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Attaining success: how African American college students persist, engage and graduate from a moderately selective institution: a case study

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Attaining success: how African American college students persist, engage and graduate from a moderately selective institution: a case study

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Content Running head: ATTAINING SUCCESS i

ATTAINING SUCCESS: HOW AFRICAN AMERICAN COLLEGE
STUDENTS PERSIST, ENGAGE AND GRADUATE FROM A
MODERATELY SELECTIVE INSTITUTION—A CASE STUDY
by
Ashley Caroll Barton

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2013

Copyright 2013 Ashley Caroll Barton

ATTAINING SUCCESS ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Caroll Forbes Barton. Mom, you have been the
reason for all my success. I would have never have been able to achieve this or anything else
without you in my corner or by my side. Thank you so much for everything you have ever done
to support me. I am who I am because of your love, dedication, support, and more love. Words
can truly never express my love for you. Thank you mom for being the best mom anyone could
ever ask for!

ATTAINING SUCCESS iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It has truly taken a village to get me to this place. I would have never had this
accomplishment without the support of so many.
I have to thank God for his many blessings. My faith in God has always propelled me to
do achieve great things and be a good person. His abundant blessings have gotten me here.
To my mother, Caroll Forbes Barton: Thank you for helping me with your love and
support. Every single thing you did helped me have faith in myself and my dreams. Listening to
my ideas, giving me suggestions, and telling me that I could accomplish this, have helped get me
here. This degree belongs to the both of us!
To my family: I couldn’t have been blessed with a better family. To my aunts and uncles,
thank you for being so loving and caring. To my cousins, thank you for being my best friends. I
especially want to thank Pollet Howell, John Forbes, Talhia Areta, Eileen Forbes, Iris Forbes-
Jackson, and the many more cousins and family members who have always had faith in me! I
love you all!
To my dissertation committee: Dr. Tracy Tambasica, thank you Tracy for your support,
guidance, critique and faith in me. Dr. Michael Jackson and Dr. Monique Allard, thank you both
for helping guide me on my professional dreams. Your support and participation are truly
appreciated.
To my colleagues and friends: Thank you ALL for listening to me complain and whine
for the past three years! I especially want to thank Josephine Le, Geinel Johnson, Cynthia Mata-
Flores, Dr. Christie Rainey, and Dr. Katrina Hermoso. Thank you ladies for being people I could
count on! I would also like to thank my Dornsife Advising team and Deb Bernstein for allowing
me to pursue my education with nothing but faith and support.
ATTAINING SUCCESS iv
And to the students, staff and faculty who participated in my study: Thank you all for
being a part of my dream. You have all inspired me to continue to do great things in higher
education. I’m sure that you will all continue to succeed now and in the future.
ATTAINING SUCCESS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication………………………………………………………………………..………………..ii
Acknowledgements...…………………………………………………………………………….iii
List of Tables.……………………………………………………………………………………vii
Abstract..…………………………………………………………………………...……………viii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study.…………………………………….……………………….1
Introduction.……………………………………………………………………………….1
Statement of the Problem.………………………………………………………………....5
Purpose of the Study.………………………………………………………………….…..7
Research Questions.…………………………………………………………………….....8
Importance of the Study.……………………………………………………………….….8
Retention in California…………………………………………………..……………….10
The Effects of the California Master Plan..........………………………………………...13
College-Going Rates of African Americans.…………………………………………….14
The Impact of Identity…………………………………………………………………...16
Key Concepts and Definitions…..……………………………………………………….16
Limitations of the Study……..……………………….…………………………………..18
Organization of the Dissertation………………………………………………...……….19
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature.…………………………………..……………………..21
Introduction..……………………………………………………………………………..21
A Brief History of Access to Education…………………………………………………25
African Americans at Predominantly White Institutions………………………………...27
Engaging Students: Involvement, Integration and Engagement…………………………30
Student-Faculty Relationships……..…………………..………………………………...37
The Role of Professional Staff…….……………………….………………..…………...39
Campus Climate …………………………………………………………………………41
Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………..44
Summary of the Literature ………………………………………………………………48
Chapter Three: Research Methods ………………………………………………………………50
Research Design………………………………………………………………………….51
Research Site……………………………………………………………………………..52
Participants……………………………………………………………………………….54
Data Collection Procedure.………………………………………………………………57
Data Analysis.……………………………………………………………………………59
Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………………...61
Role of the Researcher…………………………………………………………………...61
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….64
Chapter Four: Findings...………………………………………………………………………...65
Participant Profiles……………………………………………………………………….65
Theoretical Analysis……………………………………………………………..………75
Findings……………………………………………………………………………….…76
Summary of Findings…………………………………………………………………...110
Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications for Practice………………………………………..112
Discussion of Findings…………………………………………………………………112
Recommendations and Implications for Practice............................................................115
ATTAINING SUCCESS vi
Limitations………………………………………………………………………….…..123
Recommendations for Further Research……………………………………….……….124
A Final Reflection on the Study………………………………………………………...125
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...……126
References……………………..……………………………………………………………..…128
Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………...137
Appendix A: Student Participant Interview Protocol.…………………..…………..….137
Appendix B: Staff/Faculty Participant Interview Protocol………………………..……139
Appendix C: Information/Fact Sheet…...………………………………………………140
Appendix D: Pre-Interview Survey………………………………..…………...………142
Appendix E: General Recruitment Letter………………………………………...…….144

ATTAINING SUCCESS vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. African American 6-Year Graduation Rates: All 4-year Institutions ……………..…..6
Table 2. African American Adults Holding a Bachelor’s Degree or Higher (25-year-olds and
older)…………………………………………………………...………………………………....6
Table 3. African American Students in California State Universities……………………...........15
Table 4. of African Americans in University of California institutions……………………..…..15

ATTAINING SUCCESS viii
ABSTRACT
African American degree attainment rates have remained at steadily low rates for the past
decade. As a result, studies traditionally focus on the reasons for African American college
students’ lack of persistence. This study sought to change the discussion of African American
college students from one that looks at the motives for their failures, to one that seeks to
understand the reasons for their success. This study pursued a greater understanding of the
factors that lead African American college students to be successfully retained and engaged in
college.
Focused on one site, this study was a qualitative case study that utilized one-on-one
interviews with African American students, faculty and staff. Fourteen interviews were
conducted with African American students and three with faculty and staff. Purposeful sampling
was utilized to select student participants. Students were required to be freshman admits in the
latter halves of their undergraduate education and be involved in a campus organization or
service. Faculty and staff participants were selected via key informants.
The case study approach allowed for a greater understanding and analysis of African
American students’ experiences in college. Findings revealed that student engagement had a
positive impact on retention, racial identity development continues to have an impact on African
American college students’ experience, institutions play a role in African American student
success, and family support and personal motivations are strong indicators for student success.
These findings have led to recommendations and implications for practice, as well as
recommendations for future research, that can positively enhance the experiences of African
American college students.

ATTAINING SUCCESS 1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
INTRODUCTION
It’s the first day of college for Stacy, an 18-year-old African American student, at
California State University, Alameda. She is both excited and nervous about the prospect of
starting college and looking to get involved and meet new people. She met her roommates the
night before, and both are also extremely excited about starting college. They were nice and
have already made plans to eat dinner together that night. Walking to her first class, Stacy tries
to calm her nerves as she searches for the right building. After successfully finding the
classroom, Stacy takes a seat in one of the aisle seats and takes in her surroundings. This is the
first time that she has been in a college classroom. Stacy has decided that she will be a
Sociology major and has enrolled in Sociology 101 to get started. The professor walks in and
begins her lecture, discussing the syllabus. When the professor starts to discuss that some
exceptions will be made to student-athletes, the professor glances at Stacy. She thinks nothing of
it. After all, she’s not an athlete. Then the teacher goes on to inform the students of tutoring
services that are available for students who have difficulty with the course. Again the professor
glances at Stacy. The professor then goes on to describe a final project that will require students
to work in groups the whole semester. It is finally the end of class and Stacy decides to make a
positive impression on her professor by introducing herself. As she walks up to the professor
and patiently waits for her chance, she says, “I’m Stacy, I just wanted to say hi and say that I’m
excited about your class. I really think I’m going to like it!” The professor smiles at Stacy,
almost passively, and says, “Oh that’s nice dear” and then turns to pack her things. Stacy finds
the brush off a bit disheartening and turns to leave the room. Stacy feels disappointed and
somewhat angry. She does not understand why the professor would treat her that way. Later on,
ATTAINING SUCCESS 2
while walking back to her dorm room, Stacy decides she’ll go to lunch at the cafeteria. As she
walks in and begins to pick up her food she glances around at potential seats. Unsure of walking
up to strangers, she sits to eat lunch alone. Later on that night she gets text messages from her
roommates saying they won’t be able to make it to dinner because they both decided to rush
sororities and are having dinner with their potential sisters. Stacy, a bit dismayed by lunch in
the cafeteria, decides to go off campus for dinner. She gets her food and then goes back to her
dorm room. There, while watching television, Stacy eats her dinner alone. Later on, she calls
home to tell her mom about her first day. She feels pressured to do well in college, as she’s the
first member of her family to attend. While she was not the best student in high school, she did
take some honors courses. She feels somewhat optimistic about her ability to do well in college.
At about midnight, Stacy figures she will just go to bed. There’s no one around and she doesn’t
feel comfortable going out by herself despite the people she hears outside. She turns out the
lights, gets into bed, and goes to sleep. She wonders if she made the right choice choosing this
college.
Sean, also an 18-year-old African American student, is a freshman enrolled in a
Sociology 101 class at California State University, Zzyzx. He played football in high school and
had hoped to go to a Division I school. Yet, after an injury to his knee, his hopes were dashed
and he decided to focus on college. On his first day of class, he sat in the second row, took
notes, and was excited about what he would be learning from the class, as he too is a sociology
major. Unlike Stacy, Sean heads to the Academic Success (AS) building on his campus after
class. Sean attended a summer program before the first semester of college. He got to know the
campus really well and met other incoming freshmen in smaller classes. At the AE building he
runs into Professor Howard, who taught his English class over the summer. They chat and set
ATTAINING SUCCESS 3
up a time to meet formally later. Then Sean sees Cameron, his old roommate, and they decide to
go to lunch together after getting their books. Sean and Cameron make plans to meet up with
their old floor mates for dinner. After dinner, Sean and his friends from AE decide to hang out
in Cameron’s dorm room with his new roommates. While there, Sean learns more about his
peers, who are from various backgrounds. They also discuss the importance of volunteering and
possibly joining a fraternity. Later on that night, Sean heads back to his dorm room, calls his
brother, excited to tell him about his official first day of college, and then calls it a night.
While the preceding stories are fictional, their occurrence is all too familiar for African
American students entering college for the first time. Acclimating to a new environment is
difficult for many students, and their first interactions with the campus, faculty members, and
peers leave lasting impressions on their perspectives of college. It is important for students’
overall success that they attend an institution with an environment that is supportive of their
goals, dreams, and needs. One way in which their needs can be met is by ensuring that students
have opportunities to be engaged on campus (Kuh et al., 1991; Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, Whitt,
2005). Researchers have found that colleges that create environments and conditions under
which students are engaged have a greater likelihood of retaining their students and achieving
student success (Harper & Quaye, 2009; Kuh, 1991; Kuh et al., 2005).
Engagement, the “amount of time and effort students put into their studies and other
activities that lead to the experiences and outcomes that constitute student success” (Kuh et al.
2005, p.9), is a vital component to student persistence and retention. Students succeed and stay
enrolled in college when they are engaged in campus life (Harper, 2009; Harper & Quaye, 2009;
Kuh et al., 2005). As noted in the introduction, Stacy had no mechanisms through which to
engage. She knew no one except for her roommates, and she felt shunned by a faculty member
ATTAINING SUCCESS 4
and was uncomfortable speaking to peers she did not know. In contrast, Sean was well
acclimated to the campus. Participating in a program in the weeks prior to the beginning of
classes in the fall semester helped him transition and adjust to the campus. Despite the fact that
he was relatively new to the campus, he was not deterred because he was already positively
engaged. He had made relationships with peers and faculty and was confident enough to discuss
new things and meet new people. Much of this can be attributed to the fact that the institution
created opportunities for him to be engaged with both his peers and faculty. These opportunities
resulted in him being able to not only seek ways to become engaged, but to find a sense of
comfort and make positive decisions that are necessary on a college campus for African
Americans and other students.
This study focused on the experiences of African American students attending a mid-
sized, public institution, and sought to specifically understand the ways in which their collegiate
experiences, engagement opportunities, personal decisions, and identity have impacted their
overall success in college. The purpose of this study was to understand the factors that lead these
students to successful degree completion. As previously noted, engagement is a key factor to
support students’ retention and success, and may be particularly relevant to the experiences of
underrepresented racial and ethnic minorities like African Americans. This study examined the
impact that engagement has on student success. The following sections will discuss the problem
this study sought to address. This section will address the many barriers to the successful
retention of African American students in higher education and will discuss some societal
implications, national college enrollment, and retention rates. The purpose of this study will also
be discussed in greater depth, followed by a section on the importance of this study with a
specific focus on higher education in California.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 5
Statement of the Problem
While American society ascribes to the notion that higher education is open to everyone
who seeks it, it is clear that college access and degree attainment has been limited for particular
groups. For African Americans in particular, access to higher education has been limited
historically and continues to be a challenge today (Allen, 1992; Harper, Patton, & Wooden,
2009; Lucas, 2006).
There have been few gains in degree attainment for African Americans in the past 16
years (NCES, 2012). DeAngelo, Franke, Hurtado, Pryor, & Tran (2011) found that only 41.3%
of all African American college students at 4-year institutions completed a baccalaureate degree
after six years of enrollment. Table 1 shows that fewer than half of African American college
students graduate within six years. Aside from occasional increases in degree completion, Table
1 shows that African American degree completion rates hovered just above or below 40% from
1996-2003, showing virtually no improvement (NCES, 2012). Six-year graduation rates for
White and Asian American students are 64.3% and 73.2%, respectively (DeAngelo et al., 2011).
Additionally, African American men and women have the second largest degree attainment gap
of any racial and ethnic group (DeAngelo et al., 2011). African American men graduate at a rate
of 34.8% while African American women graduate at a rate of 46.1% (DeAngelo et al., 2011).
More importantly, as shown in Table 2, the degree attainment rate for African Americans
over the age of 25 has had little to no gains over the past decade. Table 2 shows that overall
degree attainment for the African American population has only increased by 2 percentage points
over a 10-year period.

ATTAINING SUCCESS 6
Table 1. Percentage of African American 6-Year Graduation Rates: All 4-year Institutions
Percentage of African American 6-Year Graduation Rates: All 4-year Institutions
Starting
Cohort
1996 2000 2001 2002 2003
Grad Rate 38.9 42.1 41.5 40.1 39.1
Source: NCES Graduation rates of first-time postsecondary students who started as full-time
degree/certificate-seeking students, by sex, race/ethnicity, time to completion, and level and control of
institution where student started: Selected cohort entry years, 1996 through 2003

Table 2. Percentage of African American Adults Holding a Bachelor’s Degree or Higher (25-
year-olds and older)

Percentage of African American Adults Holding a Bachelor’s Degree or Higher (25-year-
olds and Older)
Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Percent 15.5 16.6 15.7 17.2 17.4 17.7 17.8 16.9 17.3 17.5 17.7
Source: Minorities in Higher Education Twenty-Fourth Status Report 2011 Supplement

Research shows that individuals who complete a baccalaureate lead better lives and
improve their communities (Bowen et al., 2009; Harper et al., 2009; Museus & Quaye, 2009).
Baum & Payea (2005) found there are personal and societal benefits to having an educated
citizenry. The more education an individual has, the less like they are to need public assistance,
be incarcerated, or work lower-paying jobs (Baum & Payea, 2005). Unfortunately, the inability
to stay enrolled in college is preventing African Americans from attaining the benefits of
postsecondary education (Harper et al., 2009).
Many researchers have studied this phenomenon by focusing on the challenges African
American students face in college (Allen, 1985; Morrow, Burris-Kitchen, & Der-Karabetian,
2000; Solorzano, Ceja, & Yosso 2000). Yet very few studies examine the factors that affect the
retention of African Americans and the ways in which they succeed. More recently, studies by
Fries-Britt & Griffin (2007), Fries-Britt (2002), Griffin (2006), Harper (2009, 2010), Harper &
ATTAINING SUCCESS 7
Quaye (2009), and Kuh et al. (2005) have begun to address the topic of successful African
American students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the ways in which African American college
students at a mid-sized, public university persist toward degree completion. I examined the
students’ personal experiences, involvement opportunities, and programs at the university that
contributed to the successful engagement and degree attainment of African American students.
An examination of published research on African American students showed that most
studies examine persistence from a deficit perspective, focusing on low retention rates (Allen,
1992; Furr & Elling 2002), negative campus climate (Allen, 1985; Morrow, Burris-Kitchen, &
Der-Karabetian, 2000; Solorzano, Ceja, & Yosso, 2000), and academic challenges (Furr & Elling
2002; Kinzie, Goneya, Shoup, & Kuh, 2008). Because very few studies look at factors that lead
to success, this study aimed to examine the reasons behind the successful retention of African
American students.
Recent studies have shown that student engagement is an essential component to student
success in higher education (Kuh et al., 1991, 2005; Harper, 2009; Harper & Quaye, 2009; Tinto,
2012). The interactions that students have both inside and outside of the classroom are directly
connected to their likelihood of staying in college. Students who are engaged in educationally
purposeful programs and activities are more likely than disengaged students to persist and have
positive collegiate experiences (Harper & Quaye, 2009; Kuh et al., 1991, 2005). Yet there is a
gap in the literature as to how engagement of African American students has led to greater
retention and overall success. Instead of studying the factors that have led African Americans to
withdraw from colleges and universities, this study sought to understand how engaging in
ATTAINING SUCCESS 8
educationally purposeful activities not only offers greater satisfaction with the collegiate
experiences, but also helps students to stay enrolled. By studying an institution that has an
environment that fosters African American students’ retention, this study identified factors that
have led to this minority population’s overall success.
Research Questions
The goal of this study was to attain a greater understanding of the factors that have led
African American college students to degree completion and positive collegiate experiences.
The following research questions guided the inquiry:
Main Research Question:
1. What underlying factors contribute to the retention and engagement of African American
college students at a public, mid-sized institution?
Sub-Research Questions:
2. How has engagement and involvement impacted African American student success at
this institution?
3. How does racial identity impact African American students’ ability to succeed?
Importance of the Study
As society continues to advance and more individuals pursue bachelor’s degrees, the
academic achievements of the African American community continue to significantly lag behind
other racial and ethnic groups (Baum & Payea, 2005; Baum & Ma, 2010). Simply enrolling in
college is not enough, as degree completion must be a priority for all parties involved (Tinto,
2012). Without the successful retention of African Americans in higher education, the number
of African Americans professionals is significantly reduced (Baum & Payea, 2005; Baum & Ma,
ATTAINING SUCCESS 9
2010). The lack of advanced education affects the African American community and society as
a whole.
While other racial or ethnic groups have role models, African Americans continue to lack
positive examples of successful individuals (Harper, 2009). This study is important because it
did not focus on the failures and disappointments African Americans are facing in college, but
sought to highlight the positive experiences, successful programs, and mechanisms in place at a
university that help this student group succeed.
More importantly, this study sought to contribute to the knowledge base on the
experiences of African Americans within moderately selective institutions, an area of research
that has not been previously explored. A moderately selective university is an institution that
admits approximately 50% of its applicants, has a minimum GPA admission requirement of 2.0,
does not require SAT and ACT scores for higher-achieving students, and typically accepts
students from the top third of their graduating class . Though African Americans persist at
higher rates in highly selective institutions, moderately selective institutions enroll larger
numbers of African Americans than highly selective institutions (California Postsecondary Data,
2009). These moderately selective institutions tend to enroll students who have faced greater
challenges, have a higher likelihood of leaving early, and are more likely to be less prepared
(Astin & Oseguera, 2005; Bowen et al., 2009; Melguizo, 2008; Tinto, 2012). Understanding the
factors of success for African Americans despite opposing forces is important to learning more
about this group’s educational experiences.
For these reasons, this study is important to stakeholders within higher education who
seek to improve and enhance the educational experiences of all college students. For students,
administrators, faculty, and staff, the results of this study can provide insight and information on
ATTAINING SUCCESS 10
the experiences of African American students who are able to do well in college, both inside and
outside of the classroom. For students, it is vital that they are aware of the mechanisms on their
campus that may increase their ability to succeed, and of the importance of their active
participation in educationally purposeful activities. Having the knowledge and understanding of
the value of active participation in their educational activities is one of the keys to their success
(Harper, 2009; Kuh et al., 2005; Tinto, 2012). For administrators, it is essential that they are
aware of the services and programs students believe help them succeed. As programs continue
to be created to ensure successful educational outcomes of African American students, it is
important to have relevant and current research to help shape best practices (Harper, 2009).
Lastly, because information and research on the various mechanisms and factors that lead to
African American student engagement, retention, and success is limited, this study contributes
information and knowledge to educational administrators and researchers who seek to address
this problem.
Retention in California
As discussed, retention of African American college students continues to be problematic
(Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2007). In the state of California, which has the
largest population of individuals in the nation, retention of African American college students
continues to be challenging at public institutions (Timar, Ogawa, & Orillion, 2004). Despite the
fact that California has institutions of various types and selectivity, many mid-sized and
moderately selective institutions have a more challenging time of retaining African American
students (Bowen, Chingos, & McPherson, 2009; Lytle, 2011; Melguizo, 2008).
Campuses that are part of the University of California (UC) system and other highly
selective private institutions within the state have found ways to retain African American
ATTAINING SUCCESS 11
students. The UC system, comprised of 10 campuses, has demonstrated that African Americans
can succeed within its institutions (UCOP, 2012). Yet despite the fact that these institutions are
able to retain African Americans at high rates, the total percentage of admitted African American
students is only 4.4% of all students (UCOP, 2012). The lowest retention rates at a UC campus
are more than twice that of other moderately selective, public institutions in the state. The lowest
retention rate of African Americans within the UC system is at UC Riverside, which has a 6-year
African American student graduation rate of 72%. Yet at some moderately selective institutions
within the state, the 6-year graduation rates of African American students are as low as 23%
(IPEDS, 2012).
Highly selective institutions like those in the UC system are more successful at retaining
all students, in comparison to moderately selective institutions (Astin & Oseguera, 2005; Bowen
et al., 2009; Melguizo, 2008). These retention rates are largely attributed to their students’
superior academic preparation, having earned higher GPAs and SAT scores in high school, and
their greater likelihood to graduate (Bowen et al., 2009; Tinto, 2012). Despite the strong
retention rates at highly selective institutions, these institutions matriculate low numbers of
eligible students, especially African Americans (see Figure 1 and 2).
In Figure 1, the gap between the percentages of California public high school students
who are underrepresented minorities versus the percentage who enroll at a University of
California campus is shown. Over the past 25 years, the percentage of underrepresented
minorities in California public high schools has dramatically increased, while the percentages in
UC campuses has remained at steadily low rates.
Figure 2 shows similar results for African Americans specifically. The chart shows that
despite the consistent rates of enrollment of African Americans in California high schools, the
ATTAINING SUCCESS 12
rates at which they enroll into the UCs have not increased. Of the total percentage of high school
graduates that are African American, only 3%-4% actually matriculate to a UC campus. Figures
1 and 2 demonstrate that in most recent years, up to half of all minorities, in particular African
Americans, fail to enroll at a UC campus.
Figure 1. Gap between California High School Graduates and New UC Freshmen for
Underrepresented Minorities, Fall 1989 to 2009

ATTAINING SUCCESS 13
Figure 2. Gap between California High School Graduates and New UC Freshmen African
American Students, Fall 1989 to 2009

The Effects of the California Master Plan
The disequilibrium in admission and eligibility standards can be generally attributed to
the California Master Plan, which sought to bring structure to a rapidly growing educational
system of higher education in California (California Master Plan, 1960). Institutional systems
were designated and divided with the task of providing particular types of curriculum and
degrees; what resulted were the University of California system, the California State University
(CSU) system, and the California Community College (CCC) system. The University of
California system (UC) campuses are focused on research, the California State University system
(CSU) campuses prepare future practitioners such as teachers, nurses, and social workers, and
the California Community College (CCC) system campuses have open admissions for all
California residents who seek more education and training (California Master Plan, 1960).
ATTAINING SUCCESS 14
Yet the California Master Plan was created and implemented with the knowledge that not
all students would have the same opportunities. “The selection and retention devices suggested
will not guarantee either that all able young Californians will go to college or university or that
those who do will attend institutions best able to serve their needs” (California Master Plan,
1960, p. 77). The original ethos of the plan was that the more prepared students would be
admitted to the UC institutions, while those considered less prepared were sent to the California
State Universities and community colleges (California Master Plan, 1960). Under this plan,
students are more likely to attend a public, moderately selective institution because enrollment at
highly selective institutions is limited.
College-Going Rates of African Americans
The CSU system has more institutions and enrolls larger numbers of students, and
therefore has a higher percentage of African American students than the UC system (California
Postsecondary Education Data). The following data addresses the college-going rate of African
American students within California. The college-going rate is described as the percentage of
public high school graduates who enroll each year in a California college or university
immediately following their high school graduation (California Postsecondary Education Data).
As noted in Tables 3 and 4, there is a large discrepancy between the percentages of African
Americans who enroll into CSUs and UCs. Table 3 notes the college-going rate of African
Americans to the CSUs since 2000 have been between 9% and 12%. Yet as noted in Table 4,
which shows the college-going rate of African Americans in the UC system, the percentages
within the last 10 years have remained steadily between 3% and 4%. California State
Universities have consistently enrolled three to four times more African Americans than
University of California institutions.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 15
Table 3. Percentages of African American Students in California State Universities
College-Going (Enrollment) Rate for African American Students
Statewide To California State University
Year Total
2000 8.91%
2001 10.15%
2002 9.42%
2003 8.96%
2004 9.25%
2005 10.51%
2006 12.52%
2007 13.47%
2008 12.56%
2009 9.79%
Source: California Postsecondary Education Data
Table 4. Percentages of African Americans in University of California institutions
College-Going (Enrollment) Rate for African American Students
Statewide To University of California
Year Total
2000 3.11%
2001 3.20%
2002 3.35%
2003 3.42%
2004 2.72%
2005 2.93%
2006 3.59%
2007 4.13%
2008 4.52%
2009 4.06%
Source: California Postsecondary Education Data
Since African Americans are more likely to have lower SAT scores and high school GPAs than
their peers, especially those in highly selective institutions, it is imperative to understand the
factors that have made this student group successful at less selective institutions like the
California State Universities (Bowen et al., 2009; Tinto, 2012).

ATTAINING SUCCESS 16
The Impact of Identity
While the main premise of this study was to understand the factors that contribute to the
retention and engagement of African American college students, other aspects like identity were
also explored. The development of one’s identity is an important component of the collegiate
experience. The identity development process can be described as a period of time in which
individuals learn about themselves, who they are, and what they believe in (Cross, 1991; Torres,
Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper, 2003). Most individuals who attend college note the pronounced
impact that this period of time has had on them (Torres et al., 2003). Torres et al (2003) noted,
“Students’ sense of identity is developed during the college years; what has not received as much
attention is the influence of race, ethnicity, other social categories, or the interrelationship of
multiple identities on that development during the college years” (p.3). For African Americans,
the identity development process in college can be challenging, as they face developmental needs
that may be different from White students (Torres et al., 2003). This study sought to gain a
greater understanding about the many facets which construct the successful collegiate
experiences of African Americans.
Key Concepts and Definitions
This section defines key concepts and terms that were utilized in this study:
African American: U.S.-born individual of African descent. Any individual student who
self-identified as African American was considered for this study.
Black: A U.S.-born or non-U.S.-born individual who is of African descent. Any
individual student who self-identified as Black was also considered for this study
Black Racial Identity Development: Originally created by William Cross, Jr. in 1971,
Black Racial Identity Development is the process through which an African American
ATTAINING SUCCESS 17
individual forms her or his racial identity (Cross, 1991). Individuals who move through
this identity development process shifts from one who is disconnected from her or his
race and ascribes to the dominant culture (White) to one who highly embraces the
African American culture and has great pride and self-esteem (Cross, 1991).
Campus Climate: The norms, values, and customs of the campus environment. These
can be either positive or negative experiences students have while on college campuses
(Reid & Radhakrishnan, 2003). Campus climate involves interactions students have with
peers, staff, and faculty.
Engagement: Student participation in educationally purposeful programs and activities
that lead to student success. This includes the amount of effort and time students put into
their studies and out-of-the-classroom activities (Kuh et al, 2005).
Graduation Rate: The rate of student degree completion six years after matriculation
(Tinto, 2012).
Integration: The social and academic immersion into the campus environment as
described by Tinto (1993). This involves students’ social involvement with both formal
and informal campus entities and their academic involvement.
Involvement: “Energy to studying, spends much time on campus, participates actively in
student organizations, and interacts frequently with faculty members and other students”
(Astin, 1984, p. 518).
Mid-Sized Institution: A college or university that has between 10,000 and 20,000
students.
Minority/Minorities/Minority Student: Individuals who are African American, Latino/a,
Asian American, or Native American.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 18
Moderately Selective Institution: A college or university that admits the top 33% of high
school graduates and has a minimum admission grade point average of 2.0 and above.
This is in contrast to highly selective institutions which traditionally accept students with
minimum grade point averages of 3.0 and above and who are within the top 10% of their
high school’s graduates.
Persistence: Continued enrollment and satisfactory course completion in college from
year to year, culminating in the completion of a bachelor’s degree (Tinto, 2012).
Racial/Ethnic Minority student: Any student from a racial/ethnic group who is not
Caucasian/White. For the purpose of this study, this term was limited to individuals who
were African American, Latino/a, and Asian American. This did not include individuals
who are considered international students.
Racial Identity: The degree to which one identifies with their racial group. For the
purpose of this study, identity development was utilized to frame the student experience
(Evan, Forney, Guido, Patton & Renn, 2009).
Retention: The rate at which an institution maintains students who first enter the
institution as freshman at a given point in time (Tinto, 2012).
Underrepresented Racial/Ethnic Minority student: This term was applied to any student
whose racial/ethnic group is understated on the campus.
Limitations of the Study
As the researcher within this study, I attempted to remove all biases while conducting this
research. One of the first limitations is the personal background of the researcher. As a Black
person who attended a predominantly White institution for my undergraduate degree and
completed it within four years, my personal biases may have had some effect on the
ATTAINING SUCCESS 19
interpretation and analysis of the data. Ways in which my biases were mitigated will be
discussed in great detail in chapter 3.
A second limitation of this research is that the data was collected on one university in
California. The applicability of the results to other institutions in other states may be limited.
The institutional types, institution sizes, and the percentages of African Americans within the
institution may also be a factor. The results of this study are based on the context of the
institution that was studied.
A third limitation of this study is that data was collected solely via interviews with
current African American college students, faculty, and staff from the institution. As a result, the
outcomes of the study were dependent on student, faculty, and staff responses to the
interviewer’s questions. There may have been some biases with participant selection,
interpretation of questions, and other factors that the researcher attempted to ameliorate.
The last limitation is due to the fact that this study was a qualitative case study. The
study is not generalizable to large populations but to practices and policies that can potentially
enhance student engagement and retention within these types of institutions. It will also be
challenging to determine how applicable the perspective and experiences of the participants
within this study will be to other African Americans students who were not within the study.
However, the objective of this study was to provide rich descriptions that can allow researchers
and educators the opportunity to examine this phenomenon at a deeper level (Merriam, 1998).
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter 2 will review important facets of student retention with a particular focus on
African American college students. The first section will discuss in greater detail the issue of
retention for African American college students and the benefits associated with completing
ATTAINING SUCCESS 20
higher education. The next section will include a brief description of the history of African
Americans within predominantly White institutions and historically Black colleges and
universities. The following section will address the impact of student engagement on student
persistence and retention. Then institutional fit and campus climates will be discussed. Lastly,
the theoretical framework that was utilized throughout the dissertation will be described.
Chapter 3 will discuss the methodological approach that was utilized for this study. This
includes a description of the methodology used, the process of selecting an institution, and
participants and data analysis. Chapter 4 will discuss the findings of this study. This chapter
will include participant biographies, theoretical analysis, and the various themes discovered.
Chapter 5 will provide a brief overview of the study. This chapter will include a brief discussion
of the findings, recommendations and implications for practice, limitations of the study,
recommendations for further research, and end with a final reflection from the researcher and
conclusion.

ATTAINING SUCCESS 21
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the individual factors and
assets that African American students utilize to succeed in college. The mechanisms employed
by a university and African American students to ensure that they stay in college, engage, and
succeed were explored. Because the successful retention and engagement of African American
college students is an important goal for all higher education institutions, understanding the
reasons under which this group is able to succeed is imperative. Yet, as noted within the
previous chapter, there are significant challenges to this student group’s success. Nationwide,
over one-third of all college students do not complete their bachelor’s degree within six years
(DeAngelo et al., 2011). For African Americans in particular, degree attainment rates are just
over 40% (Baum & Payea, 2005). These dismal retention rates are of serious concern to both the
educational community and African American community at large. Despite the overwhelming
tendency to focus on why this group does not succeed, it is important to understand why and how
they are able to thrive.
There are a variety of reasons why students leave college. Studies have demonstrated
that factors like lack of connection to the campus environment (Baker & Robnett, 2012; Harper
& Hurtado, 2007; Hurtado, 1992; Morrow, Burris-Kitchen, & Der-Karabetian, 2000), academic
preparedness (Allen, 1992; Tinto, 1993, 2012), college generation status (Schreiner, Noel,
Anderson, & Cantwell, 2011), and poor relationships with faculty (Cole, 2010; Flowers, 2003;
Fries-Britt, 2000; Guiffrida, 2005; Schreiner, Noel, Anderson, & Cantwell, 2011) have all been
found as reasons why students leave college without completing their bachelor’s degrees.
African American college students face both collegiate and personal challenges to their
ATTAINING SUCCESS 22
scholastic success (Harper & Quaye, 2009; Jones, Castellanos, & Cole, 2001; Tinto, 1993, 2012).
The amount of social support they receive on campus, off campus ties and responsibilities, and
their perceptions of the campus climate (Baker & Robnett, 2012) all impact African American
students at predominantly White institutions (PWIs) in a much more direct and potentially
detrimental way (Jones et al, 2001).
As discussed, studies have demonstrated that there are many challenges to African
American college students’ success. Yet few studies actually focus on the factors and conditions
that have led this group to success or the support mechanisms in place that have pushed them to
success (Fries-Britt & Griffin, 2007; Harper, 2010; Griffin, 2006; Schreiner et al., 2011). The
portrayal of the experiences of African American students within educational research can be
viewed as utilizing a deficit perspective. A deficit perspective focuses on the failures or areas in
which a particular group, program, or organization lacks success (Bensimon, 2005; Harper,
2010; Schreiner et al., 2011). This perspective tends to imply that the academic and collegiate
challenges faced by minority students is either self-imposed or a natural occurrence due to their
educational background or socioeconomic status (Bensimon, 2005). Failures and deficits tend to
be amplified and highlighted when referring to minority groups like African Americans (Harper,
2010). Despite all of the knowledge and information that we have on the factors that undermine
and hinder their achievement, little is known about the ways in which they are able to
successfully navigate their educational experiences (Harper, 2010).
Harper (2010) found that in order to ameliorate and challenge these common perceptions
of African Americans, more studies should focus on how they do well academically and socially
on college campuses. Unfortunately, few studies have sought to understand the factors that have
led African Americans to success and how these conditions can be transmitted to increase the
ATTAINING SUCCESS 23
likelihood of other African American college students’ success (Griffin, 2006). Some recent,
promising work in this area has been done by Fries-Britt & Griffin (2007), Fries-Britt (2002),
Griffin (2006), Harper (2009, 2010), Harper & Quaye (2009), Kinzie et al. (2008), and Kuh et al.
(2005), who have begun to change the discussion on African American student success and
retention from one that looks at the causes for attrition, to what causes them to succeed.
This chapter will address the literature and research that has been conducted on African
American college students with an emphasis on those who have attended Predominantly White
Institutions (PWIs). First, the literature will look at the experiences of African American
students within predominantly White institutions, including historical and current challenges.
Then, it will present studies that have researched the importance of engagement to student
success. This will include a brief description of the impact of involvement and integration on
students’ retention and departure. The impact of institutional fit, student-faculty relationships,
and the role of student affairs professionals on engagement will also be discussed. Next, the
impact of campus climate on the student collegiate experience, with a focus on how various
campus entities impact campus perceptions, will be discussed. Lastly, this chapter will conclude
with a brief discussion of the major models and theories of African Americans identity
development and student departure.
Purpose of the Study
As discussed in chapter 1, the purpose of this study was to identify the ways in which
African American students attending a moderately selective public institution are engaged by the
university and persist toward graduation. I examined and focused on specific experiences,
programs, and services that contributed to the successful engagement and retention of this
student group. Because of the increased likelihood of African Americans to pursue higher
ATTAINING SUCCESS 24
education within these types of institutions, this university in California was selected (California
Post Secondary Data, 2012). The goal of this study was to explicate the mechanisms that lead
African American college students to be successful. This study also sought to attain an
understanding of the factors that keep this student group, which traditionally leaves college, to
stay.
Yet there is a gap in the literature as to how engagement of African American students at
moderately selective institutions can increase retention and overall success. The factors that lead
underrepresented minority students to be highly successful are rarely, if ever, reviewed (Harper,
2010). This is in spite of the fact that this student group’s retention at some public institutions is
at rates as low as 20.3% within a six-year time period (College Results Online, 2010).
Therefore, instead of studying the factors that have led African Americans to withdraw from
colleges and universities, this study sought to understand how engaging in educationally
purposeful activities leads to increased satisfaction and retention.
Research Questions
This study aimed to understand the factors that have led African American college
students to degree completion. The following research questions guided the inquiry:
Main Research Question:
1. What underlying factors contribute to the retention and engagement of African American
college students at a public, mid-sized institution?
Sub-Research Questions:
2. How has engagement and involvement impacted African American student success at
this institution?
3. How does racial identity impact African American students’ ability to succeed?
ATTAINING SUCCESS 25
A Brief History of Access to Education
Historically, access to institutions of higher education for African Americans has been a
challenge (Cohen, 1998; Lucas, 2006). Gaining admission and staying enrolled has been
problematic for African American students throughout much of the history of higher education
(Cohen, 1998; Lucas, 2006). Almost 400 years after the creation of postsecondary education in
the United States, African Americans continue to face obstacles and challenges. The following
is a brief overview of the history of access to higher education and the persistent challenges for
African Americans in postsecondary education.
Early Access to Higher Education
In the early years of the American system of higher learning, African Americans, Jews,
and women were systematically excluded from opportunities to achieve higher education (Lucas,
2006). For African Americans specifically, systematic exclusion from higher education was
utilized as a means to maintain power and control over a racial-ethnic group (Ladson-Billings,
1998). African Americans’ exclusion from higher education “appear[ed] both normal and
natural to people in this culture” (Ladson-Billings, 1998, p.11). From the late 1700s to the mid-
1800s, education was afforded to very few African Americans (Lucas, 2006). In the Southern
states, it was illegal to teach African Americans how to read and write, much less allow them to
enter universities (Lucas, 2006). In the South, “Prevailing opinion held that blacks were
inherently inferior to whites, that the obvious differences favoring whites over blacks were innate
and unalterable, hence no good purpose was served by attempting to pretend otherwise” (Lucas,
2006, p.165). These perceptions and the desire to become educated are what led to the creation
of Historically Black Colleges and Universities.

ATTAINING SUCCESS 26
The Need for Historically Black Colleges and Universities
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were created as an avenue for
higher education for African Americans. These institutions offered African Americans
opportunities to be educated, while isolated from White students. During segregation, these
institutions were created as a means to educate and train the African American population in
agriculture and engineering (Cohen, 1998; Lucas, 2006). These institutions were also supported
by a number of religious organizations and White-owned businesses that sought to not only
enhance the education of African Americans, but also create better workers (Lucas, 2006). The
creation of HBCUs was also spurred in response to the Morrill Act of 1862 and the increasing
number of free African Americans who were not able to gain access to institutions of higher
education (Lucas, 2006). As a result of this act, states were required to provide “separate but
equal” institutions for African Americans.
Today, African Americans attend HBCUs at much lower rates than they attend
predominantly White institutions (Blackmon & Blackmon, 2006; Knapp, Kelly-Reid, Ginder, &
Miller, 2008). The Thurgood Marshall Report (2006) on public Historically Black Colleges and
Universities noted that only 199,757 students enrolled in a public HBCU, while 6,955,048
attended a public, predominantly White institution (Blackmon & Blackmon, 2006; Knapp, Kelly-
Reid, Ginder, & Miller, 2008). However, researchers have found HBCUs to be more conducive
to African American student learning, fostering sense of belonging, and preparation for future
career goals and aspirations (Allen, 1992; DeSousa & Kuh, 1996; Kim & Conrad, 2006).
Research by Kim & Conrad (2006) found that HBCUs provide “a more collegial and supportive
learning environment for students and faculty” (p.401). Despite the lower number of students
ATTAINING SUCCESS 27
enrolled, HBCUs are still extremely valuable to the preparation, growth, and advancement of
African Americans in education and society (Kim & Conrad, 2006).
African Americans at Predominantly White Institutions
Research on the African American college student focuses greatly on their overall
collegiate experiences. Elements such as social involvement (Allen, 1985; Astin, 1984), campus
climate (D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993), identity development (Cross, 1991; Jackson, 2001;
Torres, Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper, 2003), and lack of academic preparation (Fries-Britt,
1998; Harper, 2005) are all aspects of the college-going experience that are addressed when
researching the African American college student. In this section, I will review some of the
areas studied on the experiences of African Americans at PWIs.
Social Engagement
Early research on African Americans at predominantly White institutions shows that
African Americans have a more difficult time acclimating to college than most other racial and
ethnic minority groups (Allen, 1985, 1993; D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; DeSousa & Kuh,
1996; Furr & Elling, 2002;). One of the key areas of difficulty is social involvement (Allen,
1985; D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; Jones et al., 2002). For African Americans, acclimating
to an environment where they are the minority can be difficult (D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993).
Due to feelings of alienation and need for supportive peers, some African American students
have indicated that it was more comfortable for them to maintain relationships with peers of
similar races (Fisher & Hartmann, 1995). While both White and African American students
believe that it is important to have interracial friendships, many are fearful of rejection from each
other (Fisher & Hartmann, 1995).
ATTAINING SUCCESS 28
D’Augelli & Hershberger (1993) examined the experiences of African American
undergraduates at a predominantly White institution. The researchers studied non-cognitive
dimensions that may influence African American students’ experiences on a predominantly
White campus. Utilizing a sample of 146 undergraduate students, 73 African American and 73
White, the researchers found that African American students were very likely to face problems
of cultural adjustment, isolation from other African Americans, and racism. They also found that
59% of African Americans had been verbally insulted, 43% felt they had been harassed, and only
11% reported having not heard a negative remark about African Americans on campus. In
addition to these findings, the researchers found African Americans struggled making personal
adjustments to living on campus and balancing family obligations (D’Augelli & Hershberger,
1993).
Fischer (2008) conducted a study on minority and non-minority students’ likelihood of
forming friendships with individuals outside of their race and found that higher levels of campus
diversity increased the likelihood of interracial friendships. The study was conducted on
approximately 4,000 White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American first-time freshmen. Results
showed that 76% of White students were less likely to have friends outside of their racial group.
This is in contrast with minority groups, as 58% of African Americans, 19% of Hispanics, and
36% of Asian Americans, who friends of similar racial ethnic backgrounds. These findings may
be attributed to a lack of campus diversity on predominantly White campuses, as individual
minority groups are smaller proportions of the general population (Fischer, 2008).
The Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) at the Higher Education
Research Institute at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) found similar results in
their 2009 College Senior Survey (CSS). Within this survey, the researchers learned students
ATTAINING SUCCESS 29
had both positive and negative experiences with peers of different racial and ethnic groups. The
results demonstrated that students of color had more positive interactions with peers of different
racial groups than White students (Franke, Ruiz, Sharkness, DeAngelo, & Pryor, 2010).
Approximately 53.2% of Asian Americans, 51.4% of Latinos, and 47% African Americans
expressed high rates of positive, cross-racial interactions with peers. By contrast, only 26.3% of
White students expressed positive cross-racial interactions. The study also showed that there
were significant negative experiences by minority students: 55.1% of African Americans, 47.4%
of Asian Americans, and 40.7% of Latinos expressed negative cross-racial interactions. But only
21.6% of White students expressed having negative cross-racial interactions. The researchers
attributed the results of White students to a lack of cross-racial interactions with students of color
(Franke et al., 2010).
As a result of their experiences within PWIs, some African Americans have learned to
successfully navigate through their collegiate experiences by creating their own social and
cultural groups to ameliorate their exclusion from the White-orientated campus (Allen, 1992).
Although it may be perceived as self-segregation, African Americans find comfort in interactions
with students of similar racial-ethnic background (Allen, 1992).
In contrast with earlier studies on African American students’ involvement and
interactions with peers, more recent studies are finding that African Americans are acclimating
better (Eimers, 2001; Fischer, 2008; Harper, 2009; Kinzie et al., 2008). As noted in Fisher’s
2008 study, African Americans and other racial and ethnic groups are having more positive
relationships with peers. Additionally, studies show African Americans are having more positive
collegiate experiences and even being more likely to persist if they are engaged in the campus
environment (Franke et al., 2010; Harper, 2009; Kuh et al., 2005). The 2009 College Senior
ATTAINING SUCCESS 30
Survey (CSS) conducted by Franke et al. (2010) is an example of the improving collegiate
experiences of African Americans on college campuses. This study showed that there is an
improvement in the overall social involvement experiences African Americans have (Eimiers,
2001; Franke et al., 2010).
Engaging Students: Involvement, Integration, and Engagement
Researchers have been studying student learning outside the classroom for over 30 years,
and continue to stress the importance of co-curricular learning to student retention, student
involvement, and overall satisfaction (Astin, 1984; Kuh et al., 1991; Tinto, 1993; Pascarelli &
Terenzini, 2005). Students benefit from participation in activities that are socially and
academically based (Tinto, 1993). As a result, many institutions have created programs like
learning communities, cultural centers, and undergraduate research opportunities to generate
other avenues to learning and engagement (Tinto, 2012). These programs and activities create
opportunities for students to become involved or integrated, which is important to helping
students stay enrolled (Harper, 2009; Kuh et al., 2005; Tinto, 2012). Programs created to support
degree completion are important to African Americans (Harper, 2009). Through effective
program planning and implementation, these programs can benefit at-risk student populations by
attempting to counteract some of the challenges students have when attending college (Kinzie et
al., 2008; Kuh et al., 2005; Tinto, 2012).
The Origins of Engagement
Theory of Student Involvement
Engagement is a concept that has grown from previous studies of student involvement
(Astin, 1984) and student integration (Tinto, 1993). Student involvement, originally defined by
ATTAINING SUCCESS 31
Astin (1984), is “The amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to
the academic experience” (p.518). The theory is made up of five postulates:
1. Involvement refers to the investment of physical and psychological energy in
various objects
2. Regardless of the object involvement occurs upon a continuum
3. Involvement has both quantitative and qualitative features. Time can be
quantitative and comprehension can be qualitative
4. The amount of student learning and personal development associated with any
educational program is directly proportional to the quality and quantity of student
involvement in that program
5. The effectiveness of any educational policy or practice is directly related to the
capacity of that policy or practice to increase student involvement

Astin’s (1984) theory of student involvement looks at the ways in which we can quantify
or qualify student behavior. The theory does not seek to understand a student’s motivation for
becoming involved or their emotions as a result of the involvement (Astin, 1984). The theory
“implies more than just a psychological state; it connotes the behavioral manifestation of that
state” (p.522). According to Astin (1984), a highly involved student would be characterized as
someone who devotes “considerable energy to studying, spends much time on campus,
participates actively in student organizations, and interacts frequently with faculty members and
other students” (p.518). In contrast, Astin (1984) describes a student who is uninvolved as
someone who “neglects studies, spends little time on campus, abstains from extracurricular
activities, and has infrequent contact with faculty members or other students” (p. 519). Astin
(1984) focuses on the behavioral component of student behavior because he believes that this is
more beneficial to educational practitioners who can better determine if students are either
involved or not.
The concept of involvement is important for the premise of this study, as it is one of the
foundational components to engagement (Kuh et al., 1991; Tinto, 2012). Before we are able to
create the conditions in which students can be engaged, we have to involve them in the various
ATTAINING SUCCESS 32
resources available. Institutions that are able to successfully retain students, especially at-risk
populations like African Americans, are able to create the conditions under which students can at
least be involved and subsequently engaged in their college experience (Kuh et al., 2005; Harper,
2009; Harper & Quaye, 2009). This study examined some of these resources available and
conditions that aid successful students.
Theory of Student Integration
Another theory important to understanding student engagement is Tinto’s theory of
student integration (1993). Tinto’s (1993) research on the undergraduate student experience
addresses two distinct areas: academic and social integration. He defines academic integration as
a focus on the formal aspects of student education, during which activities are centered about
classrooms and laboratories within the institution (Tinto, 1993). Social integration incorporates
students’ educational experiences that take place outside of the classroom and involve
experiences with faculty, staff members, and peers (Tinto, 1993).
Tinto’s theory of social integration has been criticized for its lack of incorporation of
racial and ethnic minorities, and its focus on traditional students (Guiffrida, 2005; Wolf-Wendel,
Ward, & Kinzie, 2009). Yet the premise of his theory still holds strong in some cases, as
theories of student involvement and engagement substantiate the need for students to be both
socially and academically involved (Kuh et al., 2005; Pascarelli & Terenzini, 2005). This theory
provides insight for practitioners when creating and developing programs and tools for students
to engage.
Yet solely focusing on the reasons students become involved in co-curricular activities to
successfully integrate is not enough (Kuh et al., 1991, 2005; Harper, 2009). African American
students in particular need more than to just be integrated into the campus to succeed (Kuh et al.,
ATTAINING SUCCESS 33
2005). They need to be purposefully involved, supported, and connected to the campus.
Although guidance provided by the theory of integration and involvement can inform
practitioners on how to better support students’ educational pursuits, it misses important
components. The theory fails to look at the intersections of engagement and racial identity,
which researchers find are important to the student experience (Guiffrida, 2006). More
specifically, the theory overlooks the impact of areas like culture, generational status, and
ethnicity. As demonstrated in Figure 1, retention takes place when the combined components of
integration and involvement lead to engagement.
Figure 1. Factors that Lead to Retention

Student Engagement
This study examined the impact of engagement on African American student retention
and success. Engagement, developed and highly studied by Kuh et al. (1991, 2005), is a concept
that addresses the impact that students’ out-of-classroom participation has on their overall
educational experiences in college. Engagement was made up of two concepts: learning and
personal development (Kuh et al., 1991). Learning was defined as students’ acquisition of
knowledge and skills that are a part of the educational mission of the institution (Kuh et al.,
ATTAINING SUCCESS 34
1991). Personal development was defined as the values and skills that help individuals have a
greater understanding of self, with a particular focus and appreciation of the similarities and
differences between ourselves and others (Kuh et al., 1991). Learning and personal development
are attributes that Kuh et al. (1991) found to be vital to students’ ability to succeed in college and
stay enrolled. These concepts led to the overall concept of engagement (Kuh et al., 2005).
Impact of Engagement
The concept of engagement has advanced from learning and personal development to two
critical components. They are the “amount of time and effort students put into their studies and
other activities that lead to the experiences and outcomes that constitute student success” (Kuh et
al. 2005, p.9), and “the way the institution allocates resources and organizes learning
opportunities and services to induce students to participate in and benefit from such activities”
(Kuh et al. 2005, p.9). Engagement as defined by Kuh et al. (2005) has some similarities to
social integration and involvement. This is in large part due to increase in information on what
students need to both succeed and persist in college. Kuh et al. (2005) expanded the notion of
engagement as not only consisting of the attributes that students have which cause them to be
engaged, but including the effort and resources institutions provide to ensure that students are
actively engaged in their educational experiences.
Kuh et al.’s (2005) research is largely based on findings from the National Survey of
Student Engagement (NSSE), through which they seek to learn about effective educational
practices. Through their survey work and research, they have determined five benchmarks of
educational practices that impact student engagement:
1. Level of Academic Challenge: focuses on that amount of intellectual challenge the
institution provides to students. This involves the amount of engagement in academic
activities (e.g. preparing for class, reading and writing, an institutional environment
that emphasizes studying and academic performance)
ATTAINING SUCCESS 35

2. Active Collaborative Learning: looks to the applicability of student learning to
various settings and collaboration with others in solving problems (e.g. asking
questions in class, making presentations in class, working with classmates outside of
class, tutoring or teaching others)

3. Student Interactions with Faculty Members: looks to understand the levels and types
of interactions that students have with faculty members (e.g. discussing grades,
talking about career aspirations, working with faculty on research)

4. Enriching Educational Experiences: seeks to know the enriching experiences
students have had (e.g. interacting with students of different religions or political
backgrounds, talking with students of a different race, being in an institutional climate
that encourages students from various backgrounds)

5. Supportive Campus Environments: looks to discover the ways in which the campus
provides students with an environment that helps them succeed (e.g. helps students
succeed in academics, cope with out-of-classroom responsibilities, thrive socially,
promotes healthy relationships between various stakeholders)

Various researchers have demonstrated that student engagement in student programs and
activities is an important component to a positive student experience (Harper, 2009; Harper and
Quaye, 2009; Kinzie et al., 2008). Through engagement, practitioners focus on what students
gain from their educational experiences versus simply participating in various activities (Kuh et
al., 2005). More attention is given to the relationships students have with peers, staff, and
faculty, as these interactions are also important to their engagement (Flowers, 2004). For
African American students, in particular, engagement is positively linked to overall collegiate
success (Strayhorn & DeVita, 2010). Strayhorn’s (2008) research on African American students
supports Kuh et al.’s (2005) findings that success in college is more likely to occur when
students engage in educationally purposeful activities and have frequent interactions with others.
Appropriately engaging students is key to increasing the likelihood of retention, integration, and
overall satisfaction with the college (Harper, 2009; Kuh et al., 2005; Strayhorn & DeVita, 2010).
ATTAINING SUCCESS 36
Racial and Ethnic Minority Student Engagement
As discussed by Tinto (2012), engagement is perhaps one of the most important
conditions for student success. Yet racial and ethnic minority students are more likely to face
challenges in the college setting than White students (Ancis et al., 2002; Harper, 2009).
Minority students are more likely to experience loneliness, feel they have to prove themselves to
faculty and peers, and deal with a campus climate that may not be supportive (Fries-Britt &
Turner, 2001; Hurtado, 1992; Quaye, Tambascia, & Talesh, 2009). Engaging in the campus
environment can be challenging for this group, as “Minority students confront subtle and overt
racism and discrimination both in and out of classrooms” (Haysbert & Williams, 2007, p. 55).
Institutions with environments that ensure all students succeed have settings in which racial and
ethnic minorities are able to achieve and engage (Harpe & Quaye, 2009; Kuh et al., 1991, 2005;
Tinto, 2012). These supportive environments positively encourage the interactions of various
diverse groups and embrace diversity (Haysbert & Williams, 2007).
African American Student Engagement
While the general concept of engagement has been researched significantly in higher
education research, African American student engagement has only been briefly touched upon
(Tinto, 1993; Pascarelli and Terenzini, 2005; Kuh et al., 1991, 2005). African Americans who
are engaged in the undergraduate experience are more likely to stay in college and be engaged
(Harper, 2009). Engagement positively impacts all students, as those who are engaged are more
likely than those who are disengaged to succeed academically (Harper, 2009; Harper and Quaye,
2009; Kuh et al., 1991, 2005; Tinto, 1993). Current research shows that African Americans who
are highly engaged actually persist at higher levels than White students (Kinzie et al., 2008;
Harper, 2009). Yet despite the more recent findings, pervasive issues that lead to attrition still
ATTAINING SUCCESS 37
impact students’ likelihood to stay (Harper, 2009). “Race-conscious student engagement can
compel more racial minority students to reflect on powerful learning opportunities, institutional
enablers of achievement, and outcomes-productive experiences” (Harper, 2009, p. 38).
Institutional Fit
Despite the powerful impact of engagement on the overall student educational
experience, engagement can only take place if students feel like they fit in. Research has
demonstrated that some of the areas which affect students’ overall satisfaction with their college
experience and their institutional fit are campus culture (Solarzano et al., 2000) and student-
faculty interactions (Fries-Britt, 2000; Tinto, 1993). When students are not satisfied or feel
stereotyped and excluded (Guiffrida, 2005), this feeling of “not fitting in” and lack of connection
to the campus community leads to student departure (Tinto, 1993).
Student-Faculty Relationships
Student-faculty interactions are a crucial component to student engagement, experiences,
and overall collegiate satisfaction (Fries-Britt, 2000; Tinto, 1993). Students who interact with
faculty are more likely to have increased gains, socially and academically, than students who do
not (Flowers, 2003; Schreiner et al., 2011). For African American students, these interactions
have been shown to either decrease or increase the likelihood of their success (Cole, 2010; Fries-
Britt, 2000). Interactions with faculty, especially African American faculty members, positively
impact African American students’ experiences on campus. Schreiner et al. (2011) found one of
the main reasons for students’ success was entering college with a mentor. Some students spoke
at length about a faculty or staff member who had given “them the confidence that they needed
to succeed” (Schreiner et al., 2011, p. 322). A student’s frequent interaction with faculty leads to
an enhanced likelihood to express satisfaction with the collegiate experience (Astin, 1984).
ATTAINING SUCCESS 38
African American students who have favorable interactions with faculty members are more
likely to stay enrolled and have higher grades than those who do not (Allen, 1985; Furr & Elling,
2002).
Student interactions with faculty members are considered one of the core components of
positive student engagement (DeSousa & Kuh, 1996; Hu & Kuh, 2002; Kinzie et al., 2008).
Some research indicates that interactions between African American students and faculty are
both infrequent and not as beneficial to student success as they are with non-minority students
(Guiffrida, 2005). Researchers have noted that African Americans tend to have interactions with
faculty members that negatively impact their faculty/student relationships inside and outside of
the classroom (Cole, 2010; Guiffrida, 2005; Harper & Hurtado, 2007).
Research also shows that African American students have difficulty forming relationships
with White faculty. Guiffrida (2005) found African Americans have a more challenging time
forming relationships with White faculty because they view them as non-realistic role models,
have difficulty making connections, and view them as being culturally insensitive. Some
students experience “accusations of intellectual inferiority” in academic settings (Harper &
Hurtado, 2007, p.13). African Americans especially report many instances of being attacked or
accused of being intellectually inferior (Harper & Hurtado, 2007). Both high-achieving and
average-achieving minority students have impactful personal experiences in which they can
recall a lack of both support and guidance from faculty (Cole, 2010). Studies found that minority
students are negatively impacted by racist assumptions within their classrooms. As a result,
some feel that faculty members are not willing to intermingle with them, even if the topics are
related to academics (Cole, 2010). Many feel that faculty members have less respect for racial
ethnic minority groups than they do for White students (Ancis et al., 2000). Some students have
ATTAINING SUCCESS 39
even spoken about feeling invisible in classrooms and being held to lower expectations
(Solorzano et al., 2000). These negative interactions instill a sense of self-doubt in some African
Americans and subsequently cause their academic confidence to erode (Solorzano et al., 2000).
Students subsequently feel that they have to protect and defend themselves against peers and
faculty members who diminish their abilities. As a result of the internalization of stereotypes of
academic inferiority, African American college students face more challenges within the college
environment (Aronson et al., 2002; Solorzano et al., 2002).
A common finding within the research on African American students and their
interactions with faculty has been the desire to receive support (Cole 2008, 2010; Fries-Britt,
2000; Guriffrida, 2005; Schreiner et al., 2011). Personal and academic advising, advocacy, and
strong mentorship, were considered among the important types of support African American
students desired most (Guriffrida, 2005). Fries-Britt (2000) noted:
When faculty members assume that students are capable and have something to
contribute, they help eliminate some of the barriers that minority students often encounter
in the academy. The more a faculty member is able to establish a relationship based on
mutual respect and not out of obligation, the greater the likelihood the student will
consider the faculty member’s interest as genuine and sincere (p. 62).

The Role of Professional Staff
Like faculty members, professional staff in student services have a pronounced impact on
student retention and success. Student services are a critical component to the student
experience because they provide many of the programs and services found to be important to
student success (Harper, 2009; Kinze & Kuh, 2004; Kuh et al., 2005; Tinto, 1993). The
responsibility of student retention and programs on many campuses in managed by professional
staff members in student services (Kuh et al., 2005). Yet much of the literature fails to take note
of the vital role that student services professionals play when it comes to student retention.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 40
As noted by Tinto (1993), in What Works in Retaining Students, most if not all of the
areas that require attention to improving student retention involve student affairs professionals.
Areas such as orientation, first-year transition programs, community building, faculty and staff
mentoring programs, and academic advising all involve the work of professional staff members.
Yet he only goes on to allude to the importance of professional staff when referring to the
importance of academic advising, the higher reliance of institutions on advising on professional
staffs, and the necessity of professional training for counselors regardless of prior experience.
He also referenced the importance of staff members to program development, but noted them
more as a secondary component to faculty involvement.
Kuh et al. (2005), in contrast, highlighted the important role of student affairs
professionals in promoting student success. He found that at institutions that are effective at
increasing student success, student services are “responsible for establishing the campus
conditions that affirm students and for providing the programs and services to meet their
academic and social needs outside the classroom” (Kuh et al., 2005, p.164). At institutions that
promote success, student service professionals are expected to collaboratively work with other
administrative departments in the retention of students (Kuh et al., 2005; Kinze & Kuh, 2004).
Harper (2009) further emphasized the importance of student services and their role to
enrich the educational experiences of students. In his work, Harper (2009) noted that expecting
students to be actively engaged in their undergraduate experiences unfairly puts the
responsibility on the students. As discussed by Kuh et al. (2005) and Kinze & Kuh (2004),
institutions that successfully engage students take responsibility for student engagement. Harper
(2009) discussed the importance of staff understanding their roles as agents for enriching
educational experiences in addition to supporting and creating opportunities for student success.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 41
National Academic Advising Association (NACADA) is an organization created to
promote the enhancement of student learning and development, and academic advisors are
important facilitators of student development (NACADA, n.d.). The organization’s core values
hold academic advisors responsible to the students they serve and to their institutions.
Supporting students’ transition to postsecondary education, helping them set realistic goals and
expectations, and encouraging them is how NACADA aims to accomplish its goals (NACADA,
n.d.). Professional staff feel connected to the environment and how they feel treated by peers,
staff, and faculty members (Harper & Hurtado, 2007; Hurtado, 1992; Rankin & Reason, 2005).
Campus Climate
Campus climate is defined as the perception one may have of an organization based on
the evaluations a person makes about their environment (Reid & Radhakrishnan, 2003). More
specifically, racial campus climate is a student’s perceptions of their campus climate as a racial
and ethnic minority (Reid & Radhakrishnan, 2003). The impact of campus climate has a
significant effect on student satisfaction and retention (Ancis et al., 2000). Students’ overall
experiences on college campuses are tied to the climate of the campus, the ways in which they
feel connected to the environment, and how they feel treated by peers, staff, and faculty members
(Ancis et al, 2000; Baker & Robnett, 2012; Harper & Hurtado, 2007; Hurtado, 1992; Rankin &
Reason, 2005; Reid & Radhakrishnan, 2003).
Successfully transitioning to the college environment is paramount to student success.
Positive transition experiences are important for student involvement, academic achievement,
and overall success (Allen, 1985; Rankin & Reason, 2005). African American students’
experiences at PWIs are affected by their interactions on campus (Ancis et al., 2000; Baker &
Robnett, 2012; Reid & Radhakrishnan, 2003). An inhospitable climate is tied to students’
ATTAINING SUCCESS 42
likelihood to persist or not (Morrow et al., 2000). As a result, having a positive or a negative
campus view can impact academic performance and dropout rates (Morrow et al., 2000;
Solorzano, 2000).
A recurring theme in campus climate research is the impact of the campus environment
on minority students’ experience. In Morrow et al.’s (2000) study, researchers utilized a mixed
methods approach to gain an understanding of the perceptions of diversity and campus
environment by different racial/ethnic groups at a private university. The results of the study
showed that 77% of students were either satisfied or very satisfied with the racial harmony on
their campus and the degree of satisfaction was the same for all racial groups. However, when
their data was further disaggregated there was a difference among racial/ethnic groups, as 18%
of African Americans, 9% of Latinos, and 7% of White students were dissatisfied with the racial
harmony of the campus. These results demonstrated that while there was general satisfaction
with the racial harmony on the campus, minority students were still more likely than non-
minorities to be dissatisfied with the racial climate on campus. Additionally, the researchers
found that 31% of African Americans, 16% of Latinos, and 8% of White students perceived that
faculty was somewhat insensitive or not sensitive at all to them. These results also demonstrate
that minority students were more likely to have negative perceptions of faculty members than
non-minorities. African Americans in this study were the least inclined to have positive
perceptions of racial harmony and faculty member sensitivity, while White, Latino, and Asian
American students felt differently. Overall, a majority of the students who participated in this
study were satisfied with the racial dynamics of the campus and felt the campus and faculty were
sensitive to racial harmony (Morrow et al., 2000).
ATTAINING SUCCESS 43
Similarly, in Rankin & Reason’s (2005) study on the perceptions of campus climate by
students of color and White students, students of color were more likely to perceive the campus
as being racially hostile than White students. Conducted at 10 institutions and utilizing
quantitative methods, the study demonstrated the variety of perceptions based on students’
racial/ethnic and gender backgrounds. In the Morrow et al. (2000) study, minorities had more
negative experiences than non-minorities on their college campus. The researchers found 25%
of all students had experienced some form of harassment in college. Yet 33% of students of
color stated that they had experienced harassment and at least 51% had seen others being
harassed. Interestingly, 85% of the harassment witnessed by students of color consisted of
derogatory comments. This study also found that 63.9% of students of color found the campus
to be friendly, 48.1% perceived the campus to be respectful, and 49.6% saw the classroom as
welcoming to underrepresented students. While a third of students of color had been harassed
and a little over 51% witnessed harassment, a large portion still felt that the campus was
supportive.
While most research on campus climate focuses more on the negative experiences, few
reference the positive impacts of campus climate. Saenz, Ngai, & Hurtado (2007) found in their
research on campus climate among racial/ethnic minorities that there are many benefits to a
diverse college campus. While much research on campus climates has found negative
experiences for minority students, they learned that a supportive campus is highly beneficial
(Saenz et al., 2007). Supportive campuses also positively impact their interactions with students
of different racial/ethnic backgrounds (Saenz et al., 2007). Some of the main characteristics of
positive campus climates are institutions that provide support with campus-facilitated initiatives
that focus on diversity, opportunities for informal peer relationships, and an overall supportive
ATTAINING SUCCESS 44
environment (Saenz et al., 2007). Perceptions of campus climates and experiences can impact a
student’s likelihood to stay enrolled or decided to leave college without completing their degree.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework that guided the work of this study examines three dimensions
of the retention and engagement process. The first is the identity development process of
African Americans, using William Cross’s Black identity development model, as this helped
decipher some of perceptions that African American students have of themselves, the campus
community, and the interactions that they will have with others. The second dimension that was
explored is the retention and departure process. This was done through the use of Tinto’s (1993)
theory of student departure, as his theory provides empirical evidence on the student departure
and retention process. Lastly, the impact of the engagement process as developed by Kuh et al.
(2005) in their research Documenting Effective Educational Practice (DEEP), which looks at
institutions that have been able to successfully retain and engage students, will provide an
extensive foundation for this research. Their work has looked at many components of
institutional success and retention by specifically looking at qualities that successful institutions
have.
Black Racial Identity Development
While this study did not focus specifically on the identity development process of African
Americans, aspects of identity have an impact on the perceptions that African Americans have as
minority students. Cross’ (1991) Nigrescence theory of Black identity development, as
previously discussed, describes the process by which African Americans progress to form their
racial identity. There are five stages of the theory: 1) Pre-Encounter 2) Encounter 3) Immersion-
Emersion 4) Internalization and 5) Internalization-Commitment.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 45
Stage 1: Pre-Encounter stage is described as the stage in which race does not play a
salient role in an individual’s life. At this stage, an individual may have a more dominant
identity, like religion or gender. An individual at this stage is also very likely to have low-
salience attitudes, see race as a social stigma, and potentially view being an African American as
a negative attribute and have a pro-White identity (Cross, 1991).
Stage 2: Encounter stage is the stage in which a person’s identity begins to change. At
this point in the identity development process an individual has a sort of encounter, or turning
point, at which they begin to examine the issue of race, their position as an African American,
and what it means to them personally. This metamorphosis usually takes place when an
individual encounters a dramatic event, such as police brutality, hate crime, or meeting someone
who is at a more advanced stage of nigrescence (Cross, 1991).
Stage 3: Immersion-Emersion is the stage in which individuals make progress towards a
unified and clear African American identity. In the immersion-emersion stage, individuals are
highly drawn to cultural figures and activities that are representatives of their new identity
(clothing, hair styles, music; Cross, 1991).
Stage 4: Internalization is the stage in which an individual begins to form a clear identity.
In this stage of the theory, individuals have abundant pride and self-acceptance as African
Americans. African Americans who have reached the internalization stage feel less animosity
towards White people as individuals, and begin to feel dislike toward oppressive and controlling
systems.
Stage 5: Internalization-Commitment is the stage in which an individual has a superior
amount of acceptance of self for who they are as an African American and sustain this concept of
Blackness over long periods of time, and potentially over a lifetime.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 46
This theory was originally created in 1971 in reaction to the civil rights movement and
the change in identity of African Americans from one of self-hatred to one of self-love. Some
critiques of the theory are that it is devised in reaction to Whites and “whiteness” in society
(Evans et al., 2009), and not as a natural process of maturity. The model does not account for
individuals who may naturally progress through the theory and do not encounter a sort of “crisis”
(Akbar, 1989).
Tinto’s Theory of Student Departure
Tinto’s (1993) theory of student departure looks at the various components that lead a
student to either persist or depart. As noted in Figure 2, students enter the institution with
particular attributes that eventually lead to their decision to depart or persist. This theory was
utilized to examine some of the dynamics that lead students to persist toward graduation or
depart from the institution. More specifically, the theory was used to examine students’
experiences, and determine what factors lead to their success and attrition.
The theory, based on the premise of Durkheim’s theory on suicide, looks at the ways in
which colleges influence student departure. The theory looks at pre-entry attributes,
goals/commitments (1), institutional experiences, integration, goals/commitment, (2) and
subsequent outcomes. The pre-entry attributes studied in this theory are family background,
skills and abilities, and prior school. These attributes, which vary across all students, are the
things that students bring with them to the institution. These are factors which the institution
must account for in all students. The goals/commitments section is a formulation of the
intentions and commitments students have in regards to their future educational activities (Tinto,
1993). The institutional experience section of the model looks at the experiences students have
within the institution. More specifically, this section of the model looks at the formal and
ATTAINING SUCCESS 47
informal interactions that students have with individuals within the institution, like faculty, staff,
and other students. Similarly, the next section, integration, as previously described, also looks at
the social and academic integrations the students have that are important to student retention.
This then leads to a reassessment of goals and commitments, which subsequently leads to a
decision to either depart or persist.
Figure 2. Tinto’s Model of Institutional Departure

Increasing Student Engagement
As the literature has shown, engagement is a critical component to student retention.
Institutions that successfully engage students have an increased likelihood of persistence (Kuh et
al., 2005). With the research conducted by Kuh et al. (2005), Harper (2009), and Harper &
Quaye (2009), there are clear indicators of the positive impact that engagement can have on
African American student success and retention within predominantly White institutions. For
the purposes of this study, we will presume that the “amount of time and effort students put into
their studies and other activities that lead to the experiences and outcomes that constitute student
ATTAINING SUCCESS 48
success” (Kuh et al. 2005, p.9) and “the way the institution allocates resources and organizes
learning opportunities and services to induce students to participate in and benefit from such
activities” (Kuh et al. 2005, p.9) as the defining concepts of engagement. In Figure 3, which was
inspired by Kuh et al.’s (2005) work on student engagement, there are various areas and
components that can lead students to be engaged. As a result, this study focused on the
experiences of African American students within areas of engagement and the factors that have
led them to persist in college.
Figure 3. Model of Student Engagement

Summary of the Literature
Research has shown there are numerous obstacles to African American student retention
(Allen, 1985; D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; Kinzie et al., 2008; Morrow et al., 2000). For
many, their interactions with faculty (Fries-Britt, 2000; Tinto, 1993), their fit within the
ATTAINING SUCCESS 49
institutions (Solarzano et al., 2000), the campus climate (Ancis et al., 2000; Hurtado, 1992), and
their integration (Tinto, 1993) are all factors that can positively and negatively affect their
retention. However, the literature has demonstrated that creating conditions that foster student
retention and success can be done through student engagement (Harper, 2009). Creating
opportunities for this student population to be engaged is a proven mechanism that can lead to
their successful retention (Kuh et al, 2005). Learning about the ways in which to successfully
engage African Americans can lead to more satisfaction and overall retention (Harper, 2009).
This is especially necessary for those who attend moderately selective institutions, who, as
discussed in chapter 1, may encounter less supportive environments and may not be as prepared
for the college experience as their peers. In Chapter 3, I will discuss the methodology that was
utilized to examine the factors that lead this segment of the student population to successfully
engage and persist within a moderately selective institution.

ATTAINING SUCCESS 50
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS
Chapter Overview
In chapter 2, we discussed the challenging collegiate experiences of African American
students. The literature showed that these students face significant obstacles to successfully
completing their college degree due to factors like campus climate, student-faculty relationships,
and student involvement (Baker & Robnett, 2012; Cole, 2010; Tinto, 2012). However, the
literature does not demonstrate the ways in which African American college students are
successfully completing their bachelor’s degrees (Harper, 2009). In this study, I sought to
understand how African American college students are remaining enrolled and engaged at a
public, mid-sized, and moderately selective institution. The following research questions guided
this study:
Main Research Question:
1. What underlying factors contribute to the retention and engagement of African American
college students at a public, mid-sized institution?
Sub-Research Questions:
2. How has engagement and involvement impacted African American student success at
this institution?
3. How does racial identity impact African American students’ ability to succeed?
The purpose of this chapter is to present the research methodology utilized for this study. First, I
will provide an overview of the research design used in this study, with a focus on the
importance of qualitative research in attaining greater insight into individuals’ experiences.
Secondly, I will discuss sample selection and recruitment, instrumentation and tools, and the data
collection and analysis process that was utilized. Lastly, I will address the role of the researcher.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 51
Research Design
To address the research questions, I utilized a qualitative research design. This type of
research goes beyond the surface of individuals’ experiences and seeks to attain a greater
understanding of what makes people who they are. Instead of seeking out unilateral components
of our personalities and experiences, qualitative research seizes the opportunity to go into greater
depth (Patton, 2002). The main objective of this type of research is to attain an understanding of
the phenomena from the participant’s perspective (Merriam, 1998). In contrast to quantitative
studies, which look at a phenomenon and examine individual parts, qualitative research generates
understanding of an individual’s total experience (Merriam, 1998).
Qualitative research aims to “build abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, or theories rather
than test existing theory” (Merriam, 1998, p.7). Instead of trying to prove an idea or
phenomenon, qualitative research looks into an area and attempts to build upon it. It generates a
hypothesis through fieldwork, interviews, observation, and document analysis rather than
proving a hypothesis (Patton, 2002). Through these methods, a story is created and a vision of
the whole individual or communities can be fashioned. These methods provide a picture of the
phenomenon studied and a comprehensive and holistically descriptive story (Merriam, 1998).
When the goal of a study is to attain a deeper understanding of a phenomenon, a case
study methodology is the most appropriate (Yin, 2003). Conducting a case study is the best
means by which to learn about a site when the overall goal is to learn about a contemporary
phenomenon occurring. This is especially the case when the goal of the research is to describe
the population, context of the study, attain insights, and illuminate meanings that can expand our
knowledge base (Merriam, 1998). Yet one of the most important reasons for using a case study
method is its ability to reveal a phenomenon previously unnoticed (Merriam, 1998). Case
ATTAINING SUCCESS 52
studies can provide us with information on a variety of human experiences and circumstances
that can be beneficial to stakeholders, administrators, faculty, staffs, and students.
I used a qualitative case study approach to understand the factors that lead African
American college students to succeed and stay in college. This approach was chosen for its
ability to provide a greater understanding of the experiences of engaged African American
college students with a specific focus on how these factors have helped keep them retained.
Looking specifically at one institution, this method provided greater insight into the factors that
lead this traditionally at-risk, minority student group to succeed. Individual, in-depth interviews
were conducted with students, faculty, and staff members to attain a greater understanding of the
circumstances and choices that have led African Americans to both stay in school and do well.
Research Site
Site Selection
Because this research focused on the factors that help African Americans stay enrolled in
college, I identified a moderately selective institution that had one of the highest rates of African
American student graduation among public universities in the state. When comparing the
African American graduation rates to other moderately selective, public institutions, this
institution was one of the top three. Selecting this type of institution was intentional; a highly
selective institution was not chosen because students who attend these types of institutions tend
to graduate at higher rates than those who attend moderately selective institutions. Their
increased likelihood to graduate could be attributed to numerous factors, such as students’ prior
academic performance (Astin & Oseguera, 2005), confounding the understanding of how factors
such as engagement and student services may help African Americans persist toward graduation.
The aim of this study was to attain a greater understanding of how average African American
ATTAINING SUCCESS 53
college students are able to successfully persist and graduate from college. And because most
African Americans attend PWIs that are moderately selective institutions, selecting a moderately
selective institution was the best fit for the purpose of this study. Furthermore, a moderately
selective institution that is doing well at retaining its students in comparison to similar
institutions can provide insight into the practices of both students and the institution that support
persistence.
The institution was selected based on retention rates published through the Integrated
Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and the Education Trust’s College Results
Online (CRO) database. These systems were utilized because of their accuracy and reliability.
Utilizing the IPEDS data system, the institution was selected based on size (20,000+ students),
its status as granting primarily degrees at baccalaureate level or above, and its presence in the
state of California. Once these parameters were set, graduation rates for each type of institution
were analyzed, and institutions were chosen for their high percentage of African American
student retention. Further inquiry, utilizing the CRO database, also demonstrated that in
comparison to other similar moderately selective institutions, this institution had one of the
highest graduation rates for African American students.
Site Description
Established in the early 1900s, California University (Cal U) is a mid-sized, public
institution located in Southern California. Cal U is a diverse institution, with White students
representing about a quarter of the student body, and Asian American students making up
another 25%. Underrepresented students are approximately 35% of the student body, with
African Americans at almost 4%, Latinos slightly over 30%, and Native Americans under 1%.
With the significant percentage of Latino students enrolled, Cal U has been designated a
ATTAINING SUCCESS 54
Hispanic Serving Institution. The institution has a greater percentage of men than women, with
approximately 40% of the student body being female and almost 60% male. This may be
attributed to the fact that the institution has a high number of STEM Science, Technology,
Engineering, Mathematics programs, majors that are traditionally male dominated. The
institution has approximately 20,000 students and offers Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in the
areas of Agriculture, Business Administration, Management, Education, Engineering, Letters,
Arts and Social Sciences, and Science. The institution has an undergraduate acceptance rate of
approximately 50% (College Results Online, 2010), which qualifies the campus as a moderately
selective institution. For admission, the campus has a minimum high school grade point average
requirement of 2.0, does not require SAT and ACT scores for higher-achieving students, and
traditionally accepts students from the top one-third of the high school graduating class. This
institution does not require standardized test results from applicants with grade point averages
above 3.0.
There are other similarly typed institutions with higher rates of African American student
populations. Yet those institutions were not selected because of significantly lower graduation
rates for African American students. As noted by College Results Online (2010), the overall
student retention rate at Cal U is 57% and for African Americans it is 53%. Approximately 61%
of African American female and 45% of African American male students graduate within six
years. Other institutions that are similar to Cal U have overall student retention rates between
30% and 55%. Yet their overall African American retention rates are between 15% and 50%
(College Results Online, 2010). This made the selection of Cal U the best choice for this study.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 55
Participants
Sampling & Recruitment
Sample selection. Purposeful sampling entails carefully choosing participants that can
best contribute to developing rich description for the study (Patton, 2002). The primary sample
of this study was comprised of African American undergraduates who are succeeding
academically and engaged at Cal U. However, staff and faculty interviews were also conducted
to supplement the information gathered from student interviews. Academic success was
determined by their cumulative grade point average, and engagement was identified by the
number of hours students participate in a co-curricular activity on campus. The benchmark for
academic success was determined by the grade point average required for honors at this
institution. The minimum grade point average required for the honors program is a 3.3. Based
on this standard, this study required a minimum of 3.0 (B average) for participation. This was to
account for students who were doing well academically, yet may not be in the honors program.
This information was collected via the Pre-Interview Survey (Appendix D). Also, being actively
engaged is important for the purposes of this study, as Harper’s (2009) and Kuh et al.’s (2005)
research has demonstrated that students’ out-of-classroom experiences are important for their
collegiate success. Students were required to meet the following criteria to be selected for
participation:
 Ethnicity: Students must identify themselves as African American or Black.
 Enrollment Status: Students must have been admitted as first-time freshman to the
institution and enrolled in their 3
rd
, 4
th
,5
th
, or 6
th
year in college. These criteria are
specified because 1) transfer students have had less time at the institution and may
have too many variables that may account for their success and 2) students at a later
ATTAINING SUCCESS 56
stage of their education may have a greater understanding of what has contributed to
their success thus far.
 Academic Success: Students must have a cumulative grade point average of 3.0 or
above.
 Campus Participation: Students must currently participate (or have participated
during their college years) in at least one campus organization, program, or service.
Participation must be at minimum for five hours a week. Preference was given to
students who have more active roles in student/campus organizations. Examples of
student/campus organizations are: Fraternities/Sororities, Major Clubs, Volunteer
Organizations, Student Government, and Black Student Union.
These standards for student participants were selected to ensure that the appropriate participants
were chosen for this study. Staff and faculty participants were selected via key informants and
student participants who indicated that particular professionals are constructive to African
American student success on the campus.
Sample size. Cal U has approximately 700 African American students, and
approximately 300 students will be within their 3
rd
, 4
th
, 5
th
, or 6
th
year of study. As a result, the
goal was to interview approximately 15-20 students, or to interview students until the data has
reached the point of saturation. The point of saturation, in which the researcher was receiving no
new information, was met at 14 student interviews. Participants with the highest grade point
averages and levels of participation in co-curricular activities, as measured by the number of
hours they participate in co-curricular activities a week and the type of role within the
organization, received preferential selection for participation. Additionally, due to the limited
number of eligible male participants, preference was given to African American men who
ATTAINING SUCCESS 57
qualified for the study. Purposeful selection was utilized to ensure that appropriate number of
participants represent each gender group, diverse majors, and age groups. To supplement the
information gathered from students, staff and faculty interviews were conducted. Three
professional staff and faculty members were sought to participate in this study.
Student Recruitment. Recruitment mainly took place through email and key
informants. Email addresses were requested from University Records for all students who
identify as African American or multiracial, who have not designated their student contact
information as confidential. Multiracial students were also contacted to ensure that African
Americans who indicated multiple racial and ethnic backgrounds were included. The email
contained a description of the study, as well as a request for their participation (see General
Recruitment Letter in Appendix C). The email specified that students who self-identified as
African American/Black students were sought for the study. A link to a website with a pre-
interview survey was also included to gather demographic information and identify students who
met the requirements for this study. Cal U staff and administrators also referred students for
participation, and these students received the same email. Students who met the requirements to
participate were contacted to schedule an interview.
Data Collection Procedure
Approach
Data was collected in one-on-one interviews, which allowed the researcher to delve into
the other person’s perspective to understand their story (Patton, 2002). This is an essential
source for case studies, as this allows for the interpretation of information through the eyes of the
interviewee (Yin, 2003). A semi-structured interview protocol was utilized to ensure that the
research questions were addressed and to minimize the variation in responses. This allowed for
ATTAINING SUCCESS 58
easier analysis by comparing interviewees’ responses to the same questions. Additionally, the
researcher was able to probe, seek explanations, and clarify participants’ responses during the
interview process. These in-depth interviews are intended to reveal the underlying issues,
perspectives, and beliefs that cannot be directly observed (Patton, 2002). Participants were
interviewed at the study site in a private space, made available by campus administrators. All
interviews were recorded and transcribed to ensure accuracy. Participants were compensated for
their time with a $5 campus gift card. The purpose of the gift card was to thank the participants
for their time. The value of the gift card was kept at a low rate so as to not encourage
participants to participate for the value of the card, but for the purpose of the research.
Participants were required to complete the interview to receive compensation.
Instrumentation
Survey. A pre-survey was administered to determine which students best met the criteria
to participate in the study. This survey included items on their grade point average, co-curricular
participation, the types of programs they participated in, the number of hours they participated in
co-curricular activities, and their enrollment status. Students were selected based on how well
they met the requirements to participate in the study.
Interview guide. An interview guide was used for the semi-structured interviews.
Students were asked questions about their personal background, their academic preparation, their
current and past collegiate experiences, the impact of their out-of-classroom involvement on
their connection to the campus, their interactions with faculty and staff, and their experiences in
college as a person of color. Each interview question was mapped directly to the study’s
research questions, as noted in Appendix A.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 59
Staff and faculty members were asked questions about their perceptions on what leads to
African American college students’ success on the campus. Specifically, they were asked about
programs they found to be beneficial, the importance of engagement, and student relationships
with faculty and staff. As noted in Appendix B, staff and faculty interviews were sought to
provide additional information on African American students’ experiences,
Procedure
Pre-interview. Before the interview, each student was emailed a copy of the study
information sheet (see Appendix D), which provided them with a summary of the purpose of the
study and their role. Students were informed that all interviews were going to be recorded, and
that their identity would remain confidential, as pseudonyms were used to refer to the
participants in the study.
Interview. At the beginning of the interview, the researcher reviewed the information
sheet with the participants and asked participants to affirm their consent to participate in the
study and be recorded. Once the participant agreed to participate, the interview was conducted
in accordance with the interview guide (see Appendix A for students and Appendix B for staff
and faculty). In addition to recording the interview, the researcher also took field notes.
Post-interview. Upon completion of the interview, students, staff, and faculty were
informed that they may be contacted later to further expand on their responses and allow them to
contribute any additional information.
Data Analysis
A challenge with qualitative studies is the analysis of the large amounts of information
researchers collect (Patton, 2002). Qualitative analysis requires that the researcher collect data
and form it into a story that can provide insight into the phenomenon and answer the research
ATTAINING SUCCESS 60
question guiding the study. In this study, data analysis provided structure and meaning to the
information collected via participant interviews (Anfara, Brown, & Mangione, 2002).
Interview recordings were transcribed by a third party. Upon receipt of each interview
transcription, interviews were coded using coding software, ATLAS.ti, a qualitative data analysis
program. This program was utilized to code data and identify emerging themes. This process
was important to this qualitative research in order to attain an understanding of what participants
were saying and what their statements actually meant. Coding analysis, according to Anafar et
al. (2002), was conducted in a three-step process. The first step of the analysis process took
place simultaneously through the data collection process. Simultaneously collecting data and
analyzing provided the researcher the opportunity to make adjustments necessary to effectively
answer the research question (Merriam, 1998). The second step was to compare participants’
responses within categories and between categories. The third step in the analysis process was
the constant comparison of responses. This step assisted in the identification of patterns, coding
data, and then categorizing the findings (Anafar et al., 2002). “Without ongoing analysis, the
data can be unfocused, repetitious, and overwhelming in the sheer volume of material that needs
to be processed” (Merriam, 1998, p. 162). I went through multiple iterations of coding to
develop major themes and broader hypotheses about the phenomenon being studied.
Data Verification. In order to verify the reliability of the data collected, methods to
triangulate the data were utilized. In order to account for validity and reliability responses and
limit researcher bias, member checking took place to ensure accuracy of the results (Merriam,
1998). Member checking involves asking participants within the study to confirm results of the
study to ensure that the analysis and interpretation of the results of the study are accurate and
appropriate interpretations of students’ experiences. This was done at the conclusion of each
ATTAINING SUCCESS 61
interview and throughout the interview process. Participants were asked to confirm the
interpretation of the their responses and additional meaning. Peer debriefing with two colleagues
was also utilized to ensure validity of the interpretation of the data and limit personal biases.
This allowed the researcher to see and understand the data from a different perspective.
This research design enhanced my ability to draw accurate information from data. This
study analyzed the interviews from multiple participants to allow for multiple perspectives and
interpretations. The use of multiple key informants and the triangulation of the interviews with
each other allowed for a holistic understanding of the phenomenon occurring (Anfara et al.,
2002).
Ethical Considerations
Participants were informed that their participation was completely voluntary and that they
would be able to withdraw their participation at any time. Participants were also notified that
their identity and information would be kept confidential. Recordings were saved on the
researcher’s personal computer, which is password protected and saved under aliases so as to
protect participants’ identities. Real names were not used throughout the study, however each
student will have an alias for analysis and identification purposes.
Role of the Researcher
Ethical standards were used in the design of this study. The research followed the rules
and regulations set by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Southern California
and those at Cal U. Prior to interviews, participants were emailed the Information Sheet
(Appendix C), providing them with information on the general purpose of this study and their
role.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 62
Within qualitative research, the role of the researcher is that of primary instrument for
collecting and analyzing data (Merriman, 1998). The fact that we as individuals are the primary
instruments within this type of study has its limitations, as humans are prone to mistakes, biases,
and missed opportunities (Merriam, 1998). Within this qualitative research, the researcher is an
investigator who is a human instrument that has three qualities 1) a tolerance for ambiguity, 2)
sensitivity, and 3) good communication (Merriman, 1998). The researcher, with these
characteristics, sought to gather as much information and evidence as possible and then went on
to create a story of the various variables collected.
A tolerance for ambiguity is necessary because qualitative studies do not have a
standardized set of procedures and protocols that one can follow step by step (Merriman, 1998).
The researcher needs to accept that the best way to do things will not always be obvious. The
researcher needs to be an investigator who has the patience and skills to decipher clues and
follow-up information.
Sensitivity, more specifically intuition, is also an important role for the researcher. The
researcher needs to be sensitive to the environment, the people, verbal and nonverbal behavior,
and more importantly to the information collected. The information being revealed and having
an understanding of the information being gathered is important to the data collected and the
results of the study.
The third important quality of a researcher is having good communication skills.
Communication is an important skill within this type of research because a researcher who has
good communication skills is able to empathize with participants, have good rapport, ask useful
questions, and listen effectively (Merriam, 1998). Effectively communicating with participants
ATTAINING SUCCESS 63
and other individuals involved can positively influence the collection of data and outcomes of the
study.
My perceptions of the experiences of African Americans at this institution can be
impacted by my own experiences. My own personal experiences as student and an academic
advisor can impact my analysis of the data collected. Due to my professional work, I am very
knowledgeable about the academic and social experiences that increase students’ likelihood for
success. Additionally, as a Black woman who was highly engaged and participated in various
campus activities, my perception of the benefits of particular student groups, services, and
programs may also have impacted my analysis. Knowledge of these biases and others mentioned
assisted in the amelioration of biases that could have highly impacted the results of this study.
Lastly, within my role as a researcher it may be helpful to note my own personal
experiences and background. I was the first person in my family born in this country. I attended
public schools all through my K-12 education that were either majority Latino or African
American. My parents were born in Guatemala, yet my grandparents were born in Jamaica.
Therefore we were difficult to place, as we were racially Black yet culturally Latino. Being
raised in a household with a Caribbean/Latino culture, my perceptions of African Americans was
not as “we,” but more as “they.” This was the same perception that I had of Latinos. It was not
until I reached my college years that I solidified my own racial identity as Black, similar to that
described by Cross (1991). I attended a public university with low minority rates of enrollment
for my undergraduate degree. It was the first time that I noticed racial discrepancies, despite the
fact that the schools that I previously attended were majority African American or Latino. As a
result of being faced with great racial imbalances, I became heavily involved in campus social
and community activities. It was these experiences that developed my passion for working
ATTAINING SUCCESS 64
within higher education, with a great desire to work with African Americans and other
underrepresented student groups. Having personal knowledge of the factors that helped me
succeed and the choices that made it so that I could succeed are personal biases that I have had to
overcome in order to fully embrace the data and information collected for this study. The impact
of the aforementioned experiences, biases, and background was limited utilizing the qualities
mentioned in this section required of a researcher.
Conclusion
In this chapter, I outlined the methodological approach that was utilized for this study.
More specifically, the process utilized for sample selection, data collection, data analysis, and
expected limitations was discussed. Interviews were the primary data collected, which were
transcribed and then analyzed simultaneously while collecting data. A phenomenological
approach was utilized to analyze the data, from which codes and then themes were created.
Member checking was utilized to ensure the validity of the data. In chapter four, the analysis
and findings of the collected data will be provided.

ATTAINING SUCCESS 65
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The purpose of this study was used to explore the topic of African American student
success and engagement at CAL U. The following research questions guided this study:
Main Research Question:
1. What underlying factors contribute to the retention and engagement of African American
college students at a public, mid-sized institution?
Sub-Research Questions:
2. How has engagement and involvement impacted African American student success at
this institution?
3. How does racial identity impact African American students’ ability to succeed?
To address these questions, a qualitative inquiry involving 14 individual student
interviews and three faculty and staff interviews was conducted. In this chapter, these findings
are discussed within the context of each sub-research question and divided into salient themes
that emerged from the interviews at CAL U. The data analysis was guided by Tinto’s (1993)
Theory of Student Departure, Cross’s (1991) Black Identity Development Model, and Kuh et
al.’s (2005) research on Documenting Effective Educational Practices (DEEP), which looks at
how institutions are able to successfully retain and engage students. The findings revealed that
the factors that led to participants’ successful retention and engagement at this institution have
been largely based on their engagement opportunities, relationships with family, the availability
and use of campus resources, and the supportive and diverse campus climate.
Participant Profiles
Participants consisted primarily of current students at Cal U. These students entered as
first-time freshman, were currently in their third year or higher in college, had a minimum grade
ATTAINING SUCCESS 66
point average of 3.0, and participated in at least one extracurricular activity on campus. Faculty
and staff participants were selected based on their involvement in supporting African American
student success. As Table 5 shows, most participants were female and all were African
American.
Table 5: Participant Characteristics
Institutional Member
Characteristics Student Faculty Staff
Number of Participants 14 1 2
Gender
Male 4
29%

Female 10
71%

1
100%
2
100%
African American 14
100%
1
100%
2
100%

Student Participants
Hope. Hope is a first-generation college student who emigrated from Belize. She is a
fifth-year, double major in Psychology and African American Studies. Coming to America at a
young age, Hope has been largely educated in the United States. She explained that she and her
mother immigrated to this country to have an opportunity for education that she could not
receive in her home country. In the pre-interview survey, she indicated that she was Latina,
despite having the option of selecting African American/Black as her ethnicity. However, she
later revealed that her perceptions of African American/Black identity were more diverse, and
that she considered this as part of her identity. As a result of her racial and ethnic background,
ATTAINING SUCCESS 67
Hope decided to get involved on campus. She participates in many organizations within the
African American community and the Latino community to be a positive example of the
interconnectedness of both racial groups.
Faith. Faith is a third-year Communications major with a minor in Spanish. Originally
from the Los Angeles area known as Leimert Park, a predominantly African American region,
she attended a private, Catholic all-girls high school. While there she was very involved in many
extracurricular activities. From a young age, the expectation to attend college and be successful
was always present.
Not going to college was never an option with my family…for me, for my sister, that was
no mistake. If you’re going to a high school where it’s nine grand a year we’re not
paying this for fun, just ‘cause we got it like that. So it was definitely always, it’s,
“Where are you going to go?”—that was the question, not, “Oh, are you going to go?”
As a result of the expectation to excel, she took on leadership roles within her high school and
would be considered as engaged even then.
Currently Faith is an elected student leader in a highly visible student organization. She
serves as a member of the student government. She says she practically stumbled upon the
position when asked to run. However, she holds no regrets and is very grateful for the
opportunity to represent her school.
Dallas. Dallas is a fourth-year Ethnic and Women’s Studies major. She is originally
from Pomona, California, yet her mother is from Barbados and her father is from Pasadena,
California. Despite being raised in the United States, she would describe herself as culturally
Barbadian. She describes herself as a sensitive individual and attributes it to her major. Because
of the things that she has been exposed to within her courses, she has a strong understanding of
ATTAINING SUCCESS 68
inequalities from a racial and gender perspective. As a result, she has found it difficult to
interact with peers who do not share similar views.
I’m a pretty sensitive, but passionate person. Sometime[s], I think I take things too
personally. And especially being an Ethnic and Women’s Studies major. It’s like a gift
and curse because I feel like I pay attention to things more or more aware about certain
things, especially when it comes to women’s issues or identities things.
Dallas can also be described as goal-orientated and driven. A current McNair Scholar, she
aspires to pursue a doctoral degree and become a professor in Ethnic and Cultural studies. As a
result of her involvement in McNair and major choice, Dallas has received criticism from peers.
She recalled that she’s been told by others, “You’re a feminist. You hate men. And you like
Black people too much.” Shocked by the critiques she has had to face, she shared, “I always feel
like I have to prove to somebody why I’m in this major.” These interactions have made her feel
occasionally hesitant and discouraged from interacting with some of her African American peers.
Derek. Derek is a sixth-year, graduating senior, and is an Electrical Engineering major.
Derek has been majorly involved and engaged on campus, and holds an elected student
leadership position at CAL U within the student government.
Born in the United States to Nigerian parents, Derek had a unique childhood experience.
His family moved to Nigeria during his pre-teen years when his father decided to pursue politics
in his homeland.
…we had to pack up everything and move out there, and so that was a big culture shock
and different … because when I was living in California I was living in Rialto and San
Bernardino area and I was going to like a private school, so I was probably like only,
ATTAINING SUCCESS 69
there was like two Black people in my class, and when I went out to Nigeria, everybody
is Black so it was just different, so go from being a minority to a majority.
Now in college, Derek is engaged in multiple areas. In his position in student government, he
has had the opportunity to learn from his responsibilities and translated them to his goals upon
completion of his degree. The opportunity to participate in student government was a result of
the various engagement opportunities he has had in college. Through organizations like the
National Society of Black Engineers, Black Student Union, Diversity Ambassadors, and SRP:
Summer Residential Program, Derek was able to network and develop the necessary skills to
participate in student government. When asked about his involvement, he replied, “It’s more
like what I’m not involved in.” All of these opportunities at CAL U have transformed him and
changed his perspective. As he describes, “[my] outlook on life as far as what’s really important
and why I’m here on earth, just trying to figure out that purpose, I would say CAL U’s helped
me in that way.”
Khalil. Khalil is a fifth-year, graduating senior and Electrical Engineering major.
Originally from Nigeria, he came to the United States for college. Respectful and soft-spoken,
he is goal-orientated and highly driven to excel. Because of his cultural and family background,
college was always an expectation for him.
I have three siblings that are older. I’m the youngest of four, they have all been
successful in general, going to school, going to grad schools while we were in Nigeria…
But I’m the only one that took a different run of study to go through engineering and
science and stuff like that. So that’s a bit of a challenge in that aspect but they’ve helped
a lot.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 70
Currently Khalil is a Resident Advisor in one of the campus dormitories. Within this position
and many of the engagement opportunities he has had, Khalil has expanded his involvement.
Like most engineering students he has participated in the National Society of Black Engineers, is
a student representative on the graduation initiative sponsored by the institution to increase CAL
U graduation rates, and was actually the campaign manager for the current student body
president. He has also interned for General Electric and holds a senator position on campus.
Robyn. Robyn is a fourth-year, graduating senior, with a major in Psychology and a
minor in Criminal Justice. She is originally from the Caribbean, but has been in the United
States since she was 10 years old. Open and very communicative, you could hear the slight
Caribbean accent in her voice as she fondly recalled her path to higher education. Family has
been a large influence on her life and on her college experience. Robyn was sent by her father to
the United States to live with a cousin, who later adopted her. She noted that one of the reasons
she is so driven to succeed is because of the sacrifices her father made so that she could have a
better life. She shared, “my dad sent me thousands of miles away to do this, so there is no way,
even if it took me seven years, eight years I was going to do it. Graduate with a 2.0, I was going
to do it; there was never a question in my mind.”
Jayson. Jayson is a fourth-year, Electrical Engineering major. He is a commuter student
who has never lived on campus. He is jovial and upbeat, and very focused on his academic
goals. When discussing his academic objectives and strategies, he clearly stated, “If it doesn’t
boost my GPA, if it doesn’t help me get a job or get me priority registration, I’m not gonna do
it…So everything I started, like, when I went into it, I’m like, ‘Alright. If it doesn’t fall into
those categories, don’t do it’.” While Jayson has participated in some educational activities, his
ATTAINING SUCCESS 71
focus on his academics has prevented him from becoming overly involved and engaged in
extracurricular activities.
Clarissa. Originally from Los Angeles, Clarissa is a third-year Bio Technology major
with two minors, one in Chemistry and one in Science, Technology, and Society. Before college
she was involved in many student organizations and community service opportunities, and has
been a Girl Scout for over a decade. She is also a Girl Scouts Mentor and a Robotics Mentor. In
college, she has been involved in campus organizations related to students in the science fields.
Part of her desire to participate in science organizations is due to lack of representation of
African Americans within the sciences and the misrepresentation of scientists as cold and
impersonal.
Clarissa’s family has purposely kept Black culture relevant to their daily lives. She says
her family has always made an effort to keep history relevant and present. Although she
attended a predominantly White high school, and has generally been the minority in her
educational settings, she noted that:
We’re really good in my family with keeping the culture kind of relevant… We try to
keep history, you know, around, and so I’ve always known about typical things, like
slavery and Civil Rights Movement and stuff like that. And it’s really important in my
family.
Tiffany. Tiffany is a fourth-year, Urban and Regional Planning major. One of two
members on campus within her sorority, she described her collegiate experiences so far as
positive. Demonstrating a confident personality, Tiffany clearly strives to excel within college.
When discussing her reasons for striving for success she noted “I feel like I don’t want to let my
ATTAINING SUCCESS 72
mom down. She’s paid so much money since I was two for me to go to private school, so I feel
like it’s just, just be an epic, you know, failure to her, to myself, if I didn’t keep going.”
Yet ironically she shared that she does not really like school. “I don’t even like school. I’m
telling you, I really don’t, like, I’ve just always been good at knowing how to use my resources
and just doing what I’m told kind of thing.” Yet it is her responsibility to her mother, obligation
to peers, and her own motivation that has kept her in college.
Nnamdi. Originally from Nigeria, Nnamdi is a fifth-year, graduating senior Electrical
Engineering major. Because of his ethnic background, Nnamdi has a unique perspective on his
racial identity and his experiences in college. Like most non-American Black individuals,
Nnamdi was not aware of the great impact of race and racism until he arrived in the United
States. “I wasn’t exposed to the racial stereotypes until I came over to America. For me, being
Black was just being me… But as far as color-wise, I didn’t actually know the difference until I
moved to America.”
Nnamdi is very focused on his education and achieving his personal goals. He describes
himself as “…very ambitious. I can never be satisfied just being the…being at the same place
forever.” As a result of his tenacity and drive, Nnamdi has already received a job offer once he
graduates in June, and he has also been accepted to graduate school at a highly selective
university in Southern California.
Betty. Betty is a fifth-year graduating senior with a major in Animal Science. She has
had a positive experience in college and describes CAL U as a second home. Initially, she
wanted to be a veterinarian but has since changed her focus to agriculture policy. She is very
connected to her family and is close to them. “Family is my everything. Struggling with a test,
call them. Trying to procrastinate from studying, call them. Do really well on a test, call them.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 73
Everyone was very encouraging going to college.” Betty has always attended schools in which
she was usually the only African American. As a result of these experiences, she has had a
diverse group of friends and transitioned well to college. She described the campus climate as,
“[CAL U] embrace[s] the fact that we have a lot of different ethnicities on the campus. So, I
never particularly felt like it was, like, a struggle or anything to try to do anything. I feel like
everyone’s very responsive and very uplifting.
She also feels that the campus provides excellent services and resources for students, which
helps them succeed. “There’s definitely a lot of student services. And I think they do a fairly
good job of advertising them, making them well known, whether it be in a news blast or posters
you just see around campus, I think they’re very open about the services that they have.”
And as a peer mentor, Betty wants to help provide other students with the same positive
experiences she has had. She feels that it is important to give back.
Kelly. Kelly is a fourth-year, graduating senior, and a major in English Education. Upon
graduation, Kelly would like to be a Special Education teacher. A former student athlete in high
school, Kelly feels that she learned a great amount of discipline from her previous engagement
experiences and current leadership roles. Throughout her college career, she has been involved
in both student government and African American student organizations. Currently she is a
programming chair in the campus’ student government and is responsible for planning events for
the whole university. Her previous engagement experiences are secretary of Black Student
Union, intermural sports, and the Black History Month committee.
Like some of her peers, Kelly has had a positive experience at CAL U. She described her
experiences as generally positive and had nothing negative to note about the institution. In
particular, the campus’ diversity is a positive aspect that brings comfort to Kelly and her college
ATTAINING SUCCESS 74
experiences. “At this school particularly since there is a little bit of everything, I think that you
don’t really feel singled out. So, like, I’m really comfortable.” She went on to note, “I’ve had a
lot of fun in my college career and been fairly successful, I would say. Negative…I honestly
can’t really think of anything.”
Terri. Terri is a fifth-year, double major in Sociology and Ethnic and Women’s Studies.
She has been extensively involved in a multitude of organizations and programs on the campus
throughout all of her college career. She is currently a McNair scholar, in which she is
developing the skills necessary to conduct research and go to graduate school. She has been
highly engaged in various student organizations dealing with violence prevention, community
services, and LGBT student support. As a gay student, Terri has struggled connecting and
identifying with the African American community. Because of the experiences she was having
with peers, Terri initially alienated herself. It is only now that she has felt strong enough to
return to the African American Student Center and other student organizations where she had
previously felt judged.
Faculty/Staff Participants
Mrs. Clark. Mrs. Clark is the Director of Financial Aid at CAL U and is also the Chair
of the campus’ Black Faculty and Staff organization (BFS). She has been at the campus for
almost two decades and greatly supports African American students on the campus. She viewed
her role as two-fold: assisting students to stay in school through financial assistance, and
welcoming and supporting students through BFS.
Michaela. Michaela is the coordinator of the African American Student Center (AASC)
and the Interim Senior Coordinator of the campus’ cultural centers. She has been at CAL U for
five years and is highly dedicated to student success. She has made many close relationships
ATTAINING SUCCESS 75
with students and is seen as one of the staff members to whom African American students can
turn at any time. A mentor to many African American students, she found that she occasionally
takes on the role of parent to students, when attempting to motivate them and hold them
accountable to their student organizations.
Dr. Louis. Dr. Louis is a professor in the Ethnic and Women’s Studies department. She
has been at CAL U for almost two decades and has seen a variety of students, particularly
African American, come to the campus. She noted that the student body, in particular the
African American student population, has changed significantly over the past couple of years.
She noted that the African American student population has increasingly grown to include
individuals from Africa, the Caribbean, and Central and South America. She is one of the
faculty members who is highly supportive of the African American students on campus.
Theoretical Analysis
The findings of this study were guided by Tinto’s (1993) Theory of Student Departure,
Cross’s (1991) Black Identity Development Model, and Kuh et al.’s (2005) research on
Documenting Effective Educational Practices (DEEP).
As previously discussed in chapter 2, Tinto’s (1993) theory of student departure looks at
the factors that lead students to either depart or persist in the institution. Within his model he
identifies the impact of Pre-Entry Attributes, like Prior Schooling, Family Background, and
Skills and Abilities. He then goes on to address students’ Institutional Experiences, by
discussing their academic and social experiences. His theory was used to analyze the findings,
and then subsequently understand and identify the factors that lead students to persist. Kuh et
al.’s (2005) research on DEEP institutions was also utilized to analyze the data. Kuh et al.’s
(2005) study focused not only on what the student is doing to succeed, but what the institution is
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doing to help the student succeed. Their research was used to analyze the institution’s impact on
student success and the overall impact of engagement. The data was analyzed by looking at
various engagement factors, such as student’s academic experiences, interactions with faculty,
staff and peers, social engagement opportunities, and discovering additional underlying factors
that have led to student success.
To best analyze students’ racial identity development, Cross’s (1991) Black Identity
Development Model was used. In Cross’ (1991) model, he discusses the development of racial
identity from Pre-Encounter to Internalization-Commitment. Within his model, racial identity
begins from a state of lack of or little identification with Black racial identity to one that is
internalized and salient within an individual’s everyday life. His model was used to analyze
students’ description of their initial racial identity in their youth to what they have experienced
since attending college. The analysis of racial identity and students’ institutional experiences
allowed for greater interpretation of students’ collegiate experiences and the impact of
engagement on their success.
Findings
Two major findings emerged from the study: 1) student engagement had an impact on
their collegiate experiences, and 2) racial identity development and perceptions of race had an
impact on their experience. Additionally, the findings also revealed that there was an
institutional impact on African American student success, and that there were several underlying
factors that led to participants’ success. The latter two findings, while not directly connected to
the two sub-research questions and overall main research question, contribute to the increased
understanding of engagement and the factors that have led to persistence and success. Figure 1
provides a visual diagram of the organization of the findings of this study.
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Figure 1. Findings Organizational Chart

For each main finding, subsections will be presented to provide a holistic understanding of the
collegiate experiences of African American students at CAL U. Diagrams will be included to
provide a visual representation of the organization of each section.

The Impact of Engagement on Students’ Collegiate Experiences
Active Engagement and Involvement
For the student participants within this study, active engagement and involvement within
campus organizations and clubs were integral aspects of their college experiences. Students
described these experiences as opportunities for them to grow, develop, and network. The time
that they have spent participating within various organizations has both enriched and enhanced
their collegiate experiences. As Clarissa shared:
I think it was important for me to be able to see what …the campus had to offer, not just
school but everything else. And I think that’s helped make me grow as a person…in
getting leadership skills and, like, learning how to speak in public and stuff like that.
Betty also shared how she has benefitted from her engagement experiences:
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I was one of those students where initially, no, I just wanna be in my comfort zone and
stay with whatever group of people I initially met and stuff. And [now I’m] definitely
…more eager to branch out and find out what is going on over there…I feel well
prepared to go out into the world.
Some have even shared that their engagement experiences have led to job opportunities, graduate
school aspirations, increased personal development, and an overall positive collegiate
experience. Figure 2 provides a visual representation of the findings within this subsection.
Figure 2: Active Engagement and Involvement and Student Success

The Various Types of Engagement Opportunities. The students within this study
participated in a variety of engagement opportunities within many areas. While these areas were
usually related to career aspirations or personal interests, many purposefully pursued positions
that allowed them to have an active voice on campus. The most common engagement activity
that allowed students to have this voice was student government. Despite being the second to
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smallest student group on campus at 3.5% (College Results Online, 2012), the African American
students are visible members of the campus community. Many currently participate in
prominent roles within the campus’ student government. Five students assumed prominent roles
in student government, such as the president, vice president, elections committee, programming
chair, and senator.
Other popular engagement opportunities were student organizations and programs.
Student organizations and programs allowed for many of the participants to become more
holistic individuals. Participants were in various organizations that enabled them to pursue
personal and career interests. Some of these organizations were fraternities and sororities,
racially affiliated organizations like the Black Student Union, Black Women’s support groups,
National Society of Black Engineers, Robert E. McNairs’ scholars program, and the Summer
Residential Program (SRP). Because of the desire to become leaders and mentors, build
networks, and be of service to others, many of the students participated in organizations that
allowed for them to explore their interest and grow. As Khalil shared about his engagement
experiences:
I was in student government last year; I was the senator of electrical engineering, you
know put on programs, see how the business side of things work. With long-term goals
to become a CEO and own my own company [I wanted to] see how the business plan and
all that works.
Similarly, Derek noted that his experience in student government had prepared him for his
professional career. He recalled:
On a more professional level on my leadership development, because [student
government is] a non-profit organization you know…it’s real-life stuff. For the first time
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in my life I was the other side of the table interviewing people, I was interviewing my
fellow students…I had to review applications and interview people for the first time
and…it helped me to prepare myself.
These organizations and programs provided them the opportunity to network with peers and
participate in community services. More than half of the student participants were either in a
leadership role within an organization or affiliated. Students found these roles to positively
influence their connection to the university, enhance their leadership experiences, and increase
their preparation for future careers upon degree completion.
Social Engagement. As discussed, engagement has been an important aspect of the
college experiences for many of the students. These opportunities have connected students at an
increased level to the campus and fortified their personal goals. The reason many became
engaged in organizations and clubs was to give back to either their peers or the institution. Hope
describes her engagement “as a way to…help other women get noticed.” As a result of her many
years involved in community service projects, Clarissa similarly described being engaged as an
opportunity to give back to the community:
I chose to apply for the Director of Community Service position because I really love the
community, and I think it’s really important that people in the College of Science
specifically [give back]. Because scientists have a reputation of being cold and
uncaring…we [need to] try and give back as much as we can and introduce new
opportunities to other students who…maybe they just don’t know how to get involved.
Tiffany also noted that the reason she joined her sorority was to be able to make a positive
impact on others. “I’m just a person that wants to create a legacy and impact people’s lives,
whether, you know, it’s a little kid’s or an elderly person, you know, I just wanna make my
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impact on the world.” Giving back to the community, both on campus and off campus, are
reasons that students seek to become involved in some of the various campus organizations and
programs. These opportunities allow them to not only fulfill personal goals but to be greater
contributors to society.
The Impact of Leadership Opportunities within Engagement Experiences. An
important aspect of engagement is the development of leadership skills. Many of the student
participants noted that the opportunity to be leaders within student organizations and clubs
notably attributed to their personal development and skill building. Most of the students have
held a leadership position. For Derek and Faith in particular, their roles in student government
have provided them with substantial leadership experiences and opportunities. As Derek
recalled the past year, he said:
This one year alone kind of like trumps all of the leadership combined. This year has
been, it hasn’t been my best year socially for college, I’ve had some better ones socially
but as far as like professional development and leadership, it’s probably been the best
year. Because I’ve learned so much and I feel like within this year I’ve grown so much
it’s, it’s a crazy experience. It was like leadership on steroids.
Similarly, Faith credits her growth and development to her current role in student government.
She noted that because of the high level of this position, she has learned much from her role.
“Just because it is such a high position. But it comes with so much responsibility. It taught me a
lot, you know, and the learning, the learning I’m doing right now is making me successful.”
Students in leadership roles found these higher positions have been opportunities to learn
about themselves and grow, despite unforeseen outcomes. Dallas shared that when she was
President of the Black Student Union, she was met with opposition for multi-ethnic programs.
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[All] I kept getting was like, “Why are you trying to do that? Why do you want to do
that? That’s dumb.” And I’m like, “Because we have so much in common”… I got
discouraged after those comments to run for another position in the Black community.
Because I just felt like what I want to do, people really don’t like, at least. I’m pretty sure
there’s some people liked it, but didn’t know how to respond to it.
As Hope shared, within her tenure as president of a student club, the outcome was not what she
had hoped for the position. “I was the president of [a Black Women’s Support group] at one
point. That didn’t go as well as I wanted, but I learned a lot.” Leadership opportunities provide
students with situations in which they are able to learn and develop from both positive and
challenging circumstances. Some students discovered learning from the challenges is what has
helped build their skills and develop the qualities needed for success.
The Influence of Mentorship on Student Success. As discussed in chapter 2, Tinto
(1991) and Kuh et al. (2005) have noted mentorship as a social engagement opportunity that can
positively influence student success. Mentorship was a concept that students often mentioned
when discussing the factors that have led to their success and satisfaction in college. Some
students noted that being mentored by others or being a mentor themselves proved to be
beneficial. Hope felt having a mentor before college and throughout was one of the factors that
enabled her to persist. She recalled her mentor in high school, “She helped me develop a plan.
We worked on personal statements, and from there, that’s how I propelled myself into college
and coming to a university.” She remembered a time when she was in college and was
struggling; her mentor helped her focus on her goals and provided her with motivation to
succeed.
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I emailed my mentor [and I said] “I wanna quit. I wanna give up. I’m ready to give up.
I’m ready to throw the towel in.” And she just kind of told me, “Stay in it. It’s a roller
coaster ride. There will be days you wanna quit…but you’ll do better.” And so, from
there, it was kinda like, okay, it got better. I made the Dean’s list that fall quarter.
Within Khalil’s position as a Resident Advisor, his supervisor has served as a mentor who has
helped push him and his peers when necessary. He explained, “We have one on ones with our
boss, and we get to just sit down and talk in general. It’s helped a lot in that aspect, because
sometimes most or all students need sometimes someone to talk to.”
Robyn shared that having a mentor has been an important part of her success. Her
mentors have been very helpful and supportive throughout her college experience. She noted
that Michaela from the African American Student Center and Faculty has also been a positive
individual she can always go to. “[Micahela has had] a huge influence on me, and she’s always
been that one person I can go to for anything, just to shoot the breeze whenever, and she’s also
like one of my mentors, I really appreciate her, I look up to her a lot.” Similarly, Michaela
shared an example of the positive impact that mentor figures have on students. She recalled a
time at the African American students graduation, where a student spoke about an impact she
had made on him. She explained:
I don’t really think about it until usually it happens for me. Like, at Pan-African
graduation ‘cause the students can talk. We get to hear them talk …[I] remember one
year this student…we had a relationship…we talked all the time. And at graduation, he
recalled this one incident, like, where I wrote a letter for him for something, and I was
like, “Oh.”… That was very touching to me ‘cause I hadn’t even thought about it a
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second time. So I think the students who we really are able to connect with, that we do
have a significant impact on them.
Students also noted that being a mentor to others is a powerful tool that can lead to
success. As Derek illustrated:
Networking has helped me be successful, caring for others I would say definitely.
Looking back, [people have said,] “You guys helped a bunch of people on this campus,
[Derek is] my mentor” you know what I mean? I didn’t even know I was your mentor!
It’s just because I try to help as many people as I can you know, and be like, “How are
your grades doing?” and I check up on them because I know people used to do that with
me, before you know. So just make sure you always continue to reach back, I felt like
that’s helped me be successful.
Interestingly, Kelly revealed that Derek is her mentor. She recalled that he was the one who
pushed her to become involved, “I have kind of like a mentor on campus who’s actually… [in
student government] right now. And he really, honestly, probably pushed me…he was really
helpful when it came to, you know, getting involved and encouraging me.” For Betty, as a peer
mentor, giving back to others is a benefit. “I’ve gotten so much out of the relationships that I’ve
made that I wanna form those relationships with people that are new and help them build new
relationships as well…it’s really helped me just develop.” The various forms of mentorship,
peer mentorship, faculty/staff mentorship or just a close acquaintance, have been noted as factors
that have helped students be successful. Having the opportunity to create and build relationships
with others as a mentor or mentee was found to support student success and engagement. These
relationships are beneficial to student success because they create various avenues and
mechanisms for support.
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Academic Experiences. Positive academic experiences are an important aspect of
college success. Excelling in college courses and having high academic goals significantly
motivated many of the students within this study to do well. The academic preparation
experienced by the students in this study varied. Some indicated high levels of academic
preparation by taking Advance Placement and Honors courses, while others indicated little to no
academic preparation. For some, their prior experiences, positive or negative, influenced their
academic experiences as CAL U. As a result, succeeding within academic courses for most of
the participants has been a challenge that they have been able to overcome. Many students noted
having high goals has assisted them to continue to succeed within their courses. For example,
Faith described herself as a strong student both in high school and college:
I graduated high school with a 3.73. I came to college and started off really strong. My
freshman year was really, really solid. I think I got like a 3.75 my first quarter here…I
set the bar pretty high, and I’ve done pretty well in classes.
Similarly, Robyn stated, “I’ve always excelled…I’ve been on the Dean’s list like four times,
President’s list so, I never had an issue with school…school is the always the one thing that
[goes] right.”
Even for Hope, who was on academic probation in her first year, challenging herself and
pushing herself to excel has enabled her ability to now do well in college. She described how “it
was struggle to get where I’m at right now. I am so proud of myself because I’ve made the
Dean’s list twice already...I’ve been at the bottom and at the top.” She credited this experience
as the reason why she found ways to strengthen herself academically.
Achieving high academic standards is important to the students’ overall goals,
particularly when they plan to pursue graduate school. Dallas asserted that getting good grades
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is very important because she wants to attain a Ph.D. She realized in her junior year that having
a high grade point average is important to getting into a good program. As a result, she is now
striving to increase her grade point average by the time she applies in the fall. She explained:
…it didn’t sink in until my junior year. Like, Oh. I have to [have] certain grades to
apply to a Master’s program. Like, they’re looking for A, B… So, I was like a 3.3, but
now I’m like a 3.5… I have another year to work my grades up, so when I’m applying to
programs, I’m at least, hopefully, when I apply in the fall, I’ll have at least a 3.6 GPA.
Because at least in our field with Master’s and Ph.D. they expect a lot… So, now, that’s
my goal.
Although academic success has not been a consistent outcome throughout all of college for all of
the student participants, it has great importance. Students noted how important it was for them to
do well in college for various reasons. For some it was their passion to succeed for future
schooling options, others for their career goals. Whatever their goal, most students indicated that
succeeding academically was their primary goal and that it required great discipline.
Interactions with Faculty and Staff. Having positive relationships with faculty and
staff has been found to encourage and enhance student success. Faculty and staff serve as
mentors, leaders, and role models for many of the participants within this study. Students
defined their interactions with faculty members as positive and described many faculty members
as “wonderful” and “supportive.” As Derek described, faculty members are very supportive of
their students at CAL U:
Our professors are pretty cool, they’ve always helped me out whenever I’ve asked them,
I’ve never felt like they treated me different because I was Black or anything. I mean
sometimes I’ll be afraid to approach them, only because I didn’t really feel like I knew
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the subject material that well, so I would ask a dumb question, but that never had to do
with race or anything. For most part they’ve been pretty good, welcoming and helpful.
Similarly, Terri noted that faculty members are also supportive of students of color and ensuring
that they do well in courses. She stated, “The faculty on this campus, some of them are very,
very aware of the students of color issue, and they’re, like…not going to let…them falter in their
classes for, you know, stuff that they could easily fix.” Robyn also shared her positive
relationships with faculty, as she viewed them as individuals who want to help students.
I bug the crap out of people if I need help, my professors I’m not afraid to go to them
because that’s what they’re there for and most of the time they’re just sit[ting] in their
office and be on their computer, so most of them actually like want students [to] come to
them.
Dallas recalled that she applied to the McNair’s program because her professors encouraged her
to. After deciding to apply, she had erroneously thought that the application was due later on in
the year and found out it was due within days. She recalled the support she received from
faculty and staff to participate in the program:
My professors kept encouraging me to do it… I thought…the application was due in
September when it was usually due, but it was due in April... So I got the application.
[The staff members] were like, “Get it in. Get as much done as you can, and we’ll see
you.”…my advisors, two of them wrote my letter of recommendation that same day.
And my other professor turned it in the next day… And I got an interview, and I got in.
Although most students recalled their interactions with faculty, staff members were also
described as positive forces on their experiences. Students described positive interactions with
the staff members and found them to be “positive” and “helpful.” Robyn recalled, “[the]
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staff…who work in the admissions office or in registration or in the cultural centers, they go out
of their way to help.” Similarly, Nnamdi noted positive interactions with staff members. “Staff
generally…in [Engineering] Department, ****, she’s awesome. She’s pretty awesome, but yeah,
staff in general, everybody’s pretty nice. I haven’t had any negative experience with anybody.”
Tiffany remembered an incident in which a staff member helped her. She was having
trouble figuring out how to pay for college. Upset and confused about how she would pay her
tuition balance, she wept alone. She recalled how a staff member helped:
I remember my freshman year, like, I’m thinking college is all good. I got all of these,
like, grants and stuff. So I’m like, “Oh, everything’s paid for.” And I look on my
[tuition bill] and I’m like, “Oh. I got these… Like, there’s a balance. How am I going to
pay for this balance?” …I just happened to be crying in this area, and somebody was like,
you know, “Calm down. We are the Equity, you know, Opportunity Services. Just come
with me. Fill out…” I was like, “Oh my goodness. Thank you.” …they were really
helpful in that situation.
Clarissa has had more involvement with staff because of her on-campus job. Due to the
position she has seen more of what staff members do to help students and the role that they play.
She shared her experiences with the campus staff:
The staff has always been nice to me. I work with the staff, so I get a good insight as to
what they have to deal with as far as what the students come to them with. And so, I
have an appreciation…for everything that they do… The staff that I work with in the Bio
Department, they’re always like, “You know, we wouldn’t be here without the students.
So why not treat them as nicely as you can?” And so I appreciate that about them.
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The relationships that students formed with the faculty and staff members positively impacted
their college experiences. Students who described being connected to the campus
enthusiastically discussed having positive relationships with the faculty and staff. Many
indicated the names of the faculty whose classes they have taken and mentor relationships they
have built. In particular, many noted the positive influence their interactions with African
American faculty and staff had. Students described feeling encouraged by African American
faculty and staff to succeed. More importantly, they discussed the importance of having a
faculty member of their same racial and ethnic group who they could have as a role model.
Interactions with African American Faculty and Staff. One of the unintended findings
was related to the positive impact of the campus’s African American faculty and staff. Many
students indicated that the African American faculty and staff were extremely open and
supportive of the campus’s African American students. This sentiment is shared by Mrs. Clark,
the president of the Black Faculty & Staff (BFS) organization, who noted that members of the
organization really care about African American students.
I think…reaching out more to the students—that’s what we’ve done over the last couple
of years, and it’s really…it’s really had a big impact on them. They know, from what
they’ve told us, “Now it feels like you guys know we’re here and you care about us.”
Robyn also noted that the African American faculty is very supportive. Although there are not
very many, those that are at CAL U are great:
We don’t have like a lot of Black faculty but the ones that we do have, they’ll go out of
their way to help you. If you need something, even if you don’t belong to their
department, or you’re not in their classes, you can just go to them to talk, or if you just
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need a reference, or if you need an internship or whatever, they’ll try to help you out with
their connections.
Robyn also shared a positive experience with one of the African American faculty:
There’s an [Ethnic and Women’s Studies] professor Dr. **** who my [professor in my]
freshman year, like was really amazing, he really just helped me a lot, as far [as]…just
my writing skills that kind of stuff. And I’m not even in his department and he didn’t
have to do that. He was just positive like I will be taking a test and he’d be like you can
do it, you got this. He was like a really cool guy.
Betty shared that having a positive relationship with a faculty member who is African American
and in her field is important. She noted that because the agriculture department is small and does
not have very many minorities, having an African American professor is valuable. She provided
the following reflection:
There’s one professor in my department, Dr. ****, and I’ve checked in with him multiple
times a quarter since my freshman year. And he’s also African American, and so I feel
like on one level, that was a connection and then plus both being in agriculture and
science background and stuff. So it just really helped foster that relationship, and he’s
just been instrumental in everything I’ve decided to take on after that.
Faith also recalled how supportive the African American faculty and staff are. Like many others,
she has enjoyed that the faculty are supportive of all students regardless if they are in their
classes or not. She explained:
I think our Black faculty and staff, they’ve really for the most part, they’ve tried to make
them seem like they are very accessible to the Black students… For example, Dr.****,
big name on campus—he’s a huge mentor to a lot of the Black students. He’s
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inspiring…we have really supportive professors, like Dr. ****. She always looks out for
her students, you know. And you don’t even have to have had a class with them. I think
they want us to feel like, “If you need us, you know we are here.” So I really do enjoy
that about it.
The support of the African American faculty and staff was found to be an essential connection to
the positive experiences that these students have had at CAL U. Students have found comfort in
the positive relationships they have formed with the African American faculty that are available
on the campus. The intentionality of forming relationships with students and providing support
is not overlooked by African American students.
The Personal and Academic Gains of Engagement to Overall Success. While no
students indicated that their participation in a campus organization or program was the reason for
their persistence in college, they did indicate that engagement had impacted their success—either
through job acquisition, networking, skill building, educational goals, or personal development.
Students discussed that being engaged provided them with personal and career benefits that they
would not have attained had they not been actively engaged. As shared by Stacy, participating in
campus activities and organizations has benefited her personally. She credited some of her
wellbeing to a campus organization. She stated “I would say [Black Women’s Support group] is
important to my success just for my mental wellbeing and allowing me to feel better in that sense
and allowing me to focus a little bit more on school after you get that off your chest.” Hope
similarly recalled on her engagement, “[My engagement opportunities] served a purpose. At
each point, they served a purpose, to fill something that was missing or needed in that moment in
time.” Kelly found that being engaged is part of the college experience she wanted. She
affirmed, “[Engagement] helps you to be well rounded and, yeah you’re here for school, but
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there’s a lot more to college than just school. If you just wanna do school, you can take all
online classes and still get a degree…that’s not the experience I wanted.”
Others have discussed that engagement has led to better networking opportunities and job
acquisition. Nnamdi attained a job offer because he was engaged in a campus organization
related to his major. He recalled:
NSBE has definitely been important to my success ‘cause my job offer came through
NSBE. I went to a NSBE conference in Arizona and ended up talking to Exxon Mobil
there and got an interview and then got another interview when I came back here.
Derek credited his success to his various engagement opportunities. His extensive engagement
has provided him with various skills and experiences that he has noted are appealing to potential
employers. He illustrated that:
[Being engaged has] definitely [been] important to my success because one thing that we
will all be trying to get a job when we get out of here and that’s all I talk about in my
interviews is my leadership experience, because a lot of the interviews, they kind of
assume right okay well this guy has 3.3 GPA in Electrical Engineering, he pretty much
knows his stuff…but then they want to hear about the leadership because all these
companies are trying to hire leaders, people that are going to be able to work well with
their employees and take their company to the next level. So they all want to hear about
my leadership experience…they’re always like blown away, like wow that’s crazy, the
things we’ve accomplished and stuff.
Clarissa, who is the Director of Community Service within the College of Science at CAL U,
found that being engaged is a benefit both personally and academically. She asserted:
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I think it’s important to stay active in school, or else you really don’t have any motivation
to come to school, especially when things start getting tough…but it’s important, at least,
if not in a social way, then at least in a networking way… It helps you out in the long run,
I feel that it’s gonna benefit me.
For individuals like Dallas and Terri, their involvement in the McNair program has positively
impacted their desire to attend graduate school. Dallas, who wants to study gender and ethnic
identities to become a professor, noted that participating in organizations like the Black Student
Union and the McNair’s program has been imperative to her current success and goals. She
believed that her tenure as Black Student Union president prepared her to gain the knowledge
and insight necessary to work with college students, but that her McNair’s program experience is
what is preparing her to attend graduate school. Terri also spoke highly about the McNair’s
program, “Being in McNair was the most positive experience ever… McNair just helped put me
on the path to becoming a professor. Like, without McNair, there’s no way that I would be ever
even able or ready or…to do such, like, things like that.” Participation in various types of
engagement opportunities provides students with personal and career benefits that they may not
have attained otherwise. These opportunities also allow them to explore their interest, build
networks, and prepare for future aspirations.
The Role of Racial Identity Development & Race on the Collegiate Experience
Engagement has been one of the main factors that has led students to be successful in
their college careers. However, for African American students, their racial identity can also be
an impactful component of their educational experiences. As noted by Cross’ (1991) Black
Identity Development model (Figure 3), African Americans transcend from a pre-encounter
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stage, when there is little to no racial awareness, to Internalization-Commitment where they have
great racial awareness, pride, and can build relationships with non-African Americans.
Figure 3: Cross’ (1991) Black Racial Identity Development

For the student participants within this study, racial identity awareness has been an area
that has either always had a salient presence or may not have had an obvious influence in their
lives. Some participants indicated that their upbringing was not heavily impacted by their racial
identity, while others noted that racial identity was more salient in their lives. These
diametrically different perspectives influenced some student’s views of race and racial identity.
As Kelly shared her early experience with racial identity:
All my friends [were] some other ethnicity or race, so I just…I didn’t really feel too
much discrimination or anything. I felt accepted as a child, so I don’t think I was really
too cautious…or too aware of “Oh, I’m Black.” But I knew I was. It just hadn’t really…
It’s not something that I thought about too often.
Others noted a greater saliency of race and racial identity upon coming to the United States. As
Hope recalled, “In Belize, there’s not an emphasis on race so much… It’s more so colorism that
is perpetuated. So as weird as this sounds, I didn’t know I was really Black until I came to
America.” The experiences students have had in identifying with their racial identity varied.
Within this theme, the findings related to the impact of African American students’ racial
identity and their college experiences will be discussed. Figure 4 provides a guide to the
organization of this section.
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Figure 4: The Role of Racial Identity and Race on Collegiate Experience

Pre-Encounter to Racial Identity Development: Initial Perceptions of Race. The
process of racial identity awareness occurred at different times for many of the student
participants. But a common factor that many hold is their lack of awareness of their racial
identity in the earlier part of their youth. As Faith recalled, “As a kid, it wasn’t something that I
took great ownership over just because the people that I was surrounded by were all Black...it
wasn’t like, oh I was the…needle in the haystack, you know.” Similarly, Robyn shared that,
coming from the Caribbean and a largely Black community, race and color was not something
that she particularly focused on. “When I first came here I didn’t really see color, because
everyone I knew was Black, so the entire island is Black…so I never really saw myself…it’s so
mixed in the Caribbean you don’t really see color.”
Equally, for those raised in predominantly White areas and schools, their racial
differences were not palpable. Awareness of their racial identity was not an overt experience
that students felt. Some indicated initial awareness, but that awareness eventually went away.
While one would theorize that being in a White environment would increase their racial
awareness, having racial identity awareness in the Pre-Encounter stage of Cross’(1991) theory
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would indicate that the lack of saliency of racial identity would reduce their racial identity
awareness, even in a White environment. As Betty recalled:
I’ve never grown up in a traditionally just Black neighborhood or anything. Always been
usually, like, the only Black person in all of my classes and stuff… I don’t feel like it was
ever anything that was super brought to my attention. It was like I accepted, like, yes,
I’m African American and didn’t have a problem with it or anything. But I don’t feel like
there was necessarily an embrace of it.
Likewise, Kelly described her awareness of race and racial differences as limited.
When I was younger, I didn’t really hang out with too many Black kids… I don’t think I
really went to school with a lot of Black people. I was aware that I was Black, but…I
guess it didn’t really matter too much.
Yet this naivety was not an experience that all students held. Some students shared that their
perceptions of their racial identity were significantly different because of the relationships and
interactions they had with peers in school. As Dallas reflected:
I was made fun of because [people thought] I was [acting] White, like an Oreo, the way I
spoke. And the fact that I grew up more culturally West Indian, Barbadian, than African
American… That played a big role…into my identity just because I was never Black
enough. And I didn’t know what it was.
Stacy found that transitioning from a majority African American area in Los Angeles to a
majority White area was significantly challenging to her identity and sense of self.
It’s hard … it was touchy because I was glad to be Black. But I’m not going to lie; there
was many moments when I was just like, “Life would just be so much easier if I was
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White, like right now.” Because of where I was living and the…treatment I was
receiving and some of the students when they talk to me or the comments they made.
Terri also shared similar views as she recalled, “When I was younger, for me, being Black was
always kind of…it felt like a negative… It didn’t feel like the most positive thing, especially
because I grew up in white neighborhoods.” Racial saliency varies for many individuals and can
impact their perceptions and views of others. Acknowledging the impact students may feel upon
entering an environment in which race and issues of social justice will become apparent is
important to create conditions in which students can be successful. Many of the participants
shared that their awareness of racial identity and what it means to be a person of color did not
occur until they started college.
Encountering and Immersing in Racial Identity: Perceptions of Race and the
College Experience. In addition to discovering career aspiration and true passions, college is
the place where many students attain a greater understanding of what it means to be a person of
color. This process, or encounter, is the instance in which a person begins to see themselves as
more than just an individual, but a member of a collective group. As Michaela, the AASC
coordinator, described:
I think that students come to [CAL U] and realize that they are Black in ways that they
probably didn’t think about in their high schools because they didn’t have to… There are
not a lot of Black people [here], especially, like, even [in] some of those [popular]
majors. When you’re in the classroom and it’s just you, I think that you quickly become
aware. Like, “Oh.” Now what you do with that is something totally different. But I
think that that happens a lot.
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For the students within this study, these instances or encounters in which they became aware of
their racial identity varied. Many discussed that their awareness or view of their race was made
acute by their college attendance, and for others, upon their immigration to this country.
Robyn’s awareness about her racial identity occurred when she initially came to the
United States. Race and racial differences were not a salient topic for her in her youth. Yet
since she enrolled in college, she has gained great racial pride. As she reflected on her views,
she explained:
…now as for being Black I’m just proud of it, I wouldn’t change it, I don’t know some
people they’re like, it’s hard being Black I wish I was a different race because people
look at you different. But I feel like if you don’t fit those stereotypes and stuff, you can
grow out of that, you can show people that not all of us are this way. So it’s not
something that I’m not proud.
Similarly, Hope shared the great pride she has as a person of color. During her youth, being
Black or African American was associated with negativity. She recalled, “To be Black was to be
associated with all the things that are negative. To be stereotyped profusely, immensely. And I
didn’t want to identify with that.” Yet since she has attended college, she has attained a greater
understanding of self and an inner strength. She shared:
So what being Black to me now means, what I feel right now is that being Black is being
proud, being a strong woman, being an educated woman, and educating others about
issues surrounding African Americans, Blacks. And letting them know that these
stereotypes and the perpetration of these stereotypes will not be had.
For Betty, despite initially not embracing her racial identity, her experiences within her major
have changed her views. As an Animal Science major, she has had little diversity in her
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department. As a result she has great racial pride in being one of the few African Americans in
the field. She stated that her view of her racial identity now is:
…more of something to be proud of. Just the culture and everything we have to bring to
it and just the advances we made in general… Just definitely realizing that I am paving
the way…in agriculture…[it’s] inspiring to be sort of a trail blazer [and] realizing that I
am opening this door for African Americans.
Yet this experience or encounter is not something that everyone experiences. Some
students shared that racial awareness is not a salient identity in their lives. Kelly explained that
her racial identity is not a prime focus for her life. She described her feelings about her race as
something that is, more so than something that shaped her views. As Kelly explained:
I’m the only, like, one of only Black kids in each class… It’s not a big deal to me until,
like, sometimes it’s pointed out, or if you talk about something, say slavery, comes up in
class, and you feel like, “Oh. I’m the only one who’s Black in here; they’re all gonna
look at me” or whatever the case may be. But it’s not the biggest deal. I actually chose
[CAL U] because it’s so diverse, and I wanted to be around a lot of different types of
people, so that’s why I chose here.
Nnamdi’s experiences since attending college have affected his initial optimism of society and
clearly established to him that there is racism. He described how his views on his race and racial
identity have changed since he has been in college. “My views now in college is just, you know
I watch D.L. Hughly, one thing that D. L. says is that to be Black, you have to work twice as
hard to get half as far. I’m more leaning toward that school of thought now.” Most students
encountered race and the awareness of their racial identity differently. For some there was an
embrace of their racial identity, and for others it continued to be an aspect of their identity but
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not the definition. It was found that students’ success was not contingent on the level of racial
identity development they had. However, students who did embrace their racial identity
expressed a great amount of pride and ownership.
The Campus Climate. When discussing the campus climate with students, faculty, and
staff, the common reply from many is that the campus is very diverse. Many highlighted the
positives about the campus’s diversity, the many visible cultures, and the general sense of
welcoming they felt. Students instinctively discussed the purposeful intention of the institution
to support campus diversity. The campus diversity was linked by many students as a reason for
their overall satisfaction with the institution. Derek illustrated the positive campus environment:
I feel like we have a great African American community here at [CAL U]. I brag about it
all the time to other campuses, you know your African American community is not as
tight as we are, we are like a little family, thanks to the centers, thanks to the different
clubs like BSU, all these other organizations we have here… So I feel like we have a
great chemistry, even just the campus in general as a whole like [CAL U]’s super diverse.
Dr. Louis also shared the institution’s focus on diversity. She added, “I think the campus here
makes an effort, a real effort. In fact even when I came in originally, they was more of a
conscious effort. It was part of the diversity that was just part of it, especially in student affairs.”
Khalil found the campus diversity to be welcomed. He noted that the cultural centers have
helped with the campus’s cultural awareness and family environment. He shared:
I have all sorts of different friends, go out from here to my suite and see 10 different
races of people just because how diverse [CAL U] is and how people are open minded to
diversity…it’s great and accepted here, it’s appreciated.
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Overall the students were greatly satisfied with the campus’s diverse environment and saw it as a
source of support.
The Classroom Experience. The classroom experience for some students has been
described as challenging. Many found themselves having to be the racial representatives
whenever topics of racism, slavery, or civil rights are discussed. Some students recalled the
classroom as the place where feelings of isolation or segregation occur. As Derek described the
classroom experiences from the perspective of an African American:
I would say at first, it could be challenging at first just because you probably don’t see
that many [African Americans], especially in the classrooms and stuff like that, like in
engineering, I will be like the only Black person in my class or maybe two or three of us,
when you get three or four in engineering class, we’re like, “Oh we’re deep,” we’re all
excited, but for most part it’s like one or two, so you know I feel alone or different.
Jayson also recalled feeling stereotyped within his classes. He remembered an incident in one of
his classes in which it was challenging to find someone to work with.
Sometimes when I’m in the GE [classes], and they say, “Oh. Need a partner for a
project.” Everybody kinda…I notice one class everyone was like…[moved away] I was
like, for me it rarely happens where, I’m like, I cannot find a partner… Every
person...this person turn to that person... I was, like, I feel like you really do get
stereotyped... In classes, there’s like a stereotype.
Many students described having to be the spokesperson for the views of all African Americans.
As Robyn found “[Sometimes] you’re the only Black person in class and they start talking about
something that is African American related or culture, they look at you, do you have this,
[answer]. [And feel like] I’m not from here, I’m learning with you.”
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Similarly, Kelly shared that she too is often the only African American in her classes:
I’m the only, like, one of only Black kids in each class. And I know, it’s like, a lot of my
friends feel the same way or that is the case. It’s not a big deal to me until, like,
sometimes it’s pointed out, or if you talk about something, say slavery, comes up in class,
and you feel like, “Oh. I’m the only one who’s Black in here; they’re all gonna look at
me” or whatever the case may be.
Very often African American students feel singled out or uncomfortable when being asked to
represent the perspective of their racial group. Mrs. Clark has noted that this is a too-frequent
occurrence for students. She recalled, “…one [African American student] told me, they were in
a history class, and when it came to talk about African American history in that class, all eyes
went to that student, so it made them feel really uncomfortable.” Similarly, Michaela has noted
that students too often feel the responsibilities of being their racial group’s representative:
I hear instances of, like, in history classes, like, when slavery is coming up and there’s,
like, two Black people, then they’re looked at as like, “Okay. The experts on what
happened.” …Students…get a reality check about their identity quickly. I don’t know
that it’s always… My guess is that it’s not always positive, but I do think that there is
some realization around that.
Most students noted feeling uncomfortable or isolated in classes when topics related to race and
the experiences of racial ethnic minorities was brought up. Many disliked the responsibility of
having to speak about experiences that many have never had. For student participants, their
ability to overcome stereotypes and pressure to represent their racial ethnic group has been one
of the factors that has led them to be successful.
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Institutional Impact on African American Students
The concept of engagement is one that looks at the ways in which students’ purposeful campus
engagement leads to their persistence and engagement. However, this concept, as described by
Kuh et al. (2005), also looks at the ways in which institutions impact student persistence and
retention. For the students within this study, there were a variety of opinions as to the role of the
institution, the institution’s responsibility for their success, and how the institution has helped
them succeed. Figure 5 provides an overview of this section.
Figure 5: Instiutional Impact on African American Students

Institutional Impact on Success. Institutional impact on student success is a factor in
student achievement. Students discussed the benefit of the multiple services, resources, and
programs available. Yet for some students, the belief that the institution itself has had a role or
impact varied. Tiffany believed that the institution should not be responsible for student success.
She felt that student success should come from your own hard work and not what the institution
can do for you. She explained, “I don’t really think that it’s the school’s job to help me succeed.
You know what I mean? So I don’t really expect them or, you know, rely on them to get me
somewhere… In general, I don’t think a school should be the reason for your success.”
Similarly, Dallas noted because she is an Ethnic and Women’s studies major, the institution does
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not provide her with many resources. “Mainly because this is a science and engineering school,
there’s not really many resources for me other than food when I’m hungry.” Despite being
prompted on the many services provided by the institution, some students felt more inclined to
place their success on other factors. Students recognized that the institution is not the only
mechanism or resource through which to attain success. However, most acknowledged that the
institution was helpful in some circumstances.
Clarissa did not believe that the institution has done anything extraordinary or special for
CAL U students. However, she acknowledged that the institution has done things to help
students succeed. “They extend library hours when it’s finals time, and they, you know, support
student-run activities and athletics and everything, which, of course, makes the students feel
good. And that will make them want to come to school.”
Faith and Derek found their roles in student government allowed them to see how the
institution purposefully attempts to improve and enhance student success. From Faith’s position
in student government, she is privy to more information than the average student. She has
learned about the extensive effort the institution makes to ensure that students succeed. As Faith
shared, the institution purposely attempts to provide students with a holistic education by
fulfilling both academic and social needs:
[CAL U has] a graduation initiative… It wants to make … [a] well-rounded student. It’s
not focused on, “We want to get the students classes so they can graduate.” It’s like, “We
want to get them that experience. We want to give them a great student affairs
experience.” Because with athletics comes school pride, which comes retention…With
campus involvement … comes…ownership over something… I still give this university
credit for the betterment of the student. At the end of this we want to produce 20
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thousand better students…that are well-rounded… And I think the university has been
pretty true to that mission.
Similarly, Derek also believed that the school is doing a good job at supporting students and
helping them succeed. He credited the institution’s hard work and effort despite the lack of
funding and budgetary issues. “I feel like they’re doing a great job already with what they have,
you know if the University had more money of course that would make things a lot better and a
lot smoother you know… I find they’re doing a great job.” The institution’s intentional effort to
ensure and increase student success helps some students’ perspective of the institution. Ensuring
that students are aware of the institution’s efforts to increase student success creates greater
bonds to the institution and overall satisfaction.
Institutional Resources and Programs. Resources and programs have been described
by many as the ways in which the institution helps student succeed. The many resources and
programs made available to students have, for many, enhanced their overall experiences. As
Nnamdi explained, the institution has helped him succeed through the resources that the
institution provides. From his perspective, resources are some of the things that are important
for student success, yet taken for granted. He shared the following:
I think just providing the resources… Having faculty there who are knowledgeable.
Providing a safe and sound environment. You don’t hear of people coming here and
people getting shot and stuff like that. You’re not scared for life when you come to
school. Providing a safe environment for you to be able to succeed. It’s key.
Stacy also noted that the extensive resources on campus are a positive aspect of the institution.
She believed that the various types of resources had an impact on her success because they have
aided her in areas in which she may have had some deficiencies or challenges. Her experiences
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in a campus academic support program and other campus organizations have helped with her
academics and her financial aid.
We have great resources… I’m a part of EOP, Education Opportunity… I’ve had free
tutoring available; I still have that available to me if I wanted to use it now. They offered
us, for the first two years you get like a small scholarship which is helpful. And with
African American students there, they’re connected to Black Faculty and Staff
Association which also gives out scholarships and I’ve received two of those in my time
here. So just the resources, has really helped me to be a good student and financially
provided me I would say in a good way.
A successful program noted by many of the participants that helps students excel is the SRP
program. The SRP program is a four-day residential program for underrepresented minority high
school seniors and incoming first year students. The program is aimed to assist students to
transition to CAL U and learn about its programs and services. Almost all of the students
indicated that the SRP program is a great program and resource to help students transition to the
university. Most importantly, the program is a great opportunity for current students to get
involved and connected with incoming students. Robyn’s participation in the SRP program was
very impactful on her college experience. The program allowed her to gain insight into the
campus and become more comfortable with her surroundings.
I really enjoyed [SRP], that really helped my experience because I got to…make friends
through the program and know an upper classman who I know I can go to because they
want to help… I also volunteered my sophomore year, to be an RA, an evening
RA…because I loved it. Being on both sides of the spectrum I know that really shaped
my college experience, it really helped me know what to expect, so I didn’t go in blind
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not knowing anyone. I already knew some of the professors, I knew faculty members, I
knew students, I knew how to get around campus, I knew everywhere to go on campus, I
knew what services were available to me on campus.
Derek did not receive the invitation to participate in SRP but did become a Resident Advisor for
the program. Participating in the program as a current student has positively impacted his
college experience. He recalled that participating in the program and connecting with incoming
students and high school students was a highly enjoyable experience. He found that the program
was of great benefit to students entering the university. He recalled, “I’ve been participating as a
RA like since my sophomore year because I saw the people that came in my freshman year,
they…felt comfortable on the campus and stuff, they already had mentors.”
Mrs. Clark also shared how important the SRP program is for African American students.
“The SRP Program, I have to say that first and foremost. That is…oh, gosh, that’s the best
program that could have been created here for African American students…for the students who
participate and the ones who are just involved, it’s the door to CAL U.” This program is one of
the many avenues and resources used to increase student success.
Underlying Factors that Lead to Student Success
All students have indicated how engagement and institutional support and resources have
been a source of their success in college. Yet their success is made up of a kaleidoscope of
factors that have lead students to do well. Two consistent factors that students indicated as the
reasons for their success are their motivation and their family’s support. Figure 6 demonstrates
the interconnected and cyclical nature of these two factors to student success.

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Figure 6: Family and Personal Motivation Impact on Student Success

Family Impact on Student Success. Family support came up repeatedly as a strong
factor for every student’s success in college. A large majority believed their family’s
expectations and belief in their abilities to do well are the reasons why they have been able to
succeed in college. As Betty noted earlier, “Family is my everything.” This sentiment is shared
by many of the other participants in this study. Some recalled that from an early age succeeding
in college has been a goal they have been ingrained with. As Jayson remembered, “My mom has
always drilled it in my head, like, go to college. You’re gonna go. Ever since I was, probably,
born, I probably heard those words. And my grandparents, same thing… They were really
encouraging.”
For students like Faith and Tiffany, their families’ sacrifices to send them to private
school from kindergarten to high school provided strong motivation for continued success. Self-
imposed responsibility to family members was found to be a reason that students have strived to
do well in college. As Tiffany discussed, “I feel like I don’t want to let my mom down. She’s
paid so much money since I was two for me to go to private school, so I feel like it’s just, just be
an epic, you know, failure to her, to myself, if I didn’t keep going.”
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Derek initially was not motivated to pursue college. Like many youngsters, applying to
college and the campus experience was not a dream that he had. It was because of his mother
that he made greater strides to achieve. He recalled his mother’s constant push to attend college
as a reason for his success:
I would say my family has had a big impact, or a huge impact on my success because
when I was coming out of high school, I wasn’t one of those people who kind of already
knew where they wanted to go… [My] mom would keep asking, “What school are you
trying to go to?” …She was the main one just pushing me to like get the college
applications done.
Hope’s family has provided support in a multitude of ways. “My family, honestly, my family,
my mentors, and my friends, the support that I have, if I did not have that support, I swear to
you, I’d be out of college by now.” Dallas shared that her cultural background has been a large
reason her family has pushed her to do well in college. “My mom was heavily involved, but that
also comes from a West Indian background. Education is the main thing, especially with people
who immigrate to the country. That’s their main focus.” All the students reported that their
family members have played a major role in their drive and motivation for college success. By
providing emotional support, ensuring access to pre-college resources, and insisting on success,
family support is a strong mechanism that drives students to success.
Personal Motivation for Success. In addition to engagement opportunities, institutional
and family support, a factor found to push students toward success was their personal motivation.
Many students indicated a “fear of failure” and their “life goals” as reasons that they have been
able to achieve. An overall desire to achieve their personal goals was noted as a reason that
many students have been motivated to succeed. Derek recalled that high standards for his
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academic goals have motivated him to do well. As he explained, “I have a fear of failure, so I try
my best at everything I do, because I don’t want to fail. A solid C, dropping out is a failure so I
got to, I do whatever I have to do to stay here and succeed.” Similarly, Robyn recalled that
despite some of her peers leaving school without a degree, dropping out is simply not an option
for her. When asked why she has been able to stay in college, she shared:
My own personal motivation, I mean I understand why they just give up, I have friends
who came in with me freshman year, who aren’t here… I don’t look down on people who
do drop out, college isn’t for everybody, but for me personally there was no way I could
not graduate.
Jayson’s drive to persist and do well in college is tied to his personal goals, but also to his
expectation to one day take care of his mother. When asked why he has been able to stay in
college, he comically replies, “My mom would kill me.” He then went on to explain, “I need to
go to college because I want to get a job because I want to take care of myself… And when [my
mom] gets older, I might have to take care of her.”
Many participants shared that their family obligations, potential future careers, and an
overall desire to succeed was highly motivating. Finding the motivation to do well for many was
an internal and almost innate quality that pushed them to pursue success. Some students shared
that their drive has always been ingrained in them, while others noted that it grew and developed
out of life experiences. The motivation to succeed was built upon their positive, negative, and
overall experiences.
Summary
In this chapter, a review of the research questions, participant biographies, and the
findings were provided. These findings were divided by sub-research questions and presented by
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themes. The results of the study revealed that students’ collegiate experiences were enhanced by
their engagement opportunities. Additionally, while the students’ racial identity impacted their
outlooks, for most, it had not impacted their overall positive experiences at CAL U. Factors like
the positive campus climate, supportive faculty and staff, and family and personal motivation
were all found to be the main forces that pushed these students to success.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
As previously discussed in the literature review, the retention of African American
students in higher education has been an ongoing issue, for both students and the faculty and
staff members who support them. Researchers have historically focused on the factors that cause
these students to withdraw from college, and few studies set out to specifically explore how
African American college students are able to stay in college and succeed. By focusing on
African American students in a moderately selective institution, this study sought to discern how
engagement impacts the retention and overall collegiate experience of African American college
students, and any additional underlying factors that affect persistence. Through the analysis of
the various student, faculty, and staff participants’ interviews on the collegiate experiences of
African American college students, four key findings were identified in the study. This chapter
will synthesize the findings of this study, offer recommendations based on these findings, and
provide recommendations for future research on African American college student success. The
chapter will also discuss limitations and final thoughts from the researcher.
Discussion of Findings
This study sought to answer the following research question: What underlying factors
contribute to the retention and engagement of African American college students at a public,
mid-sized institution? Based on the findings of this study, the researcher noted that there are
various factors that have led to African American students’ retention and engagement in college.
These factors are identified as the four key findings that inform the recommendations proposed
in this chapter: 1) Student engagement had a positive impact on African American college
students’ collegiate experiences, 2) Racial identity development and perceptions of race had an
impact on African American college students’ experience, 3) There is an institutional impact on
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African American student success, and 4) Family support and personal motivations are
underlying factors that led to participants’ success. These findings are the underlying factors that
contribute to the retention and engagement of African American college students at a public,
mid-sized institution. Additionally, these findings demonstrate that African American college
students benefit from their engagement experiences personally, academically, and socially. For
many, engagement opportunities are one of the underlying factors through which African
American college students have been able to connect to the campus, develop their racial
identities, and pursue their goals.
Finding 1: Student engagement had a positive impact on African American college
students’ collegiate experiences. Engagement was observed to be one of the many important
factors found to increase students’ success within this study. Based on the findings of this study,
African American students perceived that engagement contributed to their success. For many of
the participants in this study, their engagement opportunities positively impacted their personal
goals, academic experiences, and their connection to the campus environment. Engagement was
discovered to be a factor that created opportunities for the African American student participants
in this study to be successful and have a more satisfying collegiate experience.
Finding 2: Racial identity development and perceptions of race had an impact on
their experience. Although the campus environment was very diverse and supportive of diverse
students, participants reported that race continues to be a factor that has had both a positive and
negative impact on some of the African American students’ collegiate experiences. Some
students indicated that they had faced challenges acclimating to the campus, interacting with
peers, and participating in the classroom environment as a result of their racial identity. Others
noted the ease they had with transitioning to the campus because of programs like Summer
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Residential Program and the overall supportive campus climate. Despite some initial challenges,
most demonstrated great pride in their racial identity and have used it as a platform to be positive
representatives and give back to the campus community.
Finding 3: There is an institutional impact on African American student success. It
was noted in the findings of this study that the institution had an impact on African American
student success. Many students shared that the institution had created opportunities, which
subsequently enabled them to succeed. Most identified how the institution’s various resources,
programs, and services enabled them to do well in college. They also noted that programs that
are directly geared toward them, such as the Summer Residential Program, were beneficial to
their overall experiences and can help support the success of peers.
Finding 4: Family support and personal motivation are underlying factors that led
to participants’ success. For African American students, their family’s support was tied to their
overall success. Many students indicated that their family’s support was responsible for their
success. Another underlying factor related to African American students’ success was their own
personal motivation to succeed. Students noted that their own desires to succeed, academically
and personally, drove them to do well in college. As Clarissa shared, her desire to succeed is
made up of both her personal motivation and her family’s support. When discussing the reason
she has been successful, she noted:
When I graduate…I plan on going to grad school. And then, after that, medical research.
And that just stems from me wanting to work with, like, medicine but not wanting to be a
doctor. And…I’ve been supported greatly by my family.
Many shared career and personal goals that pushed them to succeed academically. Students like
Terri are highly motivated to succeed by their desire to attain a Ph.D. As Terri shared:
ATTAINING SUCCESS 115
I don’t want to [get] a C because I wanna go get a Ph.D. I wanna go get a Ph.D. at a
school that puts me…[at a] research one university…so to me, getting the A is more
important than whatever BS I feel like doing.
Overall, their motivation to pursue future goals, along with their family’s support, positively
impacted their likelihood to succeed.
These findings have strong implications for practice, as student affairs and other
institutional staff can leverage this new knowledge to build programs and opportunities for
students that can help them be more successful. Practical knowledge helps support African
American student success because it informs practitioners of the various mechanisms and factors
that lead them to be engaged. Because retention in an ongoing issue and a majority of African
American students attend moderately selective institutions, it is important to attain insight and
information on the experiences of students who attend this type of institution. These insights can
aid institutions in their awareness of the factors that lead to African American success. Greater
insight into African American college student success can lead to the creation of environments,
programs, services, and conditions that can increase the likelihood that they persist and engage.
Recommendations and Implications for Practice
Five recommendations have been identified to enhance African American student
persistence and engagement in college. These recommendations are based on this study and
existing literature, which identified how African American college students are able to succeed.
These recommendations are: 1) Support African American transition to higher education through
summer bridge programming (e.g. SRP program); 2) Create opportunities for student
engagement (e.g. social and academic opportunities); 3) Support ethnic student organizations
(e.g. Black Student Union, National Society of Black Engineers, National Pan-Hellenic Council);
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4) Create opportunities for competency training for faculty and staff; 5) Provide avenues for
parental/family interaction. While there are potentially more ways African American college
student retention can be supported, these ways were determined by the findings of this study.
Recommendation 1: Support African American transition to higher education
through extended summer transition programming. As Harper (2012) noted, summer
transition programs expose students to available resources, important individuals at the
institution, and various engagement opportunities. These programs are important because they
ease the transition of African American students to college, before the hectic start of the
traditional school year. Strayhorn (2011) similarly notes that positive impact of summer bridge
programs. He has found that participation in summer bridge programs positively influences
“students’ academic self-efficacy and academic skills” (Strayhorn, 2011, p. 153). Most
importantly, summer transitioning programming aids students self-efficacy, which Strayhorn
(2011) found leads to increased academic performance.
This assertion is supported by the current study, in which students and staff members
reported that student participation in the Summer Residential Program helped them in their
transition to the campus environment by connecting them with supportive faculty, staff, and
students. Staff in particular found this program to be very beneficial to students. As Mrs. Clark
shared, “The [Summer Residential Program is the] best program that could have been created
here for African American students.” Students also found this program beneficial because it
allowed them to develop friendships with peers, learn about campus resources and services, and
connect with the various campus resources and services. As Robyn shared, “I feel that all
incoming Black students should go through [the Summer Residential Program].” Yet the
challenge that some discussed about this program is that it is only four days long. Students
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found that they would prefer if the program could be extended for a longer period of time. Many
found that while the four-day program was beneficial, that it could be more beneficial if it were
longer. Summer transitional programming that is specifically catered for incoming minority
students like African Americans may be an important part of promoting success from the start of
their college careers.
This recommendation can be accomplished through institutional support and
collaboration with campus support programs. Although CAL U does have a summer bridge
program, it is only for Educational Opportunity Program students. In order for students to
participate, they must meet specific guidelines, apply, and be selected. Only two students in this
study mentioned their participation in the EOP program. Program coordinators for the Summer
Residential Program could collaborate with the EOP program’s coordinators to expand to more
students and extend the length of time for the program.
The Summer Residential Program can also be expanded by incorporating courses.
Student should take a course from faculty members to experience what actual college courses are
like. This can aid in the development of their academic experiences and build connections to
faculty. Additionally, students should be provided with various engagement opportunities and
interact with upperclassmen. Based on the students’ experiences within this study, it is
recommended that programs like this, which support students’ transition, be extended to four to
six weeks, remain at no cost to students, and take place in the summer prior to enrollment.
Recommendation 2: Create opportunities for student engagement and identity
development through faculty/student mentorship. Hu & Kuh (2002), posit that student
engagement is the most important factor in student learning and personal development. African
American student engagement in campus organizations and services is particularly important
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(Harper, 2012). As Michaela noted, “The students who are involved and connected, I think they
talk about having a good experience at [CAL U]. I think that they feel…a part of a community
and they like it here…I think if they’re connected, then they’re happy.” An aspect of
engagement that student participants specifically noted was the positive impact of mentorship.
Most students indicated very informal mentorship relationships they had with faculty, staff
members, peers, and outside individuals. Institutions should utilize the benefit of this
engagement opportunity to enhance the educational experiences, identity development of
students, and their connection to the institution.
Creating opportunities for students to develop mentorship relationships can positively
support their retention. As discussed by Kuh et al. (2005) in their research on Documenting
Effective Educational Practices (DEEP) and institutions that are able to successfully retain and
engage students, it is important that institutions create opportunities for students to succeed. In
the findings of chapter 4, students noted various examples of the importance of mentorship, and
their relationships with African American faculty and staff. Yet mentorship or finding a mentor
is a task that, while important, is not accessible to everyone. As Derek recalled when discussing
the campus’ faculty:
They’ve definitely helped me a lot, the faculty and staff here, especially the African
American faculty and staff; they’re always looking out for whatever you need, it just that
a lot of people are afraid to reach them because of the age gap and the whole, “I don’t
know what to say to them.”
Mrs. Clark also noted that there was bit of disconnect between students and faculty:
ATTAINING SUCCESS 119
I wish the faculty would step [it] up... There’s a few. You can always, always depend…
But you know, you can overextend yourself depending on them all the time, so we need
some of the others to kind of step up.
By creating opportunities for students to develop relationships with faculty, opportunities that
can support them academically and personally can be developed. This can be especially
beneficial to African Americans who can have mentorship relationships with African American
and other minority faculty members. Creating opportunities for mentor relationships with
faculty of color can also positively develop their identity. Positive role models whom they look
up to and aspire to be like, can positively influence their own identity awareness and
development.
This recommendation can be accomplished in several ways. First, the institution will
need to attain student and faculty buy-in. Buy-in is a process through which institutions gain the
support of the faculty and student body in their vision and goals. This buy-in is important
because it ensures that the faculty and students understand the objective the institution is
attempting to promote to its students. And it allows the institution to hold faculty more
responsible. Secondly, the institution can work with a current mentorship program and assist it
in expanding its services to historically at-risk students. Since most institutions have
organizations that encourage mentorship, student affairs practitioners can create sub-programs
that are directly catered toward minority groups like African Americans, and develop ways to
interact with faculty. Minority faculty members should especially be sought to participate in this
effort. Thirdly, the institution should offer and create programs that increase student/faculty
interactions. Although the institution does have undergraduate research opportunities that pair
students with faculty, not all students want to conduct research. Therefore, it is important that
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other avenues of interaction be made available. An example of a program the institution can
offer is a dinner with professors. This dinner could be held in a restaurant or even at the home of
a faculty member and could be limited to 10 students. Dinners can be based on various topics
and/or by discipline, to allow students to choose a dinner that best meets their interest. This
would give students the opportunity to interact with faculty on a more personal level, network
with peers, and potentially develop relationships with faculty. These efforts would be beneficial
to both the institution and students, as it would encourage engagement, assist students in their
identity development by having positive role models, and demonstrate to students that their
institution supports their educational pursuits.
Recommendation 3: Support Student Leadership Development through Student
Organizations. Student leadership was found to be an important aspect of student success for
the participants in this study. Many of the participants noted the importance of leadership to
their personal and academic success. Some participants also shared that these opportunities
came as a result of their involvement in student organizations, particularly ethnic student
organizations. As noted by Harper (2012) in his study on African American men in college,
ethnic student organizations positively build students’ collegiate experiences. Through these
organizations, African American students are able to develop their leadership and
communication skills (Harper, 2012).
A majority of the participants within this study were in some type of student organization
or service. Student organizations, in particular ethnic student organizations, are important to the
success of African American college students because these programs and services are
opportunities for students to connect with peers of similar interest, racial and ethnic background
and develop their own racial identity (Harper, 2012). More importantly, these programs are
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opportunities for them to build their leadership skills, become mentors to peers, and develop
future career goals. As Stacy shared, the African American Student Center is an example of one
of the important campus services that encourages engagement and identity development of
African American students. Yet due to budget constraints, the center is limited in its ability to
reach its full potential.
When you come to college it’s huge and the people you meet, the way you identify
yourself and who you see yourself as is really, really key as to what you get involved
with and things that you do, and what you aspire to do in the future. So I feel like, if we
have these centers it’s great, but we can’t make them bigger and with our center being
really small…I just feel like we should have got a little bit more of a cut in that sense, in
the things that we do and what we provide I think is really essential to school as well.
This recommendation can be accomplished through various mechanisms. One way is through
institutional support of student organizations with an emphasis on student leadership
development. Because these organizations support African American student success, they need
to have the necessary resources to operate. This would include appropriate facilities and public
support for their work. By providing appropriate facilities and having public support, students
will feel that their presence is valued by the institution. This recommendation can help enhance
African American students’ engagement and overall campus experiences.
Recommendation 4: Provide cultural competency training for faculty and staff.
Cultural competency training is a type of training that can assist individuals in attaining a greater
understanding of various cultures. Since faculty and staff are often viewed as representatives of
the institution and are one of the core components of positive student engagement (DeSousa &
Kuh, 1996; Hu & Kuh, 2002; Kinzie et al., 2008), this type of training could contribute
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significantly by helping them develop skills that allow them to better understand the experiences
and challenges faced by African American students.
While many students noted the positive relationships they had had with faculty and staff,
some indicated that there were some who lacked cultural competency. As Robyn shared, “Some
professors, they can be rude at times, I’ve had one professor who told me…you’re different from
the rest, or you’re more cultured.” Similarly, Hope recalled when a peer had a negative
interaction with her advisor.
[My friend], a Latina woman…[who] has a 3.5 GPA overall [was told] that her GPA is
not competitive enough to get into [CAL U]’s graduate program… That…she will never
complete her degree, being a commuter student, and that she should just quit and leave...
And she’s telling me the advisor that told her this.
For faculty and staff to be collaborative members in the effort to support the retention of
minority groups like African Americans, it would be beneficial to them and students that they
attain cultural competency training. This training could also ameliorate some of the challenging
classroom experiences some students shared. As Derek shared, “I would say at first, it could be
challenging at first just because you probably don’t see that many [African Americans],
especially in the class rooms and stuff like that…so you know I feel alone or different.” Greater
awareness of these challenges can aid faculty and staff in their efforts to support African
American and other minority students.
While this sort of training should not be required, it should be made available to those
seeking to better understand the experiences of minority groups like African Americans. This
may aid faculty, specifically, in easing the transition and enhancing the experiences of African
American students into the college classroom. This recommendation could be carried out by
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providing this training online via interactive media, like Adobe Connect, which allows for
faculty and staff members to be anonymous, yet active participants in the training.
Recommendation 5: Provide Avenues for Parental/Family Interaction. Parental
involvement strongly supports the academic success of students. As found by McCarron &
Inkelas (2006), parental involvement positively impacts educational aspirations. In this study,
familial support was found to be a major reason African American students have been able to
succeed in college. Students shared countless examples of the ways in which their family had
positively impacted their success. As Derek shared, “I would say my family has had a big
impact, or a huge impact on my success.” Consequently, because of the high impact families
have on student success, an integral way to maintain African American student success is to
ensure that their families also stay connected to the campus. This recommendation can be
initiated by conducting a survey or inquiry to gain greater insight into what parents and family
members would like from the institution.
An example of an event that can connect families to institutions is something like Family
Week. An event like this can invite parents and other family members to campus to enjoy
athletic events, student performances, and workshops with important information on how they
can support their student’s success. As McCarron & Inkelas (2006) shared, it is important for
student affairs professionals to reach out to families to educate them on the institutional
happenings and encourage their connection to the institution. Institutions like Cal Poly San Luis
Obispo and California State University, Chico have Parents’ Week or Weekend events around
the time of popular athletic games like homecoming, in which family members are invited to the
campus to participate in various campus activities. This type of event can also be beneficial to
students by allowing them to reconnect with their families and to the parents, by educating them
ATTAINING SUCCESS 124
on the things their student needs to do to be successful in college. Ongoing events to connect
family members to the campus and students should be employed, so that families can continue to
be positive and influential members in students’ lives.
Limitations
Some limitations to this study should also be noted. While the study sought to
understand the experiences of successful African American students, there is no way to truly
understand what role my own identity and experiences may have played in the study design, data
collection process, or data analysis. I could identify with the experiences and perspectives of
many of the students, and made great effort to remove my own perceptions and interpretation of
the factors that had led them to success. From my position as a researcher, I believe that I was
able to reduce my biases by simply accepting the students’ experiences for what they were, and
not what I thought they might mean.
Another limitation was the number of male students who were eligible and willing
participants. Although this study utilized purposeful sampling to select student participants,
African American men have a 6-year graduation rate of 45.2%, a more than 15% gap compared
to African American women (College Results Online, 2010). Because I wanted to include both
the African American male and female student experience, I had to include as many willing male
participants in the study. However, all of the male participants who were willing to participate
were Engineering majors. Additionally, two of the four male participants were originally from
Nigeria. While it would have been better for the purposes of generalizability had I been able to
recruit African American males from other majors and different backgrounds, there simply were
no other qualified participants to select from. This limitation may affect the generalizability of
the findings.
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Finally, because this was a single-site case study, there is limited generalizability of the
results of the study. Other sites will need to explore how the findings and recommendations of
this study can be applied to their specific context. However, the findings can be utilized to
provide greater insight on the factors that lead African Americans to be successful and for future
research.
Recommendations for Further Research
This study found various facets of African American students’ experiences and the ways
in which they are successful. As a result, it has identified other potential opportunities for further
inquiry.
African American student sub-groups. Future research might look into understanding
the mechanisms used by African American student sub-groups that traditionally have
challenging collegiate experiences. A study similar to this one can also be done on African
American STEM majors, student-athletes, first-generation students, and transfer students.
Because students within these categories have traditionally more challenging experiences,
expanding this study to discover the strategies utilized by other African American sub-groups
can develop new knowledge.
Non-American African/Black students. Another potential area for future research is
non-American, African/Black students. As noted in this study, there were students who were
either the first person in their family born in the United States or individuals who immigrated to
attend college. As the population of African American students in colleges continues to
diversify, it is important to research the experiences of these student populations as well. This
would be of great benefit to student services, so that practitioners are aware of the various facets
that make up this group. Additionally, because most services and resources are catered toward
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African American students, it would be beneficial to know what services and resources are
necessary for this emerging student group.
Inquiry into multiple sites. As noted in the limitations, this study only looked at one
institution. Therefore, further research can also look into expanding this research to multiple
sites and different institutional types. A multi-case study would allow for greater analysis and
expansion of the findings discovered here. Utilizing the same criterion used for this study, a
multi-case study that compares and contrasts the services and experiences of African American
students can contribute new knowledge.
A Final Reflection on the Study
When I first started to work on this dissertation, I knew that I wanted to conduct research
on African American students. I wanted to uncover what college was like for African American
students and attain a greater understanding of how they succeed. As I now come to the end of
this study, I reflect on that initial drive to study a population some might say is a lost cause or
just too disadvantaged to help anymore. If anything, this study has demonstrated to me that
African American college students are a powerful and driven group. Their passion for
excellence and success is palpable and strong. From the first interview to the last, I rediscovered
that fire I had thought was lost among this group. I learned that despite whatever perceptions
others may have, African American college students are capable of so much.
This study is essentially twofold: it sought to discover how African Americans continue
to be successful, but also to inform the reader that this group is not incapable, but very able to do
great things, now and in the future. It is my intention to provide you with a glimpse of the
strengths this group has and its capacity to succeed. And demonstrate ways in which this group
can be continued to be supported in their pursuit of higher education and overall success.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 127
Conclusion
This study examined the underlying factors that have led to the successful engagement,
persistence, and retention of African American students at a moderately selective institution.
Through 14 interviews with African American students and three interviews with faculty and
staff members, the researcher was able to discover four findings: 1) student engagement had a
positive impact on African American college students’ collegiate experiences; 2) racial identity
development and perceptions of race had an impact on their experience; 3) there is an
institutional impact on African American student success; 4) family support and personal
motivation are underlying factors that led to participants’ success. As a result of these findings,
it was determined that there are critical ways in which this student group’s success can be
supported. Engagement, while not a new concept, clearly makes an impact on the collegiate
experiences of African American students. It is important that their experiences in higher
education continue to be full of opportunities to be engaged and connected to their institution.
By ensuring that African American students are engaged, we are essentially ensuring that they
have the opportunities to attain success.

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ATTAINING SUCCESS 137
APPENDIX A
INDIVIDUAL STUDENT INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Introduction Script
Hi, my name is ______________. Thank you for meeting with me. Before we begin, I just want
to quickly review the information sheet with you to make sure you understand. [Review] Do
you understand what you will be doing today? Do you have any questions? I also want to
explain that all interviews will be recorded. Do you agree to be recorded? Okay, let’s begin.

Interview Questions
1. Tell me a little bit about yourself. (Background)
2. Tell me about what you did in high school to get ready for college. (Background)
3. What impact has your family had on your college success? (Background)
4. When you were a kid, what did it mean to you to be African American (Black)? (Q3)
a. Follow up: Since you’ve been in college, how would you describe your views
now?
b. Follow up: What is it like being an African American (Black) student on this
campus?
c. Follow up: What are some things you’ve experienced since you’ve been here?
Positive or negative?
5. What have your academic experiences been like? Have you always been a strong
student? (Q1)
6. How do you think your racial identity has influenced or impacted your education your
educational experiences? (Q3)
7. Why do you think that you’ve been able to stay in college? (Q1, Q2)
8. How would you describe the campus’ racial environment? (Q2)
a. Follow Up: What type of campus environment have you experienced?
i. Can you tell me more about this?
b. Follow Up: What kind of impact do you think the campus has on you and your
ability to do well here?
i. Tell me more about that.
9. What activities are you involved in? What made you choose them? (Q1, Q2)
ATTAINING SUCCESS 138
a. Follow Up: Were they important to your success? How so?
b. Follow Up: Do you think your campus involvement activities have an influence
on your success? If so how?
c. Follow Up: Which has had the greatest influence on you? Why?
10. What experiences have you had with the people who work here? (Q2)
a. Follow up: Can you tell me more about your experiences with faculty and staff?
11. What do you think the school has done to help you succeed? (Q1)
a. Follow Up: Is there something more that the school can do to help?
12. What are some of the things you think other African American (Black) students can do to
be successful? (Q3)
a. Are these things that you’ve done?
13. How have you changed since first starting as a student here? (Background, Q3)

Conclusion Script
Thanks for taking the time to answer my questions. Is there anything else that you would like to
say? Also, I just want to confirm that it’s okay to contact you with additional follow-up questions
in about a week if necessary.

ATTAINING SUCCESS 139
APPENDIX B
INDIVIDUAL STAFF/FACULTY INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Introduction Script
Hi, my name is ______________. Thank you for meeting with me. Before we begin, I just want
to quickly review the information sheet with you to make sure you understand. [Review] Do
you understand what you will be doing today? Do you have any questions? I also want to
explain that all interviews will be recorded. Do you agree to be recorded? Okay, let’s begin.

Interview Questions
1. Tell me a little bit about yourself and your role on campus. (Background)
2. How would you describe the campus’s racial environment?
3. How would you describe the African American population here?
a. Follow Up: From your perspective, why do you think that African Americans
have been able to succeed here?
b. Follow up: What are some areas you think African American students can
improve upon?
4. What are some of the programs African Americans greatly benefit from?
a. Follow Up: What do you think makes it so that they are able to benefit from these
programs in particular?
5. How important do you think involvement is to African American student success here?
6. What type of relationships do African Americans have with faculty and staff?
a. How would you describe the impact you and your colleagues have on these
students?
7. What are some things or steps you would implement to enhance African American
student retention and involvement here?
8. Is there anything else you can tell me about African American students and their
experiences here at Cal U?

Conclusion Script
Thanks for taking the time to answer my questions. Is there anything else that you would like to
say? Also, I just want to confirm that it’s okay to contact you with additional follow-up questions
in about a week if necessary.
ATTAINING SUCCESS 140
APPENDIX C

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

TITLE: Attaining Success: How African American College Students Persist, Engage and
Graduate from a Moderately Selective Institution—A Case Study
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is gain an understanding of the factors that lead African American
college students within a moderately selective institution to engage and graduate. This study
aims to at contribute to the research on African Americans from a perspective of academic
success.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Within this study you will be asked to reflect on your collegiate experiences at your institution.
More specifically, questions will be about your experiences as an African American college
student and the factors that have lead to your success. Questions will focus on how you prepared
for college, things you’ve done in college that may have helped you succeed and your campus
participation. The overall purpose of the study is to find out how and why African American
college students like you have been able to succeed in college. This study also want to change
the focus on African American college students from, why are the not graduating from college,
to why are they graduating from college. Your participation can greatly contribute to this
research.
Interviews are expected to last between 40-60 minutes. You are expected to stay until all
interview questions are completed. Interviews will be recorded with a digital recorder.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive $5 Broncos Bucks gift card for your time. Participation is completely voluntary,
however you do have to complete the interview to receive the gift card. Gift card will be given
at conclusion of the interview
ATTAINING SUCCESS 141
CONFIDENTIALITY

Besides your name and year in school, there will be no identifiable information obtained in
connection with this study. Your name, address or other identifiable information will not be used
in the study. To protect your identity a pseudonym will be used. All information and recordings
will be kept on a password-protected computer. Upon completion of this study, all contact and
identifiable information will be destroyed.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data.
The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Ashley C. Barton, M.Ed.
Ed.D. Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California
649 W. 34
th
Street, PSD 101
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0151
acbarton@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Credit Union
Building, 3720 South Flower Street, CUB # 301 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272
or upirb@usc.edu

ATTAINING SUCCESS 142
APPENDIX D
Pre-Interview Survey
1. How were you admitted to the institution?
a. Freshman
b. Transfer

2. What is your current year in school?
a. 1st
b. 2nd
c. 3rd
d. 4th
e. 5th
f. 6
th

3. How would you describe your Racial/Ethnic background?
a. African American/Black
b. Asian American
c. Latino/Hispanic
d. Native American
e. White
f. Multiracial
g. Other

4. What was the ethnic make up of your High School? (ex. Predominantly White, Mixed
Black and Latino, Mostly Asian American, Primarily Latino) ______________________

5. What is your gender?
a. Female
b. Male

6. What is your current Major(s)______________? Minor?________________

7. What is your cumulative GPA?

8. Are you currently involved in any programs or activities?
a. Yes
b. No

9. If yes, what programs are you involved in? (Select all that apply)
a. Fraternity/Sorority
b. Community Service
c. Student Organization/Club
d. Intramural Sports
e. Research Program (i.e. McNair)
ATTAINING SUCCESS 143
f. Student Government
g. Residential Life
h. Other:_____________________

10. Are you in any leadership positions? (Ex. President or vice president of an organization,
program coordinator, team captain, residential floor government member)
a. Yes
b. No

11. Approximately how many hours a week do you participate in these activities?_________

12. If you meet the requirements for this study, would you be willing to participate in a 40-60
min one-on-one interview about your college experience?
a. Yes
b. No

ATTAINING SUCCESS 144
APPENDIX E
General Recruitment Letter
Dear Participant,

My name is Ashley Barton and I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern
California, within the Rossier School of Education. I am presently working on a research study
for my dissertation, looking to understand the factors that lead African American college
students to success. I have chosen your institution because of the increased likelihood for
students to graduate in comparison to other similar institutions. Your participation is highly
sought to attain a greater understanding of what has led you to achieve and do well in college. If
you are willing to partake in my study, you will participate in one interview lasting between 40
to 60 minutes. Your identity will be held confidential and interviews will be recorded.
To be considered for the study, please follow this link and complete a brief on-line survey:

Once you complete the survey, if you qualify you will be contacted to set up an interview.
If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at acbarton@usc.edu or 323.687.6488.

Thank you for your time and consideration.

Best,
Ashley Barton, M. Ed
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

Abstract (if available)

Abstract African American degree attainment rates have remained at steadily low rates for the past decade. As a result, studies traditionally focus on the reasons for African American college students’ lack of persistence. This study sought to change the discussion of African American college students from one that looks at the motives for their failures, to one that seeks to understand the reasons for their success. This study pursued a greater understanding of the factors that lead African American college students to be successfully retained and engaged in college. ❧ Focused on one site, this study was a qualitative case study that utilized one-on-one interviews with African American students, faculty and staff. Fourteen interviews were conducted with African American students and three with faculty and staff. Purposeful sampling was utilized to select student participants. Students were required to be freshman admits in the latter halves of their undergraduate education and be involved in a campus organization or service. Faculty and staff participants were selected via key informants. ❧ The case study approach allowed for a greater understanding and analysis of African American students’ experiences in college. Findings revealed that student engagement had a positive impact on retention, racial identity development continues to have an impact on African American college students’ experience, institutions play a role in African American student success, and family support and personal motivations are strong indicators for student success. These findings have led to recommendations and implications for practice, as well as recommendations for future research, that can positively enhance the experiences of African American college students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Barton, Ashley Caroll (author)

Core Title Attaining success: how African American college students persist, engage and graduate from a moderately selective institution: a case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/23/2013

Defense Date 05/20/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American college students,African American students,Black college students,black students,engagement,Higher education,involvement,moderate selectivity,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence,University

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambasica, Tracy Poon (committee chair), Allard, Monique (committee member), Jackson, Michael L. (committee member)

Creator Email acbarton@usc.edu,ashleycbarton@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-297976

Unique identifier UC11293393

Identifier etd-BartonAshl-1834.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-297976 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BartonAshl-1834.pdf

Dmrecord 297976

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Barton, Ashley Caroll

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA