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Breaking new ground: defending and learning from the founding fathers of public relations

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BREAKING NEW GROUND:
DEFENDING AND LEARNING FROM THE FOUNDING FATHERS OF PUBLIC
RELATIONS

by

Kirsten Carlson Keogh

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS)

August 2013

Copyright 2013 Kirsten Carlson Keogh

ii
Abstract
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY MODERN PUBLIC RELATIONS
This paper examines the development, transformation and role of the early
modern public relations profession. It analyzes the relevance of the WWI and 1920’s
era public relations (PR) industry to today’s PR profession. The primary objective of
the paper is to illustrate the significant and enduring achievements accomplished by
the creators of early modern PR. It desires to show that despite moral lapses in
judgment and less than ethical PR campaigns, the founding fathers of PR
nonetheless gave the world the remarkable contribution of PR. While most of the
PR tactics used presently can be traced back to the WWI and 1920’s time period,
research indicates that practitioners of the 21
st
century fail to realize the incredible
achievements that the founding fathers of PR contributed to the PR profession. In
fact, results show that many PR practitioners are ignorant of PR’s history—to the
detriment of the profession. The paper concludes that without early modern PR
greats such as Edward Bernays or Ivy Lee, the PR industry would not be as
developed as it is today. The thesis maintains that today’s PR practitioners are
indebted to the PR pioneers of the past who truly broke new ground.

iii
Dedication
The following work would not be possible without my wonderful boyfriend
whose encouragement provided me with much needed support throughout the entire
research and writing process. This thesis would also not be possible without my mother,
whose extraordinary gift and talent for writing has long been an inspiration to me. I also
dedicate this thesis to Edward Bernays—a pioneer, a revolutionary, and truly “The Father
of Public Relations” without whom I would not be privileged to be part of such an
incredible and honorable profession.

iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to offer my profound thanks to my committee chair Jennifer Floto for
her incredible and insightful advice throughout this daunting, yet exciting process. She
has mentored me throughout my academic career at Annenberg. I will always be
incredibly grateful to her for her recognition of my unique talents and abilities.
I would like to thank Brenda Lynch for her assistance in reviewing my thesis. She
is a brilliant PR practitioner and an amazing individual. I had the pleasure of taking two
of her classes during my Annenberg career, and learned an extraordinary amount of
knowledge from her and her courses. I would also like to thank Erna Smith who eagerly
agreed to review my thesis and edit my work. I sincerely appreciate her guidance.

v
Table of Contents

Abstract ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
List of Figures vii
Introduction 1
Research Methodology 2
A Brief Background on WWI and the Roaring Twenties 3
The Ins and Outs of the PR Profession 4
Matters to Consider 6
Background 7
Chapter One: The Greats of the Early Public Relations Industry 8
Overview 8
The Evolution of Propaganda as It Relates to PR 9
The Leading Figures 11
Ivy Lee & Edward Bernays 14
Bernays’ Controversial Legacy 15
Chapter Two: The Rise of Public Relations 19
WWI: The Transformation from Press Agent to PR Practitioner 19
CPI and Propaganda 20
Bernays and the CPI 22
Chapter Three: The Father of Public Relations 24
Introducing the Man and the Myth 24
The Controversial Legacy He Left Behind 26
Chapter Four: Case Studies of Bernays’ PR Campaigns from WWI/1920s Era 27
“Damaged Goods”: Promotion of a Controversial Play 27
“Ballet Russe”: Campaign for a Russian Ballet Company Touring the U.S. 28
First NAACP Conference 30
Promotional Work for the American Tobacco Company 32
“Torches of Freedom” Campaign 32
President Coolidge’s Media Event 36
Bacon and Eggs Campaign 37
Light’s Golden Jubilee 41

vi
Chapter Five: The Literature Review 43
Organized by Chronology 43
Chapter Six: Recommendations and a Call to Action 52
Recommendations 52
Conclusion 57

vii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Photograph of Socialite from “Torches of Freedom” Campaign 35

Figure 2: Advertisement Encouraging Women to Smoke 35

Figure 3: Infographic from Bacon and Eggs Campaign 40

1
Introduction
“PR has a PR problem.” –Brenda J. Wigley, Associate Professor of Public Relations at
Syracuse University
1

Ms. Wigley was quite acute in her observation. PR does have a PR problem.
Ironically, the profession that attempts to make clients appear more appealing to
stakeholders for its clients, is unable to do so for itself. PR practitioners are called
derogatory names such as “flaks” and “spin doctors.” This researcher believes that a lot
of the negative connotations associated with the PR practice of today are a direct result of
the modern critiques of scholars and academics that have been unjustly and overly critical
of the pioneers of the modern PR profession.
Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays are the two most well known PR professionals from
the World War One and 1920s time period—therefore, this paper will focus on these
individuals. Others greatly contributed to the honorable PR profession, but their names
are less prominent in history books, and, as a result are less often criticized by scholars.
This thesis is a rebuttal to the scholars, academics and even certain present-day PR
professionals who view the founders of PR as unethical in their practices, tactics,
strategies—arguing these pioneers lacked integrity. This researcher, through analyzing
primary and secondary sources, believes the opposite to be true. The pioneers of the PR
profession were creating a new industry out of nothing. There was no rulebook to follow,
no guidebook to adhere to, no ethical code of conduct of which to look for guidance.
Given this, the founders of PR (especially Bernays) did an extraordinary job of

1
L’Obrien, Timothy. “Spinning Frenzy: PR’s Bad Press.” The New York Times. 13 February 2005.
Web. nytimes.com. 23 March 2012.
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/business/yourmoney/13flak?_r=0.

2
developing an entirely new profession. Bernays created a great and wonderful industry
where not existed before. The founding fathers of PR, particularly Bernays, gave the
world the gift of a powerful new profession. Despite being nearly a century old, the
principles that Bernays and others utilized are still valuable and have withstood the test of
time in spite of all of the technological and educational advances made during the
twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Bernays and other PR pioneers should be applauded
and not condemned.
While the researcher notes that she does not agree from an ethical viewpoint with
all of Bernays’ and other PR pioneers’ tactics, strategies and PR campaigns, nevertheless,
looking back on Bernays, the man was and is a legend who firmly established a
respectable professional, and, therefore, advanced the world. To disparage him as so
many scholars have done (and continue to do) does not accurately reflect his
contributions to society.
Research Methodology
To produce the thesis, the author conducted both primary and secondary research.
Secondary research included reading academic books, but also included researching
magazines, websites, blogs, letters, and other materials.
The author performed historical primary research and content analysis. Historical
primary research consisted of reading and analyzing for content and perspective, the
works of the “Father of Public Relations” Edward Bernays. Content analysis was
performed on the terms “propaganda,” as well as on the terms “public relations,” “PR”
and “Edward Bernays.”

3
A Brief Background on WWI and the Roaring Twenties
The decade from 1910-1919 saw a conservative and rigid society in the United
States. Indeed, it echoed back and was quite similar to the 19th century in terms of
cultural norms, religious values and codes of conduct. Anglo-Saxon Christian Americans
were the dominant power in the country. If an individual did not fit into that mold, then
he or she was ostracized. Conformity was the standard of the decade. As WWI raged on
in Europe, most Americans were steadfastly against becoming entangled in “Europe’s
war.” American politicians, on the other hand, disagreed with the vast majority of
Americans’ sentiment. The political leaders of the United States believed that America
needed to become involved in the “Great War” to save its allies (the Allied Powers) and
ultimately the United States itself. To convince the American public “to save democracy”
and “defeat the Huns” (a reference to the German people,) the United States government
created the organization known as the CPI, the Committee on Public Information. This
organization launched a long-term propaganda/public relations program, and one of the
first large-scale public relations campaigns. To a large extent, it was successful. The
United States entered WWI in 1917, and the war ended in 1918. The CPI will be
discussed in further detail later in this paper.
With WWI over, the 1920s were ushered in with enthusiasm over the victory of
the War. Unlike the previous decade, the 1920s was a decade of decadence, hopefulness,
and excess. While conformity may have been the key to success in the 1910s, the 1920s
were all about indulgence. While most of the movies may have been silent, the 1920s
were certainly roaring. With the advent of Prohibition, the 1920s were an age of
speakeasies, bootleggers, and moonshine. It was also the decade of creativity— the Jazz

4
Age. Women rejected the traditional notions of beauty, and found an inner source of
independence and strength in this hedonistic and materialistic environment. Hemlines
grew shorter. Thin, waif-like body types became the preferred look over the previous
decade’s preference for curves. Hair was bobbed short, defying the centuries-long notion
that women had to maintain long, flowing hair to be feminine. Dancing became freer and
more expressive.
2
The economy flourished during the 1920s. People had money to spend,
and the United States was becoming more and more a material culture. Materialism
consumed the day, and thus it was impeccable timing for the public relations profession
(hereafter PR) to be brought to the masses
The Ins and Outs of the PR Profession
Today, the PR profession is a large and dynamic field. Thousands of PR
practitioners specialize in areas such as Entertainment, Sports, Investor Relations,
Financial Communications, Litigation and Consumer Products. Some PR practitioners
work in multiple disciplines. In the United States, those in the PR profession mainly
work in an agency (a PR firm) or for a corporation (referred to as working “in house”).
PR agencies can be small firms—called boutique firms—they can be midsized, or they
can be large, multi-national concerns. Some of the best well-known and largest PR firms
include Hill + Knowlton, Ketchum, GolinHarris, MSLGROUP, Fleishman-Hillard,
Burson-Marsteller, Cohn & Wolfe and Ruder Finn—just to name a few.
Other practitioners work for companies and/or corporations. This type of PR is
referred to as Corporate Communications (also known as CorpComm). Those who work
in the Corporate Communications sector of PR world generally carry out the same type of

2
The 1920s: Lifestyles and Social Trends: Overview." American Decades. 2001. Encyclopedia.com. 26
May 2013 http://www.encyclopedia.com.

5
tasks that PR practitioners at agencies do, but often tend to focus equally on internal
stakeholders as well as external stakeholders. Internal stakeholders usually refer to the
employees and retirees of the company/corporation. Regardless of the entry point into the
profession, there is no singular, clear defined career path when it comes to PR.
It is also important to note that Corporate Communications does not merely refer
to Fortune 500 companies or corporations. Many in the PR field who work “in house”
support not-for-profits, non-profits, NGO’s and educational institutions. There is also a
sector of the PR profession known as Public Affairs, which involves public relations
practitioners who are liaisons to governmental entities. While Public Affairs is an
exciting, and certainly an interesting sector of the PR profession, Public Affairs will not
be analyzed in this thesis, as it is tangential to the core of the paper.
A typical PR practitioner carries out many duties and tasks for his or her client.
PR campaigns are complex, and involve many strategies and tactics to be successful.
These include generating press releases, hosting media events, maintaining solid media
relations, securing celebrity endorsements, carrying publicity stunts, and using social
media. Ironically, most of these same tactics were used by the founders of the profession
of PR almost 100 years ago. Nearly a century may have gone by since “The Father of
Public Relations” thrust PR into the world, but when examined closely, PR remains
relatively the same today as it did when it was first developed.

6
Matters to Consider
It is difficult to gather first-hand primary research regarding the early days of the
PR industry. While Edward Bernays, one of the most prominent pioneers, lived to be
over 100 years old, as he is no longer living, he is not able to comment on the profession.
Interviews with individuals who knew the pioneers of the PR field are impractical, if not
impossible. Thus, focus groups and surveys with individuals who were actually present
during the WWI and 1920s era are not possible. Therefore, the researcher decided to use
historical primary research to delve into the minds of the pioneers of the PR field. The
author used Bernays’ two most well known books on PR—“Propaganda” and
“Crystallizing Public Opinion” for the historical primary research component of the
thesis.
The researcher also had to balance what the PR pioneers’ versions of events were
with the opinions of many modern day scholars who critique early PR practices (and
modern day PR practices, as well.) With a balanced and open-minded viewpoint the
researcher hoped to discover the “truth” about the origins and development of the PR
industry and the individuals who founded the profession.

7
Background
When people hear the name PR, negative connotations often come to mind.
Derogatory terms like “spin doctor” and “flak” are common. Jokingly, journalists who
transfer to the PR side are accused of going to the “dark side.” Then again, perhaps the
journalists are not joking—as Shakespeare remarked truest words are said in jest. There
may be more lawyer jokes in existence, but this researcher believes that the PR industry
has been more unjustly criticized. The PR industry is a force for good. Contrary to what
many journalists contend, PR is on the “good” rather than the “dark side”
The researcher believes the practice of PR is an honorable, ethical and disciplined
profession of the highest repute. One should be honored to be a part of the PR profession,
and be enthusiastic when explaining to others about this many-faceted career.
This researcher believes, and the evidence will show, that the stigma PR has today
is a direct result of the scholarly criticism regarding the early days of the PR profession.
The following thesis will examine how the founders of the PR industry forged a
new industry. These men (and a handful of women) forever transformed the world for the
better. This thesis will analyze the critiques made against the early PR practitioners, and
respond to them. The founding fathers of PR, principally Bernays, invented a new
profession. The ideas, strategies and tactics that Bernays and the other early PR founders
created are used to this day, despite all of the technological and educational advances that
have occurred. Bernays and the other pioneers of the PR industry deserve commendation,
not condemnation.

8
Chapter One: The Greats of the Early Public Relations Industry
Overview
The PR profession transformed itself from mere “publicity agents” to a full-
fledged profession during the period between WWI and the late 1920s. While there were
other early pioneer professionals of this time, two men stand out among the rest of the
practitioners: Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays. They truly developed the profession. Edward
Bernays, alas, stands out even more than Ivy Lee. The reasons for this conclusion will be
explained in detail in later sections of this thesis.
Most of the great PR pioneers of the WWI and 1920s era were men. Ivy Lee lived
from 1877 to 1934.
3
Edward Bernays lived from 1891 to 1995
4
. Thus, one of the reasons
Bernays’ legacy is greater is simply because he lived for over a century—he was there to
witness the transformation of PR from its infancy to the modern day. Ivy Lee was not.
Lee is known for one infamous PR campaign, which will be deconstructed later in this
paper. Edward Bernays, on the other hand, is infamous for dozens of PR campaigns.
While Ivy Lee may have been Bernays’ predecessor in terms of years, Bernays became
the prodigy, the master and “The Father of Public Relations.” As Bernays is the most-
well-known PR practitioner, he is also the most controversial. Bernays’ numerous PR
campaigns and contributions to the new profession of PR during WWI and the 1920’s
present the prime opportunity to analyze the early practice of PR, and refute the notion
made by some scholars that Bernays’ and his colleagues’ works were unethical.

3
Jones, Jody. “Ivy L. Lee.” Ufl.com University of Florida. Fall 2001. Web. 5 December 2012.
http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/fall01/Jones/lee.html.
4
Jones, Jody. “Edward Bernays.” Ufl.com University of Florida. Fall 2011. Web. 5 December 2012.
http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/fall01/Jones/bernays.html.

9
The Evolution of Propaganda as It Relates to PR
The term “propaganda” is, quite frankly, a dirty word today, but then so is the
word PR. To fully understand the connotations associated with these terms, the author
performed primary research in the form of content analysis on the word propaganda as
well as PR. Content analysis on the term propaganda reveals the term is regarded as
decidedly negative.
The Oxford English Dictionary (hereafter OED) online defines propaganda as a
noun meaning “chiefly derogatory information, especially of a biased or misleading
nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view.”
5
OED
provides the following sentence as an example of how to use the term propaganda
properly—“He was charged with distributing enemy propaganda.”
6
OED goes on to
define propaganda as “the dissemination of propaganda as a political strategy.”
7
OED
offers the following sentence as an example of how to use the word propaganda in this
sense—“The party’s leaders believed that a long period of education and propaganda
would be necessary.”
8

The online version of Merriam Webster’s Dictionary provides the following as
examples of how to use the word propaganda in a sentence: “He was accused of
spreading propaganda” and “The report was nothing but lies and propaganda.”
9
No

5
“Propaganda.” Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford Dictionaries. 2013. Web. 5 January 2013.
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/propaganda?q=propaganda.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
9
“Propaganda.” Merriam-webster.com Merriam-Webster Dictionaries. 2013. 7 January 2013.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/propaganda?show=0&t=1369601022.

10
positive or neutral terms could be found associated with “propaganda.” Nevertheless,
Edward Bernays used the term propaganda as a positive word and argued for its usage in
the public relations profession until the day he died. In fact, in 1928 Bernays authored a
book entitled “Propaganda” explaining why the term should be used to describe PR
practicitioners and how its original, neutral and benign meaning became twisted during
WWI by negative German information/communication practices. Bernays’ book,
“Propaganda” was widely read; however, the term kept its negative association.
Much like the term propaganda, the terms PR and the PR industry itself have
damaging connotations linked to them. Content analysis on the terms “public relations”
and “PR” indicate the terms are associated with negative sentiment. Today, the PR
profession is seen as being a profession that is significantly lacking in moral and ethical
values. Typing in the terms “PR” and “ethics” into a Google search query returns a host
of results with largely negative connotations including the articles “PR Ethics—An
Oxymoron?”
10
and “Drawing a Line on Ethics in PR.”
11

Other search results obtained from typing in the terms “PR” and “ethics” into a
Google search query include a PowerPoint presentation entitled “Public Relations and
Ethics: A Match Made in Heaven… or Hell?,”
12
an article by PR Week explaining that
“put public relations and ethics in the same controversial sentence and you’re bound to
spark some snide descriptors” and a blog post called, “Public Relations & Ethics: Why

10
Kenney, Alison. “PR Ethics—An Oxymoron?” lindsayolson.com LindsayOlson.com. 14 February
2012. Web. 1 February 2013. http://lindsayolson.com/pr-ethics-an-oxymoron/.
11
Hobson, Neville. “Drawing a Line on Ethics in PR.” Huffingtonpost.com. Huffington Post. 7 August
2012. Web. 3 February 2013. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/neville-hobson/drawing-a-line-for-
ethics_b_1743505.html.
12
Notre Dame. “Public Relations and Ethics: A Match Made in Heaven…or Hell?” Notre Dame. 7
January 2013. http://www.slideserve.com/ostinmannual/public-relations-and-ethics-1139069.

11
the Bad Reputation?”
13
Today’s PR professional is seen as an individual who is
competent in his job and who can influence his target audience, but who is an individual
lacking in ethical integrity. Today’s PR profession is perceived as an industry deficient
in ethical values.
The Leading Figures
There are many influential founding fathers of PR—some better-known than
others, but all extraordinary men who shaped a new profession. As noted, Bernays was
part of an integral part of PR, essentially, creating the profession. This notion is what
makes him so legendary, so beloved, so hated and so controversial. There are other
individuals who worked around the same time as Bernays who also endeavored to forge
the profession known today as the field of public relations. Even though these individuals
are not referred to as “The Father of Public Relations like Bernays,” they are still brilliant
men who added skills, expertise and valuable insight to the PR profession. For example,
beginning his prolific career in the 1950s, Chester “Chet” Burger foresaw the value of
public relations in the realm of television.
A pioneer in the field of media consultancy, Chester Burger wrote a report
(Telephone News on Television) in 1955, expressing the importance of
public relations in television. This guidebook, written to AT&T, observed
the potential of television of being a highly marketable medium.
“A medium as important as television, therefore should receive important
consideration,” in any public relations program said Burger.
14

13
“Public Relations & Ethics: Why the Bad Reputation?”. Ereleases.com Ereleases. 10 August 2010.
Web. 1 March 2013. http://www.ereleases.com/prfuel/public-relations-ethics-bad-reputation/.
14
Jones, Jody. “Chester Burger” Ufl.com University of Florida. Fall 2001. Web. 5 December 2012.
http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/fall01/Jones/burger.html.

12
As Burger’s “insights and counsel were greatly prized,” he came to be known as the
“counselor’s counselor.”
15
Burger began his career in television and media consultancy,
but he slowly transitioned to the general practice of PR.
Burger was recruited by large PR firms Ruder Finn and Hill & Knowlton and
worked for them briefly. He eventually chose to start his own boutique firm, Chester
Burger &Co. so that he could have more control over his profession. Burger believed that
“public relations must be a senior management discipline and part of the strategic
planning process…and he argued that “stakeholders” was a more accurate term to
describe key publics, not merely shareholders, employees and customers.”
16

Each year, the Public Relations Student Society of America (hereafter PRSSA)
awards a $1,000 scholarship to a graduate student studying public relations called the
“Chester Burger Scholarship for Excellence in Public Relations.”
17
PRSSA explains the
scholarship was created in honor of Burger and to “encourage graduate public relations
students to pursue careers in corporate public relations, with the goal of making public
relations functions more essential to the successful achievement of corporate goals
consistent with the public interest, the precepts of sound business and the needs of key
stakeholders.”
18
These goals (balancing corporate objectives with public interest, learning
sound business strategy and focusing on key stakeholders) were Burger’s focus during his

15
“Chester Burger Scholarship for Excellence in Public Relations.” www.prssa.org. PRSSA. 2013. Web.
27 March 2013. http://www.prssa.org/scholarships_competitions/individual/burger/.
16
Arnold, James. “Chester Burger Remembered”. www.holmesreport.com. The Holmes Report. 28
March 2011. Web. 26 March 2013. http://www.holmesreport.com/news-info/10043/chester-
burger-remembered.aspx.
17
“Chester Burger Scholarship for Excellence in Public Relations.” www.prssa.org. PRSSA. 2013. Web.
27 March 2013. http://www.prssa.org/scholarships_competitions/individual/burger/.
18
“Chester Burger Scholarship for Excellence in Public Relations.” www.prssa.org. PRSSA. 2013. Web.
27 March 2013. http://www.prssa.org/scholarships_competitions/individual/burger/.

13
career as a public relations professional. Burger elevated the PR profession to new
heights. He saw public relations as integral to modern corporate success and was able to
solidify PR’s place as an esteemed profession in the business world.
Another leading figure who worked in the public relations field around the same
time as Edward Bernays was Carl L. Byoir. Carl Byoir had a promising career until he
became professionally involved and entangled with the Cuban government. Many United
States citizens viewed Byoir’s working for the Cuban government as an act of disloyalty
against the United States. Nevertheless, his early career was a unilateral success.
Carl L. Byoir started his career at the age of 17 at the Waterloo Times in
Iowa. He then became a circulation manager for all of the Hearst’s
Magazines publications in 1914. By 1917, Byoir was asked and agreed to
be a part of the U.S. Committee on Public Information, a year before
Bernays entered the CPI.
19

Carl Byoir is also famous for creating one of the world’s first PR firms—Carl Byoir &
Associates – in 1930, nearly a decade after leaving the CPI. 1930 is the same year Byoir
became entangled in the Cuban account scandal.
20
While Byoir’s personal and
professional reputation may have been tarnished, his firm remained successful
nonetheless. To this day, Carl Byoir & Associates still exists as a public relations firm,
although the company is now a subsidiary of communications giant WPP. On the surface,
Carl Byoir & Associates bears little resemblance to the firm that Carl Byoir founded in
1930, as the firm that exists today is headquartered in Milan, Italy with regional offices in
Asia-Pacific and Europe.

19
Jones, Jody. “Carl L. Byoir.” Ufl.com University of Florida. Fall 2001. Web. 10 December 2012.
http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/fall01/Jones/byoir.html.
20
Ibid.

14
Another key player was Moss Kendrix.
Moss Kendrix is the first African-American to acquire a major corporate
marketing account and where does he find it? Coca-Cola. Moss Kendrix
[is] a huge influence for minorities in the marketing and public
relations field.
21

Ivy Lee & Edward Bernays
The individuals just mentioned (Burger, Byoir and Kendrix) all greatly
contributed to the development of the PR profession. Nonetheless, both Ivy Lee and
Edward Bernays are the only individuals worthy enough to be called a founding father of
modern day PR. With a strong background in the newspaper industry, Ivy Lee ushered in
the early modern PR profession. Lee created the modern press release. As a former
journalist, Lee understood just how crucial the media was in shaping public opinion.
After a crisis involving one of Lee’s clients, Lee wrote an account of the crisis from the
client’s perspective and sent the written account to various newspapers. The document,
which would today be referred to as a press release, was printed and published verbatim
by The New York Times—genius!
22

Lee focused on PR from a journalist’s perspective—after all, that was Lee’s
vocational background. Lee was an incredible PR practitioner and was able to instill and
solidify the importance of media relations into the PR profession. Lee’s objectives were
not academic, however. He did not publish scholarly works or write theoretical books on
the subject of PR.

21
Jones, Jody. “Moss Kendrix” Ufl.com University of Florida. Fall 2001. Web. 10 December 2012.
http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/fall01/Jones/kendrix.html.
22
Chavez, Lorenzo. “Ivy Ledbetter Lee: PR Pioneer”. Prsacolorado.org. PRSA Colorado Chapter. 01
August 2004. Web. 12 February 2013.
http://www.prsacolorado.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=176.

15
Unlike Lee, Bernays was able to utilize sophisticated principles, theories and
ideas from other academic areas and specialties (behavioral sciences, human psychology,
etc.) and apply them to PR. Bernays revolutionized early modern PR from a simple,
practical and unscientific pursuit to a complex, rigorous and highly scientific profession
complete with underlying theories and assumptions. Bernays wrote books on the subject
of PR with scholars and individuals in business as the target audiences. Bernays
transformed PR. He elevated the perception of having a profession in PR from meaning
having a simple job to meaning having a well-respected career that was regarded as being
intellectually challenging. Bernays’ legacy today, however, is exceedingly contentious.
Bernays’ Controversial Legacy
As noted in the previous section, Lee conceived of many of the everyday tactics
still used by PR professionals today, including the modern press release. Nevertheless, in
his contribution to the PR industry, Bernays was able to go a step further than Lee.
Bernays incorporated psychology and human behavior into press agentry and created an
entirely new, highly skilled profession—public relations.
Today, Bernays’ many great contributions to the PR profession are
overshadowed by the “unethical” clients Bernays worked for during the span of his long
career. American Tobacco Company is just one of Bernays’ notorious clients.
Throughout the 1920’s, Bernays worked for the American Tobacco Company to promote
cigarette smoking to the American public. A thorough case study of Bernays’ famous PR
campaign for the American Tobacco Company, called the “Torches of Freedom”
campaign, will be analyzed in a later section of this thesis.

16
Besides his association with large tobacco and cigarette companies, Bernays is
also censured for other “unethical” campaigns that he developed as part of his PR
occupation. For example, in the 1950’s, Bernays launched a PR campaign for the Central
Intelligence Agency (hereafter CIA) with the objective of overthrowing the
democratically elected government in Guatemala. As this thesis focuses on the PR
profession during the 1910’s and 1920’s, the CIA/Guatemala campaign will not be
examined further in this paper. Bernays’ 1950’s era CIA/Guatemala campaign does,
however, illustrate how scandalous and controversial some of Bernays’ campaigns are
when examined by present-day scholars, PR students and PR practitioners.
Therefore, it is not surprising that while the terms “propaganda” and “PR and
ethics” may have negative connotations associated with them, the term “Edward
Bernays” has an even stronger negative connotation associated with it. Content analysis
completed on the phrase “Edward Bernays” indicates the phrase is correlated with strong
negative sentiment. Performing a Google search query on the phrase “Edward Bernays”
results in a host of unflattering, biographical articles on Bernays’ life, personality and
profession.
For example, one search result on Bernays is the article by The Center for Media
and Democracy’s PR Watch (hereafter The Center) on the topic of Bernays and his
biographical book, “The Father of Spin” by Bernays’ biographer, Larry Tye. The
Center’s authors detest Bernays. The Center’s authors explain that Tye’s biography, “The
Father of Spin is a bit too fawning and uncritical of Bernays and his profession
[PR]…characteristically (and…paradoxically) Bernays [is] remarkably candid about his

17
manipulative intent.
23
For example, The Center’s authors point out that Bernays explicitly
argued in Propaganda, one of Bernays’ first books, that because “…we understand the
mechanisms and the motives of the group mind, it is now possible to control and
regiment the masses according to our will without their knowing it.”
24
Glowing accounts
of Bernays’ life and legacy are largely missing from the online search results.
While most of the online search results yielded from the term “Edward Bernays”
are overwhelmingly negative in terms of sentiment, a small number of results are
positive. These positive sentiment results tend to be blog posts or online articles written
by present-day PR students or PR practitioners who respect Bernays’ legacy as a modern-
day PR pioneer. One blog, called “Context Marketing blog” and written by a PR
professional, devotes an article to Bernays and is largely upbeat and uncritical in tone.
The author of the blog piece argues, “even Don Draper [the lead character from the
television show set in the glamorous advertising world of the past, “Mad Men”] can’t
hold a candle to Bernays when it comes to influencing the society in which he lived.”
25

The blogger is not unequivocally supportive of Bernays and believes some of Bernays’
campaigns (e.g. the “Torches of Freedom” campaign) were unethical but nonetheless
“…Bernays still deserves…attention for his pioneering work in PR.”
26
This blog article

23
Stauber, John and Rampton, Sheldon. “The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of PR.”
prwatch.org. PR Watch. Second Quarter 1999. Web. 27 March 2013.
http://www.prwatch.org/prwissues/1999Q2/bernays.html.
24
Ibid.
25
Kenney, Bob. “Edward Bernays: The Don Draper of PR.” contextmarketing.wordpress.com. Context
Marketing. 28 July 2011. Web. 30 March 2013.
http://contextmarketing.wordpress.com/2011/07/28/crystallizing-edward-bernays/.
26
Kenney, Bob. “Edward Bernays: The Don Draper of PR.” contextmarketing.wordpress.com. Context
Marketing. 28 July 2011. Web. 30 March 2013.
http://contextmarketing.wordpress.com/2011/07/28/crystallizing-edward-bernays/.

18
highlights and echoes the thesis author’s opinion. The blogger explains that Bernays may
be easy to find fault with, but Bernays forever changed the landscape of PR:
[Bernays] raised many issues involving the ethical issues of PR that are still
relevant today. He also was one of the first to understand cultural and social
context as a driver of PR. He had a unique, creative capacity for developing bold
ideas that would engage consumers in ways that benefitted his clients’ products.
27

27
Kenney, Bob. “Edward Bernays: The Don Draper of PR.” contextmarketing.wordpress.com. Context
Marketing. 28 July 2011. Web. 30 March 2013.
http://contextmarketing.wordpress.com/2011/07/28/crystallizing-edward-bernays/.

19
Chapter Two: The Rise of Public Relations
WWI: The Transformation from Press Agent to PR Practitioner
During WWI, the modern PR profession as it is known today did not exist. The
position of press agent was the occupation most similar to today’s PR professional. Press
agents in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries performed duties very similar
to present-day publicists, though on a smaller scale. Press agents represented clients, but
only as intermediaries between the media and the client. They sought to promote their
client through positive news coverage Press agentry was not a highly regarded
occupation. It was not considered a “profession,” and certainly was not held in high
esteem.
Press agentry was rather simple: the agent’s sole job was to be in contact with the
various newspapers. P.T. Barnum used press agents with great success in the late 1890’s
to promote his famous circus. Press agentry lacked scientific research, critical thinking
and strategic objectives. Human behavior was not taken into account. Psychology (a
relatively new, emerging field) was completely ignored by press agents. As a result of
Bernays’ groundbreaking approach to publicity and promotion, PR would utilize
scientific research, critical thinking, strategic objectives, human behavior and especially
the field of psychology.

20
CPI and Propaganda
Before Bernays was “The Father of Public Relations” and was laying out the new
profession’s guidelines in his various written works, the U.S. government was utilizing
PR and propaganda techniques during WWI. Bernays may be the individual responsible
for founding the PR profession, but without a doubt WWI is the single greatest event
responsible for creating the profession.
As noted earlier in this thesis, most Americans were opposed to joining the Allies
during WWI, and saw the conflict as “Europe’s war.” The U.S. government disagreed,
and sought to change Americans’ viewpoints. Thus, the U.S. government started an
organization called the Committee on Public Information (hereafter CPI).
28
The
propaganda organization’s mission was to convince American citizens to support the
United States’ entry into WWI. Most Americans held strong isolationist opinions, and
therefore needed to be heavily influenced.
29

The CPI was created by President Woodrow Wilson in 1917. Its head was
politician and former journalist George Creel—hence, the CPI is also referred to as the
Creel Committee. The CPI took part in a wide variety of propaganda techniques. There
were four main divisions of the CPI, and each division was responsible for covering a
different propaganda tactic. The News Division produced and disseminated positive
news. The Film Division created propaganda films. The Division of Pictorial Publicity
made propaganda posters. Last but not least, the Meeting Division sent out trained

28
Delwiche, Aaron. “The Committee on Public Information”. Propagandacritic.com. 28 February
2011. Web. 12 February 2013. http://www.propagandacritic.com/articles/ww1.cpi.html.
29
Ibid.

21
speakers to give short, persuasive speeches at carefully organized town meetings across
the United States.
For the town meetings, the CPI enlisted thousands of charismatic orators to speak
on behalf of the government propaganda organization. The speakers were carefully
selected to reach and appeal to a very specific target audience. For example, African-
American individuals from the rural South were picked to reach African-American
audiences from the rural South. Middle –class Christian women were chosen to speak to
middle-class Christian women’s groups. East-coast Businessmen were hired to influence
other East Coast businessmen. The chosen speakers would give short speeches and
presentations on a select topic such as the importance of the war, the necessity of war
bonds and ways in which one could contribute to the war effort. The speeches were given
before other already-scheduled lectures, parties and even movie showings. Thus, the
audience was a captured audience. Today’s PR professional often uses bloggers and other
influencers to reach, influence and change the perception of a target audience. The CPI
used influencers to accomplish the same objective.
Besides employing community influencers, the CPI produced propaganda films,
which were played across the country. The CPI’s Film Division created three full-length
movies in 1918—“Pershing’s Crusaders,” “America’s Answer to the Hun” and “The
Kaiser: The Beast of Berlin.”
30
CPI’s News Division operated like a private news bureau
employing reporters, photographers and other journalists. It maintained a daily
propaganda newspaper called, “The Official Bulletin” which was allowed to include only
positive, pro-American stories. The CPI’s Division of Pictorial Publicity generated

30
Delwiche, Aaron. “The Committee on Public Information”. Propagandacritic.com. 28 February
2011. Web. 12 February 2013. http://www.propagandacritic.com/articles/ww1.cpi.html.

22
powerful propaganda posters that vilified Germans and mythologized Americans. The
images used in the posters played on the American people’s emotions, not on facts. Even
after the Great War had ended, the CPI’s effect on the United States remained. After
WWI had ended, the strategies and tactics used by the propaganda machine CPI helped
usher in the peacetime profession of public relations.
Bernays and the CPI
One individual hired to work for the CPI was a young man from New York. He
did not have a tremendous amount of government, journalistic or press agentry
experience, but he was hard working, intelligent and extremely driven. This young man
later admitted that before he went to work for the CPI, he was “trapped” writing for a dull
agricultural magazine. The young man was Edward Bernays.
31

Besides influencing Americans, the CPI also sought to influence people in other
nations, as well. Thus, the CPI had offices located in other countries that worked to reach
international audiences. Propaganda was tailored accordingly. As a member of the CPI,
Bernays was in charge of the CPI’s Latin News Service, which was similar to the CPI’s
domestic News Division in the United States. Bernays was the head of propaganda for
CPI in Latin America:
“Bernays took the techniques he learned in the CPI…and became an
outspoken proponent of propaganda for as a tool for democratic
government. ‘It was, of course, the outstanding success of propaganda
during the war that opened the eyes of the intelligent few in all
departments of life to the possibilities of regimenting the public mind,’
after the war ended, that intelligent persons should ask themselves

31
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print.

23
whether it was not possible to apply a similar technique to the problems of
peace.’”
32

Bernays left the CPI with an emphatic enthusiasm for influencing the public and with a
determination for forging a career in the field of peacetime propaganda/public relations.

32
D’Aymery, Gilles. “Propaganda: Then and Now”. Swans. swans.com 12 November 2001. Web. 2
April 2013. http://www.swans.com/library/art7/ga120.html.

24
Chapter Three: The Father of Public Relations
Introducing the Man and the Myth
Bernays was born in New York in 1891 to an upper-middle class Jewish family.
He often clashed with his strong-willed father, but formed a long-lasting bond with his
uncle, the renowned psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. The famous psychoanalyst, Freud,
lived in Austria. While growing up, Bernays would visit his uncle in Europe on school
vacations.
33

Bernays, Freud’s nephew (on both sides,) is the person responsible for
popularizing Freud’s books, ideas and theories in the United States. Bernays heavily
promoted Freud’s work in America. Before Bernays encouraged Freud to have his books
and other written works published in the English language, very few Americans had
heard of the Austrian psychoanalyst. Introducing Freud to an American audience was one
of Bernays’ most successful, and most astonishing, PR campaigns.
34

Before becoming a PR practitioner and popularizing Freud’s theories in the
United States, Bernays struggled to figure out what he wanted to do in terms of an
occupation. He attended Cornell University in Upstate New York and dutifully following
in his family’s footsteps, majored in agriculture. Bernays’ father wanted Bernays to be a
prosperous farmer. Bernays’ father believed life was lived best when one lived off of the
land. Bernays, however, loved the life of the city, the allure of business and strongly

33
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print.

34
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print.

25
disliked agriculture. After graduation, instead of becoming a farmer, he went to work for
a health newspaper in New York City before launching a career in public relations.
35

Bernays represented an impressive list of clients in the 1920’s. Bernays worked
for the NAACP. His PR work for the civil rights organization led him to receive an
NAACP award. Bernays also worked for the American Tobacco Company producing
highly successful PR campaigns for the cigarette corporation. Bernays took on President
Calvin Coolidge as a client and organized what is considered the first media event for a
sitting President. Bernays was hired by the General Electric Company to promote the
company through the light bulb’s 50
th
anniversary. These PR campaigns and other
selected PR campaigns carried out by Bernays will be analyzed in full as case studies in
the following chapter of this thesis.
Bernays had two children, both daughters, with his wife, Doris Fleischman. His
wife was an early feminist. Progressive for the time, Fleischman retained her maiden
name after her marriage to Bernays. Remarkably, Fleischman was the first married
woman to have a U.S. Passport issued to her in her maiden name.
36

Also, at a time when most women did not work outside of the home, Bernays’
wife worked tirelessly as a PR practitioner in Bernays’ office. Fleischman had to work
behind the scenes most of the time, because Bernays’ clients were uncomfortable doing
business with a woman. Whenever possible, however, Bernays encouraged Fleischman to

36
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print.

26
do as much for the PR firm as she wanted. Many of Bernays’ successful PR campaigns
can be traced to Fleischman including his PR work for the NAACP.
Bernays and his life have been mythologized, and deservedly so. He spent his
golden years living in Cambridge, Mass., near Harvard University. He conversed with
academics, students and professionals about various topics. He never truly retired. Right
up until his death, Bernays continued working on PR projects, reaching out to potential
clients, offering advice, PR solutions and giving speeches. At the very end of his life, his
name and legend were well known in popular culture and to the new generations of PR
professionals. He appeared on David Letterman. Bernays was honored by the PRSA and
gave a speech to a standing ovation. He was named Time’s 100 most influential people of
the 20
th
century. Even while Bernays was still alive, people recognized the incredible
significance of his life and his contributions to the world.
The Controversial Legacy He Left Behind
In the early years of the profession, Bernays argued to his fellow PR practitioners
that, like attorneys, PR professionals should be licensed. Licensing involves taking a
standardized exam and meeting certain other requirements (educational, etc.) Bernays
also believed that PR professionals should, like attorneys, be required to adhere to a
mandatory ethical code to be able to practice. Both of these proposals (1) licensing 2)
mandatory ethical code) were rejected by other PR practitioners in the 1920’s and 1930’s
as they are now. The profession remains unregulated ethically. As this was the opposite
of Bernays’ vision, Bernays is being unfairly criticized by academics and PR
professionals.

27
Chapter Four: Case Studies of Bernays’ PR Campaigns from
WWI/1920s Era
37

“Damaged Goods”: Promotion of a Controversial Play
The first PR campaigns of Bernays are some of the most inspiring, amazing and
strategic campaigns ever initiated by Bernays (or any other PR practitioner). As one can
imagine, these early Bernays campaigns are also some of the most criticized by scholars.
Bernays was writing the rules of PR as he went along; he was inventing the profession
and forging the path for future generations.
Bernays was always a forward-thinker— way ahead of his time not only on
gender issues, but on social issues as well. One health issue that was highly prevalent
during this time, but also highly taboo was the sexually transmitted disease known as
syphilis.
A playwright who knew of Bernays’ concern for health and welfare came to the
young Bernays for help. The playwright’s work “Damaged Goods” had been banned in
New York City, because it tackled the subject of syphilis. City leaders considered any
discussion of syphilis to be immoral. The play was written to educate the public about
syphilis so that the disease could be prevented and its progression slowed. Bernays
believed wholeheartedly in the play and in the cause. He took the playwright as his client.
This was his first PR campaign—he just did not know it yet. He had never done anything
like this before. Bernays’ goal was to influence certain leaders and have the play be
shown. Bernays was working from scratch. All he had to go on was intuition, his

37
All figures, information and data for the public relations cases in Chapter Four (with the exception
of the NAACP case) come from the following source: Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays
and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print.

28
intelligence and his childhood talks with his Uncle Sigmund. As it turns, that was
enough.
38

Thus, in 1913 to save the play from being censored by city leaders because its
subject matter concerned venereal disease, Bernays created a front group.
39
He ended up
gaining the support of many wealthy patrons of the arts including the Rockefellers, and
the city allowed the play to be shown. “Damaged Goods” ended up being extremely
successful and actually toured the United States.
40

When examining the ethics of Bernays’ “Damaged Goods” campaign, one must
look at various factors of the campaign. Surely, the PR campaign for “Damaged Goods”
was not a highly ethical one. Bernays used a front group, which is largely considered
unethical by today’s PR standards—although it is still a common PR tactic used by many
organizations.
“Ballet Russe”: Campaign for a Russian Ballet Company Touring the U.S.
After the success of the “Damaged Goods” campaign, Bernays left the health
newspaper. He could no longer work behind a desk, writing and editing articles on well-
being. He had found his calling in assisting people and organizations promote
themselves. One of Bernays’ first clients as a press agent was the premiere Russian ballet
company known as “Ballet Russe.” Bernays represented the famed Russian dance troupe

38
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P. 6-8.
39
Ibid.
40
Ibid.

29
beginning in 1915.
41
The group was scheduled to go on a nationwide tour of the United
States.
Promoting “Ballet Russe” to an American audience was a difficult feat because
ballet, and especially Russian ballet, did not appeal to Americans of this time period.
Most Americans in the early 20
th
century were suspicious of and distrusted Russia and its
people. Russian ballet was refined, with elaborate costumes and decadent scenes.
42

Russian ballet dancers were small, extremely flexible and amazing acrobats. American
ballet lagged far behind and was not nearly as developed. American-style ballet was
simple, standard and traditional. “Ballet Russe’s” organizers feared that prudish and
xenophobic Americans would not understand or appreciate “Ballet Russe” unless a
skilled press agent was hired to promote the group in the United States.
Bernays successfully swayed public opinion regarding “Ballet Russe” by
portraying the Russian ballet as foreign and thrilling. He took the ballet group’s weakness
(its strangeness) and turned it into an opportunity for the dance troupe. He drummed up
excitement by carrying out a PR campaign aimed at showcasing the unique beauty of
Russia. Bernays highlighted the one-of-a-kind culture of Russia. He brought English
translations of classic Russian works of literature to the United States so that Americans
would more profoundly appreciate Russian literature—and Russian culture in general. He
bought wonderful Russian paintings and displayed them in public venues around the
country. Bernays sent the most beautiful female ballerinas of “Ballet Russe” on tour

41
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P.11.

42
Ibid at 11-14.

30
around the nation in elaborate costumes before the official show started—perhaps the
first example of a “sneak peak” used in a PR campaign.
43

Bernays’ campaign for “Ballet Russe” was a tremendous success. The Russian
ballet troupe was a hit when it launched on January 25, 1916 in New York City. “Ballet
Russe” toured 17 U.S. cities to mostly sold-out houses. “Ballet Russe” toured the country
for a full four months. The tour was so popular that another U.S. tour began in October
1917 and ended in February 1917. The second tour performed in more than 50 U.S.
cities.
44

First NAACP Conference
After Bernays success as a press agent, particularly for his work with the Ballet
Russe Russian ballet dance troupe, the United States government took notice of him and,
as mentioned, he worked for the CPI. After the war ended, many CPI employees
launched into advertising or journalism careers but Bernays was determined to take what
he had learned from the war regarding influencing popular opinion and apply it to
consumerism and peacetime. Bernays began referring to himself as a counselor on public
relations and opened a small office in New York City—working alongside his wife,
Doris. He began writing on the subject of public relations, and would go on to publish
numerous works on the topic in the coming years. Bernays’ passion, drive and talent
meant that he became very successful quite rapidly. Nonetheless, he was determined to
take on some clients whose social purpose he agreed with on a personal level.

43
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P. 11-14.
44
Topics in Chronicling America - Serge de Diaghilev and the Ballet Russes (Russian Ballet). Library
of Congress. loc.gov. 17 January 2013. Web. 1 April 2013.
http://www.loc.gov/rr/news/topics/diaghilev.html.

31
One of his early post-war clients was the NAACP (National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People) —which he believed to be a worthy and noble cause.
Bernays—a white American man of Austrian Jewish descent—took the NAACP on as a
client in 1920. He helped the organization host its first conference, which was held in
Atlanta. Although violence, riots and protests were expected to occur both within the
conference and from protesters outside of the conference, under Bernays’ watch and the
NAACP’s first conference was well received by the city.
45

While Bernays certainly cannot take all the credit for the peaceful inaugural
NAACP conference, he certainly helped the conference be a non-violent one. Bernays PR
campaign for the NAACP focused on reaching white audiences in Atlanta prior to the
event. The PR campaign aimed at informing whites of African-American achievement in
the South, great contributions of African-Americans in history and the importance of
non-violence. He sent out fliers, placed ads in newspapers and held speakers bureaus.
Bernays sought to influence white audiences not to disrupt the conference by appealing to
universal notions of peace and humanity. For the PR work Bernays performed for the
NAACP, he was later recognized by the organization.
46

45
“Edward Bernays: 1920 NAACP Conference in Atlanta: Civil Rights Action through the Media”.
Prmuseum.com. The Museum of Public Relations. 2013. Web. 3 March 2013.
http://www.prmuseum.com/bernays/bernays_1920.html.
46
“Edward Bernays: 1920 NAACP Conference in Atlanta: Civil Rights Action through the Media”.
Prmuseum.com. The Museum of Public Relations. 2013. Web. 3 March 2013.
http://www.prmuseum.com/bernays/bernays_1920.html.

32
Promotional Work for the American Tobacco Company
While it would be hard press to pass judgment on Bernays for his work with the
early NAACP, Bernays did indeed take on clients worthy of criticism. Bernays worked
for the American Tobacco Company throughout the ‘20s and ‘30s.
47

“Torches of Freedom” Campaign
Bernays’ most famous PR campaign for the American Tobacco Company is the
referred to as the “Torches of Freedom” campaign in 1929. For many years, the
American Tobacco Company and other cigarette companies had been trying to figure out
a way to encourage women to smoke. It was not considered socially proper for a woman
to be seen smoking a cigarette. A small percentage of women did smoke, but when they
did it was usually inside their homes. The American Tobacco Company wanted to erase
the stigma attached with smoking cigarettes, and thus open the product up to half of the
United States’ population. Bernays created the “Torches of Freedom” campaign as a way
to encourage women to smoke.
48

Bernays, because of his admiration for his Uncle Sigmund Freud’s work on
psychoanalysis, went to another psychoanalyst named A.A. Brill for insight into the
minds of the female psyche. Brill explained that women could be motivated to smoke if
they associated cigarettes with the Women’s Rights movement and being independent.
He coined the phrase “torches of freedom.” Bernays took the psychoanalyst’s theory, and

47
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P.25-30.
48
Ibid. 28-31.

33
concocted a massive publicity stunt to occur during the New York’s annual Easter
Sunday Parade.
49

For the PR publicity stunt, Bernays hired several fashionable debutantes to smoke
cigarettes during the parade and proclaim they were smoking “torches of freedom.”
Bernays enlisted various photographers to take pictures of the staged event. He called
major newspapers prior to the parade and explained what was about to occur. He,
however, did not explain who he was or that the event was organized by him or the
American Tobacco Company. Photographers from major newspapers took pictures of the
debutantes walking and smoking their Lucky Cigarettes. The debutantes posed and struck
seductive poses. The photos were all staged by Bernays to ensure that the press had the
most flattering pictures of the women and the product—the cigarettes. The next day,
headlines across the nation’s newspapers appeared referring to independent, society
women puffing on their “Torches of Freedom.” Photographs from the day’s event were
also splashed across the country’s newspapers. The stigma of women smoking in public
was no more and cigarette sales among women increased—all due to an orchestrated
publicity stunt by Bernays.
50

The “Torches of Freedom” campaign became a huge success and is one of
Bernays’ most prolific accomplishments in the field of PR. Similar campaigns have been
repeated—also with successful results.

49
Jones, E. Michael. “The Torches of Freedom Campaign: Behaviorism, Advertising, and the Rise of
the American Empire.” Culturewars.com. Culture Wars. April-June 1999. Web. 4 March 2013.
http://www.culturewars.com/CultureWars/1999/torches.html.
50
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P. 28-31.

34
Using expert opinion from the field of psychology, a groundbreaking research
method never utilized to that extent in a public relations campaign, Bernays created an
ingenious strategy, developed well thought out tactics and accomplished the client’s
objective. Later, as the years went by, the health risks of cigarettes became more obvious.
According to his daughter Anna, Bernays urged his wife Doris to quit smoking
because of the possible detrimental effects. If this is true, this action was hypocritical on
Bernays part at the very least—and possibly unethical. Bernays should not have
continued promoting cigarettes to the public while convincing his own wife to stop
smoking because of the health risks.
51

When more and more evidence surfaced that smoking cigarettes caused cancer
and other health problems, Bernays stopped advising the American Tobacco Company. It
would have been highly profitable for Bernays to remain with the tobacco giant, but he
did not. This was an ethical decision on his part. He could have stayed at the American
Tobacco Company for many more years and launched many more successful PR
campaigns for the company, but he chose to abandon promoting cigarettes out of
principle. Bernays made the right and ethical decision.
52

“Torches of Freedom” will live on in the history books, and should live on in the
textbooks of public relations classes as it is one of the best PR campaigns of all times.
Bernays deserves to be recognized for his immeasurable intellectual contribution to the
public relation profession.

51
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P.48.
52
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P. 49.

35
A debutante, Mrs. Taylor Scott-Hardin, walks down New York City smoking after
Bernays’ Torches of Freedom campaign
53

An advertisement launched by Lucky Strike Cigarettes to influence women to smoke
54

53
Spector, Barry. “1929 Torches of Freedom.” prmusesum.com. The Museum of Public Relations.
2013. Web. 2 February 2013. http://www.prmuseum.com/bernays/bernays_1929.html.
54
Spector, Barry. “1929 Torches of Freedom.” prmusesum.com. The Museum of Public Relations.
2013. Web. 2 February 2013. http://www.prmuseum.com/bernays/bernays_1929.html.

36
President Coolidge’s Media Event
In addition to helping companies, organizations and non-profits, Bernays also
performed public relations work for several U.S. presidents, the first being Calvin
Coolidge. Bernays was approached by the White House to perform public relations duties
for Coolidge, thus making him one of the first, if not the first, public relations
professionals to carry out a campaign for a sitting president. Coolidge’s staff recognized
the value and power of public relations in shaping public opinion and wanted to utilize it
to increase Coolidge’s popularity.
55
Nicknamed “Silent Cal” by the press, Coolidge never
seemed to smile, laugh or have fun. The public did not respond well to the stoic
president.
56
Bernays invited dozens of major film stars and other entertainment
celebrities to the White House along with leading media outlets. On the White House
lawn, Bernays organized an extravagant breakfast for Coolidge and his celebrity guests.
57

The media loved the publicity stunt. Coolidge was pictured smiling. Ever since the
Coolidge media event, utilizing public relations has been a key part of every political
figure’s machine. In fact, Bernays went on to advise Franklin Roosevelt, Dwight
Eisenhower and even Eleanor Roosevelt upon her nomination to the United Nations.
58

It is difficult to imagine politics without thinking of public relations because the
two are now so intertwined. Yet, the two were not always linked. It was Bernays who

55
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P.77-79.

56
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P.77-79.
57
Ibid.
58
Ibid.

37
catapulted the field of public relations onto the political scene. Before Bernays, publicity
and persuasion had already existed in politics. For example, 18
th
and 19
th
century political
cartoons for U.S. President were used to promote candidates. Occasionally, the cartoons
depicted the positive qualities of the Presidential candidate being endorsed. Most often,
however, the political cartoons were used to disparage the rival candidate in a humorous
manner. Politics embraced publicity in other ways besides political cartoons. By the 19
th

century, in the United States, candidates for President were running relatively
comprehensive political campaigns complete with slogans, speeches and even campaign
buttons. The famous Lincoln-Douglas debates were a publicity event—much like the
televised Kennedy-Nixon debate was a century later. Bernays, however, elevated the
techniques of persuasion and publicity utilized in politics and transformed them into
strategic public relations.
Bacon and Eggs Campaign
To most Americans, eating bacon and eggs for breakfast just seems natural. A PR
campaign can seep into the nation’s subconscious, so dramatically altering public opinion
that the public completely forgets there was another way. Astonishing as it may be, bacon
and eggs were not traditional before Edward Bernays got involved.
Bernays’ bacon and eggs campaign was launched in the mid-1920s.
59
An
American bacon organization, Beechnut Packing Company, wanted to sell more of its
product and engaged Bernays for help.
60
Instead of trying to increase the company’s sales
by simply trying to sell more packages of bacon (the traditional marketing approach,)

59
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P.51.
60
Ibid.

38
Bernays believed the best way to increase sales of the company’s bacon was to increase
the sales of the entire United States’ bacon market. This was a revolutionary idea in the
public relations and marketing industries.
61

To increase bacon consumption, Bernays conducted a survey of 5,000 doctors and
found that they believed a heavy-protein breakfast was the healthiest type.
62
Bernays
published the results of the survey to influence the public to eat more protein sources at
breakfast (eggs, ham and, of course, bacon.) The survey was biased and probably
unethical, but the use of doctors as an effective PR tool for consumer PR remains to this
day. Practically every major toothpaste brand claims to be recommended “by nine out of
10 dentists.” The results from Bernays’ survey, in time, also proved to be scientifically
incorrect. The doctors got it wrong. Bacon and eggs every morning are not part of a
healthy breakfast. Eating bacon every day could lead to increased cholesterol levels,
increased blood pressure, and an increased risk for diabetes, heart attack and stroke.
Bacon is full of unhealthy fats, high levels of cholesterol and high levels of sodium.
Much healthier protein sources exist. However, Bernays’ strategy completely changed
the minds – and breakfast tables – of most Americans.
Considering Bernays’ survey yielded inaccurate results, this is another reason
why the Bernays’ bacon campaign may be deemed unethical. It is unlikely, however, that
in the 1920s either Bernays or the doctors Bernays surveyed would have known or
possibly could have known how unhealthy hearty protein sources such as bacon were in
terms of the levels of fat, cholesterol and sodium they contained. Only with dietary and

61
Ibid at 51-52.
62
Pearcy, Alan. “Top PR Campaigns—A History.” prdaily.com. PR Daily. 22 September 2011. Web.
December 29 2012
http://www.prdaily.com/Main/Articles/Infographic_A_history_of_PR_campaigns_9564.aspx#.

39
nutritional advances in technology was the link between foods like bacon and heart
disease clearly established.

40
An infographic of top PR campaigns including Bernays’ bacon and eggs program. The
infographic indicates that egg production increased from 1.6 billion before the PR
campaign (1919) to a present-day egg production level of 6.5 billion eggs (2011.)
63

63
Pearcy, Alan. “Top PR Campaigns—A History.” prdaily.com. PR Daily. 22 September 2011. Web.
December 29 2012
http://www.prdaily.com/Main/Articles/Infographic_A_history_of_PR_campaigns_9564.aspx#.

41
Light’s Golden Jubilee
In 1929, Bernays was involved with the PR campaign that was referred to as
“Light’s Golden Jubilee.”
64
It marked the 50
th
anniversary of the invention of the
lightbulb by Thomas Edison. The General Electric Company sought to use the 50
th

anniversary of Edison’s lightbulb as a way to promote the General Electric Company to
the public. To accomplish this objective, the General Electric Company hired Bernays
along with several other well-know PR practitioners to promote the event, so that the
American public would be extremely excited for Light’s Golden Jubilee, and thus
General Electric would receive more positive publicity.
Bernays endlessly promoted Light’s Golden Jubilee—which was celebrated on
October 21, 1929. The event was enormously successful. Thomas Edison was in
attendance, along with President Herbert Hoover, Henry Ford (who helped organize the
event,) John D. Rockefeller and Marie Curie.
65
The media was also present of course
with “members of 15 of the most important newspapers in the country [present] as well
as a number of [other] outstanding journalists.”
66

While the actual event on October 21, 1929 garnered enormous press coverage, it
was actually the pre-event press coverage that highlighted Bernays’ gift for public
relations event planning. While event planning could be seen as a simple task, Bernays
made sure the event was planned strategically using the highest level of critical
reasoning. Bernays invited the nation’s top journalists to the events, giving the most

64
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P. 63.
65
“1929 Light’s Golden Jubilee.” prmuseum.com. PR Museum. 2013. Web. January 15 2013
http://www.prmuseum.com/bernays/bernays_1929a.html.
66
Ibid.

42
premier journalists exclusive interviews with celebrities to ensure press coverage of the
event. Bernays even partnered with the U.S. Postal Service to issue a special stamp
commemorating the 50
th
anniversary of the lightbulb. Bernays worked with the publicists
of the top celebrities of the day to make sure the guest list of Light’s Golden Jubilee
included the most prominent and influential names of the day. Bernays knew that the
more high-profile celebrity attendees, the more likely the media was to cover the General
Electric Company’s event.
67

From an ethical standpoint, however, Light’s Golden Jubilee may not live up to
modern day PR standards. There was a lack of transparency about the true purpose of the
event. Light’s Golden Jubilee was held not to celebrate the 50
th
anniversary of Thomas
Edison’s lightbulb, but rather to promote the General Electric Company.

67
Tye, Larry. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. 1998. New York:
Holt Paperbacks, 2002. Print. P.63-69.

43
Chapter Five: The Literature Review
Organized by Chronology
The following literature review is organized by chronology, as the author wishes
to establish a “historical context,” and so it is best to use a “chronological progression.”
68

Literature reviews that are organized by chronology are “especially useful for
highlighting trends…when relatively few researchers were working on a particular
topic.”
69
As only a handful of individuals researched the emerging field of public
relations in the WWI and 1920’s era, a literature review that is arranged by date is
appropriate.
A chronological literature review also allows for the most accurate picture of what
early modern PR pioneers believed with respect to PR, and “is helpful for highlighting
shifts in approach or attitude toward a subject occurring over a period of time.”
70
The
literature review assists in illustrating just how influential Bernays and other early PR
pioneers work are to the present-day public relations profession.
Crystallizing Public Opinion

Summarizing Previous Research

1. Bibliographic Reference:
Bernays, Edward L. Crystallizing Public Opinion. 1923. Brooklyn: Ig Publishing, 2011.
Print.

68
The Writing Center Handout. The Review of the Literature Section.
69
The Writing Center Handout. The Review of the Literature Section.
70
The Writing Center Handout. The Review of the Literature Section.

44
2. The Main Question(s) Posed by the Work:

In Crystallizing Public Opinion, the father of public relations, Edward Bernays
seeks to find, understand and articulate the principles used to shape and change public
opinion. Bernays attempts to answer the question for individuals, businesses (and of
course potential clients) of what it means to be a public relations professional. On
page 49 of Crystallizing Public Opinion, Bernays writes:
“A new phrase has come into the language—counsel on public relations.
What does it mean? As a matter of fact, the actual phrase is completely
understood by only a few, and those only the people intimately associated
with the work itself. But despite this, the activities of the public relations
counsel affect the daily life of the entire population in one form or
another.”

On page 44 of the foreword of the book, Bernays explains that “in writing this
book [he] has tried to set down the broard principles that govern the new profession
of public relations counsel.”
3. The Method of Investigation:
Bernays’ investigation into the definition, principles and practices of the new and
developing profession is qualitative in nature. The method of observation was
primarily first-hand experience Bernays had with the public relations profession.
Although Bernays does not mention it in Crystallizing Public Opinion, the PR case
studies and examples used as research, analysis and informative guides were all PR
campaigns that Bernays had created.
Additionally, however, Bernays performed qualitative research on group
psychology and crowd behavior principles by reading contemporary books, articles
and other written works by renowned group psychologists, and incorporating their
theories into the principles of public relations. Bernays also used his qualitative first-

45
hand knowledge of his Uncle, psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud’s ideas, in the same
way.
On page 44 Crystallizing Public Opinion, Bernays writes that:
These principles [of public relations] on the one hand I have
substantiated by the findings of psychologists, sociologists and
newspaper men…on the other hand, I have illustrated these
principles by a number of specific examples which serve to bear
them out. …The actual cases which I have cited were selected
because they explain the application of the theories to practice.

4. The Major Variables and Their Definitions:

It is important to understand that “the way in which concepts are defined can
influence the findings as well as the implications of a study; [therefore] it is wise to
record how each variable is measured, and, if possible, to indicate variables as
dependent, independent, or control.”
71
In Crystallizing Public Opinion, Bernays
utilized variables both established and defined by other social scientists in addition to
establishing and creating his own.
In Crystallizing Public Opinion, Bernays coins and popularizes the term “counsel
of public relations” for the name of profession known today as the PR profession. The
counsel of public relations is a major variable in Crystallizing Public Opinion as it is
the subject of the work. Bernays creates an malleable definition for the emerging
profession, advocacy communication that influences public opinion, a professional
that not “only purv[eys] news…[but] creat[es] news.” (188). Bernays distinguishes
the variable of counsel of public relations from other variables such as
“propagandist…press agent or publicity man” (50).

71
The Writing Center Handout. The Review of the Literature Section.

46
5. The Study Population:

Bernays’ sample study was quite varied. It consisted of individuals, groups and
organizations. Also, the sample study was quite diverse in terms of location. While
most campaigns mentioned did occur in the United States, some did take place in
Western Europe (CPI), Eastern Europe (Lithuania) and the Middle East. As
previously noted, the case studies and examples cited in the book were all cases
Bernays had personal experience working on during his PR career. Strong personal
connections with the case studies provide both pros and cons. On the one hand,
Bernays has tremendous experience and knowledge about these cases. He certainly
knows more about the intricacies of the PR campaigns he worked on first-hand than
any other PR campaigns. On the other hand, Bernays is not an objective individual
when it comes to the PR campaigns with which he was involved.
6. The Results of the Study:
The results of Bernays’ study are quite groundbreaking. Bernays finds that the
past professions of press agent and publicist have transformed and evolved into the
new profession of counselor on public relations—which Bernays likens more to an
attorney in the sense the counselor is an advocate for his client. The study, based on
social scientists research on individual and group behavior and Bernays’ own PR
campaigns indicate that all organizations (profit, nonprofit, political, etc.) require a
public relations counselor.

47
7. Bernays’ Conclusion:
Bernays concludes that the profession of public relations is the most important
profession of his time. Bernays holds that nothing is more powerful or more valuable
than the ability to shape and influence public opinion. Public relations counselors, or
PR professionals, are the individuals who are the ones able to shape and influence
public opinion. Bernays concludes “the social value of the public relations counsel
lies in its fact that he brings to the public facts and ideas of social utility which would
not so readily gain acceptance otherwise.” (203). Bernays explains that PR
professionals are agents for positive social change.
Bernays quotes a contemporary professor of his, Professor Tonnies and writes,
“the future of public opinion is the future of civilization. It is certain that the power of
public opinion is constantly increasing and will keep on increasing.” (203). Thus,
Bernays concludes the individuals who can harness the power of public opinion (as
he refers to it, crystallize it,) are the individuals who will become some of the most
influential people in the years to come. Of course, the individuals who Bernays
believes are best suited to gauge and shape public opinion are public relations
counselors. The father of PR argues public relations counselors will add infinite
benefits to society and contribute to a better world. Bernays ends his first book,
Crystallizing Public Opinion, with the words, “it is in the creation of a public
conscience that the counsel of public relations is destined, I believe, to fulfill his
highest usefulness to the society in which he lives.” (204).

48
8. The Thesis Author’s Comments:
Bernays’ Crystallizing Public Opinion has withstood the test of time. It is a true
classic, a masterpiece. It should be required reading for every college student, not
least of all PR and communications undergraduate and graduate students.
Crystallizing Public Opinion provides a wonderful introduction to the basics of solid
PR theory, history and technique, and also gives a wonder glimpse into the
extraordinary mind of Edward Bernays. Bernays is able to write in a style that is both
easy to read and intellectually stimulating. After reading Crystallizing Public
Opinion, one becomes acutely aware of Bernays’ genius for explaining intellectually
challenging ideas in a way that nearly anyone can comprehend.
Propaganda

Summarizing Previous Research:

1. Bibliographic Reference:
Bernays, Edward L. Propaganda. 1928. Brooklyn: Ig Publishing, 2005.
Print.

2. The Main Question(s) Posed by the Work:

In Propaganda, Bernays attempts to understand why the public does not accept
the terms propaganda and propagandist. Bernays argues that propaganda is a neutral
term that has been grossly misunderstood and mischaracterized. Bernays attempts to,
through historical research and scientific investigation, persuade audiences that the
word propaganda has unfairly been corrupted, and that its usage is appropriate and
even preferable to the term public relations.

49
3. The Method of Investigation:

Bernays’ investigation regarding the term propaganda is qualitative. He
researches the history of the term propaganda from its origin to its usage during
WWI where it gained a negative reputation in the West. Bernays uses logic,
reason and sound investigational skills to research the history of the term
propaganda in addition to how propaganda was used throughout the centuries in
Western Europe by religious, military and government leaders.

4. The Major Variables and Their Definitions:

The most important variable in Bernays’ Propaganda is the term
propaganda itself. After all, the term propaganda and its various connotations are
the subject of the entire work. Public relations is also an important variable as
Bernays argues it is an adequate substitute for propaganda but propaganda is
factually the profession that public relations counselors practice.
5. The Study Population:

Bernays’ sample study is diverse in regards to time, scope and geography.
Bernays examines the historical beginnings of the term propaganda and traces the
development and changes of the meaning of the word up to the 20
th
century.
Bernays cites famous positive propaganda campaigns as well as citing how the
term came to be muddied.

50
6. The Results of the Study:
Bernays is able to show through his research that the term propaganda did
not originate as a negative word—quite the opposite. The word propaganda had a
neutral, if not positive connotation. Over time, especially surrounding the
German’s activities during World War I, the term propaganda took on a new and
decidedly negative meaning—particularly to Britain and the United States.
7. Bernays’ Conclusion:
Bernays believes the term propaganda is a positive one. It is one that
should be used and embraced by public relations professionals. While Bernays
himself coined the term counselor on public relations, he prefers the term
propagandist as Bernays concludes propagandist most accurately reflects the
profession of a PR professional. In Propaganda, Bernays seeks to remove the
stigma associated with the term propaganda by explaining reasonably how and
why the term was (unfortunately, from Bernays’ point of view) stigmatized in the
first place.)
Bernays concludes that the PR profession must convince the public that
the term is an honorable one, and that to do so the PR professionals must believe
the term is a respectable one themselves. Individuals must be educated regarding
why the term is neutral and/or positive, and why the term has suffered from unfair
prejudice in recent years.

51

8. The Thesis Author’s Comments:
Bernays’ Propaganda is an extremely ambitious book. It was written only a
decade after WWI. Bernays wrote the case for why propaganda was beneficial a
mere 11 years after the United States and Britain had ended a devastating war
with Germany. The country of Germany’s informative and influential military and
government operations were the impetus for the word propaganda to take on such
a negative connotation in English speaking countries. Perhaps Bernays wrote his
book a little too soon after WWI—the wounds were too fresh. Negative German
propaganda was still on the forefront of many people’s minds.
While Bernays’ book Propaganda makes a well-devised, reasoned argument
for the use of propaganda as a neutral or positive term, the argument fails to
convince people. Bernays relies too heavily on rationality and forgets about
people’s emotions—an unusual misstep for the father of public relations. One can
explain over and over, using logic and reason, how propaganda is a neutral term
and has been for centuries—but if all the current generation associates with the
term is the “Hun” and negative acts—then that overrides any century’s old history
lesson. Bernays should have realized this—people are shaped by their
experiences, others around them and emotions. Propaganda has become a
negative term. The perception and lasting meaning of the word had changed.

52
Chapter Six: Recommendations and a Call to Action
Recommendations
The public relations industry needs to embrace the early modern PR pioneers—
especially Bernays. The PR industry needs to appreciate all that these individuals
contributed to the creation and development of the modern day public relations
profession. If the PR industry is to continue to move forward, grow and thrive as a
respected profession, it must be acutely aware of its history and roots.
In law schools in the United States, law students are not only taught the current
legal system, but also how the legal system developed and changed over the course of
time. Famous judges, legal minds, attorneys and infamous cases are discussed in law
school classes. Many times the legal opinions expressed by courts of the past are
outdated, antiquated, politically incorrect or just inaccurate by today’s standards.
Nevertheless, the evolution of American law remains relevant to current American law.
The American legal profession understands that a profession cannot understand where it
is going unless it understands where it has been. The PR profession needs to take a cue
from the legal realm and apply this notion to the PR industry.
If PR practitioners know little or nothing about the history of PR, they are likely
not to invest in the future of PR. Analyzing past PR campaigns, strategies and case
studies can spark creativity and new ideas. It could make lukewarm PR professionals fall
in love with the profession again. Discussing and debating Bernays’ work could be a
catapult for discussing and debating the ethicalness of present day PR campaigns. Many
of the same issues Bernays faced regarding ethics still loom over the profession today
(e.g. the use of front groups, not disclosing the client’s identity to the public, agreeing to

53
work for companies arguably not in the best interest of the public, etc.). Bernays’
campaigns offer an unmatched opportunity for today’s PR practitioners to start a
conversation on the on-going role of ethics in PR.
The work PR practitioners perform today is startlingly similar to the work
Bernays and other early modern PR pioneers performed. Therefore, every PR
professional currently practicing should study the campaigns of Bernays and the other PR
pioneers. PR professionals can learn strategies and tactics from these exceptional and
brilliant individuals and will become better PR practitioners themselves. Bernays is the
most accomplished PR professional of all time. Everyone in the industry can gain
knowledge by studying his life. Bernays’ books, works, biography, etc. should be on the
bookshelf of every PR professional. Whether or not one agrees with Bernays on ethics
and philosophy, researching Bernays and his approach to PR will increase a PR
professional’s understanding of public relations tremendously.
Currently, many PR programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels at
American universities emphasize the theory of public relations. Other university
programs, like the Masters of Public Relations Program (MSPR) at the University of
Southern California Annenberg (Annenberg) emphasize the practice of public relations.
Focusing on the practicalities of PR in a university setting is crucial. It facilitates the
students of the programs in securing employment after graduation, because the students
possess skills useful to employers. Yet, more discussion on PR’s history needs to occur in
the classroom. While it is beneficial for students to have social media training,
specialized writing skills and networking opportunities, it is also beneficial for students to
understand and know the history of the profession of which they are becoming a member.

54
It is important to be familiar with the background of the industry one is joining, so that
one can more greatly appreciate it, contribute to it and feel a sense of connectedness to
the community.
For example, in the first semester of the MSPR program at Annenberg, students
are required to enroll in the course, “Introduction to Public Relations.” The class offers a
solid introduction to the strategic planning model used in real-world PR campaigns, gives
students an overview of the everyday life of a PR professional and provides students with
general information regarding different types of PR careers. Students also develop an
original PR campaign for the course.
However, the “Introduction to Public Relations” course taught at Annenberg does
not address Bernays or the development of the early modern PR industry. Bernays’ name
appears a couple times in a few pages in one of the course’s textbooks, but he is not
mentioned in class. Bernays and his career should be discussed in classes like
Annenberg’s “Introduction to Public Relations.” In a perfect PR world, Bernays and other
early modern PR pioneers would be mentioned often in classrooms to spark intellectual
curiosity.
In-class discussions on Bernays and other PR pioneers would increase PR
students’ knowledge about the industry as a whole. It would encourage some students to
carry out additional research on the development of PR on their own time. It is a tragedy
that the father of public relations is practically forgotten in present-day university
courses. Today’s PR students—tomorrow’s PR professionals—need to understand the
past and evolution of PR from a critical perspective. This can be accomplished by
discussing Bernays in university courses.

55
The following is a hypothetical mini-lesson plan that could be employed in
college classes to teach students about Bernays and the history of early modern PR:
1) Ask students to list current influential figures in PR Students will most likely
be able to name several (e.g. Burson-Marsteller founder, Harold Burson,
Edelman CEO, Richard Edelman and deputy campaign manager for President
Obama, Stephanie Cutter).
2) Ask students to list historical influential figures in PR. Students will most
likely have more difficulty naming historical PR greats.
3) Summarize Bernays’ life to the class—excluding his PR campaigns and PR
legacy.
4) For homework, have each student conduct research on Bernays and his PR
campaigns. Each student will write a five to six page essay on one of Bernays’
PR campaigns, detailing the strategy, tactics and execution Bernays employed.
Students will also explain how the Bernays’ PR campaign influenced or is
relevant to today’s campaigns.
5) Have students turn in homework assignments. As a class, view the first hour
of the documentary “Century of the Self.”
6) Grade the essays—giving feedback to each student.
7) Over the next two weeks, as homework, have students read the biography on
Bernays entitled “The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of
Public Relations” by Larry Tye.

56
In addition to incorporating the Bernays into college classroom settings, the
researcher believes trade organizations like the PRSA and the IABC should sponsor
activities that develop members’ awareness of the history of modern PR. When browsing
most national and international websites of prominent professional public relations
organizations, the emphasis of the websites is on present-day public relations trends.
While this is no doubt extremely important to present-day PR members, devoting
sections of the professional organization’s website to the history of PR and its relevance
to today’s PR practices are necessary, as well.
Trade organizations should host webinars on the early modern PR and give live
conferences on the topic for association members. Today’s PR practitioners need to be
engaged with PR’s past. They need to form a bond with the pioneers of modern day PR to
fully understand and appreciate the profession. Professional organizations should be the
impetus and channel for such engagement. A multitude of PR trade and professional
organizations exist. Such organizations include:
72

1. Arthur W. Page Society: http://www.awpagesociety.com
2. Association for Women in Communication: http://www.womcom.org
3. Council of Communication Management: http://www.ccmconnection.com
4. Council of Public Relations Firms: http:///ww.prfirms.org
5. Healthcare Public Relations and Marketing Association of Southern
California: http://www.hprma.org
6. Institute for Public Relations: http://www.instituteforpr.com

72
Sourced from Alcantara, Suzanna. Email. Professional Organization List. USC Annenberg. 7
September 2012.

57
7. International Association of Business Communicators:
http://www.iabc.com
8. National Association of Government Communicators:
http://www.nagc.com
9. National Investors Relations Institute: http://www.niri.org
10. Professional Communicators Exchange:
http://www.thecommunicators.org/about.html
11. Public Relations Society of America National Chapter (PRSA):
http://www.prsa.org
12. Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA):
http://www.prssa.org
Conclusion
During Bernays’ life, he witnessed the greatest events and knew the greatest
figures in modern history. He lived in two different centuries—the 19
th
and the 20
th

centuries. Bernays’ clients were the most esteemed business, political and entertainment
leaders of the day. He worked with the most prominent tobacco companies and corporate
leaders of his time. He advised President Coolidge on how to be more likeable. He
counted Henry Ford, Thomas Edison and Eleanor Roosevelt among his acquaintances.
In terms of family, the field of public relations was Bernays’ child. He gave birth
to it, named it, developed it, nurtured it and watched it grow into the respectable
profession it became. As any doting parent, Bernays was proud of his child and fiercely
protective of its integrity.

58
Today’s PR practitioners are ignorant of the past to the detriment of the
profession’s future. Pioneers of early modern PR, particularly Bernays, gave society the
remarkable contribution of the public relations profession. The profession today remains
incredibly comparable to when Bernays began his PR career in the WWI era. Despite all
of the technological advances made during the last century, the theories, principles and
practices of PR have not changed. Much of PR’s strategies and tactics remain unaltered,
as well. Bernays and the other early modern PR pioneers gave the world a wonderful gift
PR. For that gift, the world—and especially PR professionals—should be grateful.

59
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract The Development of Early Modern Public Relations ❧ This paper examines the development, transformation and role of the early modern public relations profession. It analyzes the relevance of the WWI and 1920’s era public relations (PR) industry to today’s PR profession. The primary objective of the paper is to illustrate the significant and enduring achievements accomplished by the creators of early modern PR. It desires to show that despite moral lapses in judgment and less than ethical PR campaigns, the founding fathers of PR nonetheless gave the world the remarkable contribution of PR. While most of the PR tactics used presently can be traced back to the WWI and 1920’s time period, research indicates that practitioners of the 21st century fail to realize the incredible achievements that the founding fathers of PR contributed to the PR profession. In fact, results show that many PR practitioners are ignorant of PR's history—to the detriment of the profession. The paper concludes that without early modern PR greats such as Edward Bernays or Ivy Lee, the PR industry would not be as developed as it is today. The thesis maintains that today’s PR practitioners are indebted to the PR pioneers of the past who truly broke new ground.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Keogh, Kirsten Carlson (author)

Core Title Breaking new ground: defending and learning from the founding fathers of public relations

School Annenberg School for Communication

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Strategic Public Relations

Publication Date 07/30/2013

Defense Date 07/29/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Bernays,History,OAI-PMH Harvest,PR,Public Relations

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Floto, Jennifer D. (committee chair), Lynch, Brenda (committee member), Smith, Erna R. (committee member)

Creator Email kirstenkeogh@hotmail.com,kkeogh@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-304504

Unique identifier UC11293303

Identifier etd-KeoghKirst-1881.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-304504 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-KeoghKirst-1881.pdf

Dmrecord 304504

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Keogh, Kirsten Carlson

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA