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Examining the use of online storytelling as a motivation for young learners to practice narrative skills
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Examining the use of online storytelling as a motivation for young learners to practice narrative skills
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Content
Running Head: ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS
Examining the Use of Online Storytelling as a Motivation for Young Learners to Practice
Narrative Skills
by
Patricia Beckmann Wells
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2013
Copyright 2013 Patricia Beckmann Wells
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 2
Table of Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables.............................................................................................................................. 5
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 6
Chapter One: Introduction......................................................................................................... 7
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 8
Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................. 10
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 11
Research Questions........................................................................................................... 12
Importance of the study .................................................................................................... 12
Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................... 13
Glossary of terms .............................................................................................................. 13
Summary........................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter Two: Literature Review............................................................................................. 16
Narrative ........................................................................................................................... 17
Current Research on Teaching Creative, Original Oral Narrative.................................... 19
Theoretical Framework..................................................................................................... 22
Learning theories. ............................................................................................................. 23
Motivation......................................................................................................................... 28
Learning and Motivation Using Technology.................................................................... 33
Implications for Instruction............................................................................................... 36
Summary........................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter Three: Methodology ................................................................................................... 38
Oral Narrative Curriculum................................................................................................ 42
Learning Theory................................................................................................................ 44
Motivation Theory ............................................................................................................ 46
Sample and Population ..................................................................................................... 48
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 50
Website Analytics ............................................................................................................. 50
Survey ............................................................................................................................... 52
Assignment Submission.................................................................................................... 53
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 53
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 3
Summary........................................................................................................................... 58
Chapter Four: Results............................................................................................................... 59
Sample............................................................................................................................... 59
Study Findings .................................................................................................................. 61
Mental Effort to Use the Application to Practice Narrative ............................................. 68
Additional Findings .......................................................................................................... 70
Summary........................................................................................................................... 71
Chapter Five: Discussion......................................................................................................... 73
Discussion of Key Findings.............................................................................................. 74
Summary........................................................................................................................... 87
Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................... 89
Implications for Practice................................................................................................... 91
Recommendations for future research .............................................................................. 92
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 96
References ................................................................................................................................ 98
Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 120
Appendix A..................................................................................................................... 120
Appendix B ..................................................................................................................... 123
Appendix C ..................................................................................................................... 125
Appendix D..................................................................................................................... 136
Appendix E ..................................................................................................................... 138
Appendix F...................................................................................................................... 139
Appendix G..................................................................................................................... 140
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 4
Abstract
The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the use of online storytelling as a
motivation for young learners to practice narrative skills, measured through active choice,
persistence and mental effort (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Web analytics was used to track 24
home schooled participants of an online application to teach a 21
st
century skill driven
curriculum consisting of character driven plot story construction in a social learning
environment. Additional quantitative data was collected by assignment submissions, a survey,
and email exchanges with the participants. The results showed that 79.2 percent choose to
engage with the application as an indicator of active choice. However, only 20.8 percent of users
completed the full curriculum as an indicator of persistence by submitting a final story video. Indicator
Mental Effort revealed that one fifth of the total study participants completed the scaffolded
curriculum by submitting a final assignment video. Additional data suggested that curiosity may
have an influence on active choice. Indicator Persistence infers that technology problems may
have hampered persistence, though one outlier exhibited flow by completing the curriculum
twice. As suggested by the literature, the results of this study revealed that interest was related to
intrinsic motivation and engagement with the media. Additionally, instructor led feedback
videos may play a role in helping learners to develop self-efficacy. This exploratory study
demonstrates how meaningful measures of motivation may be used in online learning
environments.
Key words: Motivation, active choice, persistence, mental effort, educational technology
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 5
List of Tables
Table 1: Instruments used to measure Choice, Persistence, and Mental Effort ....................... 39
Table 2: Summary of Participant Demographics ..................................................................... 59
Table 3: Frequency Counts for the Survey Variables (N = 10)................................................ 60
Table 4: Frequency Counts for the Active Choice Variables (N = 24).................................... 63
Table 5: Frequency Counts for the Persistence Variables (N = 24)......................................... 66
Table 6: Frequency Counts for the Mental Effort Variables (N = 24) ..................................... 69
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 6
List of Figures
Figure 1: Freytag’s Pyramid..................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2: Theoretical Framework............................................................................................. 22
Figure 3: Application and Website Interaction ........................................................................ 42
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 7
Chapter One: Introduction
At a time when 21st century skills are defined as essential, not everyone has access to
sufficient educational opportunities to acquire these skills. Twenty-first century skills are
defined in four broad categories by the Assessment and Teaching of 21
st
Century Skills (ATCS)
as ways of thinking, ways of working, tools for working, and skills for living in the world
(ATCS, 2009). A limitation of the formal educational context is that schools are presently
unable to provide the same learning opportunities to all students (Office of Technology
Assessment, 1988). Society is not meeting the needs of students on an equal access basis.
Technical hardware and software applications, if created with a sound pedagogical construct and
with the right conditions in place, have the opportunity to broaden access to 21
st
century skills
(Honey, 2001; Honey, Culp, & Carrigg, 2000).
One way we are not meeting the needs of our students is by not providing practice in a
foundational skill, the oral narrative. Narrative is defined as a sequence of events, mental states,
or happenings interrelated with each other (Bruner, 1990). Oral narrative, also known as Natural
Narrative (Labov&Waletzky, 1967), is the conversational exchange of storytelling sequences.
Mature oral language skills are an essential foundation for higher learning (Reese, Suggate,
Long, & Schaughency, 2010; Griffin, Hemphill, Camp, & Palmer Wolf, 2004; Snow &
Dickinson, 2001; Cain & Oakhill, 1996). The development of oral language is closely related to
the development of thinking abilities (Lever & Senechal, 2011; Berry, 1985; Gambell, 1988)
and the development of reading skills and literacy (Dickinson, McCabe, Anastasopoulos,
Peisner-Feinberg, & Poe, 2003; Hedburg and Westby, 1993; Nation & Angell, 2006;
Scarborough, 2001; Senechal & LeFevre, 2002; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Storch &
Whitehurst, 2002; Vellutino, Tunmer, Jaccard, & Chen, 2007). Oral narrative teaches students
how to organize their thinking and focus ideas (Lyle, 1993; 2000), and remains one of the
primary means of gaining new knowledge (Lemke, 1986). Heightened literacy skills are in
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 8
increasing demand as the technology-dependent employment landscape changes to adapt to new
technologies, and this means greater economic disparities for those who do not possess the
literacy skills (Bronfenbrenner, 1996).
Background of the Problem
Twenty-first century skills are grounded in technology, where technology is utilized to
connect learners to learning and collaboration opportunities in a knowledge-based economy
(Assessment and Teaching of 21
st
Century Skills, 2009). They require a commitment to
providing a foundation of pedagogically sound technology from several stakeholders, including
government, technology companies, and research institutions. These stakeholders need to
provide political support, hardware and connectivity, and research-based knowledge to construct
a high-quality, meaningful, technology-enhanced learning environment (Culp, Honey, &
Mandinach, 2003). Until this partnership prospers, our current educational system is not meeting
the 21
st
-century literacy needs of its students. Ways of thinking, ways of working, tools for
working, and skills for the living world are addressed in the Common Core State Standards
(Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and National Governors Association for Best
Practices (NGA Center, 2010). The Common Core State Standards are a nationwide initiative to
provide a documented set of guidelines delineating what students are expected to learn in grades
K-12. Story instruction is addressed in the second year of elementary school education, where
specific skills, such as recounting facts and descriptive details, and speaking audibly in coherent
sentences, are required. The standards state that instruction should include audio recordings and
visual media (appropriate to the intent of the learner) to clarify ideas, thoughts, and feelings. The
Common Core State Standards address writing a narrative in grade three, but there is a gap in the
pedagogy. Third grade students are expected to write a narrative that develops real or imagined
experiences or events. They are to receive instruction on effective technique, descriptive detail,
and a clear sequence of events (CCSSO & NGA Center, 2010). However, no mention is made of
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 9
the character-driven plot (or its instruction), which is the basis of the dramatic structure pyramid
(Freytag, 1894)— the foundation of western narrative. The Common Core State Standards
guided instruction centers on creating a linear progression of events, not on a reason for the
linear sequence of events. In addition, literacy skills in the 21st century far exceed those
required 50 years ago, as jobs in our current economy have placed higher demands on the
cognitive skills used to select, evaluate, categorize, and draw conclusions from spoken word and
written text (Haskins & Loeb, 2007). The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
report that the reading and speaking skills of American students do not match international
standards, and that the literacy gap is widening between students from high and low income
families (National Assessment Governing Board, 2010). Twenty first century skills, as defined
by ATC21S, may bridge this gap by providing connectivity and infrastructure for all schools ,in
order to close this gap and provide equal opportunity to all students. (McKinsey & Company,
1995; President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology, Panel on Educational
Technology, 1997).
Second, to propagate access to these 21
st
century skills, many teachers need to learn new
technologies very quickly, in addition to the regular demands of their employment (Albion,
1999). This is problematic because these teachers may not have the self-efficacy and experience
to discern which ones, among the many choices in hardware and software available, will meet
their curriculum requirements (Albion, 1999). Teachers and homeschool parents require
professional development centered on technology, pedagogy, and content (Culp, Honey, &
Mandinach, 2003; Koehler & Mishar, 2005; National Commission on Excellence in Education,
1983) because research has discovered a mismatch between the leadership visions of the “best
use” of technology, and the practical application of technology by K-12 teachers (Culp, Honey,
& Mandinach, 2003). This problem may be resolved by public and private sectors collaborating
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 10
to create more high quality content, software, and ease of access (Web-based Education
Commission, 2000).
Third, current educational technologies are problematic. Studies provide evidence that
some students are more distracted by technologies than engaged in learning (Kafai, Feldon,
Fields, Giang, & Quintero, 2007, Hansen, Llosa & Slayton, 2004). Research indicates that
improperly designed learning media in the classroom do not have a positive impact on
achievement (Hansen, Llosa, & Slayton, 2004). There remains unequal access to learning
technologies and hardware (Darling-Hammond, 2006), and a lack of standards and learning
objectives in educational media (Schuler, 2012). Programs such as the Computer Assisted
Debate (CAD), an after school program in Atlanta, Georgia, offer an example of the growing
opportunity within the elementary school structure to provide exemplary media-assisted learning
with access to students from a wider base of economic privilege (Bryant, 2007). Also, the
Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) is researching new learning environments to
address individual differences in learning (Center for Applied Special Technology, (2010),
Retrieved from www.CAST.org/research /index.htmlLai).It’s apparent that iPads , iPhones, and
other hardware are finding their way into classrooms at an exponential rate, and they exist as
conduits for worthwhile educational technologies that do not yet exist (Lai, E. & Siegl, J.
(2012.). Ipad and Ipad2 Deployment. Retrieved from http://ipadpilots.k12cloudlearning.com/)
Statement of the Problem
Research states that students learn best when engaged in meaningful learning experiences
(Mayer, 2011). For preschool and early primary grades in particular, students construct their
own knowledge by interacting with their peers in social environments. Vygotsky (1976)
suggests that the highest level of learning development occurs in active play. Research of other
developmental psychologists, such as Piaget, demonstrates the importance of sensory
experiences and concrete learning activities (Piaget, 1964). The National Association for the
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 11
Education of Young Children recommends that developmentally appropriate practice in early
childhood programs include direct, firsthand, interactive experience (Bredekamp, 1987;
Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). The authors state that educational media, similar to the one
created for this study, provide this interactive experience, and is founded on sound pedagogy.
As technology evolves, the role technology plays in learning and instruction is also
emerging, especially with respect to the appropriate use of instructional software, online
communities, and computer hardware in curriculum development in both traditional and home-
school communities. Current educational technology is sometimes found to lack appropriate
pedagogical foundations (Clark, Yates, Early, Moulton, 2010), or provide little or no impact on
achievement (Hansen, Llosa, & Slayton, 2004). Homeschooling is viewed as unable to provide
adequate social experiences by 92% of public school superintendent’s interviewed in 1995
(Mayberry, M., Knowles, J.G., Ray, B. & Marlow, S. 1995), though research has provided
evidence that homeschooled students may actually have better social skills than their traditional
school counterparts (Shyers, 1992). Because technology, specifically Internet-based applications
and social websites, attracts the interest of young learners, this study explores whether students
will participate in a non-traditional, creative, learning environment which will provide additional
opportunities to practice narrative skills in a social learning environment, and whether they will
demonstrate the motivation to use technology to engage the curriculum. The technology created
for this study will create an online social learning environment founded on a pedagogically
sound curriculum.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the question: What is the impact on student
motivation of an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by their
choice, persistence, and mental effort?
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 12
Research Questions
To achieve the stated purposes of this research, three research questions are addressed:
1. Will learners make an active choice to use a mobile application and partner
online storytelling website?
2. To what extent do learners demonstrate persistence in using the mobile
application and partner online website to practice narrative?
3. Will learners apply mental effort to use the application and partner online
storytelling website to practice narrative, as indicated by applying feedback,
following a rubric, and timely assignment submission?
Motivation to use software to engage in a curriculum is addressed in this study. In order
to properly harness media technologies, we must know how to motivate students to focus on
learning in this new environment and avoid the typical distractions that accompany the use of
online applications. Researchers claim that an analysis of the research in the field of educational
media concluded that only a few studies provided evidence of qualitative and quantitative data
about learning or motivation assessed in educational games (Chen & O’Neil, 2005; O’Neil,
Wainess & Baker, 2005). These authors caution that new learning technologies must also allow
for an assessment of learning and thus provide evidence of effectiveness.
Importance of the study
This study will focus on oral narrative skill development in the second grade elementary
school curriculum. The problem of (a) the gap in oral narrative instruction, (b) the amount of
technology-centered professional development required by instructors, and (c) the current
deficiencies in educational technology, will be addressed through the creation of a media tool
providing age-appropriate pedagogy in constructing an oral narrative centered on the character-
driven plot. This study will generate a technology-driven social media tool to create online
curriculum intended to motivate learners to use the software to practice oral narrative skills, and
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 13
pedagogy intended to advance oral narrative construction of a creative, original story containing
plot and character.
This study looks at the motivation of young learners to use educational technology to
practice oral narrative skills. This study will measure a student’s motivated involvement in a
social online learning construct, and provide evidence of motivated engagement. Empirical
evidence gathered will inform the gap in data available defining the use of online storytelling as
a motivation for young learners to practice narrative skills.
Limitations of the Study
This study may lack true random sampling as economic advantage may define who has
access to the required hardware and mobile device: study participants must have an iPhone or an
iPad. A second limitation of the study is that English is the required language. Students for
whom English is a second language may experience more barriers. A third limitation of the
study is that parental involvement cannot be controlled. Homeschool parents are more active in
their children’s education than traditional school parents), and thus are more likely to direct the
student to participate in this study (Cai, Reeve, & Robinson, 2002). Parental involvement will
likely influence student involvement in the study. This will affect motivation in ways that cannot
be strictly measured. Parental engagement is important in this study, but the method of online
engagement does not provide control over their participation.
Glossary of terms
The following terms are used in the study. An explanation of each term defines the context of its
use in the study. The article from which it is referenced accompanies each term.
Active Choice: initiating a task (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Active choice relates to a
feeling of autonomy and is thought to enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985).
Extrinsic motivation: learners will do something because it leads to an outcome
experience (Deci & Ryan, 1985).
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 14
Flow: a state of concentration or complete absorption with the activity at hand and the
situation. It is a state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else
seems to matter (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Instructional technology: concerned with improving the effectiveness and efficiency of
learning in educational contexts, regardless of the nature or substance of that learning.
Solutions to instructional problems might entail social as well as machine technologies.
(Cassidy, 1982, p. 1)
Intrinsic motivation: “…innate, rather than derivative, propensity to explore and master
engagement even in the absence of outside reinforcement or support.” (Ryan, Connell, &
Grolnick, 1992, p. 170.)
Mental Effort: seeking new knowledge to perform a task or solve a problem that cannot
be performed or solved with existing knowledge. (Solomon, 1984)
Motivation: to be moved to do something (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Also defined as the
event wherein goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained (Pintrich & Schunk,
2002).
Narrative: Aristotle (4
th
century BC), the first documented oral storyteller, defined the
basics of narrative as (a) plot, (b) the order of incidents, and (c) the emotional reaction of
characters to those incidents. Narrative is defined as a "sequence of events, mental states,
happenings" interrelated with each other (Bruner, 1990, p.43).
Oral Narrative: also known as Natural Narrative, (Labov, Waletzky, 1967) is the
conversational exchange of storytelling sequences.
Persistence: time spent on task, especially when the learner encounters obstacles
(Pintrich & Schunk, 2002).
Self-efficacy: a person’s personal assessment of his abilities to complete a task
(Bandura, 1986).
Summary
Educational technology requires a sound pedagogical foundation in order to support a
learning objective, and the student must be motivated to participate in the learning if the
objective is to be met. This study will build an educational technology based on (a) providing
instruction and practice in oral narrative construction in a social learning environment utilizing
21
st
century skills, (b) minimizing the amount of professional development required by teachers
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 15
and parents to engage in this technology, and (c) providing democratic access to a focused
learning objective, with minimal distraction, built on a theoretical construct with its foundation
in learning and motivation theory. The goal is to (a) motivate learners to use the software to
practice oral narrative skills in a social learning environment, and create an original story
containing plot and character, and (b) to create a democratic learning environment, based on
sound pedagogy, that a student will be motivated to engage in.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 16
Chapter Two: Literature Review
The purpose of this study is to examine the question: What is the impact on student
motivation of an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by the
student’s choice, persistence, and mental effort? To better understand this pursuit, this chapter
will examine subject areas surrounding the question. It will examine the importance of 1)
narrative in learning; 2) literature outlining the construct of oral narrative; 3) current research on
teaching creative, original oral narrative; 4) a theoretical framework of motivation and learning
theories as they relate to teaching original oral narrative; 5) how this literature affects the
curriculum technology created for this study; 6) learning and motivation using technology; and
7) a review of the homeschool audience identified as the users of this technology.
Oral narrative is a critical foundational skill essential to success in later learning.
Vygotsky stated that the speech structures mastered by the child become the basic structures of
his thinking (Vygotsky, 1985). Olinghouse and Graham (2009) demonstrate that oral narrative is
an important element in early writing development, and that the ability to construct an orderly
story is an integral part of writing and knowledge sharing. The National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development’s Early Child Care Research Network (2005) sampled 1,137 children,
ages three- to nine-years-old, in a longitudinal design to examine the best predictors of word
recognition. They reported that early oral language skills contributed to better word recognition
in beginning readers, and contributed to later reading skills. Research continues to provide
evidence that reading, writing, and spelling share a reciprocal relationship, where advancement
in one inspires advancement in the other, and that they are integrated processes (Harrison, 2005;
Bear, Ivernizzi, Templeton, & Johnson, 2004). A growing body of research supports the theory
that oral narrative competency supports early literacy (Reese, et al., 2010; Griffin, et al., 2004;
Snow & Dickinson, 2001; Cain & Oakhill, 1996).
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 17
Narrative is an important tool in education. A parent or teacher will use a story to
educate a student in the norms and acceptable traditions practiced in his society, and teach the
student who he is within that culture (MacIntyre, 1984). For example, a study by Rodriguez-
Sedano, Martinez de Soria, & Rumayor (2010) states that education uses narration as a tool for
demonstrating the family of traditions through which we define our culture. Oral narratives
contribute to an individual’s concept of self (Bliss, McCabe & Miranda,1998) and promote
social relationships that allow people to share experiences (Tantam, 2002; Coupland & Jaworski,
2003). Thus, written and oral narrative can be used by educators to give a child an
understanding of himself, his personal identity and that of the people around him, and the
meaning of history. The creation of written and oral narrative by students allows them to see
through the eyes of other people, and possibly learn to demonstrate compassion (Greene, 1995).
Oral narrative skills are an important foundation for higher learning, and skilled
acquisition of oral narrative skills early in their academic career may help students to progress in
other subjects. (Vygotsky, 1985; Olinghouse and Graham, 2009; National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network, 2005; Harrison, 2005;
Bear, Ivernizzi, Templeton, & Johnson, 2004; Reese, et al., 2010; Griffin, et al., 2004; Snow &
Dickinson, 2001; Cain & Oakhill, 1996). Narrative requires organizational skills, as
demonstrated by Freytag’s Pyramid (1890). Narrative is driven by creativity, as demonstrated by
seeing the world through the eyes of others (Greene, 1995). Creativity is a problem solving
process (Jung, 2001, Csikszentmihalyi, 2001)
Narrative
Narrative is defined as a "sequence of events, mental states, happenings," interrelated
with each other (Bruner, 1990). Aristotle (4
th
century BC), the first documented oral storyteller,
defined the basics of narrative as (a) plot, (b) the order of incidents, and (c) the emotional
reaction of characters to those incidents. Gustav Freytag, a German novelist and playwright of
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 18
the late eighteenth century, states that plot is a narrative structure composed of five parts.
Freytag’s pyramid defined these parts as (a) exposition/situation, (b) rising action through
conflict, (c) climax/turning point, (d) falling action, and e) denouement (Freytag, 1894). These
definitions of narrative and plot will drive the structure of the oral narrative curriculum used in
this study.
Figure 1. Freytag’s Pyramid
Narrative story construction requires organization. For example, Emma Coats, a
contemporary storyboard artist for the multiple academy award-winning animation studio Pixar,
shared “the 22 rules for storytelling according to Pixar,” detailing how Pixar approaches story
construction and character development (Coats, 2011). Coats states that an audience admires a
character more for trying than achieving, which supports the Freytag requisite to fail at least once
before succeeding (Freytag, 1890). Coats also states that a storyteller must commit to an ending
before he develops a plot.
Since narrative is a sequence of events (Bruner, 1990), it responds to rules of
organization and structure (Freytag, 1890), allowing it to be a creative problem-solving process
(Jung, 2001, Csikszentmihalyi, 2001). Teaching original narrative may then be based on a series
of exercises intended to aid learning in problem solving, as students practice character-driven
plot construction.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 19
Current Research on Teaching Creative, Original Oral Narrative
Storytelling is a basic component of human interaction with defined rules of organization
and structure, but learners are not comfortable with producing creative, original work. Learners
attempting to create original oral narrative very often find themselves modeling preexisting work
(Eli, 2007; Lesley, 1985). The genesis of creative character-driven plot within a problem-solving
structure is not the center of oral narrative instruction, as determined by reviewing current
popular textbooks in second grade education, e.g., Best Practices in Literacy Instruction (Mandel
Morrow, L., Gambrell, L., Renner Del Nero, J., Duke, N., 2011) and Treasures, a
Reading/Language Arts Program (Bear, D., Dole, J., Echevarria, J., Hasbrouck, J., Paris, S.,
Shanahan, T., Tinajero, J., 2009). In Treasures (2009) students are instructed on genre, literary
elements, vocabulary, comprehension, cause and effect, and story retelling. But the assignments
are practical applications of writing, such as writing summaries, news stories,
comparison/contrast paragraphs, and a book report. However, according to the Common Core
Standards, story instruction is addressed in the second year of elementary school education,
where specifics skills such as recounting facts and descriptive details, and speaking audibly in
coherent sentences, are required (Common Core Standards Initiative, 2012, p.23). The Core
Curriculum Standards then address writing a narrative in grade three. Third grade students are
expected to write a narrative that develops real or imagined experiences or events. They are to
receive instruction on effective technique, descriptive detail, and a clear sequence of events (p.
20). However, no mention is made of the character-driven plot which fuels sequencing of
events, or its instruction, in the preceding second grade. Common Core instruction centers on
creating a linear progression of events, not on a motivating reason for the events. The gap in
creativity-driven pedagogy may be an indicator why original oral narrative continues to be a
difficult task for many people.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 20
To assist learners in creating creative, original oral narrative, learners need feedback, as
the development of creative ideas depends on a responsive culture empowered to assist in
favoring, cultivating, and refining ideas (Stemberg, 2003, Sawyer 2006, 2007). Students who
find they model preexisting work may be demonstrating the value of a learner working with a
more expert and skillful partner. Authors Peterson, Jesso, and MacCabe assessed mother’s styles
of eliciting narratives from children (1999). They demonstrated that mothers who spent more
time in narrative conversation, asked more questions, and encouraged longer narratives through
responses, produced positive results. Children showed vocabulary improvement, overall
improvement in narrative skill, and more context-setting descriptions. Authors Lever &
Senechal (2011) studied how dialogic reading intervention, a shared reading activity that
involves intensive questioning and scaffolded inquiry, improves kindergartners oral narrative
construction, and provides evidence that structure and context in narratives improved after
intervention. Authors Ryokai, Vaucelle & Cassell (2003) provided evidence that a skilled
partner aids learning by setting up learners to interact with an embodied conversational agent to
practice storytelling. They found that by providing the conversational agent with advanced
skills, the student experienced a positive reaction. However, the resulting stories closely
resembled those told by the conversational agent.
Retelling preexisting work can aid in understanding story structure and story
comprehension, as retelling existing stories enhances the reenactment of story structure and oral
skills, and learners demonstrate confidence in oral storytelling during free play periods (Morrow,
1985). Learning from a more knowledgeable other is consistent with Csikzentmihalyi’s (1996)
systems model, where creativity is understood as a system of individuals, knowledge domains,
and a field of informed experts. Creativity is born of new variations on cultural beliefs and
practices, and if the community finds these variations acceptable, they are adopted as part of an
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 21
evolving domain. Therefore, oral narrative learners need interaction with their own cultural
domain, and feedback from the community in order to develop creative oral narrative skills.
Original oral narrative instruction requires a motivated learner, a community of
participants comprised of knowledgeable others and peers, and a curriculum constructed to
involve the storyteller as the informed creative expert. The construct of the oral narrative
curriculum, and the use of imagery, will influence the learner’s mastery and the amount of
instructor prompting required. Visual cues can aid or detract from learning depending on how
they are employed. Hough (1987) constructed a study where students were instructed to tell
stories through the use of single pictures, multi-image wordless storybooks, and no-image
stimuli. Images were created by professional artists and supplied to the students, as opposed to
learners making an active choice and creating their own. The authors demonstrated that
providing images to the student is not the best method for stimulating oral fluency; rather,
instructors should be providing experiences and encouraging children to tell their own stories
about these experiences. However, if the student makes an active choice and draws the picture
himself, the results from using visual cues can be more positive. Ukrainetz (1988) demonstrates
that using pictography (pictures drawn by learners as they react to a story) as visual shorthand for
storytelling, can be an effective narrative representation strategy, especially for those students
who have trouble writing. When learners create symbols and draw storyboards to represent story
elements, they have a reminder of story content and it decreases the demand on short term
memory. Ukrainetz (1988) found the use of pictography greatly helped students constructing
written and oral narrative, and observed narrative benefits that included the representation of a
time sequence, a focus on storytelling instead of spelling, and a longer story length with higher
narrative quality than a similar assignment that was written without pictography. Written and
verbal story starters, in the form of beginning, middle, and ending prompts, appear to assist
learners in creating higher quality stories than non-prompted construction (Graves, et al., 2012).
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 22
Thus, a variety of methods exist for teaching creative, original oral narrative to elementary age
students in the traditional school setting. They require skilled partners (Ryokai, Vaucelle, &
Cassell, 2003; Csikzentmihalyi, 1996) encouraging a learner to make active choices (Ukrainetz,
1988), and story prompts (Graves, et al., 2012). These studies provide evidence that how a
curriculum is structured influences the motivation of a student to participate.
Theoretical Framework
To better understand the impact of an online technology application on learner motivation
to create oral narrative, this study examines the motivation indicators of active choice,
persistence, and mental effort through measures within the motivational theories of Interest
(Krapp, 2005), Self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1993). We
examine how this online technology application is structured by Cognitive Load Theory, Social
Cognitive Theory, and Situated Cognition learning theories, and examine the impact of an online
technology application to create oral narrative as measured by learners’ active choice,
persistence, and mental effort (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Theoretical Framework
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 23
Learning theories.
Four learning theories are chosen in this study to describe ways to affect a student’s
ability to learn. They are: a) cognitive load theory (Sweller, 2005), b) cognitive theory of
multimedia learning (Mayer & Moreno, 2003), c) social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977), and
d) situated cognition (Lave, 1989). Learning theory is tied to motivation and student success
because a student who feels efficacious about their abilities to cognitively process curriculum
will feel positively motivated and their efforts will result in learning (Schunk, 1989). Self-
efficacy is related to mental effort, and students who feel they work harder to learn material
demonstrate higher achievement (Salomon, 1984).
Cognitive load theory. Cognitive load theory (CLT) is especially pertinent to the design
of a social online learning system for young learners who do not have a foundational oral
storytelling skill set (Sweller, 2005). CLT is a theory that focuses on the load on working
memory during instruction. It describes the human cognitive architecture, and the need to apply
sound instructional design principles based on our knowledge of the brain and memory (Sweller,
2005). Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the instructional materials’ inherent level of difficulty
experienced by the learner. (Chandler & Sweller, 1991). Intrinsic cognitive load is experienced
in all instruction. New material is difficult to learn if the learner has not built prior schema.
Extraneous cognitive load is under the control of instructional designers. This form of cognitive
load is generated by the manner in which information is presented to learners (i.e., the design).
To illustrate an example of extraneous cognitive load, assume there are at least two possible
ways to describe a geometric shape like a triangle. An instructor could describe a triangle
verbally; but to show a diagram of a triangle is much better because the learner does not have to
organize extraneous, unnecessary information. Germane load is a third kind of cognitive load
that is encouraged to be promoted. Germane load is the load dedicated to the processing,
construction, and automation of schemas. While intrinsic load is generally thought to be
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 24
immutable, instructional designers can manipulate extraneous and germane load. It is suggested
that they limit extraneous load and promote germane load.
Extraneous cognitive load and intrinsic cognitive load are not ideal; they result from
inappropriate instructional designs and complexity of information. Germane cognitive load is
coined as “effective’ cognitive load, caused by successful schema construction (Sweller, 2005).
Each of the cognitive loads are additive, and instructional design’s goal should be to reduce
extraneous cognitive load to free up working memory.
Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The theory of multimedia learning explores
how to create instructional design using words and pictures to nurture a deep understanding of
the material (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). The theory of multimedia learning is related to cognitive
load in that working memory is an important concern. Multimedia learning must be designed so
that it does not incur cognitive overload. In order to avoid cognitive overload, Mayer (2001)
states that instructional media should be built carefully to include words and pictures in a
balanced presentation, because learners learn more deeply from words partnered to pictures than
from words alone. The goal is to build instructional media imitating how the human mind
works. Mayer’s (2001) cognitive theory of multimedia learning proposes three main
assumptions when it comes to learning with multimedia. First, Mayer states that two separate
channels (auditory and visual) organize incoming information. Second, each channel has a
limited memory capacity, and can easily be overwhelmed. Third, learning is a process of
filtering, selecting, organizing and integrating information based on prior knowledge. The
human brain can only process a limited amount of information at a time through working
memory, so the brain creates mental representations of new information in order to categorize
and store it.
Mayer proposes that the brain uses three memory stores: sensory (also called short term),
working, and long-term. Sensory memory invokes the eyes and ears, and stores visuals and
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 25
sounds for a very short time. Working memory holds these images and manipulates the
knowledge gained in active consciousness. Long-term memory is the learner’s storehouse of
knowledge, and holds knowledge for long periods of time (Mayer, 2001). Mayer & Moreno
(2003) propose five cognitive load dilemmas and nine ways to reduce load in multimedia
learning. First, in situations where one channel is over loaded with essential processing demands,
move the information from one channel over to the other. An instructor can do this by narrating
over visuals instead of presenting text with visuals. Second, in situations where two channels are
overloaded with essential processing demands, segment the presentation into smaller units or
provide pre-training on some components of instruction. Third, when a combination of essential
and incidental processing demands from extraneous material overwhelm one or both channels,
weed out extraneous material so that the learner only focuses on the necessary content, or
provide cues to the learner about how to select and organize the material.
Fourth, when a combination of essential and incidental processing demands from a
confusing presentation of material overwhelm one or both channels, reduce the need for visual
scanning by placing visual materials in direct proximity to written material, and eliminate the
presentation of redundant material. Fifth, when a combination of essential processing and
representational holding overwhelm one or both channels, synchronize the information by
presenting narrative elements over the top of animated elements so the two are presented
simultaneously, instead of successively, or figure out if the learner is high spatial or low spatial,
and match the instructional design to that learner’s preference. Thus, cognitive overload can be
minimized in multimedia learning through proper instructional design. Working memory can be
bolstered by the proper construction of words and pictures to share knowledge.
Social cognitive theory. Social Cognitive Theory posits that observing models can lead
to behavioral, cognitive and affective changes in the learner (Bandura, 1977). Beliefs about the
“self” control the learner’s concept of his own ability to complete tasks and reach goals (Ormrod,
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 26
2006), and self-efficacy can affect motivation in positive and negative ways (Schunk, 1990).
Self-efficacy is affected by the learner comparing himself to a model and perceiving himself as
capable of doing the same thing (Schunk, 1990). Learners with high self-efficacy are more
likely to take on and complete tasks, and avoid tasks when self-efficacy is low (Schunk, 1990).
Imitation becomes a way of learning (Vygotsky, 1976). How a child is raised and tutored is
crucial to how a child develops his thinking skills (Murray, 1993). For example, the study by
authors Peterson, Jesso & MacCabe, (1999), which assessed mothers’ styles of eliciting
narratives from children, demonstrates Social Cognitive Theory – where a multitude of complex
behaviors can be fostered in children by more expert or skillful partners. Mothers increased the
self-efficacy of the child by modeling behavior that was achievable. Peer-assisted learning is a
subset of modeling where students help each other to understand complex lessons (Schunk,
1989).
Modeling, or observational learning, is at the core of social cognitive theory. Modeling is
the behavioral, cognitive, and affective change one adapts when one looks at others in his
environment (Bandura, 1969). Once information is gathered from observed behaviors, the
observer may experience a change in his own behaviors and emotions in an effort to maximize
performance.
Situated cognition. Situated cognition posits that learning is unintentional and situated
within authentic activity, context, and culture (Lave, 1989). Lave and Wenger (1991) label
learning as a process of “legitimate peripheral participation” (p.23), where social interaction and
collaboration are essential components of learning. Social learners become involved in a
community that practices the beliefs and behaviors studied. As the learner moves from the edge
of a community to its core, the learner becomes more active and engaged within the culture and
eventually assumes the role of an expert.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 27
Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) state that cognitive apprenticeship supports learning by
enabling students to practice what they have learned in authentic domain activity. Learning
becomes a community event, where a classroom is merely one asset contributing to collaborative
social interaction and the social construction of knowledge. Cognitive apprenticeship uses four
dimensions; a) content, b) methods, c) sequence, and d) sociology to partner learning to the
community (Brown, Collins & Duguid,1989). Situated learning is related to Vygotsky’s (1976 )
theory of learning through social development. Knowing is inseparable from doing, and all
knowledge is situated in activity bound to social, cultural and physical contexts (Brown, Collins
& Duguid, 1989). Situated cognition is based on “thinking on the fly” instead of the storage and
retrieval of knowledge, and is closely tied to Vygotsky’s theory of scaffolding. In regards to
narrative, Gee (2008) states that reading and writing should be seen as social and cultural
practices that are inherently connected to economic, historical, and political implications. Gee
(2010) also proposes that there is a natural synchronicity between situated cognition, new
literacy studies, and new literacies research, because students learn through experiences and
these experiences are affected by the tools, technologies, and narrative used by the contributing
culture and the meanings they assign to them. Dede (2009) states that situated learning has great
potential as a method for learning complex cognitive skills –for example, the use of inquiry to
find and solve problems in complex situations.
Flow is an optimal state and major influence within situated cognition (Csikszentmihalyi,
M., 1991), and is comprised of four components a) control, b) attention, c) curiosity, and d)
intrinsic interest (Csikzentmihalyi, 1975). The experience of flow is considered a reward within
itself because it means that a person is so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to
matter; and that the experience itself is so enjoyable that a learner will do it just for the sake of
doing it.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 28
Authors Chan & Ahern (1999) provide evidence that hypermedia-like learning
technologies can add appeal to instruction if used appropriately. Their findings suggest that
creating simple media at the start of the lesson, then growing more complex as the student gains
proficiency in the material and content challenges are reduced, is the most efficacious
instructional design.
Cognitive load theory, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, social cognitive theory,
and situated cognition all provide a foundation for the construct of the software developed for
this study. Cognitive load respects the amount of information a learner can process and the
schema that must assist learning. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning adds information
regarding the actual design of learning technology. Social cognitive theory adds information
about self-efficacy and modeling, and how the proper use of these tools can aid learning.
Situated cognition describes the online community and how learning on task in a social situation
can aid the learner. Combined, these theories influence software as a learning tool.
Motivation.
Motivation is an internal state that initiates and maintains goal-directed behavior and is
affected by culture and context. Motivation requires goals, activity, and commitment (Pintrich &
Schunk, 2002). Motivation theorists are concerned with the “something” in a person’s
environment that moves that individual to act (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Pintrich &
Schunk, 1996). It is what starts us and keeps us going to achieve a goal, and accounts for 50% of
achievement in education and training (Spitzer, 1996). Intrinsic motivation is a driving force in
cognitive development, existing as an innate need to master one’s environment fueled by
personal curiosity and interest, and this pursuit propels task engagement even when there is no
reward for completing the task (Ryan, Connell, & Grolnick, 1992). If individuals are allowed to
choose the task they are solving, it is very likely they will succeed in solving that task and will
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 29
remain intrinsically motivated (Runcho & Chand, 1995). The three indicators for motivation are
active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Schunk, 1989).
Motivation indicators. Academic achievement is related to the three motivation
indicators: active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008).
Active choice is the selection of a task under free-choice conditions; persistence is the effect of
working for a duration of time, especially when encountering obstacles; and mental effort is
demonstrated when the learner attempts mastery of difficult tasks (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece,
2008). These three indicators can be measured to provide data on how motivation influences
learning.
Active choice. The first indicator of motivation is active choice. Active choice relates to
a feeling of autonomy and is thought to enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). This
study will measure how active choice is influenced by personal interest. Personal interest is
related to the psychological factors of value, importance, and utility. Personal interest is related
to a learner’s personal identification with the content of the lesson. High personal interest leads
to a deeper understanding of the material (Alexander, Jetton, & Kulikowich, 1996). When
deciding whether to choose one activity over another, a person will choose the activity that holds
the most value for him. This study will provide learning materials intended to inspire interest,
such as completed story videos, developed characters the learner may create stories about, and
playful opportunities to interact in a community as the learner chooses.
Persistence. The second indicator of motivation is persistence. Persistence is defined as
the amount of time spent solving a problem, especially when the learner encounters obstacles
(Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). This study will measure how persistence is affected by self-efficacy
as the curriculum becomes more difficult. Schunk (1989) demonstrated that in academic settings
research has resulted in inconsistent findings to support that persistence increases as self-efficacy
develops. Self-efficacy may relate negatively to persistence because students do not have to
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 30
work as hard to solve problems. Schunk (1991) declares a need for additional research on the
relation between efficacy and persistence in academic settings.
Self-efficacy theory encourages peers to model appropriate learning as well as provide
feedback designed to build competence and self-efficacy, and design challenging tasks that offer
opportunities for success. To encourage self-efficacy as it affects persistence, this study’s
curriculum will be built with modeling opportunities, and provide feedback through videos that
are designed to build competence and self-efficacy.
Mental effort. The third indicator of motivation is mental effort. Mental effort is seeking
new knowledge to perform a task or solve a problem (Salomon, 1984). Motivation through
mental effort is measured in this study through observing the learner’s application of lesson goals
through the curriculum rubric, exhibiting mastery. The measures observed will be intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation.
Motivation theories. Motivation provides the impetus to choose and begin the pursuit of
a goal (active choice), persist at obtaining that goal in the face of distraction and competing
interests (persistence), and invest the mental effort to master the cognitive challenges associated
with obtaining that goal (mental effort) (Pintrich, Schunk, 2002). All motivation variables are
assumed to affect one of these three indexes, and the motivation triangle (Clark, Howard, Earlty,
2006) emphasizes the use of structured teaching strategies and the design of strongly guided
instruction as an aid to achieve this goal by, and provides evidence for methods to overcome
motivational problems and support learning. Three motivation theories are chosen by this study
to describe ways to affect a student’s motivation to learn and support the three indices of
motivation; active choice, mental effort, and persistence. Interest theory (Dewey, 1913) supports
the motivation measure personal interest. Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
distinguishes between different types of motivation based on the different goals that initiate a
behavior and supports the motivation measure of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. Self-
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 31
efficacy theory posits that students learn better when they see themselves as competent for the
task (Pintrich, 1988) and supports the motivation measure self-efficacy. They have two unifying
themes. First, motivation is domain specific. It depends on the student’s interaction with the
specific material to be learned. Second, there is a connection between motivation and cognition.
Motivation is related to learner’s interpretations, memories, beliefs, and self-explanations about
the learning situation.
Interest theory. Interest theory posits that students learn better when they are interested in
the material, and that the learner and the learning situation interact together to raise interest
(Dewey, 1913). Interest also plays a role in cognitive functioning (Hidi & Anderson, 1992;
Piaget, 1981), and is related to self-regulated learning and the quality of the learning outcome
(Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1999). Situational, emotional, cognitive and individual interests
affect intrinsic motivation. Situational and individual interest differ in that situational interest is
triggered by the appeal of the educational content and construct, while individual interest is a
learner’s stable psychological predisposition to participate in and focus learning on a specific
field of preference (Krapp, Hidi & Renninger, 1999). Situational interest is an immediate
reaction triggered by stimulation in the learning environment, but it is short-lived. Situational
interest has the potential to lead to individual interest (Hidi, 2000). Individual interest develops
slowly, but it is stable and long lasting once established. Interest theory encourages instructors
to embed lessons within the context of larger projects that personally interest students, and for
instructors to display and model interest in the material. Mayer posits that the focus should
remain on cognitive interest over emotional interest (Mayer, 2010), while Krapp et al. maintain
that emotional experiences have a direct impact on the stabilization of an individual’s interest,
leading to intrinsic motivation (Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992).
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy theory (SE) posits that students learn better when they
see themselves as competent for the task (Pintrich, 1988). SE examines learner’s judgments
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 32
about their own capabilities to complete a task and earn competency (Bandura, 1986), and affects
a learner’s choice of activities, effort, and persistence (Bandura, 1977). Learners who have a low
sense of efficacy for a task will avoid completing it, while a learner with high self-efficacy will
perform without hesitation. Learners who feel efficacious are hypothesized to exert more mental
effort and persist longer at tasks.
Self-efficacy predicts academic success and influences the task engagement variables—
a) what students do by way of study strategies, b) how hard learners try, and c) how long learners
persist, (Schunk, 1989), variables that mirror the motivation variables of active choice, mental
effort, and persistence. Efficacy is based on aptitudes and past experiences in similar tasks, and
is influenced by modeling and observing peers (Bandura, 1986). Students derive cues from
instructor feedback that give them information on how well they are doing, and they form from
this a self-efficacy measure, which in turn informs future learning. Success raises self-efficacy,
and failure lowers it (Bandura, 1986). When learners expect to do well, they tend to try hard,
persist, and perform better. Self-efficacy theory encourages peers to model appropriate learning
as well as provide feedback designed to build competence and self-efficacy, and design
challenging tasks that offer opportunities for success (Mayer, 2010). Self-efficacy theory
supports the use of models in the learning environment. Models provide an example of what can
be done, and the learner will compare himself to that model. If he perceives himself as
competent as the model, he will have the self-efficacy to complete the lesson.
Self-determination theory. Self-determination theory (SDT) distinguishes between
different types of motivation based on the different goals that initiate a behavior (Deci & Ryan,
1985). SDT posits that learners can be proactive and engaged, or not, based on the social
conditions in which they develop and engage (Ryan & Deci, 2000), and that learners need to be
allowed to develop their personalities and practice self-regulation in order to learn to behave in
healthy and effective ways (Ryan, Kuhl, & Deci, 1997). SDT assumes that learners need to feel
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 33
autonomous, competent, and possess a sense of relatedness (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan,
1991). How long a person stays intrinsically motivated is based on how much the activity can
meet these needs.
SDT differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as orientations of
motivation, and each is considered to have value. Learners who do something because it is
inherently interesting will experience intrinsic motivation, whereas learners who do something
because it leads to an outcome experience extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). The value
a learner assigns to a task determines whether it is an extrinsic or intrinsic interest. An
extrinsically motivated learner can perform a task with anger and resentment, or with an inner
acceptance of the value of the learning experience. Since not all tasks performed in the
classroom can be intrinsically motivated, the instructor needs to understand a strategy for
successful engagement that allows voluntary active choice and commitment on the part of the
learner, and that inspires inner acceptance of the value of the material (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Autonomy-supportive teaching allows the learner to experience more educational and
developmental benefits (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991; Reeve,
1996).
Learning and Motivation Using Technology
The term Narrative Learning Environment (NLE) became known in the Artificial
Intelligence community in the early 1990’s, and defined learning environments where learners
and computers interactively created stories that facilitated learning (Dettori & Paiva, 2009).
NLEs engage the learner in a technology-mediated activity where learners are immersed in
technology enhanced learning tasks to understand and create story. NLE’s have been employed
in various incarnations since the mid-90’s (Dettori & Paiva, 2009). However, though the
creators of these NLE’s describe their constructs as motivating, very little empirical data is
available as to why NLE’s can be considered motivating. Researchers provide conflicting
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 34
opinions on the value of technology as a motivational tool. Fuchs & Woessman (2004)
conducted a large-scale study in which the researchers provided evidence of increased
motivation to perform writing exercises as a result of access to laptop computers. Meskill &
Mossop (2000) provide evidence of increased motivation by ESL students who were enabled to
create and share assignments with other students, and capability with the software increased
student status in the classroom. However, the same authors later state that technology is a tool,
and what the teacher does with the technology portends the success of the technology (Meskill,
Mossop, 2012). Clark, Yates, Early, & Moulton (2010) state the mere usage of technology in
education does not motivate or promote learning, and that cyber learning is not more motivating
than traditional brick and mortar classroom learning. Clark (2010) adds that educational
technologies and media do more to distract learners and decrease their motivation than inspire it.
Clark earlier states, with authors Yates, Early, & Moulton (2009) that though media-enhanced
learning is more cost-effective, it does not influence motivation or learning. Authors Bernard,
Abrami, Lou, Borokhovski, Wade, & Wozney, (2004), conclude that instructional methods are
the root of success, not technological innovations, and provide evidence through a review of
distance learning literature that classroom instruction and distance education are comparable.
These authors are primarily concerned with the fascination with the delivery medium over
adherence to effective pedagogy and meaningful learning. Dede (1997) states that innovations in
pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, and school organization need to be improved simultaneous to
improvements in technology or else there will not be any improvement in education outcomes.
Researchers have reported that most studies that report motivation benefits from games
do so without investigating direct measures of motivation; instead, they merely ask the student if
they were motivated (Chen and O’Neil, 2005; O’Neil et al., 2005; and Hayes, 2005). Measures
such as increased persistence, active choice, and mental effort remain elusive data. Making the
statement that an NLE is motivating is erroneous, as instructional design methods are the key to
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 35
learning; the medium of delivery is not the key to learning (Clark, Yates, Early, & Moulton,
2010). Clark et al. pose three questions to determine the effectiveness of educational technology:
1. Can it replicate the conditions required for learning?
2. Are there any special requirements of the learning that it can or cannot replicate?
3. What type of feedback does the learning require and does the media provide that?
Current educational technology claims empirical research backs up their effectiveness.
Scholastic provides software entitled Wiggleworks (CAST, Inc., & Scholastic, Inc.1994).
Wiggleworks software claims to support learners with writing, illustrating, and recording audio,
describing what they've read. A validation study showed that first grade students who received
time to work on the Wiggleworks in class with a trained instructor showed significant gains over
students in a control classroom in reading, vocabulary, word analysis, language and writing
scores on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (Schultz, 1996). A second study provided qualitative
evidence that the Wiggleworks software was motivational and created high levels of interest with
1
st
grade students (Panteleo, 2000). However, both studies appear to have been sponsored by
Scholastic Software, and few independent researchers have commented on the effectiveness of
commercial reading and writing products. One such study analyzed the Scientific Learning
Corporation's (2003) Fast ForWord reading program, published by Scientific Learning, and
found that though the software may improve some language skills, there was no evidence that the
use of the Fast ForWord software results in gains in significant language acquisition or
measurable reading skills (Rouse, Krueger, and Markman, 2004).
Storyjumper (Keck, P., 2009), a seven-step storytelling curriculum, closely resembles the
curriculum created for this study in that it teaches the learner to create a story in just seven steps.
The end goal is for the learner to self-publish a storybook. However, the tutorial for this
software, written for the elementary age learner, is over 25 pages long and requires a great deal
of long term memory. Also, the software claims that they scaffold the learner, which is a highly
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 36
personalized process, and the method for achieving this state of instruction without in-person
instruction is not apparent in the product literature.
Scott Foresman’s Reading Street's Grammar Jammer iPhone© app is a product of
Pearson learning (Pearson, 2010). The software provides basic instruction in English language
arts through grammar-themed animated videos. However, the user reviews of the software found
in the iTunes online store contain complaints that the testing segments contain errors, the
animations go by too fast, and there are too few review questions at the end of each chapter
(Pearson, 2010. Retrieved from https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/grammar-jammers-middle-
edition/id386394517?mt=8.)
Implications for Instruction
The unifying themes presented by these theories present goals for educators. Instructors
are guided by these theories to create situations that mesh with the learner’s interests so they can
see some personal value in the learning material. Instructors should create learning situations
where students can observe their peers succeeding and also experience success themselves.
Instructors should create situations where students can learn that their academic successes and
failures depend on their effort rather than solely their ability. Finally, teachers should create
situations that help students develop productive goals for learning. This study will frame an
online learning environment for oral narrative instruction to these goals.
Summary
Oral narrative is an important skill to acquire early in one’s academic career. Western
oral narrative consists of a structure that requires problem-solving skills to create a narrative, and
a comfort level with creativity to produce one. However, the current Common Core Standards
do not require schools to teach the western tradition of oral narrative in the elementary school
curriculum. Empirical research in learning and motivation theory supports the construction of an
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 37
online social learning environment to facilitate a safe space for creating stories and practicing the
construction of oral narrative to fill this gap in the curriculum.
Research guides the construction of the online oral narrative curriculum used to measure
motivation in this study. The learner will be guided through 11 small lessons leading to a large
achievement in order to build a schema for the learner. The motivational effects of our online
curriculum construct will be measured through the motivation variables of active choice,
persistence, and mental effort, which are evident in the motivation theories of interest, self-
efficacy, and self-determination. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of an on-
line technology application on student motivation. Thus, the study will evaluate data
contributing to the motivation of the online learner to complete an oral narrative curriculum
using an app and an online curriculum.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 38
Chapter Three: Methodology
The previous chapters established why oral narrative has an impact on a learner’s future
learning; how educational technology impacts 21
st
century learners and how necessary it is to
evaluate the implementation of new technologies into the current curriculum. Chapter One
described the background of the problems in educational technology, and why pedagogically
constructed educational technology is a worthwhile tool to research. Chapter Two explored the
research on the construct of oral narrative and its instruction; learning and motivation theory
relevant to the construction and success of an online oral narrative curriculum; motivation using
technology; and teaching narrative using technology.
This chapter describes the methodology for the study. Quantitative methods led the
inquiry, where data was collected using several instruments and the information was analyzed
using statistical procedures (Creswell, 2009). Fundamental patterns within this data were
explored to describe the learner’s motivation to use online technologies and led to the creation of
a rubric to measure their effect on learning (Patton, 2002).
The purpose of this study is to examine the question: What is the impact of an on-line
technology application on student motivation to create oral narrative as measured by their choice,
persistence, and mental effort? Sub questions are: a) will learners make an active choice to use a
mobile application and partner online storytelling website? b) to what extent do learners
demonstrate persistence in using the mobile application and partner online website to practice
narrative; and c) will learners apply mental effort to using the application and partner online
storytelling website to practice narrative, as indicated by applying feedback, following a rubric,
and timely assignment submission. Thus, the study evaluated data that contributed to the
motivation of the online learner to complete an oral narrative curriculum through the indicators
active choice, persistence, and mental effort.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 39
Active choice, in this study, was defined by whether a student chose to begin a program
of oral narrative online learning. Persistence was defined by whether the student kept on
working at the online oral narrative curriculum even when it got difficult. Mental effort was
defined by the student applying effort when task complexity increased as the oral narrative
online curriculum progressed. Consistent with these definitions, this study operationalized oral
narrative construction as the individual’s goals and beliefs with regard to constructing oral
narrative. Oral narrative construction then influenced the learner’s activities, interactions, and
learning with technology. A formal representation of a perspective on how motivational,
emotional, and cognitive processes influence oral narrative construction will follow. This study
was designed as a quantitative study of inquiry (Creswell, 2009). Quantitative data was gathered
by the following instruments: 1) website analytics, 2) surveys, and 3) content creation against a
rubric supported by qualitative data gathered through artifacts such as email and the actual
assignment submissions. The dependent variable was motivation. Independent variables such as
age, gender, urban vs. suburban vs. rural environment and ethnicity were gathered through the
survey process.
Motivation was measured by assessing these indicators: a) active choice; b) persistence;
and c) mental effort (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Four instruments depicted active usage:
surveys, content creation, rubrics, and artifacts. (See Table 1).
Table 1
Instruments used to measure Choice, Persistence, and Mental Effort
Surveys Content
Creation
Rubric Artifacts
Motivation
Active Choice
X X X
Motivation
Persistence
X X
Motivation
Mental Effort
X X X
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 40
Software Application
Narrative construction using character-driven plot, as well as learning and motivation
theory, led the design of the software application used in the study. Rules defining the construct
of character-driven plot narrative, and the learning and motivation theories outlined in Chapter
Two, were the basis of the educational technology constructed. Oral narrative is led by theory
proposed by Aristotle (4
th
century B.C.), Freytag (1894), and Pixar (2011). The motivation
theories consulted included Interest theory (Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992), Self-efficacy
theory (Bandura, 1993), and Self-Determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). The learning
theories consulted included Cognitive Load theory (Sweller, 2005), the Cognitive theory of
multimedia learning (Mayer & Moreno, 2003), Social Cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977), and
Situated Cognition (Lave, 1989) (See Figure 2.)
Interactive learning events have the potential to increase motivation for learning because
they encourage curiosity and interest through hosting meaningful learning activities in settings
where the learner has control (Burguilloa, 2010). Garris, Ahlers, and Driskell (2002) amassed a
literature review that assembled a set of characteristics found to be interesting to young learners
using an interactive game: goals and rules, fantasy, challenges, sensory stimulation, challenges,
control, and mystery. Digital Game Based Learning (DGBL) events are advised to adhere to
four principles: include a set of rules and constraints; provide appropriate dynamic responses to
student choices; provide challenges related to a learner’s level of understanding, intended to
promote a feeling of self-efficacy: and provide a gradual learning outcome that increases in
difficulty as the game progresses (Mayer & Johnson, 2010). The curriculum for this study was
built as a best possible fit to these principles.
In order to evaluate the overarching question regarding the impact of an online
technology application on learner motivation to create oral narrative, the study employed four
tools to impart the pedagogy. The four tools created to employ and propagate the learning
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 41
curriculum were: 1) the website “www.patsmonsters.com,” 2) the iPhone app “ Tell Me a Story,”
3) the character-driven plot curriculum employed through media on the website and app; and 4)
the lesson rubric. Together, these tools provided an online learning experience intended to
motivate learners to create oral narrative through social engagement.
The oral narrative curriculum was comprised of 11 progressive lessons and assignments
leading to the understanding of character and plot as they pertain to a story. The first two lessons
centered on character trait and goal definition. The remaining lessons centered on plot
development through character goals. The assignments submitted by the learners in response to
the lessons were evaluated against a rubric, and feedback was pass/fail.
The website and iPad/iPhone software were created using learning and motivation
theories. The website functioned as the primary tool for communicating the objectives of the
lessons. The website housed the four quadrants of the oral narrative curriculum. The four
quadrants provided: a) instructions on how to use the software; b) the video tutorials and
example videos; c) an historical submission area; and 4) a public area hosting final submissions.
The iPad/iPhone application was separate from the website, though they operated in
tandem. This app was used for the creation of video submissions in response to lesson
assignments, and the content was then sent to the site administrator as a movie file. The movie
file was then posted on the website.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 42
Figure 3. Application and Website Interaction.
Motivating educational technology was created for this study in order to construct an
observable classroom in a 21
st
century skill technology space. In order to create pedagogically
sound software, the following learning and motivation theories were applied to its construction in
order to provide optimal cognitive engagement and learning.
Oral Narrative Curriculum
The oral narrative curriculum was guided by construct contributions from Aristotle,
Freytag, and Pixar. An eleven-lesson curriculum guided the learner through solving ten story
problems leading to a final memory game where the learner assembled all the previous answers
into a one character-driven plot narrative. The final narrative curriculum required the learner to
master problem solving in 11 distinct lessons. The ten story problems included: 1) selecting
three character traits; 2) choosing a goal; 3) identifying a character flaw; 4) developing a
consequence if the character does not meet a goal; 5) determining an ending that supports the
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 43
character reaching the goal; 6) constructing a plan to achieve the goal based on a character trait;
7) describing how the character fails at the first plan to achieve the goal because of the character
flaw; 8) devising a second plan to achieve the goal based on a character trait; 9) describing how
the character overcomes the flaw and succeeds at the goal using the character trait; and finally
10) remembering all of these decisions and constructing a full character-driven plot story to
present as a recorded oral narrative. The curriculum was presented in technology requiring 21
st
century skills to complete.
For the purpose of this study, original oral narrative instruction requires a motivated
learner, a community of participants comprised of knowledgeable others and peers, and a
curriculum constructed to involve the storyteller as the informed creative expert. For the purpose
of this study, learners were provided finished stories created by a more knowledgeable other
from which they patterned their own story constructs. These were in the form of two example
videos presented with each disparate lesson. Learners then experienced the process of
innovation by creating separate, original elements for a story through a structured curriculum of
prompts and video responses. Learners then watched the story elements they created, and
‘retold’ the story again in their own words in a new video as a method of gaining self-efficacy
over the story construction. Learners created their own visual cues for the story as a method of
developing personal interest in the story subject, and encouraging intrinsic motivation to
complete the story. The process lead to the creation of a new original story.
The learner had access to multiple learning opportunities within each lesson, but did not
need to engage in each opportunity in order to succeed in the assignment. The student created
ten assignments at the end of these eleven lessons, and then in the tradition of oral narrative,
retold them in one unit under the instruction of completing a memory game. The student
received instructor feedback on each assignment as quickly as possible, but it was not a
detriment to progress if feedback was received after the learner completed several lessons. The
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 44
learner may then have repeated assignments at will under the guidance of this feedback. The
final assignment unit, which is the summative task of the memory game, was displayed in a
social learning environment with the opportunity for peer feedback, critique, and praise.
Learning Theory
Four learning theories contributed to the design of the educational technology: cognitive
load theory (Sweller, 2005), cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer & Moreno, 2003),
social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977), and situated cognition (Lave, 1989) . Learning theory
was tied to motivation and student success because a student who feels efficacious about his
ability to cognitively process curriculum will feel positively motivated and his efforts will result
in learning (Schunk, 1989).
Cognitive load theory. The online curriculum designed for this study responded to
research in Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 2005) by establishing methods to increase germane
and decrease extraneous load. Short term memory is a consideration for first time story tellers.
They do not have a strong foundation of storytelling theory to draw from. To enhance germane
load, the storytelling process was broken down into a ten-lesson task schema, experienced one
lesson at a time, followed by an assignment and feedback. The lesson objective was the focus of
the assignment, and each lesson assignment assisted in the construction of the final assignment.
Each lesson contained multiple methods of engaging the learner in the lesson goal. Learners
were assigned to master one task through lesson videos, example videos, and completed
assignment videos created by more experienced others. The goal of small lessons was to create
learning tasks with enough challenge to hold the interest of the learner, but close enough to the
learner’s skill set to invoke self-efficacy. Schema was assisted through videos and example
stories directly related to the lesson.
Decreasing extraneous load was a challenge as the learner was learning a new
foundational skill using a new technology. The attempt to reduce extraneous load was twofold.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 45
First, the learner was provided online instruction on how to use the technology before they were
instructed to engage in the lesson plan. The learner was introduced to the online curriculum and
software by participating in a section of “how to” videos before engaging in the curriculum, so
when they began the curriculum they were already confident in navigation. Participation in this
instruction was voluntary. Once the technology was mastered, the learner could theoretically
flow through the curriculum unhindered. Second, working memory focused on one small lesson
at a time. The curriculum was built on the skills mastered in each lesson. Working memory
focused on integrating new information with information mastered in a previous lesson.
Theory of multimedia learning. This study employed elements of the Theory of
Multimedia Learning (Mayer & Moreno, 2003) as it is relevant to the design of the technology
and curriculum. Both auditory and visual channels were utilized in the presentation of the
lessons. The online instructor narrated over visuals and did not present written and animated
elements together competing for attention. The instructional materials did not contain sound
enhancements so that auditory distraction and overload was not incurred. The learning material
was presented in small units and did not contain unnecessary material in an effort to focus the
learner on the goals of the immediate lesson plan.
Social cognitive theory. Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977) supported the use of
models and more knowledgeable others as aids to instruction. When learners compare
themselves to a model favorably, their self-efficacy increases (Bandura, 1977). Therefore, each
of the 11 lessons was accompanied by assignment videos created by models who succeeded at
the lesson, and the videos demonstrated simple solutions to each assignment objective. In turn,
each posted student assignment provided reference to learners who followed.
Social cognitive theory extended into the assignment submission area as well. A wall of
completed assignments existed, and this wall allowed feedback postings from fellow students.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 46
The wall section of the software allowed learners to share and receive feedback on final
assignments, and observe other learners’ assignments.
Situated cognition. Situated cognition posits that learning is unintentional and situated
within authentic activity, context, and culture (Lave, 1989). Therefore the online curriculum
product was created to be as engaging and social as possible in the media available. Creating
interesting lessons enhanced by media, interaction, and social inquiry were intended to
encourage flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). We addressed five of the eight dimensions of flow
experience, the eight being clear goals and immediate feedback, equilibrium between the level of
challenge and personal skill, merging of action and awareness, focused concentration, sense of
potential control, loss of self-consciousness, time distortion, and self-rewarding experience.
First, the technology provided clear goals and allowed the instructor to give immediate feedback.
Second, the technology strove to create equilibrium between the level of challenge and personal
skill through providing lessons with opportunity to watch additional example videos. Third, the
technology strove to allow for a sense of potential control by allowing active choice in
assignments. Fourth, the technology facilitated a loss of self-consciousness by allowing as much
anonymity as desired. Fifth, the act of having a video as proof of mastering the assignment
supported the dimension of self-rewarding experience. The remaining three dimensions
(merging of action and awareness, focused concentration, and time distortion) were not
addressed directly through the construction of the technology.
Motivation Theory
Motivation theory provided a theoretical framework for the construction of the online
oral narrative curriculum’s educational technology that was used in the study. Three theories
were applied to the construction of the software to provide optimal motivational strategy for
engagement and learning. Selected for this study were Interest Theory (Krapp, Hidi, &
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 47
Renninger, 1992), Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and Self-Efficacy Theory
(Bandura, 1993). Each theory added to the design of the online oral narrative curriculum.
Interest Theory. Our study employed interest theory (Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992)
by engaging the young learner in age-appropriate lessons. Interest theory is defined as increased
attention and concentration occurring between people and their objects of interest, and a
willingness to reengage with these objects over time (Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992). Authors
Hidi and Renninger (2006) propose a 4-phase model of interest development including triggered
situational interest, maintained situational interest, emerging individual interest, and well-
developed individual interest. Situational interest was triggered by content in the form of
instructional videos accessed through the app and online environment, as technology has been
found to trigger situational interest (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). Maintained situational interest
was encouraged through the creation of an eleven lesson curriculum containing elements of
project based learning through the submission of assignments, and one-on-one tutoring in the
form of teacher feedback (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). Emerging individual interest was nurtured
by providing positive and supportive feedback in a timely manner through videos responses to
assignments (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). Well developed individual interest is an extension of
emerging individual interest involving an increased willingness to engage with a task because
more positive feelings are experienced, as well as more stored knowledge and value for the
assignment, and this was encouraged through building a schema of small, achievable
assignments leading to a final memory game (Hidi and Renninger, 2006).
Self-Determination Theory. Self-determination theory posits that students are already
naturally intrinsically motivated (Deci, 1975). Thus, this study created an online learning
environment structured to appeal to individual learners’ needs for autonomy, competency, and
community, and allowed for some positive emotional experiences. Learners experienced
autonomy in the self-directed navigation of the curriculum. They either proceeded with the
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 48
lessons in order, or chose only to play the games, or watched other learner submissions, or
constructed their own without watching the lesson video. Multiple forms of learning were
presented, and the student chose his own path to success. The instructor posed feedback where
appropriate, in an attempt to engage the learner further in learning. The learner self-reflected as
he viewed the results of his labor and compared himself to other students. The student also
received feedback from peers and the instructor. If motivated by this feedback, the learner
further engaged in the curriculum to improve his skills. The online community provided
feedback, a support system, and a motivation to appear fluent in the story creation process.
Self-Efficacy Theory. Self-efficacy theory supports the use of models in the learning
environment (Pintrich, 1988). Models provide an example of what can be done, and the learner
will compare himself to that model. If he perceives himself to be as competent as the model, he
will have the self-efficacy to complete the lesson. Models are found in the example videos
provided with each lesson, as well as the assignments submitted by other learners participating in
the study.
The Character Driven plot theory and the motivation and learning theories were
combined into one 21
st
century skill-driven curriculum. The curriculum was minimized to 11
total lessons, averaging about 2 minutes a lesson. This curriculum was made available to a
convenience sample of homeschoolers over a 14 day period.
In summary, the software was created to the best practices supported by Digital Game
Based Learning (DGBL), along with evidence found in learning and motivation theories, to
increase motivated interaction with the software. The end consumption was determined by the
learner.
Sample and Population
This section will describe the characteristics of the study participants. Participants were
voluntary and self-selected and comprised a nonprobability (convenience) sample (Babbie,
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 49
1990), and were solicited through various marketing efforts targeted at homeschooled elementary
learners with access to an iPad or iPhone. A nonprobability sample is defined as one where
participants are chosen based on their convenience and availability (Babbie, 1990). Homeschool
is defined as home-based parent-led education (Ray, 2011). Homeschool is the oldest form of
education, and is now the fastest growing form of education in the United States, as well as
Australia, Canada, Hungary, Japan, Kenya, and the United Kingdom (Ray, 2011). It represents a
boon to economically depressed state budgets in that homeschool participants are not dependent
on over $16 billion in public, tax-funded resources (Ray, 2011).
The demographic of the homeschool audience is highly diverse, spanning across
ethnicities, economic strata, political affiliation, and education level attained (Ray, 2011). Some
research states that 75% of participants are conservative Christians who seek to focus on
religious values (Cizek, 1994, Riemer, 1995), and 25% of participants are liberal non-seculars
who believe they can educate their children better than the schools in their community (Van
Galen, 1988). Minorities are about 15% of the audience, and this population is growing (Ray,
2011).
The parent is typically the teacher in homeschool environments, and parental
involvement has demonstrated a marked improvement in student success (Epstein, 1983;
Reynolds, 1989). The parent is also well-versed in the students’ interests and needs, and the
small student to teacher ratio allows for flexibility in the curriculum to meet those needs, and
autonomy in the curriculum to address personal interests (Cai, Reeve, and Robinson, 2002).
Learners demonstrate increased mastery learning in an environment that promotes autonomy,
considered in the context of this study as equal to the indicator ‘active choice’ (Reeve, 2002).
The participant interacted with the curriculum in an online environment and never had
direct contact with the content instructor hosting the website. The content instructor was a virtual
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 50
instructor audible in instructional videos and response email videos only. The site, which was
unique to each learner’s environment, had access to iPad hardware and Internet connection.
The learner must have purchased, borrowed, or otherwise had access to an iPad and
Internet access. All participants were made aware of the technology requirement prior to
voluntary sign up. The participant pool was limited to those who understood English and had
access to iPad technology and an Internet connection.
Parents were invited to participate as content creators and assessors. Parents were invited
to create a log-in to the site and to participate in the curriculum. Parents were encouraged to
monitor learner progress. An email survey followed the study and asked if parents contributed to
the learning process.
The size of the population that participated in the study was 24 participants. This sample
was self-selected from an original invitation to 100 participants who volunteered to participate
after seeing a posting on a Facebook homeschool community page.
Instrumentation
The study collected data through four instruments. The study gathered data on learner
motivation through 1) website analytics, 2) surveys, 3) assignment submissions and 4) artifacts
such as emails.
Website Analytics
The study acquired statistics of website usage through Google Analytics and proprietary
analytics software designed to capture online interactions specific to the study curriculum. The
analytic programs provided login and click-through data on learner identifiers, and this data was
assigned to relevant choice, persistence, and mental effort indicators (see Appendix D). The
study interpreted the data to identify the motivation indicators active choice, persistence and
mental effort. The proprietary analytics software tracked unique logins by three identifiers: the
email name; the cookie placed on the user hardware; and the identifying name of the participant
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 51
issued on signup. Every click event the student made within the software was captured and
labeled; for example, if the student selected the Egg Tree and played lesson 1. This data was
then reviewed to chart the number of unique logins, repeat logins, time on page per user, where
the user navigated to after the first page, and what videos the user watched. This data was then
evaluated, and matched to questions identified under the indicators of choice, persistence and
mental effort.
Active choice was measured by observation of four variables through Google and
proprietary analytics software:
1) Learners who watched instructions, and then practiced active choice by continuing
with the lesson(s);
2) Learners practiced active choice by which lesson they chose to complete, and what
part of the lesson (lesson video, more knowledgeable other video, completed assignments, or
game) they engaged in.
3) Learners practiced active choice in how they decided to learn. Did they watch videos
created by the more informed other? Did they watch them in sequence, or in random order?
4) Learners chose to pursue this curriculum during free time by personal choice, or were
assigned to complete the curriculum by a teacher or guardian.
Persistence was measured by the observation of two variables through Google and
proprietary analytics software:
1) How often the student returned to the web site;
2) How many times a learning video, example video, or feedback video was played.
Mental effort was measured by the observation of five variables through Google and
proprietary analytics software:
1. Amount of learner submissions of story videos, and if an assignment was submitted
for each lesson;
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 52
2. Learner submission of story videos, and how well they matched the assignment rubric,
denoting how many assignments failed and succeeded.
3. Learner failed assignments against learner resubmission of assignment.
4. Learner final submission was a success or failure.
5. Learner reaction to feedback videos.
Feedback videos were based on student objectives identified in the lesson rubric. If a
student had to rework any part of the assignment, the criteria was presented in the feedback
video. Whether or not the student responded to the feedback video, and to what quality,
quantified mental effort.
The two analytics software, Google and proprietary, also provided individual statistics on
learner usage through learner log-in data. Each learner was required to log in with a unique
identity. This unique identity was tracked with cookies on the i\Phone and in the analytics, and
all activity was logged on the learner cookie. (See Appendix D for a detailed review of the
Google and proprietary analytics). A survey was presented at initial login, and a survey was
distributed on completion of the lesson.
Motivation indicators of active choice, persistence, and mental effort were
operationalized by a variety of website analytics partnered to specific interactions (see Appendix
H).
Survey
The survey provided data on choice, persistence, and mental effort. Pre- and post-
activity interview questions were asked in the survey. Pre-curriculum, learners were asked
closed-ended survey questions detailing demographic information, including age, gender,
ethnicity, whether they lived in urban, suburban or rural districts, and level of English language
skills. Learners were surveyed post-curriculum with closed-ended questions detailing motivation
data regarding their interest, preferences, and enjoyment of the lesson structure. Questions
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 53
centered on interest, choice, appeal, enjoyment, and mental effort. The survey contained one
interest question–were the lessons interesting or not interesting? The survey contained one
active choice question — was it your choice to do the assignment? If it was not your choice, we
will assume a parent or guardian required you to do it. The survey contained two enjoyment
questions— what was your favorite part of the lesson? and did you enjoy the assignments.? The
survey contained one mental effort question– If you did not finish the curriculum, why not?
Assignment Submission
Content creation through assignment submissions represented detailed information on
learner choice, persistence and mental effort. Learner activities were captured through Google
and proprietary analytics software, and categorized as active choice, persistence, or mental effort
events. How each learner engaged with the software prior to submitting an assignment was
observed and cataloged within one of these three events. Videos were the end product of each
assignment, created using the mobile app, then sent in to the moderator for posting on the web-
site. Learners completed 1-11 videos (not including ‘redo’s’) throughout the curriculum to its
completion.
Videos created by the learners in response to the curriculum assignment were measured
against the rubric assigned for each lesson. If the student mastered the assignment, they received
a positive response video and encouragement to continue the curriculum. If the student did not
master the assignment, they received a response video asking them to redo the assignment.
Whether the student resubmitted or decline to resubmit was tracked. The resulting data provided
evidence of mental effort.
Data Collection
The overall question, “What is the impact of an online technology application on student
motivation to create an oral narrative as measured by their choice, persistence, and mental
effort?” is supported through three sub questions. The sub-questions supplied research on the
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 54
components of motivation (active choice, persistence and mental effort) observed in participants
in the study.
1) Will learners make an active choice to use a mobile application and partner online
storytelling website?
Choice is a behavior that involves choosing and starting a new goal (Schunk & Pintrich,
2002). Meaningful learning is defined as engagement that is perceived as relevant by learners
(Schunk & Pintrich, 2002). Achievement increases when the learner chooses the goal instead of
the teacher (Zimmerman, Bandura, and Martinez-Pons, 1992). The first research sub-question –
“Will learners use a mobile application and partner online storytelling website?” is a choice
question because the learner has chosen whether or not to participate in the activities. Choice was
measured through the volunteer use of three instruments. The two instruments used were: a)
website analytics, , and b) assignment video creation. Data that reflects active choice was
gathered quantitatively through observing participant engagement with the following curriculum
activities:
1) Learners make an active choice to engage with the software by watching lesson
videos. This interaction was measured through the proprietary analytics software. Each learner
click was captured and labeled as to the activity it represented. For this measure, the clicks on
the ‘Lessons’ and ‘Examples’ were counted and cataloged for each learner. The data tracked
which lessons were watched and where in the curriculum the learner disengaged. Frequency
counts were tabulated for the active choice variables: number of lessons watched, and total
number of lesson videos watched.
2) Learners will practice active choice by how they decide to learn. Will learners watch
the lessons in sequential or random order? This interaction was measured through the
proprietary analytics software. Each learner click was captured and labeled as to the activity it
represented. For this measure, the clicks on the ‘Lesson’ and ‘Example’ videos were tabulated
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 55
for each learner, and analyzed to see if they were played in progression or random. Frequency
counts were tabulated for the active choice variable: approach to material.
3) Learner demonstrates active choice if he pursues this curriculum during free time by
personal choice, but do not if they are assigned to complete the curriculum by a teacher or
guardian. This was measured by the survey question following the study. A question in the
survey asked: Was it your choice to do the assignment? If it was not your choice, we will
assume a parent or guardian required you to do it. The survey was administered post curriculum
via email.
To what extent do learners demonstrate persistence in using the mobile application and
partner online website to practice narrative?
Persistence is the second measure of motivation used in this study. Persistence is a
behavior that involves staying with the course of action required to achieve a goal over a
measure of time without succumbing to distractions (Schunk & Pintrich, 2002). Persistence data
can be confounded by task complexity (Clark, 1999). Persistence measures were tracked by the
proprietary analytics software, which examined the following activities, inspiring four
persistence variables.
1) How many times does the learner engage in an individual lesson? Persistence was
measured quantitatively by analyzing completed videos over a 19 day period of study. This
interaction was measured through the proprietary analytics software. Each learner click was
captured and labeled as to the activity it represented. For this measure, the clicks on the ‘Lesson’
and ‘Example’ animatd learning videos by Gergy and Murphy were tabulated for each learner.
Frequency counts were tabulated for the persistence variables: number of learners who complete
a lesson, number of learners who completed more than one lesson, number of learners who
completed the curriculum multiple times, and the highest lesson a learner completes before
quitting.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 56
Will learners apply mental effort to using the application and partner online
storytelling website to practice narrative, as indicated by applying feedback, following the
rubric, and timely assignment submission?
Mental effort is the amount of repetition, self-evaluation, and categorizing required to
learn a method or solve a problem, as the learner must expend effort to succeed (Schunk, Pintrich
& Meece, 2008). Mental effort is exerted when a learner applies himself or herself to a situation
he or she has not participated in before. Mental effort was measured if learners completed the
entire curriculum using the mobile application and partner online storytelling website.
Mental effort data was gathered by three task engagement instruments: a) website
analytics; b) content creation; and c) rubric. Data was gathered quantitatively. Mental effort was
measured by measuring the following activities, inspiring the following mental effort variables.
1. Learner submission of story videos and how well they matched the assignment rubric,
denoting how many assignments failed and succeeded. This interaction was measured through
the email submissions of the assignments by the learners to the site administrator. Each lesson
was viewed by the site administrator and measured against a rubric for each assignment. All
submissions were tabulated, graded, responded to, and the dates they were submitted charted.
Frequency counts were tabulated for the mental effort variable: number of successful
assignments.
2. Learner failed assignments against learner resubmission of assignments. This
interaction was measured through the email submissions of the assignments by the learners to the
site administrator. Each lesson was viewed by the site administrator and measured against a
rubric for each assignment. If the assignment failed, the learner was requested to resubmit. All
submissions were tabulated, graded, responded to, and the dates they were submitted charted.
Frequency counts were tabulated for the mental effort variable: number of resubmissions.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 57
Observation of website analytics demonstrated how often learners chose to visit a lesson
and persist with the curriculum. These analytics demonstrated how often learners reviewed their
work and watched feedback. Content creation was measured against published rubrics,
especially when made in response to critiques, and demonstrated growth acquired through
mental effort. Learners received response videos to their initial assignments, and these
encouraged the learner to make another video before they were promoted to the next level of
participation. The rubric summarized important elements in the assignment the student was
intended to master. If the student failed to master an element presented on the rubric, they
received feedback in the form of a video posted with their work. The video coached the learner
to improve the assignment. If the student bypassed the instruction and proceeded to the next
assignment, this demonstrated a lack of mental effort. If the student accepted the instruction and
attempted a second pass at the assignment, this was perceived as increased mental effort.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this study was to observe and measure motivation to use an online
technological application to learn oral narrative. The study employed three methods of analysis
under the headings of active choice, persistence, and mental effort. (See Appendix F). The study
searched for indicators of learner engagement and disengagement as they pertain to motivation.
In an effort to answer the research question proposed in Chapter One, multiple statistical
techniques were employed using the data analysis software SPSS 20.0. Due to the small sample
size, the study used nonparametric statistics such as Spearman correlation (Myers & Well, 2003),
Fisher’s exact tests, Wilcoxon matched pairs, and Mann-Whitney to analyze the data collected.
The Spearman correlation coefficient is a nonparametric measure of statistical
dependence between two variables (Myers & Well, 2003). These statistics were used to describe
and organize the characteristics of a data set, and enabled the researcher to organize, summarize
and describe the subjects of the study in a way that is meaningful for simple interpretation (Ary
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 58
et al., 1985). The descriptions of the sample of subjects were summarized using single variables
or combinations of variables. In other words, the Spearman correlation was used to examine the
total sample size on the aggregate.
From this data set, the author of this study determined a mean, median, and mode of
frequencies as they pertain to motivation discovered from the set of learners. Frequencies and
common descriptions were analyzed. In addition, data was analyzed for correlations between
variables. When assessing if there was a lack of motivation, variables associated with motivation
were looked for, such as active choice, persistence and metal effort. Analysis looked for effect
of dependent variables on independent variables such as age, gender, urban vs. suburban vs. rural
environment, ethnicity, and English language proficiency. Variables that the study collected and
compared included gender, age, ethnicity, English as a first or second language, and home
environment to choice, mental effort, and persistence.
The study required access to an iPhone or iPad, a personal computer, and access to the
Internet for all hardware devices. Low income schools may not have access to these materials,
which may limit our learner populations to higher income families. Higher income families
typically have parents who are more engaged in learner outcomes, and this may affect the overall
measurement.
Summary
The results of the study provide empirical evidence of the impact of an online technology
application on learner motivation to create oral narrative. Through observing learners engaged in
the online curriculum we provided quantitative data on how learners are motivated by
educational technology, and on how the app and website succeeded in providing meaningful
narrative skill development to California state standards in second grade education.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 59
Chapter Four: Results
The purpose of this study was to examine the question: What is the impact on student
motivation of an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by their
choice, persistence, and mental effort? To address this question, a quantitative study was
conducted that measured variables within active choice, persistence, and mental effort. This
chapter presents the results of this inquiry.
Sample
The sample consisted of 24 participants. The following table displays the characteristics
for these participants.
Table 2
Summary of Participant Demographics
Variable Category n %
Gender
Male 7 29.2
Female 17 70.8
Race/Ethnicity
Caucasian 20 83.3
Latino 1 4.2
African-American 1 4.2
Other 2 8.3
Age of Learner
a
0-5 years 1 4.2
6-7 years 4 16.7
a
Age: Mdn = 8.50.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 60
Table 2
Frequency Counts for the Demographic Variables (N = 24) (continued)
Variable Category n %
8-9 years 14 58.3
10-11 years 2 8.3
12-18 years 2 8.3
Over 18 1 4.2
English as First Language
Yes 24 100.0
Where They Live
City 3 12.5
Suburbs 16 66.7
Countryside 5 20.8
a
Age: Mdn = 8.50.
Participants were predominantly female (70.8%) and Caucasian (83.3.%). Most participants
were between the ages of six and nine ( 75%). All participants spoke English as their first and
primary language. Two-thirds of th sample (66.7%) lived in the suburbs, and fewer learners
lived in the countryside (20.8%) or in the city (12.5%).
The post participation survey demonstrates a participation bias as only 10 of the 24 total
participants responded. These 10 respondents represent a lower than 50% response rate, which
denotes a limitation to the study.
Table 3
Frequency Counts for the Survey Variables (N = 10)
Variable Category n %
Were the lessons interesting or not
interesting?
Interesting 10 100
Not Interesting 0 0
Was it your choice to do the assignments? Yes it was my choice 10 100
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 61
Table 3
Frequency Counts for the Survey Variables (N = 10) (continued)
Variable Category n %
No, a parent or guardian
Made me do it
0 0
What was your favorite part of the lesson? Lesson video 2 20
Example videos 0 0
Feedback video 0 0
Making the video story 8 80
If you did not finish the curriculum, why not? I finished! 4 40
Technical Issues 1 10
I lost interest 0 0
Too challenging 0 0
Not challenging enough 0 0
Other
(ran out of time) 5 50
Did you enjoy the assignments? yes
no
10
0
100
0
Study Findings
Active Choice in Using Technology
The first research question for this study asked whether learners would make an active
choice to use a mobile application and partner online storytelling website.
Active choice variables were operationalized as follows: number of lessons (1-11)
watched, number of lesson movies watched (Lessons 1-11, example Videos A 1-11, example
Videos B 1-11), and approach to material. Number of lessons watched infers that the student
makes an active choice to engage with the curriculum material in any one of Lessons 1-11.
Number of Lesson Movies Watched is a measure of how many lesson and example videos the
student makes an active choice to watch while they complete the curriculum. Approach to
Material measures whether the student makes an active choice to watch the lesson and example
videos in succession or random. Post survey question ‘Was it your choice to do the assignment’
was noted, but not given priority as a variable as less than 50% of respondents participated.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 62
Table 4 displays the frequency counts for the active choice variables. For number of
lessons watched, five of the learners watched no lessons (20.8%) while five other learners
watched all 11 lessons (20.8%) (M = 4.08, SD = 4.00, Mdn = 3.00). The number of lessons
movies watched ranged from “none” (16.7%)” to “24 to 71” (25.0%)” (M = 16.13, SD = 22.36,
Mdn = 5.00). Most (79.2%) missed or skipped watching at least one lesson in the entire
curriculum. In an examination of the learner’s approach to the material, the most common
approaches were either a sequential approach (41.7%) or a random approach (37.5%).
Table 4
Frequency Counts for the Active Choice Variables (N = 24)
Variable Category n %
Number of Lessons (1-11 in the curriculum) Watched
a
None 4 16.6
1 or 2 7 29.2
3 or 4 5 20.8
5 to 6 0 0
7 to 10 2 8.3
All 11 6 25
Total Number of Lesson Videos (1 – 11 curriculum, 1 – 11
example video A, 1-11 example video B) Watched
b
includes replay of videos
None 5 20.8
1 2 8.3
2 to 5 6 25.0
6 to 20 5 20.8
24 to 71 6 25.0
a
Lessons (1-11) Watched: M = 4.7, SD = 4.00, Mdn = 3.00.
b
Lesson videos Watched: M = 16.13, SD = 22.36, Mdn = 5.00.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 63
Table 4
Frequency Counts for the Active Choice Variables (N = 24) (continued)
Variable Category n %
Approach to Watching Video Material
Includes lessons, help videos, and example videos A & B
(submissions remain sequential)
Sequential 10 41.7
Random 9 37.5
Did not engage 2 8.3
Only one lesson 3 12.5
a
Lessons (1-11) Watched: M = 4.7, SD = 4.00, Mdn = 3.00.
b
Lesson videos Watched: M = 16.13, SD = 22.36, Mdn = 5.00.
For number of lessons watched, five of the learners watched no lessons (20.8%) while
five other learners watched all 11 lessons (20.8%) (M = 4.08, SD = 4.00, Mdn
=3.00). The number of lesson movies watched ranged from “none” (16.7%) to “24 to 71”
(25.0%). (M = 16.13, SD = 22.36, Mdn= 5.00). Most (79.2%) missed or skipped watching at
least one lesson in the entire curriculum. In an examination of the learner’s approach to the
material, the most common approaches were either a sequential approach (41.7%) or a random
approach (37.5%).
To further examine the active choice variables, a series of correlations were calculated to
relate the demographic variables with the active choice variables. Given that the sample size for
the study was small (N = 24), Spearman rank-ordered correlations were used instead of the more
common Pearson product-moment correlations. In addition, due to the exploratory nature of this
study, the alpha level for this study was set at p < .10. Three of the Spearman correlations were
found to be significant. Specifically, girls were more likely to use a sequential approach to the
material (r
s
= .36, p = .09), Caucasian learners watched more lessons (r
s
= .41, p = .05), and
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 64
learners from the suburbs were more likely to not use a sequential approach to the material (r
s
= -
.48, p = .02).
In summary, there were mixed results for this research question, as 79.2% of the learners
engaged with the curriculum to the point of submitting one lesson, but only 20.8 percent of all
learners completed the full curriculum by submitting a final story video. This suggests that the
software has greatest appeal for the highly motivated learner. The end-of-study survey asked
participants if it was their choice to participate, and all ten respondents said yes, but these
respondents represent less than 50 percent of the total participants.
In summary, research question one asked, “Will learners make an active choice to use a
mobile application and partner online storytelling website?” The data demonstrates yes and no,
as 79.2 learners engaged with the curriculum to the point of submitting one lesson, but only 20.8
percent of all learners completed the full curriculum by submitting a final story video. The data
infers that except for the 5 who did not engage at all, the remaining participants were highly
engaged and watched multiple videos, but that finishing the curriculum for this software appeals
to the highly motivated learner.
Extent to Which Learners Used Technology to Practice Oral Narrative
The second research question explored the extent to which learners demonstrate
persistence in using the mobile application and partner online website to practice oral narrative.
Persistence variables were operationalized as follows: complete any one or more lessons
represented by submitting the assignment for that lesson.
Persistence variables were operationalized as follows: complete any one or more lessons
lesson represented by submitting the assignment for that lesson. Persistence is also
operationalized by users completing multiple lessons, completing individual lessons multiple
times, and highest (in the series) lesson competed before quitting. Completes one lesson
measures if the learner persisted with the software enough to learn how it operates. Completes
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 65
lesson by submitting assignment charts those learners who watched the lesson and submitted an
assignment. Completes multiple lessons measures if the learner persisted through increasingly
difficult lessons. Completed lessons multiple times measures how persistent the learner was at
mastering the material before submitting the final lesson assignment. The highest lesson before
quitting measured how persistent they were at completing the curriculum.
Table 5 displays the frequency counts for the persistence variables. Six of the learners
(25.0%) completed at least some of the lessons multiple times. In terms of the highest lesson the
learner completed before quitting, six of the learners (25.0%) completed zero lessons while five
other learners (20.8%) completed all 11 lessons (M = 4.33, SD = 4.42, Mdn = 3.00).
Seven learners completed four or more assignments (29.1%), and on further review some
of these participants experienced divergent reactions to technical problems. Three learners
experienced technical problems, but two of these learners completed the entire curriculum to
completion of lesson 11 assignment. These two learners watched the lesson videos, made the
assignments, but submitted them all at once on the final day of the study. The third learner of
this group experiencing the technical problem completed the curriculum through lesson 10.
The final survey asked, “If you did not finish the curriculum, why not?” Five participants
said that they ran out of time. This data suggests that the completion rate had the potential of
increasing if participants had longer than the 19 days allotted to the study to complete the
curriculum, but the survey also reflects participation bias in that less than 50 % of participants
responded.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 66
Table 5
Frequency Counts for the Persistence Variables (N = 24)
Lesson n %
Lesson 1: Name three character traits 14 58.0
Lesson 2: Define a goal for the character 11
Lesson 3: Define a flaw for the character 8
Lesson 4: Define a consequence if character does not achieve
the goal
7
Lesson 5: Decide the ending for the story – the character
achieves the goal
6
Lesson 6: Plan 1 – Pick a character trait to help you make a
plan to achieve goal
4
Lesson 7: Define an obstacle that will get in the way of the plan 6
Lesson 8: Describe how your character fails plan 1 6
Lesson 9: Plan 2 –Pick a character trait to help you make a
plan to achieve goal
6
Lesson 10: Describe how the character succeeds at Plan 2 6
Lesson 11: Put it all together 5
Completed more than one (2-11)
(watched lesson video and submitted assignment)
11 48
Completed Lessons Multiple Times
(completed curriculum more than once)
1 4.1
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 67
Additionally, Table 5 displays the highest numbers of lessons that students watched before
quitting.
Highest Number of Lessons Watched Before Quitting
Lessons Watched N %
Zero 5 20.8
1 4 16.7
3 4 16.7
4 4 16.7
10 2 8.3
11 5 20.8
In terms of the highest lesson the learner completed before quitting, six of the learners (25.0%)
completed zero lessons while five other learners (20.8%) completed all 11 lessons (M= 4.55, SD
= 4.42, Mdn = 3.00).
Seven learners completed four or more assignments (29.1%), and on further review these
participants demonstrate the following learning behaviors. Three learners experienced technical
problems, but two of these learners competed the entire curriculum to completion of the lesson
11 assignment. Two of these learners watched the lesson videos, did the assignments, but
submitted them all at once on the final day of the study. The third learner of this group
experiencing the technical problem completed the curriculum through lesson 10.
To further examine the persistence variables, a series of Spearman rank-ordered
correlations were calculated correlating the demographic variables with the persistence variables.
One of the correlations was significant. Specifically, Caucasian learners visited the website
more often (r
s
= .48, p = .02). However, Caucasian learners represent 83.3% of the participants.
In summary, this data demonstrates that learners were not likely to persist in using the
mobile application and partner online website to practice oral narrative, as 42% of learners chose
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 68
not to engage with the curriculum by submitting an assignment for lesson 1. Only 58% of
learners persisted in submitting an assignment for lesson one. Fifty percent of learners engaged
in multiple lessons by watching a lesson video and submitting a lesson assignment beyond lesson
one. The Median learner quit the curriculum after lesson 3, which is 27% of the curriculum.
The final lesson, which entailed watching the lesson 11 video and submitting a summative
assignment, was completed by 20.8 percent of the learners. However, affecting this data were
conflicting interests such as baseball camp (2 learners), technical problems (5 documented
cases), and age appropriateness of material (2 documented cases) submitted through participant
initiated emails.
Mental Effort to Use the Application to Practice Narrative
Research question three addressed whether learners will apply mental effort to use the
application and partner online storytelling website to practice narrative, as indicated by applying
feedback, following a rubric, and timely assignment submission. The mental effort variable was
operationalized to: how many people finished the entire curriculum, including submitting an
assignment for Lesson 11, which requires the user to combine the ideas in Lessons 1 through 10
into one narrative.
Table 6 displays the frequency counts for the mental effort variables. Five learners
(20.8%) completed the entire course (all 11 assignments). One of the learners (4.2%)
resubmitted an assignment, and this same learner proceeded to complete the entire curriculum
twice. All the learners who submitted assignments checked their feedback immediately
(100.0%), even if they chose to end their participation in the curriculum at that lesson.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 69
Table 6
Frequency Counts for the Mental Effort Variables (N = 24)
Variable Category n %
Number of students who completed the course by submitting a final
story video to the requirements stated by lesson 11.
No 19
79
.1
Yes 5*
20
.8
Number of Resubmissions, assignments 1-11
No 23
95
.8
Yes 1
4.
2
*One learner submitted lesson 11 assignment twice
To further examine the mental effort variables, a series of Spearman rank-ordered
correlations were calculated correlating the demographic variables with the mental effort
variables. Four of the resulting correlations were significant at the p < .10 level: (a) male
learners were more likely to submit an assignment after each lesson watched (r
s
= -.45, p = .03);
(b) Caucasian learners submitted more assignments (r
s
= .37, p = .08); (c) Caucasian learners
succeeded at more assignments (r
s
= .44, p = .03); and (d) younger learners succeeded at more
assignments (r
s
= -.38, p = .07).
In summary, research question three asked, “Will learners apply mental effort to use the
application and partner online storytelling website to practice narrative, as indicated by applying
feedback, following a rubric, and timely assignment submission?” The answer demonstrated by
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 70
the data suggestsinfers that 79.1 percent of participants lost their motivation to expend the mental
effort required to complete the curriculum by lesson 11. However, one outlier completed the
curriculum twice, demonstrating that a highly self- regulated learner was motivated by the
software.
Additional Findings
A summated scale score was calculated in an attempt to measure the construct of “total
flow” based on seven continuous variables measured in the study: how many lessons watched,
number of lesson videos watched, highest lesson completed before quitting, how many times did
the learner visit the website, how many assignments were submitted, how many assignments did
the learner succeed at (variable 8), and how many assignments did the learner succeed at
(variable 14). After all, seven variables were converted to standard scores (z scores), the
resulting Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was α = .96 which suggested an acceptable level
of internal reliability (Creswell, 2009). As before, a series of Spearman rank-ordered
correlations were calculated comparing this total flow scale score to the demographic variables.
Total flow was higher for the Caucasian learners (r
s
= .38, p = .07) and tended to be higher for
male learners (r
s
= -.34, p = .11).
To further examine the active choice variables, a series of correlations were calculated to
relate the demographic variables with the active choice variables. Given that the sample size for
the study was small (N = 24), Spearman rank-ordered correlations were used instead of the more
common Pearson product-moment correlations. In addition, due to the exploratory nature of this
study, the alpha level for this study was set at p < .10. Three of the Spearman correlations were
found to be significant. Specifically, girls were more likely to use a sequential approach to the
material (r
s
= .36, p = .09), Caucasian learners watched more lessons (r
s
= .41, p = .05), and
learners from the suburbs were more likely to not use a sequential approach to the material (r
s
= -
.48, p = .02).
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 71
To further examine the persistence variables, a series of Spearman rank-ordered
correlations were calculated correlating the demographic variables with the persistence variables.
One of the correlations was significant. Specifically, Caucasian learners visited the website
more often (r
s
= .48, p = .02). However, Caucasian learners represent 83.3% of the participants.
To further examine the mental effort variables, a series of Spearman rank-ordered
correlations were calculated correlating the demographic variables with the mental effort
variables. Four of the resulting correlations were significant at the p < .10 level: (a) male learners
were more likely to submit an assignment after each lesson watched (r
s
= -.45, p = .03); (b)
Caucasian learners submitted more assignments (r
s
= .37, p = .08); (c) Caucasian learners
succeeded at more assignments (r
s
= .44, p = .03); and (d) younger learners succeeded at more
assignments (r
s
= -.38, p = .07)
Summary
Data for 24 learners was used in the examination of the impact on student motivation of
an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by their choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Overall, the study provided evidence that students are somewhat
motivated to engage with an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured
by their active choice, but further study needs to identify ways in which the software can further
engage persistence to complete the curriculum, and mental effort to complete the final
assignment. Motivated learners included one student who completed the curriculum twice, and
three learners who overcame technical problems to complete all or 90 percent of the lesson
assignments. Four interesting findings were: almost as many learners made the active choice to
engage in the curriculum in a random manner as in a sequential manner; learners tended to watch
lesson videos multiple times before submitting an assignment; boys demonstrated the highest
mental effort in their likelihood to submit an assignment after each lesson watched even though
they were the minority gender participant; and all learners who submitted assignments risked
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 72
their self-efficacy and invested the mental effort to immediately check feedback. In the final
chapter, these findings will be compared to the literature, conclusions and implications will be
drawn, and a series of recommendations will be suggested.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 73
Chapter Five: Discussion
The previous chapters established why oral narrative has an impact on a learner’s future
learning, how educational technology impacts 21
st
century learners, and how necessary it is to
evaluate the implementation of new technologies into the current curriculum. Chapter One
described the background of the problems in educational technology, and why pedagogically
constructed educational technology is a worthwhile tool to research. Chapter Two explored the
research on the construct of oral narrative and its instruction; learning and motivation theory
relevant to the construction and success of an online oral narrative curriculum; motivation using
technology; and teaching narrative using technology. Chapter Three describes the methodology
for the study. Chapter Four describes the results of the methodology. In this chapter, the study
will compare what was found in the literature to the evidence gathered by the study. The chapter
will interpret the evidence gathered, provide evidence-based conclusions, and finish the chapter
with recommendations for future research.
The purpose of this study was to examine the question: “What is the impact on student
motivation of an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by their
choice, persistence, and mental effort?” For active choice the study asked “Will learners make
an active choice to use a mobile application and partner online storytelling website?” For
persistence, the study asked “To what extent do learners demonstrate persistence in using the
mobile application and partner online website to practice oral narrative?” For mental effort the
study asked “Will learners apply mental effort to use the application and partner online
storytelling website to practice narrative, as indicated by applying feedback, following a rubric,
and timely assignment submission?”
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 74
Discussion of Key Findings
This dissertation was phase one of product development, and exists as the formative
evaluation of the “Tell Me a Story” project. The Pat’s Monsters software is a new attempt at
innovation within the educational software landscape. This study centered on creating a new
form of educational technology focused on motivating creativity, the learning goal at the top of
Bloom’s taxonomy pyramid (1956). Overall, the study provided evidence of the impact of an
online technology application on student motivation to create oral narrative, but persistence and
mental effort issues need to be worked out before this technology can appeal to the learner who
is not already highly self-regulated. The author concludes that learners are sufficiently motivated
to make the active choice to participate in an online learning software, but conditions in the
software do not yet engage the persistence and mental effort required on the part of the learner to
participate through to completion of the curriculum.
Active choice. Will learners make an active choice to use a mobile application and partner
online storytelling website?
Findings
For the indicator active choice, research question one asked, “Will learners make an
active choice to use a mobile application and partner online storytelling website?” The data
demonstrates yes and no, as 79.2 percent of learners engaged with the curriculum to the point of
submitting one lesson, but only 20.8 percent of all learners completed the full curriculum by
submitting a final story video. The completion rate data infers that this software appeals to the
highly motivated learner. The final survey asked, “If you did not finish the curriculum, why
not?” Five participants said that they ran out of time. This data suggests that the completion rate
may have increased to 41% if these five participants had longer than the 19 days allotted to the
study to complete the curriculum. The end of study survey asked participants if it was their
choice to participate, and all ten respondents said yes.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 75
The study discovered a few correlations. The first was that girls are more likely to follow
the lesson sequence (r = .36, p = .09). The second was that those learners not in the suburbs
were more likely to follow the lessons in sequence (r = -.48, p = .02). Third, Caucasian learners
watched more lessons (r = .41, p = .05).
Discussion
The study discovered an interesting phenomena: 37.5 percent of the learners chose to
watch the lesson and example videos in a random order, even though they submitted assignments
sequentially, while 41.7 percent of learners watched the lesson and example videos in sequence.
The curriculum was specific to each lesson, but choices made in previous lessons assisted
choices made in future lessons. The study found that 79.2% of learners skipped a lesson in the
curriculum, which also includes learners who quit the curriculum before completion. While
engaged in the curriculum and before quitting, only 5.3% of learners skipped a lesson within the
curriculum before quitting the curriculum. Learners who completed the full eleven-lesson
curriculum all watched the lesson videos in a non-sequential order. Often they would review
prior lessons or watch future lessons before engaging in a new assignment.
Personal interest, a motivation theory that was part of our theoretical framework, was
exhibited because the learner may have been attempting to determine the value of future lessons
against the amount of persistence and mental effort required to proceed. As stated in Chapter
Two, Personal interest is related to the psychological factors of value, importance, and utility.
Personal interest is related to a learner’s personal identification with the content of the lesson.
High personal interest leads to a deeper understanding of the material (Alexander, Jetton, &
Kulikowich, 1996). When deciding whether to choose one activity over another, a person will
choose the activity that holds the most value for him. This may also be an example of Self-
determination theory (SDT) in that the learner may have been evaluating the content of future
lessons, and assigning a value to the task of the present assignment, and reviewing prior lessons
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 76
in order to enhance the likelihood of mastery. SDT assumes that learners need to feel
autonomous, competent, and possess a sense of relatedness (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan,
1991). How long a person stays intrinsically motivated is based on how much the activity can
meet these needs. The learning theory from the theoretical framework Cognitive Load Theory
(CLT), may have also been at play as the learner was trying to minimize the demands on short
term memory.
Allowing a student to engage in multiple lessons prior to submitting an assignment is a
non-traditional approach to guided learning. Some may speculate watching lessons in random
sequence, though submitting in sequence, is discovery learning. The definition of discovery
learning is found in the works of Bruner (1960) and Mayer (2003). Bruner (1960) states that a
learner who discovers solutions under his own investigation is more likely to understand the
material enough for problem solving. It is his point of view towards science education, which
emphasized the structure of the curriculum, teaching what students were ready to learn,
developing intuitive thinking, and stimulating the desire to learn, all the while challenging the
more gifted and not destroying the will of the less gifted (Bruner, 1960). Mayer (2003) states
that discovery learning promotes meaningful engagement with the material because the learner is
responsible for organizing and integrating new material with prior knowledge. Discovery
learning requires considerable metacognitive skills that children may not yet have, thus the
student may experience heavy loads on their working memory which is known to diminish
learning results (Kirschner, et al., 2006; Chandler & Sweller, 1991). Discovery learning was not
the intended method. The study acknowledges that submitting assignments out of sequence
would be less advantageous for the learner, and agrees that a function should be added to the
software to disallow submitting lessons out of order, though it is interesting to note no student
practiced the curriculum in this manner. The software offers heavy guidance but also allows for
review and preview of content. The learner is guided by the nature of the curriculum and
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 77
assignments to watch the lessons in order; as well, the learner is welcome to review previous and
future material in order to guide assignment construction.
The average learner did not watch all the help videos. Rather, they tried first to click
through every major event and “self teach” themselves how to use the software before watching
the help videos, even though help videos were readily available. Halgren et al. discovered that
children were motivated by playful exploration, and would click on all clickable objects to
discover what happened, and would click on it repeatedly as if expecting a different result
(Halgren, Fernandes & Thomas, 1995). Play is an important part of a child’s social and
cognitive development (Csikszentmihaly, 1990), and perhaps this is a manifestation of play in a
technical environment wherein the learner seeks to find a form of online locus of control, as well
as assistance in comprehending the rules of the learning environment construct. Understanding
an underlying concept of how a game or course is structured plays an important organizing role
in cognition (Schank, 1990). The Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (2001) states, in a
review of research on children and technology, that children who are allowed to explore the
computer and fulfill their natural curiosity experience more effective learning. Artifact data in
click entries suggested that learners looked at every page in the application and website several
times before committing to a lesson assignment. Often they would explore the software before
engaging in a lesson. When compared to clicks on lesson videos, learners in the study appeared
to want to experience how the application worked instead of watching a passive Help video.
These findings suggest that curiosity has an influence on active choice, and this may
motivate deeper learning. This is similar to Mitra, Dangwal, Chatterjee, Jha, Bisht, & Kapur
(2005) who found that young learners can learn to operate and use computers and associated
software, if given comfortable access and appropriate connectivity. Mitra et al. studies
Minimally Evasive Education (MEE), and it is based on study by the Centre for Research in
Cognitive Systems in India. MEE is defined as a method of pedagogy that utilizes a learning
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 78
environment to induce motivation to inspire learning amongst groups of children (Mitra et. al.,
2005). These experiments embedded a computer connected to the internet into the walls of a
slum populated by a low socioeconomic base that likely has had no interaction with computers.
Video observations illustrate that children were literate in playing games, searching the Internet,
and working with the various software available on the hardware within days (Mitra et. al.,
2005). However, Mitra (2010) concedes that MEE’s have their limits as unsupervised learning
environments, as learners follow their interests and excel in what they are interested in.
Unsupervised learning environments do not encourage learners to learn a wide range of subject
matter, and not all learners benefit from unsupervised instruction (Mitra, 2010). Further, Arora
(2010) states that while the example “hole in the wall” example worked well, an institution run
in this manner would require a more formal means of teaching and learning, and a process for
funding the foundational elements required to provide curriculum. Though interaction with a
computer was demonstrated on the small scale, the Arora study questions the validity of such
foundation for a larger scale curriculum and school without compromising the underlying tenants
of innovative pedagogy. This agrees with Dede (1997) who stated that innovations in pedagogy,
curriculum, assessment, and school organization need to be improved simultaneous to
improvements in technology or else there will not be any improvement of education outcomes.
Our study improved the technical distribution of the curriculum, but does not contribute to a
larger scale school environment in its present state. However, there is room for scalability, but
this requires further research.
Persistence. To what extent do learners demonstrate persistence in using the mobile
application and partner online website to practice narrative?
Findings. For the indicator persistence, research question two asked, “To what extent do
learners demonstrate persistence in using the mobile application and partner online website to
practice oral narrative?” The data demonstrates moderate persistence in using the mobile
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 79
application and partner online website to practice oral narrative, as 42% of learners chose not to
engage with the curriculum by submitting an assignment for lesson 1. Only 58% of learners
persisted in submitting an assignment for lesson one. Fifty percent of learners engaged in
multiple lessons by watching a lesson video and submitting a lesson assignment beyond lesson
one. The median learner quit the curriculum after lesson 3, which is 27% of the curriculum. The
final lesson, which entailed watching the lesson 11 video and submitting a summative
assignment, was completed by 20.8 percent of the learners.
One male outlier participant completed the curriculum twice with two unique stories.
Total flow was higher for the Caucasian learners (r
s
= .38, p = .07) and tended to be higher for
male learners (r
s
= -.34, p = .11) possibly due to the outlier participant.
The top reasons that learners dropped out, per artifact emails, were conflicting interest,
age appropriateness of the media, technical problems, or that the learner was an adult educational
technology professional scoping out the product. Conflicting interest was baseball camp for two
learners, swimming camp for one female, and a family vacation. Two male learners cited the
content as “babyish”. Five learners cited technical difficulties. More may have experienced
technical problems but did not report them. A bug was found in the software that affected some,
but not all users. This affected motivation two ways. The first effect of the technical problem
was that learners dropped out. However, the second effect was a demonstration that learners
were highly motivated to find a solution. Two learners, a brother and sister in South Africa,
found a way around the technical difficulties. They were unable to record within the app, so
made videos using the iPhone instead. Both children watched all of the lesson videos, then made
live assignment videos and sent them in. These two students completed the entire curriculum. A
third learner with technical problems worked with the technology developer to resolve the issue
and overcame it. This learner progressed to lesson 10, but then claimed to have run out of time
before completing lesson 11.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 80
Discussion. When designing a new technology, the first phase of testing reveals user
problems that were not apparent in the developer testing phase. A problem with the “Tell Me a
Story” software emerged the first week of the study, when it came to our attention that if a user
did not have much room on their phone, the record button would not allow the user to make new
media. Two participants who reported technical problems disengaged after watching just one
lesson. However, three students who reported a technical problem did steps to overcome it, and
one learner submitted 10 assignment videos, while two others submitted 11 assignment videos.
Therefore, technical problems do not necessarily dampen motivation to engage with a mobile
application and partner online storytelling website for all individuals participating. Song et al.
(2004) found technical problems to be a big challenge for learners in their improving online
learning study as well, and students felt that these problems soon took over the focus of the
course. Over 60% of respondents were affected, but the study found that it is important to help
learners understand that technical problems are going to occur, and very often at the most
inconvenient time (Song, 2004). The course facilitator can ease this stress by discussing the
likelihood of technical problems and that possible solutions can be put in place to make amends
prior to the start of the course (Hill, 2002).
The flow exhibited by the learners who completed the entire curriculum, and the one
learner who completed it twice, was interesting in that it provided evidence the software could
provide an optimal learning state. Flow is an optimal state and major influence within situated
cognition (Csikszentmihalyi, M., 1991), and is comprised of four components a) control, b)
attention, c) curiosity, and d) intrinsic interest (Csikzentmihalyi, 1975). The experience of flow
is considered a reward within itself because it means that a person is so involved in an activity
that nothing else seems to matter, and that the experience itself is so enjoyable that a learner will
do it just for the sake of doing it. Authors Chan & Ahern (1999) provide evidence that
hypermedia-like learning technologies can add appeal to instruction if used appropriately. Their
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 81
findings suggest that creating simple media at the start of the lesson, then growing more complex
as the student gains proficiency in the material, and content challenges are reduced, is the most
efficacious instructional design. This was attempted in the instructional design, and further
research is required to make it more effective to a larger base of participants.
The study included self-efficacy as a motivation theory in the theoretical framework.
Self-efficacy theory encourages peers to model appropriate learning as well as provide feedback
designed to build competence and self-efficacy, and design challenging tasks that offer
opportunities for success. Self-efficacy was encouraged by the instructor-led feedback videos.
The importance of the feedback videos was demonstrated by the learners all immediately
watching the feedback videos before proceeding with assignments. Learners who demonstrated
highly self-regulated learning styles were prone to watch all example videos for each lesson.
Mental effort. Will learners apply mental effort to use the application and partner
online storytelling website to practice narrative, as indicated by applying feedback,
following a rubric, and timely assignment submission?
Findings. For the indicator mental effort, research question three asked, “Will learners
apply mental effort to use the application and partner online storytelling website to practice
narrative, as indicated by applying feedback, following a rubric, and timely assignment
submission?” The answer demonstrated by the data infers that 79.1 percent of participants lost
their motivation to expend the mental effort required to complete the curriculum by lesson 11.
One fifth of the study participants did complete the entire curriculum. However, one outlier
completed the curriculum twice, demonstrating that a highly self-regulated learner was motivated
by the software.
Discussion. The theoretical framework contributed to understanding these findings
(Figure 2). The study consulted learning theories contributing to the design of the software,
which include; Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 2005), Cognitive Theory of Multimedia
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 82
Learning (Mayer & Moreno, 2003), Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1977), and Situated
Cognition (Lave, 1989). The study consulted theories in motivation to examine the motivation
indicators in the study, which include; Interest Theory (Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992), Self-
Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1993) (Figure
2).
Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) (Sweller, 2005) focuses on the load on working memory
during instruction. CLT contributed to the construction of the curriculum and software by
alerting the designers of the need to apply sound instructional design principles based on
knowledge of the brain and memory (Sweller, 2005). The oral narrative curriculum was built in
small units of increasing complexity. As learners progressed, they experienced higher cognitive
load. Effort was made while building the curriculum to decrease this load by creating a schema
of structured events the learner could complete and revisit at any time. This per unit engagement
then allowed a compartmentalized assessment of persistence and mental effort correlated to
increased cognitive complexity.
The theory of multimedia learning explores how to create instructional design using
words and pictures to nurture a deep understanding of the material (Mayer & Moreno, 2003).
The theory of multimedia learning is related to cognitive load in that working memory is an
important concern. Multimedia learning must be designed so that it does not incur cognitive
overload. The theory of multimedia learning contributed to the construction of the software by
alerting designers to the audio and visual needs of the learner as they engage with multimedia.
This overall implementation of multimedia best practices helped to create a learning program to
encourage best possible active choice to engage.
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) posits that observing models can lead to behavioral,
cognitive and affective changes in the learner (Bandura, 1977). Beliefs about the “self” control
the learner’s concept of his own ability to complete tasks and reach goals (Ormrod, 2006), and
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 83
self-efficacy can affect motivation in positive and negative ways (Schunk, 1990). Self-efficacy
is affected by the learner comparing himself to a model and perceiving himself as capable of
doing the same thing (Schunk, 1990). Therefore, the designers implemented models in the form
of Gergy and Luke who provided example videos for each lesson. Learner engagement with
these models helped to understand the dependency of the learner on such media, and their
concept of self-efficacy as demonstrated by persistence and mental effort. The study was able to
gage that self-efficacy may have been low for a greater part of the group when they hit lesson
four, as most of the learners disengaged at this time.
Situated cognition posits that learning is unintentional and situated within authentic
activity, context, and culture (Lave, 1989). Social learners become involved in a community that
practices the beliefs and behaviors studied. As the learner moves from the edge of a community
to its core, the learner becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually
assumes the role of an expert. Situated cognition provided a framework for evaluating
persistence and mental effort as the learner progressed through the curriculum and became an
expert. The design of the software encouraged community participation, but the software was
unable to engage with this community to its full potential at the time of testing. However, future
studies will reveal the importance of social interaction and learning.
The motivation theories in the theoretical framework were instrumental in providing a
lens with which to examine the motivation indicators through motivation measures. Active
choice was evaluated through Interest Theory (Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992), where
individual interest is a learner’s stable psychological predisposition to participate in and focus
learning on a specific field of preference. Individual interest is inherent to the learner, but the
curriculum designers attempted to trigger situational interest through the construct of the course
design in an effort to raise individual interest (Dewey, 1913). Interest was best seen in artifact
emails wherein parents conveyed student interest or pursued technical fixes to assuage perplexed
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 84
learners. Interest affected the evaluation of all three motivation variables. Active interest was
extremely essential to establishing engagement with learners, and determining what level of
interest inspired active choice to engage, persist and apply mental effort may provide the link for
understanding when situational interest gives in to individual interest, or if individual interest is
the only motivator to complete a curriculum.
Persistence was examined through the lens of Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy theory posits
that students learn better when they see themselves as competent for the task (Pintrich, 1988).
SE examines learner’s judgments about their own capabilities to complete a task and earn
competency (Bandura, 1986), and affects a learner’s choice of activities, effort, and persistence
(Bandura, 1977). Learners who have a low sense of efficacy for a task will avoid completing it,
while a learner with high self-efficacy will perform without hesitation. Learners who feel
efficacious are hypothesized to exert more mental effort and persist longer at tasks.
Mental effort was examined through the lens of Self-Determination theory. Self-
determination theory (SDT) distinguishes between different types of motivation based on the
different goals that initiate a behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT posits that learners can be
proactive and engaged, or not, based on the social conditions in which they develop and engage
(Ryan & Deci, 2000), and that learners need to be allowed to develop their personalities and
practice self-regulation in order to learn to behave in healthy and effective ways (Ryan, Kuhl, &
Deci, 1997). SDT assumes that learners need to feel autonomous, competent, and possess a
sense of relatedness (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). How long a person stays
intrinsically motivated is based on how much the activity can meet these needs.
The completion rate appears small, but in comparison to the online completion rates for
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), the completion rate is high. MOOC’s are online
courses structured to reach large-scale interactive participation through open access via the
internet. They are similar to the study software in that they deliver a democratic learning
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 85
experience to all interested learners, regardless of socioeconomic background or access to
technologies. However, the audience for a MOOC is adult, while our study was centered on a
K-5 small group of learners’ online experience. The average completion rate for MOOC’s is less
than seven percent (Parr, 2013). The completion rate for the “Tell Me a Story” software was
20.9 percent.
Boys demonstrated the highest mental effort in their likelihood to submit an assignment
after each lesson watched, even though they were the minority gender participant. This is of
interest because the educational technology is based on narrative, and girls are more interested in
narrative technology that allows creative events than they are in destructive events, and the
opposite is true for boys (Gorriz & Medina, 2000). Gender and socialization is a concern for
online learning, and care needs to be taken to remove prejudice found in the live classroom
(Owens, Smothers, and Love, 2003), where males are given more feedback and encouragement
by instructors (Morse & Handley, 1985). The learning environment constructed for this study
provided the same learning and feedback experience for each participant. Likely, if there was a
gender anomaly, it is a side effect of other learning environments. It is interesting to note that
both male and female parents were involved in the administration of the app driven curriculum.
Future research may be required to examine if the male or female parent is more interested in the
technology, thus providing a model for the student.
All learners who submitted assignments risked their self-efficacy, and invested the mental
effort to immediately check feedback. One student failed a lesson, but he applied the feedback
he received and went on to repeat the curriculum twice. The feedback was positive praise
overall, as most learners passed the assignments. Positive competence feedback increases
intrinsic motivation (Cusella, 1984) and supports the need for competence and self-determination
(Deci & Ryan, 1980). Feedback represents an incentive in the form of a reinforcement, which is
a foundational environmental factor on the integrated model of motivation variables triangle
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 86
(Clark et al., 2006). The students were interested in the feedback, but it is not clear if this
feedback inspired more interest in completing the curriculum.
An artifact email from the parent of the highly self-regulated learner stated that the boy
had a very high interest in storytelling, and was excited to receive feedback on his work. Interest
theory posits that students learn better when they are interested in the material, and that the
learner and the learning situation interact together to raise interest (Dewey, 1913). Thus, this
individual already had a high measure of individual interest. Interest is a value placed on the
learning objective, and represents psychological factors contributing to motivation on the
integrated model of motivation variables triangle (Clark et al., 2006). Interest inspires Intrinsic
Motivation, the motivation theory used in the theoretical framework. As written in Chapter Two,
intrinsic motivation is a driving force in cognitive development, existing as an innate need to
master one’s environment fueled by personal curiosity and interest, and this pursuit propels task
engagement even when there is no reward for completing the task (Ryan, Connell, & Grolnick,
1992).
Parents are heavily involved with the homeschool curriculum and its implementation.
They are often the instructor and are fully engaged in student learning. Parental involvement has
a big impact on learner motivation to engage in academic activities (Fan & Williams, 2010,
Domina, 2005; Sirvani, 2007). Not all learners are engaged by this type of home environment,
so the parental influence in this study may have influenced motivation variables in relation to the
average learner community. Younger learners succeeded at submitting more assignments (r
s
= -
.38, p = .07). This is in contrast somewhat to the literature that students with a more prior
knowledge learn more quickly (Anderson, 1983). Students with less prior knowledge experience
more complexity when engaging with new curriculum topics. However, the younger learners in
this study were more engaged than the older learners, and typically younger learners have less
prior knowledge than older learners. The study investigated an area of education that is just
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 87
beginning to examine the possibilities of online education and educational technologies. The
exact measurement of motivation and its impact on learning remains somewhat elusive and
deserves further research. Motivation contains the three indexes active choice, persistence and
mental effort–but very few studies exist wherein these indicators are investigated with
meaningful empirical research. Our contribution to the literature was our attempt at providing
meaningful measures of these indicators and their examination.
Summary
This study demonstrated, for the indicator active choice, a willingness on the part of the
learner to engage with an online learning technology. Self-regulated learners demonstrated that
interest will affect motivation. If learners are given the option, they may watch future lessons as
a possible aid to deciding whether or not to participate in the curriculum, which may be an
example of Personal Interest and SDT, in that the learner may have been evaluating the content
of future lessons, and assigning a value to the task of the present assignment (Deci, Vallerand,
Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). Learners are often motivated by playful exploration (Halgren,
Fernandes & Thomas, 1995), and would click on all clickable objects to discover what happened
in the “Tell Me a Story” software instead of watching the Help videos first. This may be
encouraged by the theory of multimedia learning applied, as the content was built for maximum
engagement. Research is controversial on this style of student engagement, as it is depicted both
as “curiosity” and as being “off task”.
This study demonstrated, for the indicator persistence, a moderate to low persistence to
use the mobile application and partner online website to practice oral narrative. Technical
problems will happen when working with technology driven products, which may have impacted
self-efficacy, but it is helpful to state this at the beginning of the course to reduce stress (Hill,
2002). Self-efficacy may have encouraged Flow, as some learners exhibited high self regulation
and confidence with the material by completing tasks over a two and three day period, not
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 88
waiting for teacher feedback to move on to the next lesson. The flow exhibited by the learners
who completed the entire curriculum, and the one learner who completed it twice, was
interesting in that it provided evidence the software could provide an optimal “learning” state.
Flow is an optimal state and major influence within situated cognition (Csikszentmihalyi, M.,
1991).
This study demonstrated, for the indicator mental effort, that some highly regulated
learners will apply mental effort to use the application and partner online storytelling website to
practice narrative, as indicated by applying feedback, following a rubric, and timely assignment
submission. One student failed a lesson, but he applied the feedback he received and went on to
repeat the curriculum twice. Feedback represents an incentive in the form of a reinforcement,
which is a foundational environmental factor on the integrated model of motivation variables
triangle (Clark et al., 2006). This same participant said he had very high interest in storytelling,
and was excited to receive feedback on his work. Interest theory posits that students learn better
when they are interested in the material, and that the learner and the learning situation interact
together to raise interest (Dewey, 1913).
Conclusion
All together, evidence surfaced in the study of a style of engagement that is not typical of
the brick and mortar classroom. Whether this style of engagement is efficient or not is the
subject of a learning study. However, this research does open the door to future analysis of the
importance of several engagement issues: SDT and content evaluation against value, playful
exploration, communication of technical problems, flow, feedback, and interest on learner
motivation of an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by their
choice, persistence, and mental effort.
This study’s contribution to the literature was an attempt at providing meaningful
measures of the indicators active choice, persistence and mental effort, and our attempt to
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 89
examine them. For active choice , the study demonstrated a willingness on the part of the learner
to engage with an online learning technology; for persistence, a moderate to low persistence to
use the mobile application and partner online website to practice oral narrative; and for mental
effort, that some learners will apply mental effort to use the application and partner online
storytelling website to practice narrative, as indicated by applying feedback, following a rubric,
and timely assignment submission.
Online education has the capacity to build a fearless learning environment. A learner
may engage in foundational learning anonymously. When the learner feels ready to engage
publicly on a social learning platform they have already built the self-efficacy to perform to
culturally accepted levels without peer judgment. If this is true, it can make a positive impact on
self-efficacy in learning.
Limitations of the Study
Internal validity was enhanced by testing the entire curriculum, with iPads, in a brick and
mortar classroom prior to the IRB led research. Twenty-two students in the Irvine Unified
School District were led through the curriculum by a live instructor. All students engaged in all
of the 11 assignments and finished the curriculum. All students passed all assignments, though
they were able to ask the live teacher questions and engage in classroom discussion. Community
engagement was an enhancement to the online experience, and likely influenced the success rate.
Response to the software was extremely positive.
Quantitative methods led the inquiry, where data was collected using several instruments
and the information was analyzed using statistical procedures Fundamental patterns within this
data were explored to describe the learner’s motivation to use online technologies and led to the
creation of a rubric to measure their effect on motivation using nonparametric statistics such as
the Spearman correlation.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 90
The study contained some limitations. First, the convenience sample was heavily
populated by female Caucasians. The sample was n = 24 students, which is the size of a typical
classroom. However, this sample would fare better if it were increased to a much larger sample
size. These students already had access to the new iPhone/iPad software, which indicates they
may come from a higher socioeconomic status. Future study requires a larger sample with
increased socioeconomic, gender, and ethnic diversity.
The end of study survey was not completed by all learners, and represents a less than 50
percent response rate. This may reflect a participant bias in the answers. Further research will
attempt a higher post survey response.
Methodological enhancement. The goal for this software is to provide a democratic
learning experience to all interested learners, regardless of socioeconomic background or access
to technologies. To reach this goal, the software must progress as a motivating learning software
and the technology must progress to allow access to more learners. We will broaden the test
subjects to include more demographics and develop a targeted sample of an ethnically diverse
community with international students. The goal is to engage storytellers worldwide and
measure if motivation to participate is unique to certain cultures, and how learning is enhanced
through different motivational forces integrated into the software.
The learning software is now in the second stage of development. Phase one testing,
which resulted in the statistics for this study, revealed technical errors, revelations about software
usage in an online learning environment, and new ideas for future growth. The technical errors
have been identified, and some have already been resolved. The recording issue some learners
experienced has been fixed in version 1.2 of the software release. The cave is now functioning
and is capable of assembling feedback on student projects. Future technical considerations
include sending client information through the app to the Internet site for better identification of
participants.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 91
Fresh revelations include ideas on how to structure more motivating interactions and a
larger community engagement. This study did not incorporate the community engagement
intended for the final distribution of learner stories. Thus, a rich environment for social
interaction was not available for study. Future studies will integrate the learning cave wherein
students may view each other’s work, leave feedback, and read comments made by other
students.
New ideas for future growth include creating a storytelling curriculum based on cultural
practices around the world, and engaging members of those cultures to contribute stories to an
international learning database. The hope is that this will identify a difference in cultural
communications, and provide an additional learning opportunity to students to understand
international communications.
Implications for Practice
The knowledge we have gained in this study from the research examining the impact on
student motivation of an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by
their choice, persistence, and mental effort, led to several implications for practice and policy.
Educational technology designers are using technology to create more engaging, complete, and
complex environments in both the private and public sectors of education. Researchers should
study how motivation in these environments encourages learning by supporting interaction
between students and teachers. Research methodologies, with the aid of increasingly
sophisticated technologies, should focus on more complex interactions between students and
their environments to understand the underlying motivating factors that encourage and
discourage active choice, persistence and mental effort to achieve learning goals. Design
experiments like the one conducted in this study are a good start.
The present educational system is on the brink of massive reform. Brick and mortar
schools are accused of not doing as well as they could, and there is the demonstrated
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 92
effectiveness of online classes and homeschooling, though these also have room for
improvement. Technology will inevitably play a role in public and private school reform;
therefore educational technology researchers have a requirement to study the evidence available
in learning and motivation theory as a basis of new technology developments. Neither
educational construct has all of the answers at this time.
New research to assist the study of engaged learning and motivation is on the horizon.
Psychology has driven much of this motivation study, but looking ahead, neuroscience will offer
new insights to the reasons why learners engage with curriculum. The holy grail of neuroscience
is in making connections between behavior and neurons in the brain, and scientists may be close
to understanding learning in terms of neural activity (Mustafa & Abdulhamid, 2012; Bruer,
1999). Should this research prove viable and useful, it can provide a fundamentally different
point of view to how motivation affects learning, and where motivation is rooted. Future
technologies may be developed to enhance the neurological connections to motivation to
enhance learning.
Recommendations for future research
Future research is required to advance the Pat’s Monsters software to provide motivation
to students with lower levels of self-regulation. This research opens the door to future analysis
on several engagement issues: SDT and content evaluation against value; playful exploration;
communication of technical problems; flow; feedback, and interest on learner motivation of an
online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by their choice, persistence,
and mental effort.
One recommendation to researchers is to provide a qualitative measure in the study for a
more in-depth and informative description of the students’ learning environment, interest in the
subject matter, and technical expertise as they pertain to self-regulation. This will provide a map
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 93
of the learner to allow for a more sophisticated analysis of the interaction with educational
software.
A second recommendation is to create a study to measure learning where a pre-test and
post-test are administered in addition to measuring student motivation. This would allow the
researcher to gauge the student success and compare it to mental effort. Motivation is required
in order to reach this deeper level of learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000), but
measures need to be in place to determine how much motivation has inspired deep learning.
There is also a need for future research in modeling the strategies of expert human
teachers and coaches. This research would provide a rich context for evaluating engagement,
and then attempts in the educational technology domain could focus studies on mimicking the
best practices to identify the design of a more effective educational technology.
Policy recommendations. Twenty-first century skills are grounded in technology, where
technology is utilized to connect learners to learning and collaboration opportunities in a
knowledge-based economy (Assessment and Teaching of 21
st
Century Skills, 2009). They
require a commitment to provide a foundation of pedagogically sound technology from several
stakeholders, including government, technology companies, and research institutions. These
stakeholders need to provide political support, hardware and connectivity, and research-based
knowledge to construct a high-quality, meaningful, technology-enhanced learning environment
(Culp, Honey, & Mandinach, 2003).
The National Education Technology Plan 2010 (U.S. Department of Education, 2010),
states five goals with recommendations in five essential components of learning powered by
technology: Learning, Assessment, Teaching, Infrastructure, and Productivity. It recognizes that
technology-based learning and assessment systems will be critical to improving student success,
and calls out to educators to look at learning technology outcomes accomplished in business and
education. It is a call to educators to invite educational technology into the classroom and
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 94
provide research detailing best practices. The next step to this foundation is to provide a unified
technology base from which to work.
Technical issues are a serious concern for the creation of future educational technologies.
Technology infrastructure needs to be evaluated and designed to determine if the schools have
the hardware and software capabilities and bandwidth to use educational technology in its most
recent forms. If the learning materials are not capable of functioning, they cannot maintain
student interest. A central design may be the best solution. Creating educational software for
multiple platforms makes the developer concentrate on sustainability over multiple platforms
instead of development of the product. Therefore, a national technology platform must be
determined as a foundation for technology-assisted learning. This platform must be available to
developers so that they can test new software in a stable and maintained community.
Government, technology companies, and research institutions should weigh in on the technology
strategy and allow for a fair competition among hardware and software administration companies
in a highly transparent environment. Once this platform is administered, a testing ground can be
maintained of voluntary participants in new software developments. This will allow the
generation of more reliable empirical data on a consistent and equal testing ground, and access to
a demographic that is consistent with the learner population.
The Common Core State Standards address writing a narrative in grade three, but there is
a gap in the pedagogy. Third grade students are expected to write a narrative that develops real or
imagined experiences or events. They are to receive instruction on effective technique,
descriptive detail, and a clear sequence of events (CCSSO & NGA Center, 2010). However, no
mention is made of the character-driven plot (or its instruction). This study recommends that the
Common Core Standards include instruction on narrative construction in addition to the factual
writing styles promoted.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 95
Public and private sectors must collaborate to create more high quality content, software,
and ease of access. This obligation cannot reside on the shoulders of the individual instructor to
recreate in every school. Research must be conducted on best practices in the classroom, and
this research made available to entertainment and technology companies familiar with creating
online content. Communications between these industries will begin a cycle of start, stop, repair,
repeat and will lead to better and better solutions.
Finally, standards must be evaluated and made public for new educational technologies.
These standards should allow for the collection of best practices and encourage new research.
The standards for pedagogically sound curriculum should be in partnership with technology
standards so that new products have a stable platform for testing.
Practitioner recommendations. This study provided evidence that learners are willing
to make an active choice to engage with educational technology, but most do not display the
required persistence and mental effort to complete the entire curriculum. Therefore, there is
room for the live instructor to participate as a coach with the software in order to achieve a
successful learning outcome.
Based on the literature review and the results of this research, this researcher
recommends that teachers engage with educational technologies with the student as a live coach.
Human interaction is a necessary motivating element, and may push the student to persist and
apply the required mental effort to completing online curriculums. Practitioners are advised to
assist educational technology developers with best practice engagement in the classroom so that
these technologies can increase in effectiveness.
In order for the instructor to engage as a live coach, the instructor will be required to
learn the technologies they will be utilizing in the classroom. The instructor must be familiar
enough with the online technology to assist learners with technical and content issues. However,
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 96
with the technology driven by the developer, the teacher is relieved of training in media
technologies to the extent required to create learning software for class projects.
Conclusion
One way we are not meeting the needs of our students is by not providing practice in a
foundational skill, the oral narrative. Mature oral language skills are an essential foundation for
higher learning. The development of oral language is closely related to the development of
thinking abilities, and the development of reading skills and literacy. Oral narrative teaches
students how to organize their thinking and focus ideas, and remains one of the primary means of
gaining new knowledge. Heightened literacy skills are in increasing demand as the technology-
dependent employment landscape changes to adapt to new technologies, and this means greater
economic disparities for those who do not possess the literacy skills. Therefore, oral narrative is
an important skill to acquire early in one’s academic career.
Western oral narrative consists of a structure that requires problem-solving skills to create
a narrative, and a comfort level with creativity to produce one. However, the current Common
Core Standards do not require schools to include the western tradition of oral narrative in the
elementary school curriculum. Empirical research in learning and motivation theory supports the
construction of an online social learning environment to facilitate a safe space for creating stories
and practicing the construction of oral narrative to fill this gap in learning.
The study employed three methods of analysis under the headings of active choice,
persistence, and mental effort. The study searched for indicators of learner engagement and
disengagement as they pertain to motivation.
In conclusion, data for 24 learners was used in the examination of the impact on student
motivation of an online technology application to create oral narrative, as measured by their
choice, persistence, and mental effort. Overall, the study provided evidence that students are
willing to engage in a voluntary learning activity, but more research needs to be done to study
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 97
how more learners can demonstrate the persistence and mental effort to finish an entire
curriculum.
It is worth examining further how the students engage with learning software and how it
impacts their learning, as this study found that learners who would watch advanced videos in aid
of their assignments were very likely to complete the curriculum successfully. The brick and
mortar classroom traditionally engages learners with a lecture, in-class assignments, and perhaps
discussion. Lectures are not repeatable, even though they contain the most learning material. It
is worth further research to determine if access to multiple reviews of the lecture material is
motivating for students because it increases self-efficacy, or if multiple reviews of the material
increase engagement.
Society is not meeting the needs of students on an equal access basis. At a time when
21st century skills are defined as essential, not everyone has access to sufficient educational
opportunities to acquire these skills, and this study was an attempt to create motivating, widely
available, democratic software for oral narrative skill development. Technical hardware and
software applications, if created with a sound pedagogical construct and with the right conditions
in place, have the opportunity to broaden access to 21
st
century skills. This study was our
attempt to do just that. This study was important because it examined the creation of a
motivating educational technology and applied it to an online learning situation to examine its
effect on active choice, persistence and mental effort. We conclude that learners are sufficiently
motivated to make the active choice to participate in online learning software, but conditions in
the current construct of the software do not yet engage the persistence and mental effort required
on the part of the learner to participate through completion of the curriculum. The researcher has
evidence that a highly motivated learner may exhibit flow when participating in the curriculum,
and this flow must be examined so that it can generate appeal to a wider base of learners.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 98
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Appendix A
Rubric for Curriculum, lessons 1 -11
Learner may pick and choose the assignments they submit.
Lesson 1
Pass Fail
Name a character Character is given a
name
Character is not given a
name
Give the character
three traits
The character is given
three clear traits
The character has not
been given character
traits
Lesson 2
Pass Fail
Give the character
a goal
The character has
been given a clear
goal.
The character has not
been given a goal.
Lesson 3
Pass Fail
Character flaw The character is given
a flaw
The character has not
been given a flaw.
Lesson 4
Pass Fail
Clarify
consequences if
the character
reaches, and does
not reach the
goal.
The consequences are
clearly stated.
The character has not
been given
consequences.
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Lesson 5
Pass Fail
Decide on an
ending. In our
story, the
character will
achieve the goal.
An ending is clearly
stated.
No ending has been
stated.
Lesson 6
Pass Fail
Create a plan to
achieve the goal
Character is given a
plan to achieve the
goal.
Character is not given a
plan to achieve the
goal.
Lesson 7
Pass Fail
Define an
obstacle
Character is given an
obstacle
Character is not given
an obstacle
Lesson 8
Pass Fail
Create an attempt
to bypass the
obstacle to this
plan and fail
because he
cannot overcome
his/her flaw
Character clearly
fails his plan because
he cannot overcome
his flaw.
The character did not
fail the plan because he
cannot overcome his
flaw.
Lesson 9
Pass Fail
Create a new
plan to achieve
the goal
Character is given a
new plan to achieve
the goal.
Character is not given
a new plan to achieve
the goal.
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Lesson 10
Pass Fail
Describe how the
character
succeeds at his or
her goal by
overcoming his
flaw and
succeeding at the
second plan.
character succeeds at
his or her goal by
overcoming his flaw
and succeeding at the
second plan
Character does not
succeed at his or her
goal by overcoming
his flaw and
succeeding at the
second plan
Lesson 11
Pass Fail
Put all of these
tasks together
into one coherent
story. Try to
retell it.
The story is
successfully retold
using all or most of
the necessary
storytelling elements.
The story is missing
several integral story
elements.
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Appendix B
Website and App visuals
Main interface
My stories – watch videos learner has made
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Help videos – select fish to view corresponding help video
Lesson area – select egg to view corresponding lesson
Lesson submission area – select birdhouse to view corrsponding lesson submission
Cave area – see latest student work here
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 125
Appendix C
Lesson 1
Personality!
A story is driven by the personality of a character. You and I will work out the personality
of your character by giving it a name and three character traits. We will end the exercise
by making up one complete sentence for each character trait.
First, give your character a name!
Good names come from people and things around you. Name a character anything you
like.
I named my dogs Wolfie, Princess Daisy Buttercup, and Big Man Duke.
(SHOW DOGS)
Now, we need to give your character a personality. Words that define personality are called
Character traits.
[SHOW WORD: CHARACTER TRAITS] SOUND: DING DING DING!
Words like happy, silly, loving – these words can all be character traits. You can see more
character traits on the boxes next to this tree. Pick them up and read them! Pick three and put
them on the steps in front of the first bird house. These will be the character traits you use to
describe the personality of your character!
A happy character probably smiles a lot and sees the world around him in a positive way.
SHOW WORD HAPPY
A silly character probably tells a lot of jokes and sees humor in the world around him.
SHOW WORD SILLY
A loving character might hug everyone and coach friends to help each other.
SHOW WORD LOVING
Think of some character traits that belong to you. Are you happy most of the time, or sad?
Are you silly, or are you very serious? Are you shy or very outgoing? Why? You can use these
same traits to define your character! Fred – what are some of your character traits?
(PUPPET)
Here are some character traits that belong to me.
I am a little bit shy. I like to watch people play on the playground before I join in.
I am a little bit silly. I like to tell riddles and make people laugh.
I am very honest. I hate to tell lies, and telling the truth often gets me in trouble.
Now, name and describe your character:
(SHOW WOLFIE)
Wolfie is a dog. He is silly, inventive, and energetic.
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Now, describe your character using a complete sentence for each character trait.
(PUPPET)
My sentences are:
Wolfie is silly and loves to make his friends laugh by telling jokes.
Wolfie is inventive because he can think of new games to play.
Wolfie is energetic and loves to play catch with squeaky toys.
Now you try. Make a drawing of your character, then use it in a video wherein you Name
your character and describe him with three character traits in complete sentences. Submit
it to Birdhouse 1.
Response A Response B
Name a character Character is given a name Character is not given a name
Give the character three
traits
The character is given three clear
traits
The character has not been given
character traits
Response A
Yea – you completed the assignment! You named the character and you described the
character’s personality.
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you name the character and
describe his personality? Look at the example videos from Gergy and Murphy and see if there is
any more information you can add. Try again and resubmit the assignment. I am excited to see
what you create!
Lesson 2
A character in a story needs to want something. We will call this a Goal. Our final story
will be about how your character gets what he wants!
SHOW WORD [GOAL]
What are some big things you would like to do in your life?
Would you like to win a big dog sled race in the coldest city in Alaska? Would you like to be the
first person climb a tall mountain with the help of a talking bird?
Would you like to invent a new kind of soda pop that can make people fly?
How about your character? Think of what a silly character would want to achieve. Would a
silly character want to be able to become president? Sure! A silly character would become
president by using his powers of silliness to charm fighting politicians into working together.
Would a loving character want to invent a supercomputer? Sure! A loving character would
probably invent a computer that hugs and figures out how to create world peace! Would an
honest character want to open the best restaurant in the city? Sure! An honest character will
probably invent a great meal that makes people tell each other how much they love each other!
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 127
Here is an example:
(PUPPET)
Wolfie the dog has the goal of winning the Squeaky Toy Olympics.
Think of a goal for your character, and think about how his character traits influence that
goal. For your assignment, draw a picture of your character obtaining this goal, then
create a video and submit it to birdhouse 2. Look at the assignments Gergy and Murphy
created as examples.
Response A Response B
Give the character a goal The character has been given a
clear goal.
The character has not been given
a goal.
Response A
Yay – you completed the assignment! You gave the character a goal.
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you give our character a goal?
Look at the example videos from Gergy and Murphy and see if there is any more information
you can add. Try again and resubmit the assignment. I am excited to see what you create
Lesson 3
Now we need to create a weakness in your character. All people have weaknesses. My
weakness is candy. When you show that your character has a weakness, people see this
character as more human. In our stories, we will demonstrate how a character overcomes a
weakness to achieve a goal. We call this weakness a character flaw.
SHOW THE WORDS [CHARACTER FLAW]
For example, maybe you have character who is a brave action hero who has the goal to save
everyone in trouble.
However, his character flaw is that he is afraid of heights!
Maybe you have a character that is a brave barn cat, and his goal is to protect all of the barn
animals and their food, but his character flaw is that he is afraid of rats!
Now think for a bit – how does this weakness get in the way of the character achieving his
goal? What if your action hero has to save people who are about to fall from a tall building?
How will his weakness stop him from achieving his goal? Think of how you would feel if you
really believed in something, but you could not do anything about it because you were afraid.
Here is an example:
(PUPPET)
Wolfie wants to win the Squeaky Toy Olympics, but squeaks make him angry so he bites his
toys too hard and punctures them and they lose their squeak. A lack of squeak disqualifies you
in the squeaky toy oluympics.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 128
Now for your assignment, think of a weakness your character has that will interfere with
him reaching his goal. Draw a picture of your character with this weakness, then create a
video and submit it to birdhouse 3. Look at the assignments Gergy and Murphy created as
examples.
Response A Response B
Character flaw The character is given a flaw The character has not been given
a flaw.
Response A
Yay – you completed the assignment! You gave the character a weakness that will interfere with
him obtaining his goal.
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you give our character a
weakness? Look at the example videos from Gergy and Murphy and see if there is any more
information you can add. Try again and resubmit the assignment. I am excited to see what you
create!
Lesson 4
Wow, by coming up with a personality, goal, and weakness – we already have the basics of
a very interesting story! Now let’s make it more interesting by making it very important
for your character to achieve his goal..
SHOW WORD [CONSEQUENCE].
We will add a consequence. A consequence means the result of an action. In our story, it means
a bad result.
A bad consequence is the big ‘oh no!’ moment for the audience. If the people listening to your
story understand that it is very important for your character to achieve a goal, they will root for
the character!
For example:
Wolfie’s goal is to win the squeaky toy Olympics, and if he fails he will lose the money he needs
to marry the poodle he loves down the road.
Now for your assignment, think of a bad thing that will happen if your character does not
reach his goal. Draw a picture of your character with this bad consequence, then create a
video and submit it to birdhouse 4. Look at the assignments Gergy and Murphy created as
examples.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 129
Response A Response B
Clarify consequences if
the character reaches, and
does not reach the goal.
The consequences are clearly
stated.
The character has not been given
consequences.
Response A
Yay – you completed the assignment! You gave the character a consequence, and now the
audience understands that it is very important for your character to reach his goal!
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you give our character a
consequence that makes the audience understand why the character must obtain his goal? Look
at the example videos from Gergy and Murphy and see if there is any more information you can
add. Try again and resubmit the assignment. I am excited to see what you create!
Lesson 5
If you now have a character with a personality, a goal, a flaw and a consequence . . . .
Wonderful – this is a very interesting character! You know who your character is, what he
wants to do, what holds him back from achieving something and what is at stake.
What do you think is next . . . should we go ahead and tell the story?? No!
We must declare right now how it ends!
SHOW THE WORDS [THE END]
We will allow our character to reach his goal. Committing to an ending will help us stay on
track with our story. If we know our character will achieve his goal, we will remember the
purpose of our story.
Here is an example:
Wolfie will achieve his goal of winning the Squeaky Toy OIlympics and he will marry the love
of his life, Dr. Lilly Chickapoodle.
For this assignment, state that your character will achieve his goal by overcoming his flaw
and avoiding the consequence. Remind yourself of the character goal, flaw, and
consequences by watching the prior videos you made. Now you are playing a memory
game! See if you can put all of this information together into one video! Draw a picture of
your character achieving this goal, then create a video and submit it to birdhouse 5. Look
at the assignments Gergy and Murphy created as examples.
Response A Response B
Decide on an ending. In
our story, the character
will achieve the goal.
An ending is clearly stated. No ending has been stated.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 130
Response A
Yea– you completed the assignment! You stated that your character will achieve his goal by
overcoming his flaw and avoiding the consequence.
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you state that your character
will achieve his goal by overcoming his flaw and avoiding the consequence? Look at the
example videos from Gergy and Murphy and see if there is any more information you can add.
Try again and resubmit the assignment. I am excited to see what you create!
Lesson 6
You have a character with a personality, a goal, a flaw, a consequence, and an ending to
your story.
Now, let’s start thinking about a plan to achieve the goal. How do we do this? Well, we
already have one clue!
SHOW THE WORDS [PLAN A]
The clue is – your character has three character traits. How can one of these character traits help
your character achieve the goal you have set up?
Here is an example.
Wolfie has the goal of winning the Squeaky Toy Olympics so that he can have enough money to
marry and begin a life with the lovely Dr. Lily Chickapoodle. If he does not win the money, he
will be unable to provide for her and the many puppies he wants. His character traits are silly,
inventive, and energetic. He is inventive, so he will invent a Squeaky toy that cannot be
punctured out of a special rubber from the rubber tree in his yard.
Now you try! Watch the video you made wherein you defined three character traits.
Think about how you can use one of these character traits to provide a plan for your
character to achieve the goal. Draw a picture of your character completing this plan, then
create a video and submit it to birdhouse 6. Look at the assignments Gergy and Murphy
created as examples.
2 points 0 points
Create a plan to achieve
the goal
Character is given a plan to
achieve the goal.
Character is not given a plan to
achieve the goal.
Response A
Yay – you completed the assignment! You made a plan to achieve a goal based on a character
trait.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 131
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you make a plan to achieve a
goal based on a character trait? Look at the example videos from Gergy and Murphy and see if
there is any more information you can add. Try again and resubmit the assignment. I am excited
to see what you create!
Lesson 7
UH-OH – this is the part of the story where the character has to become very strong. The
character must now face an obstacle.
SHOW THE WORD [OBSTACLE]
An obstacle is something that will get in the way of your character achieving the goal. The
audience needs to see the character change into a stronger person by facing this obstacle. Think
about how you can make your character stronger! Well, the way your character will do this is by
overcoming his flaw!!
Watch the video you made for lesson three. In this lesson, you created a character flaw for
your character. Now, we must create an obstacle based on this flaw.
Example:
Wolfies character flaw is that he bites too hard on his squeaky toys, and this lack of squeak at the
end of a contest disqualifies him from winning awards. He must overcome this flaw in order to
win the Olympics. So the obstacle he must overcome is the anger he feels when the toy squeaks.
Now you try! Create an obstacle your character must overcome based on the character
flaw from video 3. Draw a picture of your character facing his flaw, then create a video
and submit it to birdhouse 7. Look at the assignments Gergy and Murphy created as
examples. It is ok if it takes you a while to think of a solution – sometimes the best ideas
come from your third or fourth attempt!
2 points 0 points
Define an obstacle Character is given an obstacle Character is not given an obstacle
Response A
Yay – you completed the assignment! You created an obstacle based on the character flaw.
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you make an obstacle based on
the character flaw you created in lesson 3? Look at the example videos from Gergy and Murphy
and see if there is any more information you can add. Try again and resubmit the assignment. I
am excited to see what you create!
Lesson 8
UH – OH again!!! The character must fail at the first plan.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 132
SHOW THE WORD [FAIL!]
Why? Your audience wants to see your character struggle and become stronger. If the character
fails once, then the audience will start rooting for your character to succeed.
You must now allow your character to fail in an entertaining and believable way.
Here is an example:
Wolfie plans to overcome his flaw of biting a squeaky toy too hard when he is angry, and
puncturing the squeaky. His plan is to build a very tough squeaky toy from a special rubber he
invents form the rubber tree in his backyard. However, this attempt fails because the rubber
melts in his mouth and becomes a very sticky chewing gum. The squeaky is not stuck to his ear
and he cannot reach it to shut it off because his hands are now covered with the goo. Dr. Lilly
Chickapoodle must help him remove all of the mess.
Your turn! Think of an entertaining and believable way for your character to fail at his first plan.
Draw a picture of your character failing at this plan, then create a video and submit it to
birdhouse 8. Look at the assignments Gergy and Murphy created as examples. It is ok if it takes
you a while to think of a solution – sometimes the best ideas come from your third or fourth
attempt!
Response A Response B
Create an attempt to
bypass the obstacle to this
plan and fail because he
cannot overcome his/her
flaw
Character clearly fails his plan
because he cannot overcome his
flaw.
The character did not fail the plan
because he cannot overcome his
flaw.
Response A
Yay – you completed the assignment! You created a believable and entertaining way for your
character to fail at the first plan.
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did invent a believable and
entertaining way for your character to fail at the first plan? Look at the example videos from
Gergy and Murphy and see if there is any more information you can add. Try again and
resubmit the assignment. I am excited to see what you create!
Lesson 9
Create a new plan! This time, your character will achieve the plan! Let’s make this plan
as believable and entertaining as possible!
SHOW THE WORDS [NEW PLAN]
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 133
Look at the character traits you created in lesson one. Is there one you have not used yet? Pick
that character trait and devise a new plan for your character. It is ok to be very creative with
your plan. It does not have to be something that happens in real life. However, to best complete
this assignment, base the plan on a character trait that you selected for your character.
For example.
I picked three character traits for Wolfie, and they are silly, inventive, and energetic. I used
energetic for his goal, and inventive for the first plan, so now I will try to create a plan using his
third character trait, silly. I will create a plan for success that allows Wolfies silly side to help
him overcome his flaw of getting angry and biting the squeaky toy too hard.
Hmm – this is a tough one! How can I make a plan based on a the fact that Wolfie is silly and
loves to make his friends laugh by telling jokes. AH! I have it! Remember when we created his
flaw? Wolfies flaw is that he gets angry at the squeaker and that makes him bite it so hard it
stops squeaking. Well, how can he get angry if he is laughing at his own silly jokes?
So, for the final plan, I will have the following take place:
Wolfie will enter the competition with a new set of jokes lined up. At each competition, he will
tell his jokes to his competitors and they will giggle. This will slow them down. He will grab
the squeaky toy and run, but he will also giggle at his own jokes, and giggle at how funny his
competitors laugh. Because he is giggling, he will loosen his hold on the toy, and he won’t bite
down so hard. The squeaky toy will survive!
Now it is your turn. You can solve the problem of the second plan by using the third character
trait as part of the solution. Draw a picture of your character performing the plan, and then
describe the plan. Then create a video and submit it to birdhouse 9. Look at the assignments
Gergy and Murphy created as examples. It is ok if it takes you a while to think of a solution –
sometimes the best ideas come from your third or fourth attempt!
2 points 0 points
Create a new plan to
achieve the goal
Character is given a new plan to
achieve the goal.
Character is not given a new plan
to achieve the goal.
Response A
Yay – you completed the assignment! You created a believable and entertaining second plan!
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you invent a believable and
entertaining final plan? Look at the example videos from Gergy and Murphy and see if there is
any more information you can add. Try again and resubmit the assignment. I am excited to see
what you create!
Lesson 10
YAY! You created a character with personality, a goal, a flaw, and they have just gone on
an incredible journey to overcome that flaw and succeed at their goal. PHEW! Now we get
to describe how everything comes together!
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 134
In this assignment we will describe how the character overcomes the flaw and succeeds at the
second plan.
SHOW THE WORD [SUCCESS!]
Here is an example:
Wolfie runs through the obstacle course and grabs each squeaky toy. When a competitor comes
close, he whispers a funny joke into his ear and the competitor laughs. This makes wolfie smile.
He pulls ahead of each of his competitors and waves to the love of his life Dr. Lilly
Chickapoodle in the stands. She waves back and blows kisses. He tosses his squeaky toy in the
air, then does a double somersault and catches one of the kisses. He is smiling when he catches
the squeaky while running across the finish line. He gives the toy to the judges, who officially
determine that it still squeaks. The crowd applauds loudly as he receives a golden bone trophy
and a check for $5,000 dollars. Dr. Lilly Chickapoodle accepts his proposal and they get married
the following weekend.
YAY!
Now you try! Allow your character to succeed at the second plan. Draw a picture of your
character succeeding, and then describe what happens. Then create a video and submit it
to birdhouse 10. Look at the assignments Gergy and Murphy created as examples. It is ok
if it takes you a while to think of a solution – sometimes the best ideas come from your
third or fourth attempt!
Response A Response B
Describe how the
character succeeds at his
or her goal by
overcoming his flaw and
succeeding at the second
plan.
character succeeds at his or her
goal by overcoming his flaw
and succeeding at the second
plan
Character does not succeed at his
or her goal by overcoming his
flaw and succeeding at the second
plan
Response A
Yay – you completed the assignment! You created a believable and entertaining way for your
character to succeed at the second plan!
Response B
You completed the assignment – but I suggest you try again. Did you invent a believable and
entertaining way for your character to succeed at the final plan? Look at the example videos
from Gergy and Murphy and see if there is any more information you can add. Try again and
resubmit the assignment. I am excited to see what you create
Lesson 11
Congratulations – if you have completed every assignment to your best ability, then you
have created an original story! Now is the final memory game where you put it all together
into one video. Are you up for the challenge? You should do very well, because all of the
hard work is done.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 135
Listen to all of your videos. Collect all of your artwork. Review and practice the story.
You should retell the story using the following guide:
SHOW GUIDE
[Describe personality of the character.
Describe the goal of the character.
Describe the character flaw.
Describe the consequences the character will face if they do not achieve their goal.
Describe a plan to achieve the goal.
Describe how the character fails at that plan because they cannot overcome the flaw.
Describe the second plan to achieve the goal.
Describe how the character achieves the goal because they overcame the flaw.
Describe the ending of the story and how they achieve the goal.]
Look at the birdhouses. Each birdhouse has one of the words that will provide a clue to what
should be included in your story. You can look at them while you tell the story and they will
remind you what comes next. Or – you can line up all of your drawings and describe each one
and walk us though the story.
Perform the story as best you can. Try to emphasize the important details with your voice.
As an added challenge, try to tell the story in under three minutes. Economize, practice, and do
it until you feel it is believable.
YAY! I cannot wait to see what you do!!!
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 136
Appendix D
Google analytics data tracked user click through data on a population level.
Sample of Proprietary Analytics event log: Click data was tracked by unique cookie placed on
learner device.
User Event Data Time
13 Start 5/5/2013 18:02
13 Changed page Eggtree 5/5/2013 18:02
13 View lesson 1 5/5/2013 18:02
13 Start 5/6/2013 14:50
13 View How To See final stories 5/6/2013 14:50
13 Start 5/6/2013 14:50
13 View How To Watch the lessons 5/6/2013 14:51
13 Changed page Eggtree 5/6/2013 14:51
13 View lesson 1 5/6/2013 14:51
13 Start 5/6/2013 15:04
13 Changed page Eggtree 5/6/2013 15:04
14 Start 5/5/2013 20:44
14 Changed page Eggtree 5/5/2013 20:44
14 Start 5/14/2013 13:59
14 View How To Make your video 5/15/2013 20:40
16 Start 5/6/2013 21:05
16 View How To Watch the lessons 5/6/2013 21:05
16 Start 5/6/2013 21:06
16 Start 5/6/2013 21:06
16 View How To Watch the lessons 5/6/2013 21:06
16 View How To Watch the lessons 5/6/2013 21:06
16 Start 5/6/2013 21:06
16 View How To See final stories 5/6/2013 21:07
16 Start 5/9/2013 11:30
16 View How To Watch the lessons 5/9/2013 11:30
16 Start 5/9/2013 11:32
16 Start 5/9/2013 11:32
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 137
16 Start 5/9/2013 11:32
16 View How To Use this app 5/9/2013 11:32
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 138
Appendix E
Survey questions.
Closed-ended Survey Questions on sign up
1. Are you male or female?
A. Male, b. Female
2. What ethnicity do you claim?
A. African American, B. Latino, C. Asian, China, D. Asian,
other, E. Caucasian, F. American Indian, G. Indian, H. African, I.
Mix of two or more, J. Other
3. What is your age?
A. 0 – 5, B. 6 - 7, C. 8 – 9, D. 10 – 11, E. 11 – 12, F. 12 – 18, G. older than 18
4. Is English your first language?
A. yes, B. no
5. Do you live in a city, suburban neighborhood, or the country?
A. City, B. Suburban neighborhood, C. Country
Closed-ended survey questions per assignment
1. Is the lesson interesting?
a) yes, b) no
2. Was it your choice to do the assignment, or were you told to do this by a parent,
guardian, or teacher as an assignment?
a) my own choice b) someone told me I had to do it
3. What was your favorite part of the lesson?
a) Instructional video, b) example made by Luke or other character, c) feedback
from the puppet instructor about my assignment, 4) making the video story,[THIS
ANSWER FOR ELEVEN ONLY] d) comments made on my work by other
learners
4. Did you enjoy this assignment?
a) yes, b) no
5. If you receive feedback to do the assignment again, will you?
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 139
Appendix F
Learner will follow these steps with using the web site.
1. Visit the home page at www.bunsella.webs.com
2. Log in using an email address supplied by the instructor.
3. Learner will watch an instruction video on how to use the website and iPhone/iPad
app.
4. Learner will make a story video with two goals. Goal number one is to practice using
the app. Goal number two is to provide the site moderator with a baseline story
video demonstrating current skill sets.
5. Learner will send the video to the site moderator. Learner may move on to lesson 1.
6. Learner will click the lessons tab in the upper right hand corner and choose lesson 1.
7. Learner will watch an instructional video on the lesson one web page.
8. Watch a completed assignment video demonstrating a successful assignment.
9. Read the rubrics on the bottom of the web page, which are reference in the
instructional video.
10. Learner will then open the iphone app and complete the assignment video.
Assignment video is sent to the site administrator.
11. Learner logs back in the next day using their email address.
12. Learner clicks on the forums tab to view learner submissions. Learner finds his/her
submission and selects it.
13. Learner views response video from site administrator. There may be additional
responses from other learners present.
14. Learner has the choice to post feedback and questions, and whether they will
continue to make a higher quality video in response to comments made by the
moderator.
15. If the learner chooses to make a new video, they leave the website and return to the
iPhone/iPad app to create a new assignment video. Assignment video is sent to
the site administrator.
16. Learner returns 24 hours later to view responses. Learner will receive feedback to
move to the next lesson.
17. Learner repeats steps 6 - 16 until they complete lesson 7. Learner is encouraged to
view other learner assignments and leave comment.
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 140
Appendix G
IRB Documents
IRB Template Version: 9-11-12 Page 1 of 3
1
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#4%:-$-,(8";5<4%/"#$%8,$-=%0>'?5%(-&-($%/'%0@'?(%8"#+2;5
Last edits made on: February 15, 2013
USC UPIRB #
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
IN F O R M A T I O N SH E E T F O R N O N-M E DI C A L R ESE A R C H
EXAMINING THE USE OF ONLINE STORYTELLING AS A MOTIVATION FOR YOUNG
LEARNERS TO PRACTICE NARRATIVE SKILLS.
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Patricia Beckmann, MFA Cinema
from the University of Southern California, and EdD. candidate form the Unviersity of Southern
California, and faculty advisor Dr. Patricia Tobey, from the University of Southern California.
Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask questions about
anything you do not understand before deciding whether to participate.
Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. Your child will also be asked
his/her permission. Your child can decline to participate, even if you agree to allow him/her.
You and/or your child may also decide to discuss it with your family or friends. You will be
given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE O F T H E ST UD Y
How do we provide access to learning tools and skills in order to make elementary age
students academically successful? The first step is to see if we can keep them motivated, then we
can study if they actually learn. The purpose of this study is to examine the question: What is
the impact of an on-line technology application on student motivation to create oral narrative as
measured by their choice, persistence, and mental effort?
The study is intended to provide quantitative data demonstrating evidence of motivation
assessed from students using an educational technology to practice narrative skills. This study
!"##$%&'()*&$'$(+),&-+.($%/+"0'+&,$"-0/#0&%&-+$"-$'$(/1"'#$/-#"-&$#&'*-"-2$1/-(+*)1+3$'-,$4*/0",&$
evidence of motivated engagement. Empirical evidence gathered will inform the gap in data
available defining the use of online storytelling as a motivation for young learners to practice
narrative skills in a social learning environment.
ST UD Y PR O C E DUR ES
If you agree to participate, you will be asked to
1. Download an app to an iphone or ipad;
2. Choose to watch and participate in eleven interactive lessons that lead you through the
creation of an original character driven plot story;
3. Post assignments through the website portal for instructor feedback and to post a final original
character driven plot story in a social learning environment of feedback from peers;
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 141
IRB Template Version: 9-11-12 Page 2 of 3
4. Complete an online survey. The survey will take about 5 minutes to complete. You don’t have to
answer any questions you don’t want to. The questions in the survey will relate to your motivation to
complete the curriculum and basic demographic questions. All answers are confidential and coded.
5. Allow the study author to use the final story submission and all curriculum submissions in a
research video of the website and possibly a film for film festivals. Student author participating in the
curriculum will retain all permissions to the original story created.
6. Students will be engaged with the curriculum in an online environment and will not be in direct
contact with the study author.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no potential risks to your participation; however, you may feel uncomfortable answering
some of the questions. You do not have to answer any question you don’t want to.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There are no anticipated benefits to your participation. We hope that this study will help researchers
learn more about motivation and education This research may help advance knowledge in the field of
motivation in an online learning environments; however there is no direct benefit to you for
participating in this study.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive compensation for participating, but you may practice oral narrative skills and
keep all movies for your own enjoyment and broadcast. Participants retain rights over all original
stories they create, and lend this permission to the creators of the study for use in a dissertation
chapter video and rebroadcast in a film intended for festival submission about the results of the study.
POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The University of Southern California or the educational technology company Bunsella Studios may
use your curriculum submissions for other research studies. Those studies may develop products that
can be sold. If they make money from these products, you will not receive any money.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will be disclosed only with your
permission.
The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
The data will be stored on a password protected computer in the researcher’s office indefinitely.
Access to the website containing private survey questions is only accessible by the study author
1 This form will also serve as the “Child Assent” and “Consent/Permission form for the Child to Participate in
Research.”In this case, “You” refers to “your child.”
Last edits made on: February 15, 2013
USC UPIRB #
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 142
IRB Template Version: 9-11-12 Page 3 of 3
The participant has right to review/edit the audio-video-recordings and/or transcripts (parents cannot
access their child’s responses). Only the study author will have access to these materials prior to
publication in the dissertation. The audio-video-recordings will be used for educational purposes.
Personal identities will be coded to the iphone/ipad devise used to interact with the website
curriculum. There will be no attempt to anonymize voices used in audio/video recordings.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of benefits
to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue
participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of
your participation in this research study.
INVESTIGATORS CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact research personnel Patricia
Beckmann at (818) 736-6557, or pbeckman@usc.edu.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant you may
contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have questions, concerns,
complaints about the research and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to
someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review
Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu
1 This form will also serve as the “Child Assent” and “Consent/Permission form for the Child to Participate in
Research.”In this case, “You” refers to “your child.” Last edits made on: February 15, 2013 USC
UPIRB #
ONLINE STORYTELLING TO MOTIVATE PRACTICE OF NARRATIVE SKILLS 143
Dear Participant,
My name is Patricia Beckmann, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at
University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation, which
examines the use of online storytelling as a motivation for young learners to practice narrative skills.
You are cordially invited to participate in the study. If you agree, you are invited to participate in on
online curriculum and short survey.
The online curriculum is anticipated to take one hour to complete, and the following surveys is
anticipated to take no more than 10 minutes to complete. Participation in the online curriculum is
voluntary, and you may end your participation at any time. The project has already garnered an
Adobe Design Achievement Award from Adobe, and a Media of the Year award from Creative Child
Magazine.
Participation in this study is completely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain
confidential at all times during and after the study. Submitted videos will not be anonymized, and
may be included in a documentary film of the dissertation.
If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me at pbeckmann@usc.edu.
Thank you for your participation,
Patricia Beckmann
Doctoral Candidate - Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
pbeckman@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the use of online storytelling as a motivation for young learners to practice narrative skills, measured through active choice, persistence and mental effort (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Web analytics was used to track 24 home schooled participants of an online application to teach a 21st century skill driven curriculum consisting of character driven plot story construction in a social learning environment. Additional quantitative data was collected by assignment submissions, a survey, and email exchanges with the participants. The results showed that 79.2 percent choose to engage with the application as an indicator of active choice. However, only 20.8 percent of users completed the full curriculum as an indicator of persistence by submitting a final story video. Indicator Mental Effort revealed that one fifth of the total study participants completed the scaffolded curriculum by submitting a final assignment video. Additional data suggested that curiosity may have an influence on active choice. Indicator Persistence infers that technology problems may have hampered persistence, though one outlier exhibited flow by completing the curriculum twice. As suggested by the literature, the results of this study revealed that interest was related to intrinsic motivation and engagement with the media. Additionally, instructor led feedback videos may play a role in helping learners to develop self-efficacy. This exploratory study demonstrates how meaningful measures of motivation may be used in online learning environments.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Wells, Patricia Beckmann
(author)
Core Title
Examining the use of online storytelling as a motivation for young learners to practice narrative skills
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
07/11/2013
Defense Date
06/19/2013
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
active choice,app,digital storytelling,educational technology,iPhone,mental effort,Motivation,narrative,OAI-PMH Harvest,online learning,oral story,persistence
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Tobey, Patricia Elaine (
committee chair
), Slayton, Julie M. (
committee member
), Yates, Kenneth A. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
bunsellapb@yahoo.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-287575
Unique identifier
UC11293463
Identifier
etd-WellsPatri-1758.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-287575 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-WellsPatri-1758.pdf
Dmrecord
287575
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Wells, Patricia Beckmann
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
active choice
app
digital storytelling
educational technology
iPhone
mental effort
narrative
online learning
oral story
persistence