated with student-teacher closeness (r = .30, p = .01).
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

58
Table 4
Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Measured Variables
Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1. Grade Level 5.13 2.35 -- -.18 -.12 .03 .12 .09 .19* .12 .01 -.12 .067 .11 .03 -.28**
2. Age 43.97 10.19 -- .62** -.21* -.07 -.23 .05 .12 .22* -.10 .04 .06 .24** .03
3. Years of Service 14.10 7.68 -- -.15 -.16 -.17 -.08 .05 .14 -.02 -.07 .02 .24** .03
OTAID/SII
4. Individuation
3.02 .66 -- .56* .40** .50** -.40** -.08 -.19* .11 .12 .11 -.17
5. Dissonance 2.64 .91 -- .54** .88** .13 .24** -.30** .32** .16 .19* -.02
6. Immersion 3.08 .79 -- .56** -.15 .26** -.25* .16 .06 .11 .17
7 Internalization 2.79 .87 . -- .21* .43** .27** .25* .07 .20* -.003
8. Integration 4.40 .57 -- .66** .03 -.00 .05 .03 .27**
9. Transformation 3.96 .85 -- . -.14 .08 .06 .12 .30**
SDQ
10. Pro-social
1.42 .53 -- -.58** -.57** -.60** .38**
11. Conduct Problems .29 .34 -- .63** .71** -.28**
12. Hyperactivity .83 .65 . -- .60** -.22*
STRS-SF
13. Conflict
1.86 .82 -- -.29**
14. Closeness 3.90 .81 --
Note. All scores are scaled scores. 1. Grade Level; 2. Age; 3. Years of Service; OTAID (Optimal Theory of Applied Identity Development); SII (Self-Identity Inventory); 4. Individuation; 5.
Dissonance; 6. Immersion; 7. Internalization; 8. Integration; 9. Transformation; SDQ (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire); 10. Pro-social behavior; 11. Conduct Problems; 12. Hyperactivity;
STRS-SF (Student-Teacher Relationship Survey- Short Form); 13. Conflict; 14. Closeness *p < .05; **p < .01
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

59
Analyses of Research Questions
Research Question 1: Are differences between teachers who are racially similar or
different from their students in teachers’ perception of student behavior and student
teacher relationship quality?
Two one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were performed to
investigate the difference between same-race and different-race teachers regarding their
students’ behavior and their relationships with their students. The dependent variable of
students’ behaviors consisted of three subscales: pro-social behavior, conduct problems,
and hyperactivity. The dependent variable of student-teacher relationship quality
consisted of two subscales: conflict and closeness. The independent variable of racial
matching was classified as same race if both the teacher and student were of the same
race, different race if the teacher and student were of different race. Preliminary tests
were conducted to check for normality, linearity, univariate and multivariate outliers,
homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, and multicollinearity, with no serious
violations noted. The analysis revealed that there was no significant difference between
same and different-race teachers regarding student behavior and student teacher
relationships.
Research Question 2: Does teachers’ self-identity development predict teachers’
perception of student behavior and the quality of their relationships with students?
For student behavior, three simultaneous multiple regressions were conducted for
the subscales of student behavior: pro-social, conduct problems, and hyperactivity. Two
simultaneous multiple regressions were conducted for the subscales of conflict and
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60
closeness. To control for Type II error for all five tests, a Bonferroni adjustment was
made to set the significance level at .02.
Pro-social student behavior. A simultaneous multiple regression using the six
identity subscales of the OTAID model with the criterion variable of pro-social behavior
revealed overall significance for the prediction model (F (6, 124) = 2.64, p < .019) with
12% of the variance being explained. However, none of the six individual phases of the
model independently specifically predicted student pro-social behavior. (See Table 5 for
a summary of the regression model.)

Conduct problems. A simultaneous multiple regression using the six identity
subscales of the OTAID model with the criterion variable of conduct problems revealed
overall significance for the prediction model F (6, 124) = 2.95, p < .010) with 13% of the
variance explained. One out of six variables significantly contributed to the model. The
dissonance subscale of the OTAID model was the only predictor of student conduct
problems. The results suggest that teachers with higher dissonance in their identity
development (weak multicultural identity and strong mainstream beliefs) tended to report
more conduct problems from their students. (See Table 6 for a summary of the
Table 5
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis of the OTAID model for Pro-social
Behavior
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
Prosocial
Behavior
.119 2.644 .019
OTAID/SII
Individuation .051 .110 .060 .643
Dissonance -.219 .128 -.377 .091
Immersion -.029 .080 -.043 .721
Internalization .069 .130 .113 .598
Integration .206 .146 .220 .159
Transformation -.142 .090 -.230 .117
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

61
regression model).

Hyperactivity. A simultaneous multiple regression using the six identity
subscales of the OTAID model with the criterion variable of hyperactivity revealed no
significance.
Conflict. A simultaneous multiple regression using the six identity subscales of
the OTAID model with the criterion variable of conflict revealed no significance.
Student-Teacher Closeness. Finally, a simultaneous multiple regression using
the six identity subscales of the OTAID model with the criterion variable of closeness
revealed overall significance for the prediction model (F (6, 124) = 4.73, p < .001) with
20% of the variance being explained. The immersion identity phase of the OTAID model
(stronger multicultural tolerance and rejection of mainstream beliefs) was a significant
predictor of student-teacher closeness. The internalization identity phase of teachers
(broader sense of self and more solidarity with other groups) was approaching
significance. These results suggested that teachers who described their identity in the
immersion phase tended to feel close to their students. All of the other OTAID subscales
Table 6
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis of the OTAID model for Conduct
Problems
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
Conduct
Problems
.132 2.995 .010
OTAID/SII
Individuation -.114 .071 -.208 .108
Dissonance .241 .082 .644 .004
Immersion -.033 .051 -.076 .524
Internalization -.082 .084 -.208 .327
Integration -.157 .093 -.259 .096
Transformation .075 .058 .189 .194
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

62
of individuation, integration, and transformation identity phases were not significant
predictors of student-teacher closeness. (See Table 7 for a summary of the regression
model).

Post-Hoc Analysis
Due to the richness of the data and the literature related to the data, post- hoc
analyses were also conducted to answer questions related to the role of teachers’ gender
on student behavior and student teacher relationships.
Post-Hoc Question
Are there group differences in perceptions of student behavior and student
teacher relationships by student gender?
There was a statistically significant difference between male students and female
students on perceptions of student behaviors: F (5, 124) = 4.52, p = .001; Wilks’ Lambda
= .84. The alpha level of hyperactivity was F (1, 124) = 13.73, p = .001. This suggests
that teachers were more likely to view male students as hyperactive.
Pro-social behavior was significant with an alpha level of .002, F (1, 124) = 9.81.
An inspection of the mean scores indicated that teachers reported higher levels of
hyperactivity for male students (M = 1.02, SD = .076) than female students (M = .607,
Table 7
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis of the OTAID model for Closeness
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
Closeness .195 4.725 .001
OTAID/SII
Individuation -.137 .160 -.106 .393
Dissonance .108 .186 .122 .564
Immersion .348 .117 .343 .003
Internalization -.357 .189 -.385 .062
Integration .300 212 .211 .158
Transformation .189 .131 .202 .150
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

63
SD = .08). An inspection of the mean scores indicated that teachers also reported higher
levels of pro-social behavior for female students (M = 1.58, SD = .07) than male students
(M = 1.29, SD = .063). There were no significant gender difference predicting student-
teacher conflict and closeness.
Teachers’ age and years of service. Teachers’ age and years of service were
revealed as significant predictors of student-teacher conflict and closeness. A simple
regression showed teachers’ age and years of service predicted closeness with an alpha
level of .04 and with 22% of the variance explained. Likewise, teachers’ age and years of
service predicted conflict with an alpha level of .01 and 27% of the variance explained.

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Chapter V.
Discussion

Relationships with minority students in urban elementary schools (particularly
African Americans and Latinos) have been investigated for decades by studying student,
teacher, and classroom variables. These relationships have been examined to determine
how to enrich the school experience of minority students, and therefore improve their
school adjustment, competencies, and motivation. If addressed early, student-teacher
relationships been argued to positively alter the trajectory of school performance and
address the performance gap between minority students and their Anglo counterparts.
This study, like others, examined teachers’ demographic characteristics in
association with their evaluations of student behavior and relationship quality. However,
unlike other studies, this investigation also explored teachers’ worldviews, tolerance, and
belief systems to measure its contribution to teachers’ perceptions of minority students’
behavior and their relationship quality. More specifically, one main objective was to
examine to what extent student-teacher racial matching influenced teachers’ recognition
of positive or negative classroom behavior as well as teachers’ evaluation of their
relationships with their students as being close or conflicted. The other main objective of
this study was to investigate the relationship of teachers’ identity as measured by
teachers’ views about their students’ behavior and their relationships with them.
The results of this study suggest that teachers’ identity development (their ability
to integrate and expand their self-definition while being more inclusive of others), as well
as gender, can be used as variables to understand elementary teachers’ evaluation of
student behavior and their relationship quality with their students. Student teacher racial
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65
congruence alone was not found to be predictive of teachers’ perceptions in this study.
The following chapter provides a summary and discussion of the findings, organized by
independent variables, followed by limitations of the study. Directions for future
research and implications for practice will also be discussed.
Summary of Main Findings
Student-Teacher Racial Congruence and Student Behavior and Relationship
Quality. The present study explored the hypotheses that: (a) same-race teachers would
identify more pro-social behaviors (i.e. kindness, helpfulness, obedience); and therefore
describe closer, less conflicted relationships; (b) different-race teachers would identify
more conduct problems, hyperactivity, and therefore more conflicted relationships.
Closeness, in this study, was described as warmth, security, affection, and open
communication, which has been associated with higher overall school adjustment (Pianta,
1992). Conduct problems were characterized as students’ agitation, manipulation,
resistance to discipline, as well as teachers’ frustration with students’ negative behavior.
Conduct problems are highly associated with conflicted relationships, which are both
associated with more negative attitudes towards school and challenges with school
adjustment (Ewing & Taylor, 2009).
The results of this study show that student teacher racial matching did not predict
how elementary teachers viewed student behavior and their relationship quality with their
students. This finding is similar to other studies, racial matching did not predict
differences in teachers’ ratings (Wilson, 1992; Pigott & Cowen, 1999). These studies
found that both groups rated African American students less favorably than Anglo
students. Several studies have compared Anglo with African American teachers’
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66
evaluations of Anglo and African American students regarding indicators of school
adjustment and relationship quality.
Teacher self-identity development and perception of student behavior and
relationship quality. The present study also investigated whether the self-identity
development of elementary teachers predicted their perception of student behavior and
relationship quality. Myers et al. (1991) OTAID model’s six identity phases:
individuation, dissonance, immersion, internalization, integration, and transformation
respectively were used in this study to predict teachers’ ratings of student behavior
described as pro-social, conduct problems, and hyperactivity. Relationships were defined
as conflict and closeness. It was hypothesized that teachers in the internalization,
integration, and transformation identity phases would report more pro-social behavior, as
well as closer and less conflicted relationships. It was also hypothesized that teachers
identified in the first three identity phases; individuation, dissonance, and immersion,
would rate students with more conduct problems, hyperactivity, and conflicted
relationships. This study revealed that the OTAID model was predictive of teachers’
perception of pro-social student behavior; conduct problems, and student-teacher
closeness. The OTAID model did not predict hyperactivity or conflict.
Student-teacher closeness. The most significant finding in the study revealed
that the OTAID model was highly predictive of closeness. The OTAID model measured
the teachers’ worldviews, which has been defined as products of individuals’ observation,
examination, reflection, discussion, and conclusions about themselves and their
environment (Myers et al. 1991). The immersion phase of the model (phase three) was
the most predictive of closeness. This suggests that teachers had an awareness and/or
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

67
acceptance of a devalued part of their identity, and therefore felt a sense of solidarity with
others whom they perceived as also devalued (e.g. racially dissimilar students). In other
words, even though most of the teachers did not share the same racial/ethnic background
with their students (as indicated by the majority of racially mismatched pairs in this
study), they felt a sense of solidarity with their students. This identity model has been
noted for its universal tenets, and therefore describes a variety of individuals with
different backgrounds (Myers et al., 1991). The immersion phase also describes
individuals as having negative feelings toward members of the perceived dominant
group, as well as the rejection of mainstream values and norms. However, this
description of the phase was not apparent in this study. This outcome was unexpected in
that the immersion phase of the model describes individuals focusing on or “immersing”
themselves in their own devalued group. It was hypothesized that phase four through six
would be predictive of closeness. Phase three was the most predictive.
Conduct problems. This study also found that the OTAID model was predictive
of teachers’ perception of negative behavior. The dissonance identity phase (phase two)
specifically predicted conduct problems ratings. This outcome confirmed the hypothesis
that teachers in the first three identity phases would see more problematic behaviors with
students. This is supported by the notion that individuals in the dissonance phase are at
the beginning of their self-awareness. Within this phase, individuals are described as just
realizing that a part of their identity is different from the mainstream and therefore
devalued. This new realization could be the cause of confusion, alienation, rejection, and
insecurity. This suggests that individuals could be easily threatened given the insecurity
of their own self-definition outside of the mainstream. At this stage, an individual has yet
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68
to feel comfortable outside of the mainstream; therefore he or she has a narrow way of
view others who are also not representative of the mainstream. Within the educational
context, teachers in this phase may view minority students based on stereotypical views,
therefore assigning negative attributes held by the mainstream.
Pro-social behavior. This study also found that the OTAID model was predictive
as a whole of pro-social student behavior, but none of the specific phases significantly
predicted the outcome variable. This may be due to lack of power due to sample size. A
larger sample size may provide a clearer pattern of relationship between a particular
phase of identity and pro-social student behavior.
Demographic Characteristics and Dependent Variables.
Post-hoc analysis examining the relationship of demographic characteristics such
as gender, age, and years of service to teachers’ evaluations of behavior and relationship
quality revealed some interesting patterns.
Gender. Unlike racial matching, students’ gender influenced how teachers rated
their behavior. Teachers found girls to have more pro-social behaviors than boys. Girls
were viewed as kinder, more helpful, and obedient. It is uncertain whether girls actually
exhibited these behaviors, or were these ratings a result of bias. Women teachers
represented 80% of the participants in this study. Although gender did not prove to be
predictive of relationships in this study, it may be possible that girls relate better with
same-gender teachers. A body of literature proposed that girls are socialized to be more
helpful, kind, and obedient. This could also explain this positive rating from teachers in
that it reinforces gender expectations. In this study, teachers perceived boys to exhibit
more hyperactivity in class. This description is viewed as a negative attribute in that it is
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69
known to interfere with instruction and learning. It is also uncertain why teachers rated
boys in this manner. It is possible that teachers also ascribed stereotypical gender roles to
boys in that they have been socialized to be more physically active. Another possibility
could be that the instructional style of the teacher is more accommodating to girls in its
interactional style. The question remains whether these behaviors are “real,” or teachers’
perceptions.
Teachers’ age and experience. Teachers’ work experience (as measured by years
of service) was not only found to be associated with student-teacher conflict; it was also
predictive of conflict. The average age of the teachers in this study was 43 years old with
an average of fourteen years of service. This may suggest that there may be generational
gaps in the way teachers form their relationships with their students. Teachers receive
preferential placement in grade levels and/or classrooms in many school sites based on
“seniority” or years of service. Furthermore, given that teacher salaries are largely based
on years of service, and worldviews and values are related to age and life experiences,
these demographic variables should be considered when examining factors that influence
student-teacher relationships. Moreover, age is a part of an individual’s identity. It was
associated with and was predictive of the individuation identity phase. This may suggest
that individuals may not readily challenge and/or adapt their belief systems and
worldviews, as they get older. This has implications for education as student
demographics continue to change. On one hand, teachers are compensated for their years
of service (which is highly correlated with age), yet this characteristic may also
contribute to conflicted relationships.

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Limitations
Limitations of the present study must be taken into consideration in determining
the extent to which the findings can be generalized. The main limitation of this may be
that in determining the extent to which the findings can be generalized. The main
limitation of this study may be that the sample size was not large enough, and there was a
disproportion of racial matches among the participants and their students. There were
three times as many racial mismatches compared to matches. This along with a small
sample size of the participants may have limited the statistical power to detect racial
matching group differences in this study (does not seem relevant) for racial congruence.
Additionally, the absence of student race/ethnicity in this study did not provide insight as
to which groups of students, teachers felt close.
Another limitation of the study was the use of self-reported data. The results of
the survey relied upon teachers’ perceptions when describing student behavior. This
solitary reliance would also account for confounding factors (e.g. teacher SES, student
SES, etc.) that would differ between teachers and possibly reality. How would it be
determined whether the outcomes are a product of what the teacher “sees” verses whether
the student actually exhibits certain behaviors is limited by self-report alone? Raters’
perceptions have also been known to have subjective bias influenced by psychological
characteristics such as memory, mental state at the time (i.e. depression), and motivation
(Mashburn et al., 2006). Self-report is also limiting in describing relationships. The
interaction between teachers and students has more than one perspective (e.g. students’,
parents’, and administrators’ points-of view) and therefore cannot be fully understood by
teachers alone. Self-report also runs the risk of social desirability bias. Although the
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71
surveys used reverse coding and the researcher provided assurances of confidentiality,
participants may have felt uncomfortable giving honest responses to certain questions.
Another limitation of the study includes the use of the OTAID model as a
measure of teacher self-identity in that it had not been applied to the educational context.
Previous research included validation studies that found the model valid in describing a
range of backgrounds including female identity development (Jecmen, 1989), Black
South African women (Sawyer, 2004), and African American college women in
exploring coping styles in the religious context (Watt, 1997). In all cases, interviews
and/or focus groups were conducted to get descriptive data regarding the participants’
experiences within the identity phases as it applied to different contexts. This study
relied on teacher responses of the self-identity inventory (SII) (which operationalized the
OTAID model) to detect identity phases of the participants. As in the case with the
present study, it is unclear what experiences teachers and/or students have in the
classroom when teachers are in the dissonance phase of identity.
Finally, generalizing results of the present study should be approached with
caution. Many of the participants came from one ethnically diverse urban public school
in California. It may not be appropriate to generalize results to schools of a different size,
geographic location, or student/teacher characteristic distribution. Furthermore, although
participants represented a range of ethnic diversity, female teachers were 80% of the
sampled population, thus attempting to make generalized statements about all teachers
would be inappropriate.

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72
Directions for Future Research.
The small amount of variance accounted for in the prediction models suggests that
other factors may be influencing elementary teachers’ perception of their student
behavior and their relationships with them. Further research could better clarify our
understanding of teachers’ demographic characteristics, self-identity development,
perceptions of teachers, and minority students. The field could benefit from additional
research that differs in methodology, design, and approach.
First, qualitative research could provide additional depth to the data quantitative
methodology could not. Observations and interviews with teachers, school personnel,
and parents would provide better descriptions of interactions with teachers. Furthermore,
both quantitative and qualitative analyses of minority students’ perceptions would enrich
researchers’ understanding of student-teacher relationships. Children as young as four
years old can reliably report their perceptions (Hamre, Pianta, Downer, & Mashburn,
2007). Understanding the students’ perceptions in conjunction with the teachers’ views,
would lead to a more thorough understanding of how teachers’ perceptions influence the
kind of instructional and/or emotional support they provide students. Furthermore,
analyses from both teacher and student perspectives could reveal how beliefs contribute
to their decision to invest or not invest in certain relationships.
The present study provided a cross-sectional analysis, however a longitudinal
study could enhance a deeper understanding of identity development process as it relates
to how teachers see minority students and behave according to their beliefs (e.g. grades,
social evaluations, special education referrals, or disciplinary infractions). Teacher
participants could be tracked across a school year, school change, career change, or until
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73
the student participant(s) associated with that teacher graduates. Where student dropout
occurred, or teacher attrition, follow up surveys or interviews could better understand
variables leading to their leaving. Longitudinal research could also provide insight as to
what point in schooling the achievement gap widens.
Another missing piece to this study is the analysis of classroom-level data that
examines the psychological environment of which the students and teachers are engaged.
This includes the quality, and amount of feedback, instruction, and emotional support.
HLM study design could account for this data.
Currently, research focused around teaching effectiveness has identified student-
teacher relationships as a key component. Projects and reporting systems such as the
Tripod Project and the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) have analyzed
class-level data to articulate which factors are tied to student learning, as well as attempt
to explain achievement variation gains among certain teachers. The Tripod Assessment
uses a three-part analysis of teachers’ content knowledge, pedagogical skills, as well as
relationships with students in order to gather feedback about classroom teaching and
student engagement. It contains student surveys as well as teacher self-assessments. The
CLASS guide developed through the Gates Foundation Measures of Effective Teaching
(MET) study uses teacher self-reports along with observations. Future research should
examine how the OTAID/SII aligns with CLASS or the Tripod assessment in order to
provide a better understanding for how teachers’ identity development fits into teaching
effectiveness through the relationships portion of the Tripod model.

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Implications for Practice
The results from this study provide important implications for school
administrators, teachers, teacher educators, and researchers in their effort to better
understand teachers in urban schools working with diverse students. First, student-
teacher relationships are important. Literature on early elementary education suggests
that the interactions between students and their teachers is integral in their school
adjustment, motivation, and future academic outcomes; and it is particularly true for at-
risk African American and Latino students (Baker, 1999; Sbarra & Pianta, 2001; Pigott &
Cowen, 2000). Teachers’ ratings of student behavior is highly predictive of their
relationships is well documented in the literature (Mashburn et al., 2006). This study
confirms some of these findings from the literature.
Much of what a child learns socially in school (i.e. coping strategies, emotional
regulation, school liking, peer competence, and engagement with the school
environment) is related to the quality of his or her relationship with a teacher (Hamre &
Pianta, 2001). Teachers with an optimal self-identity can help students who may need to
rely heavily on the adult-child relationships at school due to limited educational support
at home. Teachers who work in economically disadvantaged communities need to
understand how a suboptimal belief system has implications for the relationships they
build, which in turn could have a lasting negative impact on certain students as values can
be transmitted to others. Research contends that children internalize views of pertinent
others, and therefore negative messages conveyed openly or subtly make it harder to
establish positive self-identity or maintain motivation (Steele & Aronson, 1995).
Researchers, administrators, and teachers can develop strategies to support identity
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75
development through reflective practices, peer coaching, and staff development.
Relationship protocols can be developed in schools to enhance measures that examine
relationships with students, as well as emotional support (as indicated by the classroom
climate). The results of the present study, combined with previous research, suggest that
considering self-identity development as part of exploring factors contributing to positive
and negative perceptions and relationships would be worthwhile.
Additionally, this study’s approach of viewing identity, which underlies
individuals’ values, beliefs, and worldviews, uses self-reports to understand the
individual’s perceptions; something that is deeply personal and may be misrepresented if
not self-reported. Although it is considered a limitation in research, self-reported identity
development confirms the prediction of teachers’ positive and negative evaluations of
their students in this study. Moreover, this identity model was applied to teachers
representing a variety of backgrounds, which could be useful in urban schools with
diverse populations. The empirical studies of self-identity development, through the lens
of optimal theory, claim it is more generalizable to a broader population. It also points
out that identity is not as categorical as race alone, but rather confluences of multiple
dimensions of identity that guide the way individuals understand themselves and others.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore demographic and psychological
variables of teachers that influence teachers’ ratings of student behavior and relationship
quality. The results revealed that self-identity development was a significant predictor of
student teacher closeness, as well as teachers’ perception of pro-social behavior and
conduct problems. Moreover, teachers’ age, years of service, and students’ gender were
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76
predictive of negative views of student behavior. There were no group differences in
perceptions and relationships between same-race teacher-student pairs from different-race
teacher-student pairs. The results are inconclusive on this issue due to methodology and
limitations in study design.
There is a consistent achievement gap and a disproportionate dropout rate of
minority students compared to their Anglo American and Asian American counterparts.
Positive relationships with teachers (particularly at an early age) are an important factor
in bridging the gaps, and also have important implications for future school adjustment,
motivation, and achievement. Self-identity development can help educators learn more
about their own cultural reality, and engage in a process of multicultural competence.
Additionally, this study points out that teachers can evaluate how their own beliefs,
values, worldviews affect minority students’ school experience and school adjustment.
Finding ways to develop intervention or prevention that connects teachers with students
could have long-term benefits for schools and society as a whole. With this new
knowledge, researchers can continue to investigate important variables that contribute to
the understanding how to assist minority students in urban schools.

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Appendix A

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Quiana Caldwell, M.Ed. and Ruth
Chung, Ph.D. from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California. The
results will contribute to the completion of Quiana Caldwell’s doctoral dissertation. You were
selected as a participant in this study because you are an elementary school teacher in an urban
setting in California. Your participation is voluntary.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This study seeks to examine teacher characteristics that predict how elementary teachers feel
about their students’ behavior and the relationship quality they have with them. More
specifically, the purpose is to investigate the relationship between demographics and teachers’
identity development and how they perceive student behavior and their relationship quality.

You should read this information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand
before deciding whether or not to participate.

Completion of this questionnaire will constitute consent to participate in this research project.

You are asked to complete the following on-line questionnaire that will take about 30 minutes to
complete. If you are unable to complete the questionnaire in one setting, you may save your
progress and return to the website at a later time.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS

There are minimal to no potential negative effects from participating in this study. However, you
can choose not to answer specific questions or end your participation without penalty.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR SOCIETY

The results of this study may assist in the expansion of knowledge regarding the relationship
between teacher demographics and identity development with teachers’ feelings about their
students.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION

By participating in this survey, you are eligible for a $5.00 Starbucks gift certificate, and to enter
a raffle to win $50.00. In order to participate in the raffle, you will need to provide your name
and e-mail address at the end of the survey, which will be stored separately from your survey
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

89
responses. You will be notified at the e-mail address you provide us, if you are chosen as a raffle
winner.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Your responses will not be linked to any identifiable information; the survey responses will be
maintained separately from e-mail addresses and other identifiable information.

Survey responses will be downloaded directly by Quiana Caldwell, M.Ed. The members of the
research team and members of the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors the research
studies to protect the rights of the research participants.

The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file cabinet and password protected
computer for three years after the study has been completed and destroyed.

When the results of research are published or discussed in conferences, no information will be
included that will reveal your identity.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWL

This survey is completely voluntary, and you may choose to terminate this survey at any time. If
you volunteer to participate in this study, you may wish to withdraw at any time without
consequence. You may refuse to answer any questions that you do not want to answer and still
remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise
which warrant doing so.

If you have any concerns or questions about your rights as a research participant, you may contact
Ruth Chung, Ph.D. at rchung@usc.edu, Quiana Caldwell, M.Ed. at qcaldwel@usc.edu, or call
(213) 740-9323, at the Rossier School of Education, USC, WPH 802, Los Angeles, CA 90089-
4038.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You
are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research
study. If you have any questions about your rights as a participant or you would like to speak to
someone independent of the research team to obtain answers to questions about the research, or in
the event the research staff can not be reached, please contact the University Park Institutional
Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower St. #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

90
Appendix B
Demographic Background information

1. What grade level do you currently teach? Choose ONE:
__Pre-K
__Kindergarten
__First Grade
__Second Grade
__Third Grade
__Fourth Grade
__Fifth Grade
__Sixth Grade

2. What is your age? Please enter digits only.
__

3. How long have you been teaching? Please enter digits only.
__

4. Which of the following best describes you? Choose ONE:
__White
__Black or African American
__American Indian or Alaska Native
__Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
__Hispanic/Latino
__Other

5. What is your gender?
__Male
__Female

6. Is English your first language?
__Yes
__ No

7. Did at least one of your parents complete a Bachelor’s degree of higher?
__Yes
__ No
__ Unsure

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

91
Appendix C

Self-Identity Inventory (SII)
Instructions:
Listed on the following pages are statements about attitude, feelings and behaviors.
Please respond to all items thoughtfully and honestly. There are no correct answers. For
questions that refer to “my group”, please answer this by thinking about how you
describe your identity. Some examples are African American, Asian American, poor
person, male, human, Native American with a disability, European American female who
is Jewish, Hispanic gay male, and elderly female.

On the line below, write in your own words how you define identity. There is no right or
wrong way.
________________________________________________________________________
Some of the statements that you’re about to read will use phases such as “Recently I have
started to …” or “I’m just starting to…” These phrases indicate a new awareness about
certain beliefs or attitudes. Therefore, if you have held that belief for some time, you
would need to disagree with the entire statement, even if you agree with the specific
belief addressed in the statement. If you have any questions, please feel free to ask the
researcher.

Please respond to each of the following items thoughtfully. There are no correct answers.
Use the 6-point scale below to rate each of the statements as it applies to you. Do not
spend too much time on any item; record the first response that comes to your mind.
1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = slightly disagree, 4 = slightly agree, 5 = agree, 6
= strongly agree
Example:
1. I like to go to concerts.
(If you strongly agree with this statement, you would circle the “6” on the answer sheet.)
Key: 1 = Individuation; 2 = Dissonance; 3 = Immersion; 4 = Internalization; 5 =
Integration;
6 =Transformation
1. I admire members of different cultures who adapt to the American way of life.
2. I am just starting to see that everyone is expected to follow the same rules even if they
don’t seem to be right for everyone.
3. I am proud of parts of myself that I previously did not accept.
4. I don’t always do what my group expects me to, although I did so in the recent past.
5. Whenever anyone tells a joke that puts down any group (e.g. gays, Jews, Native
American, Poles, Italians), I voice my objections.
6. I do not understand what social activist groups are trying to accomplish.
7. I have a strong sense of inner security that comes from fully affirming all people.
8. People who hurt others do so because they don’t feel an inner spiritual connection
with all people.
9. The different parts of my identity (e.g., race, sex) do not really affect who I am.
10. Because I share my humanness with all people everywhere, whatever affects them
affects me.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

92
11. What people do in private is their own business, but I wish gays and lesbians would
keep their personal likes to themselves.
12. People in the U.S.A. have been socialized to be oppressive.
13. My oppressed identity does not primarily define who I am as it did in the past.
14. The physical world and the spiritual world are inseparable.
15. I am starting to feel angry about discrimination in this country.
16. Although I may not understand it, order exists in the universe that allows me to live
in peace and harmony, regardless of the situation I confront.
17. I recently realized for the first time that I was a target of discrimination, and it hurt.
18. My identity as a member of my group is the most important part of who I am.
19. I primarily focus my political awareness and activity on issues facing members of my
group.
20. It is all right when people tell jokes that are discriminatory as long as they are meant
to be funny and don’t hurt anyone.
21. I have a deep understanding of myself that comes from examining the different parts
of my identity.
22. No one is free until everyone is free because we are all so deeply connected.
23. I would feel most comfortable working for a boss/supervisor who is a White male.
24. I am just beginning to realize that society doesn’t value people like me.
25. People in my group experience the most discrimination in this country.
26. I’m not as angry at people outside my group as I used to be, but I still don’t socialize
much with these people.
27. I am just starting to see that certain people are expected to act in certain ways.
28. I feel intense excitement and pride when I think about my group.
29. I hurt for the oppression I experience and for the oppression that all people feel
because this violates the spiritual connection in all of us.
30. I have recently realized that society devalues parts of who I am.
31. I believe that if I could fully know myself, I would know God (or Great Spirit).
32. All people can succeed in this country if they work hard enough.
33. I have not really examined in depth how I view the world.
34. I feel sad when people tell jokes about oppressed groups because I know how these
jokes hurt people in those groups.
35. All of life is connected.
36. I am who I am, so I don’t think much about my identity.
37. I would be happy if a member of my family were openly gay/lesbian/bisexual,
regardless of my sexual orientation.
38. Sometimes I get tired about people complaining about racism.
39. I feel most connected to members of my own group.
40. Oppression exists because we aren’t in touch with what connects us to each other.
41. I actively support the rights of all oppressed groups (e.g., Jews, gays, Asian
Americans, the elderly, people with disabilities, Native Americans).
42. I am just beginning to realize that society doesn’t value people who are “different.”
43. Being with people from my group helps me feel better about myself.
44. Issues facing my group are the most important in this country.
45. I am just starting to see how my different identities affect me.
46. Because the Earth is a living, spiritual being, I am sad we are destroying her.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

93
47. I base reality on my spiritual awareness, irrespective of any religious affiliation I
might have.
48. Rocks and streams and all parts of the Earth have spirits.
49. I have not been oppressed or discriminated against.
50. I am starting to realize I don’t agree with some of society’s standards.
51. I recently have felt better about who I am because my group identity is clearer to me.
52. Personally knowing people in other oppress groups, I see how much we have in
common.
53. I am starting to see that people from some groups are treated differently in this
society.
54. I see myself in all others, including criminals and all oppressors, because we are all
part of the same collective spirit.
55. I recently realized there are many parts of my identity, and I have accepted them as
important parts of who I am.
56. I feel most comfortable when I am with my group.
57. I focus most of my time and efforts on issues facing my group.
58. I recently realized I don’t have to like every person in my group.
59. Although I am concerned about other groups who are discriminated against, I’m
mostly concerned about my own group.
60. I have difficulty trusting anyone outside my own group.
61. I believe there is justice for all in the United States of America.
62. I recently have started to question some of the values I grew up with.
63. I feel connected to people from different groups.
64. The spirit within all connects us.
65. It’s great for a woman to have a career, as long as she doesn’t forget her
responsibilities as a homemaker, wife, and mother.
66. I have overwhelming feelings of connectedness with others and with nature.
67. I would have as a life partner a person of a different race.
68. I recently have started to accept more people different from me, because I feel good
about myself.
69. Most of my beliefs and views are similar to ones I grew up with.
70. I have recently seen the depth to which oppression affects many groups.
71. My relationships with others have been enhanced now that I see the commonalities
among us.

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

94

Appendix D
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

95

Appendix E

STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIP SCALE – SHORT FORM

Robert C. Pianta

Child: ________________________________________ Teacher:___________________________
Grade:_________

Please reflect on the degree to which each of the following statements currently applies to your
relationship with this child. Using the scale below, circle the appropriate number for each item.

Definitely does not
apply
1
Not
really
2
Neutral,
not sure
3
Applies somewhat

4
Definitely applies

5

1. I share an affectionate, warm relationship with this child. 1 2 3 4 5
2. This child and I always seem to be struggling with each other. 1 2 3 4 5
3. If upset, this child will seek comfort from me. 1 2 3 4 5
4.
This child is uncomfortable with physical affection or touch from
me.
1 2 3 4 5
5. This child values his/her relationship with me. 1 2 3 4 5
6. When I praise this child, he/she beams with pride. 1 2 3 4 5
7.
This child spontaneously shares information about
himself/herself.
1 2 3 4 5
8. This child easily becomes angry with me. 1 2 3 4 5
9. It is easy to be in tune with what this child is feeling. 1 2 3 4 5
10
.
This child remains angry or is resistant after being disciplined. 1 2 3 4 5
11
.
Dealing with this child drains my energy 1 2 3 4 5
12
.
When this child is in a bad mood, I know we’re in for a long and
difficult day.
1 2 3 4 5
13
.
This child’s feelings toward me can be unpredictable or can
change suddenly.
1 2 3 4 5
14
.
This child is sneaky or manipulative with me. 1 2 3 4 5
15
.
This child openly shares his/her feelings and experiences with
me.
1 2 3 4 5

 1992 Pianta, University of Virginia.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this quantitative study was to explore the relationship of student-teacher racial congruence and teachers’ self-identity development with their perceptions of the behavior and relationship quality with racially dissimilar students. Participants included 31 elementary teachers who completed an online survey about their students (124 in total) from racially diverse urban California schools. Measurement tools utilized included the Self-Identity Inventory (Sevig et al., 2000), the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1977), and the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale- Short Form (Pianta, 1992). Findings indicated that teachers’ self-identity development was predictive of teachers’ perception of pro-social student behavior

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Asset Metadata

Creator Caldwell, Quiana A. (author)

Core Title Teachers’ perceptions of student behavior and relationship quality: an exploration of racial congruence and self-identity development

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 07/29/2013

Defense Date 05/14/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,optimal theory,OTAID model,racial congruence,racial matching,self-identity development,student behavior,student-teacher relationships,teachers' perceptions

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Seli, Helena (committee member), Smith-Maddox, Renee (committee member)

Creator Email qcaldwel@usc.edu,quiana.caldwell@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-303983

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