University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Home and school factors and their influence on students' academic goal orientation and motivation

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Home and school factors and their influence on students' academic goal orientation and motivation

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Running head: HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 1

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
GOAL ORIENTATION AND MOTIVATION

by

LaShonda Toston

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2013

Copyright 2013 LaShonda Toston
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 2
Acknowledgments
I would like to take a moment to thank all of those who have supported me in my
educational journey and who ultimately made this study possible. First, I would like to thank my
family for their continuous love and support. A heartfelt thank you to my husband, Greg, who
has been a sounding board when I was frustrated, tired, and excited. Thank you for always being
there. To my mother, Minnie, and my sisters, Sharon and Deneen, you believed in me when no
one else did. You continued to push me and praise me when I had doubts and supported me in
countless ways throughout my educational career. I could not have done this without you. To
my daughters, Lailah and Nadyah, I continued to push forward on this journey to be an example
for you. I want you to know that anything is possible as long as you believe in yourself. The
world is yours for the taking. To my extended family of nieces, nephews, and in-laws, thank you
for the countless hours of babysitting so that I could work in solitude to complete this study.
Your support is invaluable.
I want to express my sincerest thanks to my committee chair, Dr. Ruth Chung, and my
committee members, Dr. Randy Gray and Dr. Helena Seli for their advice, wisdom, feedback,
and support through this process. I am extremely fortunate to have had the opportunity to work
with such brilliant individuals in the field of education. Your insight has proved invaluable in
my growth both as a practitioner and a researcher.
I could not have made it through the program without the support and camaraderie of my
2010 Wednesday night cohort and my thematic group. Each of you has left an indelible mark in
my life as an educator. I would like to extend a special thank you to Quiana Caldwell, Sonia
Rodarte, and Christine Hamlin. You ladies were my beacon of light throughout this process.
You have offered support, guidance, advice, and friendship at times when I needed it most. I
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 3
will truly miss our weekly walks for dinner and conversation. Additionally, to my colleagues at
Collins School, especially Genevieve Wilson, Rhonda Knox, Leslie Leonard, and Tina Morrison,
you all have supported me throughout this process by listening to me rant about the latest
research in education and provided me with unconditional love and support when I needed it the
most. I am thankful for your friendship and camaraderie as fellow educators.
Finally, my acknowledgements would not be complete without a special thank you to the
district, schools, principals, and students who participated in this study. You truly made this
possible.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 4

Table of Contents

Abstract 5
CHAPTER I: Overview of the Study 6
Background of the Study 9
Theoretical Framework 11
Importance of the Study 14
Purpose of the Study 15
Organization of the Study 15
CHAPTER II: Review of the Literature 17
Parental Expectations 17
Parental Involvement 22
Teacher Expectations 28
Summary of Literature Review 33
Purpose, Research Questions, and Hypotheses 36
CHAPTER III: Methodology 37
Participants 37
Instruments 38
Procedure 42
Data Analysis 42
CHAPTER IV: Results 43
Preliminary Analyses 43
Analysis of Research Questions 47
Post Hoc Analysis 50
CHAPTER V: Discussion 52
Summary and Discussion of Main Findings 53
Additional Findings 55
Limitations 56
Directions for Future Research 57
Implications for Practice 59
Conclusion 61
References 63
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 69
Appendix B: Informed Consent for Non-Medical Research 70
Appendix C: Child Assent 73
Appendix D: Student Demographic Information 74
Appendix E: Parental Expectations Survey 75
Appendix F: Teacher Treatment Inventory 76
Appendix G: Student and Family Survey for Elementary
and Middle School Students 77
Appendix H: Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey 80

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 5
Abstract

Based on the work of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, this study examined students’
perceptions of home and school environments’ role in student academic goal orientation and
motivation. The purpose of the study was to examine student perceptions of the environmental
factors that may influence students’ motivation. Additionally, this study sought to extend
previous research on the motivation of urban students. Participants in this study were 220 urban
middle school students recruited from a small school district in Los Angeles County.
Measurement tools included the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scale, Student and Family Survey
for Elementary and Middle School Students, Teacher Treatment Inventory, and Parental
Expectations scale. Findings from this study indicate that students’ perceptions of parental
expectations contribute significantly to students’ goal orientations. Additionally, perceptions of
parental involvement and teacher expectations contribute to student’s mastery goal orientation.
The results of this study indicate that schools located in urban environments should work
towards building a collaborative relationship with parents in the community to promote mastery
goal orientations among students.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 6
CHAPTER I
Introduction
For decades, researchers in the United States have studied the achievement gap between
White and minority students. Although many researchers have sought ways to explain the
variation in scores between the two groups, few have found specific remedies to close the gap for
minority students. In the latest data collected by the National Center for Education Statistics
(Aud, Hussar, Kena, Bianco, Fohlich, Kemp, & Tahan, 2011), the gap between minority and
White students continues to exist, although scores for both groups have shown some
improvement over the last 20 years. The average reading achievement for 4
th
and 8
th
grade
students demonstrated minimal change between 2007 and 2009, with 4
th
grade showing no
increase in average achievement and 8
th
grade only improving by one point. Currently, thirty-
three percent of 4
th
graders are proficient or above in reading and thirty-two percent of eighth
graders demonstrate proficiency (Aud et al., 2011).
With only one-third of students scoring proficient, the achievement gap between Whites
and minorities continues to be a significant problem in our society. There is a 26-point gap
between White and Black 4
th
graders in average reading achievement and a 25-point gap
between Whites and Hispanics. For 8
th
graders, the gap is similar to 4
th
grade, with 26 points
between Whites and Blacks and 24 points between Whites and Hispanics. However, when
reading scores are compared by socioeconomic status, the gap widens for both 4
th
and 8
th

graders. The gap between low income 4
th
graders and their peers is 35 points and for 8
th
grade,
there is a 34 point gap (Aud et al., 2011).
On average, math achievement for 4
th
and 8
th
graders is slightly higher than their reported
reading achievement with thirty-nine percent of 4
th
graders and thirty-four percent of 8
th
graders
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 7
demonstrating proficiency. However, the gap between minority students and their White
counterparts remained unchanged between 2007 and 2009. The gap between Whites and Blacks
was 26 points and 32 points in math for 4
th
graders and 8
th
graders, respectively. Between
Whites and Hispanics, the gap is slightly smaller with 4
th
graders demonstrating a 21-point gap
and 8
th
graders demonstrating a 26-point gap. However, when math achievement scores are
compared based on socioeconomic status, the results show that low-income students lag behind
their peers by 31 points in 4
th
grade and 38 points in 8
th
grade. The data from the National
Center on Education Statistics demonstrates that minority students, particularly those in low-
income urban areas, consistently perform at lower levels in reading and math than their White
peers who attend suburban schools (Aud et al., 2011).
Educators and researchers continue to look for causes for the achievement gap when so
much is known on how to increase student achievement, yet minority students lag behind. For
example, academic motivation is one of many constructs that has been studied and linked to
increased student achievement. Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory (2000) defines
three types of academic motivation: amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation.
Self-Determination Theory characterizes amotivation as a lack of academic motivation, which is
detrimental to student achievement. However, they classify extrinsic motivation, motivation
based on external sources, on a continuum where identified regulation produces similar academic
achievement results as intrinsic motivation. Additionally, Ryan and Deci (2000) define intrinsic
motivation as an individual’s desire to persist at a task that is rewarding in and of itself. Intrinsic
motivation has also been found to have a positive correlation with increased academic
achievement and school performance (Ryan and Deci, 2000).
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 8
Currently, approximately thirty-four percent of students in high poverty schools are Black
and about forty-five percent of students in these same schools are Latino (Aud, et al., 2011).
Research has found that students in urban schools are performing significantly below their
suburban peers (Aud, et al., 2011). However, increasing the academic intrinsic motivation of
urban students may be a means to improving their overall academic achievement and closing the
achievement gap. Researchers have studied the influence of students’ home environments on
both their academic achievement and motivation for decades. While the results of the research
on home environments and student achievement have been mixed, many studies find that a
congruent home and school environment promotes student achievement.
Home and school factors and student outcomes
Previous research has shown that parental expectations, teacher expectations, and
parental involvement play a significant role in increased academic achievement. Marchant,
Paulson, and Rothlisberg (2001) found that a home environment promoting cognitively
stimulating activities outside of school was a positive predictor of intrinsic motivation.
Additionally, researchers have found that a supportive home environment coupled with a
supportive school environment has a greater impact on student achievement than either context
alone (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1998; Froiland, 2011; Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993).
Parental expectations for higher educational attainment have also been found to have a positive
relationship with students’ academic performance (Zhan, 2006; Davis-Kean, 2005). Decades of
research have also been conducted on the relationship between teacher expectations and student
academic achievement. Studies have found that teacher expectations are strong predictors of
students’ academic and motivational outcomes in school (Walker, 2008; Skinner & Belmont,
1993; Gill and Reynolds, 1999; Warren, 2002; Rubie-Davies, Hattie, & Hamilton, 2006).
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 9
Although studies have shown evidence to support findings that a strong relationship
between home and school have a positive relationship on student motivation and achievement
outcomes, little research has been conducted on how combined home and school factors relate to
student motivation. While parental expectations, parental involvement and teacher expectations
have been found to separately increase student achievement little is known about how these
combined factors influence motivation. The present study looks to examine how students’
perceptions of the combined home and school factors relate to student motivation and if there is a
difference in how African American and Latino students perceive these factors.
Background of the Study
Academic Motivation. A significant percentage of minority students attend schools in
urban neighborhoods. Many of these schools are located in low-income areas and academic
achievement continues to be of concern to both researchers and educators. Urban students
continue to perform significantly below their suburban counterparts in both reading and math
academic achievement (Aud et al., 2011). Researchers have found a distinct connection between
intrinsic motivation and increased student achievement (Ryan and Deci, 2000). It has also been
found that students who possess autonomous forms of motivation such as intrinsic motivation are
less likely to drop out of school, report better cognitive engagement, demonstrate increased
levels of conceptual learning and are better adjusted to academic settings (Fortier, Vallerand,
Guay, 1995). Increasing the intrinsic motivation of urban students could possibly be the means
through which educators can begin to close the achievement gap for this population of students.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory, a portion of Self-Determination Theory, states that
classroom and home environments can either thwart or foster intrinsic motivation in students
(Ryan and Deci, 2000). The researchers found that interpersonal interactions that produce
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 10
feelings of competence and autonomy are essential in facilitating intrinsic motivation. Behaviors
or activities that support a student’s autonomy are also important for enhancing intrinsic
motivation. However, most classroom environments require individuals to attend to tasks that
are typically uninteresting, which undermines the ability to foster intrinsic motivation (Ryan and
Deci, 2000). Students are often externally regulated to perform a task, which leads to less
interest, value, and demonstrated effort. External regulation also leads these individuals to blame
others for negative outcomes, such as grades and achievement (Ryan and Deci, 2000). As Deci
and Ryan (2000) further describe how motivation affects student achievement and effort, they
divide extrinsic motivation into various degrees. One such degree is introjected regulation,
where individuals expend more effort on a task, but demonstrate increased anxiety and poor
academic coping styles. Further along the continuum is identified regulation, which is associated
with greater enjoyment of school and increased positive academic coping styles. Identified
regulation is closely related to intrinsic motivation; therefore it has strong implications for also
increasing students’ academic performance (Ryan and Deci, 2000).
One means of examining students’ academic motivation is through Goal Orientation
Theory. Goal Orientation Theory examines students’ motivation through their development of
mastery and performance goals. Mastery goals are those in which students focus on learning and
mastery of content and have been related to higher levels of interest, positive affect, efficacy, and
better cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Additionally, mastery goal orientations have been
linked to intrinsic interests in tasks and the process of learning itself is valued (Ames & Archer,
1988; Pintrich, 2000). Performance goals are focused on students’ concern for their ability and
performance compared to others. Students focus on doing better than others and avoiding
looking incompetent or less able in comparison to their peers. Performance approach goals
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 11
while focused on doing better than others, can result in better performance and achievement for
students (Pintrich, 2000). Performance avoidance goals, in which students focus on not looking
incompetent to others, lead students to avoid tasks and result in maladaptive forms of intrinsic
motivation. The adoption of a particular goal orientation may be influenced by individual
differences in students’ home environments, prior experiences, or differential treatment by
teachers (Ames & Archer, 2000). Additionally, the adoption of goal orientations in the
classroom setting may be orthogonal and students may develop different levels of mastery and
performance orientations (Pintrich, 2000).
Theoretical Framework
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory provides a conceptual framework for how
the child, school and home are interrelated and dependent on another to influence student
achievement. Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) theory states that relationships exist between individuals
and their environments. The intertwining of these relationships has an effect on the development
of the individual. More specifically Bronfenbrenner (1977) describes the ecological environment
as an arrangement of structures with each structure being contained within the next. Each system
in Bronfenbrenner’s model plays a specific role in the individual’s development.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory encompasses five ecological systems that influence a person’s
development. Closest to the individual is an individual’s microsystem, which includes the
individual’s family, school, peers and neighborhood. The microsystem is the relationship
between the person and environment in a setting that contains the individual. In an individual
microsystem, a person has a particular role in that setting and engages in particular activities that
are specific to that setting (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The individual is not passive in the
microsystem, they help to construct the meaning of each context. The next ecological system,
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 12
the mesosystem, defines the relationships and connections between the microsystems.
Bronfenbrenner (1977) describes the mesosystem as interrelations between different
microsystems at a particular point in the individual’s life. The mesosystem involves interactions
between home and school, peers and school, and the neighborhood and family. Each
microsystem has separate connections in the mesosytem and each connection influences
behavior in a separate microsystem.
Additionally, individuals are also connected through exosystems that they may indirectly
influence their lives. Bronfenbrenner (1977) states that the mesosystem contains both formal and
informal social structures that do not contain the individual directly, but influence the immediate
settings of the individual. For example, a parent’s loss of job takes place in a child’s exosystem
but has an effect on the child’s microsystem at home. Moving further away from the individual
at the center of ecological systems theory are the macrosystem such as religious and cultural
beliefs and the chronosystem, which involves transitions over time. The macrosystem is the
culture surrounding an individual that sets patterns for structures, rules, and activities adopted by
the individual. A macrosystem determines how individuals are treated and how they interact
with one another in various settings (Bronfenbrenner, 1977).
Johnson (1994) used Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework to examine students’
educational risks in school. Educational risks were defined as specific inadequacies, limitations,
deficiencies, and incompentencies that individuals demonstrate in language, sensory, behavioral
or emotional domains (Johnson, 1994). It was found that if a child and their ecosytems were
unbalanced, failure and dysfunction in the child’s life would occur (Johnson and Johnson, 1991).
According to ecological theory, this imbalance between the child and environments such as
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 13
home or school places the child at risk for failure. However, if the child and the ecosystem are
balanced with one another, positive outcomes will ensue.
Using Bronfenbrenner’s model, Johnson (1994) identified four types of educational risks
that are detrimental to students: microrisk, mesorisk, exorisk, and macrorisk. Microrisks are
inherent in child-classroom interactions. These risks can be seen as discordance between the
child and the curriculum, the physical structure of the classroom, differences between the child
and the teacher, teacher expectations, and the unique sets of backgrounds and beliefs that
individual students bring to the classroom setting. Mesorisks are defined as contradicting child-
home interactions as well as counter-productive home-school interactions and home-classroom
interactions. In this mesosystem between home and school, the family has its own sets of norms,
expectancies, routines and requirements that influence the student. However, teachers and
schools also have a set of beliefs, expectancies and biases that influence the student. When the
interactions between the two environments are contradictory, children are at risk for educational
failure. Additionally, exorisk examines the community as a whole and the social programs that
communities provide for its residents. Lack of community after school and health programs also
places students at risk. Lastly, Johnson (1994) states that because of the cultural and societal
forces, individuals from ethnic minority groups whose life experiences differ from societal
norms are inherently at risk for school failure.
Johnson (1994) further offers solutions to reducing the educational risks of students
specifically at the microrisk and mesorisk levels. In order for students to succeed in classrooms,
teachers must build tolerance for individual differences while broadening and redefining
educational objectives that focus on the needs of individual children. To reduce mesorisk,
Johnson (1994) suggests that parents become actively involved in the educational process of
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 14
students and that organizations develop family assistance programs to assist in navigating the
interactions between home and school.
Both Bronfenbrenner (1977) and Johnson (1994) provide a framework for examining
how home and school factors influence children’s development. While Bronfenbrenner’s work
provides the foundation for home and school microsystems working together in the development
of the individual, Johnson’s (1994) study delves into the incongruence of these systems for many
students and the associated educational risks. Home factors such as parental expectations and
parental involvement are encompassed in both Bronfenbrenner’s and Johnson’s work. These
factors influence a student’s development as an individual and may contribute to educational
risks discussed by Johnson (1994) if they are incongruent with the student’s school microsystem.
In addition, expectations set forth by teachers also influence the development of the child both at
home and school, which may enhance or conflict with the home microsystem. Through
examining parental expectations, parental involvement, and teacher expectations, one can
analyze the influence that these factors have on student development in urban settings.
Importance of the Study
The achievement gap for urban minority students continues to baffle both educators and
researchers. While students are making gains in academic achievement overall, the gap between
Whites and minorities continues to persist. Researchers have identified several familial and
school factors that increase students’ academic achievement and influence motivational
outcomes (Walker, 2008; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Gill and Reynolds, 1999; Warren, 2002;
Rubie-Davies, Hattie, & Hamilton, 2006; Gonzalez and Wolters, 2006; Aunola, Stattin, &
Nurmi, 2000; Zhan, 2006; Davis-Kean, 2005). This research has been conducted with various
populations, however, achievement and motivation in urban school still causes concern for
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 15
parents, educators and, community members. The incongruence between home and school
factors has been examined as a possible stimulus in urban areas. According to Bronfenbrenner’s
(1977) Ecological Systems Theory, the interconnectedness of these systems is essential for
individual development. Furthermore, researchers have found evidence that similarities between
the two environments have a positive relationship to students’ motivation and achievement
(Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1998; Froiland, 2011; Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993). However,
little research has been conducted on how combined family and school factors relate to students’
academic motivation. This study looks to examine how these combined home and school factors
influence student motivation and if consistency in one environment can compensate for
inconsistency in the other setting.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the current study was to extend current research on home and school
factors and their relationship to academic motivation. In conducting this study, I intended to
answer two research questions: (1) Do students’ perceptions of parental expectations, parental
involvement, and teacher expectations predict students’ academic motivation and (2) Are there
differences between African American and Latino students’ perceptions of parental expectations,
parental involvement, teacher expectations, and academic motivation? I expected to find that
students’ perceptions of high parental expectations, high parental involvement combined with
high teacher expectations would predict students’ intrinsic motivation.
Organization of the Study
The remaining chapters of the dissertation are organized in the following manner:
Chapter 2 reviews the current literature on parental expectations, parental involvement, and
teacher expectations and their relationship to urban students’ motivation and achievement.
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 16
Chapter 3 describes the methodology utilized for this study, including demographic data on
participants, instruments used and data collection procedures. Chapter 4 analyzes the results of
the data collected, including correlations between variables. Chapter 5 discusses the results,
implications, limitations, and directions for future research.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 17
CHAPTER II
Review of the Literature
The following chapter provides an overview of the research on parental expectations,
parental involvement, and teacher expectations. Additionally, this literature review examines
how these variables have been studied in urban populations as well as how they relate to the
academic motivation of minority students.
Parental Expectations
Parental expectations have been defined in varying degrees by a number of researchers.
Two of the definitions used in current research operationalize parental expectations in terms of
short-term success such as grades (Okagaki & Frensch, 1998) and long-term educational success
such as graduation from high school or college (Reynolds & Gill, 1994). However, it has been
noted by researchers that there is a significant difference in the constructs of parental
expectations and parental aspirations although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably
(Yamamoto & Halloway, 2010). Parental expectations are the realistic beliefs that parents have
about their children’s future achievement whereas aspirations are the hopes and desires parents
hold that typically are framed within the societal context of acceptable achievement and not
based on actual student data.
Current research on parental expectations and student outcomes suggest that high
parental expectations play a pivotal role in students’ academic success. Mau (1997) investigated
parents’ influences on the achievement of high school students and found that socioeconomic
status and perceived educational expectations were positively associated with academic
achievement among Asian and White students. Additionally, it was found that academic success
for Asian students appeared to be associated with high parental educational expectations and
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 18
educational effort. Mau (1997) concluded that higher parental academic expectations are key for
all students to succeed academically.
Conversely, Ablard and Parker (1997) studied parents’ achievement goals of
academically talented students and found that children of performance goal parents perceived
their parents as having high expectations coupled with high levels of criticism. The researchers
concluded these students felt immense pressure to perform well. Additionally, it is believed that
unrealistic expectations for students may foster performance anxiety among this population
(Ablard & Parker, 1997). In another study on parental influences and academic performance,
Taylor, Hinton, and Wilson (1995) concluded that parental expectations were not a significant
predictor of academic success. These mixed findings on the association between parental
expectations and achievement has lead researchers to continue to study the topic focusing on
specific populations of students and communities.
Parental Expectations and Minority Students. Studies measuring parental
expectations and minority students have found mixed results based on the population of minority
students studied and the method of research used in the study. Some researchers agree that
parental expectations have a positive correlation to minority student achievement (Gill &
Reynolds, 1991; Reynolds & Gill, 1994) while others report that student achievement may be the
predicting factor in parental expectations (Goldenberg, et al 2001).
In a longitudinal study on parental expectations, involvement and middle school aged
African American and European American students, Seyfried and Chung (2002) investigated
whether expectations and involvement predicted later academic success of students. Although
the researchers found no significant difference in European American and African American
students’ parental involvement and expectations means, there was a significant difference in
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 19
grade point average between the two groups of students. The authors concluded that parental
involvement and parental expectations are not strong predictors of future academic success for
African American students but they are for European American students.
In contrast to this finding that parental expectations may not be a significant predictor of
academic success for African American students, Reynolds and Gill (1994) found that parental
expectations for inner city black students had a high correlation to educational outcomes such as
academic achievement. Reynolds and Gill (1994) concluded that parental expectations might
also be a strong predictor for children’s social adjustment in school as well as academic
achievement. In a separate study, researchers found that although adolescents began to feel
pressured to be accepted by their friends, messages regarding high expectations from their
parents continue to have an impact on their math and reading scores (Gill and Reynolds, 1991).
They conclude that the expectations parents convey to their students are stable and consistent
over time, therefore they continue to play a role in student achievement. In a metaanalysis
conducted by Yamamoto and Halloway (2010), it was found that African American parents
consistently held high expectations for their children’s success despite students’ actual academic
performance. The authors concluded that African American parents might continue to hold high
expectations for their students because of their own experiences in school and possible mistrust
of accurate teacher evaluations of student ability.
In examining parental expectations of Latino students, Goldenberg et al. (2001)
conducted a longitudinal study of Latino immigrant families to ascertain whether parental
aspirations and expectations had a bidirectional relationship with students’ school performance.
They found support for their performance-driven model that suggests that parental expectations
are formed by children’s performance in school over time. Student achievement and parental
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 20
expectations were unrelated when students were in kindergarten but as students progressed
through elementary school, a relationship between performance and parental expectations began
to emerge as parents received more information about student performance. This finding
suggests that parental expectations may not predict student achievement but may be influenced
by previous student success or failure. In addition to Goldenberg et al.’s findings (2001),
Okagaki and Frensch (1998) found that there was no association between parental expectations
and student grades for Latino students. However, in a study conducted by Hill & Torres (2010),
Latino immigrant parents reported having high expectations for their students as well as the
quality of American schools and the opportunities American schooling offers. Yamamoto and
Halloway (2010) also found that of all ethnic groups, Asian American parents held the highest
expectations for their students both in grades and educational attainment. These findings support
the assertion that there are cultural differences in parental expectations and their relationship to
student performance.
Inconsistent results on the directionality of the relationship between parental expectations
and student achievement lead Goldenberg et al. (2001) to link inconsistencies to a lack of
sufficient longitudinal studies on the topic. They suggest that because much of the research on
parental expectations uses correlational design, that directionality cannot be determined.
Therefore, until more studies are conducted longitudinally, it is unknown whether students are
achieving because of high parental expectations or if parental expectations are high because of
consistent student success. Therefore, further examination of parental expectations influence on
student motivation and achievement alongside other parental factors such as parenting style and
parental involvement may provide better insight on the directionality of the results.
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 21
Parental Expectations, Motivation and Achievement. Researchers studying parental
expectations of school achievement have found a relationship between parental educational
levels and expectations for student achievement. Davis-Kean (2005) found that higher
educational attainment levels for parents had an indirect relationship to the academic
achievement of students. The relationship between parents’ education level and student
achievement was deemed an indirect relationship because the researcher found that parental
expectations and interactions between the parent and child were mediating factors between the
two variables. While studying the relationship between parental assets, expectations, and
involvement and students’ school performance, Zhan (2006) also found that parents’ educational
level had a positive relationship with parental involvement and expectations. She found that
higher maternal expectations had a positive and significant relationship with increased reading
and math scores. Thus suggesting again that the educational level of parents have a direct
relationship to the expectations parents set for their own children.
Other studies have focused on students’ perceptions of parental expectations and their
role in academic achievement and motivation (Bowen, Rose, Powers, & Glennie, 2008; Jaccard,
Dittus, & Gordon, 1998; Dalton, Glennie, & Ingels, 2009; Bowen, Hopson, Rose, & Glennie,
2012). Researchers found that students who perceived that their parents had high expectations
were more likely to avoid problem behaviors and to excel academically (Bowen et al, 2008).
Additionally, these students had lower dropout rates than those who perceived their parents as
having low expectations (Dalton, et al., 2009). Student perceptions of parental expectations were
also found to be greater predictors of student academic behaviors than actual parental
expectations (Jaccard, et al, 1998). Using an Eco-Interactional-Development model in their
longitudinal study of perceived parental expectations and academic performance, Bowen et al.
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 22
(2008) discussed the importance of congruence in students’ microsystems of development in
order for students to meet expectations in school. They suggested that incongruence between the
school and home microsystem would lead to the likelihood of decreased academic achievement
for adolescents. Their study using 2088 middle school students from grades six to eight found
that students who reported higher parental expectations in sixth grade had higher achievement in
eighth grade even when they controlled for parental support. The authors concluded that high
parental expectations might influence student achievement even when students have exhibited
some behavior problems in school. These findings suggest that student perceptions of parental
expectations are key to students’ academic achievement.
In summary, parental expectations are a significant factor in high student achievement.
Students internalize messages they receive from parents regarding academic success and parents’
expectations are reinforced with continued student success. For minority students, parental
expectations remain high despite low achievement for some students. This leads researchers to
conclude that parents expect the best for and from their students even when students sometimes
fail to meet those expectations.
Parental Involvement
Research on home/school relationships has found that the optimal results for students are
achieved when there is congruence between home and school (Lightfoot, 1981; Tyler, Brown-
Wright, Stevens-Watkins, Thomas, Stevens, Roan-Belle, Gadson, & Smith, 2010; Rubie-Davies,
Hattie, & Hamilton, 2006). The incongruence between home and school can be related to
expectations, cultural factors, and structural factors (Lightfoot, 1981; Rubie-Davies, et al, 2006).
Kumar (2006) found that all students were not affected the same way when navigating both
home and school contexts. He concluded that when students perceived their classrooms to be
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 23
performance driven it lead to greater dissonance between home and school and students had a
low sense of school belonging. Lightfoot (1981) stated that misconceptions between the roles
that both school and home play in socializing children leads to dissonance as well as the
structural and cultural purposes of the two environments. When parents and schools
misunderstand the roles of the other’s responsibility in developing the whole child, incongruence
occurs.
One way in which home and school environments have been found to impact students is
through parental involvement. Parental involvement has been defined in both formal and
informal ways. Formal means of parental involvement are associated with parents’ active
presence at the school site, while informal parental involvement is associated with activities
conducted at home (LeFevre & Shaw, 2011). Researchers agree that parental involvement can
be operationalized in different manners. Ascher (1988) stated that it could range from serving on
school committees, volunteering as aides or on field trips, correspondence between the teacher
and parent, initiating learning activities at home and discussing current events. Other researchers
have defined parental involvement in terms of behavioral involvement, personal involvement,
and cognitive/intellectual involvement (Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994). Eccles and Harold
(1993) stated that these formal and informal means of parental involvement are categorized by
six types of involvement: (1) provide health and safety for children; (2) obligations of school to
communicate students’ progress and school programs to parents; (3) parental involvement in the
school; (4) parental involvement in learning activities at home; (5) parental involvement in
school decision making; and (6) collaboration with community organizations.
In addition to discussing the types of parental involvement in students’ lives and
education, researchers have found that parents become involved formally and informally for
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 24
various reasons. One reason for parents’ active involvement in their child’s school has been
self-efficacy of either the teacher or the parent. One study found that higher teacher self-efficacy
was linked to teachers’ report of higher parental involvement in homework, volunteering and
other educational activities (Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, & Brissie, 1992). The authors also
concluded that increasing parents’ self-efficacy might improve parental involvement in school
related activities. In a separate study conducted by Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995), the
authors also suggested that parental self-efficacy in helping students succeed in school might
lead to higher rates of parental involvement. Additional studies have found that parental
educational levels also influence a parents’ involvement in their children’s education (Stevenson
& Baker, 1987; Englund, Luckner, Whaley, & Egeland, 2004). In their study of parental
involvement, Stevenson and Baker (1987) found a positive relationship between mother’s
education level and the degree of involvement in school activities.
Researchers have also found that children’s age, previous academic success and parents’
perceptions of their parental responsibility play a role in a parent’s decision to become involved
(Stevenson & Baker, 1987; Englund, Luckner, Whaley, & Egeland, 2004; Eccles & Harold,
1993; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995; Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005). Studies related to
parental involvement and age found that parents were more involved with younger students than
with older students and adolescents (Stevenson & Baker, 1987). Additionally, researchers found
that parents of adolescents become less involved as students’ progress into secondary school
(Eccles & Harold, 1993; Stevenson & Baker, 1987). Eccles and Harold (1993) explained that the
decrease in involvement in secondary school might be caused by parents’ belief that adolescents
desire and need more independence. Eccles and Harold (1993) also stated that a child’s previous
academic successes as well as the child’s personality were likely to influence parental
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 25
involvement. Researchers also found that the relationship between adolescents and parents was
key to continued parental involvement in secondary school. Deslandes and Bertrand (2005)
found that parents were more likely to be involved in their adolescents’ education if they were
invited to participate by the student. Additionally, the authors found that when parents viewed
their involvement as part of their parental responsibility, they were more involved in the child’s
school. They also found parents were more inclined to be involved based on their perceptions of
teacher invitation to the school.
Parent Involvement and Minority Students. The dissonance between home and school
is often greater for students living in urban populations and ethnic minority students. While
many educators focus on school related parental involvement as the sole means to become
involved, Eccles and Harold (1993) looked at reasons that many urban parents are not involved
at the school level. The authors stated that factors that might influence parental involvement
include: lack of time, energy, or economic resources; lack of knowledge; feeling incompetent;
failure to understand their role in education; a history of negative interactions with school; poor
communication between parents and school; and hostility towards parents.
Tyler, et al. (2010) found that dissonance between home and school was a significant
predictor for African American high school students demonstrating negative behaviors such as
cheating and class disruptions. They also found that these students were more likely to have
performance orientations of motivation. Additional studies have found that poor or low-income
parents demonstrate less parental involvement in schools (Cooper, 2010; Tyler, et al., 2010).
Cooper (2010) found that parental educational levels moderated this lack of involvement. When
poor and nonpoor parents had similar educational backgrounds, involvement levels were similar
as well. Zellman and Waterman (1998) reported that when controlling for other factors (SES,
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 26
child’s IQ, and ethnicity), higher levels of parent school involvement were associated with better
test scores. However, the study also found that single parents, as well as African American and
Latino mothers, reported lower levels of involvement. According to research by Tyler et al.
(2010), teachers view lack of involvement as disinterest and uncaring instead of the possibility
that parents may not have the ability to navigate the bureaucracy of the school system. These
differences in values, beliefs, and understandings between home and school have the potential to
have detrimental effects on student adjustment and success in school (Rubie-Davies, et al.,
2006). Additional research found that parents of urban African American high school students
viewed keeping their students safe in their home environments was an important part of parental
involvement while school personnel viewed communication between home and school as most
important (Williams & Sanchez, 2012; Eccles & Harold, 1993).
Other studies examining parental involvement in low-income and urban areas have found
mixed results for increased parental involvement. In a study conducted by Trask-Tate and
Cunningham (2010) found that high parental involvement had a positive relationship for the
future academic success of African American female students but found it resulted in decreased
future academic expectations for males. While Davidson and Cardemil (2009) found that parent-
child communication and personal involvement in the child’s life had a stronger negative
relationship to children’s externalizing behaviors (delinquency, drug use, and vandalism) than
school involvement. These results suggest that the communication between parents and urban
adolescents is key to increasing support for students.
In further studies conducted to analyze parental involvement and Latino student
achievement, researchers found that parental involvement was a key factor in Latino students’
success (Kuperminc, Darnell, & Alvarez-Jimenez, 2008; Chavkin, Gonzalez, & Rader, 2000;
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 27
Rivera-Mosquera, Phillips, Castelino, Martin, & Mowbray Dobran, 2007). One study of 195
Latino middle and high school students reported that parental involvement had strong
associations with academic adjustment for high school students and concluded that parental
involvement is influential in promoting academic achievement among Latino students
(Kuperminc, Darnell, & Alvarez-Jimenez, 2008). Additional studies found that parental support
in conjunction with parent-school involvement were factors in promoting success among Latino
students (Chavkin, Gonzalez, & Rader, 2000; Rivera-Mosquera, Phillips, Castelino, Martin, &
Mowbray Dobran, 2007).
Parental involvement, motivation, and achievement. Research on parental
involvement and student motivation suggests that parental involvement is a significant predictor
in students’ engagement, motivation, and persistence in academic tasks. In a meta-analysis
conducted by Gonzalez-DeHaas, Willems, and Holbein (2005), they concluded that students
report more effort, attention, and concentration on academic tasks when their parents are
involved. The authors also found that various forms of parental involvement produced different
motivational results. For example, while rewards and homework monitoring produced extrinsic
motivation, encouragement and praise produced more intrinsic modes of motivation.
Additionally, they found that when parents were involved it communicated the importance of
academics to students and encouraged students to adopt a mastery goal orientation in their
academic work (Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems, & Holbein, 2005). Another study conducted by
Gonzalez (2002) suggests that students may become more motivated to perform well in school
because they see their parents take an interest in their schooling. To further support the research
on positive academic outcomes and parental involvement, additional research conducted by
Woolley, Kol, and Bowen (2009) found that parental support and education monitoring are
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 28
associated with students’ academic outcomes. Although research suggests that general parental
involvement influences student achievement, other studies found that supporting and
participating forms of involvement had positive relationships with achievement for some
students (Mau, 1997).
In contrast to the vast amount of research that suggests that parental involvement is
associated with positive student outcomes, some studies suggest that the link between parental
involvement and achievement may be a function of the type of parental involvement. Mau
(1997) found that regardless of cultural group, more controlling forms of parental involvement
were associated with lower levels of student performance. However, Plunkett and Bámaca-
Gomez (2003) suggested that parental monitoring, support and help with schoolwork were
associated with higher educational aspirations and increased academic motivation.
Parental involvement is key to student success in school in early grades as well as in
secondary school. Although students are developing autonomy as they progress through school,
when parents remain involved both at home and at school, students receive the message that
education is important. Parental involvement also provides an opportunity for parents and
teachers to develop relationships that contribute to congruency between home and school.
Teacher Expectations
Good and Brophy (1970) developed a theoretical framework for teacher expectations
based on Rosenthal and Jacobson’s book Pygmalion of the Classroom. Good and Brophy’s
(1970) model provided a means for describing teacher expectations and student achievement as a
self-fulfilling prophecy. The model consists of four stages of teacher and student interactions
that influence teacher expectations, student achievement, and motivation. In the first phase,
teachers develop expectations for students based on student historical data such as cumulative
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 29
records, previous teacher comments, and student behaviors. Secondly, teachers begin to behave
differentially towards students based on previous information. Students are placed in academic
groups and feedback is given to students based on teacher’s expectations. In the next phase,
students begin to react to teacher’s expectations and their self-concept and motivation for
achievement is altered. When these interactions continue over time, the teachers’ expectations
influence student behavior and achievement.
Researchers have continued to study the influence of teacher expectations on student
academic outcomes over the last three decades. Many researchers have found support for Good
and Brophy’s (1970) model. Gill and Reynolds (1999) found that teacher expectations were a
strong predictor of 6
th
grade students’ math and reading achievement. Additionally, Skinner and
Belmont (1993) found that interactions between teachers and students predicted students’
behavioral and emotional engagement directly and indirectly through students’ perceptions of the
teacher/student interactions in the classroom while Walker (2008) found that students’
perceptions of teacher support was related to students’ academic engagement.
Teacher expectations and minority students. Teachers’ expectations for minority
students have been heavily researched both in the United States and abroad. In the United States,
the desegregation of schools caused educators and researchers to think about how student
outcomes were influenced by teachers’ perceptions and expectations of minority students. In
countries such as New Zealand, indigenous populations have been viewed as minorities as the
population of whites has increased in these areas. In both countries, researchers have found that
teachers hold lowered expectations for minority students than for white students (Warren, 2002;
Rubie-Davies, Hattie, & Hamilton, 2006, Ferguson, 2003). Warren (2002) found that teachers
perceived poor urban students as having deficits in their academic achievement especially if they
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 30
were also language minorities. Because of this deficit model of perceiving students’ abilities,
teachers had lower expectations of their students than they had for their own biological or
adopted children. Warren (2002) concluded that these perceptions of students’ academic
abilities influenced their educational practices in the classroom. As the Good and Brophy model
(1970) delineates, when teachers hold these lowered expectations for students it is reflected in
their instructional practices and ultimately alters the students’ academic motivation and
achievement.
In a study in New Zealand, researchers examined the relationship of students’ ethnicity
on teachers’ expectations by examining student achievement data between the predominant
White population in New Zealand and three minority groups (Rubie-Davies et al., 2006). They
found that teacher expectations were high for all ethnic groups except for the Maori population
although the academic achievement of the Maori students was not significantly different than
other populations. The researchers concluded that teacher expectations may be a by-product of
societal stereotypes about particular groups of people (Rubie-Davies et al., 2006).
In contrast to the findings by Walker (2002) and Rubie-Davies, et al. (2006), other
researchers have found that African American students’ perceptions of teacher expectations is
vastly different than the expectations reported by teachers in other studies. When examining
students’ perceptions of teacher expectations and its ability to predict student engagement, Tyler
and Boetler (2008) found that students reported that their teachers held high expectations for
their achievement and these perceptions predicted students’ cognitive, behavioral, and emotional
engagement as well as academic engagement. This phenomenon could be explained by results
from a study conducted by Casteel (1997) that found that eighth and ninth grade students were
more eager to please their teachers then their parents, while Whites were more eager to please
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 31
their parents. Jussim, Eccles, and Madon (1996) also found that teacher expectations were more
strongly related to achievement for African American students than European students. This
suggests that African American students are also more influenced by negative expectations as
was found by McKown and Weinstein (2002). The finding that Black students aim to please
their teachers is a possible explanation for their reporting that their teachers have high
expectations for their achievement. Additional research in this area may shed light on the
finding that African American students report higher teacher expectations.
In studies conducted to examine teacher support on the academic outcomes of Latino
youth, researchers found that teacher support along with protective factors in the students’
environment result in positive student academic outcomes (Woolley, Kol, & Bowen, 2009;
Garcia-Reid, Reid, & Peterson, 2005; Alfaro, et al., 2006; Woolley & Bowen, 2007). One study
investigated the role of social relationships with teachers, parents, and peers for Latino middle
school students and found that teacher student relationships play a key role in the success of
Latino middle school students (Woolley, Kol, & Bowen, 2007). The researchers also found that
congruence between teachers and parents were also associated with positive student outcomes.
In an analysis Latino middle school students’ school engagement in an urban environment,
Garcia-Reid, Reid, and Peterson (2005) used a path analysis to examine social support systems.
They found that teacher support had the highest impact on school engagement for this population
of students. Additionally, Woolley and Bowen (2007) examined the relationship between levels
of adult social support across microsystems in the lives of Latino middle school students and
their engagement in school. Their results indicated that supportive and caring adults build
resilience in students. This increased resilience results in higher reported school engagement.
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 32
They also concluded that reducing risk factors for at-risk youth while increasing students’ social
capital would promote better school outcomes for minority students.
Student ethnicity is not the only factor examined in the differentiation of teacher
expectations. Researchers have also studied teacher expectations in various settings and found
that teachers in urban settings have varying expectations for students. The classroom
environment was also a determinant in teacher expectations. Finn, Gaier, Peng, and Banks
(1975) found that teacher expectations for class achievement were largely determined by the
setting in which they taught. Expectations for student abilities were based on whether they
taught in urban or suburban schools. McKown and Weinstein (2008) also found that classroom
setting was an important determinant in teacher expectations. The researchers found that when
classes were ethnically diverse and the teacher demonstrated high differential treatment between
high and low ability students, teacher bias was higher. In these high differential classroom
settings, students perceived teachers as expecting more from European and Asian American
students than from African American and Latino students with similar achievement records.
Teacher expectations, motivation, and achievement. Good and Brophy’s model
(1970) of teacher expectations stated that teacher expectations influence their interactions with
students, which then influences students’ academic achievement and motivation for achievement.
Wentzel (1999) found that middle school students who perceive that their teachers are supportive
report higher levels of motivation to achieve in school. Likewise, students who reported
negative teacher expectations had higher levels of dropout rates even when controlling for prior
academic achievement. Researchers have found that teacher expectations relate to other
constructs that also influence motivation and achievement such as self-concept, academic
engagement, and IQ. Sutherland and Goldschmid (1974) found that teacher expectations can
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 33
have adverse effects on students with high IQ scores when teachers have low expectations for
these students. This finding is critical in working with urban populations. If teachers have low
expectations of students based on ethnicity or class, they can inadvertently inhibit students with
high IQ scores from progressing in school, and decrease both their motivation and achievement.
Additionally, researchers also found that teacher expectations and interest in students’ lives were
related to student engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993). Students who reported that their
teachers were interested in their lives reported higher levels of student engagement. Students in
this study who reported that their teachers had clear expectations in addition to fair and
consistent consequences, also had higher levels of perceived self-competence. Students’ IQ,
engagement in school activities, and self-competence are all indicators of increased academic
achievement.
Research has consistently found that teacher expectations have a relationship to student
outcomes. Teacher expectations have been found to relate to student achievement, motivation,
self-concept, IQ scores, and engagement in school. The self-fulfilling prophecy model discussed
by Good and Brophy (1970) has clear implications for improving student achievement and
motivation. However, teachers’ expectations were influenced by student’s ethnicity, class and
the environment in which students live. Even when students’ academic achievement records
were similar, teachers had lower expectations for minority students.
Summary of Literature Review
In conclusion, this chapter has examined the existing literature on three key constructs
that relate to student motivation and achievement: parental expectations, parental involvement,
and teacher expectations. Parental expectations have been examined by both long-term
(graduation from high school or college attendance) and short-term (grades on report cards)
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 34
expectations. Some studies measuring the influence of parental expectations on student
achievement are not certain about the directionality of the relationship between parental
expectations and student achievement, while others find no influence of parental expectations on
student achievement (Gill & Reynolds, 1991; Reynolds & Gill, 1994; Goldenberg et al., 2001).
When studying African American students in particular, researchers found that even when peers
influence students, consistent high parental expectations continue to promote high academic
achievement (Reynolds & Gill, 1994). One study also found that African American parents
consistently reported high expectations for their students despite the students’ actual
achievement (Yamamoto & Holloway, 2010). Studies that focused specifically on Latino
students also found inconsistent results regarding the relationship between parental expectations
and student achievement (Goldenberg, et al., 2001; Okagaki & Frensch, 1998; Yamamoto &
Holloway, 2010). While many studies have reported inconsistent results among minority
populations, researchers have found consistency in the relationship between parents’ educational
attainment and their expectations for their children (Davis-Kean, 2005; Zhan, 2006) and the
importance of student perceptions of their parent’s expectations on student achievement (Bowen,
et al., 2008; Jaccard, Dittus, & Gordon, 1998; Dalton, Glennie, & Ingels, 2009; Bowen, et al.,
2012).
The connection between home and school and its influence on students is discussed in the
research on parental involvement and its relation to student outcomes. While many people have
a general understanding of the construct of parental involvement, researchers have studied
parental involvement in terms of activities conducted at home and parents engagement in school
activities that promote student achievement, as well as participation in school governance
(Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994; Eccles & Harold, 1983). Many factors contribute to the lack of
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 35
parental involvement seen in many urban schools ranging from parent’s self-efficacy to lack of
time (Eccles & Harold, 1983). Parental involvement both at home and at school, have been
studied and the findings show mixed results on its relationship to student achievement (Trask-
Tate & Cunningham, 2010). Researchers did find however that parental involvement at home
resulted in a more significant increase in student outcomes than active participation at the school
site (Williams & Sanchez, 2012; Eccles & Harold, 1983).
Home factors that influence student achievement have also produced mixed results
according to researchers over that last few decades. However, the research on teacher
expectations appears consistent. Studies focusing on teacher expectations of students suggest
that higher teacher expectations lead to higher student achievement (Good & Brophy, 1970; Gill
& Reynolds, 1999; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Walker, 2008). When researchers focused on
minority student populations, they found that teachers held lower expectations for minority
students despite students’ actual academic performance (Rubie-Davies, et al., 2006; Walker
2002).
The home and school factors discussed in this chapter each result in increases in student
achievement and motivation for certain populations. However, research on the benefits for each
construct for minority populations has been mixed in previous research. It is also unknown how
these factors work together to influence student achievement and motivation. Bronfenbrenner
(1977) stated that human development flourishes as different systems work together in
congruence. Lack of continuity between a student’s home and school environment may lead to a
number of educational risks (Johnson, 1994), which may include low achievement and low
student motivation.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 36
Purpose of the Study
Thus, the purpose of this study is to extend research on how to increase the academic
motivation of urban middle school children and consider specifically parental expectations,
parental involvement, and teacher expectations as predictors of student success and motivation.
Research Question 1
Do students’ perceptions of parental expectations, parental involvement and teacher expectations
predict urban middle school students’ academic motivation?
Hypothesis 1a: High perceived parental expectations and high perceived teacher
expectations will predict students’ mastery goal orientations.
Hypothesis 1b: High perceived teacher expectations and high parental involvement will
predict students’ performance approach goal orientations.
Hypothesis 1c: High levels of parental involvement will predict students’ performance
avoidance goal orientations.
Research Question 2
Are there differences between African American and Latino students’ perceptions of parental
expectations, parental involvement, teacher expectations and academic motivation?

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 37
Chapter III
Methodology
This study investigated the influence of students’ perceptions of parental expectations,
teacher expectations, and parental involvement on the academic motivation of middle school
urban students. The following chapter includes information on the participants in the study, the
instruments used, and the procedures for data collection.
Participants
Seventh and eighth grade middle school students were recruited from two schools in a
small urban district in southeast Los Angeles County for a period of 6-weeks in the winter of
2013. A total of 500 students received parental consent forms to participate in the study. Of
these students, 228 returned parental consent forms and volunteered for participation. Eight
students were not present for survey participation on the day of data collection and were
therefore excluded from the study. Participants in the sample ranged in age from 12 to 15 years
old (M=12.98, SD=.645). As shown in Table 1, the sample was comprised of 59.5% female
(N=131) and 40% male (N=88). Participants in the study indicated their ethnicity in which
90.5% of students (N=199) reporting their ethnicity as Latino/Hispanic. Other ethnic groups
made up small percentages of the population surveyed as shown in Table 1. When asked about
their primary caregiver, a majority of students (74.1%) reported being cared for mainly by their
mothers. Other primary caregivers listed were variations of either parents or other adult
relatives.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 38
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Sampled Students
Demographic Descriptive Statistics
a

n 220
Age 12.98 (.645)
Gender
Male 88 (40)
Female 131 (59.5)
Ethnicity
Asian/Pacific Islander 9 (4.1)
African American/Black 4 (1.8)
Caucasian/White 5 (2.3)
Latino/Hispanic 199 (90.5)
Grade
Seventh 91 (41.4)
Eighth 129 (58.6)
Primary Caregiver
Mother 163 (74.1)
Father 35 (15.9)
Grandparent(s) 5 (2.3)
Other Adult Relative 5 (2.3)
Both Parents 12 (5.5)
a
reported as M(SD) or n (valid %) unless otherwise noted

Instruments
Student surveys were used to measure the independent and dependent variables in this
study. The student survey was divided into five sections: 1) Demographic and background
information; 2) Parental Expectations; 3) Parental Involvement; 4) Teacher Expectations; and 5)
Personal Achievement Goals. The instruments utilized in this study are described in the
following sections.
Parental Expectations. Students’ perceptions of parental expectations were measured
using a subscale of a survey developed by Hoge, Smit, and Crist (1997). Other measures of
parental expectations examined parental expectations of students from the parental point of view
and most studies examining parental expectations used qualitative interviews to obtain the data
on the construct. Hoge et al. (1997) measured four family process factors and their prediction of
sixth and seventh grade academic achievement. The family process factors were: parental
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 39
expectations, parental interest, parental involvement in school, and family and emotional
support. For the purposes of this study, only the parental expectations subscale was used. The
subscale consists of four items measuring the expectations of both mothers and fathers. These
items are measured from the students’ perspective on a 5-point scale. Responses are written in
sentence stems such as “My mother thinks I am the best;… thinks I am above average;…thinks I
am average;…thinks I am below average; … thinks I am the poorest. The same question is
asked about the student’s father. Hoge et al. (1997) reported a Cronbach’s alpha score of .90 for
the four items with 6
th
and 7
th
grade combined.
Parental Involvement. Parental involvement was measured using a modified version of
the Student and Family Survey for Elementary and Middle School Students questionnaire
developed by Sheldon and Epstein (2007) based on research on the types of parental involvement
discussed by Eccles and Harold (1993). The original questionnaire assesses demographic data,
student attitudes and motivation in school, views of parent involvement, and perceptions of the
partnership climate at their school. The survey has been used with both elementary and middle
schools students and has been shown to be valid with both populations. To further examine
middle school students’ perceptions, a version of the survey used in previous studies was used to
assess student perceptions of parental involvement and how parental involvement affects
students’ achievement.
The student survey consists of four scales: student perceptions of parental involvement,
parental involvement and achievement, culture and parental involvement, and parental
involvement and student autonomy. The scales consisted of 26 items: ten questions on views of
parent involvement, six questions on parental involvement and achievement, three questions on
culture and parental involvement and six questions on parental involvement and student
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 40
autonomy. Each item was presented as a statement that assessed students’ perceptions on their
parents’ involvement in various aspects of their academics. Students were asked to rate their
response on items such as “I believe parental involvement motivates me to do well in school.”
and “There should be ongoing communication between my parents and teachers”. Items were
rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree and had an alpha
score of .812.
Teacher Expectations. The independent variable of teacher expectations was measured
using the shortened form of the Teacher Treatment Inventory (TTI). The TTI (Weinstein and
Middlestadt, 1979) was developed based on 60 teacher behaviors obtained from literature
reviews and student interviews. The authors reviewed literature based on the relationship
between teacher behaviors and student achievement and student perceptions of classroom
environments. They later conducted interviews with students regarding their perceptions of
classroom environments for high and low achievers (Weinstein & Middlestadt, 1979). Other
studies measuring teacher expectations used ranking of students or whole class expectations from
the teacher’s perspective (Rubie-Davis, et al., 2006). The TTI measures teacher expectations and
treatment from the students’ perspectives and has been used with both elementary and middle
school students.
The TTI consists of four scales: Supportive Help (alpha= .75), Negative Feedback (alpha
= .77), Work and Rule Orientation (alpha = .71), and High Expectations, Opportunity, and
Choice (alpha = .80). The Supportive Help scale measures ways in which the teacher helps and
supports students while the Negative Feedback and Direction scale measures negative feedback
given based on effort and a high degree of teacher control. The Work and Rule Orientation scale
measures the emphasis the teacher places on rules, work completed, and following rules. The
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 41
last scale, High Expectations, Opportunity, and Choice, reflects the trust the teacher has in the
student, positive feelings, and feedback as well as opportunities provided for autonomous work
(Weinstein, Marshall, Brattesani, & Middlestadt, 1982).
The High Expectations, Opportunity, and Choice scale was the only scale used for the
present study. This subscale consisted of 10-items presented in a statement format. Students
responded to statements such as “The teacher makes me feel good about how hard I try.” and
“The teacher calls on me to answer questions”. Each item was rated on a 4-point Likert scale
ranging from Never to Always. Alpha coefficient of the scale measured .815.
Academic Motivation. The dependent variable of academic motivation was measured
using the Revised Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS) developed by Midgley, Maehr,
Hruda, Anderman, Anderman, Freeman, Gheen, Kaplan, Kumar, Middleton, Nelson, Roeser, and
Urdan (2000). PALS assesses students’ personal achievement goal orientations, perceptions of
teacher’s goals, perceptions of classroom goal structures, achievement-related beliefs, attitudes,
and strategies as well as perception of parents and home life. For the purposes of this study, the
personal achievement goal orientations scale was used to assess students’ motivation.
Researchers who developed the PALS have used goal orientation theory to examine the
relationship between the learning environment and students’ motivation, affect, and behavior.
While other measures focus on the type of student motivation, PALS examines students’
achievement goals as a determinant of their level of motivation.
The Revised PALS Personal Achievement Goal Orientations survey consists of three
scales with a total of fourteen items. The three sub-scales examine students’ mastery,
performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goal orientations. Items on the survey were
presented as statement such as “It is important that I don’t look stupid to others in my class”,
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 42
“It’s important to me that I look smart compared to others in my class” and “ It’s important to me
that I thoroughly understand my class work.” Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale
anchored at (1) Not at all true, (3) Somewhat true, and (5) Very True. The authors administered
the survey to ethnically and socioeconomically proportioned student populations and determined
alpha coefficients for each subscale to range from .702 to .754 with the overall scale reporting an
alpha coefficient of .883.
Procedure
Administrators at two urban middle schools were contacted for their school’s
participation in the study. After meeting with administrators, recruitment letters and parental
consent forms were distributed to seventh and eighth grade students in their homeroom classes.
Students who returned permission slips were assembled in a large multipurpose room to
complete a paper and pencil survey. To maintain confidentiality, students completed the surveys
anonymously with the primary investigator. On average, the survey took 30 minutes to
complete. As an incentive for completing the survey, students were given raffle tickets and
entered into a drawing for one of ten gift cards for a popular music website. Additionally,
participating schools were given $200 gift cards for a local office supply store.
Data Analysis
For data analysis, parental expectations, teacher expectations, and parental involvement were
used as independent variables and personal achievement goals were used as the dependent
variable. Parental expectations were measured using students’ scores on the Parent Expectations
Scale. Teacher expectations were measured using students’ scores from the High Expectations,
Opportunity, and Choice subscale of the Teacher Treatment Inventory (TTI), and parental
involvement was measured using the Student and Family Survey for Elementary and Middle
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 43
School Students (SFSEMS). Personal Achievement Goals were measured using the Patterns of
Adaptive Learning Survey (PALS). To examine the hypothesis in research question one, three
simultaneous regressions were used. To compare the African American and Latino students’
perceptions of parental expectations, parental involvement, and teacher expectations, an
independent t-test was used.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 44
CHAPTER IV
Results
The following chapter provides a detailed overview of the results of the study, including
preliminary analyses, analyses of the research questions, as well as post-hoc analyses.
Preliminary Analyses
Intercorrelations. Pearson product correlations were conducted to analyze the
relationships between demographic data (Age and Grade) with students’ perceptions of parental
expectations, teacher expectations, parental involvement, parental involvement and achievement,
and goal orientations (mastery, performance approach, and performance avoidance). Results are
summarized in Table 2. For this study, age of the student was inversely correlated to student
perceptions of parental involvement (r=-.209, p=.01) and parental involvement and achievement
(r=-.144, p=.05). Students’ grade was also inversely correlated with student perceptions of
parental involvement (r=-.244, p=.01) and parental involvement and achievement (r= -.140,
p=.05).
Students’ perceptions of parental expectations was found to have a strong positive
correlation to perceptions of teacher expectations (r=.497, p=.01) and parental involvement and
achievement (r=.491, p=.01). Additionally, students’ perceptions of teacher expectations was
found to have a strong positive correlation to students’ perceptions of parental involvement (r=.
483, p=.01) as well as parental involvement and achievement (r=.486, p=.01). Parental
involvement and achievement was found to have a positive correlation to students’ mastery goal
orientation (r=.465, p=.01).
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 45
Table 2
Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlation for Measured Variables
Variable M SD 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Age 12.98 .645 - - .646** -.042 -.058 -.209** -.144* .014 -.033 .014
2. Grade - - .026 -.031 -.224** -.140* .042 .038 .048
3. Parental Exp 3.96 .706 - - .497** .446** .491** .438** .416** .373**
4. Teacher Exp 2.32 .498 - - .483** .486** .418** .332** .272**
ParentInv
5. StPercPI 2.71 .447 - - .696** .417** .308** .296**
6. PIAch 2.90 .545 - - .465** .404** .325**
PAG
7. Mastery 4.07 .716 - - .688** .620**
8. PerfApp 3.56 .846 - - .760**
9. PerfAv 3.70 .944 - -
*- p<0.05; **-p<0.0
Note: Parent Exp= Parental Expectations; Teacher Exp= Teacher Expectations; ParentInv=Parental Involvement; StPercPI=Student
Perceptions of Parental Involvement; PIAch= Parental Involvement and Achievement; PAG= Personal Achievement Goals; Mastery=
Mastery Goal Orientation; PerfApp= Performance Approach Goal Orientation; PerfAv=Performance Avoidance Goal Orientation

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 46
Table 3
Gender Differences for Major Measured Variables
Total Male Female
N M SD na M SD na M SD
Parent Exp 207 3.96 .706 81 4.11 .673 125 3.86 .708
Teacher Exp 214 2.32 .498 84 2.33 .521 129 2.30 .474
ParentInv
StPercPI 210 2.71 .447 81 2.73 .457 129 2.69 .441
PIAch 216 2.90 .545 85 2.99 .568 130 2.83 .516
PAG
Mastery 218 4.07 .716 87 4.18 .691 130 3.99 .722
PerfApp 217 3.56 .846 87 3.75 .786 129 3.43 .865
PerfAv 217 3.70 .944 86 3.89 .918 130 3.58 .947
Note: All scores are scaled scores. Parent Exp= Parental Expectations; Teacher Exp= Teacher Expectations; ParentInv=Parental Involvement; StPercPI=Student Perceptions of
Parental Involvement; PIAch= Parental Involvement and Achievement; PAG= Personal Achievement Goals; Mastery= Mastery Goal Orientation; PerfApp= Performance
Approach Goal Orientation; PerfAv=Performance Avoidance Goal Orientation
a
Numbers do not add up to total number due to some participants who did not identify sex
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 47
Gender differences. Preliminary analyses conducted using t-tests revealed gender differences in
students’ perceptions of parental expectations (p =.011) (See Table 3). Specifically, male
students reported higher perceived levels of parental expectations than female students.
Additionally, male students reported higher scores on all three personal achievement goal
subscales (Mastery, p = .048, PerfApp, p = .007, PerfAv, p = .018). However, there was minimal
difference in mean scores for male and female students on perceptions of teacher expectations as
well as students’ perceptions of parental involvement.
Analyses of Research Questions
Research Question 1: Do students’ perceptions of parental expectations, teacher expectations,
and parental involvement predict students’ academic motivation?
To determine to what extent students’ perceptions of parental expectations, teacher
expectations, and parental involvement predict students’ academic motivation, three
simultaneous regressions were performed for the three domains of personal achievement goals:
Mastery Goals, Performance-Approach Goals, and Performance-Avoidance Goals. The
predictor variables were the subscales of Student Perceptions of Parental Involvement and
Parental Involvement and Achievement in addition to Parental Expectations and Teacher
Expectations. The regression results for each domain are discussed separately below.
Mastery Goal Orientation. Results for the personal achievement goals subscale of
Mastery Goal Orientation revealed overall significance for the prediction model (F (4,186) =
19.90, p < .001) with 29% of the variance being explained. Students’ perceptions of parental
expectations, teacher expectations, and parental involvement and achievement were significant
predictors of mastery goal orientations (see Table 4). Results of this analysis suggested that
students who perceived high levels of parental expectations and teacher expectations tended to
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 48
have a mastery goal orientation. Additionally, students who perceived that parental involvement
was related to achievement also reported high mastery goal orientation scores.
Table 4
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis of Parental Expectations, Teacher Expectations
and Parental Involvement on Mastery Achievement Goals
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
PAG
Mastery .30 19.904 .000
Parent Exp .249 .075 .247 .001
Teacher Exp .269 .075 .187 .013
ParentInv
StPercPI .083 .142 .053 .557
PIAch .271 .123 .198 .028

Performance Approach Goal Orientation. The multiple regression analysis for
Performance Approach Goal Orientation with all four predictors produced overall significance
for the prediction model (F (4,185) = 12.90, p<.001) with 22% of the variance being explained.
As can be seen in Table 5, perceived parental expectations and parental involvement and
achievement had significant positive regression weights. This indicates that students who had
higher scores on these scales were expected to have higher performance approach scores after
controlling for other variables in the model. Teacher Expectations and Student Perceptions of
Parental Involvement did not contribute significantly to the model.
Table 5
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis of Parental Expectations, Teacher Expectations
and Parental Involvement on Performance Approach Achievement Goals
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
PAG
PerfApp .218 12.896 .000
Parent Exp .341 .094 .285 .000
Teacher Exp .217 .134 .127 .108
ParentInv
StPercPI -.098 .178 -.052 .581
PIAch .322 .155 .199 .038
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 49
Performance Avoidance Goal Orientation. Results for the personal achievement goals
subscale of Performance Avoidance revealed overall significance for the prediction model
(F (4,185) =12.36, p=.000) with 21% of the variance being explained. As seen in Table 6,
parental expectations were a significant predictor of scores on the Performance Avoidance
subscale. The results suggested that students who perceived high parental expectations also
tended to have higher scores on the subscale of performance avoidance. Perceived teacher
expectations, student perceptions of parental involvement, and parental involvement and
achievement did not contribute to the model.
Table 6
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis of Parental Expectations, Teacher Expectations
and Parental Involvement on Performance Avoidance Achievement Goals
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
PAG
PerfAv .211 12.364 .000
Parent Exp .417 .106 .311 .000
Teacher Exp .181 .151 .095 .232
ParentInv
StPercPI -.020 .201 -.009 .920
PIAch .283 .175 .153 .108

Total score. Finally, results from one’s personal achievement goals total score revealed
overall significance for the prediction model (F (4, 184) = 20.21, p <.001) with 31% of the
variance being explained. Students’ perceptions of parental expectations, teacher expectations,
and parental involvement and achievement were significant predictors of total personal goal
orientation scores (see Table 7). Student perceptions of parental involvement did not contribute
to the model. Overall, students who reported having high parental expectations and teacher
expectations had higher personal achievement goal scores. Additionally, students who reported
high parental involvement and achievement scores had higher personal achievement goal scores.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 50

Table 7
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis of Parental Expectations, Teacher Expectations
and Parental Involvement on Total Performance Achievement Goals
Variables R
2
F B SE β p
PAG .305 20.214 .000
Parent Exp .336 .077 .324 .000
Teacher Exp .228 .110 .154 .039
ParentInv
StPercPI -.008 .146 -.005 .955
PIAch .287 .127 .202 .025

Research Question 2: Are there differences between African American and Latino students’
perceptions of parental expectations, parental involvement, teacher expectations, and academic
motivation?
The researcher was unable to analyze differences between African American and Latino
students’ perceptions of parental expectations, teacher expectations, parental involvement, and
academic motivation due to the low percentage of participants of African American descent.
Post Hoc Analyses
Due to the richness of the data and the literature related to the data, post hoc analyses
were also conducted to answer questions related to parental expectations and parental
involvement as well as parental involvement and performance orientations.
Post Hoc Question 1: Do parental expectations predict total parental involvement?
Goldenberg (2001) suggested that parental expectations are influenced by students’ previous
success or failure in school. This success or failure also leads parents to become involved in the
academic lives of their children (Stevenson & Baker, 1987; Englund, Luckner, Whaley, &
Egeland, 2004). Using the total parental involvement score, an additional regression analysis
was conducted to investigate whether parental expectations predicted parental involvement in
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 51
this study. Parental expectations were found to be a strong predictor of parental involvement in
students’ academic lives (β = .423, p =.000).

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 52
CHAPTER V
Discussion
The academic achievement of urban minority students continues to be studied by both
researchers and educators. Achievement scores of 4
th
and 8
th
grade urban minority students are
significantly lower than their White counterparts (Aud et al., 2011). The achievement gap that
exists between minority and White students creates a divide in both educational and career
opportunities for students. Improving the manner in which schools and families interact, is
essential to closing the achievement gap. Studies show that parent-school interaction in the
forms of parental involvement, teacher support/expectations, and parental expectations are
closely associated to students’ academic motivation and achievement (Ablard & Parker, 1997;
Mau, 1997; Kuperminc, Darnell, & Alvarez-Jimenez, 2008; Brewster & Bowen, 2004).
The purpose of this study was to examine home and school factors that may predict
academic motivation among urban middle school students. More specifically, a principal goal of
this study was to examine the interconnected relationship between students’ perceptions of
parental expectations, teacher expectations, and parental involvement on students’ academic
motivation. An additional goal of this study was also to examine differences among African
American and Latino students’ perceptions of home and school factors as well as their academic
motivation.
The results of this study suggest that parental expectations and parental involvement can
be used as key variables in understanding students’ personal achievement goals and academic
motivation. Additionally, teacher expectations can be used in an attempt to understand students’
specific personal achievement goals. Because these factors have been found to be predictive of
students’ motivation, they are also factors in improving students’ academic achievement. The
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 53
following chapter provides a summary and discussion of the findings, followed by limitations of
the study. Directions for future research and implications for practice will also be discussed.
Summary and Discussion of Main Findings
Relationship between parental expectations, teacher expectations, parental
involvement and students’ achievement goals. The present study explored whether students’
perceptions of parental expectations, teacher expectations, and parental involvement were
predictive of students’ academic motivation. It was hypothesized that perceived high parental
expectations and perceived high teacher expectations would predict students’ mastery goal
orientations and therefore lead students to develop intrinsic forms of academic motivation. The
results of the study demonstrated that while teacher expectations and parent expectations both
contribute significantly to students’ mastery orientation, perceived parent expectations were a
greater predictor of this variable than teacher expectations. Additionally, student perceptions of
parental involvement contributed significantly to students’ mastery orientation but not as strong
as parent expectations. This suggests that high expectations in both the home and school
microsystems of students lead to the development of achievement goals that reflect intrinsic
motivation for achievement. Results from this study support previous research on parental
expectations and parental involvement that found high parental expectations and high levels of
parental involvement were strong predictors of academic achievement for minority students (Gill
& Reynolds, 1991; Reynolds & Gill, 1994; Gonzalez-DeHaas, Willems, & Holbein, 2005;
Gonzalez, 2002). Additionally, this study validates previous studies that found evidence of the
benefits of students’ academic outcomes when the home-school mesosystem is connected
(Brewster & Bowen, 2004).
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 54
However, this study does not support previous research that suggests that teacher
expectations and support are more predictive of students’ academic motivation than parental
support (Brewster & Bowen, 2004). Although teacher expectations in the present study
significantly contributed to students’ mastery goal orientation, it was not as strong of a predictor
as parental expectations. The lower significance of teacher expectations for this population of
students may be due in part to students report of low teacher expectations (M = 2.32). The low
score for teacher expectations, however is substantiated by research that reports that teachers
have lower expectations for minority and poor students than White students (Warren, 2002;
Davis-Kean, 2005).
It was further hypothesized that perceived high teacher expectations and high parental
involvement would predict students’ performance approach goal orientation. This hypothesis
was not supported by the present study that found student perceptions of teacher expectations
were not a significant predictor in students’ performance approach orientation, but high
perceived parental expectations and parental involvement focused on student achievement were
significant factors. The results suggest that students in the present study are more influenced by
their perceptions of their parents’ expectations of them to perform well in addition to their
parents being involved in ways that promote student achievement. Results from the study
confirm previous research on parental involvement and student outcomes which showed that
student achievement is linked to the type of parental involvement (Mau, 1997).
Previous research also suggested that controlling forms of parental involvement such as
checking on and helping with homework and limiting non-school related activities had a
relationship with students who were less likely to perform well (Mau, 1997). This study sought
to examine the relationship between perceived high parental involvement and students’
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 55
performance orientation. It was hypothesized that high perceived parental involvement would be
predictive of students possessing a performance avoidance goal orientation. The results of the
study did not find support for the hypothesis that perceptions of high parental involvement were
predictive of performance avoidance goal orientations. Results showed that students’
perceptions of parental expectations of students were the most significant factor in students’
performance avoidance orientations. This suggests that students who know and understand their
parents’ expectations of them seek to not disappoint their parents with low grades and test scores.
However, these students develop a maladaptive means of meeting their parents’ expectations by
avoiding tasks instead of focusing on mastering content and excelling in school. Previous
studies showed that Latino parents held high expectations for their students as well as the
American school system (Hill & Torres, 2010). Although high expectations are beneficial in
promoting student achievement, unrealistically high parental expectations can also foster anxiety
in students (Ablard & Parker, 1997).
Additional Findings
Male students in this study reported higher levels on all measured variables than female
students. This suggests that students’ perceptions of both parent and teacher expectations of
male students are higher than expectations for female students in the same age group. Research
suggests that these higher expectations can be detrimental to students’ success if students feel
pressured to perform and fear criticism for not performing well (Ablard & Parker, 1997). If male
students in this study feel compelled to perform well, the development of performance goal
orientations could also lead to extrinsic forms of academic motivation and hinder student
achievement long term. Additionally, the results of the present study also indicate lower scores
for female students on the performance avoidance orientation scale. This suggests that female
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 56
students are less likely to adopt an avoidance goal orientation which is beneficial to their
development of intrinsic forms of motivation.
Although male students reported higher mean scores on all measured variables, it is
important to note that the scores for teacher expectations for males and females were almost
identical. This suggests that gender is not a factor in teacher expectations for middle school
students. The relatively low score for teacher expectations for male and female students also
suggests that the environment in which students attend school may contribute to teachers’
expectations. A study conducted by Finn, et al. (1975) found that setting was a large determinant
on teacher expectations of their class achievement. Additionally, McKown and Weinstein
(2008) found that teachers with ethnically diverse classrooms demonstrated differential treatment
for minority students. This study further demonstrates that students in urban settings may
experience lowered teacher expectations of their academic abilities.
Limitations
Limitations of the present study must be taken into consideration and include matters of
design, validity, and generalizability. To start, this study sought to examine differences between
African American and Latino students’ perceptions of parental expectations, parental
involvement, teacher expectations, and goal orientation. However, participants in the present
study primarily reported being of Latino background. Therefore, an analysis of differences
between African American and Latino students was not conducted due to an uneven sample in
terms of race.
An additional limitation of this study is the potential of self-selection bias. Participants
volunteered to participate in the study and therefore may not have been a representative sample
of the population. For example, 90% of the participants were of Latino origin and their views
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 57
may not reflect the views of other minority populations that attend urban schools. Additionally,
students chose to participate in the study and no comparison between participants and non-
participants was conducted to ensure that the two groups were similar. Student participants may
reflect a population of students with homogenous academic achievement when compared to the
general population of middle school students in the district.
A third limitation of the study is the use of self-reported data. The results of the study
relied on students’ perceptions of home and school factors. Although, studies show that student
perceptions are influential in academic outcomes (Jaccard, et al., 1998), it poses the threat of
social desirability in completing the survey items. Additionally, students read each item on their
own and the results are dependent upon students’ understanding of the statements and their own
interpretation of their meanings. An additional limitation of using self-reported data is the
students’ comfort level with answering certain questions regarding their parents and teachers.
Finally, generalizing the results of the present study should be approached with caution.
Participants came from one public school district in a small area of Los Angeles County. It may
not be appropriate to generalize to other populations of a more diverse nature in other areas.
Additionally, the number of students who participated in the study represented a small sample of
students within the district with the majority of students being of Latino heritage. Students from
other ethnic groups in the district may have differing perspectives.
Directions for Future Research
The moderate amount of variance accounted for in the analyses suggests that additional
factors may be influencing students’ academic goal orientations. Further research could bring
more clarity to understanding middle school students’ academic goal orientations and
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 58
motivation. The education field could benefit from additional research that differs in
methodology, design, and approach.
To begin, a mixed methods study could provide depth that a quantitative methodology
could not. Interviews with parents, teachers, and students in addition to surveys would enrich
researchers understanding of the dynamics that exist in the relationships and expectations
between the home and school microsystems. Additionally, the varying perspective of each of the
stakeholders would provide clarity on students’ perceptions of the expectations and the
relationships between home and school. Research on parental expectations suggested that
parents’ educational level and generational status were factors in determining levels of
expectations (Zhan, 2006; Ramirez, 2003). Gathering such data from parents would be
beneficial in further analyzing the relationships among variables. Also, obtaining students’
achievement scores would be beneficial in connecting goal orientations to actual student
achievement.
While the present study provided cross-sectional analysis, a longitudinal study could
provide a deeper assessment of parental expectations, parental involvement, teacher expectations
and goal orientations over time. Participants could be tracked across all grades of middle school,
where it has been found that parents tend to give students more independence. A longitudinal
study would also give researchers the opportunity to determine if students’ goal orientation and
motivation fluctuate as they progress through middle school and parents begin to become less
involved.
As charter schools become more prominent in urban areas, a comparison between urban
public and charter middle schools could provide insight into any differences that may exist
within urban populations. Future studies could recruit participants from various urban schools,
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 59
both charter and public, to include a more diverse group of students in the analysis. Further study
could also examine the benefit of parental involvement in both charter and public schools.
Researchers could examine public and charter schools with high parental involvement and
analyze the role of involvement in students’ goal orientations.
Implications for Practice
The results of this study provide important implications for middle school administrators,
teachers, and researchers in their effort to better understand academic goal orientation and
motivation of students. One important implication is that parental expectations are key to
student success. Literature on parental expectations suggests that the expectations and
aspirations that parents have for their children are important factors in students’ achievement,
school adjustment, and motivation (Reynolds & Gill, 1994; Yamamoto & Halloway, 2010;
Ablard & Parker, 1997; Bowen, et al., 2008). Some researchers suggest that these expectations
may be influenced by parental educational levels (Zhan, 2006). Schools can act as facilitators
between parents and students to improve communication between all stakeholders. Parent
workshops conducted at school sites can present information to parents on the importance of
setting high expectations for students as well as how to communicate those expectations to
students without interfering with middle school students’ growing independence. Hosting parent
workshops in communities where parental education levels may be low will help parents
understand how to connect with students and the school, especially immigrant parents and
parents with limited English speaking abilities.
In addition, results from this study demonstrate that parental involvement that focuses on
student achievement is a factor in students’ goal orientation. While we know that parental
involvement is essential, educators need to be aware of the type of involvement expected from
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 60
parents. Research suggests that some immigrant and limited English speaking parents, as well as
those with mediocre education levels, feel intimated by school bureaucracy (Yamamoto &
Halloway, 2008; Zellman & Waterman, 1998; Ramirez, 2003). Schools can facilitate parental
involvement activities that introduce parents to programs offered as well as ways parents can
navigate the school system. In addition, schools must incorporate involvement opportunities
where parents are the expert. Researchers found that when students’ home and school
microsystems were congruent, students were more successful in school (Bowen et al., 2008;
Woolley, Kol, & Bowen, 2009). A common understanding of both school and home
expectations and culture can become a leading factor in improving urban students’ motivation
and achievement. It is essential for educators to incorporate parents and communities into
programs aimed at improving student achievement. The present study demonstrates that students
are influenced by their perceptions of their parents’ expectations and beliefs. Neglecting to
involve parents can have detrimental effects on further achievement for urban schools.
Lastly, the present study found that students reported low overall teacher expectations.
Studies have shown that teacher expectations are related to students’ motivation, engagement,
and achievement (Gill & Reynolds, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Walker, 2008).
Additionally, teacher support and expectations have been linked to lower behavioral problems as
well as increased achievement in minority students (Brewster & Bowen, 2004; Casteel, 1997;
Jussim, Eccles, & Madon, 1996). School administrators and teachers have the opportunity to
foster positive relationships with students that can improve students’ motivation and
achievement through setting high expectations for students. Higher expectations for students
include opportunities for students to participate in activities that foster student autonomy as well
as opportunities that allow students to discuss their thinking through presentations in class. As
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 61
students develop and mature, more opportunities for autonomy promote increased intrinsic
motivation (Marchant, Paulson, & Rothlisberg, 2001).
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore middle school urban students’ perceptions of
home and school environments and their influence on student academic goal orientation and
motivation. The results of the study revealed that perceptions of parental expectations and
involvement are strong predictors of students’ goal orientation and motivation. Additionally,
perceived teacher expectations are significant predictors of students’ mastery goal orientations.
Results of exploratory analyses found that female students are less likely to have performance
avoidance goal orientations than male students. Exploratory analyses also found that parents’
involvement in their students’ education is related to students’ goal orientations.
As stated in the introduction, minority urban students are performing at significantly
lower achievement levels than their White counterparts (Aud, et al., 2011). Researchers have
found that parental expectations, teacher expectations, as well as parental involvement are key
predictors of students’ success in school. According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory, the interconnected relationship between home, school, and child are influential in student
development and achievement. Finding ways to connect these microsystems will assist urban
schools with closing the current achievement gap between minority and White students. Parents
and schools cannot operate independently of another when educating students. Students are
members of both microsystems and need congruency between the two to succeed.
In conclusion, minority student achievement can be improved in urban public schools
when home and school began to work together through parental workshops, parental
involvement initiatives, and a shared understanding of the community goals and values. Schools
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 62
and teachers must work to understand the values of the communities in which they work as
parents learn to understand the bureaucracy of the current educational system.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 63
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HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 69
Appendix A
Recruitment Letter

Dear Parent(s)/or Guardian(s):

Your child is being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Dr. Ruth Chung,
Professor of Education at University of Southern California and LaShonda Toston, Doctoral
candidate at University of Southern California. We are conducting research that examines the
relationship of home and school factors and student academic motivation in urban schools. If
you agree to allow your child to participate, they will complete a survey in the Language Arts
class at school. Participation in this study is voluntary. Your child’s identity will remain
confidential at all times.

Please read the enclosed information sheet and parental consent forms for more detailed
information. Return the signed consent form to your child’s Language Arts teacher tomorrow.
Students will also sign an assent form before completing the survey.

If you have any questions about this study, please contact the principal investigator, Dr. Ruth
Chung at (213)740- 3258 or at rchung@usc.edu or the co-investigator, LaShonda Toston at
ltoston@usc.edu.

Thank you,

LaShonda Toston
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 70
Appendix B
Informed Consent
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
PARENTAL PERMISSION

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
MOTIVATION

Your child is invited to participate in a research study conducted by Ruth Chung, Ph.D. and
LaShonda Toston, M.A., from the University of Southern California. Your child’s participation
is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do
not understand before deciding whether to allow your child to participate. Please take as much
time as you need to read the consent form. Your child will also be asked his/her permission and
given a form to read, which is called an assent form. Your child can decline to participate, even
if you agree to allow him/her. You and/or your child may also decide to discuss it with your
family or friends. If you and/or your child decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this
form, and your child be asked to sign the assent form. You will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to better understand the relationship between home, school, and
students’ academic motivation and achievement. This will be done by having students fill out a
survey about their motivation and factors related to motivation.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to allow your child to participate in this study, your child will be asked to fill out
a 58-item survey about home and school factors and how they relate to their motivation.
Questions will ask about how parents assist students in school, what their teacher expects from
them in school and their academic goals. Each item in the survey will be answered by filling in
the correct bubble below your answer. The survey will be distributed in your Language Arts
class and take about 30-45 minutes to complete.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no potential risks or discomforts associated with completing this survey

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
The potential benefits of this study will be an increased understanding of middle school students’
motivation and the factors that affect motivation.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Participants will be entered into a raffle to receive one of ten $15 gift cards from Itunes for their
time. Participants do not have to answer all of the questions in order to be entered into the raffle.
Names will be entered into the raffle when the surveys are returned to the researcher. Payment
will be given on December 13, 2012 and will be distributed by the investigator.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 71
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will be disclosed only with
your permission or as required by law.

The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data.

The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
subjects.

The principal investigators will have access to the data associated with this study. The data will
be stored on a password protected computer and in a locked storage container. Surveys will be
coded with no identifiable student information and will only be accessed by investigators.
Surveys will be kept for three years after the completion of the study and will be shredded
afterwards.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be included.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your child’s participation is voluntary. Your child’s refusal to participate will involve no penalty
or loss of benefits to which you or your child are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your
consent, and your child may withdraw his/her assent, at any time and discontinue participation
without penalty. You, or your child, are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because
of your/your child’s participation in this research study.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
If you and/or your child choose to not participate during the allotted class time, an alternative
activity will be provided for your child during this time.

INVESTIGATORS CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Dr. Ruth
Chung, Faculty Sponsor, University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education, by
phone at (213)740-3528, or by email at rchung@usc.edu. You may also contact the Co-Principal
Investigator, LaShonda Toston by phone at (310) 420-8209 or by email at ltoston@usc.edu.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant you
may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have questions,
concerns, complaints about the research and are unable to contact the research team, or if you
want to talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park
IRB (UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Credit Union Building,
3720 South Flower Street, CUB # 301 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 72

SIGNATURE OF PARENT(S)

I/we have read the information provided above. I/we have been given a chance to ask questions.
My/our questions have been answered to my/our satisfaction, and I/we agree to have my/our
child participate in this study. I/we have been given a copy of this form.

Name of Participant

Name of Parent (1)

Signature of Parent (1) Date

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 73
Appendix C
Child Assent

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

ASSENT FORM FOR CHILDREN AGED 7-12 TO PARTICIPATE IN
RESEARCH

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
MOTIVATION

My name is LaShonda Toston and I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern
California. I am working with my faculty advisor, Dr. Ruth Chung to conduct research with
students.

We are inviting you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn more about
what motivates students to do well in their school work.

If you agree to be in this study you will complete a survey with 58 questions. For each question,
you will fill in the appropriate bubble for your answer.

There are no potential risks associated with completing this survey. You may feel uncomfortable
answering some of the questions.

Please take as much time as you need and talk this over with your parents before you decide
whether or not to participate. We will also ask your parents to give their permission for you to
take part in this study. But even if your parents say “yes” you can still decide not to do this.

If you don’t want to be in this study, you don’t have to take part in it. Remember, being in this
study is up to you and no one will be upset if you don’t want to take part or even if you change
your mind later and want to stop. Your answers will not be graded. Only you, your parents and
the researcher will know if you participate.

You can ask any questions that you have about the study.

You can stop taking part in the study at any time you want to. Just tell the researcher. You and
your parents will be given a copy of this form.

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 74
Appendix D
Student Demographic Information

Directions: Read each question or statement carefully. Completely fill in the bubble for
you response to each statement. Only fill in one bubble for each question or statement.

1. What is your gender?
O Male
O Female

2. What is your ethnicity?
O Asian/Pacific Islander
O African American/Black
O Caucasian/White
O Latino/Hispanic

3. What is the primary language you speak at home?
O English
O Spanish
O Other __________________

4. How old are you?
O 11
O 12
O 13
O 14
O 15

5. What is your current grade?
O 7
th

O 8
th

6. Who is your primary caregiver? Who takes care of you the most?
 Mother
 Father
 Grandparent(s)
 Other Adult Relative _____________________
 Other Adult ____________________

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 75
Appendix E
Parental Expectations Survey
Hoge, Smit, & Crist (1997)

Read each question about your idea on your parents’ expectations of you. Answer each question
based on your opinion.

1. How would your mother rate your school ability compared with other young people
your age?
My mother thinks that:
O I am the poorest
O I am below average
O I am average
O I am above average
O I am the best

2. How would your father rate your school ability compared with other young people your
age?
My father thinks that:
O I am the poorest
O I am below average
O I am average
O I am above average
O I am the best

3. Where do you think your mother would say you would rank in your class in high
school?
My mother thinks:
O I would be the poorest
O I would be below average
O I would be average
O I would be above average
O I would be the best

4. Where do you think your father would say you would rank in your class in high school?
My father thinks:
O I would be the poorest
O I would be below average
O I would be average
O I would be above average
O I would be the best

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 76
Appendix F
Teacher Treatment Inventory
High Expectations, Choice, and Opportunity Scale
(Weinstein & Middlestadt, 1979)
Read each statement about your idea on your Language Arts teacher’s expectations of you.
Answer each question based on your opinion.

1. The teacher calls on me to answer
questions.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

2. The teacher asks me to lead
activities.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

3. The teacher makes me feel good
about how hard I try.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

4. The teacher calls on me to explain
things to the class.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

5. The teacher trusts me.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

6. The teacher lets me make up my
own projects.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

7. The teacher is interested in me.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

8. The teacher lets me do as I like as
long as I finish the work.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

9. The teacher makes me feel I did
very well when I read or give the
right answer.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always

10. I am given special privileges. I get
to do special things in class.
O Never
O Sometimes
O Often
O Always
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 77
Appendix G
Student and Family Survey for Elementary and Middle School Students
Sheldon & Epstein (2007)
How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Bubble in ONE answer
for each item.
1. My parents help me with
homework and school projects
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

2 There should be ongoing
communication between my parents
and teachers.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

3. My parents are not involved in my
academics, as it is not an accepted
practice in my culture.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

4. My parents should know all about
school related activities and
assignments.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

5. Parents should attend all school
events in elementary and middle
school, but not in high school.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

6. In my culture, parents leave
teaching to the teachers.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

7. I believe parental involvement
motivates me to do well in school.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

8 I believe parental involvement leads
to better grades.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

9. I communicate with my parents
about school on a daily basis.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

10. I communicate with my parents
about school only when I’m in trouble
or failing a class.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 78
11. My parents attend all extra-
curricular activities in which I
participate.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

12. My teachers should communicate
with my parents about test scores
and all other assessments.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

13. My parents and I make joint
academic decisions.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

14. In my culture, parental
involvement in the academics of a
teen stays inside the home.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

15. I believe parental involvement is
instrumental in my positive self-
esteem.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

16. I believe my parent’s involvement
has taught me that school is
important, and that has helped
motivate me to get good grades.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree
17. Parental involvement provides me
the self-esteem to take challenging
classes.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

18. I believe parental involvement
influences my teachers to give me
better grades.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

19. I communicate with my parents
about my academics because they
want me to.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

20. Communication between parents
and teachers interferes with my
independence.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

21. My parents and I make joint
decisions about my academic
future.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

22. I am most successful in school
when I do my homework
independently of parental input.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 79
23. It is the job of school personnel,
not parents, to help students make
academic decisions.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

24. My parents’ knowledge of all
school-related activities and
assignments helps maintain a good
relationship between myself and
them.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

25. I feel less independent when my
parents know too much about my
scholastic life.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

26. My report card is the best way to
keep my parents informed about
my academic success.
O Strongly Disagree
O Disagree
O Agree
O Strongly Agree

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 80
Appendix H
Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scale
(Midgley et al, 2000)

Read each statement regarding your personal academic goals. Answer each question based
on your current goals.

1. It’s important to me that I don’t look stupid in class.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

2. It’s important to me that other students in my class think I am good at my class
work.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

3. It’s important to me that I learn a lot of new concepts this year.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

4. One of my goals in class is to learn as much as I can.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

5. One of my goals is to show others that I’m good at my class work.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

6. It’s important to me that I thoroughly understand my class work.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

7. One of my goals is to show others that class work is easy for me.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

8. One of my goals is to keep others from thinking I’m not smart in class.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS 81
9. It’s important to me that I look smart compared to others in my class.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

10. One of my goals is the master a lot of new skills this year.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

11. It’s important to me that I improve my skills this year.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

12. One of my goals is to look smart in comparison to the other students in my class.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

13. It’s important to me that my teacher doesn’t think that I know less than others in
class.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

14. One of my goals is to avoid looking like I have trouble doing the work.

Not at all true
O

O
Somewhat true
O

O
Very True
O

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Based on the work of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, this study examined students’ perceptions of home and school environments’ role in student academic goal orientation and motivation. The purpose of the study was to examine student perceptions of the environmental factors that may influence students’ motivation. Additionally, this study sought to extend previous research on the motivation of urban students. Participants in this study were 220 urban middle school students recruited from a small school district in Los Angeles County. Measurement tools included the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scale, Student and Family Survey for Elementary and Middle School Students, Teacher Treatment Inventory, and Parental Expectations scale. Findings from this study indicate that students’ perceptions of parental expectations contribute significantly to students’ goal orientations. Additionally, perceptions of parental involvement and teacher expectations contribute to student’s mastery goal orientation. The results of this study indicate that schools located in urban environments should work towards building a collaborative relationship with parents in the community to promote mastery goal orientations among students.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Toston, LaShonda R. (author)

Core Title Home and school factors and their influence on students' academic goal orientation and motivation

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/01/2013

Defense Date 06/06/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag goal orientation,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,parental expectations,parental involvement,teacher expectations

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Gray, Randy (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email lashonda.toston@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-309098

Unique identifier UC11293914

Identifier etd-TostonLaSh-1917.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-309098 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-TostonLaSh-1917.pdf

Dmrecord 309098

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Toston, LaShonda R.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA